and 1 @.@ 533 <formula> . The star is thought to be around 4 @.@ 5 billion years old , and at or very near the end of its main @-@ sequence hydrogen burning phase . In several tens of millions of years it will likely become a subgiant star . \n = = Characteristics = = \n Kepler @-@ 4b orbits its host star in 3 @.@ 213 days at a distance of 0 @.@ 046 AU . This places it almost 10 times closer to its star than Mercury is to the Sun . Consequently , Kepler @-@ 4b is thought to be extremely hot , with an equilibrium temperature greater than 1700 Kelvin ( 2600 Fahrenheit ) . The planet is estimated to be 25 times more massive than the Earth with a radius that is 4 times greater than the Earth . This makes it similar to Neptune in terms of size and mass , but with a temperature that is not comparable to any planet in the Solar System ( Venus , the hottest planet , is only 735 Kelvin ) . Kepler @-@ 4b 's eccentricity was assumed to be 0 , however an independent reanalysis of the discovery data found a value of 0 @.@ 25 ± 0 @.@ 12 . \n = M @-@ 45 ( Michigan highway ) = \n M @-@ 45 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that is also called Lake Michigan Drive . The highway runs from Agnew near Lake Michigan to the west side of Grand Rapids in the western Lower Peninsula . Lake Michigan Drive continues in each direction from M @-@ 45 's termini , extending west of US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) and east of Interstate 196 ( I @-@ 196 ) . In between , the road runs through rural and suburban areas of Ottawa and Kent counties , including the main campus of Grand Valley State University in Allendale . Lake Michigan Drive was originally part of M @-@ 50 until the mid @-@ 1960s . Previously in the 1920s and 1930s , the M @-@ 45 number was designated along a highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) . \n = = Route description = = \n Lake Michigan Drive starts near Lake Michigan at an intersection with Lakeshore Drive near the Grand Rapids water filtration plant . The road runs east to an intersection with US 31 in Agnew , where the M @-@ 45 designation begins . The area is marked by a mix of woodland and agricultural properties . The road runs through rural Ottawa County to Allendale . Through town , Lake Michigan Drive widens to a four @-@ lane divided boulevard with a median . East of the main part of town , M @-@ 45 passes the main campus of Grand Valley State University before crossing the Grand River . At 24th Avenue , the highway loses its median and gains a central turn lane . The landscape becomes more suburban as the highway crosses into Kent County near the M @-@ 11 intersection in Walker . From here east to the terminus in Grand Rapids , the road is lined with residential subdivisions and commercial properties . At Bridge Street , Lake Michigan Drive turns to the southeast and approaches John Ball Zoological Garden . M @-@ 45 ends at the interchange with I @-@ 196 . Lake Michigan Drive continues east to its end where it becomes Pearl Street near the Grand River downtown . \n The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 45 like all other parts of the state trunkline highway system . As part of these responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of the traffic using its roadways which is expressed using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This is a calculation of the traffic levels for a segment of roadway for any average day of the year . In 2009 , 4 @,@ 910 vehicles used the section of M @-@ 45 near the western terminus daily . Near the interchange with I @-@ 196 , 32 @,@ 376 vehicles were observed along Lake Michigan Drive each day . No segment of the highway is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . \n = = History = = \n = = = Previous designation = = = \n M @-@ 45 was originally designated in the UP on what is now M @-@ 95 by July 1 , 1919 . The highway ran between M @-@ 12 in Sagola and M @-@ 15 in Humboldt Township . When the United States Numbered Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , US 2 replaced most of M @-@ 12 through the UP . M @-@ 45 was extended south of Sagola to the north side of Iron Mountain . Along with this change , M @-@ 69 replaced another previous section of M @-@ 12 and all of M @-@ 90 . M @-@ 69 ran concurrently with M @-@ 45 between Sagola and Randville to connect these two highway segments . By 1933 , M @-@ 45 was extended concurrently along US 2 / US 141 into Iron Mountain and then as an independent routing through Kingsford to the Wisconsin state line . Before the next year , the M @-@ 95 replaced M @-@ 45 in the UP . \n = = = Current designation = = = \n The current designation of M @-@ 45 dates back to 1964 . M @-@ 50 was truncated to end near Lowell at I @-@ 96 . The remainder of M @-@ 50 on Cascade Road , Fulton Street and Lake Michigan Drive was redesignated as M @-@ 45 . The eastern section from Business US 131 ( Division Avenue ) to I @-@ 96 was turned over to local control in 1972 , shortening the route . The east end would be shortened again by 1995 , removing the M @-@ 45 designation east of I @-@ 196 . Jurisdiction was only transferred to the City of Grand Rapids on the portion from Division Avenue west to the Grand River , leaving part of West Fulton Street under state maintenance as an unsigned trunkline . M @-@ 45 was upgraded to a four @-@ lane divided highway in 2001 – 02 between Walker and the Grand Valley State campus in Allendale . The new alignment bypassed a section of road between 24th and 40th avenues . That section was renamed River Hill Drive , but retained as an unsigned state trunkline ( Old M @-@ 45 ) . \n = = Major intersections = = \n = Tatsu = \n Tatsu is a steel flying roller coaster designed by Bolliger & Mabillard at the Six Flags Magic Mountain amusement park located in Valencia , California . Announced on November 17 , 2005 , the roller coaster opened to the public on May 13 , 2006 as the park 's seventeenth roller coaster . Tatsu reaches a height of 170 feet ( 52 m ) and speeds up to 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) . The ride 's name comes from Japanese mythology and means Flying Beast in Japanese . The roller coaster is also the world 's tallest and fastest flying coaster ; is the only flying roller coaster to feature a zero @-@ gravity roll ; and has the world 's highest pretzel loop . It was the world 's longest flying coaster until The Flying Dinosaur surpassed it . \n In the roller coaster 's opening year , it was named the 40th best roller coaster in the world in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards ; in Mitch Hawker 's Best Steel Roller Coaster Poll , the roller coaster placed at the 34 position . \n = = History = = \n Rumors of a new roller coaster being built at Six Flags Magic Mountain first emerged in the summer of 2004 . Land clearing began in mid @-@ 2005 around the Samurai Summit area of the park with track for the new roller coaster soon later beginning arriving from Ohio . Construction permits filed by Six Flags Magic Mountain and a trademark for the name Tatsu ( filed on August 23 , 2005 ) were later found by the public . Tatsu was officially announced to the public on November 17 , 2005 . Both Revolution and Roaring Rapids were temporarily closed in order for the roller coaster to be built . After construction and testing was complete , Tatsu opened to the public on May 13 , 2006 . \n Tatsu broke several records upon its opening . The roller coaster is the world 's tallest , fastest , and longest flying roller coaster . The roller coaster also holds the record for the highest pretzel loop which is 124 feet ( 38 m ) high and is currently the only Flying roller coaster to have a zero @-@ gravity roll . \n = = Ride experience = = \n After the train has been moved into the horizontal position and is dispatched from the station , depending on which station the train is in ( Tatsu has two stations ) , the train will either make a left or right s @-@ bend towards the 170 @-@ foot ( 52 m ) lift hill . Once at the top , the train makes a sharp 111 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) downward right turn reaching a maximum speed of 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) . After the train makes it to the bottom of the drop , the train makes an upward right turn leading into the first inversion , a 103 @-@ foot ( 31 m ) tall corkscrew . Next , the train makes a downward left turn immediately followed by an upward left turn into a 96 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) zero @-@ gravity roll . After the train exits the roll , it drops back down before going through a 84 @-@ foot ( 26 m ) horseshoe . Following a left turn , the train then enters the record @-@ breaking 124 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) pretzel loop . Upon exiting the pretzel loop , the train makes a slight left turn before going through an inline twist . The train then makes a 135 degree downward right turn before rising back up slightly and going through the mid @-@ course brake run . After exiting the brake run , the train makes a slight downward and upward left turn leading into the final brake run . The train then enters one of the two stations where the trains are put back into the vertical position for the riders to load and unload . One cycle of the ride lasts about two minutes . \n = = Characteristics = = \n = = = Trains = = = \n Tatsu operates with three steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has eight cars that can seat four riders in a single row for a total of 32 riders per train . Each seat has its own over @-@ the @-@ shoulder @-@ restraint and a pair of ankle restraints to hold the riders ' feet in place . The trains are painted green , yellow , orange , and red . \n In the station , the trains are oriented in a vertical position in order to allow riders to board . Once the restraints are locked , the train seats are rotated forward 90 degrees into a horizontal position and the train is then dispatched from the station . When the train returns to the station , the seats rotate back down and the riders disembark for the next guests . \n = = = Track = = = \n The steel track of Tatsu is approximately 3 @,@ 602 feet ( 1 @,@ 098 m ) long and the height of the lift is approximately 170 feet ( 52 m ) . To slow the train down , air brakes are attached to the track throughout the two brake runs . The track was fabricated by Clermont Steel Fabricators in Batavia , Ohio , which manufactures Bolliger & Mabillard 's roller coasters . The track is colored red and yellow while the supports are orange . \n = = Reception = = \n Joel Bullock from The Coaster Critic gave Tatsu a nine out of ten for its close @-@ to @-@ the @-@ ground approaches and intense pretzel loop at the bottom of the element . Justice from Park Thoughts also gave the roller coaster a nine out of ten saying that , \" The lift hill is one of the most suspenseful I have ever experienced . \" Justice also praises the ride 's intense g @-@ forces experienced throughout the layout of Tatsu . In 2006 , Discovery Channel 's Mega Builders aired an episode which followed the construction of Tatsu . The episode showed how the coaster was assembled and the problems construction crews had to overcome . \n In Tatsu 's opening year , it was named the 40th best steel roller coaster in the world in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards ; tied with Talon at Dorney Park . It peaked at 28th place in 2012 . \n In Mitch Hawker 's Best Steel Roller Coaster Poll , the roller coaster placed 34th in its opening year and peaked at 30th place in 2008 . \n = 1946 Atlantic hurricane season = \n The 1946 Atlantic hurricane season resulted in no fatalities in the United States . The season officially began on June 16 , 1946 , and lasted until November 15 , 1946 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . However , the first storm , developed in the Gulf of Mexico on June 13 , while the final system dissipated just offshore Florida on November 3 . There were seven tropical storm ; three of them attained hurricane status , while none intensified into major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . This had not occurred since 1940 and would not again until 1968 . Operationally , the fifth tropical storm , which existed near the Azores in early October , was not considered a tropical cyclone , but was added to HURDAT in 2014 . \n Although every tropical storm impacted land , effects overall were light , with less than $ 10 million ( 1946 USD ) in damage and no deaths in the United States throughout the season . The season 's most intense cyclone was the fourth hurricane . While the storm was moving northeastward offshore the East Coast of the United States , the Norwegian tanker Maril II was destroyed at sea , causing 16 drownings ; the incident could not be directly attributed to the hurricane . The second storm brought relatively minor damage to the Cape Fear region of North Carolina after striking the state early in its duration . While an extratropical cyclone , the remnants of the fifth cyclone devastated a few islands of the Azores and left 120 fishermen missing . The Florida hurricane severely damaged sugar cane in western Cuba and caused five deaths in the island nation . Additionally , the storm left $ 5 @.@ 2 million in damage in Florida , mostly inflicting citrus crops . The final storm caused several millions of dollars in damage to crops near Lake Okeechobee . \n = = Season summary = = \n The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 16 , 1946 . However , tropical cyclogenesis began on June 13 , three days before the official start of the season . There was a total of seven tropical storms , slightly below the contemporaneous 20 @-@ year average of 8 @.@ 5 per season . Three of those strengthened into hurricanes , while none reached major hurricane status – Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale – for the first time since 1940 and it was a phenomenon that would not occur again until 1968 . One hurricane made landfall in the United States , while the two other storms with winds of at least 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) remained at sea during their strongest intensities . Overall in the United States , the season resulted in less than $ 10 million in damage and no deaths . Collectively , the storms of the season left at least $ 5 @.@ 2 million in damage . The final cyclone of the season dissipated on November 3 , 12 days before the official end of the season on November 15 , 1946 . \n Tropical cyclogenesis began with the development of a tropical storm over the Gulf of Mexico on June 13 . The next system formed offshore the Southeastern United States on July 5 . Activity then ceased for nearly seven weeks , until August 25 , when the third storm originated in the Bay of Campeche . Although September is the climatological peak of hurricane season , there was only one tropical cyclone that strengthened to tropical storm status that month . The season 's most intense storm developed on September 12 and later peaked as a Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and a lowest known barometric pressure of 975 millibars ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Additionally , a tropical depression briefly existed near Central America . October was the most active month of the season , with three tropical cyclones . The third storm in October , which was the last system of the season , lasted until November 3 . \n The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 20 , the lowest total since 1925 and until 1983 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength . \n = = Storms = = \n = = = Tropical Storm One = = = \n A disturbance accompanied by a small area of convection developed into a tropical depression about 165 miles ( 265 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cape San Blas , Florida , at 12 : 00 UTC on June 13 . Moving slowly northwestward , the depression intensified into a tropical storm early on the next day . The storm did not deepen beyond maximum sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , while historical weather maps indicated a barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 014 millibars ( 29 @.@ 9 inHg ) on June 15 , the lowest in relation to the storm . Later that day , the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression offshore Louisiana . The storm made landfall just east of the Louisiana – Texas border on June 16 and rapidly dissipated . It may have remained a tropical depression throughout its lifespan but data was inconclusive . Winds of 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) were observed at Grand Isle , Louisiana , while winds of \" gentle to moderate force \" occurred in Texas . \n = = = Hurricane Two = = = \n The interaction between a frontal boundary and a tropical wave resulted in the development of an extratropical cyclone on July 5 offshore the Southeastern United States . Throughout the day , the storm acquired tropical characteristics . Around 00 : 00 UTC on July 6 , the system transitioned into a tropical storm while located about 35 mi ( 55 km ) south @-@ southeast of Myrtle Beach , South Carolina . The cyclone moved northeastward and made landfall near Oak Island , North Carolina , around 08 : 00 UTC with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . In the state , Carolina Beach and Wrightsville Beach observed sustained winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) and gusts of 50 – 60 mph ( 80 – 97 km / h ) . In the Wilmington area , winds damaged plate @-@ glass windows and caused brief disruptions to electricity and communication services . Further inland , heavy rainfall , including 7 @.@ 84 in ( 199 mm ) in less than 24 hours in Manteo , resulted in considerable loss to crops , with 15 % -20 % damaged in some areas . That was the heaviest 24 @-@ hour precipitation total recorded in Manteo since observations began in 1905 . \n The storm moved northeastward and reemerged into the Atlantic Ocean near the southern end of Bodie Island early on July 7 . Shortly thereafter , the cyclone began strengthening and became a Category 1 hurricane by 12 : 00 UTC . After slightly further intensification , the hurricane reached peak intensity at 18 : 00 UTC on July 7 with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . It then curved eastward and began losing tropical characteristics . At 00 : 00 UTC on July 9 , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located about 390 mi ( 630 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Sable Island , Nova Scotia . The extratropical remnants gradually curved northeastward and then north @-@ northeastward while slowly weakening . Late on July 10 , the extratropical storm dissipated near Cape Race , Newfoundland . \n = = = Tropical Storm Three = = = \n In late August , a disturbance was monitored moving over the western Caribbean Sea near Great Swan Island . Despite favorable conditions , further development did not occur until after the it reached the Bay of Campeche . Early on August 25 , it is estimated that a tropical storm developed after a reconnaissance aircraft flight reported that the system acquired a well @-@ defined circulation . Peaking with maximum sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , the storm moved quickly west @-@ northwestward and made near Tampico , Tamaulipas , at 19 : 00 UTC . By early the next day , the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated . A wind gust of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) was observed in Tampico . \n = = = Tropical depression = = = \n A tropical wave over the western Caribbean Sea developed into a tropical depression about 40 mi ( 65 km ) north of the Swan Islands on September 9 . However , by the following day , historical weather maps no longer indicated a tropical depression . It is uncertain whether the system dissipated or made landfall in Central America . \n = = = Hurricane Four = = = \n Early on September 12 , the northern portion of a tropical wave spawned a tropical storm about 75 mi ( 120 km ) east Andros Island . The storm strengthened while moving northeastward into the northern Bahamas , striking Andros Island later that day with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Late on September 12 , the cyclone strengthened into a hurricane before making landfall on South Abaco with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The hurricane intensified further after entering the open Atlantic , becoming on September 13 . Shortly thereafter , it peaked with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) , both of which were observed during a reconnaissance aircraft flight . The storm accelerated and weakened due to cooler sea surface temperatures , falling to tropical storm status early on September 15 . Shortly thereafter , the cyclone became extratropical about 170 mi ( 270 km ) south of Cape Sable Island . The extratropical remnants moved across Newfoundland and the northern Atlantic , until dissipating well north of the Azores on September 17 . \n In the Bahamas , Hope Town observed sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and stronger gusts , as well as a barometric pressure of 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . The Norwegian tanker Maril II sank after splitting into , drowning sixteen people . However , because the Maril II was over 300 mi ( 480 km ) away from the storm at the time , the incident could not be directly attributed to the hurricane . Some areas of Nova Scotia experienced strong winds , with sustained winds up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) observed throughout the province and a gust of 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) recorded at Sable Island . Heavy rain was also reported , with 2 @.@ 9 in ( 74 mm ) measured in Halifax . High seas during the Royal Nova Scotia Yacht Squadron race \" The Hood Cup \" forced the yachts to return to port . When the radar image was taken , it was only the third time in history that a hurricane passed close enough to a radar site to reveal its structure . \n = = = Tropical Storm Five = = = \n A low pressure area initially associated with two frontal systems developed into a tropical depression about 560 mi ( 900 km ) southwest of Flores Island in the Azores at 12 : 00 UTC on October 1 . After six hours , the depression intensified into a tropical storm . It intensified further while moving east @-@ northeastward . On October 2 , the system peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) , both of which were observed by ships . The storm then began losing tropical characteristics and merged with a frontal boundary around 12 : 00 UTC on October 3 while situated about 275 mi ( 445 km ) south @-@ southwest of Pico Island in the Azores . This storm was not included in HURDAT until 2014 . \n Although the system became extratropical , it continued to deepen further , with sustained winds reaching 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) late on October 4 . Additionally , it expanded significantly in size , reaching a diameter of about 1 @,@ 035 mi ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) on October 5 . Around that time , the storm passed through the Azores near Faial Island , before weakening and dissipating north of the island chain on October 6 . Rough seas at Santa Maria Island left 120 fishermen missing , while 12 fishing vessels , 2 tugboats , and several launches were destroyed . Four fishing boats were also missing . Strong wind gusts up to 98 mph ( 158 km / h ) caused \" catastrophic \" damage on Santa Maria and São Miguel islands . Homes , crops , and pineapple greenhouses were demolished , while communications were knocked out . Additionally , Lajes Field on Terceira Island was \" practically destroyed \" . \n = = = Hurricane Six = = = \n A disturbance from the Intertropical Convergence Zone developed into a tropical storm late on October 5 , while located over the western Caribbean Sea near the Belize – Mexico border . It moved northeastward and strengthened , reaching Category 1 hurricane status the next day . At 04 : 00 UTC on October 7 , the storm made landfall in western Cuba near Boca de Galafre , Pinar del Río Province , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . A barometric pressure of 977 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) was observed , the lowest in relation to the system . Additionally , a station recorded a wind gust of 112 mph ( 180 km / h ) . Several sugar cane fields were flattened , with millions of tons of the crop destroyed . In many towns , telephone and telegraphic communications were cutoff . Five deaths occurred in Cuba . After emerging into the Gulf of Mexico on October 7 , the storm curved north @-@ northeastward and strengthened to a Category 2 , peaking with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . \n After becoming a Category 2 hurricane on October 7 , the cyclone weakened to a Category 1 just six hours later . Around 04 : 00 UTC on the following day , it made another landfall near Bradenton Beach , Florida , with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . In Florida , the gusty winds and rainfall produced by the storm inflicted damage mostly on crops . About 2 % of the state 's total citrus crop was lost , with damage totaling $ 5 million . Only about $ 200 @,@ 000 in property damage occurred , which was mostly due to coastal flooding in cities such as Everglades , Fort Myers , and Punta Gorda . Moving inland , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm later on October 8 . Early on October 9 , the system became extratropical over South Carolina . However , the extratropical remnants persisted for several days , moving in a semicircular path over the eastern Atlantic until dissipating well north of Hispaniola on October 14 . \n = = = Tropical Storm Seven = = = \n A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression late on October 31 over the Bahamas about halfway between Acklins and Little Inagua . The depression strengthened into a tropical storm early on November 1 and moved northwestward , striking several islands , including Acklins , Long Island , Exuma , and Andros . Late on November 1 , the storm peaked with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 002 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . The system then made landfall near Lake Worth , Florida , at the same intensity around 22 : 00 UTC . Early on November 2 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression and recurved northeastward over Central Florida . Shortly after reemerging into the Atlantic Ocean near Ponte Vedra Beach early on November 3 , the depression dissipated about 45 mi ( 75 km ) east @-@ northeast of Fernandina Beach . \n Due to the weak nature of the storm , no wind damage occurred . However , flooding occurred around Lake Okeechobee due to rainfall reaching 6 in ( 150 mm ) . Along main highways , several cars stalled , while a number of canal overflowed . Between 50 % -70 % of early fall crops in the area were damaged , with as much as 60 % of snap bean crops lost . Damage was in the several millions range . \n = = Season effects = = \n = Aspasia = \n Aspasia ( / æˈspeɪʒiə , æˈspeɪziə , æˈspeɪʒə , æˈspeɪʃə / ; Greek : Ἀσπασία ; c . 470 BC – c . 400 BC ) was an influential immigrant to Classical @-@ era Athens who was the lover and partner of the statesman Pericles . The couple had a son , Pericles the Younger , but the full details of the couple 's marital status are unknown . According to Plutarch , her house became an intellectual centre in Athens , attracting the most prominent writers and thinkers , including the philosopher Socrates . It has also been suggested that the teachings of Aspasia influenced Socrates . Aspasia was mentioned in the writing of philosophers Plato , Aristophanes , Xenophon , and"},"length_category":{"kind":"string","value":"Very Long"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"wikitext-103-excerpt"}}},{"rowIdx":6595,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":" of RecA plus AddAB for efficient gastric colonization suggests , in the stomach , H. pylori is either exposed to double @-@ strand DNA damage that must be repaired or requires some other recombination @-@ mediated event . In particular , natural transformation is increased by DNA damage in H. pylori , and a connection exists between the DNA damage response and DNA uptake in H. pylori , suggesting natural competence contributes to persistence of H. pylori in its human host and explains the retention of competence in most clinical isolates . \n RuvC protein is essential to the process of recombinational repair , since it resolves intermediates in this process termed Holliday junctions . H. pylori mutants that are defective in RuvC have increased sensitivity to DNA @-@ damaging agents and to oxidative stress , exhibit reduced survival within macrophages , and are unable to establish successful infection in a mouse model . Similarly , RecN protein plays an important role in DSB repair in H. pylori . An H. pylori recN mutant displays an attenuated ability to colonize mouse stomachs , highlighting the importance of recombinational DNA repair in survival of H. pylori within its host . \n = = Diagnosis = = \n Colonization with H. pylori is not a disease in and of itself , but a condition associated with a number of disorders of the upper gastrointestinal tract . Testing for H. pylori is recommended if peptic ulcer disease or low @-@ grade gastric MALT lymphoma is present , after endoscopic resection of early gastric cancer , first @-@ degree relatives h gastric cancer , and in certain cases of dyspepsia , not routinely . Several ways of testing exist . One can test noninvasively for H. pylori infection with a blood antibody test , stool antigen test , or with the carbon urea breath test ( in which the patient drinks 14C — or 13C @-@ labelled urea , which the bacterium metabolizes , producing labelled carbon dioxide that can be detected in the breath ) . Also , a urine ELISA test with a 96 % sensitivity and 79 % specificity is available . None of the test methods is completely failsafe . Even biopsy is dependent on the location of the biopsy . Blood antibody tests , for example , range from 76 % to 84 % sensitivity . Some drugs can affect H. pylori urease activity and give false negatives with the urea @-@ based tests . The most accurate method for detecting H. pylori infection is with a histological examination from two sites after endoscopic biopsy , combined with either a rapid urease test or microbial culture . \n = = Prevention = = \n H. pylori is a major cause of certain diseases of the upper gastrointestinal tract . Rising antibiotic resistance increases the need to search for new therapeutic strategies ; this might include prevention in form of vaccination . Much work has been done on developing viable vaccines aimed at providing an alternative strategy to control H. pylori infection and related diseases , including stomach cancer . Researchers are studying different adjuvants , antigens , and routes of immunization to ascertain the most appropriate system of immune protection ; however , most of the research only recently moved from animal to human trials . An economic evaluation of the use of a potential H. pylori vaccine in babies found its introduction could , at least in the Netherlands , prove cost @-@ effective for the prevention of peptic ulcer and stomach cancer . A similar approach has also been studied for the United States . \n The presence of bacteria in the stomach may be beneficial , reducing the prevalence of asthma , rhinitis , dermatitis , inflammatory bowel disease , gastroesophageal reflux disease , and esophageal cancer by influencing systemic immune responses . \n Recent evidence suggests that nonpathogenic strains of H. pylori may be beneficial , e.g. , by normalizing stomach acid secretion , and may play a role in regulating appetite , since its presence in the stomach results in a persistent but reversible reduction in the level of ghrelin . \n = = Treatment = = \n Once H. pylori is detected in a person with a peptic ulcer , the normal procedure is to eradicate it and allow the ulcer to heal . The standard first @-@ line therapy is a one @-@ week \" triple therapy \" consisting of proton pump inhibitors such as omeprazole and the antibiotics clarithromycin and amoxicillin . Variations of the triple therapy have been developed over the years , such as using a different proton pump inhibitor , as with pantoprazole or rabeprazole , or replacing amoxicillin with metronidazole for people who are allergic to penicillin . Such a therapy has revolutionized the treatment of peptic ulcers and has made a cure to the disease possible . Previously , the only option was symptom control using antacids , H2 @-@ antagonists or proton pump inhibitors alone . \n An increasing number of infected individuals are found to harbor antibiotic @-@ resistant bacteria . This results in initial treatment failure and requires additional rounds of antibiotic therapy or alternative strategies , such as a quadruple therapy , which adds a bismuth colloid , such as bismuth subsalicylate . For the treatment of clarithromycin @-@ resistant strains of H. pylori , the use of levofloxacin as part of the therapy has been suggested . \n Ingesting lactic acid bacteria exerts a suppressive effect on H. pylori infection in both animals and humans , and supplementing with Lactobacillus- and Bifidobacterium @-@ containing yogurt improved the rates of eradication of H. pylori in humans . Symbiotic butyrate @-@ producing bacteria which are normally present in the intestine are sometimes used as probiotics to help suppress H. pylori infections as an adjunct to antibiotic therapy . Butyrate itself is an antimicrobial which destroys the cell envelope of H. pylori by inducing regulatory T cell expression ( specifically , FOXP3 ) and synthesis of an antimicrobial peptide called LL @-@ 37 , which arises through its action as a histone deacetylase inhibitor . \n The substance sulforaphane , which occurs in broccoli and cauliflower , has been proposed as a treatment . Periodontal therapy or scaling and root planing has also been suggested as an additional treatment . \n = = Prognosis = = \n H. pylori colonizes the stomach and induces chronic gastritis , a long @-@ lasting inflammation of the stomach . The bacterium persists in the stomach for decades in most people . Most individuals infected by H. pylori will never experience clinical symptoms despite having chronic gastritis . About 10 – 20 % of those colonized by H. pylori will ultimately develop gastric and duodenal ulcers . H. pylori infection is also associated with a 1 – 2 % lifetime risk of stomach cancer and a less than 1 % risk of gastric MALT lymphoma . \n In the absence of treatment , H. pylori infection — once established in its gastric niche — is widely believed to persist for life . In the elderly , however , infection likely can disappear as the stomach 's mucosa becomes increasingly atrophic and inhospitable to colonization . The proportion of acute infections that persist is not known , but several studies that followed the natural history in populations have reported apparent spontaneous elimination . \n Mounting evidence suggests H. pylori has an important role in protection from some diseases . The incidence of acid reflux disease , Barrett 's esophagus , and esophageal cancer have been rising dramatically at the same time as H. pylori 's presence decreases . In 1996 , Martin J. Blaser advanced the hypothesis that H. pylori has a beneficial effect : by regulating the acidity of the stomach contents . The hypothesis is not universally accepted as several randomized controlled trials failed to demonstrate worsening of acid reflux disease symptoms following eradication of H. pylori . Nevertheless , Blaser has reasserted his view that H. pylori is a member of the normal flora of the stomach . He postulates that the changes in gastric physiology caused by the loss of H. pylori account for the recent increase in incidence of several diseases , including type 2 diabetes , obesity , and asthma . His group has recently shown that H. pylori colonization is associated with a lower incidence of childhood asthma . \n = = Epidemiology = = \n At least half the world 's population is infected by the bacterium , making it the most widespread infection in the world . Actual infection rates vary from nation to nation ; the developing world has much higher infection rates than the West ( Western Europe , North America , Australasia ) , where rates are estimated to be around 25 % . The age at which this bacterium is acquired seems to influence the possible pathologic outcome of the infection ; people infected with it at an early age are likely to develop more intense inflammation that may be followed by atrophic gastritis with a higher subsequent risk of gastric ulcer , gastric cancer , or both . Acquisition at an older age brings different gastric changes more likely to lead to duodenal ulcer . Infections are usually acquired in early childhood in all countries . However , the infection rate of children in developing nations is higher than in industrialized nations , probably due to poor sanitary conditions , perhaps combined with lower antibiotics usage for unrelated pathologies . In developed nations , it is currently uncommon to find infected children , but the percentage of infected people increases with age , with about 50 % infected for those over the age of 60 compared with around 10 % between 18 and 30 years . The higher prevalence among the elderly reflects higher infection rates in the past when the individuals were children rather than more recent infection at a later age of the individual . In the United States , prevalence appears to be higher in African @-@ American and Hispanic populations , most likely due to socioeconomic factors . The lower rate of infection in the West is largely attributed to higher hygiene standards and widespread use of antibiotics . Despite high rates of infection in certain areas of the world , the overall frequency of H. pylori infection is declining . However , antibiotic resistance is appearing in H. pylori ; many metronidazole- and clarithromycin @-@ resistant strains are found in most parts of the world . \n H. pylori is contagious , although the exact route of transmission is not known . Person @-@ to @-@ person transmission by either the oral @-@ oral or fecal @-@ oral route is most likely . Consistent with these transmission routes , the bacteria have been isolated from feces , saliva , and dental plaque of some infected people . Findings suggest H. pylori is more easily transmitted by gastric mucus than saliva . Transmission occurs mainly within families in developed nations , yet can also be acquired from the community in developing countries . H. pylori may also be transmitted orally by means of fecal matter through the ingestion of waste @-@ tainted water , so a hygienic environment could help decrease the risk of H. pylori infection . \n = = Evolution = = \n H. pylori migrated out of Africa along with its human host circa 60 @,@ 000 years ago . Its subsequent evolution created seven prototypes — Europe ( isolated from Europe , the Middle East , India , and Iran ) , NE Africa ( from northeast Africa ) , Africa1 ( from countries in Western Africa and South Africa ) , Africa2 ( from South Africa ) , Asia2 ( from Northern India and among isolates from Bangladesh , Thailand , and Malaysia ) , Sahul ( from Australian Aboriginals and Papua New Guineans ) and East Asia with the subpopulations E Asia ( from East Asians ) , Maori ( from Taiwanese Aboriginals , Melanesians and Polynesians ) and Amerind ( Native Americans ) . The precursors of these prototypes have been named ancestral Europe1 , ancestral Europe2 , ancestral East Asia , ancestral Africa1 , ancestral Africa2 , and ancestral Sahul . These ancestral prototypes appear to have originated in Africa and Central and East Asia . European and African strains were introduced into the Americas along with its colonisation — both thousands of years ago and more recently in the slave trade . \n Recent research states that genetic diversity in H. pylori , like that of its host , decreases with geographic distance from East Africa . Using the genetic diversity data , researchers have created simulations that indicate the bacteria seem to have spread from East Africa around 58 @,@ 000 years ago . Their results indicate modern humans were already infected by H. pylori before their migrations out of Africa , and it has remained associated with human hosts since that time . \n = = History = = \n H. pylori was first discovered in the stomachs of patients with gastritis and ulcers in 1982 by Drs. Barry Marshall and Robin Warren of Perth , Australia . At the time , the conventional thinking was that no bacterium could live in the acid environment of the human stomach . In recognition of their discovery , Marshall and Warren were awarded the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . \n Before the research of Marshall and Warren , German scientists found spiral @-@ shaped bacteria in the lining of the human stomach in 1875 , but they were unable to culture them , and the results were eventually forgotten . The Italian researcher Giulio Bizzozero described similarly shaped bacteria living in the acidic environment of the stomach of dogs in 1893 . Professor Walery Jaworski of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków investigated sediments of gastric washings obtained by lavage from humans in 1899 . Among some rod @-@ like bacteria , he also found bacteria with a characteristic spiral shape , which he called Vibrio rugula . He was the first to suggest a possible role of this organism in the pathogenesis of gastric diseases . His work was included in the Handbook of Gastric Diseases , but it had little impact , as it was written in Polish . Several small studies conducted in the early 20th century demonstrated the presence of curved rods in the stomachs of many people with peptic ulcers and stomach cancers . Interest in the bacteria waned , however , when an American study published in 1954 failed to observe the bacteria in 1180 stomach biopsies . \n Interest in understanding the role of bacteria in stomach diseases was rekindled in the 1970s , with the visualization of bacteria in the stomachs of people with gastric ulcers . The bacteria had also been observed in 1979 , by Robin Warren , who researched it further with Barry Marshall from 1981 . After unsuccessful attempts at culturing the bacteria from the stomach , they finally succeeded in visualizing colonies in 1982 , when they unintentionally left their Petri dishes incubating for five days over the Easter weekend . In their original paper , Warren and Marshall contended that most stomach ulcers and gastritis were caused by bacterial infection and not by stress or spicy food , as had been assumed before . \n Some skepticism was expressed initially , but within a few years multiple research groups had verified the association of H. pylori with gastritis and , to a lesser extent , ulcers . To demonstrate H. pylori caused gastritis and was not merely a bystander , Marshall drank a beaker of H. pylori culture . He became ill with nausea and vomiting several days later . An endoscopy 10 days after inoculation revealed signs of gastritis and the presence of H. pylori . These results suggested H. pylori was the causative agent . Marshall and Warren went on to demonstrate antibiotics are effective in the treatment of many cases of gastritis . In 1987 , the Sydney gastroenterologist Thomas Borody invented the first triple therapy for the treatment of duodenal ulcers . In 1994 , the National Institutes of Health stated most recurrent duodenal and gastric ulcers were caused by H. pylori , and recommended antibiotics be included in the treatment regimen . \n The bacterium was initially named Campylobacter pyloridis , then renamed C. pylori ( pylori being the genitive of pylorus , the circular opening leading from the stomach into the duodenum , from the Ancient Greek word πυλωρός , which means gatekeeper . ) . When 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing and other research showed in 1989 that the bacterium did not belong in the genus Campylobacter , it was placed in its own genus , Helicobacter from the ancient Greek hělix / έλιξ \" spiral \" or \" coil \" . \n In October 1987 , a group of experts met in Copenhagen to found the European Helicobacter Study Group ( EHSG ) , an international multidisciplinary research group and the only institution focused on H. pylori . The Group is involved with the Annual International Workshop on Helicobacter and Related Bacteria , the Maastricht Consensus Reports ( European Consensus on the management of H. pylori ) , and other educational and research projects , including two international long @-@ term projects : \n European Registry on H. pylori Management ( Hp @-@ EuReg ) – a database systematically registering the routine clinical practice of European gastroenterologists \n Optimal H. pylori management in primary care ( OptiCare ) – a long @-@ term educational project aiming to disseminate the evidence based recommendations of the Maastricht IV Consensus to primary care physicians in Europe , funded by an educational grant from United European Gastroenterology \n = Tropical Depression Five @-@ E ( 2008 ) = \n Tropical Depression Five @-@ E was a tropical depression which made landfall along the south @-@ western Mexican coastline in July 2008 . It was the fifth tropical cyclone of the 2008 Pacific hurricane season . The depression developed out of a weak tropical wave which formed off the coast of Africa on June 23 . The wave remained poorly organized throughout its journey through the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . The wave entered the Eastern Pacific on July 2 after passing through Central America . The wave developed into an area of low pressure that afternoon . \n The low moved towards the northwest , paralleling the coastline . Continued development led to the eventual upgrade of the low to Tropical Depression Five @-@ E on July 5 . It was initially thought that the depression would become a tropical storm before landfall but the winds failed to increase above 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . The depression made a turn towards the north @-@ northwest and made landfall on July 7 . It dissipated shortly after landfall due to the mountainous terrain . The depression produced heavy rainfall in parts of southwestern Mexico , peaking at 12 @.@ 99 in ( 330 mm ) . These rains triggered flooding that killed two people and left roughly MXN 30 million ( $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) in damages . \n = = Meteorological history = = \n Tropical Depression Five @-@ E formed out of a weak tropical wave , associated with scattered convection , which formed off the coast of Africa on June 23 . The wave was moving towards the west at the rate of 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) , due to an area of high pressure located over the north @-@ central Atlantic Ocean leading to a prevailing easterly flow . Some cyclonic turning was noted and convection was on either side of the axis — the center of the storm — but was mainly in association with the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) . The wave remained very close to the intertropical convergence zone for the next several days without any further development . \n On June 26 , a small burst of moisture in the system was noted in the area of the wave , but no other notable development occurred . On July 2 , the wave moved over Central America and produced scattered areas of strong convection off the coast of Honduras . Later in the day , the center of the wave became elongated as determined by a QuikSCAT satellite pass . By the afternoon , the wave developed into an area of low pressure and a tropical cyclone formation alert was issued as the possibility of a tropical cyclone developing within 48 hours was present . \n Not long after the alert was issued , deep convection disappeared from the low while located 400 mi ( 645 km ) . Convection was anticipated to redeveloped later that night or early the next morning . The low was moving slowly towards the northwest due to a deep trough located over the Gulf of Mexico and a ridge of high pressure located over western Mexico . By the morning of July 3 , convection had redeveloped near the low and its forward motion quickly increased to 11 mph ( 18 km / h ) . The low remained disorganized for the next two days as it steadily moved towards the northwest . \n During the morning of July 5 , deep convection rapidly increased and banding features formed despite strong easterly wind shear . The convection persisted into the afternoon and the low was upgraded to Tropical Depression Five @-@ E accordingly . Weak steering currents persisted as the depression moved towards the northwest at 4 mph ( 6 km / h ) to 5 mph ( 8 km / h ) . Following the storm 's upgrade , further development did not occur as the system tracked steadily towards the north @-@ northwest . Early on July 7 , the depression made landfall near Lazaro Cardenas with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Rapid weakening followed shortly after landfall and the storm dissipated several hours later over the mountains of Mexico . \n = = Preparations and impact = = \n As Tropical Depression Five @-@ E approached Mexico , the country 's government released tropical storm watches and warnings for certain parts of the coastline . When the tropical depression formed on July 5 , the government issued a tropical storm warning from Acapulco to Zihuatanejo . Other interests in the Pacific Ocean were asked to keep an eye on the developing depression . The morning of July 6 , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm watch for Zihuatanejo to Manzanillo . The earlier tropical storm warning remained in effect , for another six hours , when the warning was demoted into a tropical storm watch . On the afternoon of July 6 , the government discontinued the tropical storm watch up to Acapulco . The remaining tropical storm watch was discontinued on July 7 , after the tropical depression had made landfall and began to weaken . The government 's weather center also released thirteen tropical cyclone bulletins and four warnings for personal caution . \n The tropical depression produced 5 @.@ 11 inches ( 130 mm ) of rain in Manzanillo , with other locations also experiencing isolated rainfall . Cerro de Ortega , Colima reported 12 @.@ 99 inches ( 330 mm ) of rain in a 24 @-@ hour period . The community of Ometepec reported 7 @.@ 88 inches ( 200 mm ) . Other locations reported moderate rainfall , ranging around 5 – 7 inches ( 130 – 180 mm ) . One person was swept away by flood waters , reaching 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in depth . Heavy rains from the depression resulted in a traffic accident that killed one person and injured two others . In all , damages from the storm amounted to MXN 30 million ( $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) . \n = Reflektor ( song ) = \n \" Reflektor \" is a song by Canadian indie rock band Arcade Fire . It was released on September 9 , 2013 , as the first single from the band 's fourth studio album , Reflektor ( 2013 ) . Produced by James Murphy , Markus Dravs and the band itself , the song features a guest vocal appearance by David Bowie and was released on a limited edition 12 \" vinyl credited to the fictional band , The Reflektors . Two music videos were made for the song , one regular and one interactive , both being released on the day of the song 's release . \" Reflektor \" was met with positive reviews , with critics often complimenting its musical approach . It also came second in NME 's list of best singles of 2013 . The song had a positive commercial performance , charting in several countries . \n = = Background and composition = = \n The band began working on the track in 2011 , with vocalist and guitarist Win Butler noting , \" We recorded a little bit in Louisiana with the Haitian percussionists [ Willinson Duprate and Verrieux Zile ] and we kind of lived with that . It 's an incredibly long process . \" Regular Arcade Fire collaborators Owen Pallett and Colin Stetson provided instrumental parts , alongside English musician David Bowie who provided vocals for the song . Regarding Bowie 's guest appearance on the track , multi @-@ instrumentalist Richard Reed Parry noted , \" It was just after The Next Day had come out . He basically just came by the studio in New York while we were mixing , just to have a listen to the stuff we were doing . He offered to lend us his services because he really liked the song . In fact , he basically threatened us – he was like , ' If you don 't hurry up and mix this song , I might just steal it from you ! ' So we thought , well why don 't we go one better , why don 't you sing on our version ? Thankfully he obliged , and we were really happy about that . \" \n \" Reflektor \" is a dance @-@ rock , indie rock , and disco song . The track 's lyrical content is , in part , influenced by the differences between Haitian life and that of the Western world , with vocalist and guitarist Win Butler noting , \" I think that life [ in Haiti ] is incredibly difficult and it 's more amazing to see people that don 't have access to food or clean water throw a party . It 's not like I 'm trying to sing about their experiences . I was more learning from what I saw and applying it to my own life , lyrically . I 'm not trying to tell other people 's stories . We 're just trying to allow an experience to change you . \" \n = = Critical reception = = \n \" Reflektor \" received critical acclaim from critics . Paste awarded the song a 9 @.@ 1 / 10 rating , commenting that the song \" pretty much kicks ass \" . Pitchfork awarded the song the \" Best New Track \" tag , labeling the song a \" sleek , dark disco epic that doesn 't belong to the 1970s , ' 80s , ' 90s-- or any decade \" . Rolling Stone praised it , saying \" Arcade Fire are the most important band of the last decade , and the music lives up to their universe @-@ affirming mandate . \" Reflektor \" turns a shared sense of isolation into communion with a sleek , surging track that seamlessly integrates arty rock and diagonal funk , breaking down [ Arcade Fire ] ' s epic sound without scrimping on its essential cathartic thrust . \" American Songwriter also praised the song saying \" All seven @-@ plus minutes of the song feel absolutely vital , even if the arrangement suggests something more hedonistic . It 's a neat trick they pulled there . \" NME placed the song at number two on their \" 50 Best Tracks of 2013 \" list , with only Daft Punk 's \" Get Lucky \" finishing above it . \n = = Music video = = \n A music video for \" Reflektor \" was released on September 9 , 2013 through YouTube . It was directed by Anton Corbijn , with art direction done by Anastasia Masaro . The video won the Best Art Direction award at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards . Katie Hasty of HitFix summarized the video , stating that \" Corbijn 's black @-@ and @-@ white version of the \" Reflektor \" experience has its own quirks , too , as the band dons oversized papier mache heads like puppet versions of themselves , hunting down the Disco Ball Man and putting the doll versions of themselves in a shiny coffin . \" An interactive music video was also made available to the public , which was directed by Vincent Morisset . However , it was made only accessible through the web browser Google Chrome . For this video , the user oversees dancer Axelle Munezero 's journey through the streets of Haiti . \n = = Packaging = = \n = = = Artwork = = = \n The single 's cover artwork makes no mention of the band 's name , and is instead credited to the fictional band , The Reflektors . The front cover features a silhouette image band 's core members . The album 's back cover features a woman touching one of the band 's Haitian veve images , used previously in a guerrilla marketing to promote Reflektor 's forthcoming release . \n = = = Fictional track listing = = = \n The remainder of the 12 \" vinyl 's artwork suggests that it is a full @-@ length album by The Reflektors . A fictional album track listing , inspired by the song 's lyrical content , is featured on its back cover . \n = = Track listing = = \n Merge / Sonovox — MRG484 \n = = Credits and personnel = = \n Personnel adapted from the single 's liner notes . \n = = Charts = = \n = = = Chart performance = = = \n \" Reflektor \" charted in several countries , peaking within the top 20 in Canada and Ireland . The song was the band 's highest @-@ charting song in Canada , their home country , and their first song in the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart ( excluding \" Ready to Start \" which peaked while in the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart ) , where it peaked at number 99 . \n = The Coral Island = \n The Coral Island : A Tale of the Pacific Ocean ( 1858 ) is a novel written by Scottish author R. M. Ballantyne . One of the first works of juvenile fiction to feature exclusively juvenile heroes , the story relates the adventures of three boys marooned on a South Pacific island , the only survivors of a shipwreck . \n A typical Robinsonade – a genre of fiction inspired by Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe – and one of the most popular of its type , the book first went on sale in late 1857 and has never been out of print . Among the novel 's major themes are the civilising effect of Christianity , 19th @-@ century British imperialism in the South Pacific , and the importance of hierarchy and leadership . It was the inspiration for William Golding 's dystopian novel Lord of the Flies ( 1954 ) , which inverted the morality of The Coral Island ; in Ballantyne 's story the children encounter evil , but in Lord of the Flies evil is within them . \n In the early 20th century , the novel was considered a classic for primary school children in the UK , and in the United States it was a staple of high @-@ school suggested reading lists . Modern critics consider the book 's worldview to be dated and imperialist , but although less popular today , The Coral Island was adapted into a four @-@ part children 's television drama broadcast by ITV in 2000 . \n = = Background = = \n = = = Biographical background and publication = = = \n Born in Edinburgh in 1825 , and raised there , Ballantyne was the ninth of ten children and the youngest son . Tutored by his mother and sisters , his only formal education was a brief period at Edinburgh Academy in 1835 – 37 . At the age of 16 he travelled to Canada , where he spent five years working for the Hudson 's Bay Company , trading with the Native Americans for furs . He returned to Scotland in 1847 and for some years worked for the publisher Messrs Constable , first as a clerk and then as a partner in the business . During his time in Canada he had helped to pass the time by writing long letters to his mother – to which he attributed \" whatever small amount of facility in composition [ he ] may have acquired \" – and began his first book . Ballantyne 's Canadian experiences formed the basis of his first novel , The Young Fur Traders , published in 1856 , the year he decided to become a full @-@ time writer and embarked on the adventure stories for the young with which his name is popularly associated . \n Ballantyne never visited the coral islands of the South Pacific , relying instead on the accounts of others that were then beginning to emerge in Britain , which he exaggerated for theatrical effect by including \" plenty of gore and violence meant to titillate his juvenile readership \" . His ignorance of the South Pacific caused him to erroneously describe coconuts as being soft and easily opened ; a stickler for accuracy he resolved that in future , whenever possible , he would write only about things he had personal experience of . Ballantyne wrote The Coral Island while staying in a house on the Burntisland seafront opposite Edinburgh on the Firth of Forth in Fife . According to Ballantyne biographer Eric Quayle he borrowed extensively from an 1852 novel by the American author James F. Bowman , The Island Home . He also borrowed from John Williams ' Narrative of Missionary Enterprises ( 1837 ) , to the extent that cultural historian Rod Edmond has suggested that Ballantyne must have written one chapter of The Coral Island with Williams ' book open in front of him , so similar is the text . Edmond describes the novel as \" a fruit cocktail of other writing about the Pacific \" , adding that \" by modern standards Ballantyne 's plagiarism in The Coral Island is startling \" . \n Although the first edition is dated 1858 it was on sale in bookshops from early December 1857 ; dating books forward was a common practice at the time , especially during the Christmas period , to \" preserve their newness \" into the new year . The Coral Island is Ballantyne 's second novel , and has never been out of print . He was an exceedingly prolific author who wrote more than 100 books in his 40 @-@ year career . According to professor and author John Rennie Short , Ballantyne had a \" deep religious conviction \" , and felt it his duty to educate Victorian middle @-@ class boys – his target audience – in \" codes of honour , decency , and religiosity \" . \n The first edition of The Coral Island was published by T. Nelson & Sons , who in common with many other publishers of the time had a policy when accepting a manuscript of buying the copyright from the author rather than paying royalties ; as a result , authors generally did not receive any income from the sale of subsequent editions . Ballantyne received between £ 50 and £ 60 , equivalent to about £ 5800 as of 2012 , but when the novel 's popularity became evident and the number of editions increased he tried unsuccessfully to buy back the copyright . He wrote bitterly to Nelsons in 1893 about the copyrights they held on his books while he had earned nothing : \" for thirty @-@ eight years [ you have ] reaped the whole profits \" . \n The Coral Island – still considered a classic – was republished by Penguin Books in 1995 , in their Popular Classics series . \n = = = Literary and historical context = = = \n Published during the \" first golden age of children 's fiction \" , The Coral Island began a trend in boys ' fiction by using boys as the main characters , a device now commonplace in the genre . It preserves , according to literary critic Minnie Singh , the moralizing aspects of didactic texts , but does so ( and in this regard it is a \" founding text \" ) by the \" congruence of subject and implied reader \" : the story is about boys and written retrospectively as though by a boy , for an audience of boys . \n According to literary critic Frank Kermode , The Coral Island \" could be used as a document in the history of ideas \" . A scientific and social background for the novel is found in Darwinism , of the natural and the social kind . For instance , Charles Darwin 's 1842 The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs was one of the best @-@ known contemporary accounts of the growth of coral . Published a year before Darwin 's Origin of Species ( whose ideas were already being circulated and discussed widely ) , The Coral Island reflects the then prevalent view of evolutionary theory ; the Victorian age based its imperialist ideology in part on the idea that evolution had resulted in \" white , English superiority that was anchored in the notion of a civilized nation elected by God to rule inferior peoples . \" Ballantyne had been reading books by Darwin and by his rival Alfred Russel Wallace ; in later publications he also acknowledged the naturalist Henry Ogg Forbes . The interest in evolutionary theory was reflected in much contemporary popular literature , and social Darwinism was an important factor contributing to the world view of the Victorians and their empire building . \n = = Plot summary = = \n The story is written as a first person narrative from the perspective of 15 @-@ year @-@ old Ralph Rover , one of three boys shipwrecked on the coral reef of a large but uninhabited Polynesian island . Ralph tells the story retrospectively , looking back on his boyhood adventure : \" I was a boy when I went through the wonderful adventures herein set down . With the memory of my boyish feelings strong upon me , I present my book specially to boys , in the earnest hope that they may derive valuable information , much pleasure , great profit , and unbounded amusement from its pages . \" \n The account starts briskly ; only four pages are devoted to Ralph 's early life and a further fourteen to his voyage to the Pacific Ocean on board the Arrow . He and his two companions – 18 @-@ year @-@ old Jack Martin and 13 @-@ year @-@ old Peterkin Gay – are the sole survivors of the shipwreck . The narrative is in two parts . The first describes how the boys feed themselves , what they drink , the clothing and shelter they fashion , and how they cope with having to rely on their own resources . The second half of the novel is more action @-@ packed , featuring conflicts with pirates , fighting between the native Polynesians , and the conversion efforts of Christian missionaries . \n Fruit , fish and wild pigs provide plentiful food , and at first the boys ' life on the island is idyllic . They build a shelter and construct a small boat using their only possessions : a broken telescope , an iron @-@ bound oar , and a small axe . Their first contact with other humans comes after several months when they observe two large outrigger canoes in the distance , one pursued by the other . The two groups of Polynesians disembark on the beach and engage in battle ; the victors take fifteen prisoners , and kill and eat one immediately . But when they threaten to kill one of the three women captured , along with two children , the boys intervene to defeat the pursuers , earning them the gratitude of the chief , Tararo . The next morning they prevent another act of cannibalism . The natives leave , and the boys are alone once more . \n More unwelcome visitors then arrive in the shape of British pirates , who make a living by trading or stealing sandalwood . The three boys hide in a cave , but Ralph is captured when he ventures out to see if the intruders have left , and is taken on board the pirate schooner . He strikes up a friendship with one of the crew , Bloody Bill , and when the ship calls at the island of Emo to trade for more wood Ralph experiences many facets of the island 's culture : the popular sport of surfing , the sacrificing of babies to eel gods , rape , and cannibalism . \n Rising tensions result in the inhabitants attacking the pirates , leaving only Ralph and Bloody Bill alive . The pair succeed in making their escape in the schooner , but Bill is mortally wounded . He makes a death @-@ bed repentance for his evil life , leaving Ralph to sail back to the Coral Island alone , where he is reunited with his friends . \n The three boys sail to the island of Mango , where a missionary has converted some of the population to Christianity . There they once again meet Tararo , whose daughter Avatea wishes to become a Christian against her father 's wishes . The boys attempt to take Avatea in a small boat to a nearby island the chief of which has been converted , but en route they are overtaken by one of Tararo 's war canoes and taken prisoner . They are released a month later after the arrival of another missionary , and Tararo 's conversion to Christianity . The \" false gods \" of Mango are consigned to the flames , and the boys set sail for home , older and wiser . They return as adults for another adventure in Ballantyne 's 1861 novel The Gorilla Hunters , a sequel to The Coral Island . \n = = Genre and style = = \n All Ballantyne 's novels are , in his own words , \" adventure stories for young folks \" , and The Coral Island is no exception . It is a Robinsonade , a genre of fiction inspired by Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe ( 1719 ) , one of the most popular of its type , and one of the first works of juvenile fiction to feature exclusively juvenile heroes . Susan Maher , professor of English , notes that in comparison to Robinson Crusoe such books generally replaced some of the original 's romance with a \" pedestrian realism \" , exemplified by works such as The Coral Island and Frederick Marryat 's 1841 novel Masterman Ready , or the Wreck of the Pacific . Romance , with its attention to character development , was only restored to the genre of boys ' fiction with Robert Louis Stevenson 's Treasure Island argues literary critic Lisa Honaker . The Coral Island , for all its adventure , is greatly occupied with the realism of domestic fiction ( the domain of the realist novel ) ; Ballantyne devotes about a third of the book to descriptions of the boys ' living arrangements . The book exhibits a \" light @-@ hearted confidence \" in its description of an adventure that was above all fun . As Ralph says in his preface : \" If there is any boy or man who loves to be melancholy and morose , and who cannot enter with kindly sympathy into the regions of fun , let me seriously advise him to shut my book and put it away . It is not meant for him . \" Professor of English M. Daphne Kutzer has observed that \" the swift movement of the story from coastal England to exotic Pacific island is similar to the swift movement from the real world to the fantastic in children 's fantasy \" . \n To a modern reader Ballantyne 's books can seem overly concerned with accounts of flora and fauna , an \" ethnographic gloss \" intended to suggest that their settings are real places offering adventures to those who can reach them . They can also seem \" obtrusively pious \" , but according to John Rennie Short , the moral tone of Ballantyne 's writing is compensated for by his ability to tell a \" cracking good yarn in an accessible and well @-@ fashioned prose style \" . \n = = Themes = = \n The major themes of the novel revolve around the influence of Christianity , the importance of social hierarchies , and the inherent superiority of civilised Europeans over the South Sea islanders ; Martine Dutheil , professor of English , considers the novel \" a key text mapping out colonial relations in the Victorian period \" . The basic subject of the novel is popular and widespread : \" castaway children assuming adult responsibilities without adult supervision \" , and The Coral Island is considered the classic example of such a book . \n The supposed civilising influence of missionaries in spreading Christianity among the natives of the South Seas is an important theme of the second half of the story ; as Jack remarks to Peterkin , \" all the natives of the South Sea Islands are fierce cannibals , and they have little respect for strangers \" . Modern critics view this aspect of the novel less benevolently ; Jerry Phillips , in a 1995 article , sees in The Coral Island the \" perfect realiz [ ation ] \" of \" the official discourse of 19th century Pacific imperialism \" , which he argues was \" obsessed with the purity of God , Trade , and the Nation . \" \n The importance of hierarchy and leadership is also a significant element . The overarching hierarchy of race is informed by Victorian concepts , influenced by the new theories of evolution proposed by Darwin and others . In morals and culture , the natives are placed lower on the evolutionary ladder than are Europeans , as is evidenced in the battle over the native woman Avatea , which pits \" the forces of civilization versus the forces of cannibalism \" . Another hierarchy is seen in the organisation of the boys . Although Jack , Ralph and Peterkin each have a say in how they should organise themselves , ultimately the younger boys defer to Jack , \" a natural leader \" , particularly in a crisis , forming a natural hierarchy . The pirates also have a hierarchy , but one without democracy , and as a consequence are wiped out . The hierarchy of the natives is imposed by savagery . Ballantyne 's message is that leaders should be respected by those they lead , and govern with their consent . This educational message is especially appropriate considering Ballantyne 's adolescent audience , \" the future rulers of the world \" . \n Modern critics find darker undertones in the novel . In an essay published in College English in 2001 , Martine Dutheil states that The Coral Island can be thought of as epitomising a move away from \" the confidence and optimism of the early Victorian proponents of British imperialism \" toward \" self @-@ consciousness and anxiety about colonial domination \" . She locates this anxiety in what she calls the \" rhetoric of excess \" that features in the descriptions of cannibalism , and especially in the accounts of Fijian savagery provided by Bloody Bill ( most notably that of the sacrifice of children to the eel gods ) and the missionary , a representative of the London Missionary Society , an \" emblematic figure of colonial fiction \" . Others have also linked popular boys ' fiction of the period with imperialism ; Joseph Bristow 's Empire Boys ( 1991 ) claimed to see an \" ' imperialist manhood , ' which shaped British attitudes towards empire and masculinity . \" The novel 's portrayal of Pacific culture and the effects of colonisation are analyzed in studies such as Brian Street 's The Savage in Literature : Representations of ' Primitive ' Society in English Fiction ( 1975 ) and Rod Edmond 's Representing the South Pacific : Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin ( 1998 ) . The domination imposed by \" geographical mapping of a territory and policing of its native inhabitants \" is an important theme in the novel both specifically and in general , in the topography of the island as mapped by the boys and the South Pacific 's \" eventual subjugation and conversion to Christianity \" , a topic continued in Stevenson 's Treasure Island . \n The exploration of the relationship between nature and evangelical Christianity is another typically Victorian theme . Coral connects the two ideas . Literary critic Katharine Anderson explains that coral jewellery , popular in the period , had a \" pious significance \" . The \" enchanted garden \" of coral the boys discover at the bottom of their island 's lagoon is suggestive of \" missionary encounters with the societies of the Pacific Island \" . In Victorian society coral had been given an \" evangelical framing \" , and the little \" coral insect \" responsible for building coral reefs mirrored the \" child reader 's productive capacity as a fundraiser for the missionary cause \" ; literary critic Michelle Elleray discusses numerous children 's books from the early to mid @-@ 19th century , including The Coral Island , in which coral plays such an educational role . \n The novel 's setting provides the backdrop for a meditation in the style of Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , who promoted an educational setting in which lessons are provided by direct interactions with the natural world rather than by books and coercive teachers . Singh points out that Rousseau , in Emile , or On Education , promotes the reading and even imitation of Robinson Crusoe ; literary critic Fiona McCulloch argues that the unmediated knowledge the boys gain on their coral island resembles the \" direct language for children \" Rousseau advocates in Emile . \n = = Critical reception = = \n The Coral Island was an almost instant success , and was translated into almost every European language within fifty years of its publication . It was widely admired by its contemporary readers , although modern critics view the text as featuring \" dated colonialist themes and arguably racist undertones \" . Ballantyne 's blend of blood @-@ thirsty adventure and pious imperialism appealed not just to his target juvenile audience but also to their parents and teachers . He is today mainly remembered for The Coral Island , to the exclusion of much of his other work . \n The novel was still considered a classic for English primary school children in the early 20th century . In the United States it was long a staple of suggested reading lists for high @-@ school students ; such a list , discussed in a 1915 article in The English Journal , recommends the novel in the category \" Stories for Boys in Easy Style \" . A simplified adaptation of the book was recommended in the 1950s for American 12 – 14 year olds . Although mostly neglected by modern scholars and generally considered to be dated in many aspects , in 2006 it was voted one of the top twenty Scottish novels at the 15th International World Wide Web Conference . \n = = Influence = = \n Robert Louis Stevenson 's 1882 novel Treasure Island was in part inspired by The Coral Island , which he admired for its \" better qualities \" , as was J. M. Barrie 's character Peter Pan ; both Stevenson and Barrie had been \" fervent boy readers \" of the novel . Novelist G. A. Henty was also influenced by Ballantyne 's audience @-@ friendly method of didactism . \n William Golding 's 1954 novel Lord of the Flies was written as a counterpoint to ( or even a parody of ) The Coral Island , and Golding makes explicit references to it . At the end of the novel , for instance , one of the naval officers who rescues the children mentions the book , commenting on the hunt for one of their number , Ralph , as a \" jolly good show . Like the Coral Island \" . Jack also makes an appearance in Lord of the Flies as Jack Merridew , representing the irrational nature of the boys . Indeed , Golding 's three central characters – Ralph , Piggy and Jack – are caricatures of Ballantyne 's heroes . Despite having enjoyed The Coral Island many times as a child , Golding strongly disagreed with the views that it espoused , and in contrast Lord of the Flies depicts the English boys as savages themselves , who forget more than they learn , unlike Ballantyne 's boys . Golding described the relationship between the two books by saying that The Coral Island \" rotted to compost \" in his mind , and in the compost \" a new myth put down roots \" . Neither is the idyllic nature of Ballantyne 's coral island to be found on Stevenson 's treasure island , which is unsuitable for settlement \" but exists merely as a site from which to excavate treasure , a view consistent with the late @-@ Victorian imperial mission \" according to Honaker . \n = = Television adaptations = = \n The Coral Island was adapted into a children 's television series in a joint venture between Thames Television and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation in 1980 , first shown on Australian and British television in 1983 . It was also adapted into a four @-@ part children 's television drama by Zenith Productions , broadcast by ITV in 2000 . \n = Rudolf Wanderone = \n Rudolf Walter Wanderone Jr . ( January 19 , 1913 – January 15 , 1996 ; originally spelled Wanderon ) was an American professional pocket billiards player , also known as \" Minnesota Fats \" . Though he never won a major pool tournament as \" Fats \" , he was perhaps the most publicly recognized pool player in the United States – not only as a player , but also as an entertainer . Wanderone was inducted in 1984 into the Billiard Congress of America Hall of Fame for his decades @-@ long public promotion of pool . \n Wanderone began playing at a young age in New York City . As a teenager , he became a traveling pool hustler . Later , in his 30s , he moved to southern Illinois where he met and married his first wife , Evelyn . During World War II , he hustled servicemen in Norfolk , Virginia . With the end of the war , Wanderone returned to Illinois and entered semi @-@ retirement . \n Wanderone adopted the nickname \" Minnesota Fats \" from a character in the 1961 film The Hustler , claiming that the character was based upon him . He parlayed the association with the film into his own book deals and television appearances , including a series of matches with rival Willie Mosconi . Later in life , Wanderone divorced Evelyn and moved to Nashville , Tennessee , where he married his second wife , Theresa , with whom he remained until his death . \n = = Early life and career = = \n Rudolf Walter Wanderon Jr. was born in New York City to Rosa and Rudolf Wanderon , Swiss immigrants . He was born in 1913 but sometimes hinted he was born earlier , even as early as 1900 . The surname was later changed to Wanderone . \n Known as \" Rudy \" to friends and family , Wanderone started playing pool as a child while living in Washington Heights , Manhattan . In 1923 , he traveled to Europe with his father where he received training from German balkline billiards champion Erich Hagenlocher . His first prominent match was in 1926 when he competed against former nine @-@ ball champion \" Cowboy \" Weston ( Wanderone won , handily ) . Wanderone left school in the eighth grade and became a traveling pool hustler , spending much of the 1920s playing at a pool hall called Cranfield 's in New York City , where Wanderone received his first nickname after beating another hustler known as \" Smart Henry \" . The intensity of their competition led Wanderone 's friend , Titanic Thompson , to dub Wanderone \" Double @-@ Smart \" . By the mid @-@ 1930s , during the Great Depression , Wanderone had become a manager of a pool hall , owned by a friend , in Anacostia , southeast Washington , D.C. He had acquired more notoriety and nicknames , including \" Triple @-@ Smart Fats \" , \" New York Fats \" , \" Broadway Fats \" , and \" Chicago Fats \" , attracting action from other hustlers , including the then unknown Luther \" Wimpy \" Lassiter . \n In 1941 , Wanderone and friend Jimmy Castras arrived in southern Illinois — major hustling center on a fast track to televised tournament play — and settled in Du Quoin , Illinois , where he continued hustling . Eventually he met Evelyn Inez Graff ; they married two months to the day later , on May 7 , 1941 . Following their wedding , the Wanderones settled in Dowell , Illinois . In 1942 , the couple moved to Norfolk , Virginia . Norfolk had become a key mustering point for US soldiers , as well as a shipbuilding center . The growing population led to an enormous interest in gambling ; Wanderone , in partnership with fellow hustler Lassiter , quickly recognized the financial possibilities . Following World War II , however , the action \" dried up \" soon , and the Wanderones returned to Little Egypt . For a period throughout the 1950s , Wanderone entered semi @-@ retirement , making only occasional hustling trips to New York City . \n = = \" Minnesota Fats \" = = \n In 1961 , the film version of Walter Tevis ' novel The Hustler was released . The film tells the story of a pool shark named \" Fast Eddie \" Felson and his quest to beat the greatest pool player in America , \" Minnesota Fats \" . World Champion Willie Mosconi served as a technical advisor and trick shot stunt man for the film . Wanderone almost immediately dropped his \" New York Fats \" nickname , adopted the name \" Minnesota Fats \" and began spreading the story that the character was based on him . Tevis denied this for the rest of his life . \n Wanderone 's notoriety as \" Minnesota Fats \" led to a job as executive vice @-@ president of billiard table manufacturer Rozel Industries , playing exhibition matches and giving demonstrations . Rozel , in 1965 , published Wanderone 's first book : Minnesota \" Fats \" Book of Billiards . On January 17 , 1965 , he appeared on the television game show What 's My Line , successfully stumping the panel . \n In 1966 , he wrote his autobiography , The Bank Shot , and Other Great Robberies , with Sports Illustrated journalist , Tom Fox . His first TV game show , Minnesota Fats Hustles the Pros , debuted in 1967 , featuring \" Fats \" playing against other pro players . \n In 1967 he completed and published an instructional paperback , Minnesota Fats on Pool , which was reprinted through 1976 in large @-@ quantity editions , then reissued as a hardcover in 1993 , and remains to this day commonly available . \n The next year , on January 24 , 1968 , Wanderone was a guest on The Joey Bishop Show . By 1970 , Celebrity Billiards with Minnesota Fats , another short @-@ lived TV game show series , featured Wanderone playing against celebrity guests such as Sid Caesar . \n In a feature film , The Player ( produced in December 1970 , in Baton Rouge , Louisiana ) , Wanderone played himself as \" Minnesota Fats \" and was featured prominently on the promotional poster . The screenplay was written and directed by Thomas DeMartini , also starred pool pro Jack Colavita , and had a limited release in 1971 by International Cinema . That same year Wanderone was a guest on both The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson ( September 21 , 1971 ) , on which he hustled Carson out of US $ 1 , and the British David Frost Show ( October 13 , 1971 ) . His fame as \" Fats \" had already made it difficult for Wanderone to hustle effectively , so he relied more and more on exhibition games for income . \n By 1979 , Wanderone was well @-@ known enough to be playing himself as a celebrity guest star on a Season 2 episode of the popular TV detective drama Vega $ , titled \" the Usurper \" , the episode featured \" Fats \" and pro Jimmy Mataya playing one another in a game of pool . In 1980 , while visiting a one @-@ mile stretch of St. Louis , Wanderone had to double his order of autographed pictures after he was stopped thirty @-@ seven times . During this trip he was beaten by Michael Boulton 4 out of 10 times in games of pool . \n = = Rivalry with Willie Mosconi = = \n Wanderone enjoyed promoting a feud with world champion Mosconi over how to present pool – either as a rough @-@ and @-@ tumble gambling game ( Wanderone ) or as a genteel pastime and art form ( Mosconi ) . Mosconi 's widow , Flora , said of the rivalry , \" My husband hated Minnesota Fats because he felt that [ Wanderone ] was always hurting the image of the game instead of helping it . \" Wanderone would state smugly , \" I may have ' given away ' a few games to deserving competitors , but I have never lost a real money game since I was old enough to spell ' Weeli Mesconi ' . \" The two competed on Valentine 's Day ( February 14 ) , 1978 in a televised match on ABC 's Wide World of Sports . With almost 11 million viewers , the game was the second @-@ highest rated episode of the show for that year , behind only the Muhammad Ali vs. Leon Spinks rematch . The game was held at New York 's Waldorf Astoria Hotel , and was announced by Howard Cosell . Although Wanderone lost the game , he won the audience with his banter , and with his joking manner . Mosconi on the other hand was reportedly perceived as cold . \n \" Fats \" lost a number of rematches to Mosconi in the following years . However , in the nationally @-@ broadcast Resorts International Shoot @-@ Out of October 1984 – Wanderone 's last notable TV appearance – he finally turned the tables on his rival . The event began with a trick shot competition between four players : Wanderone , Mosconi , Steve Mizerak , and Allen Hopkins . \n Next , Hopkins and Fats played against Mosconi and Mizerak in doubles seven @-@ ball , then nine @-@ ball . Wanderone and Mosconi ultimately played a one @-@ on @-@ one game of seven @-@ ball ; Wanderone won the match . During the exhibition , a very quiet and genteel Mosconi blocked Wanderone 's rough @-@ and @-@ tumble banter by wearing ear plugs ; yet that failed to stop Wanderone from putting on a show for his fans . In an interview , Wanderone was asked about his strategy to defeat Mosconi , and replied that he had thought to himself , \" I 'll make [ the 7 ball ] on the break and end it ... then I 'll help carry Willie out on a stretcher . \" \n = = Later life = = \n The Billiard Congress of America in 1984 inducted Wanderone into its Hall of Fame for \" Meritorious Service \" in recognition of his contributions to helping popularize the game of pool . In 1984 , Wanderone abandoned his wife , Evelyn ; they divorced a year later . \n Wanderone moved into the Hermitage Hotel in downtown Nashville , Tennessee in 1985 , remaining there for several years . In 1992 , while undergoing surgery for a knee injury , he suffered a massive heart attack , but survived . In 1993 , he met and married his second wife , Theresa Ward Bell . He lived in Bell 's Nashville house until his death on January 15 , 1996 , four days shy of his 83rd birthday ( although some sources , including The New York Times , erroneously gave the date of his death on January 18 ) . \n Wanderone had no known children . Singer Etta James said she believed that he was her biological father , having reportedly been told this by her mother , as well as by others who knew her mother and whom James described as \" people who were there and should know \" . However , there is no published evidence of such a relationship . James and Wanderone are only known to have met once , in 1987 . \n In her autobiography , Rage to Survive , James recounted their meeting , writing that Wanderone neither confirmed nor denied his paternity . According to James , he told her that he did not recall the details of his life at the time of her conception well enough to know whether he could have been the father . \n The epitaph on his tombstone reads : \" Beat every living creature on Earth . ' St. Peter , rack ' em up . – Fats ' \" . \n = = Personal character = = \n Wanderone was known for ostentation , self @-@ aggrandizement , tall tales , fast @-@ talk , and entertaining banter . He was even publicly recognized by famed boaster Muhammad Ali as better at boasting . His critical biographer , R. A. Dyer , documents that Wanderone completely fabricated a \" here @-@ by @-@ fate \" tale about a car wreck which brought the player to Little Egypt ; it was a tale that Wanderone encouraged to spread and further embellished in his autobiography , to lend an air of the mystical to his public persona . He made false claims about beating Willie Mosconi so frequently that Mosconi filed a slander lawsuit , to little avail . \n According to Dyer , Wanderone was notorious for non @-@ stop chatter on subjects about which he knew little , or stories about himself . At the beginning of his first TV match against Mosconi , Wanderone claimed \" I 've never lost [ a game ] for money in my life ; beat everyone that ever lived . \" Yet , as Dyer concedes , \" Pool hustlers are , by nature , liars . And by this measure , Minnesota Fats was just a very , very good pool hustler . \" \n Wanderone was a lover of animals , and was reported to have had dozens of cats and dogs simultaneously , and to have devoted a lot of time to finding homes for strays . \" I 'm crazy about every living creature \" , he wrote in The Bank Shot . \" It doesn 't matter what it happens to be . I even love insects ; in fact , I wouldn 't swat a fly or a mosquito for a whole barrel of gold . \" \n Remembered well for his turns of phrase and his puns , Wanderone once wrote , \" If you happened to drive from Mobile to Dowell [ Illinois ] with a carload of pool hustlers , you would get bit so hard and so often that you would need a malaria vaccine and a new bankroll as well \" , a reference not only to the area 's notorious mosquitos but also the predatory nature of hustlers . Wanderone is remembered for saying on his way out a pool room door , \" Boys , the only difference between me and everybody else is that everybody else drives around in a Volkswagen , and Minnesota Fats drives around in a Duesenberg . \" Wanderone would go virtually anywhere to help promote the game , and he was a crowd @-@ pleaser . \n Wanderone owned various limousines throughout his career . He once toured the country in a colorful Lincoln limo , with his extended moniker painted along the side panels in translucent paint , changing colors as it moved with the reflections from the sun : \" Minnesota Fats , King of Pool \" . His 1980 Cadillac Fleetwood limo was later in the Nashville auto museum , until the facility closed . \n Wanderone was notorious for his spontaneous wit . When he was named the \" uncrowned king \" of pool because he never got actively involved in tournament circles ( due to being too busy hustling ) , his reply : \" You judge a king by the size of his wallet and his palace . You can leave the crown in the toilet . \" \n = Itchy & Scratchy Land = \n \" Itchy & Scratchy Land \" is the fourth episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 2 , 1994 . Wanting a perfect family vacation , the Simpson family visits Itchy & Scratchy Land , dubbed \" The Violentest Place On Earth \" ( a direct reference to Disneyland 's self @-@ description as \" The Happiest Place On Earth \" ) . The trip starts out great , but things take a turn for the worse when a horde of Itchy and Scratchy robots go on a murderous rampage . It was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Wes Archer . \n = = Plot = = \n Bart and Lisa see a commercial for an amusement park named Itchy & Scratchy Land , and immediately want to visit it . Marge has already booked a family vacation to a bird sanctuary , but after revealing that the theme park has a place for adults , Bart and Lisa win their parents over , on the condition that they will not embarrass Marge as on previous holidays . After a long car journey , they reach the Itchy & Scratchy Land parking lot , where they are then flown to the park by a helicopter and told by the pilot that nothing can \" possibly \" ( he pronounces it \" possi @-@ bligh , \" then hastily corrects himself ) go wrong . \n Marge is slightly uneasy with the many references to violence at the park , but has an enjoyable time visiting the various violent attractions , which include a parade filled with Itchy and Scratchy robots . Homer and Marge eventually tire out and spend time away from the kids at the nearby \" Parents Island \" as Bart and Lisa continue having fun . Bart and Lisa also visit a movie theater , where a documentary about the history of Itchy & Scratchy is being presented , including clips of the old Itchy & Scratchy films \" Scratchtasia \" and \" Pinnitchio \" . Although going well , the family 's vacation is ruined when Bart launches a stink bomb into an actor 's Itchy suit and is arrested by park security . When Bart arrives in a cell , he finds Homer , who is in there for kicking another Itchy character \" in the butt . \" Marge is informed of her son 's and husband 's transgressions through the park 's public address system and is immediately embarrassed . \n Meanwhile , Professor Frink , chief of the animatronic robots in the park parades , tells the other staff that ( according to chaos theory ) all the Itchy & Scratchy robots will turn on their masters ; this happens seconds after he makes the announcement . Bart and Homer are released and just as Marge is lecturing them , all power is cut and a horde of Itchy and Scratchy robots advance towards them . One of the park staff refuses to let them escape on the helicopter with them due to Homer and Bart 's misdeeds at the park . Homer frantically throws everything he can at them and discovers that the flash of a camera short circuits the robots ' systems . The Simpsons then grab dozens of cameras from a closed gift shop and defeat the entire Itchy & Scratchy army . The family is thanked for saving the park and agree that it was their best vacation ever . Regardless , Marge demands that they never speak of the trip again , as she is still embarrassed by the actions of Homer and Bart. \n = = Production = = \n \" Itchy & Scratchy Land \" , written by the entire writing team but credited to John Swartzwelder , was a very difficult episode to produce . It involved creating an entirely new environment , which meant large amount of writing and all new sets . At the time that the episode was produced , new , more stringent censorship laws had been put in place . As a result , the Fox network tried to stop the writers from including Itchy & Scratchy cartoons in episodes . In response , the writers created this episode , which they decided would be as violent as possible . The network threatened that if the episode was produced , they would cut the Itchy & Scratchy parts out themselves , but relented when showrunner David Mirkin threatened to tell the media . The writers nevertheless promised to try not to overdo the violence and in some scenes the violence was cut . \n Although the episode was quite difficult to animate , \" Itchy & Scratchy Land \" was \" a dream come true \" for the animators , as they enjoyed animating scenes filled with violence . \n = = Cultural references = = \n Much of Itchy & Scratchy Land parodies Disneyland , such as the electric light parade . Euro Itchy & Scratchy Land is a parody of Disneyland Resort Paris , then known as EuroDisney , which at the time was failing . Several scenes , such as the helicopter ride , the logo visible on the helicopter 's side , and certain story elements parody the Michael Crichton book and film Jurassic Park . Other parts of the episode , such as the park 's claim to be the \" theme park of the future , \" and the plot of the robots at the park rebelling are based on another Crichton story , Westworld . \" Scratchtasia \" is a reference to the Sorcerer 's Apprentice segment of the Disney film Fantasia , with several shots and the music parodying it exactly . The parody segment is also one of the few moments in the show where Scratchy actually defeats Itchy ( chopping him up like Mickey Mouse chopped up the Broom from the original Fantasia segment ) , although Itchy immediately retaliates and wins yet again . \" Pinnitchio \" is a parody of the 1940 Disney film Pinocchio . T.G.I. McScratchy 's , \" where it 's constantly New Year 's Eve , \" is a parody of Pleasure Island , a former nightclub section of Walt Disney World 's Downtown Disney , where New Year 's Eve was celebrated every night at midnight . Hans Moleman being attacked by predatory birds while in the phone booth is a spoof of the 1963 Alfred Hitchcock film The Birds . Walt Disney 's alleged antisemitism is spoofed in the character of Roger Meyers , Sr. in his cartoon Nazi Supermen Are Our Superiors . The sound made by the vehicle which takes Bart to the detention facility resembles the one made by the ground shuttles carrying the fighter pilots inside the Rebel Base in Star Wars Episode 4 : A New Hope . Marge 's Amish flashback recalls Peter Weir 's 1985 film Witness , while that involving Homer and Bart unintentionally scaring swimmers on a beach recalls Steven Spielberg 's Jaws . The episode of Itchy and Scratchy that Bart and Lisa watch is called \" The Last Traction Hero \" , a parody of the 1993 film Last Action Hero . The Simpson Family 's journey to Itchy and Scratchy Land parodies the film , National Lampoon 's Vacation , in such scenes as when Bart asks to stop at a nearby restaurant and Homer replies ' No ' , Homer nearly falling asleep at the wheel , and the rest of the events following until they reach the park . \n = = Reception = = \n In its original broadcast , \" Itchy & Scratchy Land \" finished 67th in ratings for the week of September 26 — October 2 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 0 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Beverly Hills , 90210 , The X @-@ Files and tied with Melrose Place . \n Itchy and Scratchy Land has met with positive reviews . \" Scratchtasia \" is one of David Mirkin 's favorite Itchy & Scratchy cartoons . The episode placed seventh in a 2003 Entertainment Weekly list of the top 25 episodes , the authors remarking that , \" When the animatronics attack , the showdown between man and machine — okay , Homer and a giant robot mouse — is an uproarious rebuttal to capitalism run amok . \" Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood called it \" an untypical episode , with an especially thin plot . But anyone that 's been to Disneyland will get the point . \" The episode is number six on MSNBC 's top ten The Simpsons episodes list , compiled in 2007 . \n In 2014 , The Simpsons writers picked \" Scratchtasia \" from this episode as one of their nine favorite \" Itchy & Scratchy \" episodes of all time . \n = Bart 's Inner Child = \n \" Bart 's Inner Child \" is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 11 , 1993 . In the episode , Marge finally realizes that she 's no fun due to her excessive nagging and seeks help from the self @-@ help guru , Brad Goodman , who uses Bart 's irreverent attitude as a new example of how people should behave . The entire town of Springfield begins to act like Bart , who at first enjoys things but begins to feel that his role as a troublemaker is usurped . During the inaugural \" Do What You Feel \" festival , several things go wrong and the town decides to stop acting like Bart. \n The episode was written by George Meyer and was the first episode of the show to be directed by Bob Anderson . Actor Albert Brooks guest stars in the episode as Brad Goodman , a self @-@ help guru modelled after John Bradshaw . It was Brooks ' third of five appearances on the show . Singer James Brown guest stars as himself ; he sings his 1965 song \" I Got You ( I Feel Good ) \" . In 2006 , Brooks was named the best Simpsons guest star by IGN , while Brown 's appearance has been described as \" hilariously over @-@ the @-@ top \" . \n The episode features cultural references to several films , television shows , and songs , including the 1939 film Gone with the Wind , Scott Joplin 's piano rag \" The Entertainer \" , and the Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner cartoons . In its original broadcast , \" Bart 's Inner Child \" finished 40th in the weekly ratings with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 8 , and was viewed in 11 @.@ 12 million households . \n = = Plot = = \n Homer sees an advertisement in the newspaper for a free trampoline . He rushes to the address from the advertisement , where Krusty the Clown is giving it away , and brings it home . While Bart and Lisa are thrilled by it , Marge is concerned about the potential dangers . Homer brushes her worries aside ; he has plans of turning their backyard into a theme park , and decides to charge a fee to use the trampoline . Inevitably , however , people start getting hurt , and Homer finally takes Marge 's advice to get rid of the trampoline . After failing at his various attempts to do so , Bart steps in to help Homer . They chain the trampoline to a pole using a bike lock and wait for Snake Jailbird to steal it . \n Homer and Marge argue later that night . Homer admits that while Marge was right that getting the trampoline was a mistake , he adds that he 's at least willing to go out and try new things while she 's bossy , boring and just nags all the time . Marge , of course , disagrees with this , but after asking Bart and Lisa what they think , she discovers that they agree with their father 's assessment about her . Marge becomes offended that people see her that way and goes to her sisters ' apartment . While at Patty and Selma 's apartment , the twins introduce her to an infomercial featuring self @-@ help guru , Brad Goodman , who can supposedly help people like Marge with their chronic nagging . After Marge encourages Homer to watch a Brad Goodman video with her , she becomes more tolerant and the two start getting along better . After seeing how out of control Bart is , the family goes to see Brad Goodman 's live lecture in the hopes that it will change him . Bart interrupts the lecture , but Brad Goodman encourages the town to follow Bart 's spontaneous attitude . Soon , the whole town starts acting like Bart , who at first enjoys things , but eventually becomes upset by it . Lisa explains that it 's because he 's lost his unique identity as a rebel with everyone else in town acting like him . \n To celebrate their new @-@ found attitude , the town holds a \" Do What You Feel \" festival . However , the festival soon goes awry because those responsible for building the stages and maintaining the rides \" didn ’ t feel like \" doing a thorough job , resulting in a runaway Ferris wheel causing chaos . Arguments begin , as everybody has been encouraged to always say exactly what is on their mind , and a riot soon breaks out . Bart is quickly blamed for starting the whole \" do as you feel \" trend , even with Reverend Lovejoy pointing out that Brad Goodman was the one who encouraged them to act like Bart in the first place . The town chases after him , prompting Homer to save Bart by driving in a float . Despite the very slow speed of the float , the town gives up the chase and goes to the old mill to get some cider . The Simpson family returns home , where they try to figure out what the lesson of the episode was . Homer claims that Bart should have been a better role model , but Marge comes to Bart 's defense by saying that self @-@ improvement is best left to people who live in big cities . But then Lisa says that self @-@ improvement can be accomplished , but through hard work and not a quick fix . Homer concludes that they 're all fine the way they are and the family starts to watch TV . \n = = Production = = \n \" Bart 's Inner Child \" was written by George Meyer and directed by Bob Anderson . It was Anderson 's directorial debut on The Simpsons . Meyer 's inspiration for the episode came from the fact that he was going through therapy at the time and he thought it would be a good idea \" to send up these self @-@ help gurus \" . \n Actor Albert Brooks guest starred in the episode as Brad Goodman . It was Brooks ' third appearance on the show after playing Jacques in \" Life on the Fast Lane \" and Cowboy Bob in \" The Call of the Simpsons \" . He would later guest star as Hank Scorpio in \" You Only Move Twice \" , Tab Spangler in \" The Heartbroke Kid \" , and Russ Cargill in The Simpsons Movie . Executive producer David Mirkin describes Brooks as \" really weird to direct \" because \" almost every one of his takes is flawless , but each one has different material . He makes up the stuff as he goes . \" He uses a combination of the jokes in the script and his own material and because many of his takes are different , it is difficult for the producers to decide which lines to use . Goodman was based on the American self @-@ help author John Bradshaw , who popularized such psychological ideas as the \" wounded inner child \" and the dysfunctional family . \n Singer James Brown guest stars as himself . Brown makes an appearance at the \" Do What You Feel \" festival , during which he sings his 1965 song \" I Got You ( I Feel Good ) \" . After a bandstand collapses , he proclaims \" Hey , wait a minute , hold on here ! This bandstand wasn 't double @-@ bolted ! \" He described the experience as \" good , clean , and humorous . And we need more of that around . \" According to Mirkin , the writers like to give guest stars awkward lines which then sound funny coming from them . They knew Brown would not be \" the greatest actor in the world \" but still \" gave him these incredibly hilarious , stiff lines that killed . \" Mirkin described Brown 's line as \" horrible \" but because of Brown 's reading , \" you have something that just sounds perfectly wrong and it makes it funny . \" In his book Planet Simpson , Chris Turner describes James Brown 's performance as \" hilariously over @-@ the @-@ top \" and uses it as an example of how the early seasons of the show would include celebrity cameos and not point out the \" enormity of their fame \" . \n = = Cultural references = = \n The episode features cultural references to several films , television shows , and songs . The scene with a field full of injured children from the trampoline is a reference to the field of injured soldiers shot in the film Gone with the Wind . There is a sequence of Homer trying to push the trampoline off of a cliff , but once he pushes it over the edge , it lands on a pillar of rock and bounces back up . This is a reference to the Chuck Jones @-@ directed Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner Looney Tunes cartoons . The background imitates the desert landscape from the cartoons . At church , Reverend Lovejoy plays the classic rag \" The Entertainer \" by Scott Joplin on the organ . \n = = Reception = = \n In its original broadcast , \" Bart 's Inner Child \" finished 40th in the weekly ratings during the week of November 8 – 14 , 1993 with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 8 , and was viewed in 11 @.@ 12 million households . It was the highest rated show on Fox that week . \n In 2006 , Albert Brooks was named the best Simpsons guest star by IGN , who said he \" captivate [ s ] the audience with his unique characters \" . In Planet Simpson , Chris Turner also praised Brooks ' performance , writing that \" Brooks went for a subtle , slow @-@ burn lampoon rather than broad caricature : his Goodman doesn 't ooze insincerity , he just lightly dribbles it . [ ... ] Through a dozen little touches , Brooks created a timeless Simpsons character . \" \n MSNBC 's Patrick Enwright listed the episode as his ninth favorite in the show in 2007 , saying it \" brilliantly skewers new @-@ agey self @-@ help gurus \" and adding that \" it 's also noteworthy for clever pop @-@ cultural references . \" The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , described it as \" A very bizarre episode in which everyone just has a good time . \" DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote : \" A certified classic , ' Child ' mocks the self @-@ help field and makes a good point along the way . Of course , it does all this with scads of clever moments and becomes a great show . As one who works in psychology , it 's hard to resist this program 's spoofery . \" Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode a grade of B + and described Homer 's escapades with the trampoline as \" the episode 's brightest spot . \" Turner described the Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner homage as \" one of the show 's most overt and inspired tributes to the Warner cartoons . \" Bill Gibron of DVD Talk gave the episode a score of 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 . \n = Haunting Ground = \n Haunting Ground , known in Japan as Demento ( デメント ) , is a survival horror video game developed and published by Capcom for the PlayStation 2 in 2005 . The story follows Fiona Belli , a young girl who wakes up in the dungeon of a castle after being involved in a car accident . She quickly befriends Hewie , a White Shepherd roaming the castle . With his aid , Fiona seeks to escape the castle and unravel the mysteries of it and its inhabitants . The game shares many similarities with Capcom 's earlier survival horror title Clock Tower 3 , and has been described as a spiritual successor to the Clock Tower series . The player controls Fiona as they explore the environment , evade and hide from enemy pursuers , and occasionally fight against the castle 's inhabitants . Hewie is a central part to the gameplay , and accompanies Fiona throughout the game . He can be given orders to explore the environment , attack enemies , and otherwise aid in Fiona 's survival . \n Haunting Ground was first revealed in September 2004 . Capcom added the dog mechanic during development thinking retailers and players alike would not enjoy a survival horror title with a lone female protagonist . The game was released in April of next year garnering mixed to average reviews . The graphics and presentation were praised , as well as the sexual overtones which were described as \" disturbing \" and \" off @-@ putting . \" Hewie was credited for giving the game a unique feel . However , the story was found to be cliché , and some of the gameplay was noted as predictable and dated . Haunting Ground was re @-@ released digitally in Japan for the PlayStation 3 in 2015 . \n = = Gameplay = = \n Haunting Ground is a survival horror game with similar gameplay elements to Clock Tower 3 . The player controls Fiona Belli directly and gives commands to her canine companion , Hewie . Fiona can run and perform a backstep maneuver , both of which reduce stamina . She can also crouch down to hide from enemy pursuers . Fiona can kick and tackle enemies as well , but tackling also reduces stamina . Losing too much stamina will result in Fiona becoming exhausted , causing her movements to slow down or possibly stop altogether . Exhaustion can be revived with certain items or with time . Fiona can interact with the environment by checking items , opening doors , and climbing ladders . The player can utilize hiding spots to evade pursuers . Other areas act as retaliation points that allow Fiona to use her environment to counterattack against her enemy , although some of these locations can only be used once . \n Commanding Hewie is an integral part of Haunting Ground 's gameplay . At the beginning of the game , he won 't be completely friendly and obey all of Fiona 's commands . The player will have to build a friendship and gain his trust in order to survive the game . Hewie can be told to sniff out items , check suspicious areas or items , attack an enemy , or called back to Fiona 's side . The player can praise Hewie by petting and feeding him , both which can heal his vitality . Likewise , he can be scolded when he won 't listen to commands . He can be told to \" stand ready \" before attacking , which will increase his attack power . \n Enemies can hear footsteps and other sounds . When Fiona is in a dangerous situation , she may fall into a panic . During panic mode , visibility gets worse , the menu can 't be opened , and she will begin running on her own , tripping and falling into walls . Panic mode will elapse after some time , or certain items can be used to calm her down . If Fiona sustains a significant amount of damage , she will slow down and become unable to backstep . If she receives too much damage she can die . Damage heals with time or items can be used to bring her vitality back to normal . While some items are used to heal Fiona and Hewie , others are used to damage enemies . Some can be thrown while others are set like traps for the enemy to walk over . Some items are found by searching while others can be crafted in refining rooms . \n = = Plot = = \n Fiona Belli is an 18 @-@ year @-@ old girl who recently moved to college . While visiting her parents , she is involved in a car accident , and awakens in a cage in the dungeon of a castle . Her memories of the incident are hazy . Noting that the cage that keeps her prisoner has been left unlocked , she steps out , but is startled by a large , fierce animal that runs past her . She quickly begins searching for answers and a way out of the castle . Soon , she befriends the animal that initially frightened her , a White Shepherd named Hewie . As Fiona begins to unravel the mystery in which she finds herself , she learns that she is the carrier of the Azoth , which , for unknown reasons , is sought after by Riccardo , the castle 's keeper . \n The first enemy Fiona encounters is Debilitas , a large , mentally disabled groundskeeper who thinks of Fiona as one of his dolls . Fiona then makes contact with a mysterious man named Lorenzo , who seems to want to help her escape . He tells her that to do so , she needs a staff from the chapel . However , upon taking the staff , Debilitas corners Fiona and Hewie , forcing a confrontation . After eliminating Debilitas , Fiona soon finds her next enemy , Daniella , the icy maid . Daniella covets Fiona 's ability to smell , taste , touch , feel , and \" experience pleasure . \" She is especially jealous that Fiona can create life ( via a fertile womb ) . Daniella is defeated when she is impaled with a shard of broken glass from a ceiling window . \n The third villain is Riccardo , who wields a flintlock pistol . For the majority of the game , Riccardo keeps his face hidden under a hood . Upon revealing himself however , Fiona is shocked to see her dead father 's face . Riccardo reveals that he and her father , Ugo , are clones . He murdered Ugo in the car accident as revenge for leaving the castle and marrying Fiona 's mother . He plans to use Fiona ( by means of her womb and use of her Azoth ) to bring about his own rebirth , so that he may live forever . As they fight atop a water tower , Hewie rescues Fiona by attacking Riccardo , causing him to fall from the summit . \n The final enemy is Lorenzo , who seemed to be an ally , but who now menaces Fiona in several different forms . Fiona first meets him as an old , crippled man . He tells Fiona that Riccardo was always the problem child , and that he created both Riccardo and Ugo in an attempt to find a body with an Azoth which he could use to gain immortality . Ugo had the Azoth , but left the castle to marry Ayla . Now with Riccardo dead , Lorenzo believes that Fiona is his , so he can take the Azoth she inherited from her father . He chases after Fiona , but she is able to crush him in a rock press . However , she soon encounters a resurrected , youthful Lorenzo ; the life energy he acquired from Riccardo 's body has allowed him mastery over his own aging process . With the help of Hewie , Fiona causes Lorenzo to fall into a pit of lava . At this point , the castle begins to shake and collapse , and Lorenzo returns as a flaming skeleton . He chases Fiona as she heads for the exit , and attempts to block her escape , but as they reach the door , he finally dies , and Fiona and Hewie eventually leave the castle . \n = = Development and release = = \n Capcom began development knowing they wanted to make a survival horror game with a lead female character . Believing that the female lead would not bode well with retailers and players alike , they added in a dog partner that could attack enemies . After this change , they further designed the gameplay around this partner mechanic . On September 24 , 2004 , Capcom debuted Haunting Ground under its Japanese name Demento at the Tokyo Game Show after launching a teaser page on their official website two days prior . While the text was in Japanese only , the English translation of the teaser page read : \" One person awakes / Continuation of a nightmare / An unknown place / Fraught with insanity . \" Capcom released the game in Japan on April 21 , 2005 , in Europe and Australia on April 29 , 2005 , and in North America on May 10 , 2005 . Critics have described the game as a spiritual successor to the Clock Tower series , although it has never been officially declared as such . \n In July 2012 , Haunting Ground appeared to be slated for a PlayStation 3 re @-@ release as a \" PS2 Classic \" , having been rated by the ESRB with Sony Computer Entertainment named as the publisher . On April 21 , 2015 , it was re @-@ released for the PlayStation 3 via the PlayStation Store exclusively in Japan . \n = = Reception = = \n Haunting Ground received \" average \" reviews according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . The game 's sexuality was noted as a positive point by critics . IGN wrote , \" Haunting Ground 's combination of high @-@ end presentation , disturbing sexuality , and psychological mindjobbing makes it one of the most interesting games of the last couple of months , \" and selected it as the \" Game of the Month \" for May 2005 . They described it as an \" interesting horror experience \" that would appeal to \" old @-@ school adventure fans \" , although they found weakness in the narrative , calling it \" clichéd \" storytelling . GameSetWatch also felt the sexuality of the game was a positive ; \" Disparaging Haunting Ground for its copious objectification of women is a facile task , and so is discrediting its storytelling for the gratuitous exposure . Easy , easy , to fetishize a horny maid , a half @-@ naked young blonde in dire straits and at the mercy of grasping , perverted men . But it 's precisely that off @-@ putting sexuality that makes Daniella terrifying , that makes Fiona 's circumstances so explicitly repugnant , that sharpens Haunting Ground 's fear factor to a knife in the gut . \" \n 1UP.com praised the graphics , character models and environments , arguing that the game featured \" some of the most detailed , lavish 3D environments Capcom has ever produced . \" They did however feel the game was dated compared to the newly released Resident Evil 4 , stating it \" isn 't without merit , it 's just that the merits are buried deep in an occasionally thrilling , mostly ' been there , done that ' game of indistinct origin . \" GamePro stated that \" despite a few fresh ideas , Haunting Ground is no classic . The thin story relies too often on cliché and titillation , the villains aren 't terribly frightening , and the gameplay becomes too predictable too quickly . Ultimately , this is Resident Evil Lite with a dog . \" Despite this , they praised the cinematic presentation and found the visuals as \" stark but appealing . \" GameSpot noted that Hewie , despite being well @-@ trained , occasionally did not obey orders , adding realism to the game . They found the relationship between Fiona and Hewie and its gameplay mechanics give Haunting Ground \" its own special place in the horror genre \" . They believed the gameplay to have flaws , \" but if you 're a big horror fan and don 't mind something different , Haunting Ground is worth a look . \" Other critics also praised the use of Hewie . Just Adventure called him \" adorable \" and \" an asset of the utmost value , \" whilst 1UP.com named him \" one of the best @-@ implemented efforts \" of a dog in video gaming . \n In a retrospective analysis , Kill Screen 's Zach Budgor compared Haunting Ground 's \" psychological landscape \" to Dario Argento 's 1977 film Suspiria . He commended the game for making symbolic choices in its design , over more literal and sensible choices , creating a dreamlike atmosphere . The game 's grotesque expressionism was also highlighted . Budgor found that removing the player 's control at critical points highlights Fiona 's subjectivity , with the sounds and images expressing ideas of \" violation , transgression , and bodily autonomy . \" He also found the drive for the enemies to kill Fiona creates a continuous tension , as its unclear nature lends to an uncomfortable confusion for both Fiona and the player . \n = Lepidoptera = \n The Lepidoptera ( / ˌlɛpᵻˈdɒptərə / lep @-@ i @-@ DOP @-@ tər @-@ ə ) is an order of insects that includes moths and butterflies ( both called lepidopterans ) . 180 @,@ 000 species of Lepidoptera are described , in 126 families and 46 superfamilies , 10 % of the total described species of living organisms . It is one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world , encompassing moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies , skipper butterflies , and moth @-@ butterflies . The term was coined by Linnaeus in 1735 and is derived from Ancient Greek λεπίδος ( scale ) and πτερόν ( wing ) . The Lepidoptera show many variations of the basic body structure that have evolved to gain advantages in lifestyle and distribution . Recent estimates suggest the order may have more species than earlier thought , and is among the four most speciose orders , along with the Hymenoptera , Diptera , and Coleoptera . \n Lepidopteran species are characterized by more than three derived features , some of the most apparent being the scales covering their bodies and wings , and a proboscis . The scales are modified , flattened \" hairs \" , and give butterflies and moths their extraordinary variety of colors and patterns . Almost all species have some form of membranous wings , except for a few that have reduced wings or are wingless . Like most other insects , butterflies and moths are holometabolous , meaning they undergo complete metamorphosis . Mating and the laying of eggs are carried out by adults , normally near or on host plants for the larvae . The larvae are commonly called caterpillars , and are completely different from their adult moth or butterfly forms , having a cylindrical body with a well @-@ developed head , mandible mouth parts , three pairs of thoracic legs and from none up to five pairs of prolegs . As they grow , these larvae change in appearance , going through a series of stages called instars . Once fully matured , the larva develops into a pupa , referred to as a chrysalis in the case of butterflies and a cocoon in the case of moths . A few butterflies and many moth species spin a silk case or cocoon prior to pupating , while others do not , instead going underground . \n The Lepidoptera have , over millions of years , evolved a wide range of wing patterns and coloration ranging from drab moths akin to the related order Trichoptera , to the brightly colored and complex @-@ patterned butterflies . Accordingly , this is the most recognized and popular of insect orders with many people involved in the observation , study , collection , rearing of , and commerce in these insects . A person who collects or studies this order is referred to as a lepidopterist . \n Butterflies and moths play an important role in the natural ecosystem as pollinators and as food in the food chain ; conversely , their larvae are considered very problematic to vegetation in agriculture , as their main source of food is often live plant matter . In many species , the female may produce from 200 to 600 eggs , while in others , the number may approach 30 @,@ 000 eggs in one day . The caterpillars hatching from these eggs can cause damage to large quantities of crops . Many moth and butterfly species are of economic interest by virtue of their role as pollinators , the silk they produce , or as pest species . \n = = Etymology = = \n The word Lepidoptera comes from the Latin word for \" scaly wing \" , from the Ancient Greek λεπίς ( lepis ) meaning scale and πτερόν ( pteron ) meaning wing . Sometimes , the term Rhopalocera is used to group the species that are butterflies , derived from the Ancient Greek ῥόπαλον ( rhopalon ) and κέρας ( kæras ) meaning \" club \" and \" horn \" , respectively , coming from the shape of the antennae of butterflies . \n The origins of the common names \" butterfly \" and \" moth \" are varied and often obscure . The English word butterfly is from Old English buttorfleoge , with many variations in spelling . Other than that , the origin is unknown , although it could be derived from the pale yellow color of many species ' wings suggesting the color of butter . The species of Heterocera are commonly called moths . The origins of the English word moth are more clear , deriving from the Old English moððe \" ( cf . Northumbrian dialect mohðe ) from Common Germanic ( compare Old Norse motti , Dutch mot and German Motte all meaning \" moth \" ) . Perhaps its origins are related to Old English maða meaning \" maggot \" or from the root of \" midge \" , which until the 16th century was used mostly to indicate the larva , usually in reference to devouring clothes . \n The etymological origins of the word \" caterpillar \" , the larval form of butterflies and moths , are from the early 16th century , from Middle English catirpel , catirpeller , probably an alteration of Old North French catepelose : cate , cat ( from Latin cattus ) + pelose , hairy ( from Latin pilōsus ) . \n = = Distribution and diversity = = \n The Lepidoptera are among the most successful groups of insects . They are found on all continents , except Antarctica , and inhabit all terrestrial habitats ranging from desert to rainforest , from lowland grasslands to montane plateaus , but almost always associated with higher plants , especially angiosperms ( flowering plants ) . Among the most northern dwelling species of butterflies and moths is the Arctic Apollo ( Parnassius arcticus ) , which is found in the Arctic Circle in northeastern Yakutia , at an altitude of 1500 meters above sea level . In the Himalayas , various Apollo species such as Parnassius epaphus have been recorded to occur up to an altitude of 6 @,@ 000 m above sea level . \n Some lepidopteran species exhibit symbiotic , phoretic , or parasitic lifestyles , inhabiting the bodies of organisms rather than the environment . Coprophagous pyralid moth species , called sloth moths , such as Bradipodicola hahneli and Cryptoses choloepi , are unusual in that they are exclusively found inhabiting the fur of sloths , mammals found in Central and South America . Two species of Tinea moths have been recorded as feeding on horny tissue and have been bred from the horns of cattle . The larva of Zenodochium coccivorella is an internal parasite of the coccid Kermes species . Many species have been recorded as breeding in natural materials or refuse such as owl pellets , bat caves , honeycombs or diseased fruit . \n As of 2007 , there was roughly 174 @,@ 250 lepidopteran species described , with butterflies and skippers estimated to comprise around 17 @,@ 950 , and moths making up the rest . The vast majority of Lepidoptera are to be found in the tropics , but substantial diversity exists on most continents . North America has over 700 species of butterflies and over 11 @,@ 000 species of moths , while about 400 species of butterflies and 14 @,@ 000 species of moths are reported from Australia . The diversity of Lepidoptera in each faunal region has been estimated by John Heppner in 1991 based partly on actual counts from the literature , partly on the card indices in the Natural History Museum ( London ) and the National Museum of Natural History ( Washington ) , and partly on estimates : \n = = External morphology = = \n Lepidoptera are morphologically distinguished from other orders principally by the presence of scales on the external parts of the body and appendages , especially the wings . Butterflies and moths vary in size from microlepidoptera only a few millimeters long , to conspicuous animals with a wingspan greater than 25 centimetres , such as the Monarch butterfly and Atlas moth . Lepidopterans undergo a four @-@ stage lifecycle : egg ; larva or caterpillar ; pupa or chrysalis ; and imago ( plural : imagines ) / adult and show many variations of the basic body structure , which have evolved to gain advantages in lifestyle and distribution . \n = = = Head = = = \n The head is where many sensing organs and the mouth parts are found . Like the adult , the larva also has a toughened , or sclerotized head capsule . Here , two compound eyes , and chaetosema , raised spots or clusters of sensory bristles unique to Lepidoptera , occur , though many taxa have lost one or both of these spots . The antennae have a wide variation in form among species and even between different sexes . The antennae of butterflies are usually filiform and shaped like clubs , those of the skippers are hooked , while those of moths have flagellar segments variously enlarged or branched . Some moths have enlarged antennae or ones that are tapered and hooked at the ends . \n The maxillary galeae are modified and form an elongated proboscis . The proboscis consists of one to five segments , usually kept coiled up under the head by small muscles when it is not being used to suck up nectar from flowers or other liquids . Some basal moths still have mandibles , or separate moving jaws , like their ancestors , and these form the family Micropterigidae . \n The larvae , called caterpillars , have a toughened head capsule . Caterpillars lack the proboscis and have separate chewing mouthparts . These mouthparts , called mandibles , are used to chew up the plant matter that the larvae eat . The lower jaw , or labium , is weak , but may carry a spinneret , an organ used to create silk . The head is made of large lateral lobes , each having an ellipse of up to six simple eyes . \n = = = Thorax = = = \n The thorax is made of three fused segments , the prothorax , mesothorax , and metathorax , each with a pair of legs . The first segment contains the first pair of legs . In some males of the butterfly family Nymphalidae , the fore legs are greatly reduced and are not used for walking or perching . The three pairs of legs are covered with scales . Lepidoptera also have olfactory organs on their feet , which aid the butterfly in \" tasting \" or \" smelling \" out its food . In the larval form there are 3 pairs of true legs , with up to 11 pairs of abdominal legs ( usually eight ) and hooklets , called apical crochets . \n The two pairs of wings are found on the middle and third segments , or mesothorax and metathorax , respectively . In the more recent genera , the wings of the second segment are much more pronounced , although some more primitive forms have similarly sized wings of both segments . The wings are covered in scales arranged like shingles , which form an extraordinary variety of colors and patterns . The mesothorax is designed to have more powerful muscles to propel the moth or butterfly through the air , with the wing of this segment ( fore wing ) having a stronger vein structure . The largest superfamily , the Noctuidae , has their wings modified to act as tympanal or hearing organs . \n The caterpillar has an elongated , soft body that may have hair @-@ like or other projections , three pairs of true legs , with none to 11 pairs of abdominal legs ( usually eight ) and hooklets , called apical crochets . The thorax usually has a pair of legs on each segment . The thorax is also lined with many spiracles on both the mesothorax and metathorax , except for a few aquatic species , which instead have a form of gills . \n = = = Abdomen = = = \n The abdomen , which is less sclerotized than the thorax , consists of 10 segments with membranes in between , allowing for articulated movement . The sternum , on the first segment , is small in some families and is completely absent in others . The last two or three segments form the external parts of the species ' sex organs . The genitalia of Lepidoptera are highly varied and are often the only means of differentiating between species . Male genitals include a valva , which is usually large , as it is used to grasp the female during mating . Female genitalia include three distinct sections . \n The females of basal moths have only one sex organ , which is used for copulation and as an ovipositor , or egg @-@ laying organ . About 98 % of moth species have a separate organ for mating , and an external duct that carries the sperm from the male . \n The abdomen of the caterpillar has four pairs of prolegs , normally located on the third to sixth segments of the abdomen , and a separate pair of prolegs by the anus , which have a pair of tiny hooks called crotchets . These aid in gripping and walking , especially in species that lack many prolegs ( e. g. larvae of Geometridae ) . In some basal moths , these prolegs may be on every segment of the body , while prolegs may be lost completely in other groups , which are more adapted to boring and living in sand ( e. g . , Prodoxidae and Nepticulidae , respectively ) . \n = = = Scales = = = \n The wings , head , and parts of the thorax and abdomen of Lepidoptera are covered with minute scales , a feature from which the order derives its name . Most scales are lamellar , or blade @-@ like and attached with a pedicel , while other forms may be hair @-@ like or specialized as secondary sexual characteristics . \n The lumen or surface of the lamella has a complex structure . It gives color either by colored pigments it contains , or through structural coloration with mechanisms that include photonic crystals and diffraction gratings . \n Scales function in insulation , thermoregulation , producing pheromones ( in males only ) , and aiding gliding flight , but the most important is the large diversity of vivid or indistinct patterns they provide , which help the organism protect itself by camouflage or mimicry , and which act as signals to other animals including rivals and potential mates . \n = = Internal morphology = = \n = = = Reproductive system = = = \n In the reproductive system of butterflies and moths , the male genitalia are complex and unclear . In females the three types of genitalia are based on the relating taxa : ' monotrysian ' , ' exoporian ' , and ' ditrysian ' . In the monotrysian type is an opening on the fused segments of the sterna 9 and 10 , which act as insemination and oviposition . In the exoporian type ( in Hepaloidae and Mnesarchaeoidea ) are two separate places for insemination and oviposition , both occurring on the same sterna as the monotrysian type , i.e. 9 and 10 . The ditrysian groups have an internal duct that carries sperm , with separate openings for copulation and egg @-@ laying . In most species , the genitalia are flanked by two soft lobes , although they may be specialized and sclerotized in some species for ovipositing in area such as crevices and inside plant tissue . Hormones and the glands that produce them run the development of butterflies and moths as they go through their lifecycles , called the endocrine system . The first insect hormone prothoracicotropic hormone ( PTTH ) operates the species lifecycle and diapause . This hormone is produced by corpora allata and corpora cardiaca , where it is also stored . Some glands are specialized to perform certain task such as producing silk or producing saliva in the palpi . While the corpora cardiaca produce PTTH , the corpora allata also produces juvenile hormones , and the prothorocic glands produce moulting hormones . \n = = = Digestive system = = = \n In the digestive system , the anterior region of the foregut has been modified to form a pharyngeal sucking pump as they need it for the food they eat , which are for the most part liquids . An esophagus follows and leads to the posterior of the pharynx and in some species forms a form of crop . The midgut is short and straight , with the hindgut being longer and coiled . Ancestors of lepidopteran species , stemming from Hymenoptera , had midgut ceca , although this is lost in current butterflies and moths . Instead , all the digestive enzymes , other than initial digestion , are immobilized at the surface of the midgut cells . In larvae , long @-@ necked and stalked goblet cells are found in the anterior and posterior midgut regions , respectively . In insects , the goblet cells excrete positive potassium ions , which are absorbed from leaves ingested by the larvae . Most butterflies and moths display the usual digestive cycle , but species with different diets require adaptations to meet these new demands . \n = = = Circulatory system = = = \n In the circulatory system , hemolymph , or insect blood , is used to circulate heat in a form of thermoregulation , where muscles contraction produces heat , which is transferred to the rest of the body when conditions are unfavorable . In lepidopteran species , hemolymph is circulated through the veins in the wings by some form of pulsating organ , either by the heart or by the intake of air into the trachea . \n = = = Respiratory system = = = \n Air is taken in through spiracles along the sides of the abdomen and thorax supplying the trachea with oxygen as it goes through the lepidopteran 's respiratory system . Three different tracheaes supply and diffuse oxygen throughout the species ' bodies . The dorsal tracheae supply oxygen to the dorsal musculature and vessels , while the ventral tracheae supply the ventral musculature and nerve cord , and the visceral tracheae supply the guts , fat bodies , and gonads . \n = = Polymorphism = = \n Polymorphism is the appearance of forms or \" morphs \" , which differ in color and number of attributes within a single species . In Lepidoptera , polymorphism can be seen not only between individuals in a population , but also between the sexes as sexual dimorphism , between geographically separated populations in geographical polymorphism , and between generations flying at different seasons of the year ( seasonal polymorphism or polyphenism ) . In some species , the polymorphism is limited to one sex , typically the female . This often includes the phenomenon of mimicry when mimetic morphs fly alongside nonmimetic morphs in a population of a particular species . Polymorphism occurs both at specific level with heritable variation in the overall morphological design of individuals , as well as in certain specific morphological or physiological traits within a species . \n Environmental polymorphism , in which traits are not inherited , is often termed as polyphenism , which in Lepidoptera is commonly seen in the form of seasonal morphs , especially in the butterfly families of Nymphalidae and Pieridae . An Old World pierid butterfly , the common grass yellow ( Eurema hecabe ) has a darker summer adult morph , triggered by a long day exceeding 13 hours in duration , while the shorter diurnal period of 12 hours or less induces a paler morph in the postmonsoon period . Polyphenism also occurs in caterpillars , an example being the peppered moth , Biston betularia . \n Geographical isolation causes a divergence of a species into different morphs . A good example is the Indian white admiral Limenitis procris , which has five forms , each geographically separated from the other by large mountain ranges . An even more dramatic showcase of geographical polymorphism is the Apollo butterfly ( Parnassius apollo ) . Because the Apollos live in small local populations , thus having no contact with each other , coupled with their strong stenotopic nature and weak migration ability , interbreeding between populations of one species practically does not occur ; by this , they form over 600 different morphs , with the size of spots on the wings of which varies greatly . \n Sexual dimorphism is the occurrence of differences between males and females in a species . In Lepidoptera , it is widespread and almost completely set by genetic determination . Sexual dimorphism is present in all families of the Papilionoidea and more prominent in the Lycaenidae , Pieridae , and certain taxa of the Nymphalidae . Apart from color variation , which may differ from slight to completely different color @-@ pattern combinations , secondary sexual characteristics may also be present . Different genotypes maintained by natural selection may also be expressed at the same time . Polymorphic and / or mimetic females occur in the case of some taxa in the Papilionidae primarily to obtain a level of protection not available to the male of their species . The most distinct case of sexual dimorphism is that of adult females of many Psychidae species which have only vestigial wings , legs , and mouthparts as compared to the adult males that are strong fliers with well @-@ developed wings and feathery antennae . \n = = Reproduction and development = = \n Species of Lepidoptera undergo holometabolism or \" complete metamorphosis \" . Their lifecycle normally consists of an egg , a larva , a pupa , and an imago or adult . The larvae are commonly called caterpillars , and the pupae of moths encapsulated in silk are called cocoons , while the uncovered pupae of butterflies are called chrysalides . \n = = = Lepidopterans in diapause = = = \n Unless the species reproduces year @-@ round , a butterfly or moth may enter diapause , a state of dormancy that allows the insect to survive unfavorable environmental conditions . \n = = = Mating = = = \n Males usually start eclosion ( emergence ) earlier than females and peak in numbers before females . Both of the sexes are sexually mature by the time of eclosion . Butterflies and moths normally do not associate with each other , except for migrating species , staying relatively asocial . Mating begins with an adult ( female or male ) attracting a mate , normally using visual stimuli , especially in diurnal species like most butterflies . However , the females of most nocturnal species , including almost all moth species , use pheromones to attract males , sometimes from long distances . Some species engage in a form of acoustic courtship , or attract mates using sound or vibration such as the polka @-@ dot wasp moth , Syntomeida epilais . \n Adaptations include undergoing one seasonal generation , two or even more , called voltinism ( Univoltism , bivoltism , and multivism , respectively ) . Most lepidopterans in temperate climates are univoltine , while in tropical climates most have two seasonal broods . Some others may take advantage of any opportunity they can get , and mate continuously throughout the year . These seasonal adaptations are controlled by hormones , and these delays in reproduction are called diapause . Many lepidopteran species , after mating and laying their eggs , die shortly afterwards , having only lived for a few days after eclosion . Others may still be active for several weeks and then overwinter and become sexually active again when the weather becomes more favorable , or diapause . The sperm of the male that mated most recently with the female is most likely to have fertilized the eggs , but the sperm from a prior mating may still prevail . \n = = = Lifecycle = = = \n = = = = Eggs = = = = \n Lepidoptera usually reproduce sexually and are oviparous ( egg @-@"},"length_category":{"kind":"string","value":"Very Long"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"wikitext-103-excerpt"}}},{"rowIdx":6596,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":" laying ) , though some species exhibit live birth in a process called ovoviviparity . A variety of differences in egg @-@ laying and the number of eggs laid occur . Some species simply drop their eggs in flight ( these species normally have polyphagous larvae , meaning they eat a variety of plants e. g . , hepialids and some nymphalids ) while most lay their eggs near or on the host plant on which the larvae feed . The number of eggs laid may vary from only a few to several thousand . The females of both butterflies and moths select the host plant instinctively , and primarily , by chemical cues . \n The eggs are derived from materials ingested as a larvae and in some species , from the spermataphores received from males during mating . An egg can only be 1 / 1000 the mass of the female , yet she may lay up to her own mass in eggs . Females lay smaller eggs as they age . Larger Females lay larger eggs . The egg is covered by a hard @-@ ridged protective outer layer of shell , called the chorion . It is lined with a thin coating of wax , which prevents the egg from drying out . Each egg contains a number of micropyles , or tiny funnel @-@ shaped openings at one end , the purpose of which is to allow sperm to enter and fertilize the egg . Butterfly and moth eggs vary greatly in size between species , but they are all either spherical or ovate . \n The egg stage lasts a few weeks in most butterflies , but eggs laid prior to winter , especially in temperate regions , go through diapause , and hatching may be delayed until spring . Other butterflies may lay their eggs in the spring and have them hatch in the summer . These butterflies are usually temperate species ( e. g . Nymphalis antiopa ) . \n = = = = Larvae = = = = \n The larvae or caterpillars are the first stage in the lifecycle after hatching . Caterpillars , are \" characteristic polypod larvae with cylindrical bodies , short thoracic legs , and abdominal prolegs ( pseudopods ) \" . They have a toughened ( sclerotised ) head capsule with an adfrontal suture formed by medial fusion of the sclerites , mandibles ( mouthparts ) for chewing , and a soft tubular , segmented body , that may have hair @-@ like or other projections , three pairs of true legs , and additional prolegs ( up to five pairs ) . The body consists of thirteen segments , of which three are thoracic and ten are abdominal . Most larvae are herbivores , but a few are carnivores ( some eat ants or other caterpillars ) and detritivores . \n Different herbivorous species have adapted to feed on every part of the plant and are normally considered pests to their host plants ; some species have been found to lay their eggs on the fruit and other species lay their eggs on clothing or fur ( e. g . , Tineola bisselliella , the common clothes moth ) . Some species are carnivorous and others are even parasitic . Some lycaenid species such as Maculinea rebeli are social parasites of Myrmica ants nests . A species of Geometridae from Hawaii has carnivorous larvae that catch and eat flies . Some pyralid caterpillars are aquatic . \n The larvae develop rapidly with several generations in a year ; however , some species may take up to 3 years to develop , and exceptional examples like Gynaephora groenlandica take as long as seven years . The larval stage is where the feeding and growing stages occur , and the larvae periodically undergo hormone @-@ induced ecdysis , developing further with each instar , until they undergo the final larval @-@ pupal molt . The lepidopteran pupa , known as a chrysalis in the case of butterflies , has functional mandibles with appendages fused or glued to the body in most species , while the pupal mandibles are not functional in others . \n The larvae of both butterflies and moths exhibit mimicry to deter potential predators . Some caterpillars have the ability to inflate parts of their heads to appear snake @-@ like . Many have false eye @-@ spots to enhance this effect . Some caterpillars have special structures called osmeteria ( family Papilionidae ) , which are exposed to produce smelly chemicals used in defense . Host plants often have toxic substances in them and caterpillars are able to sequester these substances and retain them into the adult stage . This helps make them unpalatable to birds and other predators . Such unpalatability is advertised using bright red , orange , black , or white warning colors . The toxic chemicals in plants are often evolved specifically to prevent them from being eaten by insects . Insects , in turn , develop countermeasures or make use of these toxins for their own survival . This \" arms race \" has led to the coevolution of insects and their host plants . \n = = = = Wing development = = = = \n No form of wing is externally visible on the larva , but when larvae are dissected , developing wings can be seen as disks , which can be found on the second and third thoracic segments , in place of the spiracles that are apparent on abdominal segments . Wing disks develop in association with a trachea that runs along the base of the wing , and are surrounded by a thin peripodial membrane , which is linked to the outer epidermis of the larva by a tiny duct . Wing disks are very small until the last larval instar , when they increase dramatically in size , are invaded by branching tracheae from the wing base that precede the formation of the wing veins , and begin to develop patterns associated with several landmarks of the wing . \n Near pupation , the wings are forced outside the epidermis under pressure from the hemolymph , and although they are initially quite flexible and fragile , by the time the pupa breaks free of the larval cuticle , they have adhered tightly to the outer cuticle of the pupa ( in obtect pupae ) . Within hours , the wings form a cuticle so hard and well @-@ joined to the body that pupae can be picked up and handled without damage to the wings . \n = = = = Pupa = = = = \n After about five to seven instars , or molts , certain hormones , like PTTH , stimulate the production of ecdysone , which initiates insect molting . Then , the larva puparium , a sclerotized or hardened cuticle of the last larval instar , develops into the pupa . Depending on the species , the pupa may be covered in silk and attached to many different types of debris , or may not be covered at all . The pupa stays attached to the leaf by silk spun by the caterpillar before it spins the silk for the full pupa . Features of the imago are externally recognizable in the pupa . All the appendages on the adult head and thorax are found cased inside the cuticle ( antennae , mouthparts , etc . ) , with the wings wrapped around , adjacent to the antennae . \n While encased , some of the lower segments are not fused , and are able to move using small muscles found in between the membrane . Moving may help the pupa , for example , escape the sun , which would otherwise kill it . The pupa of the Mexican jumping bean moth ( Cydia deshaisiana ) does this . The larvae cut a trapdoor in the bean ( species of Sebastiania ) and use the bean as a shelter . With a sudden rise in temperature , the pupa inside twitches and jerks , pulling on the threads inside . Wiggling may also help to deter parasitoid wasps from laying eggs on the pupa . Other species of moths are able to make clicks to deter predators . \n The length of time before the pupa ecloses ( emerges ) varies greatly . The monarch butterfly may stay in its chrysalis for two weeks , while other species may need to stay for more than 10 months in diapause . The adult emerges from the pupa either by using abdominal hooks or from projections located on the head . The mandibles found in the most primitive moth families are used to escape from their cocoon ( e. g . , Micropterigoidea ) . \n = = = = Adult = = = = \n Most lepidopteran species do not live long after eclosion , only needing a few days to find a mate and then lay their eggs . Others may remain active for a longer period ( from one to several weeks ) , or go through diapause and overwintering as monarch butterflies do , or waiting out environmental stress . Some adult species of Microlepidoptera go through a stage where no reproductive @-@ related activity occurs , lasting through summer and winter , followed by mating and oviposition in the early spring . \n While most butterflies and moths are terrestrial , many species of Pyralidae are truly aquatic with all stages except the adult occurring in water . Many species from other families such as Arctiidae , Nepticulidae , Cosmopterygidae , Tortricidae , Olethreutidae , Noctuidae , Cossidae , and Sphingidae are aquatic or semiaquatic . \n = = Behavior = = \n = = = Flight = = = \n Flight is an important aspect of the lives of butterflies and moths , and is used for evading predators , searching for food , and finding mates in a timely manner , as lepidopteran species do not live long after eclosion . It is the main form of locomotion in most species . In Lepidoptera , the fore wings and hind wings are mechanically coupled and flap in synchrony . Flight is anteromotoric , or being driven primarily by action of the fore wings . Although lepidopteran species reportedly can still fly when their hind wings are cut off , it reduces their linear flight and turning capabilities . \n Lepidopteran species have to be warm , about 77 to 79 ° F ( 25 to 26 ° C ) , to fly . They depend on their body temperature being sufficiently high and since they cannot regulate it themselves , this is dependent on their environment . Butterflies living in cooler climates may use their wings to warm their bodies . They will bask in the sun , spreading out their wings so that they get maximum exposure to the sunlight . In hotter climates butterflies can easily overheat , so they are usually active only during the cooler parts of the day , early morning , late afternoon or early evening . During the heat of the day , they rest in the shade . Some larger thick @-@ bodied moths ( e.g. Sphingidae ) can generate their own heat to a limited degree by vibrating their wings . The heat generated by the flight muscles warms the thorax while the temperature of the abdomen is unimportant for flight . To avoid overheating , some moths rely on hairy scales , internal air sacs , and other structures to separate the thorax and abdomen and keep the abdomen cooler . \n Some species of butterflies can reach fast speeds , such as the southern dart , which can go as fast as 48 @.@ 4 km / h . Sphingids are some of the fastest flying insects , some are capable of flying at over 50 km / h ( 30 mi / h ) , having a wingspan of 35 – 150 mm . In some species , sometimes a gliding component to their flight exists . Flight occurs either as hovering , or as forward or backward motion . In butterfly and moth species , such as hawk moths , hovering is important as they need to maintain a certain stability over flowers when feeding on the nectar . \n = = = = Navigation = = = = \n Navigation is important to lepidoptera species , especially for those that migrate . Butterflies , which have more species that migrate , have been shown to navigate using time @-@ compensated sun compasses . They can see polarized light , so can orient even in cloudy conditions . The polarized light in the region close to the ultraviolet spectrum is suggested to be particularly important . Most migratory butterflies are those that live in semiarid areas where breeding seasons are short . The life histories of their host plants also influence the strategies of the butterflies . Other theories include the use of landscapes . Lepidoptera may use coastal lines , mountains , and even roads to orient themselves . Above sea , the flight direction is much more accurate if the coast is still visible . \n Many studies have also shown that moths navigate . One study showed that many moths may use the Earth 's magnetic field to navigate , as a study of the moth heart and dart suggests . Another study , of the migratory behavior of the silver Y , showed , even at high altitudes , the species can correct its course with changing winds , and prefers flying with favourable winds , suggesting a great sense of direction . Aphrissa statira in Panama loses its navigational capacity when exposed to a magnetic field , suggesting it uses the Earth 's magnetic field . \n Moths exhibit a tendency to circle artificial lights repeatedly . This suggests they use a technique of celestial navigation called transverse orientation . By maintaining a constant angular relationship to a bright celestial light , such as the Moon , they can fly in a straight line . Celestial objects are so far away , even after traveling great distances , the change in angle between the moth and the light source is negligible ; further , the moon will always be in the upper part of the visual field or on the horizon . When a moth encounters a much closer artificial light and uses it for navigation , the angle changes noticeably after only a short distance , in addition to being often below the horizon . The moth instinctively attempts to correct by turning toward the light , causing airborne moths to come plummeting downwards , and at close range , which results in a spiral flight path that gets closer and closer to the light source . Other explanations have been suggested , such as the idea that moths may be impaired with a visual distortion called a Mach band by Henry Hsiao in 1972 . He stated that they fly towards the darkest part of the sky in pursuit of safety , thus are inclined to circle ambient objects in the Mach band region . \n = = = = Migration = = = = \n Lepidopteran migration is typically seasonal , as the insects moving to escape dry seasons or other disadvantageous conditions . Most lepidopterans that migrate are butterflies , and the distance travelled varies . Some butterflies that migrate include the mourning cloak , painted lady , American lady , red admiral , and the common buckeye . The most well @-@ known migrations are those of the eastern population of the monarch butterfly from Mexico to northern United States and southern Canada , a distance of about 4 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 800 km ( 2 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 mi ) . Other well @-@ known migratory species include the painted lady and several of the danaine butterflies . Spectacular and large @-@ scale migrations associated with the monsoons are seen in peninsular India . Migrations have been studied in more recent times using wing tags and stable hydrogen isotopes . \n Moths also undertake migrations , an example being the uraniids . Urania fulgens undergoes population explosions and massive migrations that may be not surpassed by any other insect in the Neotropics . In Costa Rica and Panama , the first population movements may begin in July and early August and depending on the year , may be very massive , continuing unabated for as long as five months . \n = = = Communication = = = \n Pheromones are commonly involved in mating rituals among species , especially moths , but they are also an important aspect of other forms of communication . Usually , the pheromones are produced by either the male or the female and detected by members of the opposite sex with their antennae . In many species , a gland between the eighth and ninth segments under the abdomen in the female produces the pheromones . Communication can also occur through stridulation , or producing sounds by rubbing various parts of the body together . \n Moths are known to engage in acoustic forms of communication , most often as courtship , attracting mates using sound or vibration . Like most other insects , moths pick up these sounds using tympanic membranes in their abdomens . An example is that of the polka @-@ dot wasp moth ( Syntomeida epilais ) , which produces sounds with a frequency above that normally detectable by humans ( about 20 kHz ) . These sounds also function as tactile communication , or communication through touch , as they stridulate , or vibrate a substrate like leaves and stems . \n Most moths lack bright colors , as many species use coloration as camouflage , but butterflies engage in visual communication . Female cabbage butterflies , for example , use ultraviolet light to communicate , with scales colored in this range on the dorsal wing surface . When they fly , each down stroke of the wing creates a brief flash of ultraviolet light which the males apparently recognize as the flight signature of a potential mate . These flashes from the wings may attract several males that engage in aerial courtship displays . \n = = Ecology = = \n Moths and butterflies are important in the natural ecosystem . They are integral participants in the food chain ; having co @-@ evolved with flowering plants and predators , lepidopteran species have formed a network of trophic relationships between autotrophs and heterotrophs , which are included in the stages of Lepidoptera larvae , pupae , and adults . Larvae and pupae are links in the diets of birds and parasitic entomophagous insects . The adults are included in food webs in a much broader range of consumers ( including birds , small mammals , reptiles , etc . ) . \n = = = Defense and predation = = = \n Lepidopteran species are soft bodied , fragile , and almost defenseless , while the immature stages move slowly or are immobile , hence all stages are exposed to predation . Adult butterflies and moths are preyed upon by birds , lizards , amphibians , dragonflies , and spiders . Caterpillars and pupae fall prey not only to birds , but also to invertebrate predators and small mammals , as well as fungi and bacteria . Parasitoid and parasitic wasps and flies may lay eggs in the caterpillar , which eventually kill it as they hatch inside its body and eat its tissues . Insect @-@ eating birds are probably the largest predators . Lepidoptera , especially the immature stages , are an ecologically important food to many insectivorous birds , such as the great tit in Europe . \n An \" evolutionary arms race \" can be seen between predator and prey species . The Lepidoptera have developed a number of strategies for defense and protection , including evolution of morphological characters and changes in ecological lifestyles and behaviors . These include aposematism , mimicry , camouflage , and development of threat patterns and displays . Only a few birds , such as the nightjars , hunt nocturnal lepidopterans . Their main predators are bats . Again , an \" evolutionary race \" exists , which has led to numerous evolutionary adaptations of moths to escape from their main predators , such as the ability to hear ultrasonic sounds , or even to emit sounds in some cases . Lepidopteran eggs are also preyed upon . Some caterpillars , such as the zebra swallowtail butterfly larvae , are cannibalistic . \n Some species of Lepidoptera are poisonous to predators , such as the monarch butterfly in the Americas , Atrophaneura species ( roses , windmills , etc . ) in Asia , as well as Papilio antimachus , and the birdwings , the largest butterflies in Africa and Asia , respectively . They obtain their toxicity by sequestering the chemicals from the plants they eat into their own tissues . Some Lepidoptera manufacture their own toxins . Predators that eat poisonous butterflies and moths may become sick and vomit violently , learning not to eat those species . A predator which has previously eaten a poisonous lepidopteran may avoid other species with similar markings in the future , thus saving many other species , as well . Toxic butterflies and larvae tend to develop bright colors and striking patterns as an indicator to predators about their toxicity . This phenomenon is known as aposematism . Some caterpillars , especially members of Papilionidae , contain an osmeterium , a Y @-@ shaped protrusible gland found in the prothoracic segment of the larvae . When threatened , the caterpillar emits unpleasant smells from the organ to ward off the predators . \n Camouflage is also an important defense strategy , which involves the use of coloration or shape to blend into the surrounding environment . Some lepidopteran species blend with their surroundings , making them difficult to spot by predators . Caterpillars can exhibit shades of green that match its host plant . Others look like inedible objects , such as twigs or leaves . For instance , the mourning cloak fades into the backdrop of trees when it folds its wings back . The larvae of some species , such as the common Mormon ( Papilio polytes ) and the western tiger swallowtail look like bird droppings . For example , adult Sesiidae species ( also known as clearwing moths ) have a general appearance sufficiently similar to a wasp or hornet to make it likely the moths gain a reduction in predation by Batesian mimicry . Eyespots are a type of automimicry used by some butterflies and moths . In butterflies , the spots are composed of concentric rings of scales in different colors . The proposed role of the eyespots is to deflect attention of predators . Their resemblance to eyes provokes the predator 's instinct to attack these wing patterns . \n Batesian and Müllerian mimicry complexes are commonly found in Lepidoptera . Genetic polymorphism and natural selection give rise to otherwise edible species ( the mimic ) gaining a survival advantage by resembling inedible species ( the model ) . Such a mimicry complex is referred to as Batesian and is most commonly known in the example between the limenitidine viceroy butterfly in relation to the inedible danaine monarch . The viceroy is , in fact , more toxic than the monarch and this resemblance should be considered as a case of Müllerian mimicry . In Müllerian mimicry , inedible species , usually within a taxonomic order , find it advantageous to resemble each other so as to reduce the sampling rate by predators that need to learn about the insects ' inedibility . Taxa from the toxic genus Heliconius form one of the most well @-@ known Müllerian complexes . The adults of the various species now resemble each other so well , the species cannot be distinguished without close morphological observation and , in some cases , dissection or genetic analysis . \n Moths evidently are able to hear the range emitted by bat ] s , which in effect causes flying moths to make evasive maneuvers because bats are a main predator of moths . Ultrasonic frequencies trigger a reflex action in the noctuid moth that cause it to drop a few inches in its flight to evade attack . Tiger moths in a defense emit clicks within the same range of the bats , which interfere with the bats and foil their attempts to echolocate it . \n = = = Pollination = = = \n Most species of Lepidoptera engage in some form of entomophily ( more specifically psychophily and phalaenophily for butterflies and moths , respectively ) , or the pollination of flowers . Most adult butterflies and moths feed on the nectar inside flowers , using their probosces to reach the nectar hidden at the base of the petals . In the process , the adults brush against the flowers ' stamens , on which the reproductive pollen is made and stored . The pollen is transferred on appendages on the adults , which fly to the next flower to feed and unwittingly deposit the pollen on the stigma of the next flower , where the pollen germinates and fertilizes the seeds . \n Flowers pollinated by butterflies tend to be large and flamboyant , pink or lavender in color , frequently having a landing area , and usually scented , as butterflies are typically day @-@ flying . Since butterflies do not digest pollen ( except for heliconid species , ) more nectar is offered than pollen . The flowers have simple nectar guides , with the nectaries usually hidden in narrow tubes or spurs , reached by the long \" tongue \" of the butterflies . Butterflies such as Thymelicus flavus have been observed to engage in flower constancy , which means they are more likely to transfer pollen to other conspecific plants . This can be beneficial for the plants being pollinated , as flower constancy prevents the loss of pollen during different flights and the pollinators from clogging stigmas with pollen of other flower species . \n Among the more important moth pollinator groups are the hawk moths of the family Sphingidae . Their behavior is similar to hummingbirds , i.e. , using rapid wing beats to hover in front of flowers . Most hawk moths are nocturnal or crepuscular , so moth @-@ pollinated flowers ( e.g. , Silene latifolia ) tend to be white , night @-@ opening , large , and showy with tubular corollae and a strong , sweet scent produced in the evening , night , or early morning . A lot of nectar is produced to fuel the high metabolic rates needed to power their flight . Other moths ( e.g. , noctuids , geometrids , pyralids ) fly slowly and settle on the flower . They do not require as much nectar as the fast @-@ flying hawk moths , and the flowers tend to be small ( though they may be aggregated in heads ) . \n = = = Mutualism = = = \n Mutualism is a form of biological interaction wherein each individual involved benefits in some way . An example of a mutualistic relationship would be that shared by yucca moths ( Tegeculidae ) and their host , yucca flowers ( Liliaceae ) . Female yucca moths enter the host flowers , collect the pollen into a ball using specialized maxillary palps , then move to the apex of the pistil , where pollen is deposited on the stigma , and lay eggs into the base of the pistil where seeds will develop . The larvae develop in the fruit pod and feed on a portion of the seeds . Thus , both insect and plant benefit , forming a highly mutualistic relationship . Another form of mutualism occurs between some larvae of butterflies and certain species of ants ( e. g . Lycaenidae ) . The larvae communicate with the ants using vibrations transmitted through a substrate , such as the wood of a tree or stems , as well as using chemical signals . The ants provide some degree of protection to these larvae and they in turn gather honeydew secretions . \n = = = Parasitism = = = \n Only 41 species of parasitoid lepidopterans are known ( 1 @-@ Pyralidae ; 40 @-@ Epipyropidae ) . The larvae of the greater and lesser wax moths feed on the honeycomb inside bee nests and may become pests ; they are also found in bumblebee and wasp nests , albeit to a lesser extent . In northern Europe , the wax moth is regarded as the most serious parasitoid of the bumblebee , and is found only in bumblebee nests . In some areas in southern England , as much as 80 % of nests can be destroyed . Other parasitic larvae are known to prey upon cicadas and leaf hoppers . \n In reverse , moths and butterflies may be subject to parasitic wasps and flies , which may lay eggs on the caterpillars , which hatch and feed inside its body , resulting in death . Although , in a form of parasitism called idiobiont , the adult paralyzes the host , so as not to kill it but for it to live as long as possible , for the parasitic larvae to benefit the most . In another form of parasitism , koinobiont , the species live off their hosts while inside ( endoparasitic ) . These parasites live inside the host caterpillar throughout its lifecycle , or may affect it later on as an adult . In other orders , koinobionts include flies , a majority of coleopteran , and many hymenopteran parasitoids . Some species may be subject to a variety of parasites , such as the gypsy moth ( Lymantaria dispar ) , which is attacked by a series of 13 species , in six different taxa throughout its lifecycle . \n In response to a parsitoid egg or larva in the caterpillar 's body , the plasmatocytes , or simply the host 's cells can form a multilayered capsule that eventually causes the endoparasite to asphyxiate . The process , called encapsulation , is one of the caterpillar 's only means of defense against parasitoids . \n = = = Other biological interactions = = = \n A few species of Lepidoptera are secondary consumers , or predators . These species typically prey upon the eggs of other insects , aphids , scale insects , or ant larvae . Some caterpillars are cannibals , and others prey on caterpillars of other species ( e. g . Hawaiian Eupithecia ) . Those of the 15 species in Eupithecia that mirror inchworms , are the only known species of butterflies and moths that are ambush predators . Four species are known to eat snails . For example , the Hawaiian caterpillar , ( H. molluscivora ) , uses silk traps , in a manner similar to that of spiders , to capture certain species of snails ( typically Tornatellides ) . \n Larvae of some species of moths in the Tineidae , Gelechioidae , and Noctuidae ( family / superfamily / families , respectively ) , besides others , feed on detritus , or dead organic material , such as fallen leaves and fruit , fungi , and animal products , and turn it into humus . Well @-@ known species include the cloth moths ( Tineola bisselliella , T. pellionella , and T. tapetzella ) , which feed on detritus containing keratin , including hair , feathers , cobwebs , bird nests ( particularly of domestic pigeons , Columba livia domestica ) and fruits or vegetables . These species are important to ecosystems as they remove substances that would otherwise take a long time to decompose . \n In 2015 it was reported that wasp bracovirus DNA was present in Lepidoptera such as Monarch butterflies , silkworms and moths . These were described in some newspaper articles as examples of a naturally occurring genetically engineered insects . \n = = Evolution and systematics = = \n = = = History of study = = = \n Linnaeus in Systema Naturae ( 1758 ) recognized three divisions of the Lepidoptera : Papilio , Sphinx and Phalaena , with seven subgroups in Phalaena . These persist today as 9 of the superfamilies of Lepidoptera . Other works on classification followed including those by Michael Denis & Ignaz Schiffermüller ( 1775 ) , Johan Christian Fabricius ( 1775 ) and Pierre André Latreille ( 1796 ) . Jacob Hübner described many genera , and the Lepidopteran genera were catalogued by Ferdinand Ochsenheimer and Georg Friedrich Treitschke in a series of volumes on the Lepidopteran fauna of Europe published between 1807 and 1835 . Gottlieb August Wilhelm Herrich @-@ Schäffer ( several volumes , 1843 – 1856 ) , and Edward Meyrick ( 1895 ) based their classifications primarily on wing venation . Sir George Francis Hampson worked on the ' Microlepidoptera ' during this period and Philipp Christoph Zeller published The Natural History of the Tineinae also on Microlepidoptera ( 1855 ) . \n Among the first entomologists to study fossil insects and their evolution was Samuel Hubbard Scudder ( 1837 – 1911 ) , who worked on butterflies . He published a study of the Florissant deposits of Colorado , including the exceptionally preserved Prodryas persephone . Andreas V. Martynov ( 1879 – 1938 ) recognized the close relationship between Lepidoptera and Trichoptera in his studies on phylogeny . \n Major contributions in the 20th century included the creation of the monotrysia and ditrysia ( based on female genital structure ) by Borner in 1925 and 1939 . Willi Hennig ( 1913 – 1976 ) developed the cladistic methodology and applied it to insect phylogeny . Niels P. Kristensen , E. S. Nielsen and D. R. Davis studied the relationships among monotrysian families and Kristensen worked more generally on insect phylogeny and higher Lepidoptera too . While it is often found that DNA @-@ based phylogenies differ from those based on morphology , this has not been the case for the Lepidoptera ; DNA phylogenies correspond to a large extent to morphology @-@ based phylogenies . \n Many attempts have been made to group the superfamilies of the Lepidoptera into natural groups , most of which fail because one of the two groups is not monophyletic : Microlepidotera and Macrolepidoptera , Heterocera and Rhopalocera , Jugatae and Frenatae , Monotrysia and Ditrysia . \n = = = Fossil record = = = \n The fossil record for Lepidoptera is lacking in comparison to other winged species , and tending not to be as common as some other insects in the habitats that are most conducive to fossilization , such as lakes and ponds , and their juvenile stage has only the head capsule as a hard part that might be preserved . The location and abundance of the most common moth species are indicative that mass migrations of moths occurred over the Palaeogene North Sea , which is why there is a serious lack of moth fossils . Yet there are fossils , some preserved in amber and some in very fine sediments . Leaf mines are also seen in fossil leaves , although the interpretation of them is tricky . \n Putative fossil stem group representatives of Amphiesmenoptera ( the clade comprising Trichoptera and Lepidoptera ) are known from the Triassic . The earliest known fossil lepidopteran is Archaeolepis mane from the Jurassic , about 190 million years ago in Dorset , UK . The fossil belongs to a small primitive moth @-@ like species , and its wings are showing scales with parallel grooves under a scanning electron microscope and a characteristic wing venation pattern shared with Trichoptera ( Caddisflies ) . Only two more sets of Jurassic lepidopteran fossils have been found , as well as 13 sets from the Cretaceous , which all belong to primitive moth @-@ like families . Many more fossils are found from the Tertiary , and particularly the Eocene Baltic amber . The oldest genuine butterflies of the superfamily Papilionoidea have been found in the Paleocene MoClay or Fur Formation of Denmark . The best preserved fossil lepidopteran is the Eocene Prodryas persephone from the Florissant Fossil Beds . \n = = = Phylogeny = = = \n Lepidoptera and Trichoptera ( caddisflies ) are more closely related to each other than to any other insect order , sharing many similarities that are lacking in others ; for example the females of both orders are heterogametic , meaning they have two different sex chromosomes , whereas in most species the males are heterogametic and the females have two identical sex chromosomes . The adults in both orders display a particular wing venation pattern on their forewings . The larvae of both orders have mouth structures and gland with which they make and manipulate silk . Willi Hennig grouped the two sister orders into the Amphiesmenoptera superorder . This group probably evolved in the Jurassic , having split from the now extinct order Necrotaulidae . Lepidoptera descend from a diurnal moth @-@ like common ancestor that either fed on dead or living plants . \n Micropterigidae , Agathiphagidae and Heterobathmiidae are the oldest and most basal lineages of Lepidoptera . The adults of these families do not have the curled tongue or proboscis , that are found in most members order , but instead have chewing mandibles adapted for a special diet . Micropterigidae larvae feed on leaves , fungi , or liverworts ( much like the Trichoptera ) . Adult Micropterigidae chew the pollen or spores of ferns . In the Agathiphagidae , larvae live inside kauri pines and feed on seeds . In Heterobathmiidae the larvae feed on the leaves of Nothofagus , the southern beech tree . These families also have mandibles in the pupal stage , which help the pupa emerge from the seed or cocoon after metamorphosis . \n The Eriocraniidae have a short coiled proboscis in the adult stage , and though they retain their pupal mandibles with which they escaped the cocoon , their mandibles are non @-@ functional thereafter . Most of these non @-@ ditrysian families , are primarily leaf miners in the larval stage . In addition to the proboscis , there is a change in the scales among these basal lineages , with later lineages showing more complex perforated scales . \n With the evolution of the Ditrysia in the mid @-@ Cretaceous , there was a major reproductive change . The Ditrysia , which comprise 98 % of the Lepidoptera , have two separate openings for reproduction in the females ( as well as a third opening for excretion ) , one for mating , and one for laying eggs . The two are linked internally by a seminal duct . ( In more basal lineages there is one cloaca , or later , two openings and an external sperm canal . ) Of the early lineages of Ditrysia , Gracillarioidea and Gelechioidea are mostly leaf miners , but more recent lineages feed externally . In the Tineoidea , most species feed on plant and animal detritus and fungi , and build shelters in the larval stage . \n The Yponomeutoidea is the first group to have significant numbers of species whose larvae feed on herbaceous plants , as opposed to woody plants . They evolved about the time that flowering plants underwent an expansive adaptive radiation in the mid @-@ Cretaceous , and the Gelechioidea that evolved at this time also have great diversity . Whether the processes involved coevolution or sequential evolution , the diversity of the Lepidoptera and the angiosperms increased together . \n In the so @-@ called \" Macrolepidoptera \" , which constitutes about 60 % of lepidopteran species , there was a general increase in size , better flying ability ( via changes in wing shape and linkage of the forewings and hindwings ) , reduction in the adult mandibles , and a change in the arrangement of the crochets ( hooks ) on the larval prolegs , perhaps to improve the grip on the host plant . Many also have tympanal organs , that allow them to hear . These organs evolved eight times , at least , because they occur on different body parts and have structural differences . The main lineages in the Macrolepidoptera are the Noctuoidea , Bombycoidea , Lasiocampidae , Mimallonoidea , Geometroidea and Rhopalocera . Bombycoidea plus Lasiocampidae plus Mimallonoidea may be a monophyletic group . The Rhopalocera , comprising the Papilionoidea ( butterflies ) , Hesperioidea ( skippers ) , and the Hedyloidea ( moth @-@ butterflies ) , are the most recently evolved . There is quite a good fossil record for this group , with the oldest skipper dating from 56 million years ago . \n = = = Taxonomy = = = \n Taxonomy is the classification of species in selected taxa , the process of naming being called nomenclature . There are over 120 families in lepidoptera , in 45 to 48 superfamilies . Lepidoptera have always been , historically , classified in five suborders , one of which is of primitive moths that never lost the morphological features of its ancestors . The rest of the moths and butterflies make up ninety @-@ eight percent of the other taxa , making Ditrysia . More recently , findings of new taxa , larvae and pupa have aided in detailing the relationships of primitive taxa , phylogenetic analysis showing the primitive lineages to be paraphyletic compared to the rest of Lepidoptera lineages . Recently lepidopterists have abandoned clades like suborders , and those between orders and superfamilies . \n Zeugloptera is a clade with Micropterigoidea being its only superfamily , containing the single family Micropterigidae . Species of Micropterigoidea are practically living fossils , being one of the most primitive lepidopteran groups , still retaining chewing mouthparts ( mandibles ) in adults , unlike other clades of butterflies and moths . About 120 species are known worldwide , with more than half the species in the genus Micropteryx in the Paleartic region . There are only 2 known in North America ( Epimartyria ) , with many more being found Asia and the southwest Pacific , particularly New Zealand with about 50 species . \n Glossata contains a majority of the species , with the most obvious difference is non @-@ functioning mandibles , and elongated maxillary galeae or the proboscis . The basal clades still retaining some of the ancestral features of the wings such as similarly shaped fore- and hindwings with relatively complete venation . Glossata also contains the division Ditrysia , which contains 98 % of all described species in Lepidoptera . \n Aglossata it is the second most primitive lineage of lepidoptera ; being first described in 1952 by Lionel Jack Dumbleton . Agathiphagidae and Heterobathmiidae are the only families in Aglossata . Agathiphagidae only contains about 2 species in its genus Agathiphaga . Agathiphaga queenslandensis and Agathiphaga vitiensis , being found along the north @-@ eastern coast of Queensland , Australia , and in Fiji to Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands , respectively . \n Heterobathmiina was first described by Kristensen and Nielsen in 1979 . There are about 10 species , which are day @-@ flying , metallic moths , confined to southern South America , the adults eat the pollen of Nothofagus or Southern Beech and the larvae mine the leaves . \n = = Relationship to people = = \n = = = Culture = = = \n Artistic depictions of butterflies have been used in many cultures including as early as 3500 years ago , in Egyptian hieroglyphs . Today , butterflies are widely used in various objects of art and jewelry : mounted in frames , embedded in resin , displayed in bottles , laminated in paper , and in some mixed media artworks and furnishings . Butterflies have also inspired the \" butterfly fairy \" as an art and fictional character . \n In many cultures the soul of a dead person is associated with the butterfly , for example in Ancient Greece , where the word for butterfly ψυχή ( psyche ) also means soul and breath . In Latin , as in Ancient Greece , the word for \" butterfly \" papilio was associated with the soul of the dead . The skull @-@ like marking on the thorax of the Death 's @-@ head Hawkmoth has helped these moths , particularly A. atropos , earn a negative reputation , such as associations with the supernatural and evil . The moth has been prominently featured in art and movies such as Un Chien Andalou ( by Buñuel and Dalí ) and The Silence of the Lambs , and in the artwork of the Japanese metal band Sigh 's album Hail Horror Hail . According to Kwaidan : Stories and Studies of Strange Things , by Lafcadio Hearn , a butterfly was seen in Japan as the personification of a person 's soul ; whether they be living , dying , or already dead . One Japanese superstition says that if a butterfly enters your guestroom and perches behind the bamboo screen , the person whom you most love is coming to see you . However , large numbers of butterflies are viewed as bad omens . When Taira no Masakado was secretly preparing for his famous revolt , there appeared in Kyoto so vast a swarm of butterflies that the people were frightened — thinking the apparition to be a portent of coming evil . \n In the ancient Mesoamerican city of Teotihuacan , the brilliantly colored image of the butterfly was carved into many temples , buildings , jewelry , and emblazoned on incense burners in particular . The butterfly was sometimes depicted with the maw of a jaguar and some species were considered to be the reincarnations of the souls of dead warriors . The close association of butterflies to fire and warfare persisted through to the Aztec civilization and evidence of similar jaguar @-@ butterfly images has been found among the Zapotec , and Maya civilizations . \n = = = Pests = = = \n The larvae of many Lepidopteran species are major pests in agriculture . Some of the major pests include Tortricidae , Noctuidae , and Pyralidae . The larvae of the Noctuidae genus Spodoptera ( armyworms ) , Helicoverpa ( corn earworm ) , or Pieris brassicae can cause extensive damage to certain crops . Helicoverpa zea larvae ( cotton bollworms or tomato fruitworms ) are polyphagous , meaning they eat a variety of crops , including tomatoes and cotton . \n Butterflies and moths are one of the largest taxa to solely feed and be dependent on living plants , in terms of the number of species , and they are in many ecosystems , making up the largest biomass to do so . In many species , the female may produce anywhere from 200 to 600 eggs , while in some others it may go as high as 30 @,@ 000 eggs in one day . This can create many problems for agriculture , where many caterpillars can affect acres of vegetation . Some reports estimate that there have been over 80 @,@ 000 caterpillars of several different taxa feeding on a single oak tree . In some cases , phytophagous larvae can lead to the destruction of entire trees in relatively short periods of time . \n Ecological ways of removing pest lepidoptera species are becoming more economically viable , as research has shown ways like introducing parasitic wasp and flies . For example , Sarcophaga aldrichi , a fly which deposited larvae feed upon the pupae of the Forest Tent Caterpillar Moth . Pesticides can affect other species other than the species they are targeted to eliminate , damaging the natural ecosystem . Another good biological pest control method is the use of pheromone traps . A pheromone trap is a type of insect trap that uses pheromones to lure insects . Sex pheromones and aggregating pheromones are the most common types used . A pheromone @-@ impregnated lure is encased in a conventional trap such as a Delta trap , water @-@ pan trap , or funnel trap . \n Species of moths that are detritivores would naturally eat detritus containing keratin , such as hairs or feathers . Well known species are cloth moths ( T. bisselliella , T. pellionella , and T. tapetzella ) , feeding on foodstuffs that people find economically important , such as cotton , linen , silk and wool fabrics as well as furs ; furthermore they have been found on shed feathers and hair , bran , semolina and flour ( possibly preferring wheat flour ) , biscuits , casein , and insect specimens in museums . \n = = = Beneficial insects = = = \n Even though most butterflies and moths affect the economy negatively , some species are a valuable economic resource . The most prominent example is that of the Domesticated silkworm moth ( Bombyx mori ) , the larvae of which make their cocoons out of silk , which can be spun into cloth . Silk is and has been an important economic resource throughout history . The species Bombyx mori has been domesticated to the point where it is completely dependent on mankind for survival . A number of wild moths such as Bombyx mandarina , and Antheraea species , besides others , provide commercially important silks . \n The preference of the larvae of most Lepidopteran species to feed on a single species or limited range of plants is used as a mechanism for biological control of weeds in place of herbicides . The pyralid cactus moth was introduced from Argentina to Australia , where it successfully suppressed millions of acres of Prickly pear cactus . Another species of the Pyralidae , called the alligator weed stem borer ( Arcola malloi ) , was used to control the aquatic plant known as alligator weed ( Alternanthera philoxeroides ) in conjunction with the alligator weed flea beetle ; in this case , the two insects work in synergy and the weed rarely recovers . \n Breeding butterflies and moths , or butterfly gardening / rearing , has become an ecologically viable process of introducing species into the ecosystem to benefit it . Butterfly ranching in Papua New Guinea permits nationals of that country to \" farm \" economically valuable insect species for the collectors market in an ecologically sustainable manner . \n = = = Food = = = \n Lepidoptera feature prominently in entomophagy as food items on almost every continent . While in most cases , adults , larvae or pupae are eaten as staples by indigenous people , beondegi or silkworm pupae are eaten as a snack in Korean cuisine while Maguey worm is considered a delicacy in Mexico . In the Carnia region of Italy , children catch and eat ingluvies of the toxic Zygaena moths in early summer . The ingluvies , despite having a very low cyanogenic content , serve as a convenient , supplementary source of sugar to the children who can include this resource as a seasonal delicacy at minimum risk . \n = = = Health = = = \n Some larvae of both moths and butterflies have a form of hair that has been known to be a cause of human health problems . Caterpillar hairs sometimes have toxins in them and species from approximately 12 families of moths or butterflies worldwide can inflict serious human injuries ( Urticarial dermatitis and atopic asthma to osteochondritis , consumption coagulopathy , renal failure , and intracerebral hemorrhage ) . Skin rashes are the most common , but there have been fatalities . Lonomia is a frequent cause of envenomation in humans in Brazil , with 354 cases reported between 1989 and 2005 . Lethality ranging up to 20 % with death caused most often by intracranial hemorrhage . \n These hairs have also been known to cause kerato @-@ conjunctivitis . The sharp barbs on the end of caterpillar hairs can get lodged in soft tissues and mucous membranes such as the eyes . Once they enter such tissues , they can be difficult to extract , often exacerbating the problem as they migrate across the membrane . This becomes a particular problem in an indoor setting . The hairs easily enter buildings through ventilation systems and accumulate in indoor environments because of their small size , which makes it difficult for them to be vented out . This accumulation increases the risk of human contact in indoor environments . \n = = = Lists = = = \n List of butterflies of Australia \n List of butterflies of Canada \n List of butterflies of Great Britain \n List of butterflies of India \n List of butterflies of Minorca \n List of butterflies of North America \n List of butterflies of Taiwan \n List of butterflies of Tobago \n List of fritillaries ( butterflies ) \n List of moths \n = Pleione ( star ) = \n Pleione ( 28 Tauri , BU Tauri ) is a binary star in the Pleiades star cluster ( M45 ) , located roughly 390 light years away in the constellation of Taurus . Pleione was not given a Bayer designation , but did receive a Flamsteed number — hence its designation 28 Tauri . Since the star is located close to Atlas , it 's difficult for stargazers to distinguish with the naked eye , even though it 's a hot type B star 190 times more luminous than the Sun . Pleione rotates even faster than Achernar on its axis , close to its breakup velocity . \n The brighter star of the binary pair , component A , is a classical Be star with certain distinguishing traits : periodic phase changes and a complex circumstellar environment composed of two gaseous disks at different angles to each other . Although some research on the system has been performed , stellar characteristics of the orbiting B component are not well known . Pleione is the seventh brightest star in the Pleiades , after Taygeta . \n = = Visibility = = \n With an apparent magnitude of + 5 @.@ 05 in V , the star is rather difficult to make out with the naked eye , especially since its close neighbour Atlas is 3 @.@ 7 times brighter and located less than 5 arcminutes away . Beginning in October of each year , Pleione along with the rest of the cluster can be seen rising in the east in the early morning before dawn . To see it after sunset , one will need to wait until December . By mid @-@ February , the star is visible to virtually every inhabited region of the globe , with only those south of 66 ° unable to see it . Even in cities like Cape Town , South Africa , at the tip of the African continent , the star rises almost 32 ° above the horizon . Due to its declination of roughly + 24 ° , Pleione is circumpolar in the northern hemisphere at latitudes greater than 66 ° North . Once late April arrives , the cluster can be spotted briefly in the deepening twilight of the western horizon , soon to disappear with the other setting stars . \n Pleione is classified as a Gamma Cassiopeiae type variable star , with brightness fluctuations that range between a 4 @.@ 8 and 5 @.@ 5 visual magnitude . Its variable star designation is BU Tauri . The SIMBAD astronomical database lists its spectral class as B8IVev , although the current classification recognized by many researchers is B8IVpe . The suffix \" ev \" stands for \" Spectral emission that exhibits variability \" whilst the suffix \" pe \" refers to \" Emission lines with peculiarity \" . In the case of Pleione , the \" peculiar \" emissions come from gaseous circumstellar disks formed of material being ejected from the star . \n There has been significant debate as to the star 's actual distance from Earth . The debate revolves around the different methodologies to measure distance — parallax being the most central , but photometric and spectroscopic observations yielding valuable insights as well . Before the Hipparcos mission , the estimated distance for the Pleiades star cluster was around 135 parsecs or 440 light years . However , when the Hipparcos Catalogue was published in 1997 , the new parallax measurement indicated a much closer distance of about 119 ± 1 @.@ 0 pc ( 388 ± 3 @.@ 2 ly ) , triggering substantial controversy among astronomers . If the Hipparcos estimate were accurate , some astronomers contend , then stars in the cluster would have to be fainter than Sun @-@ like stars — a notion that would challenge some of the fundamental precepts of stellar structure . Interferometric measurements taken in 2004 by the Hubble Telescope 's Fine Guidance Sensors and corroborated by studies from Caltech and NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory showed the original estimate of 135 pc or 440 ly to be the correct figure . However a recent study published in 2009 has argued otherwise , publishing a new parallax measurement of 8 @.@ 32 mas with a very tight error factor of 0 @.@ 13 mas yielding a distance of 120 @.@ 2 ± 1 @.@ 9 pc or 392 @.@ 0 ± 6 @.@ 0 ly . Which distance estimate future astrometric calculations will corroborate remains to be seen , although the upcoming Gaia mission with its expected launch in late 2012 could well prove to be the ultimate arbiter in this debate . \n = = Properties = = \n In 1942 Otto Struve , one of the early researchers of Be Stars , stated that Pleione is \" the most interesting member of the Pleiades cluster \" . Like many of the stars in the cluster , Pleione is a blue @-@ white B @-@ type main sequence dwarf star with a temperature of about 12 @,@ 000 Kelvin . It has a bolometric luminosity of 190 L ☉ assuming a distance of roughly 120 pc . With a radius of 3 @.@ 2 R ☉ and mass that is 3 @.@ 4 M ☉ , Pleione is considerably smaller than the brightest stars in the Pleiades . Alcyone for instance has a radius that is 10 R ☉ with a luminosity 2 @,@ 400 L ☉ , making it roughly 30 times more voluminous than Pleione and about 13 times brighter . \n = = = Be star = = = \n Pleione is a classical Be star , often referred to as an \" active hot star \" . Classical Be stars are B @-@ type stars close to the main sequence with an \" e \" added on , signifying that Pleione exhibits emission lines in its spectrum rather than absorption lines , which is what stars usually show . Emission lines usually indicate that a star is surrounded by gas . In the case of a Be star , the gas is typically in the form of an equatorial disk , resulting in electromagnetic radiation that emanates not just from the photosphere , but from the disk as well . The geometry and kinematics of this gaseous circumstellar environment are therefore best explained by a \" Keplerian \" disk — one that is supported against gravity by rotation rather than gas or radiation pressure . Circumstellar disks like this are sometimes referred to as \" decretion disks \" , which is material being actively ejected by the star as opposed to \" accretion disks \" which involves material falling toward the star . \n Be Stars are fast rotators ( > 200 km / s ) with a large stellar wind and high mass loss rate , hence the causative factors behind these gaseous rings . Due to its apparent brightness , the star most recognized for its fast rotation is Achernar , a phenomenon which causes it to be highly oblate . Its rotational velocity , however , of 251 km / s is considerably slower than Pleione 's 329 km / s . As a result , Pleione actually revolves on its axis once every 11 @.@ 8 hours compared to Achernar 's 48 @.@ 4 hours . The Sun by comparison takes 25 @.@ 3 days to turn on its axis . Pleione is spinning so fast that it is close to the estimated breakup velocity for a B8V star of about 370 – 390 km / s . Another Be star whose rotational velocity is extremely fast is Alpha Arae at 470 km / s — a speed so extreme that it is on the verge of exploding . \n What makes Pleione particularly unique is that it alternates between three different phases : 1 ) normal B star , 2 ) Be star and 3 ) Be shell star . The cause is likely the surrounding gaseous disk which in many Be stars will appear , then disappear , possibly reforming at a later time . Material in the disc is attracted back towards the star by the pull of gravity , but if it has enough energy it can escape into space , contributing to the stellar wind . Sometimes , Be stars will form multiple gas rings or \" decretion disks \" , each with its own evolution , creating complex circumstellar dynamics . \n As a result of such dynamics , Pleione exhibits prominent long @-@ term photometric and spectroscopic variations encompassing a period of about 35 years . In fact , during the last 100 years , Pleione has demonstrated notable phase changes — as a Be phase until 1903 , a B phase ( 1905 – 1936 ) , a B @-@ shell phase ( 1938 – 1954 ) , and another Be phase ( 1955 – 1972 ) . It then entered a Be @-@ shell phase in 1972 . Then , the star developed many shell absorption lines in its spectrum . At the same time , the star showed a decrease in brightness , beginning at the end of 1971 . After reaching the minimum brightness in late 1973 , the star gradually brightened . In 1989 , Pleione entered a Be phase and stayed as a Be star until the summer of 2005 . \n The most recent disk responsible for these phase changes was formed in 1972 . What 's intriguing , however , is that Pleione 's long @-@ term polarimetric observations show the intrinsic polarization angle has changed , providing direct evidence for a spatial motion of the disk axis . Because Pleione has a stellar companion with a relatively close orbit , the shift in the polarization angle has been attributed to the companion causing a precession ( wobble ) of the disk , with a precession period of roughly 81 years . \n Recent photometric and spectroscopic observations from 2005 to 2007 indicate that a new disk has formed around the equator — thus constituting a double disk phenomenon with disks at different angles . The inclination angle of the new disk is estimated at 60 ° whereas the previous disk was inclined at around 30 ° . Such a misaligned double @-@ disk structure has never been observed before among Be stars . Thus , Pleione provides a rare opportunity to investigate the forming process of a new disk and the consequent interaction between the two . \n = = Star system = = \n Pleione is known to be a speckle binary , although its orbital parameters have yet to be fully established . In 1996 a group of Japanese and French astronomers discovered that Pleione is a single @-@ lined spectroscopic binary with an orbital period of 218 @.@ 0 days and a large eccentricity of 0 @.@ 6 . The Washington Double Star Catalogue lists an angular separation between the two components of 0 @.@ 2 arcseconds — an angle which equates to a distance of about 24 AU , assuming a distance of 120 parsecs . \n = = Ethnological influences = = \n = = = Mythology = = = \n Pleione was an Oceanid nymph of Mount Kyllene in Arkadia ( southern Greece ) , one of the three thousand daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys . The nymphs in Greek mythology were the spirits of nature ; oceanids , spirits of the sea . Though considered lesser divinities , they were still very much venerated as the protectors of the natural world . Each oceanid was thence a patroness of a particular body of water — be it ocean , river , lake , spring or even cloud — and by extension activities related thereto . The sea @-@ nymph , Pleione , was the consort of Atlas , the Titan , and mother of the Hyas , Hyades and Pleiades . \n = = = Etymology = = = \n When names were assigned to the stars in the Pleiades cluster , the bright pair of stars in the East of the cluster were named Atlas and Pleione , while the seven other bright stars were named after the mythological Pleiades ( the ' Seven Sisters ' ) . The term \" Pleiades \" was used by Valerius Flaccus to apply to the cluster as a whole , and Riccioli called the star Mater Pleione . \n There is some diversity of opinion as to the origin of the names Pleione and Pleiades . There are three possible derivations of note . Foremost is that both names come from the Greek word πλεῖν , ( pr. ple ' -ō ) , meaning \" to sail \" . This is particularly plausible given that ancient Greece was a seafaring culture and because of Pleione 's mythical status as an Oceanid nymph . Pleione , as a result , is sometimes referred to as the \" sailing queen \" while her daughters the \" sailing ones \" . Also , the appearance of these stars coincided with the sailing season in antiquity ; sailors were well advised to set sail only when the Pleiades were visible at night , lest they meet with misfortune . \n Another derivation of the name is the Greek word Πλειόνη ( pr. plêionê ) , meaning \" more \" , \" plenty \" , or \" full \" — a lexeme with many English derivatives like pleiotropy , pleomorphism , pleonasm , pleonexia , plethora and Pliocene . This meaning also coincides with the biblical Kīmāh and the Arabic word for the Pleiades — Al Thurayya . In fact , Pleione may have been numbered amongst the Epimelides ( nymphs of meadows and pastures ) and presided over the multiplication of the animals , as her name means \" to increase in number \" . \n Finally , the last comes from Peleiades ( Greek : Πελειάδες , \" doves \" ) , a reference to the sisters ' mythical transformation by Zeus into a flock of doves following their pursuit by Orion , the giant huntsman , across the heavens . \n = = = Modern legacy = = = \n In the best @-@ selling 1955 nature book published by Time @-@ Life called The World We Live In , there is an artist 's impression of Pleione entitled Purple Pleione . The illustration is from the famed space artist Chesley Bonestell and carries the caption : \" Purple Pleione , a star of the familiar Pleiades cluster , rotates so rapidly that it has flattened into a flying saucer and hurled forth a dark red ring of hydrogen . Where the excited gas crosses Pleione 's equator , it obscures her violet light . \" \n Given its mythical connection with sailing and orchids , the name Pleione is often associated with grace , speed and elegance . Some of the finest designs in racing yachts have the name Pleione , and the recent Shanghai Oriental Art Center draws its inspiration from an orchid . Fat Jon in his new album Hundred Eight Stars has a prismatic track dedicated to 28 Tauri . \n = So Amazin ' = \n So Amazin ' is the third studio album by American singer Christina Milian . The album , her first studio release since 2004 's It 's About Time , was released by Island Records on May 16 , 2006 in the United States . Unlike previous records , which had contributions from many producers , Milian wrote and produced So Amazin ' primarily with hip hop producers Cool & Dre . During production , Milian was mentored by L.A. Reid and executive producer Jay @-@ Z of Def Jam Recordings . \n The album 's musical style is primarily urban and R & B , in contrast to the pop sounds of Milian 's previous albums , a change suggested by Island Def Jam . Following criticism over her previous albums for a lack of consistency , Milian had ten of the album 's tracks produced by Cool & Dre . Lyrically , the album was inspired by Milian 's breakup with Nick Cannon . So Amazin ' was completed within a three @-@ month period , and Milian received writing credit for nine of the album 's songs . \n The album debuted and peaked at number 11 on the U.S. Billboard 200 , and sold a total of 163 @,@ 000 copies . Internationally , the album charted in the United Kingdom , France and Switzerland . The album 's only single , \" Say I \" , featuring rapper Jeezy , saw peak positions of number four in the UK , and number 21 in the United States . The critical response to So Amazin ' was mixed . The album 's production and \" Say I \" were generally praised , while several critics did not feel that the album showcased Milian 's personality . One week after the release of So Amazin ' , Milian was dropped from Island Records . \n = = Background = = \n Milian 's previous release , It 's About Time ( 2004 ) , was her second studio album , but served as her debut in the US . The critical response to the album was mixed to generally negative . The club tracks , most notably lead single \" Dip It Low \" , were praised ; however , the ballads were said to be disappointing . The album only performed modestly commercially ; it debuted and peaked at number 14 on the Billboard 200 album chart , selling a total of 382 @,@ 000 copies , but managed to achieve Silver certification in the UK by the British Phonographic Industry . The album received a Grammy Award nomination for \" Best Contemporary R & B Album \" in 2005 . \n Following the album 's release , Milian was cast in a lead role in the horror film Pulse , starring alongside Kristen Bell and Ian Somerhalder . Milian traveled to Romania for filming , and later discovered that her then @-@ boyfriend Nick Cannon had cheated on her while she was away . Milian said in an interview , \" it was heartbreaking for me . I was a good girl , a really loyal girl – and I got beat real . \" \n Whereas Milian 's previous albums had pop and R & B stylings , she was encouraged by Island Def Jam to target a new audience and release an urban record . Explaining the change , Milian said that one of her main problems was that previous releases would often find mainstream success , but would be relatively unsuccessful on urban radio . As an R & B artist , she wanted to build her core audience – a true fan base that would support her through time – to increase her career 's longevity . The main purpose of her genre change was to go back to the streets and add to her core audience . \n = = Production = = \n To create a more urban record , Milian had a list of producers that she wanted to work with for So Amazin ' . She said that in most cases , even when she had R & B producers , most songs would end up being pop instead of R & B. L.A. Reid suggested to Milian that she should work with Cool & Dre , with whom she ended up working with as the first people to start off the album . Although Milian was originally supposed to work with several different music producers , she felt that the chemistry they had in the first week was so \" instant and real \" that she felt she could not get a better \" vibe \" with anybody else other than them . Together , they produced four songs in the first few days , which prompted Milian to ask her label if she could continue working with the duo . At the same time , Cool & Dre called their managers to ask if they could continue working with Milian . Milian felt that it was \" just the perfect connection \" , and that working with them \" just felt so original \" . The singer described Cool & Dre as \" beat makers \" , rather than just hip @-@ hop producers , and believed that she was really able to express herself lyrically through their music . \n Milian ended up working with Cool & Dre on the majority of the production of the album , producing ten of the album 's eleven tracks together . Milian also wrote the track \" Y 'all Ain 't Nothin ' \" with Ne @-@ Yo , which was produced by The Heavyweights . Features on the album include Three 6 Mafia , Young Jeezy , and Dre of Cool & Dre . While working on the song , \" Who 's Gonna Ride \" , Dre ran into Three 6 Mafia at the studio and they agreed to feature on the song . The album completed within a three @-@ month period , whereas Milian 's previous albums would take six months to a year . \n Milian received writing credit for nine songs on the album . Milian did not try to write mainstream records for the radio ; rather , she wrote about \" everything , about your life and concentrate on you doing you . \" For previous albums , Milian wrote about things that had happened in the past , whereas for So Amazin ' , she focused on the present . She compared the writing process to writing a diary ; whenever she would experience something that she thought would be important , she would write it down for future reference . Milian felt that by writing down true experiences , her songs were like \" captured emotion \" . When writing songs , Milian said that the amount of time it took to write varied . It would depend on what she was writing about , what was going on in her life , and if it pertained to that exact moment . Sometimes the process was quick , but other times it could take several hours to write an entire song . \n Although Milian was a songwriter since her teenagers years , she only felt real growth during the production sessions when Dre told her , \" there are no rules \" . Previously , Milian would write songs that followed rules , where she would have a hook , a verse , and another verse with similar sound and melody . For So Amazin , she wrote with a \" no rules theory \" , which was her biggest obstacle while recording the album . She said , \" It was just , you know what ? I can change up the melody I can do different things . Sometimes I might get stuck but wait half an hour and it 'll come to you and end up being hot . So that 's probably my biggest obstacle , just stepping away from doing the usual that I know and stepping into something new . Once I got past all that , it was just easy . With flying colors , I started writing all the records . \" \n = = Composition = = \n Milian described So Amazin ' as a \" consistent , very real and personal album \" . A problem Milian had with her previous album , It 's About Time , was that it did not flow . The various pop and urban influences in that album confused the audience , and Milian wanted So Amazin ' to paint a picture ; \" you get led down the whole way , you kinda get to see my growth through one album \" . Wanting a more consistent approach for her new album , Milian collaborated with only one team of producers , which made for a greater representation of a \" more mature , settled \" Milian . The purpose of the album was to record an album that had more realness , so that female fans could relate to what she was singing about . Milian felt that Cool & Dre brought their own style of beats to the album , giving it a \" raw feel \" and \" street credibility \" . Marcello \" Cool \" Valenzano of Cool & Dre said that \" we come from an R & B background , and we bringing [ sic ] something new to the table , a style we think is hot . \" For So Amazin ' , Milian knew that she needed to record material that had a \" realness \" . She wanted to make dance tracks , but also wanted to express more of herself at the same time . Milian found the album to be \" so much more real and urban and street \" than her previous albums . \n The single , \" Say I \" , is an inspirational and motivational record ; Milian wanted to make a record that would be an inspiration to both her and her fans . Focusing on an urban audience , Milian said the record was \" way more an urban record than anything I 've ever done . \" The singer felt it was necessary to have Young Jeezy feature because he spoke for the streets , and thought his rap was \" a very real message . It pertained to his life . \" The track , \" Twisted \" , was one of the first songs recorded for the album . Lyrically , the song is about liking someone so much that you \" can 't even go about [ your ] day in a normal way \" . Milian compared the urban vibe of both tracks and said they were huge records , \" where the music is just big and the hook is just big and you can ’ t help but sing [ along ] . \" \n Dre features on two tracks , \" So Amazing \" and \" Hot Boy \" , which both have a club vibe . Milian thought \" So Amazing \" had a similar vibe to several performance records she had done in the past . Milian raps in the track and described it as being \" really street and sexy \" . She also said \" Hot Boy \" is a \" hot one for the streets and for the club and for performance . \" \" Foolin ' \" was written when Milian heard an old record and sampled the line , \" if you 're foolin , only foolin \" . Hearing the original track , Milian knew she needed to write something original , and wrote about an ex @-@ boyfriend , whom she nicknamed \" Mr. Big \" , that was still interested in Milian but had a new girlfriend . The album 's final track , \" She Don 't Know \" , has a Latin vibe and features a Spanish guitar . Being Cuban , Milian wanted to incorporate a Spanish record on the album , and sings in English and Spanish in the song . Taking inspiration from Latin soap operas , Milian wanted to portray a very \" dramatic feel \" in the song . Lyrically , the song is about two people falling in love ; however , the man has a girlfriend who does not know about the new relationship or that he has moved on . \n Milian wrote So Amazin ' based on her own life , and each record pertained to a different aspect , especially focused on relationships . During early production of the album , Milian was dealing with her break @-@ up with actor Nick Cannon and wrote several records based on that . While writing the mid @-@ tempo track \" My Lovin ' Goes \" , Milian felt she turned a new leaf . She said , \" you see the change in So Amazin ' where life was just really coming into place . I was finally becoming the woman that I feel that I am right now . Also , I was leaving old love behind and learning about new types of love . Which is great , whether it be life , and also the dating scene is really nice . \" Two tracks which Milian wrote about Cannon were \" Gonna Tell Everybody \" and \" Who 's Gonna Ride \" . When Milian and Cool & Dre had discussions , her break @-@ up with Cannon was regularly mentioned . Milian felt a need to express herself , and writing became therapeutic for Milian ; she was able to get through the break @-@ up by writing songs . The production by Cool & Dre also inspired Milian to write the tracks , as she felt comfortable with them and was able to be open . \n Milian wrote the hip @-@ hop ballad \" Gonna Tell Everybody \" about \" thinking that I had something good , what happens when it 's over , and going forward with my life . \" The track was one of the final songs that Milian wrote about the break @-@ up as it \" helped me get it all out \" . While the record is about a break @-@ up , it focuses more on closure and moving past it . Milian and Cool & Dre used the melody of the Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony song \" Tha Crossroads \" and changed the lyrics \" and I 'm gonna miss everybody \" to \" and I 'm gonna tell everybody \" . The other song , \" Who 's Gonna Ride \" , has a more street and gangster vibe , and contain more raw lyrics . Milian wrote the track with Dre , which she said helped because hip hop artists write about real things in their lives and are not afraid to say anything . While writing the track , Milian let her guard down and wrote what she was feeling and tried to be real . Lyrically , the song also deals with \" the girls that come around and try to take your man . Or the groupie girls that are around , paying attention to the guys on TV that only hang out with them for those reasons . \" Milian also said \" Who 's Gonna Ride \" was the hardest song to write because it was not safe , unlike previous songs she had written . The singer explained writing the lyrics was not hard , but the difficulty came from being real and actually writing about her true feelings . When writing the lyrics , Milian removed several lines that she thought were too harsh . \n = = Commercial performance = = \n So Amazin ' debuted and peaked at number 11 on the Billboard 200 , selling 54 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and 163 @,@ 000 copies in total . Internationally , the album peaked at number 55 on the Swiss Albums Chart , 67 on the UK Albums Chart , and 139 on the France Albums Chart . The album 's lead single , \" Say I \" , featured rapper Young Jeezy and had a music video , directed by Ray Kay . The single peaked at number four in the UK , and number 21 in the United States . \n In June 2006 , Milian 's representative confirmed that she had left Island Def Jam . Although she was dropped from the label , Milian continued to promote the album through live appearances , performing on Power 106 's Summer Splash . Milian hoped to take \" Gonna Tell Everybody \" , the proposed second single , to another label and shoot a video , but was not able to . Milian revealed in an interview with Rap @-@ Up that she was dropped a week after the release of her album . Milian stated that before the release of So Amazin ' , the label and L.A. Reid knew that the album would not have immediate large sales , since she was targeting a new urban audience , but promised to support her . However , after a week , L.A. Reid called to notify Milian that she had been dropped . The singer believed that it was a budget cut , and the label opted to spend money on Rihanna instead . Milian also dispelled rumors that she was originally offered Rihanna 's song \" SOS \" . \n = = Critical reception = = \n The critical response to So Amazin ' was mixed . Metacritic gave the album a Metascore — a weighted average based on the impressions of a select 12 critical reviews — of 59 , signifying mixed or average reviews . David Peisner of Maxim gave the album three out of five stars and said that Milian 's \" talent is real \" , and commended her \" silky and sassy \" voice . He praised Cool & Dre 's \" badass \" production , as well as \" intoxicating \" lead single \" Say I \" . Clover Hope of Billboard wrote that Milian tried to transform from \" sweet pop sweetheart \" to \" peppy urban soulstress \" , but the album could not \" pinpoint her true identity \" and could \" only [ scratch ] the surface of who she really is . \" Hope praised lead single , \" Say I \" , describing it as \" instantly rousing \" . \n Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! Music UK said that the production by Cool & Dre ensured for \" a cohesive whole , with a clear , unmistakable identity \" . He praised single \" Say I \" , saying it \" shimmies to a feisty ghetto strut and Shaft @-@ sized orchestrals \" , as well as \" Twisted \" , \" Hot Boy \" and \" Just A Little Bit \" . He described So Amazin ' as \" almost the perfect R & B album \" , only missing \" a couple of killer singles \" . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote that while Milian claimed that she was \" proudly displaying the various sides of her multifaceted personality \" , he felt that \" only personality displayed on So Amazin ' is that of her contemporaries and predecessors \" . He felt that contrary to the album 's title , \" So Amazin ' proves to be anything but \" . \n Andy Kellman , of review website Allmusic , felt that So Amazin ' was \" Milian 's strongest album yet , if only by a narrow margin \" . He said that the album was short on ideas , with Cool & Dre using beats from some of their recent hits . He felt that Milian 's weakness was ballads , which were \" more like placeholders that merely apply some forced variety to the album \" ; but described the club tracks as \" perfectly functional and appealing \" . Spence Dookey of IGN gave the album a 6 @.@ 9 out of 10 and said that \" Milian glistens most brightly on the tracks that are the most stripped down , such as ' Gonna Tell Everybody ' \" . He said given the nature of the style of music Milian was practicing , \" there 's a fair share of rump shaking club jams offsetting the more slow tempo fare \" . Dookey described single \" Say I \" as \" a poundingly theatrical ditty \" , and \" Foolin ' \" as one of the \" few tracks that genuinely attempts to lift Milian up from the generic R & B / club stylings \" . The reviewer found the overall sound was the album 's biggest flaw ; \" the production rings with a sense of detached hollowness ... The result is an album severely lacking any of the warmth that usually accompanies R & B. Milian 's hauntingly beautiful voice deserves to be wrapped in a sunny glow of organic vibes . \" Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters praised the album , \" despite a few lyrical hiccups , a couple of lackluster hooks , and some obvious influences . \" \n = = Track listing = = \n \" Say I \" ( featuring Jeezy ) ( Bunny Sigler , Jay Jenkins , Phil Hurtt , Andre Lyon , Marcello Valenzano , Jazmine Sullivan ) – 3 : 33 \n \" Twisted \" ( Lyon , Sullivan , Valenzano , Leon Ware ) – 4 : 00 \n \" Gonna Tell Everybody \" ( Anthony Henderson , Steven Howse , Ernie Isley , Marvin Isley , O 'Kelly Isley , Jr . , Ronald Isley , Lyon , Milian , Eddie Montilla , Valenzano ) – 4 : 20 \n \" Who 's Gonna Ride \" ( featuring Three 6 Mafia ) ( Paul Beauregard , Albert Bouchard , Jordan Houston , Lyon , Milian , David Roter , Valenzano ) – 4 : 10 \n \" So Amazing \" ( featuring Dre ) ( Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) – 3 : 20 \n \" Hot Boy \" ( featuring Dre ) ( Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) – 3 : 53 \n \" Foolin ' \" ( Lyon , Milian , Pam Sawyer , Valenzano , Ware ) – 4 : 05 \n \" My Lovin ' Goes \" ( Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) – 4 : 00 \n \" Just a Little Bit \" ( Vinnie Barrett , Bobby Eli , John Freeman Jr . , Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) – 3 : 05 \n \" Y 'all Ain 't Nothin ' \" ( Milian , Ne @-@ Yo , Melvin Sparkman ) – 4 : 18 \n \" She Don 't Know \" ( Jeff Barnell , Bernard Dahan , Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) – 4 : 35 \n Bonus tracks \n \" Wind You Up \" ( Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) ( Japanese bonus track ) – 3 : 42 \n \" Tonight \" ( Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) ( UK / Japanese bonus track ) – 3 : 40 \n = = Personnel = = \n = = Charts = = \n = Lotus ( Christina Aguilera album ) = \n Lotus is the seventh studio album by American recording artist Christina Aguilera , released on November 9 , 2012 by RCA Records . Its music incorporates pop styles with elements of dance @-@ pop , rock in the form of upbeat songs and piano @-@ driven ballads . Aguilera described the album as a \" rebirth \" , drawing inspiration from events in her life , her appearance on The Voice , and her divorce . The album was recorded at Aguilera 's home studio . As executive producer , she collaborated with a wide range of producers , including new partners Alex da Kid , Max Martin , Lucas Secon and Tracklacers . \n Upon its release , Lotus received generally mixed reviews from music critics , who were ambivalent towards its lyrics and found its music conventional . It debuted at number seven on the US Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 73 @,@ 408 units . Internationally , the album charted moderately , but obtained higher positions in Canada and Russia where the album reached the top 10 . Two singles were released from the album in North America . The first single \" Your Body \" charted within the top 40 of most countries . The second one , \" Just a Fool \" , was a duet with fellow The Voice coach Blake Shelton and peaked at number 71 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Though not released as a single , \" Let There Be Love \" topped the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart at number 1 . In August 2013 , along with a letter to her fans , Aguilera released a music video for the song . \n = = Background = = \n After the release of Aguilera 's sixth studio album , Bionic ( 2010 ) , which failed to generate her usual sales , she divorced from her husband Jordan Bratman , starred in a film called Burlesque , and recorded its accompanying soundtrack . The singer then became a coach on NBC 's singing contest show The Voice and appeared as a guest vocalist on Maroon 5 's single \" Moves Like Jagger \" ( 2011 ) , which spent four weeks atop the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . Following these events , Aguilera announced that she wanted to record her seventh album , stating that she wanted high @-@ quality and personal songs to record . She stated that the album would be a \" culmination of everything I 've experienced up until this point ... I 've been through a lot since the release of my last album , being on ( The Voice ) , having had a divorce ... This is all sort of a free rebirth for me . \" She went on to say that \" I 'm embracing many different things , but it 's all feel @-@ good , super @-@ expressive [ and ] super @-@ vulnerable . \" She further expressed that the album would be about \" self @-@ expression and freedom \" because of the personal struggles she had overcome during the last couple of years . \n On The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 2012 , Aguilera revealed that the album was taking a while to record because \" I don 't like to just get songs from producers . I like them to come from a personal place ... I 'm very excited . It 's fun , exciting , introspective , it 's going to be great \" . In an interview with Rolling Stone , Aguilera said that the album was a \" very multi @-@ layered , very heartfelt record \" reflecting different sides of her personality . On Lotus , Aguilera worked with new producers , notably Alex da Kid and Max Martin . Alex da Kid , who first teamed with Aguilera in the song \" Castle Walls \" from T.I. ' s No Mercy ( 2010 ) , commented about Aguilera 's approach in recording Lotus , \" She definitely had a strong opinion , but she 'll go with the best idea in the room . That 's really rare for someone that 's had so much success . \" Speaking about working with Max Martin , Aguilera said , \" Max is legendary in the business . He 's known about me but we haven 't crossed paths . [ ... ] It 's taken us a decade in the same business and watching each other from a distance , so for us to now come together and respect each other 's work ethic and how we like to be heard and making a marriage out of it , I think ' Your Body ' is the best culmination of that . \" \n Aguilera announced via Twitter on September 12 , 2012 that the album would be titled Lotus . The album artwork was shot by fashion photographer Enrique Badulescu . Aguilera unveiled the cover on October 5 , where she is shown nude with her long , blonde hair covering her nipples , while her vulva is shaded by a white light ; she extends her arms emerging from a lotus flower . It received a generally positive response from critics ; Tiffany Lee from Yahoo ! Music complimented Aguilera 's figure , while Sam Lansky from Idolator drew comparisons to the cover of her fourth studio album , Stripped ( 2002 ) . Lotus was released on November 13 , 2012 by RCA Records , but was leaked online on November 5 . \n = = Composition = = \n Lotus incorporates pop styles with elements of dance @-@ pop , rock in the form of upbeat songs and piano @-@ driven ballads . It opens with the track \" Lotus Intro \" , which was inspired by Aguilera 's passion for \" chill @-@ out \" electronica . The song has a \" hypnotic \" yet \" dark , serious \" tone that develops and matures as it progresses , depicting Aguilera 's rebirth , similar to the life cycle of a lotus flower . \" Army of Me \" is a dance @-@ pop and euro @-@ dance empowerment anthem , with a pounding drum beat and rock guitars . Aguilera described the song as an update version of her 2003 hit \" Fighter \" , describing it as a \" Fighter 2 @.@ 0 \" . The up @-@ tempo track \" Red Hot Kinda Love \" combines a variety of genres , including dance and disco , \" subtle \" tones of Latin , hip hop , and pop . \" Make the World Move \" , featuring Cee Lo Green , is a track which incorporates dance , R & B and soul genres . \n The next track and first single from Lotus is \" Your Body \" . It incorporates electropop and R & B genres and has a trace of dubstep in the middle eight . Lyrically , it discusses anonymous sex with a random man . \" Let There Be Love \" features dance @-@ pop , electronic dance music and pop genres with elements from electronica and trance . The power ballad \" Sing for Me \" tells how Aguilera was born to sing . \" Blank Page \" is a piano @-@ driven ballad about apologies , regrets , closure , and making peace . \" Cease Fire \" is a rock @-@ tinged track that features electronic and dubstep infusion . Lyrically , it is a plea to her partner to stop the fighting for the greater good of their relationship . \" Around the World \" has a ragga influence and refers to Aguilera 's 2001 hit \" Lady Marmalade \" as she whispers \" Voulez @-@ vous coucher avec moi , ce soir ? \" . The pop track \" Circles \" is an anti @-@ haters song and is influenced by the alternative rock genre . \" Best of Me \" is a power ballad about a failed relationship and how to not let others knock you down . \" Just a Fool \" , the last track of Lotus and its second single , is a duet with Blake Shelton . The song is a country pop ballad about the pain of a break @-@ up . \n = = Promotion = = \n = = = Singles = = = \n To promote Lotus , two singles were released from the album . \" Your Body \" was released on September 17 , 2012 as Lotus 's lead single . The song received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who praised Aguilera 's vocals and the collaboration with Max Martin . It debuted and peaked at number 34 on the Billboard Hot 100 on September 27 , 2012 , becoming the highest @-@ debut single during that week . Internationally , \" Your Body \" was a moderate success , peaking within the top 40 of most countries . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Melina Matsoukas ; it portrays Ag"},"length_category":{"kind":"string","value":"Very Long"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"wikitext-103-excerpt"}}},{"rowIdx":6597,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"ness and death = = \n Then under house arrest , in May 2000 al @-@ Jamri suffered a heart attack . He was taken to the Bahrain Defence Force Hospital , where he underwent surgery . During his stay at the hospital , he was visited by the King and Prime Minister . In May 2002 , al @-@ Jamri traveled to Germany for spinal surgery . While undergoing medical checkups , it was discovered he had a thrombus behind his eye , which had developed when he was in prison . Following the surgery he suffered a stroke , also developing kidney problems and a blood infection , soon falling into a coma . He woke from the coma on 30 June , but shortly after suffered a second stroke , resulting in internal bleeding , and incapacitating him for the rest of his life . \n On 27 January 2003 , al @-@ Jamri was transferred from Germany to Sultan bin Abdulaziz Humanitarian City in Saudi Arabia , where his medical condition improved slightly . He returned to Bahrain on 12 July and was welcomed by hundreds of his supporters . His medical condition deteriorated again as he suffered from repeated respiratory problems and another stroke , and in the end he lost the ability to speak . In the early morning of 18 December 2006 , al @-@ Jamri was rushed by ambulance from his home to Salmaniya Medical Complex , where he was announced dead . The cause of death was heart and kidney failure . \n = = Aftermath = = \n = = = Funeral = = = \n Although al @-@ Jamri 's death was announced in the morning , the mourning processions only began after the sunset Maghrib prayer . The funeral course was changed several times . Ultimately , it began at 6 : 00 in Muqsha village before moving along the west side of Budaiya highway to Bani Jamra , where al @-@ Jamri was buried at 10 : 00 . The weather was extremely cold for Bahrain , yet thousands showed up wearing black mourning clothes and carrying black flags . According to a number of Al @-@ Wasat writers , the funeral was the largest in the modern history of Bahrain . \n = = = Successor = = = \n Following the 2002 deterioration of his health , al @-@ Jamri 's position as a political and religious leader of Bahrain 's Shia opposition was taken over by his lifelong friend , Ayatollah Isa Qassim . Qassim was less revolutionary than al @-@ Jamri , having opposed the 1992 and 1994 petitions , but his views were kept private , in part as a sign of respect for al @-@ Jamri . Al @-@ Jamri 's role as leader of the opposition remained empty , as the opposition became fragmented . \n = = Publications = = \n Al @-@ Jamri wrote several books and poems ( in Arabic ) . He kept writing poems even when he became bedridden . His books include : \n Women in Islam . \n Islamic Duties . \n Islamic Teachings . \n The story of my life . \n = Hualālai = \n Hualālai ( pronounced [ huwəˈlaːlɐi ] in Hawaiian ) is an active volcano on the island of Hawaiʻi in the Hawaiian Islands . It is the westernmost , third @-@ youngest and the third most active of the five shield volcanoes that form the island of Hawaiʻi , following Kīlauea and the much larger Mauna Loa . Its peak stands 8 @,@ 271 feet ( 2 @,@ 521 m ) above sea level . Hualālai is estimated to have risen above sea level about 300 @,@ 000 years ago . Despite maintaining a very low level of activity since its last eruption in 1801 , Hualālai is still considered active , and is expected to erupt again some time within the next century . The relative unpreparedness of the residents in the area caused by the lull in activity would worsen the consequences of such an event . \n The area near the volcano has been inhabited for centuries by Hawaiian natives , dating back to before recorded history . The coast west of Hualālai in particular had several royal complexes . The volcano is also important ecologically , is home to many rare species and several nature reserves near the summit , and is a popular hiking attraction . Today the coast near Hualālai is dotted by vacation resorts , some built on historic flows , and a National Historical Park . \n = = Geology = = \n = = = Structural features = = = \n Hualālai stands at 8 @,@ 271 ft ( 2 @,@ 521 m ) with a prominence of 3 @,@ 071 ft ( 936 m ) . It is the westernmost of the five major volcanoes which form the island of Hawaiʻi . Being in the post @-@ shield stage of development , Hualālai is overall much rougher in shape and structure than the more youthful Mauna Loa and Kīlauea . Hualālai 's structure is denoted by three rift zones : a well @-@ developed one approximately 50 ° to the northwest , a moderately developed one to the southeast , and a poorly developed one trending northwards about 3 mi ( 5 km ) east of the summit . There are over 100 cinder and spatter cones arranged along these rift zones . Hualālai has no summit caldera , although there is a collapse crater about 0 @.@ 3 mi ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) across atop a small lava shield . Much of the southern slope ( above the modern town of Kailua @-@ Kona ) consists of lava flows covered by a layer of volcanic ash from 10 to 100 cm ( 4 to 39 in ) thick . In comparison with the other volcanoes of the island of Hawaiʻi , it is the third tallest , third oldest , third most active , and second smallest , making up just 7 % of the island . \n A major subfeature of Hualālai is Puʻu Waʻawaʻa , Hawaiian for \" many @-@ furrowed hill \" , a volcanic cone standing 372 m ( 1 @,@ 220 ft ) tall and measuring over 1 @.@ 6 km ( 1 mi ) in diameter . It extends for 9 km ( 6 mi ) , and has a prominence of 275 m ( 902 ft ) , north of the summit at 19 ° 46 ′ 15 ″ N 155 ° 49 ′ 56 ″ W. The cone is constructed of trachyte , a type of volcanic lava that exists at no other volcano on Hawaiʻi . Trachyte flows move more slowly than the typically \" runny \" Hawaiian lavas , a characteristic caused by its high ( over 62 % ) silica composition ( typical basalt is only 50 % silica ) . Geologists hypothesize that Puʻu Waʻawaʻa originally formed during a pumice eruption a little over 100 @,@ 000 years ago , and has continued to build itself since then , with at least three distinct trachyte flows recognized . The eruptions , although partially covered by flows from Hualālai and Mauna Loa , have built a distinctive structure known as the Puʻu Anahulu ridge . \n The westward @-@ facing flank of Hualālai forms a large underwater slump known as the North Kona slump . An area of about 1 @,@ 000 km2 ( 390 sq mi ) , the slump consists of an intricate formation of beaches and scarps 2 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 500 m ( 6 @,@ 600 to 14 @,@ 800 ft ) below the waterline . This area was explored more closely in a 2001 joint Japan @-@ United States project to explore the volcano 's flanks , utilizing the Remotely operated vehicle ROV Kaikō . Data collected showed that the lava flows there originated in shallow water 500 to 1 @,@ 000 m ( 1 @,@ 600 to 3 @,@ 300 ft ) deep , and that unlike similar slumps at other volcanoes , the slump at Hualālai formed gradually . \n Haulālai is a known source for xenoliths , rock from the Earth 's mantle that have been brought up in lava flows . Many prehistoric deposits , as well as those from the 1801 event , contain xenoliths of large size and abundant quantity . \n = = = History = = = \n Lava attributed to a shield @-@ stage Hualālai has been found just offshore of the volcano 's northwest rift zone . Tholeiitic basalt , indicative of the submarine subphase of the volcano 's construction , has been found in wells driven into the volcano at a depth of 75 ft ( 23 m ) . These lavas persisted until an estimated 130 @,@ 000 years ago . Hualālai entered the post @-@ shield stage , the stage it is presently in , about 100 @,@ 000 years ago . Pumice and trachyte eruptions at Puʻu Waʻawaʻa may be a sign of this change . \n Geological mapping of the volcano has indicated that as much as 80 % of the volcano 's surface has been topped by lava flows during the last 5 @,@ 000 years , entirely composed of shield alkalic basalt . More than half of this is under 3 @,@ 000 years old , and about 12 % is less than 1 @,@ 000 years of age . Between the years 1700 and 2016 , eruptions originated from six vents ; four of these lava flows poured into the sea to the west coast . \n = = Eruptive history = = \n Hualālai is the third most active volcano making up the island of Hawaiʻi , behind Kīlauea and Mauna Loa . Although the two larger volcanos have each erupted over 150 times in the last 1 @,@ 000 years , Hualālai has done so but 3 times . The recurrence of activity at the volcano seems to be every 200 to 300 years . \n A recent calm period , with almost no earthquake or magmatic activity at Hualālai , has seen the growth of homes , businesses , and resorts on the mountain 's flanks . The most recent major activity at the volcano was in 1929 , when an intense earthquake swarm rocked Hualālai , most likely caused by magmatic action near the volcano 's peak . Although it has been relatively placid in the recent past , Hualālai is still potentially active , and is expected to erupt again within the next 100 years . \n = = = Lava stratigraphy = = = \n The USGS has divided the exposed lava flows and tephra erupted by Hualālai volcano during the last 112 @,@ 000 years into 419 rock units of 8 chronostratigraphic age groups . These are summarized in the table below : \n = = = 1800 – 1801 eruption = = = \n Hualālai last erupted in 1800 – 1801 . This eruption produced very fluid alkalic basalt lava flows that entered the ocean off the western tip of Hawaiʻi island . Although five vents were active at the time , only two produced flows that eventually reached the ocean . The total output volume of the flow is estimated at over 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 0 @.@ 072 cu mi ) . One volcanic vent , situated high on the slope , produced a large a 'a flow , dubbed the Kaʻūpūlehu flow , that reached the ocean as two distinct lobes . On its way down , it overran a village and a valuable 3 mi ( 5 km ) fishing pond . There is a local legend that after the failure of several offerings of animals and other items to the gods , the flow was finally stopped when Kamehameha I threw a lock of his own hair into the fire . The Ka 'ūpūlehu flow is also known for the particularly large quantity of mafic and ultramafic xenoliths that came up with it . \n The other major outflow from the event reached the sea south of Kiholo Bay , destroying the village of Kaʻūpūlehu . This 1801 flow , known as the Huʻehuʻe flow , formed Keahole Point where Kona International Airport is now located , 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) north of Kailua @-@ Kona . The eruption at Hualālai was concurrent with an eruption at the nearby Mauna Loa . It is theorized that , in the near past , Hualālai has had synchronous eruptions with both Mauna Loa and Kilauea . \n = = = Recent activity = = = \n Hualālai last erupted in 1801 . A severe earthquake swarm shook the volcano in 1929 , lasting about a month . This caused $ 100 @,@ 000 worth of damage to the Kona district ( $ 1 @.@ 2 million as of 2010 ) , and two earthquakes with magnitudes of 5 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 5 were felt as far away as Honolulu . This was probably caused by magma movement near the surface , but there was no surface activity or eruption . \n The 2006 Hawaii earthquake , with epicenter just to the north in Kiholo Bay near Māhukona , caused much damage in the area . \n = = = Future monitoring = = = \n Although Hualālai last erupted over 200 years ago , it will erupt again in the near future , as a 200 – 300 year estimated pause in activity is coming to an end . It presents a distinct hazard to the communities around it as well ; for example , in the event of an eruption similar to the 1801 event , Kailua @-@ Kona , which is 15 mi ( 24 km ) from the volcano 's summit , could be covered completely in a matter of hours . According to the USGS Lava Flow Hazard Zones , on a scale of 5 to 9 , all of Hualālai is listed as threat level 4 . For comparison , almost all of Kīlauea and Mauna Loa is listed as threat levels 1 through 3 . The flanks of the volcano do not pose a lower threat to the population than the area near the rift zones because the distance is short and the slopes are steep ; lava poses as much of a threat as it does near its source . \n Since 1991 , the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory ( HVO ) has maintained a seismic recording station 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) east of Hualālai 's summit to monitor the volcano . During this time , not a single earthquake swarm or harmonic tremor , indicative of activity at the volcano , has occurred . Although Hualālai does experience several magnitude 4 earthquakes per year , these are attributed to a deep source off the coast of the north @-@ western rift zone and are not related to the movement of magma . The USGS is currently in the process of upgrading its aging monitoring and telemetry equipment , using American Recovery and Reinvestment Act funds . The agency plans to add another seismometer and three more sensors to help monitor activity . In addition , the HVO uses GPS to measure slight changes in tilt and slope of Hualālai , indicative of magmatic movement . A survey has been conducted every two years since 1986 , but as of 2010 changes have been recorded . \n = = Human history = = \n Hualālai has been a home to native people since ancient times . Centuries ago , the Ahu A Umi Heiau was built on the dry plateau east of the mountain . The Kaloko @-@ Honokōhau National Historic Park lies on the shore west of Hualālai , over the site of an ancient Hawaiian settlement . Although it is called kekaha ʻaʻole wai ( lands without water ) , the rugged volcanic terrain attracted much sea life , making it an appealing place to settle . There are two main attractions within the park : the Kaloko fishpond , an area of loko kuapa ( rockwall fishponds ) constructed of interlocking rocks across a natural embayment on the coast , and Honokōhau , a former extensive settlement on the south side of the park . \n Kamakahonu , Holualoa Bay , and Keauhou Bay were favored retreats of Hawaiian royalty long before the westernization of Hawaii . It was here that Kamehameha I rested after his eight @-@ year campaign to unite the Hawaiian isles . His death in 1819 triggered social chaos . Mokuaikaua Church , built for missionaries in 1837 of lava rock and crushed coral , still stands today . Huliheʻe Palace , where many of Hawaii 's last kings spent their time , has been maintained as a museum since 1927 . \n Today , the coast west of Hualālai is a popular location for vacation resorts , since the rain shadow of the mountain causes many sunny days . The first , Kona Village resort , was built in 1961 . Since then the Four Seasons Resort and the Kūkiʻo golf course and vacation home complex have also been built on the 1800 flow . Both the Kona Village Resort and the Four Seasons Resort were damaged by the tsunami generated by the 2011 Sendai earthquake . The Hawaii Belt Road traverses the western slopes with an upper route called the Mamalahoa Highway and lower route named for Queen Kaʻahumanu . \n Much of the Kona coffee crop grows on Hualālai 's western slope near the town of Holualoa . The family of early coffee merchant Henry Nicholas Greenwell owned a large ranch on the western side of the volcano . The road from Kailua @-@ Kona up the slopes of Hualālai is named for Frank \" Palani \" Greenwell . Hawaii Route 200 known as the Saddle Road , crosses the plateau north of Hualālai , where the Pohakuloa Training Area provides a remote training ground for the United States Army and United States Marine Corps . \n = = Recreational significance = = \n Hualālai 's many interesting features , most especially its volcanic cones , make it a popular destination for hikers . Although it is relatively easy to climb , much of the land at and around the summit of the volcano is owned by Kamehameha Schools , which routinely denies access to hikers attempting to climb it . As most , if not all , routes up to Hualālai pass through the estate , hiking on Hualālai is more or less illegal . However , the laws are not stringently enforced , and many hikers slip through anyway . One of the most popular mountaineering features is Luamakami and its sister Puhia Pele , two pit craters on Hualālai that are the deepest on the island . Puhia Pele , also known as \" Pele 's Pit \" , has been explored to a depth of 862 ft ( 263 m ) , and Luamakami is known to be even deeper . The walls are scalable with the proper technical equipment . \n = = Ecology and environment = = \n Although some of Hualālai is bare volcanic rock , most of it is covered by some form of vegetation . Bushes , ferns , and grass are common , and even a few ōhiʻa lehua trees ( Metrosideros polymorpha ) grow along the summit . Many of the collapse craters in particular have vegetation , and a few even have respectably @-@ sized \" vertical forests \" inside , including several Eucalyptus tree groves . The volcano is populated by many birds and animals ; the coast in particular attracts many fish and sea @-@ dependent animals , such as the green sea turtle ( Chelonia mydas ) and the black @-@ winged stilt ( Himantopus himantopus ) . Hualālai averages 18 @.@ 27 in ( 46 cm ) of rainfall per year . The summit gets more rain than the coast and is typically obscured in heavy cloud cover and vog . \n Several ecological reserves lie on the flanks of Hualālai . The Puʻu Waʻa Waʻa forest sanctuary was established in 1992 ( along with the Laupahoehoe sister reserve on Mauna Kea ) as a testbed for long term ecological research about Hawaiian moist forest and dry forest biomes , and lies within a mile of the volcano 's summit on its northwestern flank . Elevation differs from sea level near the coastal edge to 6 @,@ 300 ft ( 1 @,@ 920 m ) near the summit . Median annual rainfall is about 46 @.@ 7 in ( 119 cm ) . Plentiful lava flows from the 19th century provide unique niches for vegetative and soil growth in the region . The southern section of the reserve , closest to the summit , has been split into a bird sanctuary . \n The Honuaula forest reserve on the southwestern flank of the volcano at 19 ° 30 ′ 25 ″ N 155 ° 54 ′ 41 ″ W , preserves an extensive koa ( Acacia koa ) forest stand , with smaller Naio ( Myoporum sandwicense ) and Māmane ( Sophora chrysophylla ) trees and an undergrowth of ʻĀkala ( Rubus hawaiensis ) and various ferns . The reserve measures 655 acres ( 265 ha ) and protects an ecosystem that has since been largely deforested in the surrounding area . The Wai Aha spring reserve on the lower slopes of the mountain is somewhat swampy and is home to the flowering evergreen ōhiʻa ( Metrosideros polymorpha ) , the woody climber ʻIeʻie ( Freycinetia arborea ) , and a dense undergrowth of ʻAmaʻu ( Sadleria cyatheoides ) . \n = WhiteWater World = \n WhiteWater World is a water park situated in the suburb of Coomera on the Gold Coast , Australia . It is owned and operated by Ardent Leisure . \n After years of planning and a year of construction , WhiteWater World opened to the public on 8 December 2006 . The ten Australian beach culture themed attractions cost approximately A $ 56 million . These included The Green Room , Super Tubes Hydrocoaster , The Rip , The BRO , Temple of Huey , Cave of Waves , Wiggle Bay , and Pipeline Plunge . Since then , four additional water slides : two called Little Rippers , one called The Wedgie and one called the Triple Vortex , have been added . \n WhiteWater World was designed to be very efficient in its water use . Since opening , the quantity of visitors has consistently been above expectations . Ardent Leisure has submitted a development application for the expansion of the water park and plans to add five new attractions . \n = = History = = \n = = = Development = = = \n In 2004 , Macquarie Leisure began planning a water park to be located next to the company 's existing Dreamworld theme park . Dreamworld 's Chief Executive Officer Stephen Gregg and General Manager of Special Projects Bob Tan visited water parks around the world to discover the most thrilling and cutting @-@ edge water rides available . Later Tan was quoted saying \" ... the drawing board for the new park was a restaurant napkin in a little cafe in the US \" . \n On 28 November 2005 , Macquarie Leisure announced it would invest $ 56 million on the Dreamworld Water Park project , with construction commencing shortly there @-@ after . \n The existing Dreamworld car park was redesigned to accommodate more cars and the addition of a water park in the southern portion . Construction of the water park began in January 2006 . In June , two of the three slide towers were complete , with several slides in the early phases of construction . One month later , several attractions were announced by the park with others being speculated upon . Some attractions were nearing completion in September and all the planned attractions had been revealed by October . \n WhiteWater World opened three weeks ahead of schedule on 8 December 2006 after a week of previews . The park opened with ten attractions , including The Green Room , The Rip , Super Tubes Hydrocoaster , The BRO , The Temple of Huey ( 3 individual slides ) , Pipeline Plunge , Wiggle Bay and the Cave of Waves . At this time , the park featured many Australian and world firsts : The Rip and Super Tubes Hydrocoaster were both Australian firsts ; The BRO was a world first ; and The Green Room was Australia 's biggest Tornado slide . After six months of operation Macquarie Leisure announced that WhiteWater World attracted 247 @,@ 360 visitors , producing a revenue of $ 8 @.@ 7 million and a profit of $ 4 million . \n = = = Performance = = = \n WhiteWater World performed above expectations after opening with approximately 23 @,@ 000 guests between 8 December and 31 December 2006 . WhiteWater World continued to exceed Macquarie Leisure 's expectations during its first year of operation . The first year saw 493 @,@ 227 guests , exceeding the 450 @,@ 000 estimate , earning the park over $ 8 @.@ 4 million in revenue . The park continued to perform well in subsequent years with an 18 @.@ 4 % increase in attendance in 2008 . \n In June 2009 , Macquarie Leisure was renamed to Ardent Leisure as part of a corporate repositioning which saw the company split from Macquarie . In August 2010 , Ardent Leisure announced a decline in revenue and profits in its theme park division . It stated that a capital expenditure plan had been endorsed which would \" ... strengthen ride inventory and consumer appeal \" . \n WhiteWaterWorld is currently ranked as one of the world 's most water efficient parks because of its sustainable water management and environmentally friendly technology . \n = = = Expansion = = = \n In September 2007 , the park added two attractions : a pair of ProSlide Cannon Bowls called The Little Rippers and an events venue called The Shell . A month later , WhiteWater World submitted a development application to the Gold Coast City Council to extend the water park . The main feature of the application was a 25 @-@ metre ( 82 ft ) tower featuring three new water slides : two Mammoth slides and a Tornado Tantrum Alley . The expansion proposal also featured a lazy river and a large water play area . After two years , the application was approved by the council . The expansion plans have been delayed due to the 2007 @-@ 2010 financial crisis . \n In December 2009 , it was reported that WhiteWater World planned to add a WhiteWater West AquaLoop . However Village Roadshow Theme Parks , owner of competitor Wet 'n'Wild Gold Coast , attempted to negotiate an exclusivity agreement with the manufacturer . Three months later in February 2010 , it was announced that WhiteWater World would build an alternative attraction built by ProSlide before the April school holidays . The Wedgie , a ProSlide Superloop , opened on 1 April 2011 . It was the first ride in Australia to feature a trap door release and was marketed as Australia 's first looping water slide . \n In 2011 , WhiteWater World 's contract with Nickelodeon was terminated and Nickelodeon 's Pipeline Plunge was renamed Pipeline Plunge . \n In September 2014 , the park added ' Triple Vortex ' , a two @-@ person tube slide by ProSlide . \n = = Attractions = = \n WhiteWater World features several water slide attractions ( all built by ProSlide ) , a large wave pool and separate children and toddler areas . There are food and beverage outlets , retail stores , a surf school , a function area and numerous shaded areas with seating . The park features three water slide towers , each featuring a collection of slides grouped by the level of thrill . The park also features three family @-@ oriented water attractions separate from the towers . All of the park 's attractions have an Australian beach culture theme . \n The slide tower near the entrance contains the park 's main thrill slides . The Wedgie is a body slide featuring a trap @-@ door release into a near @-@ vertical 17 @-@ metre ( 56 ft ) drop . Riders then enter a fast , downward @-@ spiralling turn and reach speeds of nearly 45 kilometres per hour ( 28 mph ) before they are slowed in a run @-@ out chute . The ride was the first ProSlide SuperLOOP in the world . The Green Room consists of four people boarding a cloverleaf @-@ shaped tube in which they traverse a 66 @-@ metre ( 217 ft ) long tunnel followed by a 17 @-@ metre ( 56 ft ) drop into a funnel . Within the funnel , riders oscillate back and forth up the walls at the side and drop into a splash pool . Since its opening , The Green Room has been Australia 's largest ProSlide Tornado beating Wet 'n'Wild Water World 's Tornado in height and tunnel length . On the Super Tubes Hydrocoaster , three people sit on a 45 @-@ kilogram ( 99 lb ) raft , whose weight is mainly attributable to a large magnet on its underside . Riders experience several steep drops followed by magnet @-@ powered inclines , ending with a splashdown in a small pool . The Super Tubes Hydrocoaster was the second ProSlide Hydro Magnetic Rocket Slide in the world and continues to be Australia 's only water coaster . \n The second slide tower , along the park 's southern border , features two rides with more moderate thrill ratings . On The Rip , riders hop into a four @-@ person , cloverleaf @-@ shaped tube . They descend a dark tunnel before entering a large , open bowl . The raft circles the centre of the bowl then exits down through the centre and into a splashdown pool . The Rip is the first and currently the only ProSlide Behemoth Bowl in Australia . The BRO ( Blue Ringed Octopus ) is a water slide consisting of eight 120 @-@ metre ( 390 ft ) long lanes . From a height of 16 metres ( 52 ft ) , riders mount a personal mat and slide head first down an enclosed spiral tunnel before merging into open , parallel lanes to the finish . In 24 seconds , riders can reach speeds of up to 50 kilometres per hour ( 31 mph ) . The BRO has a capacity of 1000 riders per hour . When The BRO opened in 2006 , it was the largest ProSlide Octopus Racer in the world and is the only one in Australia . A third slide , Triple Vortex , was added to the tower in late 2014 . Pairs of riders will slide down an enclosed tube slide with three funnels , similar to miniature versions of the park 's Green Room funnel . \n The slide tower in the southeast corner of the park contains five slides designed for those who desire a mild thrill . Some of the slides on this tower interact with Dreamworld 's Cyclone roller coaster . The Little Rippers are two ProSlide duelling cannon bowl slides . The slides can accommodate guests riding in either one or two person tubes . Riders begin in one of two parallel chutes before entering tunnels and splitting off in opposite directions . Each tunnel has a steep drop into the bowl element of the ride , after which the raft drops down through the centre and into a run @-@ out chute . The other three slides on this tower are collectively known as The Temple of Huey . Guests can ride in a single or double tube . All three slides are ProSlide Pipelines . The three slides are individually named Broken Headz , Cut Snake and Screamin Right Handers and are 99 , 104 and 88 metres ( 325 , 341 and 289 feet ) long respectively . Broken Headz and Cut Snake are enclosed and Screamin Right Handers is an open flume . \n Three family @-@ oriented attractions are located on the ground level , detached from the three slide towers . Two of these are children 's areas and the third is a wave pool . Pipeline Plunge is a children 's area with four flume slides and hundreds of water activities . The area , originally called Nickelodeon 's Pipeline Plunge , is a large , multi @-@ level water play structure featuring an 1 @,@ 000 @-@ litre ( 220 imp gal ; 260 US gal ) tipping bucket which dumps water on guests every few minutes . It played host to two \" Slime Fest \" events in 2009 that included several live shows , a dunking chair and \" Australia 's biggest sliming \" where 1 @,@ 000 litres ( 220 imp gal ; 260 US gal ) of slime was dumped on park guests using green coloured water in the giant tipping bucket twice daily . The mass sliming returned in the 2010 / 2011 summer holidays as part of the Summer Funomenon . Pipeline Plunge is a WhiteWater West Aqua Play area . Wiggle Bay is a Wiggles themed toddler area featuring musical and interactive water play activities , a shallow pool and four Wiggles @-@ coloured water slides , located at the back of the area. these were manufactured by ProSlide . The interactive features are manufactured by WaterPlay . The Cave of Waves is a themed 2 @,@ 685 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 28 @,@ 900 sq ft ) wave pool which can generate waves of up to 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) high . Built by Murphy 's Waves of Scotland , the pool has a constant temperature of 26 degrees Celsius . The Get Wet Surf School makes use of the pool for its lessons outside of normal park operating hours . \n = = Other facilities = = \n In addition to its lineup of attractions , WhiteWater World also has a retail outlet , an events venue , cabanas , and several food and beverage outlets . \n The Beyond the Beach shop , located near the park 's entrance , sells surf and WhiteWater World branded merchandise . The shop contains a Kodak photo centre that allows guests to purchase on @-@ ride photos taken on the Super Tubes Hydrocoaster and photographs taken inside the park . Beyond the Beach also serves as the exit gates for the park . \n WhiteWater World operates three dining outlets in the peak holiday seasons : Bite Me Cafe , Sandman 's Cafe and Bar and Salty 's Kiosk . The widest range of meals is available from the Bite Me Cafe which operates all year round . Sandman 's Cafe and Bar is a licensed bar where guests can purchase alcoholic drinks and food options including Eagle Boys pizza . It is located on the park 's western border between the Cave of Waves and the splashdown of The Wedgie . Salty 's Kiosk is located next to The BRO and sells slushies , ice creams and other snack foods . \n Since September 2007 , WhiteWater World has hosted an undercover events venue , the largest at an Australian theme park , The Shell . The venue can cater for up to 2000 guests and is located on the southeast corner of WhiteWater World . \n From April 2011 , WhiteWater World has offered guests the hire of 12 luxury cabanas , located around the park . Each cabana is designed for up to four guests , who have access to deck chairs , couches , a coffee table , an iPod dock , towels and a mini refrigerator . \n = = Reception = = \n Prior to opening , WhiteWater World was criticised for being built during one of Australia 's worst droughts and in an area on Level 5 water restrictions . When designing WhiteWater World , Macquarie Leisure implemented measures to ensure that the park was one of the most water efficient water parks in the world through the minimisation of water loss . \n In October 2008 , staff at WhiteWater World stopped Paralympian Steve Simmonds from riding the slides . Simmonds was angry and stated that he felt like he was discriminated against . WhiteWater World cited manufacturer guidelines and safety concerns as the reasons behind the restrictions . \n During the first full year of operation , WhiteWater World attracted more visitors than the expected 450 @,@ 000 guests . Attendance records show close to 500 @,@ 000 guests attended the park during that period . \n In a review of several Australian entertainment attractions for The Australian , Scott Podmore rated WhiteWater World 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , outranking its main competitors Wet 'n'Wild Gold Coast and Sea World also on the Gold Coast and UnderWater World on the Sunshine Coast . Podmore stated that \" WhiteWater World is a wonderful , diverse park offering something for everyone . \" and that \" WhiteWater World is fantastic for a splash , some R & R or some slippery big rides \" . Podmore highlighted The Rip , The BRO , Little Rippers and Temple of Huey as the park 's top attractions . \n Before The Wedgie opened in April 2010 , several media reporters experienced the ride . Tanya Westthorp of the Gold Coast Bulletin described the ride as \" ... not for the faint @-@ hearted \" . She also stated that \" ... disorientation prevails for a large chunk of the ride , but the thrill is unparalleled to any other waterslide \" . Phil Lutton of the Brisbane Times wrote that the ride \" ... is not only the fastest , most exhilarating water ride I 've ever tried but it lives up to its name in spades \" . \n = Europa Barbarorum = \n Europa Barbarorum ( Latin : Europe of the Barbarians ) , or EB , is a modification of the PC game Rome : Total War ( RTW ) based on the desire to provide Rome : Total War players with a more historically accurate game experience . \n The basic gameplay mechanics of the original game remain the same . The player controls an empire with the goal of conquering as much territory as possible and eliminating rival factions , which are controlled by the computer , or AI . The main campaign is split between two gameplay modes : a turn @-@ based strategy map for moving whole armies and managing the empire , and a real @-@ time battle map for fighting battles on the ground between two or more armies . The two game modes are linked , with success or failure in one game mode influencing the chances of success or failure in the other . \n Although set in a similar historical period and geographical area to the unmodified game ( covering a timespan of 272 BC to 14 AD , compared to the original game 's 270 BC to 14 AD ) , Europa Barbarorum is a total conversion modification as it replaces all the aspects of the original Rome : Total War game that can be replaced , such as unit models , statistics and the musical score . The modification has received favourable reviews in a number of computer gaming magazines . PC Gamer magazine ranks Europa Barbarorum as the best mod for any of the seven Total War games released for the PC at that time . \n = = Gameplay = = \n In the original Rome : Total War the player took control of an empire , or \" faction \" , of classical Europe , North Africa or the Middle East , with the aim of expanding their faction 's territory and eliminating rival empires through military conquest and city @-@ building . Europa Barbarorum retains this basic gameplay mechanic and sets itself in a similar time period and geographical area to the original game . However , as a total conversion the mod replaces the particular factions , military units , buildings , and other elements present in the original game , and adds a new soundtrack and several brand @-@ new gameplay mechanics not present in the original , such as the installation of puppet rulers . The modification 's development team 's stated aim in making the changes that they have to Rome : Total War is to make the player 's experience of the ancient world more historically accurate . For this reason , numerous parameters of the game at the start of the campaign in 272 BC , such as generals ' names , the diplomatic relations between factions , and the particular understanding of the outside world that each faction has , have been set to correspond to the actual political situation in that year . \n Also for reasons of historical verisimilitude , factions , provinces on the campaign map and factions ' family members have been given vernacular names in Europa Barbarorum , rather than having Latinised or Anglicised ones , as in Rome : Total War . So , for instance , the original game 's Armenia faction is known as Hayasdan in Europa Barbarorum , and Germania as the Sweboz . Instead of having to play one 's first campaign as a Roman faction and only subsequently unlock playable campaigns as non @-@ Romans by defeating them in the Roman campaign , all twenty of Europa Barbarorum 's playable factions can be accessed by the player from the start . Furthermore , the one unplayable and three playable Roman factions of the original have been combined into a single playable faction in Europa Barbarorum , the Romani . Dissatisfied with the homogeneity of the factions of the original Rome : Total War , the Europa Barbarorum development team have sought to differentiate the playing experiences of the game 's different factions . So , for example , Rome : Total War 's trait @-@ acquisition system , where the player 's faction 's family members acquire certain characteristics and talents which make them more or less adept at certain tasks such as city management or military leadership , has been made more faction @-@ specific in Europa Barbarorum , with Hellenic characters ' traits , for instance , being based on Theophrastos ' Characters and Aristotle 's teachings on the Golden Mean , and Romans ' traits being partially based on the moral tales of Valerius Maximus . There are sometimes additional requirements for a family member to be able to gain a new trait : in order for them to compete in one of the Panhellenic Games , for instance , the player must ensure that they are stationed in the appropriate city on the campaign map in the year that the competition is scheduled to take place . One reviewer has commented that Europa Barbarorum 's expansions upon the original Rome : Total War 's trait system have served to add a role @-@ playing element to the game . \n = = = Campaign = = = \n As in the original Rome : Total War , Europa Barbarorum 's strategic campaign sees the player take control of a particular faction and then compete for territory and resources against all the other factions , which are controlled by the game 's artificial intelligence . The player is presented with a map of Europe , North Africa and the Near East in which territory is divided into 200 provinces , each of which contains a province capital , which will at any given point be controlled either by the player 's faction , a rival playable faction , or the non @-@ playable Eleutheroi faction , which represents the world 's minor kingdoms , regional powers and rebel states . If a faction should at any point find itself not in control of any provinces , it is eliminated from the game . Gameplay is turn @-@ based , each turn representing the passage of three months on the campaign map ( unlike the six months of the original Rome : Total War ) and alternating between the player managing their empire and the artificial intelligence making all the other factions ' moves . A key game mechanic of the campaign map is the annexation of territory , which is done province @-@ by @-@ province , either by successfully besieging the province capital , or by acquiring it from another faction through diplomacy . Once a faction has acquired a province , they may construct buildings in the province capital which either enable the recruitment of certain military units or grant various bonuses to the city such as greater resilience during a siege or a decreased likelihood of the province rebelling . Provided the city contains the appropriate buildings , the player may recruit military units in the city at the same time as undertaking construction projects . The aim of the game is to acquire a specified number of provinces and / or eliminate specified rival factions ( in Europa Barbarorum particular victory conditions differ for each faction ) , whilst avoiding being eliminated by the other factions . \n The campaign map itself of Europa Barbarorum covers a wider geographical area than that of Rome : Total War , expanding into areas such as the Arabian Peninsula , India , Central Asia , and Scandinavia . Relief , province boundaries , snow boundaries , vegetation types , coastlines and areas prone to natural disaster in 272 BC have all been researched and implemented into the campaign map . The Nile – Red Sea canal linking the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea has been added to the map , as have the great trade routes of the ancient world , such as the Amber and Silk Roads , which can be captured and exploited by the player or by the artificial intelligence . \n The selection of factions present in the original Rome : Total War has been overhauled in Europa Barbarorum . The original game 's Gaul faction has been replaced with two new factions , the Aedui and the Arverni . The Scythia faction has been replaced by the Sauromatae , and the Greek Cities faction ( which included various city @-@ states ) has been replaced by the Koinon Hellenon ( Ancient Greek : League of the Greeks ) , a faction which represents the Chremonidean League of Athens , Sparta and Rhodes . Entirely new factions include Baktria , a Central Asian Hellenic empire , and Epeiros , a western Greek faction famous for producing Pyrrhos of Epiros . On the other hand , the Numidia faction of Rome : Total War was removed entirely . \n The way in which factions enhance the provinces they own through the construction of new buildings in their province capitals has changed in Europa Barbarorum . The process of assimilating a newly conquered province into one 's empire has become more differentiated in the modification than it was in the original game through the introduction of so @-@ called \" government buildings \" and military – industrial complexes . Government buildings represent different degrees of central State intervention in a province , and range from a homeland government , which can only be built in a faction 's traditional ethnic homeland and represents the highest possible degree of central State control , to an allied state government , which makes the province in question semi @-@ autonomous and installs a puppet ruler to govern it on the controlling faction 's behalf . The choice of government building in a province affects what other buildings can be constructed there : the greater the degree of autonomy granted to a province , the greater the shift in the make @-@ up of the pool of buildings available for construction from the controlling faction 's own buildings to native buildings ; that is , buildings which are more closely associated with the faction that would make its traditional home in the province in question , rather than the one currently occupying it . Nomadic , desert- and steppe @-@ dwelling factions have their own government buildings , which some say has helped differentiate between Europa Barbarorum 's factions and make the differences between Europa Barbarorum and the original Rome : Total War more than just cosmetic . These government buildings also affect unit recruitment options in a province , through the mod 's introduction of military – industrial complex ( \" MIC \" ) buildings . The original Rome : Total War 's system of constructing and subsequently upgrading different types of building in order to recruit different types of soldier ( stables for horses , ranges for archers , and so on ) has been replaced in Europa Barbarorum by the \" factional MIC \" , which enables the recruitment of all the province @-@ controlling faction 's units , and the \" regional MIC \" , which enables the recruitment of native types of soldier . How far the two types of complexes can be upgraded depends on the government of the province : the greater the autonomy of the province , the more the native MIC may be upgraded , and the less the factional MIC may be upgraded ; and vice versa . In addition to buildings which can be constructed by the player , Europa Barbarorum also introduces a number of unique buildings or \" wonders \" which can either be man @-@ made structures or features of the landscape and which provide unique bonuses to the province . \n = = = Warfare = = = \n If , during their turn on the campaign map , the player should engage one of their armies in combat with another faction 's army , or if their troops should be engaged by another faction during the AI 's turn , the player then has the option of fighting a real @-@ time battle or siege . In this gameplay mode , the player directs the troops they had brought with them on the campaign map to the engagement , ordering them to manoeuvre and attack the enemy 's troops on a three @-@ dimensional battlefield . Troops can either be killed outright on the battlefield or made to rout and flee the field if their morale falls below a certain threshold . Reviewers have noted of Rome : Total War that , during a battle , troop numbers do not outweigh all other considerations ; other factors such as individual unit types ' strengths and soldiers ' morale and fatigue at the point of fighting are also taken into account . A battle is won when one side kills or routs the entire enemy army ; a siege may be won by the attacking side through either dispatching the opposing forces or gaining control of the besieged city 's central plaza for a certain number of minutes , and by the defending side either by killing the attackers or by destroying their siege equipment before they have managed to breach the city 's defences . \n The make @-@ up of the game 's units is one of the areas in which the most change can be seen going from the original game to the mod . Reviewers have commented that the differences between Europa Barbarorum and its parent game are \" immediate \" and \" striking \" and that the modification is different from its parent game \" in look and in play \" . Another reviewer described the mod as having a more \" gritty , realistic look \" than the original Rome : Total War . All the units that were present in the original game have been removed and replaced in Europa Barbarorum . Specific examples include the removal of several units that the Europa Barbarorum team considered to be historically doubtful or only marginally used in warfare , such as Arcani , incendiary pigs and Celtic head @-@ hurlers from the original Rome : Total War . Nor was the modding team happy with the way more conventional forces were portrayed in the original game , for instance calling Rome : Total War 's Egyptian soldiers \" Mummy Returns Egyptians \" and hence creating a new unit roster for the Egyptian faction in the game ( named Egypt in the original Rome : Total War and the Ptolemaioi in Europa Barbarorum ) , in order to better correspond with the Ptolemaic period of history . The mod also features new custom battle formations in order to encourage more realistic behaviour from the AI . \n = = Audio = = \n Europa Barbarorum features its own soundtrack , distinct from that of Rome : Total War . Some of its tracks were composed especially by Morgan Casey and Nick Wylie ; others are examples of authentic music , the Celtic factions ' tracks , for example , having been recorded by early music ensemble Prehistoric Music Ireland . Europa Barbarorum also includes its own \" voicemod \" , an attempt by the developers to replace the English cries of Rome : Total War 's soldiers with ones in their native languages , which include classical Latin , Celtic , and ancient Greek . \n = = Development = = \n The Europa Barbarorum project began in January 2004 , eight months before Rome : Total War 's release , when the Europa Barbarorum development team who were following the game 's development became concerned that its \" barbarian \" factions such as the Gauls were being portrayed inaccurately . The Europa Barbarorum team felt that such factions ' representations in Rome : Total War conformed more to a Hollywood stereotype than to historical fact , and wished to see a more realistic portrayal of such factions in the game . The modding team tried to convince the Creative Assembly ( CA ) , the developers of Rome : Total War , to alter their depiction of the period in line with the team 's research , but the developers failed to take them up on their offer . Having exhausted this avenue for change , the Europa Barbarorum members then resolved to modify the game themselves upon its release . \n = = Release = = \n Europa Barbarorum was first released to the public as an open beta in December 2005 . After several more minor releases throughout 2006 which mostly fixed bugs and made small adjustments to the modification , the next major release of Europa Barbarorum was version 0 @.@ 80 in December 2006 . Its changes included the addition of the Sabaean faction , new music , and the inclusion of a new military – industrial complex system . There were three more 0 @.@ 8 @-@ series releases during the first half of 2007 which primarily made minor adjustments to the modification and fixed bugs . In total , over 135 @,@ 000 downloads of the 0 @.@ 80 – 0 @.@ 81 versions were tracked . \n The next major release was version 1 @.@ 0 , which was released in October 2007 and included new units , new government options for the Pahlava and Hayasdan factions , the addition of a new type of wall to the battle map and new music from prehistoric music group Prehistoric Music Ireland . The 1 @.@ 0 version was downloaded over 90 @,@ 000 times in the six months following its release . This was followed by version 1 @.@ 1 , which was released in April 2008 and included new battle map landscapes , new units , the addition of the Pahlavi voicemod and the inclusion of an introduction video for the Saka Rauka faction . The current release is version 1 @.@ 2 , which contains the addition of the Punic voicemod and bug fixes ; the development team had previously stated that future releases of Europa Barbarorum for the Rome : Total War engine will not include any major gameplay changes . \n Europa Barbarorum has seen some significant changes to its campaign over the course of its development . The Yuezhi faction , included in early releases of the modification , was subsequently dropped . Earlier releases of Europa Barbarorum also featured player alerts representing the major stages of the breakup of the Seleukid faction , if that collapse occurred in the game . However , such features became impossible to implement after the SPQR faction of the original game , used in Europa Barbarorum for scripting purposes , was removed from the mod in exchange for the kingdom of Saba . \n Following the main modification 's release , a number of customisations of Europa Barbarorum have been created , such as porting it to run using the Rome : Total War : Barbarian Invasion executable , or Feral Interactive 's Mac OS X version of Rome : Total War . There had been plans to release a version of the mod for the PC game Europa Universalis : Rome , but no Europa Barbarorum mod has yet been released for the strategy title . \n = = = Europa Barbarorum II = = = \n The Europa Barbarorum development team also developed a new version of the modification for the Medieval II : Total War : Kingdoms engine which was named Europa Barbarorum II . The modification was designed to take advantage of the improved graphics of Medieval II : Total War and of its engine 's additional features , such as the possibility for different soldiers within the same unit to have different appearances , as opposed to the \" clones \" criticised by some reviewers of Rome : Total War . Europa Barbarorum II includes new government , unit recruitment and trait systems , and new playable factions such as the kingdom of Gandhara , which has its own Sanskrit voicemod . \n An initial version of Europa Barbarorum II v2.0 was released on August 25 , 2014 , with a second version ( v2.01 ) released on September 12 , 2014 . On December 21 , 2015 a third version ( 2.1b ) was released and provided a number of improvements , such as remodelled battle map settlements , battle map vegetation , and new units with military reforms for various factions . \n = = Reception = = \n Europa Barbarorum was featured and reviewed in a number of video game magazines . It has been reviewed in PC Gamer ( UK ) twice , in March 2005 and February 2008 . The 2008 review was overwhelmingly positive , saying that \" EB feels like a whole new Total War game \" , and going on to praise the modification 's \" stunning \" scope and the \" striking \" extent of the differences between it and Rome : Total War . The review was somewhat critical of the modification 's graphical user interfaces which \" [ occasionally ] \" had a \" home @-@ made \" feel to them , as well as its lack of accessibility and steep learning curve , although it adds that the second point is not a large problem as the modification is largely a \" master 's challenge for accomplished Rome players \" . The review finished on a positive note , summing Europa Barbarorum up as a \" superior game \" . In 2010 the same magazine 's website named Europa Barbarorum the best mod of any Total War game . \n A number of non @-@ English language magazines have also reviewed Europa Barbarorum . The Italian PC Gaming magazine Giochi per il mio computer reviewed the modification in April 2005 and March 2008 . The 2005 review reported that the modification , whose development team included two historians , was to replace the \" economic system , [ soldiers ' ] equipment and the provinces \" of Rome : Total War ; the latter review praised the mod for having \" altered and deepened \" the gameplay of the original title , and wrote that Europa Barbarorum was the best substitute for a Rome 2 : Total War game prior to the actual release of such a title . Dutch magazine PC Gameplay , reviewing the mod in March 2008 , also wrote that the mod was \" perhaps the best candidate for the title Rome : Total War II \" \" until the official announcement \" and went on to note that the list of changes that the modification had made to the original game almost constituted \" a history book of its own \" . The German magazine GameStar wrote in April 2007 that the Europa Barbarorum team had \" banned all historical mistakes from the game \" ; in January 2011 , another German publication , PC Games , also noted the mod 's historical accuracy , singling out its \" more realistic , more [ challenging ] \" battles for praise , although it did note that the mod was squarely aimed at experienced Rome : Total War players . Reviewing version 0 @.@ 74 of the mod in November 2006 , Romanian publication LeveL concurred that the mod was aimed at experienced players , adding that the modified version of the game put greater demands on the player 's computer than the original Rome : Total War , requiring 512 MB of RAM , up from the original 's 256 . Despite this , the reviewer praised the mod 's complexity , the \" painstaking detail \" that went into making the units and the mod 's soundtrack . \n Europa Barbarorum has also received several online reviews . The modification received a review early into its development process on gaming website HeavenGames , which said that it was an \" ambitious \" project and praised its commitment to historical accuracy , even stating that the Europa Barbarorum development team was going to use satellite imagery and climate change statistics to accurately portray the world as it was in 272 BC . Later , in 2008 , the modification has been reviewed on Boomtown , which praised the modification 's \" incredibly well @-@ researched and -devised \" unit stats system , as well as its \" legion of historians \" . The modification has sometimes been mentioned as a recommended complement to Rome : Total War in reviews of the original title – for instance , by Norwegian gaming website Gamereactor in 2007 . \n In addition , Europa Barbarorum was singled out for praise by the Creative Assembly themselves in 2011 , when they called the mod \" breathtaking \" in an official statement . \n = Harriet Arbuthnot = \n Harriet Arbuthnot ( 10 September 1793 – 2 August 1834 ) was an early 19th @-@ century English diarist , social observer and political hostess on behalf of the Tory party . During the 1820s she was the \" closest woman friend \" of the hero of Waterloo and British Prime Minister , the 1st Duke of Wellington . She maintained a long correspondence and association with the Duke , all of which she recorded in her diaries , which are consequently extensively used in all authoritative biographies of the Duke of Wellington . \n Born into the periphery of the British aristocracy and married to a politician and member of the establishment , she was perfectly placed to meet all the key figures of the Regency and late Napoleonic eras . Recording meetings and conversations often verbatim , she has today become the \" Mrs. Arbuthnot \" quoted in many biographies and histories of the era . Her observations and memories of life within the British establishment are not confined to individuals but document politics , great events and daily life with an equal attention to detail , providing historians with a clear picture of the events described . Her diaries were themselves finally published in 1950 as The Journal of Mrs Arbuthnot . \n = = Early life = = \n Harriet Arbuthnot was born Harriet Fane , the daughter of the Hon. Henry Fane , second son of Thomas Fane , 8th Earl of Westmorland . As a young man , Henry Fane had been described as \" very idle and careless and spending much time in the country \" . However , he found time to be the Member of Parliament for Lyme and in 1772 was appointed Keeper of the King 's Private Roads . In 1778 , he married Arbuthnot 's mother , Anne Batson , an heiress , the daughter of Edward Buckley Batson . The couple had 14 children : nine sons and five daughters . \n The young Harriet spent much of her childhood at the family home at Fulbeck Hall in Lincolnshire , sited high on the limestone hills above Grantham . The house , which had been given to Henry Fane by his father , was a not over @-@ large modern mansion at the time of Arbuthnot 's childhood . It was rebuilt following a fire in 1733 , and further extended and modernised in 1784 by Henry Fane . At Fulbeck Harriet and her 13 siblings enjoyed a comfortable and reasonably affluent rural childhood . \n Harriet Fane 's father died when she was nine years old , but the family fortunes improved considerably in 1810 when her mother inherited the Avon Tyrrell estate in Hampshire and the Upwood Estate in Dorset . This yielded the widowed Mrs Fane an income of £ 6 @,@ 000 per annum ( £ 380 @,@ 000 per year as of 2016 ) , a large income by the standards of the day . With 14 children and a position in society to maintain , however , the money was fully utilised . \n = = Marriage = = \n Harriet Fane married Rt Hon Charles Arbuthnot , member of Parliament , at Fulbeck on 31 January 1814 . Born in 1767 , her husband was 26 years older than she was , an age difference which had initially caused her family to object to the marriage . Another of the principal obstacles to finalising the arrangements for the marriage was financial . Her widowed mother delegated the arrangements for the marriage of her 20 @-@ year @-@ old daughter to her elder son Vere , a 46 @-@ year @-@ old widower who was considered qualified in these matters as he worked at Child 's Bank . It seems that Vere Fane and his mother were not initially prepared to settle enough money on his sister to satisfy her future husband , causing the prospective bridegroom to write to his fiancée : \" How can you and I live upon £ 1000 or £ 1200 and Fane [ her mother ] finds it so impossible to live upon her £ 6000 that she can offer you no assistance whatsoever ? \" \n Charles Arbuthnot was a widower with four children ; his son Charles was a mere nine years junior to his new wife . His first wife Marcia , a lady in waiting to the notorious Princess of Wales , had died in 1806 . Like the other two men his second wife so admired , Viscount Castlereagh and Wellington , Charles Arbuthnot was a member of the Anglo @-@ Irish aristocracy . He had been a member of parliament since 1795 , when he became the member for East Looe . At the time of his marriage to Fane , he was the member for St Germans . He had briefly interrupted his political career to become Ambassador Extraordinary to the Ottoman Empire between 1804 and 1807 . Marriage to such a pillar of the establishment as Charles Arbuthnot opened all doors to his young new wife , who , as one of the 14 children of a younger son of an aristocratic family possessed of no great fortune , would otherwise have been on the periphery of the highest society . However , as the debate and wrangling over her dowry proved , money was tight . \n Throughout her marriage , Mrs Arbuthnot , the former Harriet Fane , formed close friendships with powerful older men . She described Castlereagh as her \" dearest and best friend \" until his death in 1822 , when she transferred her affections to the other great 19th @-@ century Anglo @-@ Irish peer , the Duke of Wellington . All social commentators of the time , however , agree that her marriage was happy ; indeed , her husband was as close a friend of Wellington 's as was his wife . Married to a politician , she was fascinated by politics and enjoyed success as a political hostess while exerting her energies to promote Tory causes . However , while she was the dominant partner , her conservative outlook ensured her continued favour among her elderly Tory admirers . During the early part of her marriage , her husband served as an Under @-@ Secretary at the Treasury . Later , in 1823 , he was given the Department of Woods and Forests , a position which gave him charge of the Royal parks and gardens . The subsequent access to the Royal family this allowed increased not only his status but also that of his wife . \n When remarking in her diaries on other women who shared their affections with great men of the day , Arbuthnot displayed a sharp , ironic wit . Of Wellington 's one @-@ time mistress Princess Dorothea Lieven , wife to the Imperial Russian ambassador to London from 1812 to 1834 , she wrote \" It is curious that the loves and intrigues of a femme galante should have such influence over the affairs of Europe . \" Arbuthnot obviously failed to realise she was regarded by some in London society as a femme galante in a similar situation herself . \n Her political observations are clearly written from her own Tory viewpoint . However , her detailed description of the rivalry for power between the Tories and Liberals which took place between 1822 and 1830 is one of the most authoritative accounts of this struggle . \n = = Relationship with Wellington = = \n It is likely that Arbuthnot first came to the attention of Wellington during 1814 in the re @-@ opened salons of Paris following the exile of Napoleon to Elba . Wellington had been appointed the British Ambassador to the Court of the Tuileries , and the city was crowded with English visitors anxious to travel on the continent and socialise after the Napoleonic Wars . \n Amongst those sampling the rounds of entertainment in this lively environment were the newly married Arbuthnots . Charles Arbuthnot was known to Wellington , as he had been a strong supporter of Wellington 's younger brother Henry during his divorce , and it is possible Wellington had met , or at least heard of , Mrs Arbuthnot — she was a first cousin to his favourites the Burghersh family . However , it was only after the death of Castlereagh in 1822 that the Wellington – Arbuthnot friendship blossomed . It is unlikely any close friendship developed before this time . Wellington , ensconced in the Hotel de Charost ( recently vacated by Napoleon 's sister Princess Pauline Borghese ) and fêted by the whole of Restoration Paris , had already found himself a close female companion , Giuseppina Grassini . This woman , known , due to her close friendship with Napoleon as \" La Chanteuse de l 'Empereur \" , scandalised Parisian society both English and French by appearing on Wellington 's arm , especially after the arrival in Paris of the Duchess of Wellington . \n The story of a \" ménage à trois \" between Mrs Arbuthnot , her husband Charles , and Wellington , widely speculated upon , has been rejected by some biographers . However , it has been said that the unhappily married Duke enjoyed his relationship with Mrs Arbuthnot because he found in her company \" the comfort and happiness his wife could not give him . \" Arbuthnot was certainly the Duke 's confidante in all matters , especially that of his marriage . He confided to her that he only married his wife because \" they asked me to do it \" and that he was \" not the least in love with her . \" In fact , Wellington had not seen his wife for ten years before their wedding day . Following the marriage , the bride and groom found they had little if anything in common . Despite producing two sons , they led mostly separate lives until the death of the Duchess of Wellington in 1831 . Harriet had a rather poor opinion of the Duchess , although she disagreed with Wellington when he said that his wife cared nothing for his comfort : in Harriet 's view the Duchess longed to make her husband happy , but had no idea how to go about the task . \n As a consequence of his unsatisfactory marriage , Wellington formed relationships with other women , but it was for Arbuthnot that \" he reserved his deepest affection . \" Her husband at this time was working at The Treasury and Arbuthnot in effect became what would today be termed Wellington 's social secretary during his first term of premiership between January 1828 and November 1830 . It has been suggested that the Duke of Wellington allowed her \" almost unrestricted access to the secrets of the cabinet \" . Whatever her knowledge and access , however , it appears she was unable to influence the Duke , but even his refusal to bring her husband into the Cabinet in January 1828 failed to shake the intimacy of the trio . \n Wellington made no attempts to conceal his friendship with Arbuthnot . An indication that their relationship was platonic and accepted as such in the highest echelons of society can be drawn from the Duchess of Kent permitting Wellington to present Arbuthnot to her infant daughter , the future Queen Victoria , in 1828 . Arbuthnot noted that the young princess was \" the most charming child I ever saw \" and that \" the Duchess of Kent is a very sensible person , who educates her ( Victoria ) remarkably well . \" Arbuthnot 's impressions of the Duchess were less than candid , and not shared by Wellington and other establishment figures . However , had Arbuthnot 's own character not been judged respectable an audience with the infant princess would not have been permitted . \n Many references in Arbuthnot 's diary , however , are less respectful than those she accorded to the Duchess of Kent . Wellington and Arbuthnot often travelled together , and a visit to Blenheim Palace they shared in 1824 provoked a scathing entry in her journal concerning Wellington 's fellow duke the 5th Duke of Marlborough , of whom she wrote : \" The family of the great General is , however , gone sadly to decay , and are but a disgrace to the illustrious name of Churchill , which they have chosen this moment to resume . The present Duke is overloaded with debt , is very little better than a common swindler \" . \n When Wellington and the Tories fell from power in November 1830 , Arbuthnot lost interest in her diary , writing : \" I shall write very seldom now , I dare say , in my book , for , except the Duke , none of the public men interest me . \" Her account of the break @-@ up of the Tory party is a thoroughly partisan narration , accurate as to happenings outside the Tory inner circle , but on a broader scale and not so completely political as that of Henry Hobhouse . \n = = Legacy = = \n Arbuthnot died suddenly of cholera at a farmhouse near the Arbuthnots ' seat , Woodford House , near Kettering in Northamptonshire , in the summer of 1834 . Immediately after her death an express message was sent to Apsley House . The messenger , however , had to divert to Hatfield House where Wellington was dining with the Marquess and Marchioness of Salisbury . After her death , it was revealed she had been on a civil list pension of £ 936 per annum ( £ 76 @,@ 000 per year as of 2016 ) since January 1823 . \n The exact nature of Arbuthnot 's relationship with Wellington has always been a subject for conjecture . Fuel was added to the speculations when Wellington was immediately pursued by female admirers following her death . One was a Miss Jenkins who , from the moment of Arbuthnot 's death , pursued him \" body and soul . \" Another , who resurfaced from his past , was Arbuthnot 's own cousin , the eccentric Lady Georgiana Fane , who constantly pestered Wellington with threats to publish intimate letters he had once sent her , and to sue him for , allegedly , reneging on a promise to marry her . It seems most likely that in addition to assisting Wellington with his social life , Harriet 's presence at his side protected him from the advances of other women . The Duke certainly kept mistresses during the period he knew Arbuthnot , but it has never been proven that Harriet was one of them . The tour at Apsley House , the Duke 's London residence , asserts that she merely served as his hostess at political dinners . \n After her death , Charles left Woodford House and lived with his close friend Wellington . Charles died at Apsley House in 1850 , aged 83 . During their time together the two elderly men mourned the loss of Arbuthnot and bemoaned the splits developing within the Tory party . Wellington lived on for another two years and was buried with due pomp and circumstance in St Paul 's Cathedral . Harriet Arbuthnot had been buried with the Fane family at St Nicholas ' parish church , Fulbeck . \n = Battle of Iron Works Hill = \n The Battle of Iron Works Hill , also known as the Battle of Mount Holly , was a series of minor skirmishes that took place on December 22 and 23 , 1776 , during the American War of Independence . They took place in Mount Holly , New Jersey , between an American force mostly composed of colonial militia under Colonel Samuel Griffin and a force of 2 @,@ 000 Hessians and British regulars under Carl von Donop . \n While the American force of 600 was eventually forced from their positions by the larger Hessian force , the action prevented von Donop from being in his assigned base at Bordentown , New Jersey and in a position to assist Johann Rall 's brigade in Trenton , New Jersey when it was attacked and defeated by George Washington after his troops crossed the Delaware on the night of December 25 – 26 . \n = = Background = = \n In July 1776 forces of Great Britain under the command of General William Howe landed on Staten Island . Over the next several months , Howe 's forces , which were British Army regulars and auxiliary German troops usually referred to as Hessian , chased George Washington 's Continental Army out of New York City and across New Jersey . Washington 's army , which was shrinking in size due to expiring enlistments , and desertions due to poor morale , took refuge in Pennsylvania on the western shore of the Delaware River in November , removing all the available watercraft to deny the British any opportunity to cross the wide river . \n General Howe established a chain of outposts across New Jersey , and ordered his troops into winter quarters . The southernmost outposts were located at Trenton and Bordentown . The Trenton outpost was manned by about 1 @,@ 500 men of a Hessian brigade under the command of Johann Rall , and the Bordentown outpost was manned by Hessians and the British 42nd Regiment contingents , about 2 @,@ 000 troops in all , under the command of the Hessian Colonel Carl von Donop . Bordentown itself was not large enough to house all of von Donop 's force . While he had hoped to quarter some troops even further south at Burlington , where there was strong Loyalist support , floating gun batteries from the Pennsylvania Navy threatened the town , and Donop , rather than expose Loyalist allies to their fire , was forced to scatter his troops throughout the surrounding countryside . \n As the troops of von Donop and Rall occupied the last outposts , they were often exposed to the actions of rebel raids and the actions of Patriot militia forces that either arose spontaneously or were recruited by Army regulars . These actions frayed the nerves of the troops , as the uncertainty of when and where such attacks would take place , and by what size force , put the men and their commanders on edge , leading them to jump up to investigate every rumored movement . Rall went so far as to order his men to sleep \" fully dressed like [ they were ] on watch . \" \n One militia force that rose in December 1776 was a company under the command of Virginia Colonel Samuel Griffin . Griffin ( whose name is sometimes misspelled \" Griffith \" ) was the adjutant to General Israel Putnam , who was responsible for the defense of Philadelphia . Griffin 's force , whose exact composition is uncertain , probably included some Virginia artillerymen , Pennsylvania infantry , and New Jersey militia , and numbered five to six hundred . By mid @-@ December he had reached Moorestown , about ten miles southwest of Mount Holly . By December 21 , Griffin had advanced to Mount Holly and established a rough fortification atop a hill near an iron works , south of the Rancocas Creek and the village center . Von Donop sent a Loyalist to investigate , who reported a force of \" not above eight hundred , nearly one half boys , and all of them Militia a very few from Pennsylvania excepted \" . Thomas Stirling , who commanded a contingent of the 42nd positioned about seven miles north of Mount Holly at Blackhorse ( present @-@ day Columbus ) , heard rumors that there were 1 @,@ 000 rebels at Mount Holly and \" 2 @,@ 000 more were in the rear to support them \" . When von Donop asked Stirling for advice , he replied , \" You sir , with the troops at Bordentown , should come here and attack . I am confident we are a match for them . \" \n = = Battle = = \n On December 21 , about 600 of Griffin 's troops overwhelmed a guard outpost of the 42nd located about one mile south of Blackhorse at Petticoat Bridge . On the evening of December 22 , Washington 's adjutant , Joseph Reed , went to Mount Holly and met with Griffin . Griffin had written to Reed , requesting small field pieces to assist in their actions , and Reed , who had been discussing a planned attack on Rall 's men in Trenton with Washington , wanted to see if Griffin 's company could participate in some sort of diversionary attack . Griffin was ill , and his men poorly equipped for significant action , but they apparently agreed to some sort of actions the next day . \n On the morning of December 23 , von Donop brought about 3 @,@ 000 troops ( the 42nd British ( Highland ) Regiment and the Hessian Grenadier battalions Block and Linsing ) to Petticoat Bridge where they overwhelmed Griffin 's men . Griffin 's troops retreated to Mount Holly where von Donop reported scattering about 1 @,@ 000 men near the town 's meeting house . Jäger Captain Johann Ewald reported that \" some 100 men \" were posted on a hill \" near the church \" , who \" retired quickly \" after a few rounds of artillery were fired . Griffin , whose troops had occupied Mount Holly , slowly retreated to their fortified position on the hill , following which the two sides engaged in ineffectual long @-@ range fire . \n = = Aftermath = = \n Von Donop 's forces bivouacked in Mount Holly on the night of December 23 , where , according to Ewald , they plundered the town , breaking into alcohol stores of abandoned houses and getting drunk . Von Donop himself took quarters in the house that Ewald described as belonging to an \" exceedingly beautiful widow of a doctor \" , whose identity is uncertain . The next day , December 24 , they moved in force to drive the militia from the hill , but Griffin and his men had retreated to Moorestown during the night . For whatever reason , von Donop and his contingents remained in Mount Holly , 18 miles ( 29 km ) and a full day 's march from Trenton , until a messenger arrived on December 26 , bringing the news of Rall 's defeat by Washington that morning . \n News of the skirmishes at Mount Holly was often exaggerated . Published accounts of the day varied , including among participants in the battle . One Pennsylvanian claimed that sixteen of the enemy were killed , while a New Jersey militiaman reported seven enemy killed . Both Donop and Ewald specifically denied any British or German casualties occurred during the first skirmish on December 22 , while the Pennsylvania Evening Post reported \" several \" enemy casualties with \" two killed and seven or eight wounded \" of the militia through the whole action . \n Some reporters , including Loyalist Joseph Galloway , assumed that Griffin had been specifically sent to draw von Donop away from Bordentown , but von Donop 's decision to attack in force was apparently made prior to Reed 's arrival . Reed noted in his journal that \" this manouver [ sic ] , though perfectly accidental , had a happy effect as it drew off Count Donop .... \" The planning for Washington 's crossing of the Delaware did include sending a militia force to Griffin in an attack on von Donop at Mount Holly ; this company failed to cross the river . \n = = Legacy = = \n The hill that Griffin 's militia occupied is located at Iron Works Park in Mount Holly . The battle is reenacted annually . \n = Bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum = \n The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum ( Caluromys philander ) is an opossum from South America . It was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum is characterized by a gray head , brown to gray coat , orange to gray underside and a partially naked tail . It is nocturnal ( active mainly at night ) and solitary ; there is hardly any social interaction except between mother and juveniles and in mating pairs . The opossum constructs nests in tree cavities , and its litter size ranges from one to seven . Gestation lasts 25 days , and the juveniles exit the pouch after three months ; weaning occurs a month later . The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum inhabits subtropical forests , rainforests , secondary forests and plantations ; its range extends from northern Venezuela to northeastern and southcentral Brazil . The IUCN classfies this opossum as least concern . \n = = Taxonomy = = \n The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum is one of the three members of Caluromys , and is placed in the family Didelphidae in the marsupial order Didelphimorphia . It was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus as Didelphis philander in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae ( 1758 ) . It was given its present binomial name , Caluromys philander , by American zoologist Joel Asaph Allen in 1900 . A 1955 revision of marsupial phylogeny grouped Caluromys , Caluromysiops , Dromiciops ( monito del monte ) and Glironia ( bushy @-@ tailed opossum ) under a single subfamily , Microbiotheriinae , noting the dental similarities among these . A 1977 study argued that these similarities are the result of convergent evolution , and placed Caluromys , Caluromysiops and Glironia in a new subfamily , Caluromyinae . In another similar revision in 2009 , the bushy @-@ tailed opossum was placed in its own subfamily , Glironiinae . \n The following four subspecies are recognized : \n C. p. affinis Wagner , 1842 : Occurs in Mato Grosso ( Brazil ) and Bolivia . \n C. p. dichurus Wagner , 1842 : Occurs in eastern and southeastern Brazil . \n C. p. philander Linnaeus , 1758 : Occurs to the east of Rio Negro in Brazil , the Guianas , and to the south of the Orinoco River in Venezuela . \n C. p. trinitatis Thomas , 1894 : Occurs in Trinidad and to the north of the Orinoco River in Venezuela . \n The cladogram below , based on a 2016 study , shows the phylogenetic relationships of the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum . \n = = Description = = \n The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum is characterized by a brown to gray coat , gray head , orange to gray underside and a partially naked tail furry at the base . A distinctive , narrow dark brown stripe runs between the eyes and the ears , from the tip of the nose to the back of the ears . Similar but broad streaks run from brown rings around either eye . Grayish fur separates these stripes from one another . Ears are large and almost always hairless . The coat is thick , soft and woolly ; the flanks may be grayer than the back . The dorsal hairs continue up to 5 – 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) onto the tail , after which it is naked , as the name suggests . The tail is dark brown towards the end , spotted with white and dark brown , terminating in a white or yellowish white tip . \n The size appears to decrease from Venezuela to Suriname ; the mean weight is 170 grams ( 6 @.@ 0 oz ) in Venezuela and 250 grams ( 8 @.@ 8 oz ) in Suriname . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically between 16 and 26 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 and 10 @.@ 2 in ) . The ears measure 3 to 3 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 4 in ) , the tail 25 to 36 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 to 14 @.@ 2 in ) and the hind feet 3 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 9 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 5 in ) . The dental formula is 5 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 44 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 4 – typical of didelphids . \n = = Ecology and behavior = = \n The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum is nocturnal ( active mainly at night ) , and thus difficult to observe or capture . Nevertheless , it is one of the very few opossums that have been successfully studied in detail . A study showed that activity of bare @-@ tailed woolly opossums can be affected by the extent of moonlight . While activity in males dropped from new moon to full moon ( that is , with increasing exposure to moonlight ) , activity in females remained largely unaffected . The opossum is arboreal ( tree @-@ living ) and a good climber . A study showed that the tail , being prehensile , can act as an additional limb for locomotion , avoiding falls and carrying leaves to build nests . It builds nests with dry leaves in tree cavities . \n Individuals tend to be aggressive to one another ; hisses , grunts and even distress calls accompany agonistic behavior . Largely solitary , the only interactions observed are between mother and juveniles and in a mating pair . In a primary forest of French Guiana , the mean home range size was calculated as 3 hectares ( 0 @.@ 012 sq mi ) . Ranges of both sexes overlapped extensively . The size of home ranges is influenced by environmental factors such as forage availability and individual needs . ' Click 's are a common vocalization , produced by the young as well as adults . Bare @-@ tailed woolly opossums , like other Caluromys species , will bite on being handled or to escape predators . Predators include the jaguarundi and margay . \n = = = Diet = = = \n An omnivore , the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum feeds on fruits , vegetables , gum , nectar , small birds and reptiles . A study of the foraging behavior of the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum and the sympatric kinkajou showed that both feed on a variety of plants , choose plants by their abundance , show similar preferences , and favor certain plant parts at certain times of the year . A notable difference between the two was that while the kinkajou focused on plants with a wide distribution , the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum also fed on less common plants . \n = = = Reproduction = = = \n In French Guiana , females mate successfully after they are a year old . Females can have three litters a year , unless food is scarce . Gestation lasts 25 days – the longest among didelphomorphs ; the young come out of the pouch at three months and weaning occurs at four months . A study in French Guiana showed that development of the offspring is slow for the first 40 days , and then accelerates during the last 40 days . The litter size ranges from one to seven . Newborn weigh 200 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 0071 oz ) , and their weight increases to 11 grams ( 0 @.@ 39 oz ) after weaning . After exiting the pouch , offspring are sheltered in nests , where the mother regularly visits them for nursing . \n = = Distribution and status = = \n The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum inhabits subtropical forests , rainforests , secondary forests and plantations ; it prefers dense cover , though it can be seen on canopies as well . It can occur up to an altitude of 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 – 5 @,@ 900 ft ) above the sea level . The range extends from northern Venezuela eastward to northeastern and southcentral Brazil , and includes Guiana , French Guiana , Margarita Island , Trinidad , and Suriname . The IUCN classifies the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum as least concern , due to its wide distribution and presumably large population . The survival of this opossum is threatened by deforestation and habitat loss . \n = Dark Magus = \n Dark Magus is a live double album by American jazz composer and trumpeter Miles Davis . It was recorded on March 30 , 1974 , at Carnegie Hall in New York City . Davis ' group at the time included bassist Michael Henderson , drummer Al Foster , percussionist James Mtume , saxophonist Dave Liebman , and guitarists Pete Cosey and Reggie Lucas . He also used the show to audition saxophonist Azar Lawrence and guitarist Dominique Gaumont . Dark Magus was produced by Teo Macero and featured four two @-@ part recordings titled after Swahili names for the numbers one through four . \n Dark Magus was released after Davis ' 1975 retirement , upon which his label , Columbia Records , issued several albums of various outtakes . After releasing the live recordings Agharta ( 1975 ) and Pangaea ( 1976 ) , Columbia decided that they did not approve of the albums and released Dark Magus only in Japan . It was issued in 1977 by CBS @-@ Sony . The label 's A & R executive Tatsu Nosaki suggested the album 's title , which referred to the Magus from the Zoroastrian religion . \n Along with Davis ' other records during the 1970s , Dark Magus was received ambivalently by contemporary music critics , but it inspired noise rock acts during the late 1970s and the experimental funk artists of the 1980s . The album was not released in the United States until July 1997 , when it was reissued by Sony Records and Legacy Records . In retrospective reviews , critics praised"},"length_category":{"kind":"string","value":"Very Long"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"wikitext-103-excerpt"}}},{"rowIdx":6598,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"994 ) . Thai @-@ ka Loi Hok Hak @-@ fa ( Everybody Learn Hakka ) . Taipei : Southern Materials Center . ISBN 957 @-@ 638 @-@ 017 @-@ 0 . \n Phang Tet @-@ siu ( 1996 ) . Hak @-@ ka @-@ fa Fat @-@ yim Sṳ @-@ tien ( Hakka Pronunciation Dictionary ) . Taipei : Southern Materials Center . ISBN 957 @-@ 638 @-@ 359 @-@ 5 . \n Hak @-@ ka Sṳn @-@ sṳ ( Hakka Hymns ) . Tainan : PCT Press . 1999 . ISBN 957 @-@ 8349 @-@ 75 @-@ 0 . \n A modified version of POJ has also been created for Teochew . \n = = Current status = = \n Most native Southern Min speakers in Taiwan are unfamiliar with POJ or any other writing system for the variety , commonly asserting that \" Taiwanese has no writing \" , or , if they are made aware of POJ , considering romanization as the \" low \" form of writing , in contrast with the \" high \" form ( Chinese characters ) . For those who are introduced to POJ alongside Han @-@ lo and completely Chinese character @-@ based systems , a clear preference has been shown for all @-@ character systems , with all @-@ romanization systems at the bottom of the preference list , likely because of the preexisting familiarity of readers with Chinese characters . \n POJ remains the Taiwanese orthography \" with the richest inventory of written work , including dictionaries , textbooks , literature [ ... ] and other publications in many areas \" . A 1999 estimate put the number of literate POJ users at around 100 @,@ 000 , and secular organizations have been formed to promote the use of romanization among Taiwanese speakers . \n Outside Taiwan , POJ is rarely used . For example , in Fujian , Xiamen University uses a romanization known as Bbánlám pìngyīm , based on Pinyin . In other areas where Hokkien is spoken , such as Singapore , the Speak Mandarin Campaign is underway to actively discourage people from speaking Hokkien or other non @-@ Mandarin varieties in favour of switching to Mandarin instead . \n In 2006 , Taiwan 's Ministry of Education chose an official romanization for use in teaching Southern Min in the state school system . POJ was one of the candidate systems , along with Daighi tongiong pingim , but a compromise system , the Taiwanese Romanization System or Tâi @-@ Lô , was chosen in the end . Tâi @-@ Lô retains most of the orthographic standards of POJ , including the tone marks , while changing the troublesome 〈 o ͘ 〉 character for 〈 oo 〉 , swapping 〈 ts 〉 for 〈 ch 〉 , and replacing 〈 o 〉 in diphthongs with 〈 u 〉 . Supporters of Taiwanese writing are in general deeply suspicious of government involvement , given the history of official suppression of native languages , making it unclear whether Tâi @-@ Lô or POJ will become the dominant system in the future . \n = Homs = \n Homs ( / hɔːms / ; Arabic : حمص / ALA @-@ LC : Ḥimṣ ) , previously known as Emesa ( Greek : Ἔμεσα Emesa ) , is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate . It is 501 metres ( 1 @,@ 644 ft ) above sea level and is located 162 kilometres ( 101 mi ) north of Damascus . Located on the Orontes River , Homs is also the central link between the interior cities and the Mediterranean coast . \n Before the Syrian war , Homs was a major industrial centre , and with a population of at least 652 @,@ 609 people in 2004 , it was the third largest city in Syria after Aleppo to the north and the capital Damascus to the south . Its population reflects Syria 's general religious diversity , composed of Sunni and Alawite and Christian . There are a number of historic mosques and churches in the city , and it is close to the Krak des Chevaliers castle , a world heritage site . \n Homs did not emerge into the historical record until the 1st century BCE at the time of the Seleucids . It later became the capital of a kingdom ruled by the Emesani dynasty who gave the city its name . Originally a center of worship for the sun god El @-@ Gabal , it later gained importance in Christianity under the Byzantines . Homs was conquered by the Muslims in the 7th century and made capital of a district that bore its current name . Throughout the Islamic era , Muslim dynasties contending for control of Syria sought after Homs due to the city 's strategic position in the area . Homs began to decline under the Ottomans and only in the 19th century did the city regain its economic importance when its cotton industry boomed . During French Mandate rule , the city became a center of insurrection and , after independence in 1946 , a center of Baathist resistance to the first Syrian governments . \n In the ongoing Syrian civil war , Homs became an opposition stronghold and the Syrian government launched a military assault against the city in May 2011 . The fighting left much of the city completely destroyed and thousands dead . \n = = Etymology = = \n The origin of the city 's modern name is that it is an Arabic form of the city 's Latin name \" Emesus \" , derived from the Greek \" Emesa \" or \" Emesos \" . The name \" Emesa \" seems to derive from the nomadic Arab tribe , called Emesenoi by the Greeks and the Romans , that inhabited the region prior to Roman influence in the area . \n \" Emesa \" was shortened to \" Homs \" or \" Hims \" by its Arab inhabitants , many of whom settled there prior to the Muslim conquest of Syria . This name has been preserved throughout the period of Islamic rule continuing to the present day . It was known as \" la Chamelle \" by the Crusaders , although they never ruled the city . \n = = History = = \n For approximately 2 @,@ 000 years , Homs has served as a key agricultural market , production site and trade center for the villages of northern Syria . It has also provided security services to the hinterland of Syria , protecting it from invading forces . Excavations at the Citadel of Homs indicate that the earliest settlement at the site dates back to around 2300 BCE . Biblical scholars have identified the city with Zobah mentioned in the Bible . In 1274 BCE , a battle took place between the forces of the Egyptian Empire under Ramesses II and the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II at the city of Kadesh on the Orontes River near Homs . It was possibly the largest chariot battle ever fought , involving perhaps 5 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 chariots . \n = = = Emesani dynasty and Roman rule = = = \n Homs itself may have been founded by Seleucus I Nicator who established the Seleucid Empire upon the death of Alexander the Great , although the city did not emerge in the light of history until the 1st @-@ century BCE . At this time , Greek philosopher Strabo spoke of a tent @-@ dwelling tribe called the \" Emesani \" living in the area around the Orontes and south of the Apamea region . They were an Arab tribe in the area and settled in Emesa — which derived its name from them . Upon Pompey 's incorporation of the Seleucid state of Syria into the Roman Empire in 64 BCE , the Emesani dynasty were confirmed in their rule as client kings of the Romans for aiding their troops in various wars . Their chief at the time , Sampsiceramus I , gained the status as King of Emesa , but their capital was at Arethusa , a city north of Emesa , also along the Orontes River . At its greatest extent , the kingdom 's boundaries extended from the Bekaa Valley in the west to the border with Palmyra in the east , and from Yabrud in the south to al @-@ Rastan ( Arethusa ) in the north . The kingdom of Sampsiceramus I , was the first of Rome 's Arab clients on the desert fringes . \n The city of Emesa grew to prominence after the new @-@ found wealth of the Emesani dynasty , governed first by one of the sons of Sampsiceramus I , Iamblichus I who made it the kingdom 's capital . The Emesani proved their loyalty to Rome once more when they aided Gaius Julius Caesar in his siege of Alexandria in 48 BCE , by sending him army detachments . Subsequently , they became embroiled in the Roman Civil War between the rebelling Mark Antony and the pro @-@ Caesar Octavian . Iamblichus I took the side of Octavian , and so upon encouragement from Antony , Iamblichus 's brother Alexio I usurped the throne and put Iamblichus I to death in 31 BCE . Octavian 's forces prevailed in the war , however , and as a result the kingdom 's throne was reverted to Iamblichus II ( the son of Iamblichus I ) after Alexio I was executed for treason . Under the stable rule of Iamblichus II , emerged a new era of peace from 20 BCE to 14 , known as Emesa 's \" Golden Age . \" In 32 , Heliopolis and the Beqaa Valley came under the kingdom 's control . \n Relations with the Roman government grew closer when King Sohaemus inherited the kingship . Under him , Emesa sent the Roman military a regular levy of archers and assisted them in their siege of Jerusalem in 70 . Sohaemus had died in 73 and was succeeded by his son , Alexio II . Despite the fact that the Emesani dynasty were loyal allies to Rome , for unknown reasons the Roman state reduced the autonomous rule of the Emesani dynasty . Alexio II and his priest king successors had only ceremonial authority . It remains unclear why this occurred to the Emesani dynasty . Alexio II died in 78 and he was succeeded by his son Sampsiceramus III . The generations after Alexio II , are not recorded sufficiently to accurately present a pedigree . The integration of client states was actively pursued under the Flavians . Perhaps as early as 72 , but certainly before 78 , Sampsigeramus of Emesa was deposed and his principality incorporated into the province . \n Under the Romans , Emesa began to show attributes of a Greek city @-@ state and traces of Roman town planning still remain . Its transformation into a major city was completed under the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius ( 138 – 161 ) when Emesa began to mint coins . By the 3rd @-@ century , it grew prosperous and well integrated into the Roman Orient . This was partly due to the marriage of Emperor Lucius Septimius Severus to a woman from a family of notables based in Emesa . It attained the coveted status as a Roman colonia by Severus , and two other emperors of Severan Dynasty were raised in Emesa . One of them was Elagabalus who served as the high priest at the Temple of El @-@ Gebal , the local sun god . He brought the image of this god , a conical black stone , to the Elagabalium in Rome . \n Emesa also grew wealthy because it formed a link in the eastern trade funneled through Palmyra , however , this dependence also caused the city 's downfall when Palmyra sank to insignificance in the 4th @-@ century . Nonetheless , Emesa at this time had grown to rank with the important cities of Tyre , Sidon , Beirut , and Damascus . It also continued to retain local significance , because it was the market center for the surrounding villages . The city remained a strong center of paganism , because of the Temple of El @-@ Gabal . After one of his victories over Zenobia , Emperor Aurelian visited the city to pay thanks to the deity . \n Due to the strength of the pagan sun cult in Emesa , Christians initially did not settle in the city . Eusebius writes that Silvanus , the city 's first bishop , had no jurisdiction over the city , but the surrounding villages . He was executed by Emperor Julian and succeeded by Bishop Antonius — the first bishop to settle Emesa . By the 5th @-@ century , Christianity was well established under the Byzantine Empire ; however , few ancient Christian inscriptions exist in Homs today . Under the Byzantines , the city became an important center for Eastern Christianity . Initially a diocese , Homs was given the status of ecclesiastical metropolis after the discovery of John the Baptist 's head in a nearby area in 452 . \n = = = Arab Caliphate = = = \n Prior to the Muslim conquest of Syria , Arab tribes , particularly the Banu Kalb settled around Emesa , ensuring its position as an important Yamani center . The Byzantine emperor Heraclius abandoned the city — which served as his headquarters — after the his army 's defeat by the Rashidun Muslims under Caliph Umar ibn al @-@ Khattab during the Battle of Yarmouk in southern Syria . In 637 CE , the Rashidun army led by Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid captured Emesa peacefully because its inhabitants agreed to pay a substantial ransom of 71 @,@ 000 to 170 @,@ 000 dinars . The caliph Umar established Homs as the capital of Jund Hims , a district of the province of Bilad al @-@ Sham , encompassing the towns of Latakia , Jableh , and Tartus along the coast , Palmyra in the Syrian Desert and the territory in between , including the town of Hama . Homs was likely the first city in Syria to have a substantial Muslim population . \n The Muslims transformed half of St. John 's Church into the city 's Friday Mosque ( Great Mosque of al @-@ Nuri ) and Homs soon became a centre of Islamic piety since some 500 companions of Muhammad settled there after its conquest . The tombs of Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid , his son Abd al @-@ Rahman , and Ubaid Allah , the son of Caliph Umar are located in the city . During the conflict between the Umayyads and Ali , the inhabitants of Homs allied themselves with Ali and when the latter was defeated , the Umayyad caliph Mu 'awiyah hived the northern half of Jund Hims to form a separate district , Jund Qinnasrin , apparently as punishment . Ali 's oratory ( mash @-@ had ' Ali ) was located in the city , and Islamic tradition claims his fingerprints are engraved on it . Despite repression by the Umayyads , Homs remained a center of Shia Islam for a while longer . As a stronghold of the Banu Kalb , the city became involved in the latter 's conflicts with the Qais tribal faction . The last Umayyad caliph , Marwan II , enjoyed the support of the Qais and subsequently razed the city walls in response to a rebellion by the Banu Kalb . \n In 750 the Abbasids wrested control of Syria , including Homs , from the Umayyads , and the Arab tribes revolted . Despite the prosperity Homs experienced during this era , Abbasid rule was generally not welcomed nevertheless . During and after the reign of caliph Harun al @-@ Rashid ( 796 @-@ 809 ) , the Abbasid authorities sent numerous punitive expeditions against Homs . Under the reign of al @-@ Mutawakkil , in October 855 , the Christian population revolted in response to additional taxation . The caliph put down the revolt by expelling Christians from the city , burning down their churches and executing members of their leadership . \n With Abbasid rule over the Caliphate weakening in the mid 9th @-@ century , Homs became sought after by rebel dynasties contending for control of Syria due to the city 's strategic position . Initially , the Egypt @-@ based Tulunids came into control of it , but they were forced out by the Aleppo @-@ based Hamdanids who were briefly succeeded by the Qarmatians , after their Turkish rebel ally Aftakin invaded northern Syria and established Homs as his base . In 891 Muslim geographer al @-@ Yaqubi noted that Homs was situated along a broad river which served as a source of drinking water for the inhabitants . It was one of the largest cities in Syria and had several smaller districts surrounding it . In 944 the Hamdanids took definitive control of the city , dominating it until 1016 . Arab geographer al @-@ Mas 'udi claimed in the early 10th @-@ century that Homs was \" noted for the personal beauty of its inhabitants . \" In 985 al @-@ Muqaddasi noted that Homs was the largest city in all of Syria , but it had suffered \" great misfortunes \" and was \" threatened with ruin . \" He stated that when the city was conquered by the Muslims they turned half of its church into a mosque . \n For around thirty years during the 10th @-@ century , Homs was raided by the Byzantines and its inhabitants were subject to slaughter and plunder while the city 's mosque was briefly restored as a church . Throughout most of the 11th @-@ century , the Byzantine raids receded greatly and the Mirdasids of the Banu Kalb tribe ruled over Homs , replacing the Hamdanids . Inclined towards Shia Islam , they did not oppose the Shia Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt which was aiming to extend its rule into northern Syria and Iraq at the time . This precipitated a Sunni Muslim reaction led by the Seljuk Turks who occupied Homs under the leadership of Aq Sunqur al @-@ Hajib in 1090 . \n = = = Seljuk , Ayyubid , and Mamluk rule = = = \n The First Crusade was launched in 1096 , and in 1098 , the Crusaders captured Antioch to the northwest , looted Ma 'arat al @-@ Numan , and finally besieged Homs itself . Although they managed to cut the city off from its main port Tartus , they failed in taking the city . Soon after , Homs came under the control of the Seljuk ruler of Damascus who transformed it into a large , fortified camp and key fortress effectively preventing the Crusaders from penetrating deeper into Muslim territory . Immune from attack , Homs became a point where the Muslims could marshal their forces and launch raids against Crusader holdings along the Mediterranean coast . In the early 12th @-@ century , the Seljuks engaged in internal fighting , during which Homs was often a prize . In 1149 the Mosul @-@ based Zengids under Nur al @-@ Din captured the city . \n Muslim geographer Al @-@ Idrisi noted in 1154 that Homs was populous , had paved streets , possessed one of the largest mosques in Syria , contained open markets , and was frequented by travelers attracted to its \" products and rarities of all kinds . \" He also reported that its residents were \" pleasant ; living with them is easy , and their manners are agreeable . The women are beautiful and are celebrated for their fine skin . \" A series of earthquakes in 1157 inflicted heavy damage upon Homs and its fortress , then in 1170 , a minor quake finished off the latter . However , because of its strategic importance , being opposite of the Crusader County of Tripoli , the city and its fortifications were soon restored . In 1164 Nur al @-@ Din awarded Homs to Asad ad @-@ Din Shirkuh as a fief , but reclaimed it five years later following Shirkuh 's death . The latter 's nephew , Saladin , gained control of the city in 1175 and in 1179 , after reorganizing his territories in northern Syria , restored the fief to his Ayyubid dynasty . Shirkuh 's descendants retained Homs for nearly a century until 1262 with the death of al @-@ Ashraf Musa . In 1225 Arab geographer Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi mentioned that Homs was large , celebrated and walled , having a strongly fortified castle on its southern hill . \n Towards the end of Ayyubid rule , Homs remained a centrepiece of the wars between them and the Crusaders , as well as internecine conflicts with the Mongol Empire and the Mamluks . The first battle between the Mongols and the Mamluks took place on December 10 , 1260 , ending in a decisive Mamluk victory . A second battle was fought on October 29 , 1281 , also ending in a Mamluk victory . The Mamluks were finally defeated in the Battle of Wadi al @-@ Khazandar , also known as the \" Third Battle of Homs , \" in 1299 . \n Homs declined politically after falling to the Mamluks under Baibars because their campaigns effectively drove out the Crusaders and the Mongols from the entirety of Syria . At the beginning of the 14th @-@ century , the city was merely the capital of the smallest province of Syria and was often attached to the province of Damascus . Ibn Batuta visited Homs in 1355 , writing that it had fine trees , good markets , and a \" fine Friday Mosque , \" noting that all of its inhabitants were Arabs . Timur seized the city in 1400 , and later in the 15th @-@ century as Mamluk weakness had brought insecurity to the countryside , Homs was ravaged by Bedouin raids ; In 1510 a powerful tribe led by al @-@ Fadl bin Nu 'ayr was sent on an expedition by the governor of Damascus to loot the city markets as Homs had failed to pay compensation for his \" services . \" \n = = = Ottoman rule = = = \n In 1516 Homs was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire and consequently suffered a greater political eclipse , but it continued to thrive as an economic center , processing the agricultural and pastoral products that flowed to it from surrounding districts . Homs was particularly well known for silk and wool weaving , especially the alaja , which was mottled muslin run through with gold threads and used in feminine apparel . This silk was exported as far as the Ottoman capital Istanbul . In addition to weaving industries , there were olive oil presses and water mills for wheat and sesame , while grapes and rice , grown in the surrounding marshlands from the 16th @-@ century , were found in abundance in the city 's markets . Moreover , the markets of Homs were the center of a trade in livestock , where flocks of sheep and goats coming from Aleppo met camels and cattle moving north from Damascus . \n The coming of the Ottomans brought administrative changes to Homs , as it became the capital city of sanjak ( \" district \" ) of Homs , attached to the eyalet ( \" province \" ) of Tripoli — its old rival . At this time , a French visitor noted that the city walls and citadel were in good repair , but all within was in decay and only its covered markets \" retained their beauty . \" In 1785 French traveler , Volney wrote of the city 's once great importance and its current \" miserable \" condition . He described it as a large , but ruined village administratively dependent on Damascus . The Ottomans did little to revitalize Homs or ensure its security against Bedouin raids . Tribal unrest throughout the 17th and 18th centuries resulted in the sacking of its markets on several occasions . Security was even more hampered , when in the 18th @-@ century , the Ottomans tore down the gates of the city 's walls . \n The countryside of Homs saw an increase in Bedouin raids in the first half of the 19th @-@ century , interrupted by its occupation by Muhammad Ali 's Egypt led by Ibrahim Pasha between 1832 and 1840 . The city rebelled against Egyptian rule and consequently , the citadel was destroyed when the Egyptians suppressed the revolt . Ottoman rule was soon restored and up to the 1860s , Homs was large enough to form a discrete economic unit of trade and processing of agricultural products from its satellite villages and the neighboring Bedouin tribes . \n The local economy was stimulated when the Ottoman government extended security to the city and its surrounding areas ; new villages were established and old ones were resettled . However , Homs found itself faced with European economic competition since Ottoman rule was restored . Homs ' economic importance was boosted again during the depression of the 1870s , as its cotton industry boomed due to a decline European textile production . The quality and design of cotton goods from Homs satisfied both the lower and upper classes of the local , Ottoman , and foreign markets . There were around 5 @,@ 000 looms in Homs and nearby Hama , and one British consul referred to Homs as the \" Manchester of Syria . \" \n = = = Modern era = = = \n Throughout the 20th @-@ century Homs held high political importance in the country and was home to several heads of state and other high @-@ ranking government officials . During the French mandate , Homs was part of the State of Damascus . In Autumn 1925 , the city joined Damascus and the southern Druze chieftains in a full @-@ blown revolt against French rule . In 1932 the French moved their military academy from Damascus to Homs , and it remained the only military academy in Syria until 1967 . The French authorities had created a unit of Special Forces in which the Alawites were given privileged positions . The military academy in Homs served as a stronghold for these Special Forces . The Homs Military Academy played a major role in the years following Syria 's independence , as many of its graduates went on to become high @-@ ranking officers in the Syrian Army , many of them taking part in the series of coup d 'états that were to follow . An important example was Hafez al @-@ Assad who became the president of Syria from 1971 until his death in 2000 . \n An oil pipeline between Tripoli and Kirkuk was built in Homs in the early 1930s and it followed an ancient caravan route between Palmyra and the Mediterranean . In 1959 , an oil refinery was built to process some of this oil for domestic consumption . The city 's oil refinery was bombed by the Israeli Air Force ( IAF ) during the 1973 Yom Kippur War . \n = = = = Syrian civil war = = = = \n Homs is one of many cities in Syria where large anti @-@ government demonstrations have been held , part of the wider Syrian civil war . It has been referred to as the \" Capital of the revolution . \" Thousands to tens of thousands gathered in the city 's main square on 17 – 18 April 2011 in a sit @-@ in protesting the government of current president Bashar al @-@ Assad . At least 62 people were killed by government security forces in armed clashes against local anti @-@ government militants . \n Starting on 6 May 2011 , the city has been under siege by the Syrian Army and security forces . The Syrian government claims it is targeting \" armed gangs \" and \" terrorists \" in the area . According to the Syrian opposition , Homs has since become a \" blighted city , \" where authorities regularly block deliveries of medicine , food and fuel to the inhabitants of certain districts . By June , there were near @-@ daily confrontations between protesting residents and Syrian forces . As a result of these circumstances , there have been more deaths in Homs and its vicinity than in other areas of Syria . Homs was the first Syrian city where images of al @-@ Assad and his family were routinely torn down or defaced and the first place where Syrian forces used artillery during the uprising . The Center for Documenting Violations in Syria claims that at least 1 @,@ 770 people have been killed in Homs since the uprising began . \n In February 2012 , Syrian Armed Forces carried out a major attack on Homs to regain control over the city which was turned into an operation center for the Free Syrian Army , a collection of anti @-@ government fighters and army defectors . Ten days of operations resulted in the deaths of about 700 people in the city according to the Local Coordination Committees . On 1 March 2012 , the Syrian Army had gained control over the Baba Amr district while lesser clashes continued in other neighborhoods . \n On 9 December 2015 , under a UN @-@ negotiated deal , the remnants of anti @-@ government forces and their families , that had been under siege the al @-@ Wair district for three years , began to evacuate from the city . \n = = Geography = = \n The Governorate of Homs is the largest in Syria . Homs , the governorate 's capital , is located in central western Syria , situated along the east bank of the Orontes River in a particularly fertile area . The city is in between the southern outliers of the Coastal Mountain Range located to the west and Mount Lebanon , overlooking the Homs Gap . Because of the gap , the area around Homs receives much more rainfall than interior regions to its north and south . To the east of Homs , is the Syrian Desert . Lake Homs , impounded by a huge dam of Roman origins , is to the southwest , lying some 125 kilometers ( 78 mi ) south of Aleppo and 34 kilometers ( 21 mi ) south of Hama , halfway on the road between the capital Damascus and Aleppo . The Orontes River splits the city into two main sections : To the east , on a flat land lies the city center and the main neighborhoods ; to the west , lies the more recent and modern suburb of al @-@ Waer . The city spans an area of 4 @,@ 800 hectares ( 19 sq mi ) . \n Homs is located 162 kilometres ( 101 mi ) north of Damascus , 193 kilometres ( 120 mi ) south of Aleppo , 47 kilometres ( 29 mi ) south of Hama , and 186 kilometres ( 116 mi ) southeast of Latakia on the Mediterranean coast . Nearby towns and villages include al @-@ Rayyan to the southeast , Maskanah , al @-@ Nuqayrah , Abil and Kafr Aya to the south , al @-@ Qusayr , Qattinah and al @-@ Buwaydah al @-@ Sharqiyah to the southwest , Khirbet Tin Nur to the west , al @-@ Dar al @-@ Kabirah to the northwest , al @-@ Ghantu , Teir Maalah , al @-@ Mukhtariyah and Talbiseh to the north , al @-@ Mishirfeh to the northeast and Fairouzeh and Zaidal to the east . \n = = = Old City and subdivisions = = = \n The Old City is the most condensed area of Homs , and it includes the neighborhoods of Bab Tadmur , Bab al @-@ Dreib , Bab Hud and the immediate vicinity of the citadel , covering an area of 1 @.@ 2 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 46 sq mi ) . Little remains of the Old City ; its walls and gates were demolished in the Ottoman era , but a short section of fortified wall with a circular corner tower still exists . Half a kilometer to the south , a large earth mound marks the site where the citadel once stood . To the north of the citadel lies the Christian Quarter , known as \" al @-@ Hamidiyah \" . This neighborhood is one of the few areas of Homs that retains its older look , with most of the alternating black @-@ and @-@ white stone buildings dating from the Mamluk era . They are still used as shops and dwellings , and there has been recent renovation . \n At the time of the Abbasids , Homs was known for its seven gates . They were Bab al @-@ Souq ( Gate of the Market ) , Bab Tadmur ( Gate of Palmyra ) , Bab al @-@ Dreib ( or Bab al @-@ Deir ) , Bab al @-@ Sebaa ( Gate of the Lions ) , Bab al @-@ Turkman ( Gate of the Turkmen ) , Bab al @-@ Masdoud ( Closed Door ) , and Bab Hud ( The Gate of Hud ) . Only two gates — Bab Tadmor and Bab al @-@ Dreib — remain today . The oldest of Homs ' mosques and churches are located in the Old City . \n Homs consists of several subdivisions outside the Old City . The large neighbourhood of Khaldiyah spreads along its northern edge , while the more modern neighbourhoods of al @-@ Sabil , al @-@ Zahra , and Jub al @-@ Jandali are situated to the east of the Old City . South of it are the neighborhoods of Bab al @-@ Sebaa , al @-@ Mreijeh , al @-@ Nezha , Akrama and beyond them lay the Karm al @-@ Zaytoun and Karm al @-@ Loz neighbourhoods . The modern commercial centre lies to the west in the neighbourhood of Jouret al @-@ Shayyah , and further west are the upscale neighbourhoods of Qusoor , al @-@ Mahatta and al @-@ Ghouta . The suburb of al @-@ Waer is located even further west , separated from the city by areas of farmland called al @-@ Basatin and the Orontes River forming a green belt where it is forbidden to build anything . The Baath University complex and dormitories are located on the western @-@ southern edge of the city next to the neighborhood of Akrama . \n = = = Climate = = = \n Homs ' location ensures that it receives softening influences and breezes from the Mediterranean . As a result , the city has a much milder climate than nearby Hama , with higher average rainfall of 18 inches ( 460 mm ) instead of 14 inches ( 360 mm ) , but it also experiences greater winds . \n = = Demographics = = \n Homs was one of the largest cities in Syria in the 12th @-@ century with a population of 7 @,@ 000 . In 1785 , the inhabitants of Homs numbered more than 2 @,@ 000 and the population was divided almost evenly between Eastern Orthodox Christians and Muslims . The 1860s saw a rise in the population to 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 . By 1907 , Homs had roughly 65 @,@ 000 inhabitants , of which two thirds were Muslims and the remainder Christians . In the 1981 census , the population stood at 346 @,@ 871 , rising to 540 @,@ 133 in 1994 . According to the 2004 census by Syria 's Central Bureau of Statistics , Homs had a population of 652 @,@ 609 of which 51 @.@ 5 % were male and 48 @.@ 5 % female . In an independent 2005 estimate the city had 750 @,@ 000 residents , and as of 2008 the population was estimated at about 823 @,@ 000 . \n Today , Homs ' population reflects Syria 's general religious diversity , and is made up primarily of Sunni Muslims , with minorities of Alawite Muslims , Eastern Orthodox Christians and Syriac Orthodox Christians . In addition to Catholics , Evangelists and Maronites . In the 1880s , the Survey of Western Palestine noted that there were 5 @,@ 500 Greek Orthodox Christians and 1 @,@ 500 Syriac Orthodox Christians . The Syriac Patriarchate was transferred to Homs from Mardin in 1933 , but relocated once more to Damascus in 1959 . \n During the Armenian Genocide in the early 20th @-@ century , about 20 @,@ 000 Armenians immigrated to Homs and the surrounding villages . A small Greek community also exists in the city . \n = = Economy = = \n After long periods of stagnation under Ottoman rule , Homs started to flourish again in the 20th @-@ century . Its geographic and strategic location has made it a centre of agriculture and industry . The \" Homs Irrigation Scheme \" , the first of its kind in modern Syria , brought prosperity to cultivators and the long @-@ established enterprises involved in the processing of agricultural and pastoral products . Crops grown in Homs include , wheat , barley , lentils , sugar beets , cotton , and vines , as well as serving as a point of exchange between the sedentary zone and the desert . Moreover , because of easy access to the Mediterranean , Homs has attracted overland trade from the Persian Gulf and Iraq . \n Homs is also home to several large public heavy industries , such as the oil refinery west of the city which opened in 1959 . A fertilizer plant was built in 1971 to process phosphates from their deposits near Palmyra ; the fertilizer is for domestic consumption and export . A growing private industrial sector has flourished in the past decade and many small to medium @-@ sized enterprises occupy the industrial zones northwest and south of the city . A new sugar refinery is being built by a Brazilian company , and an automobile plant is under construction by Iran Khodro . Also a new phosphate plant and oil refinery are being built east of the city . Homs is also the hub of an important road and rail network , it is the central link between the interior cities and the Mediterranean coast . \n A major industrial project was the establishment of a new industrial city in Hisyah , 47 kilometers ( 29 mi ) south of the city of Homs . Spreading across some 2 @,@ 500 hectares ( 25 km2 ) , the city covers four main industrial sectors : textiles , food , chemical , engineering and vocational . In all , the facilities are designed to accommodate up to 66 @,@ 000 workers and their families . Moreover , a free zone has been established within the city . \n The hinterland of Homs is well known for its grapes which are used in Syria 's liqueur industry , particularly in producing arak , nectar wine , and red wine . The city is considered a good base for day trips and excursions to the many historical and touristic sights nearby . Popular destinations include Krak des Chevaliers , Qatna , Talkalakh and Marmarita . Homs has several hotels ; Safir Hotel is considered one of Syria 's best five @-@ star hotels and the only one of that status in the city . An @-@ Nasr al @-@ Jedid Hotel is built in a 100 @-@ year @-@ old mansion and is labeled by tour guides as the \" best budget hotel in Homs \" . Other hotels include Hotel al @-@ Mimas , Ghazi Hotel , and Hotel Khayyam . \n = = Culture = = \n = = = Cuisine = = = \n Although people in Homs eat the same foods common in Levantine cuisine , the city is well known throughout Syria for its own cuisine . A prominent dish is Batarsh , a type of baba ghanouj made with yogurt and garlic instead of tahini . Homs is also home to a variety of kibbeh mishwiyyeh or \" grilled kibbeh \" . It consists of two pancakes of kibbeh stuffed with ground lamb , cooked with lamb fat and various spices . Batata mahshi ( \" stuffed potatoes \" ) is native dish in Homs and is made of baby potatoes stuffed with minced lamb , pine nuts and pomegranate molasses . The city specializes in cooking a type of okra meal , known as bamya bi @-@ l zayt ( \" okra with olive oil \" ) . \n Homs has an array of restaurants , some of the most highly acclaimed are those within the Safir Hotel : Mamma Mia and Mersia . The former specializes in Italian cuisine , while the latter serves Arabic food . For the local population , popular restaurants include Prince Restaurant which acts as a type of fast @-@ food place , serving shawarma , grilled chicken , and other common Syrian foods , as well as homemade juices . In the Old City , low @-@ price restaurants are grouped together along Shoukri al @-@ Quwatly Street and sell similar foods , such as hummus , falafel , various salads ( mezze ) , shish kebab and chicken dishes . Restaurants and coffeehouses typically offer hookahs and are a common place for men to gather and smoke . Other notable restaurants include Broasted Kreish , a local favorite for shish taouk and shawarma on the Korniche St just south of the Ghouta ; the Rawda , a garden lounge located by the New Clock Tower which is known by locals for its Homsi @-@ style fatteh and for the atmosphere created by its divided men and family areas , providing an area for men to gather to play cards , smoke and watch soccer games and for families to have a drink and dessert on late downtime . \n Homs also recently emerged as the restaurant scene in pre @-@ civil @-@ war Syria after completing its Malab St. Hamra development . The Hamra Street in the Malab area was home to a strip of highly rated restaurants including La Luna , a shisha lounge ; Chez Moi , serving a few French dishes along with the typical local food ; Mia Casa , an Italian restaurant ; Troy , an American @-@ Latin @-@ Syrian mashup ; and Quattro , another Italian restaurant . \n Like in Damascus and Aleppo , many houses in the Old City of Homs have been renovated and transformed into restaurants specializing in Levantine cuisine . Most notable of these is Beit al @-@ Agha restaurant , situated in a renovated palace that dates back to the mid 19th @-@ century with Ottoman and Mamluk architecture , and Julia Dumna Restaurant , which has been described as the best example of traditional Homsi houses , with its white and black stones . \n = = = Museums = = = \n There are two main museums in Homs , both located in the central part of the city . Azze Hrawe Palace , a former Mamluk @-@ era palace belonging to Ali ibn Abi al @-@ Fadl al @-@ Azzhari , a subordinate of Baibars , the Mamluk sultan , is now the National Folklore Museum . Outside the building is a courtyard , occupied on one side by a large terraced liwan with a conch shell semi @-@ dome . In the opposite wall , there is a carving of two lions , a symbol of Baibars . The first museum built in the city is located along Shoukri al @-@ Quwatly Street and contains a selection of artifacts from the Homs region , covering the time between the prehistoric and Islamic eras . \n = = = Festivals = = = \n Homs has several festivals , and the city annually co @-@ hosts the Desert Folk Festival and the Al @-@ Badiya Festival with Palmyra . The Desert Folk Festival is an annual festival of the ancient traditions and costumes of the Badiya ( Syrian Desert ) and it includes exhibitions and concerts between Homs and Palmyra . The festival is held in the first week of May . The Al @-@ Badiya Festival , which is held mainly in Palmyra with some events in Homs , draws approximately 60 @,@ 000 tourists during the last week of May . Activities include horse , camel and car races , horse contests , music and theatre shows , antique exhibitions and a crafts market . Other festivals include the al @-@ Nasarah Festival and the Festival of Krak des Chevaliers and the Valley . An annual festival is held at the Church of Saint Elian , attracting large numbers of pilgrims . \n = = = Sports = = = \n Homs is home to two football clubs . The Al @-@ Karamah Sports Club was founded in 1928 and is one of the oldest sports clubs in Syria . Al @-@ Karamah is widely acclaimed on the regional and national levels , having won eight Syrian League titles , and eight Syrian Cup titles . Al @-@ Karamah was a runner @-@ up in the 2006 AFC Champions League . The second sports club of the city is Al @-@ Wathba Sports Club , which was founded in 1937 . The Khaled Ibn Al Walid Stadium has a 35 @,@ 000 @-@ person capacity and is home to both football clubs . Homs has produced a number of well @-@ known sportsmen , including footballers Firas Al Khatib and Jehad Al Hussain . \n = = Government = = \n Homs is the capital of the Homs District , and the capital of the Homs Governorate — the largest governorate in Syria , and houses the seat of its governor , appointed by the president . The city of Homs is governed by a city council and is home to the Executive Office . The latter consists of nine elected members , in addition to the president of the city council . The Office aids the Governor in making management decisions related to the Governorate , while the city council is responsible for decisions specific to the city of Homs . It is headed by a president , Nadia Kseibi , and is responsible for the day @-@ to @-@ day management of the city . \n The council 's organizational structure is composed of the top leadership , consisting of the president , vice president , and secretary , and the lower leadership , made up of the directors of seventeen city branches : Administrative Affairs , Finance , Technical Affairs , Health Affairs , Legal Affairs , the Fire Department , Mechanisms , Parks , Hygiene , Property , Provisional Register , Services and Maintenance , Works , IT , Planning and Statistics , Culture , and Internal Oversight Service . \n = = Education = = \n Homs is home to the Al @-@ Baath University , one of four major universities in Syria was founded in 1979 . A specialist engineering foundation , the university has one of the largest student bodies . It houses several faculties including medicine , engineering , liberal arts , and sciences and a number of two @-@ year career ( vocational ) institutions . It is the only university in the country to have departments in petroleum engineering and veterinary medicine . \n The German University at Wadi al @-@ Nasarah opened in 2004 and is located 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) west of the city . In 2005 , the International School of Choueifat opened a school outside the city . Al @-@ Andalus University for Medical Sciences was established in 2005 near Homs , and is constructing one of its University Hospitals in the city . \n There are 1 @,@ 727 schools and 15 @,@ 000 kindergartens in the Homs Governorate , most of which are public facilities . In 2007 , 375 @,@ 000 students in the governorate were enrolled in elementary schools ( 6 – 15 years ) , 36 @,@ 000 in high schools ( 15 – 18 years ) , and around 12 @,@ 000 in vocational training schools . \n = = Local infrastructure = = \n = = = Transportation = = = \n Homs is considered a transportation hub in Syria , by virtue of its central location between the coastal cities and the interior . The main bus terminal is Karnak , situated along Hama Street , 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) north of the city centre on the outskirts . The terminal offers connections to most Syrian cities and Beirut , Lebanon . It also has international bus connections to Lebanon , Jordan , Saudi Arabia and Turkey . A second \" luxury \" bus station is located a little further north . Minibuses operate from Karnak station with destinations to Tartus , Palmyra , and Hama in northern Syria , as well as Baalbek , Tripoli , and Beirut in Lebanon . Newer microbuses that mostly travel to Hama are also based in Karnak and are mostly used for quick transportation . \n Homs has a large railway station , with two Chemins de Fer Syriens operated daily departures to Damascus and Aleppo . The nearest airports are Bassel Al @-@ Assad International Airport in Latakia to the west , Damascus International Airport to the south , Aleppo International Airport to the north , and Palmyra Airport in the Syrian Desert to the east . \n Hama Street starts at the Old Clock Square in the city center and crosses Homs from south to north , where it continues along the neighborhood of al @-@ Khaldiyah on to the Karnak station , and turns into the Homs @-@ Hama @-@ Aleppo highway . Quwatli Street , named after former president Shukri al @-@ Quwatli , is a short but vital street that connects the Old Clock Square and Quwatli Square in Downtown Homs . It branches into several smaller streets on its western end , one of which is al @-@ Dablan Street which is the main commercial block in the city , and the other continues west to connect with the Homs @-@ Tripoli highway . On the eastern end , al @-@ Quwatli street continues as al @-@ Hamidiyah Street which crosses the old Christian quarter and continues to the eastern edge of the city . The Homs @-@ Damascus highway crosses the city from the south and reaches the city center in Quwatli Square . \n = = = Landmarks = = = \n The city itself is famous its historic mosques and churches . It is also well recognized by its twin clock towers . The older one , facing al @-@ Hamidiya Street , was built by the French in the early 1930s , and the newer one in al @-@ Quwatli Square facing al @-@ Dablan street . Homs is well known for its historical roofed souks . These consist of a complex maze of narrow streets and covered commercial alleys extending from the south and east from the Great Mosque towards the ancient citadel . The souks — lined with grocery and clothing stores , and workshops for carpenters , artisans , cobblers , metalworkers and knife @-@ sharpeners — are busiest in the evening . \n Homs and the surrounding countryside bear many landmarks , including a world heritage site , the Krak des Chevaliers and Citadel of Salah Ed @-@ Din . Other landmarks include the Great Mosque of al @-@ Nuri . Originally a pagan temple dedicated to El @-@ Gabal , it was consecrated as the Church of Saint John the Baptist under the Byzantines . Later , it was established as a Friday mosque during the Islamic Arab rule of Homs . The Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid Mosque has been considered \" the only edifice of any real note \" in Homs , and was built in the last few years of Ottoman rule in Syria during the 1900s . The mosque is named after early Arab general Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid , whose tomb is located within the building . \n The Um al @-@ Zennar Church ( \" Church of the Virgin 's Girdle \" ) was built in 1852 atop an earlier church dating back to the 4th @-@ century , and perhaps 59 CE . The other prominent church in Homs is the 5th @-@ century Church of Saint Elian , built in honor of Christian martyr Saint Elian , whose tomb is located in the crypt . \n The Citadel of Homs is situated on one of the largest urban tells of Syria . It has been archaeologically neglected because of military occupation until recent years . The tell dates back at least to the Early Bronze Age . The extant Islamic @-@ style walls were built during the Ayyubid period and the Mamluk sultan Baybars subsequently carried out restorations . All of this work is testified by inscriptions although without exception , they are lost . In 1994 , a joint Syrian @-@ British team studied the Citadel of Homs , recording the remains of the walls and towers . \n = = Twin towns – Sister cities = = \n Belo Horizonte , Brazil ( 2001 ) \n Kayseri , Turkey \n Yazd , Iran \n = = Gallery = = \n = Romblon = \n Romblon ( / rɒmˈbloʊn / rom @-@ BLOHN ) is an archipelagic province of the Philippines located in the Mimaropa region . Its main islands include Tablas , the largest , which covers nine municipalities , Sibuyan with its three towns , as well as the smaller island municipalities of Corcuera , Banton , Concepcion , San Jose , and Romblon , the provincial capital . The province lies south of Marinduque and Quezon , east of Oriental Mindoro , north of Aklan and Capiz , and west of Masbate . According to the 2015 census , it has a total population of 292 @,@ 781 . \n Romblon has been inhabited by aboriginal Filipinos prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1569 . Archaeological artifacts recovered by the National Museum in 1936 indicate that the aborigines of Romblon already have a rich and advanced culture . Under Spanish colonial rule , Romblon was initially administered under the newly established province of Arevalo , until 1716 , when it was transferred to the jurisdiction of the newly created province of Capiz . With arrival of the Americans in 1901 , Romblon was declared a province and placed under civilian rule . It lost its provincial status for a short while between 1907 and 1945 , but regained it in 1946 , just after World War II . \n The inhabitants of Romblon are divided into three ethnolinguistic groups : Romblomanon , Onhan and Asi . These groups occupy specific islands in the province and have their own language and customs . Romblomanon is mainly spoken in the town of Romblon , in all of three towns of Sibuyan Island , and the towns of San Andres and San Agustin in Tablas Island . Onhan is mainly spoken in the municipalities in the southern part of Tablas Island ( Alcantara , Looc , Ferrol , Santa Fe and Santa Maria ) well as in the island municipality of San Jose . The northwestern part of Tablas Island ( in Odiongan and Calatrava , as well as the islands municipalities of Corcuera , Banton , and Concepcion , speak the Asi language . \n Currently , the province relies on agriculture , particularly rice and copra farming as well as fishing , for its livelihood . It also has a lucrative marble industry due to an abundance of Italian @-@ quality marble , hence , its moniker as the \" Marble Capital of the Philippines . \" In recent years , the province has also become an ecotourism destination , with several white sand beaches , diving spots , mountains and rainforests that tourists visit annually . \n = = Etymology = = \n According to legend , the name \" Romblon \" was derived from the Romblomanon word Nagalumyom , which pertains to a chicken in the act of sitting on its eggs on a nest . This eventually evolved to Lomlom , and later on to Donblon , the name reported by Spanish chronicler Miguel de Loarca in his book Relacion de las Islas Filipinas in 1582 , before finally evolving to Romblon . \n Meanwhile , local historians Roland Madeja and Evelyn Reyes relate the origin of the name \" Romblon \" to the shape of Romblon Island . Madeja claims that the name was derived from the Spanish word ronblon , another term for tornillo , meaning \" screw . \" According to him , the Spanish claimed to have observed the screw @-@ like shape of Romblon Island . Meanwhile , Reyes claims Romblon originated from \" doubloon \" , which refers to the Spanish coin used by Moro pirates in paying dowries for their brides @-@ to @-@ be . The Spanish might have named the island after the shape of the coin . \n = = History = = \n = = = Early history = = = \n Romblon 's aboriginal inhabitants were the Negritos from Panay and Mangyans from Mindoro , who settled in the islands during the precolonial period . Ancient wooden coffins discovered in the Guyangan Cave System of Banton Island in 1936 signify a rich ancient civilization and culture in the province before the arrival of the Spaniards in 1569 . These artifacts are currently on display at the National Museum in Manila . Remnants of Negrito and Mangyan aborigines now live in the mountains of Tablas and Sibuyan after they were displaced by the influx of Hiligaynon , Aklanon , Bicolano and Tagalog migrants as early as 1870 . \n = = = Spanish period = = = \n According to historians Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson , the Spanish arrived in Romblon in 1569 led by conquistador Martin de Goiti who was dispatched by Miguel López de Legazpi to explore the western and northern portion of the Visayas region including Romblon and Mindoro . The islands were later organized into three encomiendas and were administered from Arevalo . De Loarca visited Romblon in 1582 and conducted the first census of the islands . \n In 1635 , Recollect missionaries arrived in Romblon to establish Catholic missions and settlements . They helped the Spanish authorities establish peace and order in the islands . In 1637 , they established seven missionary centers at Romblon , Badajoz ( San Agustin ) , Cajidiocan , Banton , Looc , Odiongan and Magallanes ( Magdiwang ) . They also built massive forts , churches and watchtowers in the province , such as Fort San Jose in Banton and Fort San Andres in Romblon , following a Dutch attack in 1646 which destroyed the capital town and to repulse recurring Moro raids . \n Romblon was separated from the jurisdiction of Arevalo and annexed to Capiz , when the province was created in 1716 . More than a century later in 1850 , the inhabitants of the province began using Spanish family names after governor @-@ general Narciso Clavería decreed on 21 November 1849 the use of surnames from the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos . Asi @-@ speaking natives were assigned the letter F , Romblomanon speakers were assigned the letter M , speakers of the Sibuyanon style of Romblomanon were assigned the letter R , while Onhan @-@ speaking natives were assigned the letter G. \n In 1853 , the islands were organized into a politico @-@ military commandancia ( \" sub @-@ province \" in English ) administered from Capiz and continued to be so until the end of the Spanish rule in 1898 . As a sub @-@ province , Romblon was under an army officer with the rank of captain . The town of Romblon was its capital and the other municipalities were Azagra , Badajos ( now San Agustin ) , Banton , Cajidiocan , Corcuera , Looc , Magallanes ( now Magdiwang ) , Odiongan , Despujols ( now San Andres ) and Santa Fe . \n = = = Revolutionary period = = = \n In 1898 , amid the Philippine Revolution , Katipunan leader Emilio Aguinaldo sent his generals to several provinces in the Visayas to expand the recognition of his revolutionary government in the central and southern Philippines . The Katipunan general Mariano Riego de Dios and his forces liberated Romblon , while generals Ananias Diocno and Leandro Fullon proceeded to Panay . On 25 July the same year , Riego de Dios took the Romblon capital and captured Spanish officials . Four days later , the Spanish politico @-@ military governor Don Carlos Mendoza formally signed the surrender of Romblon ’ s district government , ending more than three hundred years of Spanish rule in the archipelagic province . \n Later , Don Wenceslao Molo , a local from Romblon town , was appointed governor and became responsible for the collection of a total amount of ₱ 22 @,@ 765 @.@ 21 , Romblon ’ s share to the war expenditures of the Revolutionary Government from 31 May 1898 to 28 February 1899 . A local election was also held in Romblon town for its ministers of justice and barrio officials . However , Molo ’ s term was a brief transition to another era as the Americans arrived in the province a few months later . \n = = = American period = = = \n Upon the restoration of peace and order in the province following the Philippine @-@ American War , the Americans established civilian government in the islands on 16 March 1901 . Romblon was created as a regular province in the same year but due to insufficient income , it became a sub @-@ province of Capiz again in 1907 until 7 December 1917 when Act No. 2724 reestablished the province . Under Commonwealth Act No. 581 , enacted without executive approval on June 8 , 1940 , the province was reorganized with four towns or municipalities , namely : Tablas ( embracing Odiongan as the seat and center of the special municipality during which the municipalities of Ferrol and San Andres ( Despujol ) were still part of ; Looc during which Santa Fe , San Jose and Alcantara were still part of ; and Badajos during which Calatrava and Santa Maria were still part of ) , Romblon ( comprising Logbon , Cobrador and Alad ) , Banton ( involving Banton , Simara , and Maestre de Campo also known as Sibale ) , and Sibuyan ( with the towns of Cajidiocan , Magdiwang and San Fernando ) . \n = = = Japanese period = = = \n During World War II , the Japanese Imperial Forces established a garrison in Romblon on 21 March 1942 which they maintained until the end of the war . The islands became one of the centers of resistance movement against the Japanese . The movement was led by the Free Panay Guerilla Forces composed of members from the 6th Military District under the direction of Col. Macario Peralta , Jr . One of the major naval engagements during the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the Battle of Sibuyan Sea , happened off the waters of Romblon on 23 – 24 October 1944 between Japanese Admiral Kurita ’ s fleet from Singapore and Admiral Halsey 's carrier planes from the US Third Fleet then stationed east of the Philippines . Units from Company C of the 19th Infantry Regiment , 24th Infantry Division landed on Sawang , Romblon on the night 11 March 1945 . By 18 March , the province was liberated from Japanese forces . \n = = = Modern period = = = \n On 1 October 1946 , Romblon regained her provincial status through the passage of Republic Act No. 38 , sponsored by Cong . Modesto Formilleza . In the decades that followed , the province saw the creation of new municipalities , such as Alcantara ( 1961 ) from Looc , Calatrava ( 1969 ) from San Agustin , Ferrol ( 1978 ) from Odiongan , and Santa Maria ( 1984 ) from San Agustin . \n = = Geography = = \n Romblon is strategically situated at the center of the Philippine archipelago . It is composed of three major islands ( Tablas , Sibuyan and Romblon ) and 17 smaller islands . It is surrounded by deep waters , and is bounded by Masbate in the east , Mindoro in the west , Marinduque in the north and Panay in the south . It is approximately 187 nautical miles ( 346 km ) and 169 miles ( 272 km ) south of Manila . The islands are dispersed and accessible only via sea transportation except for Tablas Island where a domestic airport is located in the municipality of Alcantara . \n = = = Topography = = = \n The province has a total land area of approximately 1 @,@ 533 @.@ 45 square kilometres ( 592 sq mi ) representing about 5 @.@ 3 percent of the total land area of Region IV @-@ B ( MIMAROPA ) . It is generally mountainous with about 40 percent of its land area having an inclination of more than 50 percent . Only four percent of the total area has an inclination of three to eight percent , while a sparse 10 percent has an inclination of three to zero percent . Narrow strips of coastal lowlands , low hills and plains typify the topography of some of the islands . \n Romblon Island is hilly with a maximum elevation of about 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) above sea level . Tablas Island shows varied relief characteristics . The western coastal areas are level to undulating while the eastern coastal areas are rough to rugged . The southern section covering Santa Fe and the mid @-@ western portion maybe described as having rolling to rough terrain . Extremely rugged areas can be found in the central section of the island . The highest elevation is almost 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) above sea level . Sibuyan Island is a thickly forested mountain mass . The western portion of the island maybe characterized as extensively rugged , having ascents of 60 percent or more while the eastern section is relatively undulating to rolling . The highest elevation , the peak of Mt . Guiting @-@ Guiting , reaches about 2 @,@ 058 meters ( 6 @,@ 750 feet ) above sea level . \n The major areas that are highly productive and buildable are basically in Tablas and Sibuyan . These include Odiongan , San Andres , Looc and Santa Fe in Tablas Island . All three municipalities in Sibuyan Island , on the other hand , have substantial level to gently sloping lands . Overall , good developable lands represent about 13 percent of the province ’ s total area . \n = = = Flora and fauna = = = \n Romblon , particularly Sibuyan Island , is among the few places in the Philippines with a well @-@ preserved natural environment . Uninterrupted rainforest covers 75 percent of the island . It is also home to the country 's cleanest inland body of water , the Cantigas River , as well as 34 waterfalls . Sibuyan is commonly known the country as the \" Galapagos of Asia \" because of its many endemic plant and animal species , some of which have just been discovered recently . Among these endemic species are nine mammals , seven lizards , two amphibians , three birds and 112 vascular plants , such as the Nepenthes argentii , Nepenthes sibuyanensis , Nepenthes armin , Sibuyan striped shrew rat , Sibuyan shrew , Philippine tube @-@ nosed fruit bat , indigo @-@ banded kingfisher , and the Romblon hawk @-@ owl . In Tablas Island , at least two endemic bird species can be found : the Tablas drongo and Tablas fantail . \n = = = Administrative divisions = = = \n Romblon comprises 17 municipalities . Of these , nine are located in Tablas Island ( San Agustin , Calatrava , San Andres , Odiongan , Ferrol , Santa Fe , Looc , Alcantara and Santa Maria ) , three in Sibuyan Island ( Magdiwang , Cajidiocan and San Fernando ) and five ( Romblon , San Jose , Banton , Concepcion and Corcuera ) are island municipalities . \n † Provincial capital \n = = = Climate = = = \n Romblon falls under Type III of the Corona climatic classification system which was devised in 1920 . It is characterized by no pronounced wet and dry seasons . Generally , the wet season is from June to November and sometimes extends up to December when the southwest monsoon is predominant . The dry season is from January to May but is sometimes interrupted by erratic rainfall . The annual mean temperature is 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) , with February as the coldest month with temperatures dropping to 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) , and May as the warmest month with temperatures reaching up to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) . Habagat monsoon winds pass through the province from June to October while northeasterly winds or Amihan blows through the islands from December to February . \n = = Demographics = = \n The population of Romblon in the 2015 census was 292 @,@ 781 people , with a density of 190 inhabitants per square kilometre or 490 inhabitants per square mile . It ranks fourth among the five provinces of the MIMAROPA Region in terms of population and represents 9 @.@ 9 percent of the region ’ s population . \n San Jose and Romblon are the two most @-@ densely populated municipalities in the province at 490 / km2 and 450 / km2 , respectively . Cajidiocan is the least densely populated municipality at 110 / km2 . \n Males outnumber females in the province with a sex ratio of 102 : 100 according to the 2010 census . Of the province ’ s 283 @,@ 482 household population , males accounted for 144 @,@ 091 or 50 @.@ 8 percent while females comprised 139 @,@ 391 or 49 @.@ 2 percent . The voting @-@ age population ( 18 years old and over ) accounted for 56 @.@ 6 percent of the household population of the province in 2010 , up from 52 @.@ 7 percent in 2000 . There were more females ( 50 @.@ 2 percent ) than males ( 49 @.@ 8 percent ) among the voting age population . \n = = = Language = = = \n The languages of Romblon , as well as all languages native to the Philippines , belong to the Austronesian language family , the second largest language family in the world with 1 @,@ 257 known languages , second only to the Niger @-@ Congo family 's 1 @,@ 538 languages . All of the languages of the Philippines , except Samalan , are classified as Philippine languages under the Western Malayo @-@ Polynesian branch of Austronesian . The Philippine language group has three main branches : Northern , Southern and Central , the latter of which is composed of the Visayan , Bikol and Tagalog languages . \n Unlike other islands or provinces in the Philippines where all local languages are classifiable under the same subgroup of languages , each of the three languages of Romblon — Romblomanon , Onhan and Asi — actually belongs to a different subgroup of the Visayan language group . Romblomanon belongs to the Central Visayan subgroup , which spans from Waray @-@ Waray in Samar and Leyte , through Masbatenyo and Bisakol , and as far west as Hiligaynon and Capiznon on Panay . It is spoken in Romblon and Sibuyan Islands , as well as in San Agustin town in Tablas Island . \n Onhan , on the other hand , belongs to the Western Visayan subgroup , which includes Kinaray @-@ a and Aklanon as well as several minor languages spoken on Mindoro , Palawan , and some small islands in between . Its speakers are mainly from the southern portion of Tablas Island , in the municipalities of San Andres , Santa Maria , Alcantara , Ferrol , Looc , and Santa Fe , as well as in the municipality of San Jose in Carabao Island . Finally , Asi is not classified under any specific subgroup of Visayan , and instead makes up its own immediate branch of Visayan . David Paul Zorc , a linguist from the Australian National University whose expertise is on Philippine languages , notes that Asi speakers may have been the first Visayan speakers in the region . He also suggests that Asi may have a Cebuano substratum and that many of its words may have been influenced by the later influx of other languages such as Romblomanon . It is spoken in the island municipalities of Banton , Corcuera and Concepcion , as well as in Odiongan and Calatrava in Tablas . \n = = = Religion = = = \n The people of the province are predominantly Roman Catholic . In 2012 , the UP School of Economics reported that in recent years , at least 75 percent were Catholics , around five to nine percent were Muslims , and around three to five percent belonged to Iglesia ni Cristo . \n = = Economy = = \n = = = Agriculture = = = \n Agriculture is the main industry in Romblon . Coconut is the most cultivated crop with a total planted area of 58 @,@ 270 @.@ 44 hectares ( 224 @.@ 9834 sq mi ) . San Agustin has the most extensive area with coconut plants followed by Romblon and Cajidiocan . Rice is the next crop , cultivated particularly in Odiongan , Looc , Cajidiocan and Santa Fe . Other crops grown include root crops , vegetables and fruits . Odiongan , Banton and Magdiwang have the greatest areas planted with root crops and correspondingly , have the highest volume of production . Vegetable production is mostly for home consumption and grown in small scale . \n Livestock development and poultry production is a viable small scale enterprise for farmers in the province . The provincial government maintains breeding facilities in strategic locations province @-@ wide to encourage farmers to engage in livestock and poultry production to augment their income . Livestock and poultry management training and seminars is provided to interested clients . \n Due to the geographical condition of the province , crops and livestock production is generally deficient as compared to the food requirements of Romblon population . To meet the rice requirements , Romblon relies on imports from the neighboring provinces while vegetables , poultry meat , vegetables and fruits are supplied mostly by Luzon . \n = = = Marine resources = = = \n Fishing industry is a major enterprise as Romblon is surrounded by water on all sides . The fishing grounds of Romblon are a migratory path of fish from Sulu and Visayan Seas passing Tablas Strait , Sibuyan Sea and Romblon Pass . The waters also abound with demersal fish due to the coral reefs surrounding the islands . \n Because the province has a great potential for aqua @-@ marine development , the province implemented a coastal and resource management program . Each municipality established a fish sanctuary and passed laws on fishery . The use of air compressors in the municipal waters was regulated and banned altogether in some municipalities . \n = = = Mineral resources = = = \n Marble is the most significant mineral deposit of Romblon and is the most renowned product of the province . Based on statistics , Romblon is the second biggest provincial marble producer of the country next to Bulacan . Romblon marble is of very high quality and comes in shades of white , green , pink , red and black . The Mines and Geosciences Bureau has estimated that Romblon is endowed with about 150 million metric tons of marble . At current rates of extraction , the supply may last for three more centuries . Tablas Island is also believed to have vast reserves of marble . \n Marble quarrying and processing are major activities in Romblon . Among the most common marble products are categorized into the following : novelty items ( gifts , ashtray , table bars ) , furniture ( dining tables , baptismal fonts ) and construction materials ( tiles , balusters , marble chips ) . Other mineral resources with considerable quantity include nickel ore and gold mostly to be found in Sibuyan Island . Gold panning and small @-@ scale mining is a lucrative undertaking in Magdiwang . \n = = Tourism = = \n = = = Natural attractions = = = \n Being an archipelago , Romblon has several beaches and dive sites . Among its best white sand beaches are Bonbon , Cobrador and Tiamban Beach in Romblon , Macat @-@ ang , Tabunan and Tambak Beach in Banton , Lunas and Bignay Beach in San Jose , and Cresta del Gallo in San Fernando . The sea surrounding Cresta del Gallo is a famous diving site teeming with marine life . Romblon is also home to the only known blue hole in the Philippines in the town of San Agustin . The entrance to the blue hole is a 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) wide volcanic chimney , which drops for 20 metres ( 66 ft ) before opening up into the massive chamber below with a total depth of 32 to 40 metres ( 105 – 131 ft ) . \n Mount Guiting @-@ Guiting in Sibuyan , the province 's tallest mountain , is considered as one of the most difficult climbs in the Philippines , and is thus a major destination of local mountain climbers because of its steep and jagged summit . Another a suitable place for hiking and trekking is Mount Payaopao is Tablas . Meanwhile , Banton 's Guyangan Cave System , an Important Cultural Treasure , is where the Banton Cloth — the earliest known warp ikat textile in Southeast Asia — was found in 1936 . \n = = = Heritage sites = = = \n Aside from the precolonial Guyangan Cave System in Banton , the province also has several heritage sites built during the Spanish colonial period . In Romblon town , the forts of San Andres and Santiago served as fortifications against Muslim pirates in the 17th century , while the St. Joseph Cathedral and Belfry houses a centuries @-@ old image of the Santo Niño de Cebú or the Holy Child . Both heritage sites were declared National Cultural Treasures by the National Museum . The town also has two Spanish @-@ era bridges that were declared Important Cultural Treasures . A similar fort in Banton , the centuries @-@ old Fort San Jose and Banton Church , were built in the 1600s and was also used as defenses against Muslim pirates . \n = = = Festivals = = = \n Every second week of January , Romblon town celebrates the feast of the Santo Niño de Cebú , also known as the Biniray Festival . In that week , a fluvial parade featuring the image of the Santo Niño goes around Romblon Bay in order to bring good luck to the villages . A mardi gras is also held in the town with various street dancing , food , drinks and music . A similar Biniray Festival also occurs in Banton every 10 September in commemoration of the island 's patron , San Nicolas de Tolentino . Other festivals include the Saginyogan Festival in Alcantara , the Sanrokan Festival in Banton , and the Talabukon Festival in Looc . \n = = Government = = \n = = = Executive = = = \n Just like any other province in the Philippines , Romblon ’ s chief executive and head is the provincial governor . Elected to a term of three years and limited to three consecutive terms , he or she appoints the directors of each provincial department , which include the office of administration , engineering office , information office , legal office , and treasury office . As of April 2016 , the incumbent governor of Romblon is Eduardo C. Firmalo , from the Liberal Party . He first assumed office on 30 June 2010 , following his victory in the May 2010 gubernatorial elections . He was reelected in 2013 for a second term which will expire in 2016 . \n The provincial vice governor performs duties as acting governor in the absence of the provincial governor . He or she also automatically succeeds as governor upon the death of the provincial governor . The provincial vice governor also convenes the Provincial Board or Sangguniang Panlalawigan , the provincial legislative body . The incumbent provincial vice governor of Romblon is Jose Riano from the Liberal Party . He first assumed office on 30 June 2013 after defeating former vice governor Manuel Madrid . \n = = = Legislative = = = \n The province , which is a lone congressional district , is represented in the Philippine House of Representatives by longtime congressman Eleandro Jesus \" Budoy \" Madrona from the Nacionalista Party . He first assumed office from 1992 to 2001 , serving three terms . Following two terms wherein Perpetuo Ylagan and Eduardo Firmalo respectively represented the district in Congress , Madrona ran and won again in 2007 . His third and last term will expire in 2016 . \n Within the province , the Provincial Board or Sangguniang Panlalawigan crafts all provincial ordinances , performs appropriation of provincial funds , issues franchises and permits , impose fees on provincial services , and exercise other duties and powers as stipulated by the Local Government Code of 1991 . Romblon , being a third @-@ class province in terms of income , is entitled to a Provincial Board composed of eight members , four each from the province ’ s two board districts . As of 2013 , the incumbent board members from the province ’ s two districts are : ( First District ) Samuel Romero , Anthony Rugas , Abner Perez , Nelson Lim ; ( Second District ) Felix Ylagan , Juliet Fiel , Venizar Maravilla , and Andres Fondevilla . \n = = Infrastructure = = \n = = = Transportation = = = \n Romblon province is connected by a network of national and provincial roads . National roads form much of this network , with a total length of 311 @.@ 046 kilometres ( 193 @.@ 275 mi ) . Provincial roads , meanwhile , total 239 @.@ 005 kilometres ( 148 @.@ 511 mi ) in length . Municipal and barangay roads in far @-@ flung villages and island municipalities are not part of these figures . The primary modes of land transportation in the province are jeepneys , passenger motorcycles , minibuses and tricycles that serve inter @-@ municipal movements and linkages . \n Sea transportation is the primary mode of transportation linking Romblon with Luzon and islands in the Visayas . Inter @-@ island ferries , RORO , and cargo ships from Manila , the southern Luzon ports of Batangas City , Lucena City in Quezon province , Roxas , Oriental Mindoro , and Roxas City in Capiz province are the primary modes of transportation linking the province to the rest of the country . Montenegro Lines , 2GO , and Romblon Shipping Lines all have ferry service from Manila to the main ports of entry of Odiongan and the capital town of Romblon and vice versa . From Romblon , Montenegro also serves Magdiwang in Sibuyan , while Romblon Shipping Lines also serves Cajidiocan . Pump boats and wooden launches also link the province to the towns of Buenavista , Marinduque and Pinamalayan , Oriental Mindoro . These pump boats are also used in going to barangays where there are no existing road networks or between municipalities in the province that do not have existing ferry service . \n Tugdan Airport in Alcantara is the only airport in the province and is less than an hour away from Metro Manila via flights thrice a week ( Sunday , Wednesday and Friday as of December 2015 on PR2077 / 2078 ) by PAL Express . There is also a small airstrip in Barangay Azagra , San Fernando in Sibuyan Island that caters to tourism and general aviation . \n = = = Electricity = = = \n Power supply in Romblon is generated by the National Power Corporation ( NPC ) and serviced by two electric cooperatives . Tablas Island Electric Cooperatives ( TIELCO ) serves the power needs of Tablas Island including San Jose . It operates a 5 @.@ 070 MW diesel power plant in Odiongan and 1 @.@ 740 MW power barge in San Agustin . The electric cooperative serves a total of 21 @,@ 097 house connections . Romblon Electric Cooperative ( ROMELCO ) supplies the capital town of Romblon through a 1 @.@ 720 MW diesel power plant and a 1 @.@ 30 MW power barge . It also serves Sibuyan Island using a 3 @.@ 006 MW diesel power plant in San Fernando . ROMELCO has 5 @,@ 288 house connections in Romblon and 5 @,@ 150 house connections in the three municipalities located in Sibuyan Island or a total of 10 @,@ 438 house connections in their franchise area . Additionally , ROMELCO installed in 2010 a mini hydro power plant in Cantigas , San Fernando , producing 900 kW of power . Meanwhile , Banton , Concepcion and Corcuera are attended to by the National Power Corporation ( NPC ) thru their municipal governments . \n = = = Water supply = = = \n Out of 17 municipalities , 14 have Level III water supply systems serving 18 @,@ 590 households or about 32 @.@ 57 percent of the total provincial households . Level III has a reservoir with house @-@ to @-@ house connections . 5 @,@ 252 households were serviced by Level II water systems and 24 @,@ 700 households by Level I water system . Level I category is a common facility where the community members get their water supply from deep wells and shallow wells , while Level II has a reservoir with communal faucet . Based on the report from the Provincial Health Office in 2007 , a total of 48 @,@ 542 households out of the 57 @,@ 079 or 85 @.@ 04 percent have access to safe drinking water . \n = = = Telecommunications = = = \n The province has several operating telecommunication exchanges , namely Kayumanggi , Romblontel , Odiongan Telephone Corporation ( OTELCO ) , the Telecommunication Office ( TELOF ) , telegram system , Liberty Telecom , public calling stations under the DOTC and the Provincial Communication System ( PCS ) radio transceivers and receivers . Smart Communications , Sun Cellular and Globe Telecom already have relay stations in Romblon , Odiongan and Cajidiocan , enabling most areas province @-@ wide connected through cellphones , except on some area where the signal is weak or non @-@ existent because of mountains that block the signal . The Triple Peak in Santa Maria has a relay station for PLDT and Liberty Telecom . \n = = Media = = \n There are three radio stations in the province , two of which are operated by the Radyo Natin Network and the other , Charm FM 100 @.@ 5 MHz , by the Polytechnic Foundation of Cotabato and Asia . Radyo Natin Network operates the call sign DZRH at 91 @.@ 3 MHz on AM radio from Looc , as well as the call sign DZVG 101 @.@ 3 MHz on FM radio from Odiongan . As for print media , Romblon Text and Romblon Sun are the two major newspapers circulating in the province , aside from broadsheet and tabloid newspapers from Manila . Romblon News , meanwhile , provides provincial and national news and information via the web and social media . \n A relay station for GMA Network in Santa Maria allows the province to access television shows broadcast by the network from Manila . There are also existing cable providers and local cable stations operating in several municipalities in the province , namely Romblon Cable Corporation ( Romblon ) , Accutronics System Inc . ( Odiongan ) , San Agustin Cable Antenna Corp. ( San Agustin ) , Countryside Satellite Television System Inc . ( Looc ) , Gateway Cable TV Network ( Calatrava ) , San Andres CATV Service Coop . ( San Andres ) , Josefa J. Martinez CATV Services ( Alcantara ) , Magdiwang Cable Television ( Magdiwang ) , and Sibuyan Cable TV ( San Fernando and Cajidiocan ) . Aside from these cable stations , there are also distributors of direct @-@ to @-@ home ( DTH ) satellite TV such as Cignal Digital TV , Dream Satellite TV , and G Sat who provide television services for its subscribers . \n = = Education = = \n The Division of Romblon of the Department of Education ( DepEd ) supervises and oversees the delivery of education and operations of public schools in the province . It is composed of 13 districts , where there are 228 elementary schools , 216 of which are public and 12 are private . Of the 216 public elementary schools , 162 offer preschool education , while 20 of the private schools have the same offering . There are also 10 private preschools offering pre @-@ elementary . For secondary level , a total of 44 schools offer secondary education , of which 37 are public schools and seven are private institutions . There are 13 vocational schools in the province , while tertiary education is offered by privately owned Romblon College and the Romblon State University ( RSU ) , one of the oldest state universities in the Philippines . RSU , which was founded in 1915 , is the oldest agricultural university in the Philippines and has campuses in Romblon , Odiongan , Cajidiocan , Calatrava , San Agustin , San Andres , San Fernando , Santa Fe , and Santa Maria . \n = = Notable people = = \n Florante Condes , Filipino professional boxer and a former IBF Minimumweight World Champion . \n Jose Dalisay , Jr . , writer , poet , playwright and screenwriter who won 16 Palanca Awards \n Gabriel Fabella , co @-@ founder and first president of the Philippine Historical Association ; Father of June 12 Independence Day ; and sole representative of Romblon in the First National Assembly ( 1935 – 1938 ) . \n Ephraim Fajutagana , current Obispo Máximo or Supreme Bishop of the Philippine Independent Church . \n Nicon Fameronag , current undersecretary of the Department of Labor and Employment . \n Julius Fortuna , student leader and political prisoner in ' 70s during the Marcos regime ; journalist for the Philippine Daily Globe , The Manila Chronicle , The Philippine Post , People 's Journal and The Manila Times . \n Roilo Golez , member of the Philippine House of Representatives representing the Second District of Parañaque City . \n N. V. M. Gonzalez , writer , Palanca Award winner , and National Artist for Literature . \n Elma Muros @-@ Posadas , former track and field athlete who specialized in long jump and won a total of 15 gold medals in several Southeast Asian Games . \n Rodne Galicha , environmentalist , recipient of national individual award called Gawad Bayani Kalikasan given by the Center for Environmental Concerns and Department of Environment and Natural Resources , currently Philippine country manager of The Climate Reality Project . \n Nene Tamayo , grand winner of ABS @-@ CBN 's Pinoy Big Brother ( season 1 ) . \n = Thelephora palmata = \n Thelephora palmata ( commonly known as the stinking earthfan or the fetid false coral ) is a species of clavarioid fungus in the family Thelephoraceae . The fruit bodies are leathery and coral @-@ like , with branches that are narrow at the base before widening out like a fan and splitting into numerous flattened prongs . The wedge @-@ like tips are whitish when young , but darken as the fungus matures . The common names of the fungus refers to its pungent odor , likened to fetid garlic . A widely distributed but uncommon species , it is found in Asia , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America , where it fruits on the ground in both coniferous and mixed forest . \n = = Taxonomy = = \n The species was first described in 1772 by Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli , as Clavaria palmata . Elias Fries transferred it to the genus Thelephora in 1821 . The species has several synonyms , resulting from several generic transfers in its taxonomic history , including Ramaria by Johan Theodor Holmskjold in 1790 , Merisma by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1822 , and Phylacteria by Narcisse Théophile Patouillard in 1887 . Other historical synonyms are Merisma foetidum , published by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1797 , and Pier Andrea Saccardo 's 1888 Clavaria schaefferi . Persoon also published a species with the name Thelephora palmata in 1822 , but because the name was already in use , it is an illegitimate homonym ; this species is now known as Thelephora anthocephala . \n Despite its coral @-@ like appearance , Thelephora palmata is closely related to some fungi with a distinctly bracket @-@ like appearance , such as T. terrestris and T. caryophyllea . The specific epithet palmata is derived from Latin , and means \" having the shape of a hand \" . It is known by the common names \" stinking earthfan \" and \" fetid false coral \" . Samuel Frederick Gray called it the \" stinking branch @-@ ear \" in his 1821 work A Natural Arrangement of British Plants . \n = = Description = = \n The fruit body of T. palmata is a coral @-@ like tuft that is repeatedly branched from a central stalk , reaching dimensions of 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) tall . The branches of the fruit body end in spoon- to fan @-@ shaped tips that are frequently fringed or grooved . The branches of the fruit body are initially whitish in color , but gradually turn gray to lilac @-@ brown in maturity ; the tips , however , remain whitish , or paler than the lower parts . The flesh is tough and leathery . The hymenium ( fertile , spore @-@ bearing tissue ) is amphigenous , that is , it occurs on all surfaces of the fruit body . \n The odor of the fruit body is quite unpleasant , resembling fetid garlic , \" old cabbage water \" , or \" overripe cheese \" . It has been called \" a candidate for stinkiest fungus in the forest \" . The unpleasant odor intensifies after drying . Fruit bodies are not edible . \n In deposit , the spores are purple @-@ brown to brown . Viewed with a microscopic , the spores appear purple , angular with lobes , and warted , with fine spines measuring 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 µm long ; the overall dimensions of the elliptic spores are 8 – 12 by 7 – 9 µm . They contain one or two oil drops . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) measure 70 – 100 by 9 – 12 µm , and have sterigmata that are 2 – 4 µm thick by 7 – 12 µm long . The flesh stains deep blue when a drop of potassium hydroxide solution is applied . The fungus contains the pigment thelephoric acid . \n Thelephora anthocephala is somewhat similar in appearance , but can be distinguished by branches that taper upward , branch tips that are flattened ( instead of spoon @-@ like ) , and the lack of a fetid odor . The North American species T. vialis has smaller spores and a more variable color . Darker Ramaria species are distinguished by their non @-@ leathery flesh texture and pointy branch tips . \n = = Habitat and distribution = = \n Thelephora palmata is an ectomycorrhizal species , forming mutualistic associations with conifers . Fruit bodies grow singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground in both coniferous and mixed forest and grassy fields . A preference has been noted for moist ground , and locations along woodland paths . An uncommon species , fruit bodies can be difficult to see because they blend well into their surroundings . \n The species is found in Asia ( including China , Iran , Japan , Siberia Turkey , and Vietnam ) , Europe , North America , and South America ( Brazil and Colombia ) . It has also been recorded from Australia and Fiji . Fruit bodies are consumed by the springtail species Ceratophysella denisana . \n = = Uses = = \n Fruit bodies of Thelephora palmata can be used for mushroom dyeing . Depending on the mordant used , colors ranging from blackish @-@ brown to dark grayish @-@ green to greenish @-@ brown can be obtained from the dyeing process ; without a mordant , a light brown color is produced . \n = Lutetium = \n Lutetium is a chemical element with symbol Lu and atomic number 71 . It is a silvery white metal , which resists corrosion in dry , but not in moist air . It is considered the first element of the 6th @-@ period transition metals and the last element in the lanthanide series , and is traditionally counted among the rare earths . \n Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain , Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach , and American chemist Charles James . All of these men found lutetium as an impurity in the mineral ytterbia , which was previously thought to consist entirely of ytterbium . The dispute on the priority of the discovery occurred shortly after , with Urbain and Welsbach accusing each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other ; the naming honor went to Urbain , as he had published his results earlier . He chose the name lutecium for the new element , but in 1949 the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium . In 1909 , the priority was finally granted to Urbain and his names were adopted as official ones ; however , the name cassiopeium ( or later cassiopium ) for element 71 proposed by Welsbach was used by many German scientists until the 1950s . \n Lutetium is not a particularly abundant element , though significantly more common than silver in the earth 's crust ; it has few specific uses . Lutetium @-@ 176 is a relatively abundant ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) radioactive isotope with a half @-@ life of about 38 billion years , and so used to determine the age of meteorites . Lutetium usually occurs in association with the element yttrium and is sometimes used in metal alloys and as a catalyst in various chemical reactions . 177Lu @-@ DOTA @-@ TATE is used for radionuclide therapy ( see Nuclear medicine ) on neuroendocrine tumours . Lutetium has the highest Brinell hardness of any lanthanide , at 890 – 1300 MPa . \n = = Characteristics = = \n = = = Physical properties = = = \n A lutetium atom has 71 electrons , arranged in the configuration [ Xe ] 4f145d16s2 . When entering a chemical reaction , the atom loses its two outermost electrons and the single 5d @-@ electron ; this is unusual since reactions of the other lanthanides invariably involve f @-@ shell electrons . The lutetium atom is the smallest among the lanthanide atoms , due to the lanthanide contraction , and as a result lutetium has the highest density , melting point , and hardness of the lanthanides . Some of these properties can be explained by its position in the d @-@ block , which gives the metal properties of some heavier transition metals . Occasionally , lutetium is classified as a transition metal on this basis , although the IUPAC classifies it as a lanthanide . \n = = = Chemical properties and compounds = = = \n Lutetium 's compounds always contain the element in the oxidation state + 3 . Aqueous solutions of most lutetium salts are colorless and form white crystalline solids upon drying , with the common exception of the iodide . The soluble salts , such as nitrate , sulfate and acetate form hydrates upon crystallization . The oxide , hydroxide , fluoride , carbonate , phosphate and oxalate are insoluble in water . \n Lutetium metal is slightly unstable in air at standard conditions , but it burns readily at 150 ° C to form lutetium oxide . The resulting compound is known to absorb water and carbon dioxide , and may be used to remove vapors of these compounds from closed atmospheres . Similar observations are made during reaction between lutetium and water ( slow when cold and fast when hot ) ; lutetium hydroxide is formed in the reaction . Lutetium metal is known to react with the four lightest halogens to form trihalides ; all of them ( except the fluoride ) are soluble in water . \n Lutetium dissolves readily in weak acids and dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the colorless lutetium ions , which are coordinated by between seven and nine water molecules , the average being [ Lu ( H2O ) 8 @.@ 2 ] 3 + . \n 2 Lu + 3 H2SO4 → 2 Lu3 + + 3 SO2 – \n 4 + 3 H2 ↑ \n = = = Isotopes = = = \n Lutetium occurs on the Earth in form of two isotopes : lutetium @-@ 175 and lutetium @-@ 176 . Out of these two , only the former is stable , making the element monoisotopic . The latter one , lutetium @-@ 176 , decays via beta decay with a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 78 × 1010 years ; it makes up about 2 @.@ 5 % of natural lutetium . To date , 32 synthetic radioisotopes of the element have been characterized , ranging in mass from 149 @.@ 973 ( lutetium @-@ 150 ) to 183 @.@ 961 ( lutetium @-@ 184 ) ; the most stable such isotopes are lutetium @-@ 174 with a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 31 years , and lutetium @-@ 173 with a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 37 years . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than 9 days , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives that are less than half an hour . Isotopes lighter than the stable lutetium @-@ 175 decay via electron capture ( to produce isotopes of ytterbium ) , with some alpha and positron emission ; the heavier isotopes decay primarily via beta decay , producing hafnium isotopes . \n The element also has 42 nuclear isomers , with masses of 150 , 151 , 153 – 162 , 166 – 180 ( not every mass number corresponds to only one isomer ) . The most stable of them are lutetium @-@ 177m , with half @-@ life of 160 @.@ 4 days and lutetium @-@ 174m , with half @-@ life of 142 days ; this is longer than half @-@ lives of the ground states of all radioactive lutetium isotopes , except only for lutetium @-@ 173 , 174 , and 176 . \n = = History = = \n Lutetium , derived from the Latin Lutetia ( Paris ) , was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain , Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach , and American chemist Charles James . They found it as an impurity in ytterbia , which was thought by Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac to consist entirely of ytterbium . The scientists proposed different names for the elements : Urbain chose neoytterbium and lutecium , whereas Welsbach chose aldebaranium and cassiopeium ( after Aldebaran and Cassiopeia ) . Both of these articles accused the other man of publishing results based on those of the author . \n The International Commission on Atomic Weights , which was then responsible for the attribution of new element names , settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones , based on the fact that the separation of lutetium from Marignac 's ytterbium was first described by Urbain ; after Urbain 's names were recognized , neoytterbium was reverted to ytterbium . Until the 1950s , some German @-@ speaking chemists called lutetium by Welsbach 's name , cassiopeium ; in 1949 , the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium . However , Welsbach 's 1907 samples of lutetium had been pure , while Urbain 's 1907 samples only contained traces of lutetium . This later misled Urbain into thinking that he had discovered element 72 , which he named celtium , which was actually very pure lutetium . Charles James , who stayed out of the priority argument , worked on a much larger scale and possessed the largest supply of lutetium at the time . Pure lutetium metal was first produced in 1953 . \n = = Occurrence and production = = \n Found with almost all other rare @-@ earth metals but never by itself , lutetium is very difficult to separate from other elements . The principal commercially viable ore of lutetium is the rare earth phosphate mineral monazite : ( Ce , La , etc . ) PO4 which contains 0 @.@ 0001 % of the element . The abundance of lutetium in the Earth crust is only about 0 @.@ 5 mg / kg . The main mining areas are China , United States , Brazil , India , Sri Lanka and Australia . The world production of lutetium ( in the form of oxide ) is about 10 tonnes per year . Pure lutetium metal is very difficult to prepare . It is one of the rarest and most expensive of the rare earth metals with the price about US $ 10 @,@ 000 per kilogram , or about one @-@ fourth that of gold . \n Crushed minerals are treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water @-@ soluble sulfates of rare earths . Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed . After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths into their insoluble oxalates . The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing . The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components , cerium , whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3 . Several rare earth metals , including lutetium , are separated as a double salt with ammonium nitrate by crystallization . Lutetium is separated by ion exchange . In this process , rare @-@ earth ions are sorbed onto suitable ion @-@ exchange resin by exchange with hydrogen , ammonium or cupric ions present in the resin . Lutetium salts are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent . Lutetium metal is then obtained by reduction of anhydrous LuCl3 or LuF3 by either an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal . \n 2 LuCl3 + 3 Ca → 2 Lu + 3 CaCl2 \n = = Applications = = \n Because of the rarity and high price , lutetium has very few commercial uses . However , stable lutetium can be used as catalysts in petroleum cracking in refineries and can also be used in alkylation , hydrogenation , and polymerization applications . \n Lutetium aluminium garnet ( Al5Lu3O12 ) has been proposed for use as a lens material in high refractive index immersion lithography . Additionally , a tiny amount of lutetium is added as a dopant to gadolinium gallium garnet ( GGG ) , which is used in magnetic bubble memory devices . Cerium @-@ doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate ( LSO ) is currently the preferred compound for detectors in positron emission tomography ( PET ) . Lutetium is used as a phosphor in LED light bulbs . \n Aside from stable lutetium , its radioactive isotopes have several specific uses . The suitable half @-@ life and decay mode made lutetium @-@ 176 used as a pure beta emitter , using lutetium which has been exposed to neutron activation , and in lutetium – hafnium dating to date meteorites . The synthetic isotope lutetium @-@ 177 bound to octreotate ( a somatostatin analogue ) , is used experimentally in targeted radionuclide therapy for neuroendocrine tumors . Indeed , lutetium @-@ 177 is seeing increasing use as a radionuclide , in neuroendrocine tumor therapy and bone pain palliation . \n Lutetium tantalate ( LuTaO4 ) is the densest known stable white material ( density 9 @.@ 81 g / cm3 ) and therefore is an ideal host for X @-@ ray phosphors . The only denser white material is thorium dioxide , with density of 10 g / cm3 , but the thorium it contains is radioactive . \n = = Precautions = = \n Like other rare @-@ earth metals , lutetium is regarded as having a low degree of toxicity , but its compounds should be handled with care nonetheless : for example , lutetium fluoride inhalation is dangerous and the compound irritates skin . Lutetium nitrate may be dangerous as it may explode and burn once heated . Lutetium oxide powder is toxic as well if inhaled or ingested . \n Similarly to other group 3 elements and lanthanides , lutetium has no known biological role , but it is found even in humans , concentrating in bones , and to a lesser extent in the liver and kidneys . Lutetium salts are known to occur together with other lanthanide salts in nature ; the element is the least abundant in the human body of all lanthanides . Human diets have not been monitored for lutetium content , so it is not known how much the average human takes in , but estimations show the amount is only about several micrograms per year , all coming from tiny amounts taken by plants . Soluble lutetium salts are mildly toxic , but insoluble ones are not . \n = Tropical Storm Rachel ( 1990 ) = \n Tropical Storm Rachel was the only tropical cyclone to make landfall during the 1990 Pacific hurricane season . The twenty @-@ fourth tropical depression and eighteenth named storm , Rachel developed on September 27 from a tropical wave southwest of mainland Mexico . After becoming a tropical depression , the system tracked slowly southwestward and eventually curved northwestward . The depression intensified into a tropical storm after three days and was named Rachel by the National Hurricane Center . Rachel continued to steadily strengthen , and peaked as a strong 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) tropical storm on October 2 . After attaining peak intensity , Rachel re @-@ curved to make a landfall in southern Baja California Sur and again in the Mexican Mainland on October 3 . The storm produced heavy rainfall across northern Mexico and the Southwestern United States . Thousands of people were left homeless and 18 fatalities were reported . \n = = Meteorological history = = \n The origins of Rachel can be traced back to a tropical wave that moved off the west coast Africa in mid @-@ September 1990 . It moved westward into the Caribbean Sea without significant development . Poorly organized , the wave entered the Eastern Pacific on overnight September 22 . The thunderstorm activity became more concentrated two days later . Dvorak classifications , a technique used to estimate a tropical cyclone 's intensity , began late September 25 . \n Early on September 27 , the twenty @-@ fourth tropical depression of the season had developed ; however , operationally it was not warned upon until the system was located 540 mi ( 870 km ) south of Baja California Sur on September 30 . Post @-@ analysis later confirm that Rachel was already a minimal tropical storm by that time . Although convection initially remained displaced from the center , Rachel steadily intensified . Early on September 30 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) operationally upgraded the depression into Tropical Storm Rachel . While intensifying , an upper @-@ level trough over California allowed Rachel to re @-@ curve towards Mexico . On October 2 , it reached its peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 994 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) . \n After maintaining its intensity for 24 hours , Rachel made landfall at peak intensity near the southern tip of Baja California Sur . Strong wind shear prevented additional intensification , despite moving into the warm waters of the Gulf of California . After weakening slightly , Rachel made a second landfall midway between Las Mochis and Culiacán . Upon moving inland , the system rapidly weakened as the forward speed increased . Rachel dissipated several hours later on October 3 . By that time , the winds had decreased to 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . The remnants of Rachel entered the United States , and were last noted over Texas . \n = = Preparations and impact = = \n Prior to the arrival of Rachel , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm watch for southern Baja California Sur , encompassing areas south of La Paz on October 1 . As Rachel moved closer to the area , the watch was replaced with a tropical storm warning . In the mainland , a tropical storm watch was issued for the state of Sinaloa south of Los Mmochis . Six hours later , the watches was replaced with a tropical storm warning . By the end of October 2 , all the watches and warnings were discontinued . \n The two highest rainfall totals were 9 @.@ 85 in ( 250 mm ) and 6 @.@ 5 in ( 170 mm ) at Santa Anita and San Jose Del Cobe , near the southern tip of Baja California Sur . Two weather stations in Mexico reported barometric pressure of 1005 and 1006 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 68 and 29 @.@ 71 inHg ) during the passage of Rachel . In all , precipitation was measured at 996 different places across the country . Throughout northern Mexico , significant flooding was reported with the worst effects felt in the states of Nuevo Leon , Coahuila and Durango . Thousands were homeless , and 18 people died . In Monterrey , rescue workers freed dozens of trapped people . \n The moisture associated with the Rachel and a cold front produced rainfall in Arizona , New Mexico , and western Texas , while it was located southwest of Baja California Sur . After Rachel had dropped heavy rains , a flash flood watch was issued for several counties in New Mexico on October 1 , where rainfall had reportedly been 2 in ( 51 mm ) since the last day of September . The remnants of the storm produced additional precipitation across the state . Heavy rains fell on almost all of western Texas , and a flash flood warning had been issued after some areas experienced rainfall over 1 in ( 25 mm ) . With heavy rains falling in the western portion of Texas , some roads were washed out , especially in Big Bend National Park and Lubbock ; several car accidents were also reported on the roads . Several locations in Texas measured at least 0 @.@ 5 in ( 13 mm ) of rain , and the highest amount of rainfall was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) in Lubbock . \n = Batman Returns = \n Batman Returns is a 1992 American superhero film , directed and produced by Tim Burton , based on the DC Comics character Batman . It is the second installment of Warner Bros. ' initial Batman film series , with Michael Keaton reprising the title role of Bruce Wayne / Batman . The film introduces the characters of Max Shreck ( Christopher Walken ) , a business tycoon who teams up with the Penguin ( Danny DeVito ) to take over Gotham City , as well as the character of Catwoman ( Michelle Pfeiffer ) . \n Burton originally did not want to direct another Batman film because of his mixed emotions toward the previous film in 1989 . Warner Bros. developed a script with writer Sam Hamm which had the Penguin and Catwoman going after hidden treasure . Burton agreed to return after they granted him more creative control and replaced Hamm with Daniel Waters . Wesley Strick did an uncredited rewrite , removing the characters of Harvey Dent and Robin and rewriting the climax . Annette Bening was originally cast as Catwoman but became pregnant and was replaced with Pfeiffer . Filming for Batman Returns started in June 1991 at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , California . \n Batman Returns was released on June 19 , 1992 . The film was nominated for Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects and Best Makeup , as well as two BAFTA awards . Batman Returns 's budget was an estimated $ 65 million , grossing $ 266 @,@ 822 @,@ 354 worldwide , making the film a financial success . Warner Bros. , however , was disappointed as it was still substantially less than the first film . Burton was asked to restrict himself to the role of producer for the third film , Batman Forever , which led to Keaton vacating the role of Batman . \n = = Plot = = \n Tucker and Esther Cobblepot throw their deformed infant child into Gotham River , fearing he would become a menace to society after attacking their pet cat . The child 's crib floats to an abandoned zoo and is found by a flock of penguins who raise him as one of their own . 33 years later , during the lighting of Gotham City 's Christmas tree , a villainous gang of carnival performers stage a riot . While Batman subdues the criminals , corrupt businessman Max Shreck is abducted and brought to the underground lair of the grotesque crime boss known as The Penguin . A former sideshow freak , The Penguin explains his desire to become a respected citizen of Gotham and blackmails Shreck into helping him . \n Meanwhile , Shreck 's mousy secretary , Selina Kyle , inadvertently discovers her boss 's plan to illegally monopolize Gotham 's supply of electricity . To protect his secrets , Shreck pushes her out of his office window . Falling through several canopies , Selina miraculously survives but lies unconscious in an alley . A group of cats swarm around her , and while attempting to eat her , they revive her . Traumatized , Selina develops dissociative identity disorder and , after trashing her apartment , she fashions a black vinyl costume and whip , becoming the formidable Catwoman . \n Shreck arranges for one of Penguin 's men to kidnap the Mayor 's infant son , allowing the Penguin to \" rescue \" him . As a reward , the Penguin is given access to the Gotham City Archives , where he learns his real name , Oswald Cobblepot , and that he is the last surviving member of his family . Meanwhile , the Mayor , persuaded by billionaire Bruce Wayne , refuses to give Shreck a construction permit for his power plant . The Penguin orders his gang to attack downtown Gotham , ruining the Mayor 's reputation and giving Shreck the opportunity to propose Penguin as a replacement . Batman confronts the Penguin , but Catwoman appears while firebombing Shreck 's department store , and Penguin escapes . After a fight in which Batman knocks her off a building , Catwoman survives by landing in a sand truck . \n Catwoman agrees to help Penguin with a plan to discredit Batman by framing him for the abduction of Gotham 's \" Ice Princess \" beauty queen . Distracted by Catwoman , Batman is unable to stop Penguin from murdering the Princess using a swarm of captive bats . When Catwoman rejects the Penguin 's amorous advances , he tries to kill her using his motorized helicopter umbrella . As the umbrella takes her up into the sky , Catwoman narrowly cheats death again as she falls into a rooftop greenhouse . Fleeing from the police , Batman realizes that the Penguin is remotely controlling the Batmobile , taking it on a rampage through Gotham . Batman disables the control device , but not before recording the Penguin 's mocking insults about how gullible the people of Gotham are . \n At a press conference for Penguin organized by Shreck , Batman broadcasts the recording , destroying the Penguin 's public image . Enraged , the Penguin flees to the sewers and orders his gang to kidnap all of the first born sons of Gotham 's citizens . At a masquerade ball hosted by Shreck , Bruce and Selina deduce each other 's secret identities . The Penguin invades the party and reveals his intention to drown the kidnapped children , including Shreck 's son Chip , prompting Shreck to offer himself instead . Batman defeats the kidnappers , forcing Penguin to unleash an army of penguin soldiers to destroy Gotham with missiles . Piloting the Batboat through the sewers , Batman redirects the penguins to instead fire on Penguin 's hideout . The Penguin attacks Batman in a rage , but ends up falling through the ceiling of his lair . \n Catwoman ambushes Shreck to kill him , but Batman stops her and unmasks himself . Before Bruce can reason with her , Shreck shoots him and Selina , but runs out of bullets . Putting a taser to her lips , she kisses Shreck while grabbing hold of an exposed power cable , causing a fiery explosion . Bruce digs though the rubble but finds only Shreck 's charred corpse . Mortally injured , the Penguin tries to take his umbrella to kill Batman , but collapses dead before he can finish . His penguin family carries out a makeshift funeral , pushing his body into the water . \n Afterwards , as Alfred drives Bruce home , Bruce spots a shadow outside . He finds a stray black cat and decides to take it home . As he leaves , the Bat @-@ Signal lights up in the night sky as Catwoman watches from afar . \n = = Cast = = \n Michael Keaton as Batman / Bruce Wayne \n Danny DeVito as The Penguin / Oswald Cobblepot \n Michelle Pfeiffer as Catwoman / Selina Kyle \n Christopher Walken as Max Shreck \n Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth \n Pat Hingle as Commissioner James Gordon \n Michael Murphy as Mayor of Gotham City \n Vincent Schiavelli as The Organ Grinder \n Andrew Bryniarski as Chip Shreck \n Cristi Conaway as The Ice Princess \n Rick Zumwalt as The Tattooed Strongman \n Anna Katarina as The Poodle Lady \n Paul Reubens as Tucker Cobblepot ( Penguin 's Father ) \n Diane Salinger as Esther Cobblepot ( Penguin 's Mother ) \n = = Production = = \n = = = Development = = = \n After the success of Batman , Warner Bros. was hoping for a sequel to start filming in May 1990 at Pinewood Studios . They spent $ 250 @,@ 000 storing the sets from the first film . Tim Burton had mixed emotions about directing another film in the franchise after his experiences with the previous film . \" I will return if the sequel offers something new and exciting \" , he said in 1989 . \" Otherwise it 's a most @-@ dumbfounded idea . \" Burton decided to direct Edward Scissorhands for 20th Century Fox . Meanwhile , Sam Hamm from the previous film delivered the first two drafts of the script , while Bob Kane was brought back as a creative consultant . Hamm 's script had Penguin and Catwoman going after hidden treasure . \n Burton was impressed with Daniel Waters ' work on Heathers ; Burton originally brought Waters aboard on a sequel to Beetlejuice . Warner Bros. then granted Burton a large amount of creative control , demoting producers Jon Peters and Peter Guber to executive producers . Dissatisfied with the Hamm script , Burton commissioned a rewrite from Waters . Waters \" came up with a social satire that had an evil mogul backing a bid for the Mayor 's office by the Penguin \" , Waters reported . \" I wanted to show that the true villains of our world don 't necessarily wear costumes . \" The subplot of Penguin running for Mayor came from the 1960s TV series episodes \" Hizzoner the Penguin \" and \" Dizzoner the Penguin \" . Waters wrote a total of five drafts . \n On the characterization of Catwoman , Waters explained \" Sam Hamm went back"},"length_category":{"kind":"string","value":"Very Long"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"wikitext-103-excerpt"}}},{"rowIdx":6599,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":" reaches the community of Yorklyn , where it turns southwest briefly . After making a turn to the northwest to continue on Creek Road , DE 82 continues north alongside the Red Clay Creek with the Wilmington and Western Railroad heading to the southwest . A short distance past Yorklyn , the route reaches the Pennsylvania border , where it becomes PA 82 and continues toward Kennett Square , Pennsylvania . \n The entire length of DE 82 is a part of the Red Clay Scenic Byway , a designation given to several roads in the Red Clay Creek valley . The Red Clay Scenic Byway is a part of the Delaware Byways system . DE 82 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 4 @,@ 682 vehicles at the southern terminus at DE 52 to a low of 197 vehicles at Mt . Cuba Road . None of DE 82 is part of the National Highway System . \n = = History = = \n When Delaware started numbering state highways in the 1930s , what is now DE 82 was originally an unnumbered road . By 1952 , DE 82 was created on its current alignment to connect PA 82 to DE 52 near Greenville . DE 82 was incorporated into the Red Clay Scenic Byway , the second scenic byway in Delaware , in 2005 . In 2010 , DelDOT considered removing the DE 82 designation in order to preserve the route as a scenic byway . After a public workshop on the proposed designation removal was held , DelDOT decided in April 2010 to keep the DE 82 designation due to strong opposition from area residents on the plan . \n = = Major intersections = = \n Mileposts run from north to south . The entire route is in New Castle County . \n = Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy ( West Virginia lawyer ) = \n Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy ( January 17 , 1886 – May 17 , 1961 ) was an American lawyer and politician in the U.S. state of West Virginia . He was a prominent lawyer in Charleston , where he practiced law for over 50 years . Born in Romney in 1886 , Flournoy was the son of West Virginia State Senator Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy . Flournoy was a grandson of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White and a nephew of West Virginia Attorney General Robert White and West Virginia Fish Commission President Christian Streit White . He was also a relative of Thomas Flournoy , United States Representative from Virginia . \n Flournoy relocated with his family to Charleston in 1890 during his father 's second West Virginia Senate term . Flournoy was educated at Fishburne Military School , Hampden – Sydney College , and West Virginia University College of Law . He was admitted to the Kanawha County bar in 1911 and at various times during his law career , Flournoy was appointed special master , arbitrator , or commissioner for several high @-@ profile court cases . In 1935 , Flournoy was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for an at @-@ large seat on the Charleston City Council . In 1937 , Flournoy was selected by Governor Homer A. Holt as a member of the Charleston Civil Service Board , which regulated the appointments of police and fire personnel . Flournoy served as an incorporator of the New Homes Corporation of Charleston in 1931 and was later president of the Mortgage Exchange Corporation . He was involved in the establishment of a local mortgage business association in 1952 . Flournoy died in Charleston in 1961 . \n = = Early life and education = = \n Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy was born on January 7 , 1886 , in Romney , West Virginia . He was the son of West Virginia State Senator Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy and his wife Frances \" Fannie \" Ann Armstrong White . Through his mother , Flournoy was a grandson of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White and a nephew of West Virginia Attorney General Robert White and West Virginia Fish Commission President Christian Streit White . Through his father , he was a relative of Thomas Flournoy , United States Representative from Virginia . Flournoy was of English and French ancestry through his father , and of Scottish and Swiss ancestry through his mother . \n In 1890 , during his father 's second term in the West Virginia Senate , Flournoy and his family relocated from Romney to Charleston , where his father continued practicing law after his resignation from the senate . \n Flournoy received his primary education at Fishburne Military School in Waynesboro , Virginia . Following his graduation from the military school , he received his secondary education at his father 's alma mater Hampden – Sydney College in Hampden Sydney , Virginia , and went on to study jurisprudence at the West Virginia University College of Law in Morgantown , West Virginia . Flournoy was a member of the Chi Phi fraternity . \n = = Career = = \n = = = Law career = = = \n Flournoy became a member of the Kanawha County bar in 1911 and commenced the practice of law in Charleston . Flournoy was a partner in the Charleston law firm of Flournoy and Porter , where he practiced law for over 50 years . \n At various times during his law career , Flournoy was appointed special master , arbitrator , or commissioner for several high @-@ profile court cases . In 1932 , Flournoy was appointed special master in a suit involving the estate of Mercy J. Keller , the widow of Benjamin Franklin Keller , a judge for the United States District Court for the Southern District of West Virginia . Flournoy authored a report allowing for the distribution of funds to Keller 's heirs and beneficiaries from Charleston National Bank . In December 1932 , Flournoy provided mediation for several business and home owners who sued the city of Charleston over the widening of Virginia Street between Summers and Capitol Streets . He was unable to attend one of the lawsuit mediation conferences due to an ankle injury . In addition to his role as a special master and mediator , Flournoy was also selected to serve as a special commissioner in several Charleston lawsuits . \n Flournoy continued to expand his law practice by winning large contracts . In March 1933 , he offered the lowest bid of $ 3 @,@ 745 for a contract that supplied certificates of land title in Kanawha and Fayette counties within the Huntington federal engineering district . The lands within the federal engineering district were to be utilized by the Federal government for river work . \n = = = Political career = = = \n In 1935 , Flournoy was a West Virginia Democratic Party candidate for an at @-@ large seat on the Charleston City Council . Flournoy actively campaigned for the at @-@ large seat , and spoke to several local organizations , including the First Ward Negro Democratic Club and Beck 's Mission on Charleston 's West Side . Flournoy was ultimately unsuccessful in his bid for election to the at @-@ large city council seat . \n During a controversial re @-@ indexing of Kanawha County records by Works Progress Administration officials in 1935 and 1936 , Flournoy served as chairman of the Charleston Bar Association 's Re @-@ Indexing Committee , which completed an independent investigation of the re @-@ indexing progress , as ordered by the bar association 's executive committee . Under Flournoy 's leadership , the committee completed its review in January 1936 . \n In 1937 , Flournoy was appointed by West Virginia Governor Homer A. Holt as an at @-@ large member of Charleston 's Civil Service Board , which had been empowered by an act of the West Virginia Legislature to regulate the appointment of police and fire personnel in Charleston . While serving on the board , Flournoy was its president and spokesperson . \n = = = Business career = = = \n On July 14 , 1931 , Flournoy was an incorporator of the New Homes Corporation of Charleston , a building and construction firm , which was headquartered in the Davidson Building and was chartered with a capital stock value of $ 50 @,@ 000 . Flournoy was later president of the Mortgage Exchange Corporation of Charleston . In his role as president of the Mortgage Exchange Corporation , Flournoy was involved in the establishment of a local association of mortgage businesspeople in February 1952 . Flournoy was named by the association as one of three men appointed to the by @-@ laws committee . \n = = Later life and death = = \n At the time of his appointment to the Charleston Civil Services Board , Flournoy resided at 8 California Avenue near the West Virginia Capitol Complex in Charleston . He later relocated to 4100 Kanawha Avenue SE in Charleston 's Kanawha City neighborhood , where he resided at the time of his death . \n Flournoy died of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis at the age of 75 on May 17 , 1961 , at Kanawha Valley Memorial Hospital in Charleston following a prolonged illness . He was survived by his wife , his son , and his sister Frances Flournoy Preston . Flournoy 's funeral services were held at the Barlow @-@ Bonsall Funeral Home and his family requested that memorial donations be made to Marmet Hospital in his honor . He was interred at Spring Hill Cemetery in Charleston on May 19 , 1961 . \n At the opening of the September 1961 term of the Kanawha County Circuit Court , Flournoy was eulogized by Kanawha County Bar Association member Roy M. Sams . \n = = Personal life = = \n Flournoy married Sarah Katharine Cotton in Charleston in 1913 . He and Katharine had two children , one son and one daughter : \n Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy , Jr . ( March 23 , 1924 – December 27 , 2014 ) , married Virginia McManaway Cox of Thaxton , Virginia on June 14 , 1964 \n Nancy Margaret Cotton Flournoy Moore , married Webster Hamilton Moore of Greensboro , North Carolina , on December 3 , 1949 \n Flournoy was a practicing Presbyterian and was a member of the Ruffner Memorial Presbyterian Church in Charleston . \n = History of cardistry = \n Cardistry is a portmanteau of cards and artistry . The art form of card flourishing , commonly referred to as cardistry , grew out of simple flourishes used in close @-@ up magic by magicians in the 1990s to early 2000s . Chris Kenner 's notable two @-@ handed Sybil cut from his 1992 publication Totally Out of Control has carried great influence and gave birth to a series of advanced flourishes which today represents the foundation of the performance art . Sleight of hand pioneers Dan and Dave popularized cardistry on the world stage with their instructional DVD releases from 2004 and 2007 . Journalist Kevin Pang of Vanity Fair characterized the art of card flourishing as , \" It 's yo @-@ yo tricks performed by cardsharps with the street cred of a Parkour video . There 's a name for it : cardistry . \" \n = = Roots in magic = = \n When conjuring tricks with playing cards became popular around the 19th century , magicians would often include card flourishes in their performances to demonstrate their sleight of hand abilities . Unlike tricks , flourishes were intended to be visually impressive and appear difficult to perform . Some of the first flourishes to be documented include the Charlier Cut , Riffle Shuffle and Thumb Fan . Several sleight of hand bestsellers , such as S. W. Erdnase 's The Expert at the Card Table from 1902 ( which shared roots in gambling and cheating at cards ) , emphasized the importance of incorporating flourishes into tricks . Up until the 2000s , card flourishing were considered a mere subsection of close @-@ up magic and not an independent performance art . \n Cardistry is a portmanteau of \" card \" and \" artistry \" . It involves the use of hands to create cuts , displays , fans , patterns and sequences through the use of playing cards . Various armspreads , cuts , shuffles and springs can be used . The intent is to create a captivating motion and beautiful display . The effects are limited only by the types of cars used , the imagination , and the degree of manual dexterity of the performer . The presentation is typically neither \" illusionary \" nor purportedly \" magic \" . At least in part , the color and form of cards affect visual perceptions of the act . The visual style of the art form is often associated or compared to juggling , hackey @-@ sack , mimes and even skateboarding . \n = = Five Faces of Sybil = = \n In 1992 , American magician and David Copperfield producer Chris Kenner published Totally Out of Control , a successful instructional book explaining magic effects with playing cards and other household objects . Among the many sleights featured was a two @-@ handed card flourish on page 125 called \" The Five Faces of Sybil \" . Using all fingers , Sybil ends with the deck divided into five distinct packets . Kenner himself describes Sybil in his book as \" a quick cut flourish to demonstrate skill and dexterity \" . The flourish spawned a cycle of two @-@ handed cut creations and formed the cornerstone of what is now known as cardistry . Journalist Kevin Pang of Vanity Fair magazine noted that \" every cardist can deftly perform Sybil the way guitarists can run through a blues progression \" . \n = = An art form = = \n Los Angeles @-@ based magician Brian Tudor was one of many performers heavily influenced by Sybil . In 1997 , he released a three @-@ volume VHS tape dubbed Show Off , one of the first instructional products made by a known magician to only feature flourishes . Tudor 's tape was well received , with some critics describing the flourishes and cuts taught as \" eye @-@ popping \" . The most notable invention from Show Off was the one @-@ handed Revolution Cut , a variation of the common Charlier , where the top packet spins an additional 180 degrees . \n In 2001 , twin brothers and Sybil enthusiast Daniel and David Buck ( known as Dan and Dave ) released Pasteboard Animations , another flourish @-@ only instructional VHS tape . Although produced as a low @-@ fi home video and relatively short compared to Show Off , it sold hundreds of copies at hotel lobbies and magic conventions at a cost of $ 25 . In a Genii magazine review of the Magic Live convention in August 2001 , the twins flourishes and Pasteboard Animations tape received mixed responses . Renowned magic historian Jamy Ian Swiss remarked : \n \" It was an excellent show , though opinion was definitely mixed about the Buck boys , who sat and stared at their hands while oddly racing through flourishes . It serves no function except as eye candy . It 's juggling , and juggling and magic are two separate things . Nevertheless , it 's fucking cool to watch . Cool is cool is cool , capital C cool . And magic is traditionally uncool . It 's always been the geeky kids . \" \n In spite of the mixed responses from the traditional magic scene , Dan and Dave continued with their cardistry creations . In 2004 , with the help of Kenner , the twins released an instructional DVD on cardistry named The Dan and Dave System . The System is perceived as having officially separated advanced card flourishing from card magic and defined the style of cardistry . Filmed with digital movie cameras at film studios and professional edited , the critically praised $ 30 DVD inspired thousands of sleight of hand artists all over the world to embark on cardistry . Four years later , the twins released a three @-@ disc DVD set known as The Trilogy , showcasing some of the most comprehensive and difficult flourishes ever created . Retailing at $ 85 per copy , The Trilogy is the bestselling cardistry release of all time , having sold more than 25 @,@ 000 units . Pang wrote that just about every cardist lists either the System or The Trilogy as the reason they got into card flourishing . \n In a 2015 interview , Singaporean cardist Kevin Ho mentioned that cardistry grew in popularity during the 2000s because of promotion through social media and journalistic coverage . Another cardist from Singapore , Huron Low , explained : \n \" A lot of new doors are opening . Earphone companies and watch companies want to see product placements [ in our videos ] . And there 's a lot of focus now on cardistry as a lifestyle brand — caps , T @-@ shirts . \" \n = = Cardistry convention = = \n In response to the growing cardistry community , Dan and Dave organized the first cardistry convention and interactive conference to promote the performance art in 2014 , called Cardistry @-@ Con. The convention saw interviews , panel discussions , live performances , exclusive video screenings , workshops , contests and giveaways . The 2015 convention was attended by journalists from magazines such as Vanity Fair and Wired as well as television stations , all of which helped further popularize cardistry as an art . Its growth has been associated with its availability with the availability of videos , lessons and podcasts , which tend to make the art more transparent and available to all who are interested . \n = = Tools = = \n Decks of playing cards are an essential part of the cardist 's tools . Ordinary playing cards will do . However , they are not fungible goods ; and some have the opinion that those chosen should be particularly adapted to the task , even though they can be rare and relatively expensive – flexibility , stickiness , colors and decorations ( both front and back ) vary . However , older grimier cards , sometimes called \" poop decks \" , are preferred by others . \n = = Gender imbalance = = \n It is no secret that cardistry , like magic generally , is populated mainly by males . Some have observed that the split is roughly 9 to 1 , male @-@ to @-@ female . The reasons and remedies , if any , are subject to dispute . \n = = List of notable practitioners or creators = = \n = Zero Patience = \n Zero Patience is a 1993 Canadian musical film written and directed by John Greyson . The film examines and refutes the urban legend of the alleged introduction of HIV to North America by a single individual , Gaëtan Dugas . Dugas , better known as Patient Zero , was tagged in the popular imagination with the blame in large measure because of Randy Shilts 's history of the early days of the AIDS epidemic , And the Band Played On . The film tells its story against the backdrop of a romance between a time @-@ displaced Sir Richard Francis Burton and the ghost of \" Zero \" ( the character is not identified by Dugas ' name ) . \n Produced in partnership with the Canadian Film Centre , the Canada Council , Telefilm Canada and the Ontario Film Development Corporation , Zero Patience opened to mixed reviews but went on to win a number of prestigious Canadian film awards . The film has been the subject of critical attention in the context of both film theory and queer theory and is considered part of the informal New Queer Cinema movement . \n = = Plot summary = = \n Victorian adventurer and sexologist Sir Richard Francis Burton ( John Robinson ) , following an \" unfortunate encounter \" with the Fountain of Youth in 1892 , is 170 years old and living in Toronto , Canada . Burton , now living and working as the chief taxidermist at a Museum of Natural History , is searching for a centerpiece display for an exhibit in his Hall of Contagion . He comes up with the idea of featuring AIDS and the Patient Zero hypothesis . Accepting the popular belief that Zero introduced the virus to North America , Burton sets out to collect video footage from those who knew Zero to support the hypothesis . When Zero 's doctor ( Brenda Kamino ) , mother ( Charlotte Boisjoli ) and former airline colleague Mary ( Dianne Heatherington ) , who is now with ACT UP , all refuse to demonize Zero , Burton manipulates the footage to make it appear as if they do and includes doctored photographs of Zero showing signs of Kaposi 's sarcoma . He presents this preliminary version to the press . \n The ghost of Zero ( Normand Fauteux ) materializes at a local gay bathhouse . No one can see or hear him , until Zero runs into Burton while Burton is spying on Zero 's friend George . Zero realizes that Burton can see him , although Zero does not show up on Burton 's video camera . The two strike a deal ; Zero agrees to help Burton with his Patient Zero exhibit if Burton finds a way to make Zero appear . \n The two return to the museum where Burton makes a ridiculous attempt to seduce Zero to ensure his participation . Rejecting his advances , Zero examines some of the other exhibits ( including displays on Typhoid Mary and the Tuskegee syphilis study ) before finding an African green monkey , another suspected early AIDS vector . The monkey ( Marla Lukofsky ) angrily denounces Zero for scapegoating her just as he has been scapegoated . Zero turns to Burton and they make love . \n Under pressure from his director and the exhibit 's drug manufacturer sponsor , Burton steals Zero 's medical records in hopes of discovering new information . Zero and Burton examine an old blood sample of Zero 's under a microscope and discover Miss HIV ( Michael Callen ) , who points out that the original study that was used to label Patient Zero as the first person to bring HIV to North America did not prove any such thing , but instead helped prove that HIV was sexually transmitted , leading to the development of safer sex practices . Under this interpretation , Zero could be lauded as a hero for his candor in participating in that original study . As Burton ponders this , an unknown fluid squirts from the eye pieces of the microscope , drenching Zero and making him appear on video . He joyously declares his innocence on tape but the effect only lasts five minutes before he fades away again . Zero angrily accuses Burton of not caring for him at all and only wanting to use him for the exhibit , then storms out . \n Burton fails to complete the revised Patient Zero exhibit before its scheduled opening date . The museum curator substitutes the original presentation instead over Burton 's protests , leading to a renewed rush of press scapegoating Zero . The night after the exhibit opens , Mary and other ACT UP members break into the Hall of Contagion and trash the exhibit . Zero returns and Burton explains that he tried to stop the exhibit . Zero forgives Burton but says he wants to disappear again completely . Zero merges with his disfigured video image and , smoking a cigarette inside the video , sets off the fire alarm . The sprinklers destroy the video player and Zero vanishes . \n A major subplot involves George ( Richardo Keens @-@ Douglas ) , a French teacher and former intimate of Zero 's . George is losing his sight to cytomegalovirus and is taking a drug that is manufactured by a company that , as a member of ACT UP , George is protesting . George struggles through the film to resolve his conflicted feelings over this , his guilt over abandoning Zero during the final days of his illness and his fear that the same thing will happen to him . \n = = Cast = = \n John Robinson as Sir Richard Burton \n Normand Fauteux as Zero \n Dianne Heatherington as Mary \n Richardo Keens @-@ Douglas as George \n Charlotte Boisjoli as Maman , Zero 's mother \n Brenda Kamino as Dr. Cheng , Zero 's doctor \n Michael Callen as Miss HIV \n Marla Lukofsky as African Green Monkey \n Von Flores as Ray ( ACT UP member ) \n Scott Hurst as Michael ( ACT UP member ) \n Duncan McIntosh as Ross ( ACT UP member ) \n Real @-@ life television journalist Ann Medina has a brief role as a television reporter . Co @-@ producer Louise Garfield makes a cameo appearance playing a virus , co @-@ producer Anna Stratton appears as a drug company executive and composer Glenn Schellenberg plays a bathhouse attendant . \n = = Production = = \n John Greyson became interested in offering a counterpoint to the Patient Zero story as early as 1987 , when the Patient Zero meme began entering the public consciousness following the publication of Randy Shilts 's book And the Band Played On . The book described the cluster study which led to the popular identification of flight attendant Gaëtan Dugas as the vector through which HIV was first brought to North America . It should be noted , however , that Shilts himself never claimed that Dugas was the first . In early 1991 Greyson was given a development grant for the script from the Canadian Film Centre , of which Greyson is an alumnus . Over the next year Greyson , in collaboration with Film Centre partners Louise Garfield and Anna Stratton , continued to develop the script , eventually presenting it with producer Alexandra Raffé in a workshop format . During the first half of 1992 , the production team secured additional development funding from the Canada Council , Telefilm Canada and the Ontario Film Development Corporation . By June of that year the script and the songs were completed and that autumn , with funds from the Telefilm Canada and OFDC grants along with revenue from the sale of British broadcast rights to Channel 4 , pre @-@ production and casting got underway . Principal photography began in November 1992 and wrapped after five weeks . Sneak previews took place at the Seattle International Film Festival and a number of LGBT film festivals across the United States before its official debut in September 1993 at Toronto 's Festival of Festivals . \n In dedicating the film 's soundtrack album to performer and AIDS activist Michael Callen and other friends they had lost to the disease , Greyson , composer Glenn Schellenberg and producers Garfield and Stratton explained their reasons for making the film . \" We wanted to explode the opportunistic myth of Patient Zero .... More importantly , we wanted to celebrate the courage and sass of an international AIDS activist movement that has tirelessly fought for the rights of people living with AIDS . \" \n = = Critical reception = = \n Zero Patience garnered mixed critical reaction . The mainstream Austin Chronicle cited a \" murky plot , frequently weak acting and often mediocre music \" while still praising the film 's \" spunk , humor , enthusiasm and wit . \" The Washington Post compared Zero Patience unfavorably to Hollywood 's big @-@ budget , big @-@ star AIDS @-@ themed film , Philadelphia , claiming that the latter 's protagonist , Andrew Beckett , \" looked sick , dealt with his illness and allowed the audience to sympathize , \" unlike the \" healthy hoofers \" of the musical who , because they didn 't look sick enough , \" [ seem ] to deny some of the grim realities \" of the disease . In a contrary favorable opinion , London 's Time Out Film Guide praised the film for \" slyly inverting popular wisdom \" to \" offer a sassy commentary on the epidemic of blame \" and calling Zero Patience \" a film which engages your mind as much as your heart , and leaves you laughing . \" Similarly , The New York Times lauded the film 's \" loopy buoyancy , \" praising the songs as a \" bouncy stylistic hybrid of Gilbert and Sullivan , Ringo Starr , The Kinks and the Pet Shop Boys . \" \n Zero Patience was honored as the Best Canadian Film and Best Ontario Feature at the 1993 Cinéfest and was awarded a Special Jury Citation as Best Canadian Feature Film at the 1993 Festival of Festivals . Greyson dedicated his award to the memory of Jay Scott , the influential film critic who had died of AIDS a few months earlier . \n Director Greyson and composer Glenn Schellenberg were nominated for a 1993 Genie Award for Best Original Song for the film 's theme song , \" Zero Patience . \" \n = = = Queer theory = = = \n In examining the film from a queer theory perspective , author Michele Aaron cites Zero Patience as definitional of one of the New Queer Cinema 's central attitudes , the \" def [ iance ] of cinematic convention in terms of form , content and genre . \" Aaron goes on to cite the film 's musical format as \" further subvert [ ing ] the ways we might expect to be ' entertained ' by such serious matters as AIDS , media representation , and the legacy of moralism and sexuality . \" Feminist academic and AIDS video producer Alexandra Juhasz puts forth the film as \" an effective critique of the silly sensationalism used in much reportage of AIDS science [ that ] fights melodrama and tabloid journalism -- with melodrama and tabloid journalism . \" Not all such critical commentary has been positive , with openly gay film scholar Robin Wood ( who saw the film when someone very close to him was in the final stages of AIDS ) calling the film \" misguided on the levels both of conception and execution . \" \n = = Soundtrack = = \n The Zero Patience soundtrack was released in 1994 . Produced by John Switzer , it includes all of the songs and several pieces of incidental music , along with two remixes of the film 's title song . \n = = = Track listing = = = \n Zero Patience [ Moulton Lava Club Remix ] \n Arabian Nights - Instrumental \n Just Like Scheherazade - Zero \n Culture of Certainty - Richard Burton \n Pop @-@ A @-@ Boner - Bathhouse trio \n Control - Mary and ACT UP \n George 's Theme - Instrumental \n Pop @-@ A @-@ Boner [ Reprise # 1 ] - Bathhouse trio \n Butthole Duet - Richard Burton and Zero \n Positive - George and schoolchildren \n Drowning Sailors ' Theme - Instrumental \n Love Theme - Instrumental \n Contagious - African Green Monkey \n Pop @-@ A @-@ Boner [ Reprise # 2 ] - Bathhouse trio \n Scheherazade ( Miss HIV ) - Miss HIV \n Six or Seven Things - Richard Burton and Zero \n Zero Patience - Principal cast \n Scheherazade ( Tell a Story ) - Principal cast \n Zero Patience [ Extended Burn Remix ] \n = Cat Daddy = \n \" Cat Daddy \" is a 2011 song by American Hip hop group The Rej3ctz . It is based on a dance of the same name and is from the 2010 mixtape TheFUNKtion vs theKICKback . \" Cat Daddy \" was a MTV Jams \" Jam Of The Week \" in January 2011 . It was released for digital download on February 16 , 2011 on iTunes and subsequently charted on several Billboard charts , including the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , where it spent fourteen weeks and eventually peaked at number 77 , after being re @-@ released on June 27 , 2011 . \n Chris Brown performed the Cat Daddy dance during the 106 & Park 10th Anniversary special in October 2010 . Brown was the featured dance performer on the song 's official video , which as of November 12 , 2015 has over 99 million YouTube views . A Cat Daddy 2 @.@ 0 video by Mario Van Peebles preceded the re @-@ release of the song and was associated with the movie We the Party . Several notable celebrities have been filmed doing the dance , including Justin Bieber and Selena Gomez . The dance is described as a combination of buckling a seatbelt and rolling a wheelchair . \n The song and dance became a viral video in May 2012 when then @-@ current Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue cover model Kate Upton posted a video of her bikini @-@ clad rendition of the dance on YouTube , causing YouTube to temporarily ban the video . The propriety of the YouTube ban was hotly debated with articles in many top @-@ tier publications including the Los Angeles Times , The Washington Post and the Daily News as well as leading news services such as ABC News and Fox News . Her video has about 25 @.@ 7 million YouTube views , as of November 12 , 2015 . \n = = Release = = \n The \" Cat Daddy \" dance was originated by The Rej3ctz group member Reject Sam before the group linked it to the song . The song came from a 2010 mixtape entitled TheFUNKtion vs theKICKback , which is sometimes just referred to as The FUNKtion . In late 2010 and 2011 , Chris Brown popularized the Cat Daddy dance after performing it in the official video . On October 6 , 2010 , Brown performed the Cat Daddy on 106 & Park for their 10 @-@ year anniversary show . Then , the Rej3ctz released a video of the song , featuring Brown dancing , that was produced at Venice Beach on or before August 2010 . \n The song was released February 16 , 2011 as a music download on iTunes . According to Thomas Clayton of The Daily Rind , the song had 14 @,@ 000 downloads on iTunes in its first week and the video had 9 million pageviews at the time . By April 20 , 2011 , the official video had 21 million pageviews . As of November 12 , 2015 the original December 2 , 2010 upload of the official video has over 81 @.@ 9 million YouTube views , while an alternate March 9 , 2011 upload of the video has an additional 17 @.@ 4 million plus views . \n In April 2011 , Mario Van Peebles produced a \" Cat Daddy 2 @.@ 0 \" video that included appearances of several artist playing parody roles of themselves like actor and singer Quincy , rapper YG and entertainer Carlos Olivero . The video was associated with the release of Van Peebles ' movie We the Party and the story behind The Rej3ctz ' audition for it . The video shows how The Rej3ctz anticipated succeeding in their auditions , but realized that the competition was stiffer than expected . They were rejected until Van Peebles ' kids got Mario to ask them to perform their song and dance . The video was Van Peebles ' first music video . The song was re @-@ released on iTunes on June 27 , 2011 . \n = = = Reception = = = \n Billboard described the song as a \" low @-@ slung \" . MostlyJunkFood.com described the song and video as \" another one of those weak on lyrical content , but making up for it with a bangin beat and some standard Chris Breezy dancin ’ abouts \" . In January 2011 , the song was recognized by MTV Jams as the \" Jam Of The Week \" . Although the song only spent one week on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 97 on June 18 , 2011 , it spent fourteen weeks on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart peaking at 77 on July 16 , 2011 and was listed on the Top Heatseekers list for eleven weeks , peaking at number 12 on June 18 , 2011 . \n = = = Production background = = = \n The original video was directed by Alex Nazari . TheFUNKtion vs theKICKback mixtape that included \" Cat Daddy \" was produced by JHawk . \n = = Kate Upton videos = = \n Kate Upton , who in February 2012 was the cover model for the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue , recorded a video of the Dougie that went viral and garnered over 5 million hits in April 2011 . She announced her intention to release a video performance of the Cat Daddy when she served as grand marshal for the 2012 Daytona 500 . The video of Upton dancing on a break between photo shots was posted online on April 30 . \n After garnering close to 1 million hits in the first 24 hours , YouTube banned Kate Upton 's version of the dance from their site for being too risqué . After some deliberation about whether it \" violated the website ’ s rules on nudity and sexual content \" the video was restored to their website . Upton 's Cat Daddy video clip was a part of Terry Richardson 's vlog . Richardson has a reputation for \" raunchy \" artwork . According to the Los Angeles Times the video was removed on May 1 , 2012 while the Daily News reported its removal was May 2 . \n Both agree that the video was restored late on May 2 , although Fox News reports that it was initially restored with an age restriction . During the YouTube ban , Upton 's Cat Daddy gained exposure at Vimeo when Richardson uploaded it there in response to the ban . As of November 12 , 2015 , her version of the dance has received about 25 @.@ 7 million YouTube views . \n Following Upton 's April 30 rendition , The Rej3ctz were impressed enough with Upton that they attempted to contact her regarding future collaboration ( s ) . On the June 21 , 2012 edition of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon she performed a fully clothed rendition of the \" Cat Daddy \" alongside Fallon . Prior to performing the dance she described the movements of the dance as buckling a seatbelt and rolling a wheelchair . YouTube now hosts videos of numerous celebrities doing the Cat Daddy including Selena Gomez and Justin Bieber . \n = = Track listing = = \n = = Chart performance = = \n = = Release history = = \n = Siege of Szigetvár = \n The Siege of Szigetvár or Battle of Szigeth ( pronunciation : [ ˈsiɡɛtvaːr ] Hungarian : Szigetvár ostroma , Croatian : Bitka kod Sigeta or Sigetska bitka , Turkish : Zigetvar Kuşatması ) was a siege of the fortress of Szigetvár , Kingdom of Hungary , that blocked Suleiman 's line of advance towards Vienna in 1566 AD . The battle was fought between the defending forces of the Habsburg Monarchy under the leadership of Nikola Šubić Zrinski ( Hungarian : Zrínyi Miklós ) , former Ban of Croatia , and the invading Ottoman army under the nominal command of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent ( Ottoman Turkish : سليمان Süleymān ) . \n After the Battle of Mohács in 1526 , which resulted in the end of the independent Kingdom of Hungary , Ferdinand I was elected King by the nobles of both Hungary and Croatia . This was followed by a series of conflicts with the Habsburgs and their allies , fighting against the Ottoman Empire . In the Little War in Hungary both sides exhausted themselves after sustaining heavy casualties . The Ottoman campaign in Hungary ceased until the offensive against Szigetvár . \n In January 1566 Suleiman went to war for the last time . The siege of Szigetvár was fought from 5 August to 8 September 1566 and , though it resulted in an Ottoman victory , there were heavy losses on both sides . Both commanders died during the battle — Zrinski in the final charge and Suleiman in his tent from natural causes . More than 20 @,@ 000 Turks had fallen during the attacks and almost all of Zrinski 's 2 @,@ 300 man garrison was killed , with most of the final 600 men killed on the last day . Although the battle was an Ottoman victory , it stopped the Ottoman push to Vienna that year . Vienna was not threatened again until the Battle of Vienna in 1683 . \n The importance of the battle was considered so great that the French clergyman and statesman Cardinal Richelieu was reported to have described it as \" the battle that saved civilization . \" The battle is still famous in Croatia and Hungary and inspired both the Hungarian epic poem The Siege of Sziget and the Croatian opera Nikola Šubić Zrinski . \n = = Background = = \n On 29 August 1526 the forces of the Kingdom of Hungary led by King Louis II were defeated at the Battle of Mohács by Ottoman forces led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent . Louis died in the battle which resulted in the end of the independent Kingdom of Hungary , as he died without an heir . Both Hungary and Croatia became disputed territories with claims from both the Habsburg and Ottoman empires . Ferdinand I from the House of Habsburg , brother of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , married the sister of Louis II and was elected King by the nobles of both Hungary and Croatia . \n The throne of Hungary became the subject of a dynastic dispute between Ferdinand and John Zápolya from Transylvania . Suleiman had promised to make Zápolya the ruler of all Hungary . Ferdinand set out to enforce his claim on Hungary and captured Buda from John Zápolya in 1527 , only to relinquish his hold on it in 1529 when an Ottoman counter @-@ attack stripped Ferdinand of all his territorial gains during 1527 and 1528 . The Siege of Vienna in 1529 was the first attempt by Suleiman the Magnificent to capture the Austrian capital . This siege signalled the pinnacle of Ottoman power and the maximum extent of Ottoman expansion in central Europe . \n = = = Little War = = = \n The years from 1529 to 1552 were known as the \" Little War \" . Following Suleiman 's unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1529 Ferdinand launched a counter @-@ attack in 1530 to regain the initiative . An assault on Buda was driven off by John Zápolya , although Ferdinand was successful elsewhere — capturing Gran ( Esztergom ) and other forts along the Danube river , a vital strategic frontier . \n Suleiman 's response came in 1532 when he led a massive army of over 120 @,@ 000 troops to besiege Vienna again . Ferdinand withdrew his army , leaving only 700 men with no cannons and a few guns to defend Güns ( Koszeg ) although Ibrahim Pasha , the Grand Vizier of the Ottomans , did not realize how poorly defended Koszeg was . Suleiman came to join him shortly after the siege had started . For more than twenty five days Croatian captain Nikola Jurišić and his garrison of 800 Croats held out against nineteen full @-@ scale assaults and an incessant bombardment by the Ottomans . As a result , the city was offered a surrender on favourable terms and , although the offer was rejected , the Ottomans retreated leading to a peace treaty between Ferdinand and Suleiman . John Zápolya was recognized as the King of Hungary by the Habsburgs , although as an Ottoman vassal . \n The treaty did not satisfy either John Zápolya or Ferdinand and their armies began skirmishes along the borders . In 1537 Ferdinand attacked John ’ s forces at Osijek in violation of the treaty . The siege was a disaster of similar magnitude to that of Mohács , with an Ottoman relief army smashing the Austrians . Rather than attack Vienna again Suleiman attacked Otranto in southern Italy . Nonetheless , an Ottoman victory at the naval Battle of Preveza ( 1538 ) gave the Habsburg @-@ led coalition another defeat . \n John Zápolya died in 1540 and was succeeded by his infant son John II Sigismund Zápolya . For much of his reign the country was governed by his mother Isabella Jagiellon , with continued support from Suleiman . John II remained as nominal King of Hungary until he abdicated in 1570 and returned the country to Habsburg rule . \n A further humiliating defeat was inflicted on the Habsburgs in the Siege of Buda ( 1541 ) when the Ottomans responded to a request for help from Isabella Jagiellon . In April 1543 Suleiman launched another campaign in Hungary , taking back Bran and other forts so that much of Hungary returned to Ottoman control . In August 1543 the Ottomans succeeded in the Siege of Esztergom ( 1543 ) which was followed by the capture of three Hungarian cities : Székesfehérvár , Siklós and Szeged , offering better security for Buda . \n Another peace agreement between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans lasted until 1552 when Suleiman decided to attack Eger . The siege proved futile and the Habsburg victory reversed a period of territorial losses in Hungary . The survival of Eger gave the Austrians good reason to believe that Hungary was still a contested ground and the Ottoman campaign in Hungary ceased , until its revival in 1566 . \n = = Campaign of 1566 = = \n In January 1566 Sultan Suleiman I had ruled the Ottoman Empire for 46 years and went to war for the last time . He was 72 years old and , although having gout to the extent that he was carried on a litter , he nominally commanded his thirteenth military campaign . On 1 May 1566 the Sultan left Constantinople at the head of one of the largest armies he had ever commanded . \n His opposite number , Count Nikola Šubić Zrinski , was one of the largest landholders in the Kingdom of Croatia , a seasoned veteran of border warfare , and a Ban ( Croatian royal representative ) from 1542 to 1556 . In his early life he distinguished himself in the Siege of Vienna and pursued a successful military career . \n Suleiman 's forces reached Belgrade on 27 June after a forty @-@ nine @-@ day march . Here he met with John II Sigismund Zápolya who he earlier promised to make the ruler of all Hungary . Learning of the Zrinski 's success in an attack upon a Turkish encampment at Siklós , Suleiman decided to postpone his attack on Eger ( German : Erlau ) and instead attack Zrinski 's fortress at Szigetvár to eliminate him as a threat . \n = = = Siege = = = \n The advanced guard of the Turks arrived at on 2 August 1566 and the defenders made several successful sorties causing considerable loss to the Turks . The Sultan arrived with the main force on 5 August and his big war tent was erected on the Similehov hill , giving him a view of the battle . The Sultan had to stay in his camp where he received verbal battle progress reports from his Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha , the real operational commander of the Ottoman forces . \n Count Zrinski found himself besieged by a hostile army of at least 150 @,@ 000 soldiers with powerful artillery . Zrinski had assembled a force of around 2 @,@ 300 Croatian and Hungarian soldiers prior to the siege . These consisted of his personal forces and those of his friends and allies . The majority of the defenders were Croatian , with a significant Hungarian contingent represented in both the men @-@ at @-@ arms and the leadership . \n Szigetvár was divided into three sections divided by water : the old town , the new town and the castle — each of which was linked to the next by bridges and to the land by causeways . Although it was not built on particularly high ground the inner castle , which occupied much of the area of today 's castle , was not directly accessible to the attackers . This was because two other baileys had to be taken and secured before a final assault on the inner castle could be launched . \n When the Sultan appeared before the Fortress he saw the walls hung with red cloth , as though for a festive reception , and a single great cannon thundered once to greet the mighty warrior monarch . The siege began on 6 August when Suleiman ordered a general assault on the ramparts , although the attack was successfully repulsed . Despite being undermanned , and greatly outnumbered , the defenders were sent no reinforcements from Vienna by the imperial army . \n After over a month of exhausting and bloody struggle the few remaining defenders retreated into the old town for their last stand . The Sultan tried to entice Zrinski to surrender , ultimately offering him leadership of Croatia under Ottoman influence , Count Zrinski did not reply and continued to fight . \n The fall of the castle appeared inevitable but the Ottoman high command hesitated . On 6 September Suleiman died in his tent and his death was kept secret at great effort with only the Sultan 's innermost circle knowing of his demise . This was because the Ottomans feared that their soldiers would give up the battle if they knew that their leader died , so his death was kept secret for 48 days . A courier was dispatched from the camp with a message for Suleiman 's successor , Selim . The courier may not even have known the content of the message he delivered to distant Asia Minor within a mere eight days . \n = = = Final battle = = = \n The final battle began on 7 September , the day after Suleiman 's demise . By this time , the fortress walls had been reduced to rubble by mining with explosives and wood fueled fires at the corners of the walls . In the morning an all @-@ out attack began with fusillades from small arms , \" Greek fire \" , and a concentrated cannonade . Soon the castle , the last stronghold within Szigetvár , was set ablaze and cinders fell into the apartments of the count . \n The Ottoman army swarmed through the city , drumming and yelling . Zrinski prepared for a last charge addressing his troops : \n Zrinski did not allow the final assault to break into the castle . As the Turks were pressing forwards along a narrow bridge the defenders suddenly flung open the gate and fired a large mortar loaded with broken iron , killing 600 attackers . Zrinski then ordered a charge and led his remaining 600 troops out of the castle . He received two musket wounds in his chest and was killed shortly afterwards by an arrow to the head . Some of his force retired into the castle . \n The Turks took the castle and most of the defenders were slain . A few of the captured defenders were spared by Janissaries who had admired their courage , with only seven defenders managing to escape through the Ottoman lines . Zrinski 's corpse was beheaded and his head taken to the new Sultan while his body received an honourable burial by a Turk who had been his prisoner , and well treated by him . \n = = = Powder magazine explosion = = = \n Before leading the final sortie by the castle garrison , Zrinski ordered a fuse be lit to the powder magazine . After cutting down the last of the defenders the besiegers poured into the fortress . The Ottoman Army entered the remains of Szigetvár and fell into the booby trap , thousands perished in the blast when the castle 's magazine exploded . \n The Vizier Ibrahim 's life was saved by one of Zrinski 's household who warned him of the trap when the Vizier and his troops searched for treasure and interrogated the survivors . While inquiring about treasure the prisoner replied that it had been long expended , but that 3 @,@ 000 lbs of powder were under their feet to which a slow match had been attached . The Vizier and his mounted officers had just enough time to escape but 3 @,@ 000 Turks perished in the explosion . \n = = Aftermath = = \n Almost all of Zrinski 's garrison was wiped out after the final battle . Ottoman casualties were also heavy . Three pashas , 7 @,@ 000 Janissaries and 28 @,@ 000 other soldiers are said to have perished . Sources vary on the exact number with estimates ranging from 20 @,@ 000 – 35 @,@ 000 . \n After the battle the Grand Vizier forged bulletins in the Sultan 's name , proclaiming victory . These announced that the Sultan regretted that his current state of health prevented him from continuing with the successful campaign . His body was returned to Constantinople while the inner circle of officials pretended to keep up communication with him . Turkish sources state that the illusion was maintained for three weeks and that even the Sultan 's personal physician was strangled as a precaution . \n It is likely that the long journey and the siege had a detrimental effect on the Sultan 's health . His death meant that any advances were postponed as the Grand Vizier had to return to Constantinople for the succession of the new Sultan , Selim II . Even if Suleiman had lived his army could not have achieved much in the short time that remained between the fall of Szigeth and the onset of winter . The prolonged resistance at Szigeth delayed the Ottoman push to Vienna . \n Two ambasadors were sent by Emperor Maximilian : Croatian Antun Vrančić and Styrian Christoph Teuffenbach . They arrived in Istanbul on 26 August 1567 and were well received by Sultan Selim II . An agreement ending the war between the Austrian and Ottoman empires was reached on 17 February 1568 , after five months of negotiations with Sokollu Mehmed Pasha ( also known as Mehmed @-@ paša Sokolović , being originally from Bosnia ) . The Treaty of Adrianople was signed on 21 February 1568 . Sultan Selim II agreed to an eight @-@ year truce , although the agreement brought 25 years of ( relative ) peace between the Empires until the Long War . The truce was conditional and Maximilian agreed to pay an annual tribute of 30 @,@ 000 ducats . \n = = Depictions in art = = \n The Croatian Renaissance poet and writer Brne Karnarutić , from Zadar , wrote The Conquest of the City of Sziget ( Croatian : Vazetje Sigeta grada ) sometime before 1573 . His work was posthumously published in 1584 in Venice . This is the first Croatian historical epic dealing with national history and the Battle of Szigetvár . It was inspired by Marko Marulić 's Judita . \n The battle was also immortalized in the Hungarian epic poem Szigeti Veszedelem ( \" Peril of Sziget \" ) , written in fifteen parts by Zrinski 's great @-@ grandson Nicholas VII of Zrin ( also a Ban of Croatia ) in 1647 and published in 1651 . This was one of the first such epics in the Hungarian language and was also inspired by Marulić 's Judita . Kenneth Clark 's renowned history Civilisation lists the Szigeti Veszedelem as one of the major literary achievements of the 17th century . In spite of the author and other members of Zrinski family being fierce enemies of the Turks , the poem never demonizes them . The Turks are portrayed as human beings and a love story between Deliman the Tatar and the Sultan 's daughter Cumilla is interwoven into the main plot . \n Petar Zrinski ( Hungarian : Zrínyi Péter ) , the brother of Nikola VII Zrinski , published Opsida Sigecka ( 1647 / 8 ) in the Croatian language — not surprising since the Zrinski family were bilingual . \n Another Croatian nobleman warrior @-@ poet Pavao Ritter Vitezović ( 1652 – 1713 ) wrote about the battle . His poem Odiljenje sigetsko ( \" The Sziget Farewell \" ) , first published in 1684 , reminisces about the event without rancour or crying for revenge . The last of the four cantos is titled \" Tombstones \" and consists of epitaphs for the Croatian and Turkish warriors who died during the siege , paying equal respect to both . \n Ivan Zajc 's 1876 opera Nikola Šubić Zrinski is his most famous and popular work in Croatia . This recounts the heroic defiance of the Croats towards the Turks , as a metaphor for their later nationalist impulses within the Habsburg monarchy . \n Zrinski is depicted in the plot as a 16th @-@ century Croatian hero who defeated the Turks a couple of times before perishing sacrificially , along with his family and close supporters , in the siege of Szigeth castle . The opera is patriotic with a famous aria \" U boj , u boj \" . \n = Tiberius Julius Alexander = \n Tiberius Julius Alexander ( fl . 1st century ) was an equestrian governor and general in the Roman Empire . Born into a wealthy Jewish family of Alexandria but abandoning or neglecting the Jewish religion , he rose to become procurator of Judea ( c . 46 – 48 ) under Claudius . While Prefect of Egypt ( 66 – 69 ) , he employed his legions against the Alexandrian Jews in a brutal response to ethnic violence , and was instrumental in the Emperor Vespasian 's rise to power . In 70 , he participated in the Siege of Jerusalem as Titus ' second @-@ in @-@ command . \n = = Early life = = \n Tiberius Julius Alexander was probably born early in the reign of the Emperor Tiberius ( 14 – 37 ) . His father was Alexander , an Alexandrian Jew who held the office of Alabarch ; the exact meaning of this term is debated , but it may have denoted a senior customs official . The older Alexander enjoyed Roman citizenship , a rare privilege among the Jews of Alexandria , and therefore passed it to his sons . He also had business connections both with Agrippa , grandson of Herod the Great , and with Antonia , mother of the emperor Claudius . Another prominent member of Tiberius Alexander 's family was his uncle , the philosopher Philo . \n Tiberius ' younger brother Marcus Julius Alexander would follow their father into business , becoming a partner in an import @-@ export firm . Marcus Julius Alexander was the first husband of Herodian Princess Berenice . Marcus died in 43 or 44 , leaving no children . Tiberius himself decided differently , setting out upon a military and administrative career in the service of the Roman Empire . When introducing Tiberius , the Jewish historian Josephus condemns him for his impiety and explains that he \" did not remain in his ancestral customs \" . This has traditionally been taken to mean that he became an apostate from Judaism at an early age , a view which finds some support in his appearance as a character in two of Philo 's philosophical dialogues , making arguments against divine providence which Philo attempts to refute . However , some more recent scholars believe that Josephus is criticizing Alexander simply for his decision to take up the service of Rome , placing the interests of the Empire above the Jewish religion . \n He nevertheless continued to benefit from his family 's connections , which were enhanced after the Emperor Claudius came to power in 41 . Agrippa had helped to secure Claudius ' accession after the assassination of Caligula , and was appointed king of Judea . Tiberius ' father , who had been imprisoned by Caligula , was released on Claudius ' orders , and his younger brother Marcus became first husband to Agrippa 's daughter Berenice . \n = = Career until 63 = = \n Despite the disadvantages posed by his Alexandrian and Jewish origin , Tiberius Alexander was evidently well enough connected for an equestrian career in Roman public life . The first position he is known to have held , beginning in about 42 , was that of epistrategus of the Thebaid , one of the three regions into which the Roman province of Egypt was divided . This was an administrative and judicial post involving no military command . He could have maintained contact with his brother Marcus , who was trading in the same area until his premature death in 43 or 44 . \n A promotion came in c . 46 , when Alexander was appointed procurator of Judea by Claudius . The province had returned to direct Roman rule only after the death of Agrippa in 44 , and the tenure of Alexander 's predecessor Cuspius Fadus had been marked by unrest , so Alexander 's Jewish background may have marked him as a more acceptable governor . Less trouble is attested during his office , although he did condemn James and Simon , sons of an earlier rebel named Judas of Galilee , to crucifixion . It was also at this time that Judea was afflicted by a severe famine . In 48 he was succeeded by Ventidius Cumanus . \n Alexander 's subsequent activities are unknown until the reign of Nero , when he served as a staff officer under the prominent general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo during campaigns against Parthia . In 63 he was dispatched along with Corbulo 's son @-@ in @-@ law to escort the Armenian king Tiridates to the Roman camp , on the first stage of his journey to receive the status of client king from Nero . \n = = Prefecture of Egypt = = \n In May 66 , Nero appointed Alexander as Prefect of Egypt , one of the two most prestigious posts available to an equestrian along with Prefect of the Praetorian Guard . He may have benefitted from a philhellenic tendency in equestrian appointments under Nero , but his experience of Egypt must also have commended him . However , any hope that he would be able to quell the recurring conflicts in his province between Greek and Jewish populations proved to be short @-@ lived . The year he assumed office saw the outbreak of the First Jewish @-@ Roman War in Judea , and aggression inevitably spilled over into the large Jewish community of Alexandria . An outbreak of ethnic violence during a Greek assembly escalated when the Greeks took prisoners , leading the Jewish side to threaten to burn the assembled Greeks to death . Alexander sent mediators to calm the Jews , warning he would have to use the Roman legions if violence continued . The threat was ineffective , and Josephus describes the outcome : \n A less violent side to Alexander 's government is demonstrated by other evidence . Over a century after his time , his administrative decisions were still being cited as precedents . Some of these are known from a surviving edict issued on July 6 , 68 , less than a month after Nero 's death . This denounces , and introduces measures against , a variety of abuses including inaccurate tax assessments , malicious prosecutions and the imprisonment of debtors by private creditors . The edict 's only allusion to the chaotic political situation comes as a call for trust in the benevolence of the new Emperor , Galba , and his ability to put right the wrongs of the past . Alexander was making representations to Galba on behalf of the provincials , presumably representing the desired reforms as the price of loyalty from this vital grain @-@ producing province . \n Neither Galba nor his successor Otho survived long in office . In April 69 , Vitellius was recognized as Emperor by the Roman Senate , but his opponents were beginning to rally behind Vespasian , commander of the Roman forces conducting the war in Judea . The loyalties of Alexander , who commanded two legions and had control of the grain shipments from Alexandria to Rome , were of crucial importance . Fortunately for Vespasian , Alexander was willing to correspond with him secretly ; go @-@ betweens suspected by modern historians include Berenice ( soon to be lover of Vespasian 's son Titus ) , and an Egyptian official named Basilides . On July 1 Alexander became the first to make a decisive move against Vitellius : on receipt of a letter from Vespasian , he instructed his forces to take the oath of allegiance to Vespasian as Emperor . His lead was followed by legions throughout the eastern Empire , and the anniversary of Vespasian 's accession was later celebrated on this date . \n = = Siege of Jerusalem = = \n Vespasian moved rapidly to Egypt , leaving the Jewish war under the command of Titus . At the same time Alexander , as a proven commander with experience of Jewish affairs , was sent by Vespasian to join Titus as his chief of staff and adviser , second only to Titus himself . By April 70 , Jerusalem was under siege by four legions , and even after the city walls were overcome , the defenders held out in the Temple . Alexander , the offspring of a pious Jewish family , whose own father had donated the gold and silver for the Temple gates , now found himself in a position of command against his former brothers in that very sanctuary . \n Despairing of any siege operation against the Temple 's massive walls , Titus had the gates burnt down . At the ensuing council of war , when it was debated whether to destroy the entire Temple , Alexander voted with the majority who favored preservation . In the event , this made no difference ; as the fighting raged on the following day , a Roman soldier hurled a burning brand into a chamber of the Temple itself . The Temple was consumed by the flames . \n = = Later career = = \n By this time , Vespasian 's position in Rome was secure . The details of Alexander 's career under the new emperor remain unclear . A damaged papyrus refers to Alexander as holding the position of \" Praetorian Prefect \" , which is open to two interpretations . It could indicate his rank during Titus ' campaign in 70 , which would mean that he held his own independent imperium ( commanding authority ) . According to another view , it means that he became Prefect of the Praetorian Guard at Rome , which in later years became a common position for former Prefects of Egypt . In either case , Alexander attained a position in the Roman Empire that was unparalleled for a man of Jewish birth , not to mention one who suffered from the further stigma of an Egyptian origin . The xenophobic speaker of Juvenal 's first Satire , composed in the late 1st or early in the 2nd century AD , complains of passing the Forum 's triumphal statues , \" where some Egyptian Arabarch 's had the nerve to set up his titles . At his image it 's right to do more than piss ! \" This is very likely a reference to Alexander . \n = = = Ancient = = = \n = = = Modern = = = \n = Japanese battleship Kashima = \n Kashima ( 鹿島 ( 戦艦 ) , Kashima ( senkan ) ) was the second ship of the two Katori @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the first decade of the 20th century , the last to be built by British shipyards . Ordered just before the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , the ship was completed a year after its end . She saw no combat during World War I , although the ship was present when Japan joined the Siberian Intervention in 1918 . Kashima was disarmed and scrapped in 1923 – 24 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . \n = = Design and description = = \n The Katori @-@ class ships were ordered just before the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in 1904 as improved versions of the Royal Navy ’ s King Edward VII @-@ class battleships . Kashima was 473 feet 7 inches ( 144 @.@ 3 m ) long overall and had a beam of 78 feet 2 inches ( 23 @.@ 8 m ) . She had a full @-@ load draught of 26 feet 4 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) and normally displaced 16 @,@ 400 long tons ( 16 @,@ 700 t ) and had a crew of 864 officers and enlisted men . The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines using steam generated by 20 Niclausse boilers . The engines were rated at 15 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 800 kW ) , using forced draught , and were designed to reach a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) . Kashima , however , reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 24 knots ( 35 @.@ 63 km / h ; 22 @.@ 14 mph ) from 17 @,@ 280 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 890 kW ) on her sea trials on 4 April 1906 . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 200 long tons ( 2 @,@ 200 t ) of coal and 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of fuel oil which was sprayed on the coal to increase their power . This allowed her to steam for 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . \n The ship 's main battery consisted of four 12 @-@ inch guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary armament consisted of four 10 @-@ inch guns mounted in four single @-@ gun turrets positioned on each side of the superstructure . Katori also carried 12 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) six @-@ inch guns , mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull and in the superstructure . A number of smaller guns were carried for defence against torpedo boats . These included a dozen QF 12 @-@ pounder guns and three 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . She was also armed with five submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern . \n Kashima 's waterline armour belt consisted of Krupp cemented armour and was 3 @.@ 5 – 9 inches ( 89 – 229 mm ) thick . The armour of her main gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 9 in ( 229 mm ) and her deck ranged from 2 to 3 inches ( 51 to 76 mm ) in thickness . \n = = Construction and career = = \n Kashima , named for a Shinto shrine in Kashima , Ibaraki , was ordered in January 1904 from Armstrong Whitworth . The ship was laid down at their Elswick shipyard on 29 February 1904 as yard number 755 . She was launched on 22 March 1905 , and completed on 23 May 1906 . Kashima departed Britain on 31 May on her maiden voyage and shakedown cruise and arrived at Yokosuka on 4 August 1906 . \n Whilst conducting gunnery training in Hiroshima Bay on 16 September 1907 , brown powder propellant in Kashima 's starboard rear 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) gun mount ignited when it came in contact with burning residue from the previous shot . The fire killed seven officers and 27 enlisted men and wounded two officers and six enlisted men . \n When World War I began , Kashima was in a refit at Maizuru Naval Arsenal that lasted until March 1915 . The ship was assigned to the 2nd Battleship Squadron when her refit was completed and became the squadron 's flagship in 1916 . Kashima joined her sister ship Katori in the 5th Battleship Squadron as its flagship in 1918 and both ships covered the landing of Japanese troops in Siberia in August of that year as Japan intervened in the Russian Civil War . \n On 3 March 1921 , Katori , escorted by Kashima , departed Yokohama bound for Great Britain carrying Crown Prince Hirohito , the first Japanese crown prince to travel abroad . The ships arrived at Portsmouth on 9 May and Hirohito disembarked to tour Europe ; they returned home several months later . To comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty the ship was disarmed in April 1922 , stricken from the Navy List on 20 September 1923 and the removal of her armor was completed by February 1924 . Mitsubishi won the public auction conducted 26 – 27 April with a price of 238 @,@ 900 yen and had to pay an additional 35 @,@ 000 yen to have her towed to Nagasaki for scrapping . The company finished the job on 24 November . Kashima 's main gun turrets were re @-@ used in coastal artillery batteries around Tokyo Bay and on Iki Island in the Strait of Tsushima . \n = Objections to evolution = \n Scholars , theologians and lay @-@ people have raised objections to evolution since evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the 19th century . When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species , his theory of evolution ( the idea that species arose through descent with modification from a single common ancestor in a process driven by natural selection ) initially met opposition from scientists with different theories , but eventually came to receive overwhelming acceptance in the scientific community . The observation of evolutionary processes occurring ( as well as the modern evolutionary synthesis explaining that evidence ) has been uncontroversial among mainstream biologists since the 1940s . \n Since then , most criticisms and denials of evolution have come from religious sources , rather than from the scientific community . Although many religions , such as those advocating theistic evolution , have accepted the occurrence of evolution , some religious beliefs reject evolutionary explanations in favor of creationism ( the belief that a deity created the universe and life through the application of supernatural processes ) . The resultant U.S.-centered creation – evolution controversy has become a focal point of recent perceived conflict between religion and science . \n Modern creationism features movements such as creation science , neo @-@ creationism , and intelligent design , which argue that the idea of life being directly designed by a god or intelligence is at least as scientific as evolutionary theory , and should therefore be taught in public education . Such arguments against evolution have become widespread and include objections to evolution 's evidence , methodology , plausibility , morality , and scientific acceptance . The scientific community , however , does not recognize such objections as valid , citing detractors ' misinterpretations of such things as the scientific method , evidence , and basic physical laws . \n = = History = = \n Various evolutionary ideas came to prominence around the start of the 19th century , in particular the transmutation of species theory put forward by Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck . These were opposed on scientific grounds , most notably by Georges Cuvier , as well as encountering political and religious objections . These ideas that natural laws controlled the development of nature and society gained vast popular audiences with George Combe 's The Constitution of Man of 1828 and the anonymous Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation of 1844 . When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species , he convinced most of the scientific community that new species arose through descent through modification in a branching pattern of divergence from common ancestors , but while most scientists accepted that natural selection was a valid and empirically testable hypothesis , Darwin 's view that it was the primary mechanism of evolution was generally rejected . \n The earliest objections to Darwinian evolution were both scientific and religious . Darwin 's contemporaries eventually came to accept the transmutation of species based upon fossil evidence ; the X Club was formed to defend evolution against the church and wealthy amateurs , although the specific evolutionary mechanism which Darwin provided — natural selection — was actively disputed in favour of alternative theories such as Lamarckism and orthogenesis . Darwin 's gradualistic account was also opposed by saltationism and catastrophism . Lord Kelvin led scientific opposition to gradualism on the basis of his thermodynamic calculations that the Earth was between 24 and 400 million years old , an estimate strongly disputed by geologists . These figures were corrected in 1907 when radioactive dating of rocks showed that the Earth was billions of years old . Kelvin 's own views favoured a version of theistic evolution accelerated by divine guidance . The specific hereditary mechanism Darwin provided , pangenesis , lacked any supporting evidence . Although evolution was unchallenged , uncertainties about the mechanism in the eclipse of Darwinism persisted from the 1880s until the 1930s inclusion of Mendelian inheritance and the rise of the modern evolutionary synthesis . The modern synthesis rose to universal acceptance among biologists with the help of new evidence , such as genetics , which confirmed Darwin 's predictions and refuted the competing theories . \n Protestantism , especially in America , broke out in \" acrid polemics \" and argument about evolution from 1860 to the 1870s — with the turning point possibly marked by the death of Louis Agassiz in 1873 — and by 1880 a form of \" Christian evolution \" was becoming the consensus . In Britain , while publication of The Descent of Man by Darwin in 1871 reinvigorated debate from the previous decade , Sir Henry Chadwick notes a steady acceptance of evolution \" among more educated Christians \" between 1860 and 1885 . As a result , evolutionary theory was \" both permissible and respectable \" by 1876 . Frederick Temple 's lectures on The Relations between Religion and Science ( 1884 ) on how evolution was not \" antagonistic \" to religion highlighted this trend . Temple 's appointment as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1896 demonstrated the broad acceptance of evolution within the church hierarchy . \n For decades the Roman Catholic Church avoided official refutation of evolution . However , it would rein in Catholics who proposed that evolution could be reconciled with the Bible , as this conflicted with the First Vatican Council 's ( 1869 – 70 ) finding that everything was created out of nothing by God , and to deny that finding could lead to excommunication . In 1950 , the encyclical Humani generis of Pope Pius XII first mentioned evolution directly and officially . It allowed one to enquire into the concept of humans coming from pre @-@ existing living matter , but not to question Adam and Eve or the creation of the soul . In 1996 , Pope John Paul II said that evolution was \" more than a hypothesis \" and acknowledged the large body of work accumulated in its support , but reiterated that any attempt to give a material explanation of the human soul was \" incompatible with the truth about man . \" \n Muslim reaction ranged from those believing in literal creation from the Quran to many educated Muslims who subscribed to a version of theistic or guided evolution in which the Quran reinforced rather than contradicted mainstream science . This occurred relatively early , as medieval madrasahs taught the ideas of Al @-@ Jahiz , a Muslim scholar from the 9th century , who proposed concepts similar to natural selection . However , acceptance of evolution remains low in the Muslim world , as prominent figures reject evolution 's underpinning philosophy of materialism as unsound to human origins and a denial of Allah . Further objections by Muslim authors and writers largely reflect those put forward in the Western world . \n Regardless of acceptance from major religious hierarchies , early religious objections to Darwin 's theory are still used in opposition to evolution . The ideas that species change over time through natural processes and that different species share common ancestors seemed to contradict the Genesis account of Creation . Believers in Biblical infallibility attacked Darwinism as heretical . The natural theology of the early 19th century was typified by William Paley 's watchmaker analogy , an argument from design still used by the creationist movement . Natural theology included a range of ideas and arguments from the outset , and when Darwin 's theory was published , ideas of theistic evolution were presented in which evolution is accepted as a secondary cause open to scientific investigation , while still holding belief in God as a first cause with a non @-@ specified role in guiding evolution and creating humans . This position has been adopted by denominations of Christianity and Judaism in line with modernist theology which views the Bible and Torah as allegorical , thus removing the conflict between evolution and religion . \n However , in the 1920s Christian fundamentalists in the United States developed their literalist arguments against modernist theology into opposition to the teaching of evolution , with fears that Darwinism had led to German militarism and was a threat to religion and morality . This opposition developed into the creation – evolution controversy involving Christian literalists in the United States objecting to the teaching of evolution in public schools . Although early objectors dismissed evolution as contradicting their interpretation of the Bible , this argument was legally invalidated when the Supreme Court ruled in Epperson v. Arkansas in 1968 that forbidding the teaching of evolution on religious grounds violated the Establishment Clause . \n Since then creationists have developed more nuanced objections to evolution , alleging variously that it is unscientific , infringes on creationists ' religious freedoms or that the acceptance of evolution is a religious stance . Creationists have appealed to democratic principles of fairness , arguing that evolution is controversial , and that science classrooms should therefore \" Teach the Controversy . \" These objections to evolution culminated in the intelligent design movement in the 1990s and early 2000s that unsuccessfully attempted to present itself as a scientific alternative to evolution . \n = = Defining evolution = = \n One of the main sources of confusion and ambiguity in the creation – evolution debate is the definition of evolution itself . In the context of biology , evolution is genetic changes in populations of organisms over successive generations . However , the word has a number of different meanings in different fields , from evolutionary computation to molecular evolution to sociocultural evolution to stellar and galactic evolution . It can even refer to metaphysical evolution , spiritual evolution , or any of a number of evolutionist philosophies . When biological evolution is conflated with other evolutionary processes , this can cause errors such as the claim that modern evolutionary theory says anything about abiogenesis or the Big Bang . \n In colloquial contexts , evolution can refer to any sort of progressive development or gradual improvement , and evolution is understood as a process that results in greater quality or complexity . When misapplied to biological evolution this common meaning leads to frequent misunderstandings . For example , the idea of devolution ( \" backwards \" evolution ) is a result of erroneously assuming that evolution is directional or has a specific goal in mind ( cf. orthogenesis ) . In reality , the evolution of an organism has no \" objective \" and is only showing increasing ability of successive generations to survive and reproduce in its environment ; and increased suitability is only defined in relation to this environment . Biologists do not consider any one species , such as humans , to be more highly evolved or advanced than another . Certain sources have been criticized for indicating otherwise due to a tendency to evaluate nonhuman organisms according to anthropocentric standards rather than more objective ones . \n Evolution also does not require that organisms become more complex . Although the history of life shows an apparent trend towards the evolution of biological complexity ; there is a question if this appearance of increased complexity is real , or if this conclusion comes from neglecting the fact that the majority of life on Earth has always consisted of prokaryotes . In this view , complexity is not a necessary consequence of evolution ; rather , it is a consequence of the specific circumstances of evolution on Earth , which frequently made greater complexity advantageous , and thus naturally selected for . Depending on the situation , organisms ' complexity can either increase , decrease , or stay the same , and all three of these trends have been observed in evolution . \n Creationist sources frequently define evolution according to a colloquial , rather than scientific , meaning . As a result , many attempts to rebut evolution do not address the findings of evolutionary biology ( see straw man argument ) . This also means that advocates of creationism and evolutionary biologists often simply speak past each other . \n = = Scientific acceptance = = \n Recent objections to evolutionary theory have focused on its scientific validity , or attempting to come up with alternative ideas such as creationism to debate its findings . \n = = = Status as a theory = = = \n Critics of evolution assert that evolution is \" just a theory , \" which emphasizes that scientific theories are never absolute , or misleadingly presents it as a matter of opinion rather than of fact or evidence . This reflects a difference of the meaning of theory in a scientific context : whereas in colloquial speech a theory is a conjecture or guess , in science a theory is an explanation whose predictions have been verified by experiments or other evidence . Evolutionary theory refers to an explanation for the diversity of species and their ancestry which has met extremely high standards of scientific evidence . An example of evolution as theory is the modern synthesis of Darwinian natural selection and Mendelian inheritance . As with any scientific theory , the modern synthesis is constantly debated , tested , and refined by scientists , but there is an overwhelming consensus in the scientific community that it remains the only robust model that accounts for the known facts concerning evolution . \n Critics also state that evolution is not a fact . In science , a fact is a verified empirical observation ; in colloquial contexts , however , a fact can simply refer to anything for which there is overwhelming evidence . For example , in common usage theories such as \" the Earth revolves around the Sun \" and \" objects fall due to gravity \" may be referred to as \" facts , \" even though they are purely theoretical . From a scientific standpoint , therefore , evolution may be called a \" fact \" for the same reason that gravity can : under the scientific definition , evolution is an observable process that occurs whenever a population of organisms genetically changes over time . Under the colloquial definition , the theory of evolution can also be called a fact , referring to this theory 's well @-@ established nature . Thus , evolution is widely considered both a theory and a fact by scientists . \n Similar confusion is involved in objections that evolution is \" unproven , \" since no theory in science is known to be absolutely true , only verified by empirical evidence . This distinction is an important one in philosophy of science , as it relates to the lack of absolute certainty in all empirical claims , not just evolution . Strict proof is possible only in formal sciences such as logic and mathematics , not natural sciences ( where terms such as \" validated \" or \" corroborated \" are more appropriate ) . Thus , to say that evolution is not proven is trivially true , but no more an indictment of evolution than calling it a \" theory . \" The confusion arises , however , in that the colloquial meaning of proof is simply \" compelling evidence , \" in which case scientists would indeed consider evolution \" proven . \" \n = = = Degree of acceptance = = = \n An objection is often made in the teaching of evolution that evolution is controversial or contentious . Unlike past creationist arguments which sought to abolish the teaching of evolution altogether , this argument makes the weaker claim that evolution should be presented alongside alternative views since it is controversial , and students should be allowed to evaluate and choose between the options on their own . \n This objection forms the basis of the \" Teach the Controversy \" campaign by the Discovery Institute , a think tank based in Seattle , Washington , to promote the teaching of intelligent design in U.S. public schools . This goal was a part of the Institute 's \" wedge strategy , \" an attempt to gradually undermine evolution and ultimately to \" reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview , and to replace it with a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions . \" Several subsequent attempts were made to insert intelligent design or creationism into the U.S. public school curriculum , including the failed Santorum Amendment in 2001 . \n Scientists and U.S. courts have rejected this objection on the grounds that science is not based on appeals to popularity , but on evidence . The scientific consensus of biologists , not popular opinion or fairness , determines what is considered acceptable science , and although evolution is controversial in the public arena , it is entirely uncontroversial among experts in the field . \n In response , creationists have disputed the level of scientific support for evolution . The Discovery Institute has gathered over 761 scientists as of August 2008 to sign A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism in order to show that there are a number of scientists who dispute what they refer to as \" Darwinian evolution . \" This statement did not profess outright disbelief in evolution , but expressed skepticism as to the ability of \" random mutation and natural selection to account for the complexity of life . \" Several counter @-@ petitions have been launched in turn , including A Scientific Support for Darwinism , which gathered over 7 @,@ 000 signatures in four days , and Project Steve , a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek petition that has gathered the signatures of 1 @,@ 393 ( as of May 24 , 2016 ) evolution @-@ supporting scientists named \" Steve \" ( or any similar variation thereof — Stephen , Stephanie , Esteban , etc . ) . \n Creationists have argued for over a century that evolution is a \" theory in crisis \" that will soon be overturned , based on objections that it lacks reliable evidence or violates natural laws . These objections have been rejected by most scientists , as have claims that intelligent design , or any other creationist explanation , meets the basic scientific standards that would be required to make them scientific alternatives to evolution . It is also argued that even if evidence against evolution exists , it is a false dilemma to characterize this as evidence for intelligent design . \n A similar objection to evolution is that certain scientific authorities — mainly pre @-@ modern ones — have doubted or rejected evolution . Most commonly , it is argued that Darwin \" recanted \" on his deathbed , a false anecdote originating from Lady Hope 's story . These objections are generally rejected as appeals to authority . \n = = Scientific status = = \n A common neo @-@ creationist objection to evolution is that evolution does not adhere to normal scientific standards — that it is not genuinely scientific . It is argued that evolutionary biology does not follow the scientific method and therefore should not be taught in science classes , or at least should be taught alongside other views ( i.e. , creationism ) . These objections often deal with the very nature of evolutionary theory , the scientific method , and philosophy of science . \n = = = Religious nature = = = \n Creationists commonly argue against evolution on the grounds that \" evolution is a religion ; it is not a science . \" The purpose of this criticism is to undermine the higher ground biologists claim in debating creationists , and to reframe the debate from being between science ( evolution ) and religion ( creationism ) to being between two equally religious beliefs — or even to argue that evolution is religious while intelligent design is not . Those that oppose evolution frequently refer to supporters of evolution as \" evolutionists \" or \" Darwinists . \" \n The arguments for evolution being a religion generally amount to arguments by analogy : it is argued that evolution and religion have one or more things in common , and that therefore evolution is a religion . Examples of claims made in such arguments are statements that evolution is based on faith , that supporters of evolution revere Darwin as a prophet , and that supporters of evolution dogmatically reject alternative suggestions out @-@ of @-@ hand . These claims have become more popular in recent years as the neo @-@ creationist movement has sought to distance itself from religion , thus giving it more reason to make use of a seemingly anti @-@ religious analogy . \n In response , supporters of evolution have argued that no scientist 's claims , including Darwin 's , are treated as sacrosanct , as shown by the aspects of Darwin 's theory that have been rejected or revised by scientists over the years , to form first neo @-@ Darwinism and later the modern evolutionary synthesis . The claim that evolution relies on faith , often based on the creationist belief that evolution has never been observed , is likewise rejected on the grounds that evolution has strong supporting evidence , and therefore does not require faith . \n In general , the argument that evolution is religious has been rejected on the grounds that religion is not defined by how dogmatic or zealous its adherents are , but by its spiritual or supernatural beliefs . Evolutionary supporters point out evolution is neither dogmatic nor based on faith , and they accuse creationists of equivocating between the strict definition of religion and its colloquial usage to refer to anything that is enthusiastically or dogmatically engaged in . United States courts have also rejected this objection : \n Assuming for the purposes of argument , however , that evolution is a religion or religious tenet , the remedy is to stop the teaching of evolution , not establish another religion in opposition to it . Yet it is clearly established in the case law , and perhaps also in common sense , that evolution is not a religion and that teaching evolution does not violate the Establishment Clause . \n A related claim is that evolution is atheistic ( see the Atheism section below ) ; creationists sometimes merge the two claims and describe evolution as an \" atheistic religion \" ( cf. humanism ) . This argument against evolution is also frequently generalized into a criticism of all science ; it is argued that \" science is an atheistic religion , \" on the grounds that its methodological naturalism is as unproven , and thus as \" faith @-@ based , \" as the supernatural and theistic beliefs of creationism . \n = = = Unfalsifiability = = = \n A statement is considered falsifiable if there is an observation or a test that could be made that would demonstrate that the statement is false . Statements that are not falsifiable cannot be examined by scientific investigation since they permit no tests that evaluate their accuracy . Creationists such as Henry M. Morris have claimed that any observation can be fitted into the evolutionary framework , so it is impossible to demonstrate that evolution is wrong and therefore evolution is non @-@ scientific . \n However , evolution is considered falsifiable because it can make predictions that , were they contradicted by the evidence , would falsify evolution . Several kinds of evidence could falsify evolution , such as the fossil record showing no change over time , confirmation that mutations are prevented from accumulating , or observations showing organisms being created supernaturally or spontaneously . Many of Darwin 's ideas and assertions of fact have been falsified as evolutionary science has developed and has continued to confirm his central concepts . Despite this , creationism consists largely of unsubstantiated claims that evolution has been falsified . In contrast , creationist explanations involving the direct intervention of the supernatural in the physical world are not falsifiable , because any result of an experiment or investigation could be the unpredictable action of an omnipotent deity . \n In 1976 , the philosopher Karl Popper said that \" Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory but a metaphysical research programme . \" He later changed his mind and argued that Darwin 's \" theory of natural selection is difficult to test \" with respect to other areas of science . \n The most direct evidence that evolutionary theory is falsifiable may be the original words of Charles Darwin who , in chapter 6 of On the Origin of Species wrote : \" If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed , which could not possibly have been formed by numerous , successive , slight modifications , my theory would absolutely break down . \" If empirical evidence supported this instance , it would be affirmation of the creationist argument in favor of irreducible complexity . \n In response to the unfalsifiability criticism of evolutionary theory , numerous examples of potential ways to falsify evolution have been proposed . J. B. S. Haldane , when asked what hypothetical evidence could disprove evolution , replied \" fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era . \" Numerous other potential ways to falsify evolution have also been proposed . For example , the fact that humans have one fewer pair of chromosomes than the great apes offered a testable hypothesis involving the fusion or splitting of chromosomes from a common ancestor . The fusion hypothesis was confirmed in 2005 by discovery that human chromosome 2 is homologous with a fusion of two chromosomes that remain separate in other primates . Extra , inactive telomeres and centromeres remain on human chromosome 2 as a result of the fusion . The assertion of common descent could also have been disproven with the invention of DNA sequencing methods . If true , human DNA should be far more similar to chimpanzees and other great apes , than to other mammals . If not , then common descent is falsified . DNA analysis has shown that humans and chimpanzees share a large percentage of their DNA ( between 95 % to 99 @.@ 4 % depending on the measure ) . Also , the evolution of chimpanzees and humans from a common ancestor predicts a ( geologically ) recent common ancestor . Numerous transitional fossils have since been found . Hence , human evolution has passed several falsifiable tests . \n A related claim is that natural selection is tautological . Specifically , it is often argued that the phrase \" survival of the fittest \" is a tautology , in that fitness is defined as ability to survive and reproduce . However , this phrase , first used by Herbert Spencer in 1864 , is rarely used by biologists . Additionally , fitness is more accurately defined as the state of possessing traits that make survival more likely ; this definition , unlike simple \" survivability , \" avoids being trivially true . \n Similarly , it is argued that evolutionary theory is circular reasoning , in that evidence is interpreted as supporting evolution , but evolution is required to interpret the evidence . An example of this is the claim that geological strata are dated through the fossils they hold , but that fossils are in turn dated by the strata they are in . However , in most cases strata are not dated by their fossils , but by their position relative to other strata and by radiometric dating , and most strata were dated before the theory of evolution was formulated . \n In his 1982 book , Abusing Science : The Case Against Creationism , philosopher of science Philip Kitcher specifically addresses the \" falsifiability \" question by taking into account notable philosophical critiques of Popper by Carl Gustav Hempel and Willard Van Orman Quine that reject his definition of theory as a set of falsifiable statements . As Kitcher points out , if one took a strictly Popperian view of \" theory , \" observations of Uranus when first discovered in 1781 would have \" falsified \" Isaac Newton 's celestial mechanics . Rather , people suggested that another planet influenced Uranus ' orbit — and this prediction was indeed eventually confirmed . Kitcher agrees with Popper that \" there is surely something right in the idea that a science can succeed only if it can fail . \" But he insists that we view scientific theories as consisting of an \" elaborate collection of statements , \" some of which are not falsifiable , and others — what he calls \" auxiliary hypotheses , \" which are . \n According to Kitcher , good scientific theories must have three features — unity , fecundity , and independent testability of auxiliary hypotheses : \n Unity \n \" A science should be unified .... Good theories consist of just one problem @-@ solving strategy , or a small family of problem @-@ solving strategies , that can be applied to a wide range of problems \" ( 1982 : 47 ) . \n Fecundity \n \" A great scientific theory , like Newton 's , opens up new areas of research ... Because a theory presents a new way of looking at the world , it can lead us to ask new questions , and so to embark on new and fruitful lines of inquiry ... Typically , a flourishing science is incomplete . At any time , it raises more questions than it can currently answer . But incompleteness is no vice . On the contrary , incompleteness is the mother of fecundity ... A good theory should be productive ; it should raise new questions and presume that those questions can be answered without giving up its problem @-@ solving strategies \" ( 1982 : 47 – 48 ) . \n Auxiliary hypotheses that are independently testable \n \" An auxiliary hypothesis ought to be testable independently of the particular problem it is introduced to solve , independently of the theory it is designed to save \" ( 1982 : 46 ) ( e.g. the evidence for the existence of Neptune is independent of the anomalies in Uranus 's orbit ) . \n Like other definitions of theories , including Popper 's , Kitcher makes it clear that a good theory includes statements that have ( in his terms ) \" observational consequences . \" But , like the observation of irregularities in Uranus 's orbit , falsification is only one possible consequence of an observation . The production of new hypotheses is another possible — and equally important — observational consequence . Kitcher 's account of a good theory is based not only on his understanding of how physical sciences work . He is also taking into account the way the life sciences work . \n From Kitcher 's point of view , Darwinian theory not only meets the three conditions for a good scientific theory ; it is without question an extraordinarily successful theory : \n The heart of Darwinian evolutionary theory is a family of problem @-@ solving strategies , related by their common employment of a particular style of historical narrative . A Darwinian history is a piece of reasoning of the following general form . The first step consists in a description of an ancestral population of organisms . The reasoning proceeds by tracing the modification of the population through subsequent generations , showing how characteristics were selected , inherited , and became prevalent . Reasoning like this can be used to answer a host of biological questions . \n The same kind of story can be told again and again to answer all sorts of questions about all sorts of living things . Evolutionary theory is unified because so many diverse questions ... can be addressed by advancing Darwinian histories . Moreover , these narratives constantly make claims that are subject to independent check . \n Darwin not only provided a scheme for unifying the diversity of life . He also gave a structure to our ignorance . After Darwin , it was important to resolve general issues about the presuppositions of Darwinian histories . The way in which biology should proceed had been made admirably plain , and it was clear that biologists had to tackle questions for which they had , as yet , no answers . \n = = Evidence = = \n Objections to the evidence that evolution occurs tend to be more concrete and specific , often involving direct analysis of evolutionary biology 's methods and claims . \n = = = Lack of observation = = = \n A common claim of creationists is that evolution has never been observed . Challenges to such objections often come down to debates over how evolution is defined ( see the Defining evolution section above ) . Under the conventional biological definition of evolution , it is a simple matter to observe evolution occurring . Evolutionary processes , in the form of populations changing their genetic composition from generation to generation , have been observed in different scientific contexts , including the evolution of fruit flies , mice , and bacteria in the laboratory , and of tilapia in the field . Such studies on experimental evolution , particularly those using microorganisms , are now providing important insights into how evolution occurs , especially in the case of antibiotic resistance . \n In response to such examples , creationists specify that they are objecting only to macroevolution , not microevolution : most creationist organizations do not dispute the occurrence of short @-@ term , relatively minor evolutionary changes , such as that observed even in dog breeding . Rather , they dispute the occurrence of major evolutionary changes over long periods of time , which by definition cannot be directly observed , only inferred from microevolutionary processes and the traces of macroevolutionary ones . \n However , as biologists define macroevolution , both microevolution and macroevolution have been observed . Speciations , for example , have been directly observed many times , despite popular misconceptions to the contrary . Additionally , the modern evolutionary synthesis draws no distinction in the processes described by the theory of evolution when considering macroevolution and microevolution as the former is simply at the species level or above and the latter is below the species level . An example of this is ring species . \n Additionally , past macroevolution can be inferred from historical traces . Transitional fossils , for example , provide plausible links between several different groups of organisms , such as Archaeopteryx linking birds and dinosaurs , or the recently discovered Tiktaalik linking fish and limbed amphibians . Creationists dispute such examples , from asserting that such fossils are hoaxes or that they belong exclusively to one group or the other , to asserting that there should be far more evidence of obvious transitional species . Darwin himself found the paucity of transitional species to be one of the greatest weaknesses of his theory : \n Why then is not every geological formation and every stratum full of such intermediate links ? Geology assuredly does not reveal any such finely graduated organic chain ; and this , perhaps , is the most obvious and gravest objection which can be urged against my theory . The explanation lies , as I believe , in the extreme imperfection of the geological record . \n Darwin appealed to the limited collections then available , the extreme lengths of time involved , and different rates of change with some living species differing very little from fossils of the Silurian period . In later editions he added \" that the periods during which species have been undergoing modification , though very long as measured by years , have probably been short in comparison with the periods during which these same species remained without undergoing any change . \" The number of clear transitional fossils has increased enormously since Darwin 's day , and this problem has been largely resolved with the advent of the theory of punctuated equilibrium , which predicts a primarily stable fossil record broken up by occasional major speciations . \n As more and more compelling direct evidence for inter @-@ species and species @-@ to @-@ species evolution has been gathered , creationists have redefined their understanding of what amounts to a \" created kinds , \" and have continued to insist that more dramatic demonstrations of evolution be experimentally produced . One version of this objection is \" Were you there ? , \" popularized by young Earth creationist Ken Ham . It argues that because no one except God could directly observe events in the distant past , scientific claims are just speculation or \" story @-@ telling . \" DNA sequences of the genomes of organisms allow an independent test of their predicted relationships , since species which diverged more recently will be more closely related genetically than species which are more distantly related ; such phylogenetic trees show a hierarchical organization within the tree of life , as predicted by common descent . \n In fields such as astrophysics or meteorology , where direct observation or laboratory experiments are difficult or impossible , the scientific method instead relies on observation and logical inference . In such fields , the test of falsifiability is satisfied when a theory is used to predict the results of new observations . When such observations contradict a theory 's predictions , it may be revised or discarded if an alternative better explains the observed facts . For example , Newton 's theory of gravitation was replaced by Albert Einstein 's theory of general relativity when the latter was observed to more precisely predict the orbit of Mercury . \n = = = Unreliable evidence = = = \n A related objection is that evolution is based on unreliable evidence . This objection goes further than the less substantial \" evolution isn 't proven \" arguments , claiming that evolution isn 't even well @-@ evidenced . Typically , this is either based on the argument that evolution 's evidence is full of frauds and hoaxes , that current evidence for evolution is likely to be overturned as some past evidence has been , or that certain types of evidence are inconsistent and dubious . \n Arguments against evolution 's reliability are thus often based on analyzing the history of evolutionary thought or the history of science in general . Creationists point out that in the past , major scientific revolutions have overturned theories that were at the time considered near @-@ certain . They thus claim that current evolutionary theory is likely to undergo such a revolution in the future , on the basis that it is a \" theory in crisis \" for one reason or another . \n Critics of evolution commonly appeal to past scientific hoaxes such as the Piltdown Man forgery . It is argued that because scientists have been mistaken and deceived in the past about evidence for various aspects of evolution the current evidence for evolution is likely to also be based on fraud and error . Much of the evidence for evolution has been accused of being fraudulent at various times , including Archaeopteryx , peppered moth melanism , and Darwin 's finches ; these claims have been subsequently refuted . \n It has also been claimed that certain former pieces of evidence for evolution which are now considered out @-@ of @-@ date and erroneous , such as Ernst Haeckel 's 19th @-@ century comparative drawings of embryos , used to illustrate his recapitulation theory ( \" ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny \" ) , were not merely errors but frauds . Molecular biologist Jonathan Wells criticizes biology textbooks by alleging that they continue to reproduce such evidence after it has been debunked . In response , the National Center for Science Education notes that none of the textbooks reviewed by Wells makes the claimed error , as Haeckel 's drawings are shown in a historical context with discussion about why they are wrong , and the accurate modern drawings and photos used in the textbooks are misrepresented by Wells . \n = = = Unreliable chronology = = = \n Creationists claim that evolution relies on certain types of evidence that do not give reliable information about the past . For example , it is argued that radiometric dating technique of evaluating a material 's age based on the radioactive decay rates of certain isotopes generates inconsistent and thus unreliable results . Radiocarbon dating based on the carbon @-@ 14 isotope has been particularly criticized . It is argued that radiometric decay relies on a number of unwarranted assumptions such as the principle of uniformitarianism , consistent decay rates , or rocks acting as closed systems . Such arguments have been dismissed by scientists on the grounds that independent methods have confirmed the reliability of radiometric dating as a whole ; additionally , different radiometric dating methods and techniques have independently confirmed each other 's results . \n Another form of this objection is that fossil evidence is not reliable . This is based on a much wider range of claims . These include that there are too many \" gaps \" in the fossil record , that fossil @-@ dating is circular ( see the Unfalsifiability section above ) , or that certain fossils , such as polystrate fossils , are seemingly \" out of place . \" Examination by geologists have found polystrate fossils to be consistent with in situ formation . It is argued that certain features of evolution support creationism 's catastrophism ( cf . Great Flood ) , rather than evolution 's gradualistic punctuated equilibrium , which some assert is an ad hoc theory to explain the fossil gaps . \n = = Plausibility = = \n Some of the oldest and most common objections to evolution dispute whether evolution can truly account for all the apparent complexity and order in the natural world . It is argued that evolution is too unlikely or otherwise lacking to account for various aspects of life , and therefore that an intelligence , such as God of the Abrahamic religions , must at the very least be appealed to for those specific features . \n = = = Improbability = = = \n A common objection to evolution is that it is simply too unlikely for life , in its complexity and apparent \" design , \" to have arisen \" by chance . \" It is argued that the odds of life having arisen without a deliberate intelligence guiding it are so astronomically low that it is unreasonable not to infer an intelligent designer from the natural world , and specifically from the diversity of life . A more extreme version of this argument is that evolution cannot create complex structures ( see the Creation of complex structures section below ) . The idea that it is simply too implausible for life to have evolved is often wrongly encapsulated with a quotation that the \" probability of life originating on Earth is no greater than the chance that a hurricane , sweeping through a scrapyard , would have the luck to assemble a Boeing 747 \" — a claim attributed to astrophysicist Fred Hoyle and known as Hoyle 's fallacy . Hoyle was a Darwinist , atheist and anti @-@ theist , but advocated the theory of panspermia , in which abiogenesis begins in outer space and primitive life on Earth is held to have arrived via natural dispersion . \n Views superficially similar , but unrelated to Hoyle 's , are thus invariably justified with arguments from analogy . The basic idea of this argument for a designer is the teleological argument , an argument for the existence of God based on the perceived order or purposefulness of the universe . A common way of using this as an objection to evolution is by appealing to the 18th @-@ century philosopher William Paley 's watchmaker analogy , which argues that certain natural phenomena are analogical to a watch ( in that they are ordered , or complex , or purposeful ) , which means that , like a watch , they must have been designed by a \" watchmaker \" — an intelligent agent . This argument forms the core of intelligent design , a neo @-@ creationist movement seeking to establish certain variants of the design argument as legitimate science , rather than as philosophy or theology , and have them be taught alongside evolution . \n This objection is fundamentally an argument by lack of imagination , or argument from incredulity : a certain explanation is seen as being counterintuitive , and therefore an alternate , more intuitive explanation is appealed to instead . Supporters of evolution generally respond by arguing that evolution is not based on \" chance , \" but on predictable chemical interactions : natural processes , rather than supernatural beings , are the \" designer . \" Although the process involves some random elements , it is the non @-@ random selection of survival @-@ enhancing genes that drives evolution along an ordered trajectory . The fact that the results are ordered and seem \" designed \" is no more evidence for a supernatural intelligence than the appearance of complex natural phenomena ( e.g. snowflakes ) . It is also argued that there is insufficient evidence to make statements about the plausibility or implausibility of abiogenesis , that certain structures demonstrate poor design , and that the implausibility of life evolving exactly as it did is no more evidence for an intelligence than the implausibility of a deck of cards being shuffled and dealt in a certain random order . \n It has also been noted that arguments against some form of life arising \" by chance \" are really objections to nontheistic abiogenesis , not to evolution . Indeed , arguments against \" evolution \" are based on the misconception that abiogenesis is a component of , or necessary precursor to , evolution . Similar objections sometimes conflate the Big Bang with evolution . \n Christian apologist and philosopher Alvin Plantinga , a supporter of intelligent design , has formalized and revised the improbability argument as the evolutionary argument against naturalism , which asserts that it is irrational to reject a supernatural , intelligent creator because the apparent probability of certain faculties evolving is so low . Specifically , Plantinga claims that evolution cannot account for the rise of reliable reasoning faculties . Plantinga argues that whereas a God would be expected to create beings with reliable reasoning faculties , evolution would be just as likely to lead to unreliable ones , meaning that if evolution is true , it is irrational to trust whatever reasoning one relies on to conclude that it is true . This novel epistemological argument has been criticized similarly to other probabilistic design arguments . It has also been argued that rationality , if conducive to survival , is more likely to be selected for than irrationality , making the natural development of reliable cognitive faculties more likely than unreliable ones . \n = = = Unexplained aspects of the natural world = = = \n Biochemist Michael Behe has argued that current evolutionary theory cannot account for certain complex structures , particularly in microbiology . On this basis , Behe argues that such structures were \" purposely arranged by an intelligent agent . \" \n In addition to complex structures and systems , among the phenomena that critics variously claim evolution cannot explain are consciousness , hominid intelligence , instincts , emotions , metamorphosis , photosynthesis , homosexuality , music , language , religion , morality , and altruism ( see altruism in animals ) . Most of these , such as hominid intelligence , instinct , emotion , photosynthesis , language , and altruism , have been well @-@ explained by evolution , while others remain mysterious , or only have preliminary explanations . However , supporters of evolution contend that no alternative explanation has been able to adequately explain the biological origin of these phenomena either . \n Creationists argue against evolution on the grounds that it cannot explain certain non @-@ evolutionary processes , such as abiogenesis , the Big Bang , or the meaning of life . In such instances , evolution is being redefined to refer to the entire history of the universe , and it is argued that if one aspect of the universe is seemingly inexplicable , the entire body of scientific theories must be baseless . At this point , objections leave the arena of evolutionary biology and become general scientific or philosophical disputes . \n Astronomers Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe have argued in favor of cosmic ancestry , and against abiogenesis and evolution . \n = = Impossibility = = \n This class of objections is more radical than the above , claiming that a major aspect of evolution is not merely unscientific or implausible , but rather impossible , because it contradicts some other law of nature or is constrained in such a way that it cannot produce the biological diversity of the world . \n = = = Creation of complex structures = = = \n Living things have fantastically intricate features — at the anatomical , cellular and molecular level — that could not function if they were any less complex or sophisticated . The only prudent conclusion is that they are the products of intelligent design , not evolution . \n Modern evolutionary theory posits that all biological systems must have evolved incrementally , through a combination of natural selection and genetic drift . Both Darwin and his early detractors recognized the potential problems that could arise for his theory of natural selection if the lineage of organs and other biological features could not be accounted for by gradual , step @-@ by @-@ step changes over successive generations ; if all the intermediary stages between an initial organ and the organ it will become are not all improvements upon the original , it will be impossible for the later organ to develop by the process of natural selection alone . Complex organs such as the eye had been presented by William Paley as exemplifying the need for design by God , and anticipating early criticisms that the evolution of the eye and other complex organs seemed impossible , Darwin noted that : \n [ R ] eason tells me , that if numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple , each grade being useful to its possessor , can be shown to exist ; if further , the eye does vary ever so slightly , and the variations be inherited , which is certainly the case ; and if any variation or modification in the organ be ever useful to an animal under changing conditions of life , then the difficulty of believing that a perfect and complex eye could be formed by natural selection , though insuperable by our imagination , can hardly be considered real . \n Similarly , ethologist and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins said on the topic of the evolution of the feather in an interview for the television program The Atheism Tapes : \n There 's got to be a series of advantages all the way in the feather . If you can 't think of one , then that 's your problem not natural selection 's problem ... It 's perfectly possible feathers began as fluffy extensions of reptilian scales to act as insulators ... The earliest feathers might have been a different approach to hairiness among reptiles keeping warm . \n Creationist arguments have been made such as \" What use is half an eye ? \" and \" What use is half a wing ? \" . Research has confirmed that the natural evolution of the eye and other intricate organs is entirely feasible . Creationist claims have persisted that such complexity evolving without a designer is inconceivable , however , and this objection to evolution has been refined in recent years as the more sophisticated irreducible complexity argument of the intelligent design movement , formulated by Michael Behe . \n Irreducible complexity is the idea that certain biological systems cannot be broken down into their constituent parts and remain functional , and therefore that they could not have evolved naturally from less complex or complete systems . Whereas past arguments of this nature generally relied on macroscopic organs , Behe 's primary examples of irreducible complexity have been cellular and biochemical in nature . He has argued that the components of systems such as the blood clotting cascade , the immune system , and the bacterial flagellum are so complex and interdependent that they could not have evolved from simpler systems . \n In fact , my argument for intelligent design is open to direct experimental rebuttal . Here is a thought experiment that makes the point clear . In Darwin 's Black Box ( Behe 1996 ) I claimed that the bacterial flagellum was irreducibly complex and so required deliberate intelligent design . The flip side of this claim is that the flagellum can 't be produced by natural selection acting on random mutation , or any other unintelligent process . To falsify such a claim , a scientist could go into the laboratory , place a bacterial species lacking a flagellum under some selective pressure ( for mobility , say ) , grow it for ten thousand generations , and see if a flagellum--or any equally complex system--was produced . If that happened , my claims would be neatly disproven . \n In the years since Behe proposed irreducible complexity , new developments and advances in biology , such as an improved understanding of the evolution of flagella , have already undermined these arguments . The idea that seemingly irreducibly complex systems cannot evolve has been refuted through evolutionary mechanisms , such as exaptation ( the adaptation of organs for entirely new functions ) and the use of \" scaffolding , \" which are initially necessary features of a system that later degenerate when they are no longer required . Potential evolutionary pathways have been provided for all of the systems Behe used as examples of irreducible complexity . \n = = = = Cambrian explosion complexity argument = = = = \n The Cambrian explosion was the relatively rapid appearance around 542 million years ago of most major animal phyla as demonstrated in the fossil record , and many more phyla now extinct . This was accompanied by major diversification of other organisms . Prior to the Cambrian explosion most organisms were simple , composed of individual cells occasionally organized into colonies . Over the following 70 or 80 million years , the rate of diversification accelerated by an order of magnitude and the diversity of life began to resemble that of today , although they did not resemble the species of today . \n The basic problem with this is that natural selection calls for the slow accumulation of changes , where a new phyla would take longer than a new class which would take longer than a new order , which would take longer than a new family , which would take longer than a new genus would take longer than emergence of a new species but the apparent occurrence of high @-@ level taxa without precedents is perhaps implying unusual evolutionary mechanisms . \n There is general consensus that many factors helped trigger the Cambrian explosion , but there is no generally accepted consensus about the combination and the Cambrian explosion continues to be an area of controversy and research over why so rapid , why at the phylum level , why so many phyla then and none since , and even if the apparent fossil record is accurate . \n An example of opinions involving the commonly cited rise in oxygen Great Oxidation Event from biologist PZ Myers summarizes : \" What it was was environmental changes , in particular the bioturbation revolution caused by the evolution of worms that released buried nutrients , and the steadily increasing oxygen content of the atmosphere that allowed those nutrients to fuel growth ; ecological competition , or a kind of arms race , that gave a distinct selective advantage to novelties that allowed species to occupy new niches ; and the evolution of developmental mechanisms that enabled multicellular organisms to generate new morphotypes readily . \" The increase in molecular oxygen ( O2 ) also may have allowed the formation of the protective ozone layer ( O3 ) that helps shield Earth from lethal UV radiation from the Sun . \n = = = Creation of information = = = \n Another new , and increasingly common , objection of creationists to evolution is that evolutionary mechanisms such as mutation cannot generate new information . Creationists such as William A. Dembski , Werner Gitt , and Lee Spetner have attempted to use information theory to dispute evolution . Dembski has argued that life demonstrates specified complexity , and that evolution without an intelligent agent cannot account for the generation of information that would be required to produce specified complexity . \n These claims have been widely rejected by the scientific community ; new information is regularly generated in evolution , whenever a novel mutation or gene duplication arises . Dramatic examples of entirely new , unique traits arising through mutation have been observed in recent years , such as the evolution of nylon @-@ eating bacteria , which developed new enzymes to efficiently digest a material that never existed before the modern era . In fact , when an organism is considered together with the environment it evolved in , there is no need to account for the creation of information . The information in the genome forms a record of how it was possible to survive in a particular environment . It is not created , but rather gathered from the environment through research — by trial and error , as mutating organisms either reproduce or fail . \n A related argument against evolution is that most mutations are harmful . However , the vast majority of mutations are neutral , and the minority of mutations which are beneficial or harmful are often situational ; a mutation that is harmful in one environment may be helpful in another . \n = = = Violation of the second law of thermodynamics = = = \n Another objection is that evolution violates the second law of thermodynamics . Though the law applies to all systems , in the case of a closed one it states , \" the entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time , approaching a maximum value at equilibrium \" . In other words , an ideal isolated system 's entropy ( a measure of the dispersal of energy in a physical system so that it is not available to do mechanical work ) will tend to increase or stay the same , not decrease . Creationists argue that evolution violates this physical law by requiring a decrease in entropy , or disorder , over time . \n This claim is based on a manifestation of the law only applicable to isolated systems , which do not exchange matter or energy with their surroundings . Organisms , in contrast , are open systems , as they constantly exchange energy and matter with their environment : for example animals eat food and excrete waste , and radiate and absorb heat . Similarly , the Earth absorbs energy from the Sun and emits energy back into space . The Sun @-@ Earth @-@ space system does not violate the second law , because the enormous increase in entropy due to the Sun and Earth radiating into space dwarfs the local decrease in entropy caused by the existence and evolution of self @-@ organizing life . \n Since the second law of thermodynamics has a precise mathematical definition , this argument can be analyzed quantitatively . This was done by physicist Daniel F. Styer , who concluded : \" Quantitative estimates of the entropy involved in biological evolution demonstrate that there is no conflict between evolution and the second law of thermodynamics . \" \n In a published letter to the editor of The Mathematical Intelligencer titled \" How anti @-@ evolutionists abuse mathematics , \" mathematician Jason Rosenhouse stated : \n The fact is that natural forces routinely lead to local decreases in entropy . Water freezes into ice and fertilised eggs turn into babies . Plants use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen , but [ we do ] not invoke divine intervention to explain the process [ ... ] thermodynamics offers nothing to dampen our confidence in Darwinism . \n = = Moral implications = = \n Other common objections to evolution allege that evolution leads to objectionable results , including bad beliefs , behaviors , and events . It is argued that the teaching of evolution degrades values , undermines morals , and fosters irreligion or atheism . These may be considered appeals to consequences ( a form of logical fallacy ) , as the potential ramifications of belief in evolutionary theory have nothing to do with its objective empirical reality . \n = = = Humans as animals = = = \n In biological classification humans are animals , a basic point which has been known for more than 2 @,@ 000 years . The creationist J. Rendle @-@ Short asserted in Creation magazine that if people are taught evolution they can be expected to behave like animals : since animals behave in all sorts of different ways , this is meaningless . In evolutionary terms , humans are able to acquire knowledge and change their behaviour to meet social standards , so humans behave in the manner of other humans . \n = = = Social effects = = = \n In 1917 , Vernon Kellogg published Headquarters Nights : A Record of Conversations and Experiences at the Headquarters of the German Army in France and Belgium , which asserted that German intellectuals were totally committed to might @-@ makes @-@ right due to \" whole @-@ hearted acceptance of the worst of Neo @-@ Darwinism , the Allmacht of natural selection applied rigorously to human life and society and Kultur . \" This strongly influenced the politician William Jennings Bryan , who saw Darwinism as a moral threat to America and campaigned against evolutionary theory ; his campaign culminated in the Scopes Trial , which effectively prevented teaching of evolution in most public schools until the 1950s . \n Some creationists claim that perceived social ills like crime , teenage pregnancies , homosexuality , abortion , immorality , wars , and genocide are caused by a belief in evolution . R. Albert Mohler , Jr . , president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville , Kentucky , wrote August 8 , 2005 , in NPR 's Taking Issue essay series , that \" Debates over education , abortion , environmentalism , homosexuality and a host of other issues are really debates about the origin — and thus the meaning — of human life . ... evolutionary theory stands at the base of moral relativism and the rejection of traditional morality . \" \n Henry M. Morris , engineering professor and founder of the Creation Research Society and the Institute of Creation Research , claims that evolution was part of a pagan religion that emerged after the Tower of Babel , was part of Plato 's and Aristotle 's philosophies , and was responsible for everything from war to pornography to the breakup of the nuclear family . \n Rev. D. James Kennedy of The Center for Reclaiming America for Christ and Coral Ridge Ministries claims that Darwin was responsible for Adolf Hitler 's atrocities . In Kennedy 's documentary , and the accompanying pamphlet with the same title , Darwin 's Deadly Legacy , Kennedy states that \" To put it simply , no Darwin , no Hitler . \" In his efforts to expose the \" harmful effects that evolution is still having on our nation , our children , and our world , \" Kennedy also states that , \" We have had 150 years of the theory of Darwinian evolution , and what has it brought us ? Whether Darwin intended it or not , millions of deaths , the destruction of those deemed inferior , the devaluing of human life , increasing hopelessness . \" The Discovery Institute 's Center for Science and Culture fellow Richard Weikart has made similar claims , as have other creationists . The claim was central to the documentary film Expelled : No Intelligence Allowed ( 2008 ) promoting intelligent design creationism . The Anti @-@ Defamation League describes such claims as outrageous misuse of the Holocaust and its imagery , and as trivializing the \" ... many complex factors that led to the mass extermination of European Jewry . Hitler did not need Darwin or evolution to devise his heinous plan to exterminate the Jewish people , and Darwin and evolutionary theory cannot explain Hitler 's genocidal madness . Moreover , anti @-@ Semitism existed long before Darwin ever wrote a word . \" \n Young Earth creationist Kent Hovind blames communism , socialism , World War I , World War II , racism , the Holocaust , Stalin 's war crimes , the Vietnam War , and Pol Pot 's Killing Fields on evolution , as well as the increase in crime , unwed mothers , and other social ills . Hovind 's son Eric Hovind claims that evolution is responsible for tattoos , body piercing , premarital sex , unwed births , sexually transmitted diseases ( STDs ) , divorce , and child abuse . \n Supporters of evolution dismiss such criticisms as counterfactual , and some argue that the opposite seems to be the case . A study published by the author and illustrator Gregory S. Paul found that religious beliefs , including belief in creationism and disbelief in evolution , are positively correlated with social ills like crime . The Barna Group surveys find that Christians and non @-@ Christians in the U.S. have similar divorce rates , and the highest divorce rates in the U.S. are among Baptists and Pentecostals , both sects which reject evolution and embrace creationism . \n Michael Shermer argued in Scientific American in October 2006 that evolution supports concepts like family values , avoiding lies , fidelity , moral codes and the rule of law . He goes on to suggest that evolution gives more support to the notion of an omnipotent creator , rather than a tinkerer with limitations based on a human model , the more common image subscribed to by creationists . Careful analysis of the creationist charges that evolution has led to moral relativism and the Holocaust yields the conclusion that these charges appear to be highly suspect . Such analyses conclude that the origins of the Holocaust are more likely to be found in historical Christian anti @-@ Semitism than in evolution . \n Evolution has been used to justify Social Darwinism , the exploitation of \" lesser breeds without the law \" by \" superior races , \" particularly in the nineteenth century . Strong , typically European , nations successfully expanded their empires , and as such , these strong nations could be said to have \" survived \" in the struggle for dominance . With this attitude , Europeans , with the exception of Christian missionaries , seldom adopted the customs and languages of local people under their empires . \n = = = Atheism = = = \n Another charge leveled at evolutionary theory by creationists is that belief in evolution is either tantamount to atheism , or conducive to atheism . It is commonly claimed that all proponents of evolutionary theory are \" materialistic atheists . \" On the other hand , Davis A. Young argues that creation science itself is harmful to Christianity because its bad science will turn more away than it recruits . Young asks , \" Can we seriously expect non @-@ Christians to develop a respect for Christianity if we insist on teaching the brand of science that creationism brings with it ? \" However , evolution neither requires nor rules out the existence of a supernatural being . Philosopher Robert T. Pennock makes the comparison that evolution is no more atheistic than plumbing . H. Allen Orr , professor of biology at University of Rochester , notes that : \n Of the five founding fathers of twentieth @-@ century evolutionary biology — Ronald Fisher , Sewall Wright , J. B. S. Haldane , Ernst Mayr , and Theodosius Dobzhansky — one was a devout Anglican who preached sermons and published articles in church magazines , one a practicing Unitarian , one a dabbler in Eastern mysticism , one an apparent atheist , and one a member of the Russian Orthodox Church and the author of a book on religion and science . \n In addition , a wide range of religions have reconciled a belief in a supernatural being with evolution . Molleen Matsumura of the National Center for Science Education found that \" of Americans in the twelve largest Christian denominations , 89 @.@ 6 % belong to churches that support evolution education . \" These churches include the \" United Methodist Church , National Baptist Convention USA , Evangelical Lutheran Church in America , Presbyterian Church ( USA ) , National Baptist Convention of America , African Methodist Episcopal Church , the Roman Catholic Church , the Episcopal Church , and others . \" A poll in 2000 done for People for the American Way found that 70 % of the American public felt that evolution was compatible with a belief in God . Only 48 % of the people polled could choose the correct definition of evolution from a list , however . \n One poll reported in the journal Nature showed that among American scientists ( across various disciplines ) , about 40 percent believe in both evolution and an active deity ( theistic evolution ) . This is similar to the results reported for surveys of the general American public . Also , about 40 percent of the scientists polled believe in a God that answers prayers , and believe in immortality . While about 55 % of scientists surveyed were atheists , agnostics , or nonreligious theists , atheism is far from universal among scientists who support evolution , or among the general public that supports evolution . Very similar results were reported from a 1997 Gallup Poll of the American public and scientists . \n Traditionalists still object to the idea that diversity in life , including human beings , arose through natural processes without a need for supernatural intervention , and they argue against evolution on the basis that it contradicts their literal interpretation of creation myths about separate \" kinds . \" However , many religions , such as Catholicism , have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through theistic evolution . \n = I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret ( album ) = \n I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret is the first live album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna , containing songs from the documentary of same name . The film chronicled the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes of Madonna 's Re @-@ Invention World Tour ( 2004 ) , and was directed by Jonas Åkerlund . The album was released on June 20 , 2006 , in a two @-@ disc format , a CD with 13 songs from the show plus a demo from her tenth studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) , and a DVD with the documentary film . The documentary and the album were also released as digital download to the iTunes Store . \n The live CD consisted of two pre @-@ recorded tracks , \" The Beast Within \" and \" Hollywood \" while extras on the DVD included 12 deleted scenes from the documentary . The release received positive response from critics and was nominated for a Grammy Award at the 2007 show in the category of Best Long Form Music Video . It peaked within the top @-@ ten of the album charts in Belgium , Canada , France , Germany , Italy and Switzerland , while the DVD topped the video charts in Australia , Spain and the United States . \n = = Background and release = = \n The Re @-@ Invention World Tour was the sixth concert tour by Madonna . It supported her ninth studio album American Life , and visited North America and Europe . Madonna was inspired to create the tour , after taking part in an art installation called X @-@ STaTIC PRo = CeSS , directed by photographer Steven Klein . She incorporated the images from the installation in the tour , whose name was in reality a dig at Madonna 's critics . 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. Like all mammals , baleen whales breathe air and must surface periodically to do so . Their nostrils , or blowholes , are situated at the top of the cranium . Baleen whales have two blowholes , as opposed to toothed whales which have one . These paired blowholes are longitudinal slits that converge anteriorly and wi... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
debated the relationship of Palpatine to modern culture . Religion scholars Ross Shepard Kraemer , William Cassidy , and Susan Schwartz compare Palpatine and Star Wars heroes to the theological concept of dualism . They insist , " One can certainly picture the evil emperor in Star Wars as Satan , complete with his inf... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
panel 's proposal to create distinctions in the petition process between constitutional and statutory amendments , ; the proposal which was referred by the legislature to voters and appeared on the November 2008 Colorado ballot as Referendum O. Roberts campaigned in support of Referendum O during the fall campaign .
... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
" all creatures " ( sarvabhuta ) and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of metempsychosis ( CU 8 @.@ 15 @.@ 1 ) . A few scholars are of the opinion that this might have been a concession to the growing influence of Jainism , in Vedic Hinduism .
Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names Ahimsa , along wi... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
of Bf 109 fighters circled overhead to protect her from British air attacks , but Flying Officer Michael Suckling managed to fly his Spitfire directly over the German flotilla at a height of 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) and take photos of Bismarck and her escorts . Upon receipt of the information , Admiral John Tovey... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
despite low amounts of wind shear and warm waters . This was because an anticyclone over the Gulf was closely connected with Hurricane Fern , which developed and moved over the northwestern portion of the Gulf of Mexico . The anticyclone resulted in an easterly upper @-@ level flow across Edith , creating conditions n... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the focus of the entire episode , to the point where if you wanted to call it a half @-@ hour commercial for Lady Gaga , you probably wouldn ’ t be wrong . Fortunately for ' Lisa Goes Gaga ' , the celebrity at its heart is entertaining enough that it being her commercial isn ’ t a complete waste of time . " A writer f... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
three sites in close vicinity in the European part of the country in 2006 .
Ukraine
In 2009 , the possible occurrence of Myotis alcathoe in Ukraine was recorded . In 2011 , the species was definitively recorded there on the basis of two bats caught in the far southwest of the country in 2009 .
United Kingdom
M... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
embrance retained its name as it had been the LBSCR 's designated memorial to employees lost in the First World War . However the original LBSCR nameplates were straight for water tank mounting , necessitating new rounded plates to fit over the central wheel splashers ( see colour plate in infobox above ) .
= = Opera... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
destruct sequence begins , which Samus narrowly escapes . If the player rescues the Dachora and the Etecoons — the creatures Samus encountered earlier in the game — during the escape , they are shown leaving the planet in the distance .
= = Development = =
Super Metroid was developed by Nintendo R & D1 with a staf... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
also accused Albania of " training , infiltrating and illegally arming the terrorists , " and demanded that the West pressure the country to desist from such activities . Albania denied supporting the KLA insurgency , and alleged that two Yugoslav helicopters had violated its airspace . Yugoslavia denied that there ha... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. The next day , the group makes their way towards the shoreline , but are surrounded by the raptors once again . The eggs are surrendered to the raptors , while Grant uses the replicated raptor larynx to confuse the pack , who run off with the eggs . The group flees to the coast and find that Sattler had called in th... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
clitoris , and spotted hyena cubs are the largest carnivoran young relative to their mothers ' weight . During parturition , the clitoris ruptures in order to facilitate the passage of the young , and may take weeks to heal .
Cubs are born with soft , brownish black hair , and weigh 1 @.@ 5 kg on average . Unique am... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ar Paul I making him a Commander of the Order of St John .
In 1801 in the Mediterranean , under the command of Admiral Lord Keith , Kent carried Sir Ralph Abercromby and his headquarters for the invasion of Egypt , a successful campaign which forced the surrender of the French occupying force . Hope was not present f... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the U.S. in March 1941 .
Kinkaid now faced the prospect of selection to rear admiral . He knew that captains normally required a certain amount of seagoing command experience to be considered , but because his tour of duty on Indianapolis had been cut short in order to take up the post in Rome , he did not have enou... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
strengthened the band 's sound . In the studio , they began to develop softer pieces , particularly from Tommy onwards , and turned their attention towards albums more than singles .
From the early 1970s , the band 's sound included synthesizers , particularly on Who 's Next and Quadrophenia . Although groups had us... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
final season in a recurring role .
Jensen Ackles plays Jason Teague , Lana 's love interest , in season four . He follows Lana to Smallville from Paris , taking a job as the school 's assistant football coach , but is fired when their relationship comes to light . By the end of the season , it is disclosed that he w... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
tragedy . No words can describe the depth of my regret and pain at the anguish my mistakes over Watergate have caused the nation and the presidency , a nation I so deeply love , and an institution I so greatly respect .
In October 1974 , Nixon fell ill with phlebitis , the inflammation of the walls of a vein . Told ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
way everything comes together that really makes it memorable " .
= Beckford 's Tower =
Beckford 's Tower , originally known as Lansdown Tower , is an architectural folly built in neo @-@ classical style on Lansdown Hill , just outside Bath , Somerset , England . The tower and its attached railings are designated a... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
office , or any equally oppressive place that only plays adult contemporary schlock . " Barry Walters of Rolling Stone wrote that except " Hot Like Fire " , every other track on Irresistible needed remixing . He concluded by saying , " With so many teen @-@ pop choices , this prom @-@ queen cyborg remains redundant an... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
00 clubs to regional or district associations . The FA , founded in 1863 , and the Football League , founded in 1888 , were both the first of their kind in the world . In Scotland there are 78 full and associate clubs and nearly 6 @,@ 000 registered clubs under the jurisdiction of the Scottish Football Association . Tw... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
situations where the " tumor burden is low and / or malignant cell populations are located in close proximity to essential normal tissues . " Significant morbidity in cell culture models of human cancers has been achieved with from one to ten astatine @-@ 211 atoms bound per cell .
Several obstacles have been encoun... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
a paradoxical pulse ( a pulse that is weaker during inhalation and stronger during exhalation ) , and over @-@ inflation of the chest . A blue color of the skin and nails may occur from lack of oxygen .
In a mild exacerbation the peak expiratory flow rate ( PEFR ) is ≥ 200 L / min or ≥ 50 % of the predicted best . M... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
( canonical ) babbling appears
12 months : First words use a limited sound repertoire
18 months : Phonological processes ( deformations of target sounds ) become systematic
18 months – 7 years : Phonological inventory completion
At each stage mentioned above , children play with sounds and learn methods to hel... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
theropods actually had broader tails than previously depicted , as broad or broader laterally than dorsoventrally near the base .
Heinrich Mallison from Berlin 's Museum of Natural History would also present a theory in 2011 , suggesting that Tyrannosaurus and many other dinosaurs may have achieved relatively high s... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
significant bias . Bellingham 's claim to have acted alone was accepted in court ; Linklater 's 2012 study posits that he could been an agent of other interests — perhaps Liverpool merchants , who bore the main brunt of Perceval 's economic policies and had much to gain by his demise . Comments by a Liverpool newspape... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
rookie season in 1986 – 87 , he was awarded the Vezina Trophy as the league 's top goaltender and led the Flyers to the Stanley Cup Finals . Despite the Flyers ' loss to the Edmonton Oilers in seven games , he won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoffs ' most valuable player , making him one of only five players to wi... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. Two torpedoes fired by land @-@ based torpedo batteries struck the ship , causing serious damage . A major fire broke out aboard Blücher , which could not be contained . After a magazine explosion , the ship slowly capsized and sank , with major loss of life .
The wreck remains on the bottom of the Oslofjord ; sev... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ised by the use of small war @-@ bands of household troops often engaging in raids and low level warfare . The arrival of the Vikings brought a new scale of naval warfare , with rapid movement based around the Viking longship . The birlinn , which developed form the longship , became a major factor in warfare in the Hi... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the merengue mix version " adds a lively , tropical tone to the original slow tempo love song " , but he added that it " seems awkwardly paired when it comes to collaborating artists , who often clash with Selena 's voice and the overall sound " . Of the acoustic bonus tracks , Guerra wrote that they are " unlikely hi... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. The call has been described as very loud and ringing in the Tasmanian and Kangaroo Island subspecies ; Edwin Ashby wrote that in Tasmania it was akin to the squeaking of a wheelbarrow and Gregory Mathews that it was like the kling of an anvil . Elsewhere , their call has been likened to the screech of ungreased meta... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throug... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
released , leaving the engine 's acceptance in the market still unknown . Black Isle made modifications to the engine to suit the game . For example , playable characters were able to run , and both the character sprites and backgrounds were larger and more detailed . The greater size and detail was achieved by bringi... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
in any sanatorium again until 1899 . Soon after that second hospitalization , Cantor 's youngest son Rudolph died suddenly ( while Cantor was delivering a lecture on his views on Baconian theory and William Shakespeare ) , and this tragedy drained Cantor of much of his passion for mathematics . Cantor was again hospit... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
" The Way We Was " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 31 , 1991 . In the episode , Marge tells the story of how she and Homer first met and fell in love . Flashing back to 1974 , we see how Homer falls in love with Marge in ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
features a four @-@ page description and game statistics for Drizzt and Guenhwyvar , written by R. A. Salvatore . The Heroes ' Lorebook accessory , published in 1996 and written by Dale Donovan and Paul Culotta , features an update and revision of Drizzt 's information from Hall of Heroes . The 1999 accessory Drizzt D... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
five of the record charts of countries including Austria , Belgium , France , Hungary and Italy . The Spanish version peaked atop the charts of Spain and Switzerland , and became a hit on the Latin record charts in the United States , topping the Billboard Hot Latin Songs , Latin Pop Airplay , and Tropical Songs chart... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the March Hare in the 1966 TV play of the book .
Christopher Lee voiced the Jabberwocky . While it only had two lines , Burton said that he felt Lee to be a good match for the iconic character because he is " an iconic guy " . For the character , Lee had originally tried to make his voice ' burble ' ( as described i... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
" Love Is Blindness " — are about how the couple deal with the suffering they have forced on each other . Hot Press writer Joe Jackson felt that the song was dominated by a theme of moral confusion . Author John Luerssen believed the song was about " the fight to persevere " . He added it " was long on piss and vinega... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
6 @.@ 5 / 16 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic . In Canada , it ranked sixth for the week with 1 @.@ 702 million viewers . In the United Kingdom , Lost was watched by 1 @.@ 2 million viewers – a larger audience than that of the season premiere . In Australia , " Confirmed Dead " brought in 853 @,@ 000 viewers , ran... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
around ninety minutes .
= Tabloid Junkie =
" Tabloid Junkie " is a pop song performed by American recording artist Michael Jackson . The song appeared as the eleventh track on Jackson 's ninth studio album , entitled HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , which was released in 1995 as a two @-@ disc set . ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
thunderstorms are steered by winds closer to the Earth 's surface than more mature thunderstorms as they tend not to be as tall . If the gust front , or leading edge of the outflow boundary , moves ahead of the thunderstorm , the thunderstorm 's motion will move in tandem with the gust front . This is more of a factor... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ants prey on include giant lacewings , which they swarm up trees to kill , the butterfly genoveva azure Ogyris genoveva , Indian mealmoths , almond moths , the Western Australian jarrah leafminer and the larvae of the wasp Trichogramma . Large and developed larvae of the cabbage butterfly ( Pieris rapae ) are attacked... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
eight players – Geoff Bent , Roger Byrne , Eddie Colman , Duncan Edwards , Mark Jones , David Pegg , Tommy Taylor and Billy Whelan – and injured several more .
Reserve team manager Jimmy Murphy took over as manager while Busby recovered from his injuries and the club 's makeshift side reached the FA Cup final , whic... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. It featured 36 tracks including the TV version from the first opening theme and the first two ending themes . The second CD soundtrack , Gintama Original Soundtrack 2 , was released on November 11 , 2007 . It included 40 tracks but it did not have TV versions of the opening and ending themes from the series . The ne... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
1980s . Several vehicles were sold to the Finnish Defence Forces and other armies ; it was also used in United Nations peacekeeping missions . Other military products were the Sisu NA @-@ 140 " Nasu " , which was produced from 1985 to 2002 , and the mine @-@ clearance vehicle Sisu RA @-@ 140 DS " Raisu " , 41 of which ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Thus Sicilians rediscovered their ancient past , which with its classical idioms was now the height of fashion . The change in tastes did not come about overnight . Baroque remained popular on the island , but now Sicilian balconies , extravagant as ever , would be placed next to severe classical columns . Dufourny be... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Draconians and Aghar ( Gully Dwarves ) in the game , and new locations such as Xak Tsaroth , Solace and Haven . It is the first appearance of the pre @-@ generated player characters ( PCs ) that form the Heroes of the Lance group of characters – Tanis Half @-@ Elven , Sturm Brightblade , Caramon Majere , Raistlin Maje... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
lodging in New York City after the Mexican War when Grant was destitute . Also Buckner acted as a pall bearer and paid for Grant 's funeral and provided Grant 's widow a financial monthly payment so she could live out her years . The surrender was a humiliation for Buckner personally , but also a strategic defeat for ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
's crow 's nest in the course of retrieving the bell . Its predecessor Titanic Ventures agreed with IFREMER that it would not sell any of the artefacts but would put them on public display , for which it could charge an entry fee .
Tulloch 's approach has undoubtedly resulted in outcomes that would not have been pos... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Geier then steamed up the Yangtze to Chungking , where she replaced her sister ship Bussard . On 5 April , Geier returned to Tsingtao ; on the 29th , she was transferred to the coast of central China , where she replaced another sister , Seeadler . Geier returned to Tsingtao on 18 July , and began a tour of Korean and... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
( Jefferson Avenue ) . The highway was extended in the early 1940s from Woodward westward to US 16 ( Grand River Avenue , now M @-@ 5 ) .
During 1963 , the M @-@ 102 designation was extended northerly along Jefferson Avenue through St. Clair Shores , replacing the M @-@ 29 designation to the Shook Road interchange a... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
The ship 's propulsion system consisted of three steam turbines , each driving a screw propeller . Steam was provided by fourteen mixed coal and oil firing Blechynden boilers . The engines were rated at 23 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 27 @.@ 66 knots ( 51 @.@ 23 km / h ; 31 @.@ 83 mph ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
paving was completed in 1926 . The entire highway was designated as part of US 16 later that year .
East of Grand Rapids , the highway was a major artery of national importance , and was added to the proposed " Interregional Highway System " as part of a northern route between Chicago and Detroit by the 1940s . A br... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
single scene , the entire opening sequence with the song " Circle of Life " . Buena Vista Pictures Distribution president Dick Cook said the decision was made for such an approach because " we were all so taken by the beauty and majesty of this piece that we felt like it was probably one of the best four minutes of fi... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
− 2 ( x )
= qk ( x ) rk − 1 ( x ) + rk ( x )
where r − 2 ( x ) =
a ( x ) and r − 1 ( x )
= b ( x ) . The quotient polynomial is chosen so that the leading term of qk ( x ) rk − 1 ( x ) equals the leading term of rk − 2 ( x ) ; this ensures that the degree of each remainder is smaller than the degree of its pre... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the intent of learning how to record with computers , noting that it was the only method with which he was still unfamiliar . Smith jokingly labeled his experimental way of recording " The California Frown " ( a play on the Beach Boys ' " California Sound " ) . He said of the songs , " They 're kind of more noisy with... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
and the lyrics . Based on internet traffic data for Radiohead 's website taken from Alexa Internet , The Guardian 's Chris Salmon believed that if the single had been released conventionally it would have likely cracked the UK Singles Chart 's top ten .
The song 's unconventional release , carried out " in classic R... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
about 12 square feet " . He also stated that " I believe it must have been in places , not a continuous rip " , but that the different openings must have extended along an area of around 300 feet , to account for the flooding in several compartments . The findings of the enquiry state that the damage extended about 30... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
000 prosthetic makeup applications and 2 @,@ 000 molds of different colored aliens . For the specific aesthetic look to the film , Gunn wanted to create " a colorful science @-@ fiction world " , and include elements of 1950s and 60s pulp movies , citing the Ravagers ' spaceships , which he compared to muscle cars , a... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
SEE @-@ kord ; née Ingersoll ; 13 September 1775 – 17 October 1868 ) was a Canadian heroine of the War of 1812 . She is known for having walked 20 miles ( 32 km ) out of American @-@ occupied territory in 1813 to warn British forces of an impending American attack . Her contribution to the war was little known during ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
from his strenuous fund raising activities ( this time , for a new Chemistry building ) . Later that year , the school 's trustees named the new chemistry building the " Lyman Hall Laboratory of Chemistry " in his honor .
= = Lyman Hall building = =
Erected in 1905 and named in his honor , The Lyman Hall Laborator... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
.
The series is licensed in France by Editions Tonkam , in Italy by Flashbook Editore , in South Korea by Daiwon C.I. , in Hong Kong by Jonesky , in Taiwan by Chingwin Publishing Group , in Indonesia by Elex Media Komputindo , and in Thailand by Vibulkij Publishing .
In March 2010 , Viz Media confirmed the series ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
a Chinese Marshal , was compiled from various documents that Peng had written about his life . Much of the material for Memoirs was drawn from the " confessions " that Peng had written during the Cultural Revolution , and the book focused on Peng 's early life , before the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . In 1988 , Chin... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
is distributed by Madman Entertainment . A remastered Blu @-@ ray sourced from a 6K filmscan was released on 14 July 2010 in Japan . It includes an uncompressed Japanese LPCM stereo track , an English dub and English subtitles . On 18 October 2010 a Blu @-@ ray version was released in Region B by Optimum Home Entertai... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
a Belgian @-@ made 9 × 17mm ( .380 ACP ) Fabrique Nationale model 1910 semi @-@ automatic pistol . Pistol serial numbers 19074 , 19075 , 19120 and 19126 were supplied to the assassins ; Princip used # 19074 . According to Albertini , " the first bullet wounded the Archduke in the jugular vein , the second inflicted an... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
= = = Critics = = =
Maggie Lee of The Hollywood Reporter described the film as a " larky retro coming @-@ of @-@ age confection " . She praised the film , saying that it " injects a fresh , tart edge to the genre with a constantly self @-@ mocking boys ' angle " , which she described as an " alternative to Asian t... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
30 October 2015 , along with the DVD that includes music featured in the documentary by film composer Antônio Pinto and classic tracks by Winehouse .
The film has received various accolades , including the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature at the 2016 Oscars , Best Music Film at the 2016 Grammy Awards , the... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
imeter armor above the forecastle deck that reduced to 180 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) between the forecastle and upper decks and 130 millimeters below the upper deck . The forward conning tower had walls 280 millimeters thick those of the aft conning tower were 180 millimeters thick .
= = Construction and service = =... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Three main theories on the origins of insect flight are that wings developed from paranotal lobes , extensions of the thoracic terga ; that they are modifications of movable abdominal gills as found on aquatic naiads of mayflies ; or that they developed from thoracic protrusions used as radiators .
= = = Fossils = =... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
AllGame 's Brett Alan Weiss believed that Metroid II would please fans of the original Metroid , and they noticed that the backgrounds were more detailed in this Game Boy iteration . Marcel Van Duyn of Nintendo Life noted that the difficulty was improved over the original game because of the inclusion of " hot spots... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
204 @,@ 000 after granite was substituted for brownstone in the design . The new city hall design dates from the period that is typically regarded as Richardson 's architectural peak . His design was similar to his other designs done in his unique Romanesque style . Architectural historian Henry @-@ Russell Hitchcock ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ato withdrew from the Jonas Brothers Live in Concert tour , entering a treatment facility for " physical and emotional issues " . It was reported that she decided to enter treatment after punching female dancer Alex Welch ; her management and family conducted a formal intervention after this incident to convince her sh... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ized as part of a larger force in Naples that consisted of the ironclads Francesco Morosini , Lepanto , and Ruggiero di Lauria , the protected cruiser Elba , the torpedo cruiser Folgore , and five torpedo boats . This second squadron was stocked with coal and ammunition in the event that it would need to reinforce the ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
004 to allow the flag to be flown year @-@ round under certain conditions . A statement from the Ministry of Information and the Arts ( now MICA , the Ministry of Information , Communications and the Arts ) said that " [ t ] he national flag , national anthem and Singapore lion head ... are our most visible symbols of ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
– 2011 . A Freedom House " Freedom on the Net " survey classified " Net status " as " Not free " and noted that more than 1 @,@ 000 websites were blocked in Bahrain . The Press Freedom Index ( by Reporters Without Borders ) declined significantly : in 2002 Bahrain was ranked number 67 and by 2010 it had fallen to numb... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
next play quarterback Stephen Garcia completed a touchdown pass to Kenny McKinley . In the same game , Munnerlyn returned a blocked field goal for an 81 yard touchdown .
He declared for the NFL Draft following the 2008 season .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =
= = = Carolina Panthers = = =... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
much to be wished that a remedy could be applied to the depreciation of our Currency ... I know of no person better qualified to do this than Colonel Mason " .
Mason retained his interest in western affairs , hoping in vain to salvage the Ohio Company 's land grant . He , with Jefferson , were among the few delegate... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the road . MD 213 intersects MD 297 ( Worton Road ) and heads past more farm fields . The road turns northeast and intersects MD 561 ( Hassenger ’ s Corner Road ) . It continues through more rural areas , consisting mostly of farms with some wooded areas before reaching Kennedyville , where MD 213 passes residences . ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
@.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) deck gun .
= = Service career = =
Upon U @-@ 1 's completion , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy conducted trials of the submarine throughout most of 1910 . On 5 April both of U @-@ 1 's electric motors were damaged in a flooding incident during her trials . U @-@ 1 's gasoline engi... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
been bulldozed on such a gigantic scale that it is visible from space .
Hubbard is the Guinness World Record holder for the most published author , with 1 @,@ 084 works , most translated book ( 70 languages for The Way to Happiness ) and most audiobooks ( 185 as of April 2009 ) . According to Galaxy Press , Hubbard ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
AG in Washington . He offers to arrange a Purple Heart for Staros , to avoid the unit 's name being stained by the having an officer removed from command . Witt comes across the locals and notices that they have grown distant and distrustful of him and quarrel regularly with one another .
The company is sent on patro... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
from tuition fees should be spent there instead .
= = = Northern Ireland = = =
Tuition fees are currently capped at £ 3 @,@ 805 in Northern Ireland , with loans of the same size available from Student Finance NI . Loan repayments are made when income rises above £ 17 @,@ 335 a year , with graduates paying back a p... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
mi ) main street ; most of the columns date to the second century AD and each is 9 @.@ 50 metres ( 31 @.@ 2 ft ) high .
The Funerary Temple no.86 ( also known as the House Tomb ) is located at the western end of the Great Colonnade . It was built in the third century AD and has a portico of six columns and vine patt... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
a god , who descends in the film . However , Rishi Bhutada , Houston coordinator of the Hindu American Foundation , stated that while there are certain sacred terms that would offend Hindus if used improperly , ' avatar ' is not one of them . Texas @-@ based filmmaker Ashok Rao added that ' avatar ' does not always me... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Denys ; the Victorian clergyman and local historian Edward Trollope stated that this is a medieval form of St Dionysius , but does not elaborate on which of the several saints called Dionysius this refers to . According to a pamphlet published by the parochial church council , St Denys is a medieval composite of Diony... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
available , their ammunition is sparser than in other games , and powerful weapons such as rocket launchers are rare , if even available at all . Thus , players are more vulnerable than in action games , and the hostility of the environment sets up a narrative where the odds are weighed decisively against the avatar .... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Hitler did not speak publicly about the killings , and seems never to have visited the concentration camps .
The Nazis embraced the concept of racial hygiene . On 15 September 1935 , Hitler presented two laws — known as the Nuremberg Laws — to the Reichstag . The laws banned sexual relations and marriages between Ar... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
" The Rings of Akhaten " , and allowed for the exploration of several themes . While he was positive towards the way the story was tied back to a time traveller , he felt that the ending was " perhaps less interesting than what 's come before , simply because it feels more familiar " , though it was still " solid " . ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
bout Me " ( Rube Bloom , Ted Koehler ) – 5 : 52
" Cry Me a River " ( Arthur Hamilton ) – 5 : 02
" Don 't Blame Me " ( Dorothy Fields , Jimmy McHugh ) – 5 : 01
" My Man " ( Channing Pollack , Yvain @-@ Albert , Maurice Yvain ) – 5 : 09
" Blue Gardenia " ( Lester Lee , Bob Russell ) – 5 : 07
Track listing adap... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
heard in the federal circuit court for California by U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice Stephen J. Field and two other federal judges . Lucy Salyer , a history professor at the University of New Hampshire , writes that Justice Field " issued an open invitation to all lawyers in the area to give their opinions on the... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Text " as the bonus objective description in the Xbox 360 version 's final mission and other glitches , said it seems the developers one day " just stopped working on the game " . GameSpot cited the port 's lack of visual options and poor framerate as evidence the PC edition had been rushed .
IGN described the Jedi ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
259 . Miller had taken 2 / 36 , and enforced the follow @-@ on , which was questioned as paceman Ron Archer had broken down . With Australia two bowlers short , the West Indies moved to 1 / 114 . When Weekes arrived at the crease , Miller unsettled him with delaying tactics , and he was out for one . He then placed tw... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
and the C & SLR was reconstructed and extended to Camden Town between 1922 and 1924 . Finance for the latter two extensions was obtained through the government 's 1921 Trade Facilities Act which underwrote loans for public works as a means of alleviating unemployment . For new lines , Pick first considered extending U... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
II , King of Spain , in 1559 .
Claude ( 12 November 1547 – 21 February 1575 ) . Married Charles III , Duke of Lorraine , in 1559 .
Louis , Duke of Orléans ( 3 February 1549 – 24 October 1550 ) . Died in infancy .
Charles IX , King of France ( 27 June 1550 – 30 May 1574 ) . Married Elizabeth of Austria in 1570 . ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
of RecA plus AddAB for efficient gastric colonization suggests , in the stomach , H. pylori is either exposed to double @-@ strand DNA damage that must be repaired or requires some other recombination @-@ mediated event . In particular , natural transformation is increased by DNA damage in H. pylori , and a connection... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
laying ) , though some species exhibit live birth in a process called ovoviviparity . A variety of differences in egg @-@ laying and the number of eggs laid occur . Some species simply drop their eggs in flight ( these species normally have polyphagous larvae , meaning they eat a variety of plants e. g . , hepialids a... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ness and death = =
Then under house arrest , in May 2000 al @-@ Jamri suffered a heart attack . He was taken to the Bahrain Defence Force Hospital , where he underwent surgery . During his stay at the hospital , he was visited by the King and Prime Minister . In May 2002 , al @-@ Jamri traveled to Germany for spinal ... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
994 ) . Thai @-@ ka Loi Hok Hak @-@ fa ( Everybody Learn Hakka ) . Taipei : Southern Materials Center . ISBN 957 @-@ 638 @-@ 017 @-@ 0 .
Phang Tet @-@ siu ( 1996 ) . Hak @-@ ka @-@ fa Fat @-@ yim Sṳ @-@ tien ( Hakka Pronunciation Dictionary ) . Taipei : Southern Materials Center . ISBN 957 @-@ 638 @-@ 359 @-@ 5 .
H... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
reaches the community of Yorklyn , where it turns southwest briefly . After making a turn to the northwest to continue on Creek Road , DE 82 continues north alongside the Red Clay Creek with the Wilmington and Western Railroad heading to the southwest . A short distance past Yorklyn , the route reaches the Pennsylvani... | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
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