25%; canton: 23%).","Switzerland\n\nCulture","Switzerland\n\nThree of Europe's major languages are official in Switzerland. Swiss culture is characterised by diversity, which is reflected in a wide range of traditional customs. A region may be in some ways strongly culturally connected to the neighbouring country that shares its language, the country itself being rooted in western European culture. The linguistically isolated Romansh culture in Graubünden in eastern Switzerland constitutes an exception, it survives only in the upper valleys of the Rhine and the Inn and strives to maintain its rare linguistic tradition.","Switzerland\n\nSwitzerland is home to many notable contributors to literature, art, architecture, music and sciences. In addition the country attracted a number of creative persons during time of unrest or war in Europe. \nSome 1000 museums are distributed through the country; the number has more than tripled since 1950. Among the most important cultural performances held annually are the Paléo Festival, Lucerne Festival, the Montreux Jazz Festival, the Locarno International Film Festival and the Art Basel.","Switzerland\n\nAlpine symbolism has played an essential role in shaping the history of the country and the Swiss national identity. Nowadays some concentrated mountain areas have a strong highly energetic ski resort culture in winter, and a hiking (ger: das Wandern) or Mountain biking culture in summer. Other areas throughout the year have a recreational culture that caters to tourism, yet the quieter seasons are spring and autumn when there are fewer visitors. A traditional farmer and herder culture also predominates in many areas and small farms are omnipresent outside the cities. Folk art is kept alive in organisations all over the country. In Switzerland it is mostly expressed in music, dance, poetry, wood carving and embroidery. The alphorn, a trumpet-like musical instrument made of wood, has become alongside yodeling and the accordion an epitome of traditional Swiss music.","Switzerland\n\nLiterature","Switzerland\n\nAs the Confederation, from its foundation in 1291, was almost exclusively composed of German-speaking regions, the earliest forms of literature are in German. In the 18th century, French became the fashionable language in Bern and elsewhere, while the influence of the French-speaking allies and subject lands was more marked than before.","Switzerland\n\nAmong the classics of Swiss German literature are Jeremias Gotthelf (1797–1854) and Gottfried Keller (1819–1890). The undisputed giants of 20th century Swiss literature are Max Frisch (1911–91) and Friedrich Dürrenmatt (1921–90), whose repertoire includes Die Physiker (The Physicists) and Das Versprechen (The Pledge), released in 2001 as a Hollywood film.[http://www.swissworld.org/en/culture/literature/german_speaking_authors/ Literature] swissworld.org, Retrieved on 23 June 2009","Switzerland\n\nProminent French-speaking writers were Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) and Germaine de Staël (1766–1817). More recent authors include Charles Ferdinand Ramuz (1878–1947), whose novels describe the lives of peasants and mountain dwellers, set in a harsh environment and Blaise Cendrars (born Frédéric Sauser, 1887–1961). Also Italian and Romansh-speaking authors contributed but in more modest way given their small number.","Switzerland\n\nProbably the most famous Swiss literary creation, Heidi, the story of an orphan girl who lives with her grandfather in the Alps, is one of the most popular children's books ever and has come to be a symbol of Switzerland. Her creator, Johanna Spyri (1827–1901), wrote a number of other books on similar themes.","Switzerland\n\nMedia","Switzerland\n\nThe freedom of the press and the right to free expression is guaranteed in the federal constitution of Switzerland.[http://www.ch.ch/private/00085/00090/00479/00480/index.html?lang\nen Press and the media] ch.ch. Retrieved on 25 June 2009 The Swiss News Agency (SNA) broadcasts information around-the-clock in three of the four national languages—on politics, economics, society and culture. The SNA supplies almost all Swiss media and a couple dozen foreign media services with its news.","Switzerland\n\nSwitzerland has historically boasted the greatest number of newspaper titles published in proportion to its population and size.[http://www.pressreference.com/Sw-Ur/Switzerland.html Press in Switzerland] pressreference.com. Retrieved on 25 June 2009 The most influential newspapers are the German-language Tages-Anzeiger and Neue Zürcher Zeitung NZZ, and the French-language Le Temps, but almost every city has at least one local newspaper. The cultural diversity accounts for a large number of newspapers.","Switzerland\n\nThe government exerts greater control over broadcast media than print media, especially due to finance and licensing. The Swiss Broadcasting Corporation, whose name was recently changed to SRG SSR, is charged with the production and broadcast of radio and television programs. SRG SSR studios are distributed throughout the various language regions. Radio content is produced in six central and four regional studios while the television programs are produced in Geneva, Zürich and Lugano. An extensive cable network also allows most Swiss to access the programs from neighboring countries.","Switzerland\n\nSports","Switzerland\n\nSkiing, snowboarding and mountaineering are among the most popular sports in Switzerland, the nature of the country being particularly suited for such activities. Winter sports are practiced by the natives and tourists since the second half of the 19th century with the invention of bobsleigh in St. Moritz. The first world ski championships were held in Mürren (1931) and St. Moritz (1934). The latter town hosted the second Winter Olympic Games in 1928 and the fifth edition in 1948. Among the most successful skiers and world champions are Pirmin Zurbriggen and Didier Cuche.","Switzerland\n\nMost prominently watched sport events in Switzerland are football, ice hockey, Alpin skiing, \"Schwingen\", and tennis.","Switzerland\n\nThe headquarters of the international football's and ice hockey's governing bodies, the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) and International Ice Hockey Federation(IIHF), are located in Zürich. Actually many other headquarters of international sports federatios are to be found in Switzerland. For example, the International Olympic Committee (IOC), IOC's Olympic Museum and the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) are located in Lausanne.","Switzerland\n\nSwitzerland hosted the 1954 FIFA World Cup, and was the joint host, with Austria, of the Euro 2008 tournament. The Swiss Super League is the nation's professional football club league. Europe's highest football pitch, at above sea level, is located in Switzerland and is named the Ottmar Hitzfeld Stadium.","Switzerland\n\nMany Swiss also follow ice hockey and support one of the 12 clubs in the League A, which is the most attended league in Europe. In 2009, Switzerland hosted the IIHF World Championship for the 10th time. It also became World Vice-Champion in 2013. The numerous lakes make Switzerland an attractive place for sailing. The largest, Lake Geneva, is the home of the sailing team Alinghi which was the first European team to win the America's Cup in 2003 and which successfully defended the title in 2007. Tennis has become an increasingly popular sport, and Swiss players such as Martina Hingis, Roger Federer, and most recently, Stanislas Wawrinka have won multiple Grand Slams. Swiss professional wrestler Claudio Castagnoli is currently signed with WWE, and is a former United States champion.","Switzerland\n\nMotorsport racecourses and events were banned in Switzerland following the 1955 Le Mans disaster with exception to events such as Hillclimbing. During this period, the country still produced successful racing drivers such as Clay Regazzoni, Sébastien Buemi, Jo Siffert, Dominique Aegerter, successful World Touring Car Championship driver Alain Menu, 2014 24 Hours of Le Mans winner Marcel Fässler and 2015 24 Hours Nürburgring winner Nico Müller. Switzerland also won the A1GP World Cup of Motorsport in 2007–08 with driver Neel Jani. Swiss motorcycle racer Thomas Lüthi won the 2005 MotoGP World Championship in the 125cc category. In June 2007 the Swiss National Council, one house of the Federal Assembly of Switzerland, voted to overturn the ban, however the other house, the Swiss Council of States rejected the change and the ban remains in place.","Switzerland\n\nTraditional sports include Swiss wrestling or \"Schwingen\". It is an old tradition from the rural central cantons and considered the national sport by some. Hornussen is another indigenous Swiss sport, which is like a cross between baseball and golf. Steinstossen is the Swiss variant of stone put, a competition in throwing a heavy stone. Practiced only among the alpine population since prehistoric times, it is recorded to have taken place in Basel in the 13th century. It is also central to the Unspunnenfest, first held in 1805, with its symbol the 83.5 kg stone named Unspunnenstein.","Switzerland\n\nCuisine","Switzerland\n\nThe cuisine of Switzerland is multifaceted. While some dishes such as fondue, raclette or rösti are omnipresent through the country, each region developed its own gastronomy according to the differences of climate and languages. \n Traditional Swiss cuisine uses ingredients similar to those in other European countries, as well as unique dairy products and cheeses such as Gruyère or Emmental, produced in the valleys of Gruyères and Emmental. The number of fine-dining establishments is high, particularly in western Switzerland.","Switzerland\n\nChocolate has been made in Switzerland since the 18th century but it gained its reputation at the end of the 19th century with the invention of modern techniques such as conching and tempering which enabled its production on a high quality level. Also a breakthrough was the invention of solid milk chocolate in 1875 by Daniel Peter. The Swiss are the world's largest consumers of chocolate.","Switzerland\n\nDue to the popularization of processed foods at the end of the 19th century, Swiss health food pioneer Maximilian Bircher-Benner created the first nutrition-based therapy in form of the well-known rolled oats cereal dish, called Birchermüesli.","Switzerland\n\nThe most popular alcoholic drink in Switzerland is wine. Switzerland is notable for the variety of grapes grown because of the large variations in terroirs, with their specific mixes of soil, air, altitude and light. Swiss wine is produced mainly in Valais, Vaud (Lavaux), Geneva and Ticino, with a small majority of white wines. Vineyards have been cultivated in Switzerland since the Roman era, even though certain traces can be found of a more ancient origin. The most widespread varieties are the Chasselas (called Fendant in Valais) and Pinot noir. The Merlot is the main variety produced in Ticino.","List of cities in Switzerland\n\nThese are lists of cities in Switzerland. Municipalities with more than 10,000 inhabitants are considered to be towns (in German: Städte, in French: villes, in Italian: città). See Municipalities of Switzerland for a table of the largest and smallest.","List of cities in Switzerland\n\nLargest cities in Switzerland:","List of cities in Switzerland\n\n#Zurich\n#Geneva\n#Basel\n#Lausanne\n#Bern\n#Winterthur\n#Lucerne\n#St. Gallen\n#Lugano\n#Biel/Bienne\n#Thun\n#Köniz\n#La Chaux-de-Fonds\n#Fribourg\n#Schaffhausen\n#Vernier\n#Chur\n#Neuchâtel\n#Uster\n#Sion","List of cities in Switzerland\n\nList of cities","List of cities in Switzerland\n\nThis is an alphabetical list of cities with a population of more than 10,000 inhabitants and places with historic city rights or market towns.","List of cities in Switzerland\n\n*Places in bold print are cities because of population and historic city rights.\n*Places in italics are cities with a population below 10,000, either places with historic city rights or market towns. Market towns are identified with 1.\n*Places in normal print are cities with a population of more than 10,000 only. Places that had lost historic city rights previously are identified with 2."],"string":"[\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation (, hence its abbreviation CH), is a federal republic in Europe. While still named the \\\"Swiss Confederation\\\" for historical reasons, modern Switzerland is a federal directorial republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities, called '\\\"federal city\\\" (, , ).According to the Swiss constitution there is intentionally no capital ruling the Swiss Confederation, but in Bern there are governmental institutions, such as the parliament and the Federal Council. The Federal Court, however, is situated in Lausanne. The Federal Court of Criminality is in Bellinzona. The Federal Court of Administration and the Federal Court of Patents are in St Gallen. The country is situated in Western and Central Europe,There are several definitions. See Geography of Switzerland#Western or Central Europe?. and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41285 km2.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nWhile the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the Swiss population of approximately eight million people is concentrated mostly on the plateau, where the largest cities are to be found: among them are the two global and economic centers Zürich and Geneva.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe establishment of the Swiss Confederation is traditionally dated to 1 August 1291, which is celebrated annually as the Swiss National Day. The country has a long history of armed neutrality—it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815—and did not join the United Nations until 2002. Nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to numerous international organizations, including the second largest UN office. On the European level, it is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association, but notably it is not part of the European Union, nor the European Economic Area. However, the country does participate in the Schengen Area and the EU's single market through a number of bilateral treaties.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSpanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions: German, French, Italian and Romansh. Although the majority of the population are German speaking, Swiss national identity is rooted in a common historical background, shared values such as federalism and direct democracy, and Alpine symbolism. Due to its linguistic diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names: Schweiz (German);Swiss Standard German spelling and pronunciation. The Swiss German name is sometimes spelled as Schwyz or Schwiiz. Schwyz is also the standard German (and international) name of one of the Swiss cantons. Suisse (French); Svizzera (Italian); and Svizra or (Romansh).The latter is the common Sursilvan pronunciation.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Switzerland ranks at or near the top globally in several metrics of national performance, including government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic competitiveness, and human development. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, an obsolete term for the Swiss, which was in use during the 16th to 19th centuries. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French ', also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic ', in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, one of the Waldstätten cantons which formed the nucleus of the Old Swiss Confederacy. The name originates as an exonym, applied pars pro toto to the troops of the Confederacy. The Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for \\\"Confederates\\\", Eidgenossen (literally: comrades by oath), used since the 14th century.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German ', ultimately perhaps related to ' \\\"to burn\\\", referring to the area of forest that was burned and cleared to build. The name was extended to the area dominated by the canton, and after the Swabian War of 1499 gradually came to be used for the entire Confederation. \\nThe Swiss German name of the country, ', is homophonous to that of the canton and the settlement, but distinguished by the use of the definite article (' for the Confederation, but simply ' for the canton and the town).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe Latin name Confoederatio Helvetica was neologized and introduced gradually after the formation of the federal state in 1848, harking back to the Napoleonic Helvetic Republic, appearing on coins from 1879, inscribed on the Federal Palace in 1902 and after 1948 used in the official seal. (The ISO banking code, \\\"CHF\\\" for the Swiss franc, is taken from the state's Latin name). Helvetica is derived from the Helvetii, a Gaulish tribe living on the Swiss plateau before the Roman era.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nHelvetia appears as a national personification of the Swiss confederacy in the 17th century with a 1672 play by Johann Caspar Weissenbach.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland has existed as a state in its present form since the adoption of the Swiss Federal Constitution in 1848. The precursors of Switzerland established a protective alliance at the end of the 13th century (1291), forming a loose confederation of states which persisted for centuries.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nEarly history\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe oldest traces of hominid existence in Switzerland date back about 150,000 years.[https://web.archive.org/web/20100419174957/http://www.swissworld.org/en/history/prehistory_to_romans/prehistoric_times/ History]. swissworld.org. Retrieved on 27 June 2009 The oldest known farming settlements in Switzerland, which were found at Gächlingen, have been dated to around 5300 BC.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe earliest known cultural tribes of the area were members of the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel. La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450 BC, possibly under some influence from the Greek and Etruscan civilisations. One of the most important tribal groups in the Swiss region was the Helvetii. Steadily harassed by the Germans, in 58 BC the Helvetii decided to abandon the Swiss plateau and migrate to western Gallia, but Julius Caesar's armies pursued and defeated them at the Battle of Bibracte, in today's eastern France, forcing the tribe to move back to its original homeland. In 15 BC, Tiberius, who was destined to be the second Roman emperor and his brother, Drusus, conquered the Alps, integrating them into the Roman Empire. The area occupied by the Helvetii—the namesakes of the later Confoederatio Helvetica—first became part of Rome's Gallia Belgica province and then of its Germania Superior province, while the eastern portion of modern Switzerland was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSometime around the start of the Common Era, the Romans maintained a large legionary camp called Vindonissa, now a ruin at the confluence of the Aare and Reuss rivers, near the town of Windisch, an outskirt of Brugg.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe first and second century AD were an age of prosperity for the population living on the Swiss plateau. Several towns, like Aventicum, Iulia Equestris and Augusta Raurica, reached a remarkable size, while hundreds of agricultural estates (Villae rusticae) were founded in the countryside.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nIn about 260 AD, the fall of the Agri Decumates territory north of the Rhine transformed today's Switzerland into a frontier land of the Empire. Repeated raids by the Alamanni tribes provoked the ruin of the Roman towns and economy, forcing the population to find shelter near Roman fortresses, like the Castrum Rauracense near Augusta Raurica. The Empire built another line of defense at the north border (the so-called Donau-Iller-Rhine-Limes), but at the end of the fourth century the increased Germanic pressure forced the Romans to abandon the linear defence concept, and the Swiss plateau was finally open to the settlement of German tribes.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nIn the Early Middle Ages, from the end of the 4th century, the western extent of modern-day Switzerland was part of the territory of the Kings of the Burgundians. The Alemanni settled the Swiss plateau in the 5th century and the valleys of the Alps in the 8th century, forming Alemannia. Modern-day Switzerland was therefore then divided between the kingdoms of Alemannia and Burgundy. The entire region became part of the expanding Frankish Empire in the 6th century, following Clovis I's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504 AD, and later Frankish domination of the Burgundians.[http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Europe/Switzerland-HISTORY.html Switzerland history] Nationsencyclopedia.com. Retrieved on 27 November 2009[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/History/Switzerland-history.htm History of Switzerland] Nationsonline.org. Retrieved on 27 November 2009\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThroughout the rest of the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries the Swiss regions continued under Frankish hegemony (Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties). But after its extension under Charlemagne, the Frankish empire was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. The territories of present-day Switzerland became divided into Middle Francia and East Francia until they were reunified under the Holy Roman Empire around 1000 AD.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nBy 1200, the Swiss plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of Savoy, Zähringer, Habsburg, and Kyburg. Some regions (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, later known as Waldstätten) were accorded the Imperial immediacy to grant the empire direct control over the mountain passes. With the extinction of its male line in 1263 the Kyburg dynasty fell in AD 1264; then the Habsburgs under King Rudolph I (Holy Roman Emperor in 1273) laid claim to the Kyburg lands and annexed them extending their territory to the eastern Swiss plateau.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nOld Swiss Confederacy\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe Old Swiss Confederacy was an alliance among the valley communities of the central Alps. The Confederacy facilitated management of common interests and ensured peace on the important mountain trade routes. The Federal Charter of 1291 agreed between the rural communes of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden is considered the confederacy's founding document, even though similar alliances are likely to have existed decades earlier.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nBy 1353, the three original cantons had joined with the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the Lucerne, Zürich and Bern city states to form the \\\"Old Confederacy\\\" of eight states that existed until the end of the 15th century. The expansion led to increased power and wealth for the confederation. By 1460, the confederates controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura mountains, particularly after victories against the Habsburgs (Battle of Sempach, Battle of Näfels), over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries. The Swiss victory in the Swabian War against the Swabian League of Emperor Maximilian I in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe Old Swiss Confederacy had acquired a reputation of invincibility during these earlier wars, but expansion of the confederation suffered a setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano. This ended the so-called \\\"heroic\\\" epoch of Swiss history. The success of Zwingli's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal religious conflicts in 1529 and 1531 (Wars of Kappel). It was not until more than one hundred years after these internal wars that, in 1648, under the Peace of Westphalia, European countries recognized Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nDuring the Early Modern period of Swiss history, the growing authoritarianism of the patriciate families combined with a financial crisis in the wake of the Thirty Years' War led to the Swiss peasant war of 1653. In the background to this struggle, the conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons persisted, erupting in further violence at the First War of Villmergen, in 1656, and the Toggenburg War (or Second War of Villmergen), in 1712.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nNapoleonic era\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nIn 1798, the revolutionary French government conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country, effectively abolishing the cantons: moreover, Mülhausen joined France and Valtellina valley, the Cisalpine Republic, separating from Switzerland. The new regime, known as the Helvetic Republic, was highly unpopular. It had been imposed by a foreign invading army and destroyed centuries of tradition, making Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state. The fierce French suppression of the Nidwalden Revolt in September 1798 was an example of the oppressive presence of the French Army and the local population's resistance to the occupation.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nWhen war broke out between France and its rivals, Russian and Austrian forces invaded Switzerland. The Swiss refused to fight alongside the French in the name of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803 Napoleon organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides in Paris. The result was the Act of Mediation which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 cantons. Henceforth, much of Swiss politics would concern balancing the cantons' tradition of self-rule with the need for a central government.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nIn 1815 the Congress of Vienna fully re-established Swiss independence and the European powers agreed to permanently recognise Swiss neutrality. Swiss troops still served foreign governments until 1860 when they fought in the Siege of Gaeta. The treaty also allowed Switzerland to increase its territory, with the admission of the cantons of Valais, Neuchâtel and Geneva. Switzerland's borders have not changed since, except for some minor adjustments.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nFederal state\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe restoration of power to the patriciate was only temporary. After a period of unrest with repeated violent clashes such as the Züriputsch of 1839, civil war (the Sonderbundskrieg) broke out in 1847 when some Catholic cantons tried to set up a separate alliance (the Sonderbund). The war lasted for less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties, most of which were through friendly fire. Yet however minor the Sonderbundskrieg appears compared with other European riots and wars in the 19th century, it nevertheless had a major impact on both the psychology and the society of the Swiss and of Switzerland.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe war convinced most Swiss of the need for unity and strength towards its European neighbours. Swiss people from all strata of society, whether Catholic or Protestant, from the liberal or conservative current, realised that the cantons would profit more if their economic and religious interests were merged.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThus, while the rest of Europe saw revolutionary uprisings, the Swiss drew up a constitution which provided for a federal layout, much of it inspired by the American example. This constitution provided for a central authority while leaving the cantons the right to self-government on local issues. Giving credit to those who favoured the power of the cantons (the Sonderbund Kantone), the national assembly was divided between an upper house (the Council of States, two representatives per canton) and a lower house (the National Council, with representatives elected from across the country). Referenda were made mandatory for any amendment of this constitution.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nA system of single weights and measures was introduced and in 1850 the Swiss franc became the Swiss single currency. Article 11 of the constitution forbade sending troops to serve abroad, though the Swiss were still obliged to serve Francis II of the Two Sicilies with Swiss Guards present at the Siege of Gaeta in 1860, marking the end of foreign service.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAn important clause of the constitution was that it could be re-written completely if this was deemed necessary, thus enabling it to evolve as a whole rather than being modified one amendment at a time.Histoire de la Suisse, Éditions Fragnière, Fribourg, Switzerland\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThis need soon proved itself when the rise in population and the Industrial Revolution that followed led to calls to modify the constitution accordingly. An early draft was rejected by the population in 1872 but modifications led to its acceptance in 1874. It introduced the facultative referendum for laws at the federal level. It also established federal responsibility for defense, trade, and legal matters.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nIn 1891, the constitution was revised with unusually strong elements of direct democracy, which remain unique even today.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nModern history\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland was not invaded during either of the world wars. During World War I, Switzerland was home to Vladimir Illych Ulyanov (Vladimir Lenin) and he remained there until 1917. Swiss neutrality was seriously questioned by the Grimm–Hoffmann Affair in 1917, but it was short-lived. In 1920, Switzerland joined the League of Nations, which was based in Geneva, on condition that it was exempt from any military requirements.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nDuring World War II, detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the Germans, but Switzerland was never attacked. Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence, concessions to Germany, and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion.[http://stonebooks.com/archives/981111.shtml Book review: Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II, Halbrook, Stephen P.] stonebooks.com. Retrieved on 2 December 2009 Under General Henri Guisan central command, a general mobilisation of the armed forces was ordered. The Swiss military strategy was changed from one of static defence at the borders to protect the economic heartland, to one of organised long-term attrition and withdrawal to strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the Reduit. Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the Axis and Allied powers.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and by the Axis. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached a peak after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis. Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned over 300,000 refugees and the International Red Cross, based in Geneva, played an important part during the conflict. Strict immigration and asylum policies as well as the financial relationships with Nazi Germany raised controversy, but not until the end of the 20th century.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nDuring the war, the Swiss Air Force engaged aircraft of both sides, shooting down 11 intruding Luftwaffe planes in May and June 1940, then forcing down other intruders after a change of policy following threats from Germany. Over 100 Allied bombers and their crews were interned during the war. During 1944–45, Allied bombers mistakenly bombed a few places in Switzerland, among which were the cities of Schaffhausen, Basel and Zürich.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAfter the war, the Swiss government exported credits through the charitable fund known as the Schweizerspende and also donated to the Marshall Plan to help Europe's recovery, efforts that ultimately benefited the Swiss economy.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nDuring the Cold War, Swiss authorities considered the construction of a Swiss nuclear bomb.[http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq7-4.html 7.4 States Formerly Possessing or Pursuing Nuclear Weapons] Retrieved 6 March 2014 Leading nuclear physicists at the Federal Institute of Technology Zürich such as Paul Scherrer made this a realistic possibility. However, financial problems with the defense budget prevented the substantial funds from being allocated, and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968 was seen as a valid alternative. All remaining plans for building nuclear weapons were dropped by 1988.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland was the last Western republic to grant women the right to vote. Some Swiss cantons approved this in 1959, while at the federal level it was achieved in 1971[https://web.archive.org/web/20130116072104/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/europe/switzerland?profiletoday Country profile: Switzerland]. UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office (29 October 2012). and, after resistance, in the last canton Appenzell Innerrhoden (one of only two remaining Landsgemeinde) in 1990. After obtaining suffrage at the federal level, women quickly rose in political significance, with the first woman on the seven member Federal Council executive being Elisabeth Kopp, who served from 1984–1989, and the first female president being Ruth Dreifuss in 1999.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland joined the Council of Europe in 1963. In 1979 areas from the canton of Bern attained independence from the Bernese, forming the new canton of Jura. On 18 April 1999 the Swiss population and the cantons voted in favour of a completely revised federal constitution.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nIn 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving the Vatican City as the last widely recognised state without full UN membership. Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA, but is not a member of the European Economic Area. An application for membership in the European Union was sent in May 1992, but not advanced since the EEA was rejected in December 1992 when Switzerland was the only country to launch a referendum on the EEA. There have since been several referenda on the EU issue; due to a mixed reaction from the population the membership application has been frozen. Nonetheless, Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to conform with that of the EU, and the government has signed a number of bilateral agreements with the European Union. Switzerland, together with Liechtenstein, has been completely surrounded by the EU since Austria's entry in 1995. On 5 June 2005, Swiss voters agreed by a 55% majority to join the Schengen treaty, a result that was regarded by EU commentators as a sign of support by Switzerland, a country that is traditionally perceived as independent and reluctant to enter supranational bodies.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nExtending across the north and south side of the Alps in west-central Europe, Switzerland encompasses a great diversity of landscapes and climates on a limited area of 41285 km2. The population is about 8 million, resulting in an average population density of around 195 people per square kilometre (500/sq mi). The more mountainous southern half of the country is far more sparsely populated than the northern half. In the largest Canton of Graubünden, lying entirely in the Alps, population density falls to 27 /km² (70 /sq mi).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland lies between latitudes 45° and 48° N, and longitudes 5° and 11° E. It contains three basic topographical areas: the Swiss Alps to the south, the Swiss Plateau or Central Plateau, and the Jura mountains on the west. The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central-south of the country, comprising about 60% of the country's total area. The majority of the Swiss population live in the Swiss Plateau. Among the high valleys of the Swiss Alps many glaciers are found, totalling an area of 1063 km2. From these originate the headwaters of several major rivers, such as the Rhine, Inn, Ticino and Rhône, which flow in the four cardinal directions into the whole of Europe. The hydrographic network includes several of the largest bodies of freshwater in Central and Western Europe, among which are included Lake Geneva (also called le Lac Léman in French), Lake Constance (known as Bodensee in German) and Lake Maggiore. Switzerland has more than 1500 lakes, and contains 6% of Europe's stock of fresh water. Lakes and glaciers cover about 6% of the national territory. The largest lake is Lake Geneva, in western Switzerland shared with France.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe Rhône is both the main source and outflow of Lake Geneva. Lake Constance is the second largest Swiss lake and, like the Lake Geneva, an intermediate step by the Rhine at the border to Austria and Germany. While the Rhône flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the French Camargue region and the Rhine flows into the North Sea at Rotterdam in the Netherlands, about 1000 km apart, both springs are only about 22 km apart from each other in the Swiss Alps.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\n48 of Switzerland's mountains are 4000 m above sea in altitude or higher. At 4634 m, Monte Rosa is the highest, although the Matterhorn (4478 m) is often regarded as the most famous. Both are located within the Pennine Alps in the canton of Valais, on the border with Italy. The section of the Bernese Alps above the deep glacial Lauterbrunnen valley, containing 72 waterfalls, is well known for the Jungfrau (4158 m) Eiger and Mönch, and the many picturesque valleys in the region. In the southeast the long Engadin Valley, encompassing the St. Moritz area in canton of Graubünden, is also well known; the highest peak in the neighbouring Bernina Alps is Piz Bernina (4049 m).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe more populous northern part of the country, comprising about 30% of the country's total area, is called the Swiss Plateau. It has greater open and hilly landscapes, partly forested, partly open pastures, usually with grazing herds, or vegetables and fruit fields, but it is still hilly. There are large lakes found here and the biggest Swiss cities are in this area of the country.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe Swiss climate is generally temperate, but can vary greatly between the localities, from glacial conditions on the mountaintops to the often pleasant near Mediterranean climate at Switzerland's southern tip. There are some valley areas in the southern part of Switzerland where some cold-hardy palm trees are found. Summers tend to be warm and humid at times with periodic rainfall so they are ideal for pastures and grazing. The less humid winters in the mountains may see long intervals of stable conditions for weeks, while the lower lands tend to suffer from inversion, during these periods, thus seeing no sun for weeks.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nA weather phenomenon known as the föhn (with an identical effect to the chinook wind) can occur at all times of the year and is characterised by an unexpectedly warm wind, bringing air of very low relative humidity to the north of the Alps during rainfall periods on the southern face of the Alps. This works both ways across the alps but is more efficient if blowing from the south due to the steeper step for oncoming wind from the south. Valleys running south to north trigger the best effect.\\nThe driest conditions persist in all inner alpine valleys that receive less rain because arriving clouds lose a lot of their content while crossing the mountains before reaching these areas. Large alpine areas such as Graubünden remain drier than pre-alpine areas and as in the main valley of the Valais wine grapes are grown there.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe wettest conditions persist in the high Alps and in the Ticino canton which has much sun yet heavy bursts of rain from time to time. Precipitation tends to be spread moderately throughout the year with a peak in summer. Autumn is the driest season, winter receives less precipitation than summer, yet the weather patterns in Switzerland are not in a stable climate system and can be variable from year to year with no strict and predictable periods.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nEnvironment\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland's ecosystems can be particularly fragile, because the many delicate valleys separated by high mountains often form unique ecologies. The mountainous regions themselves are also vulnerable, with a rich range of plants not found at other altitudes, and experience some pressure from visitors and grazing. The climatic, geological and topographical conditions of the alpine region make for a very fragile ecosystem that is particularly sensitive to climate change. Nevertheless, according to the 2014 Environmental Performance Index, Switzerland ranks first among 132 nations in safeguarding the environment, due to its high scores on environmental public health, its heavy reliance on renewable sources of energy (hydropower and geothermal energy), and its control of greenhouse gas emissions.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nPolitics\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe Federal Constitution adopted in 1848 is the legal foundation of the modern federal state. It is among the oldest constitutions in the world. A new Constitution was adopted in 1999, but did not introduce notable changes to the federal structure. It outlines basic and political rights of individuals and citizen participation in public affairs, divides the powers between the Confederation and the cantons and defines federal jurisdiction and authority. There are three main governing bodies on the federal level: the bicameral parliament (legislative), the Federal Council (executive) and the Federal Court (judicial).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe Swiss Parliament consists of two houses: the Council of States which has 46 representatives (two from each canton and one from each half-canton) who are elected under a system determined by each canton, and the National Council, which consists of 200 members who are elected under a system of proportional representation, depending on the population of each canton. Members of both houses serve for 4 years. When both houses are in joint session, they are known collectively as the Federal Assembly. Through referendums, citizens may challenge any law passed by parliament and through initiatives, introduce amendments to the federal constitution, thus making Switzerland a direct democracy.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe Federal Council constitutes the federal government, directs the federal administration and serves as collective Head of State. It is a collegial body of seven members, elected for a four-year mandate by the Federal Assembly which also exercises oversight over the Council. The President of the Confederation is elected by the Assembly from among the seven members, traditionally in rotation and for a one-year term; the President chairs the government and assumes representative functions. However, the president is a primus inter pares with no additional powers, and remains the head of a department within the administration.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe Swiss government has been a coalition of the four major political parties since 1959, each party having a number of seats that roughly reflects its share of electorate and representation in the federal parliament.\\nThe classic distribution of 2 CVP/PDC, 2 SPS/PSS, 2 FDP/PRD and 1 SVP/UDC as it stood from 1959 to 2003 was known as the \\\"magic formula\\\". Following the 2015 Federal Council elections, the seven seats in the Federal Council were distributed as follows:\\n1 seat for the Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC),\\n2 seats for the Free Democratic Party (FDP/PRD),\\n2 seats for the Social Democratic Party (SPS/PSS),\\n2 seats for the Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe function of the Federal Supreme Court is to hear appeals against rulings of cantonal or federal courts. The judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for six-year terms.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nDirect democracy\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nDirect democracy and federalism are hallmarks of the Swiss political system. Swiss citizens are subject to three legal jurisdictions: the municipality, canton and federal levels. The 1848/1999 federal constitution defines a system of direct democracy (sometimes called half-direct or representative direct democracy because it is aided by the more commonplace institutions of a representative democracy). The instruments of this system at the federal level, known as popular rights (, , ), include the right to submit a federal initiative and a referendum, both of which may overturn parliamentary decisions.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nBy calling a federal referendum, a group of citizens may challenge a law passed by parliament, if they gather 50,000 signatures against the law within 100 days. If so, a national vote is scheduled where voters decide by a simple majority whether to accept or reject the law. Any 8 cantons together can also call a constitutional referendum on a federal law.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSimilarly, the federal constitutional initiative allows citizens to put a constitutional amendment to a national vote, if 100,000 voters sign the proposed amendment within 18 months.Since 1999, an initiative can also be in the form of a general proposal to be elaborated by Parliament, but because it is considered less attractive for various reasons, this form of initiative has yet to find any use. The Federal Council and the Federal Assembly can supplement the proposed amendment with a counter-proposal, and then voters must indicate a preference on the ballot in case both proposals are accepted. Constitutional amendments, whether introduced by initiative or in parliament, must be accepted by a double majority of the national popular vote and the cantonal popular votes.That is a majority of 23 cantonal votes, because the result of the popular vote in the six traditional half-cantons each counts as half the vote of one of the other cantons.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAdministrative divisions\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe Swiss Confederation consists of 20 cantons and 6 half cantons:\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\n*These cantons are known as half-cantons and are thus represented by only one councillor (instead of two) in the Council of States.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe cantons have a permanent constitutional status and, in comparison with the situation in other countries, a high degree of independence. Under the Federal Constitution, all 26 cantons are equal in status. Each canton has its own constitution, and its own parliament, government and courts. However, there are considerable differences between the individual cantons, most particularly in terms of population and geographical area. Their populations vary between 15,000 (Appenzell Innerrhoden) and 1,253,500 (Zürich), and their area between 37 km2 (Basel-Stadt) and 7105 km2 (Graubünden). The Cantons comprise a total of 2,485 municipalities. Within Switzerland there are two enclaves: Büsingen belongs to Germany, Campione d'Italia belongs to Italy.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nForeign relations and international institutions\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nTraditionally, Switzerland avoids alliances that might entail military, political, or direct economic action and has been neutral since the end of its expansion in 1515. Its policy of neutrality was internationally recognised at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.[http://www.swissworld.org/en/politics/foreign_policy/neutrality_and_isolationism/ Neutrality and isolationism] swissworld.org, Retrieved on 23 June 2009 Only in 2002 did Switzerland become a full member of the United Nations and it was the first state to join it by referendum. Switzerland maintains diplomatic relations with almost all countries and historically has served as an intermediary between other states. Switzerland is not a member of the European Union; the Swiss people have consistently rejected membership since the early 1990s. However, Switzerland does participate in the Schengen Area.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nA large number of international institutions have their seats in Switzerland, in part because of its policy of neutrality. Geneva is the birthplace of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and the Geneva Conventions and, since 2006, hosts the United Nations Human Rights Council. Even though Switzerland is one of the most recent countries to have joined the United Nations, the Palace of Nations in Geneva is the second biggest centre for the United Nations after New York, and Switzerland was a founding member and home to the League of Nations.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nApart from the United Nations headquarters, the Swiss Confederation is host to many UN agencies, like the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and about 200 other international organisations, including the World Trade Organization and the World Intellectual Property Organization. The annual meetings of the World Economic Forum in Davos bring together top international business and political leaders from Switzerland and foreign countries to discuss important issues facing the world, including health and the environment. Additionally the headquarters of the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) are located in Basel since 1930.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nFurthermore, many sport federations and organisations are located throughout the country, such as the International Basketball Federation in Geneva, the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) in Nyon, the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) and the International Ice Hockey Federation both in Zürich, the International Cycling Union in Aigle, and the International Olympic Committee in Lausanne.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nMilitary\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe Swiss Armed Forces, including the Land Forces and the Air Force, are composed mostly of conscripts, male citizens aged from 20 to 34 (in special cases up to 50) years. Being a landlocked country, Switzerland has no navy; however, on lakes bordering neighbouring countries, armed military patrol boats are used. Swiss citizens are prohibited from serving in foreign armies, except for the Swiss Guards of the Vatican, or if they are dual citizens of a foreign country and reside there.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe structure of the Swiss militia system stipulates that the soldiers keep their Army issued equipment, including all personal weapons, at home. Some organizations and political parties find this practice controversial but mainstream Swiss opinion is in favour of the system. Compulsory military service concerns all male Swiss citizens; women can serve voluntarily. Men usually receive military conscription orders for training at the age of 18. About two thirds of the young Swiss are found suited for service; for those found unsuited, various forms of alternative service exist. Annually, approximately 20,000 persons are trained in recruit centres for a duration from 18 to 21 weeks. The reform \\\"Army XXI\\\" was adopted by popular vote in 2003, it replaced the previous model \\\"Army 95\\\", reducing the effectives from 400,000 to about 200,000. Of those, 120,000 are active in periodic Army training and 80,000 are non-training reserves.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nOverall, three general mobilisations have been declared to ensure the integrity and neutrality of Switzerland. The first one was held on the occasion of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. The second was in response to the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914. The third mobilisation of the army took place in September 1939 in response to the German attack on Poland; Henri Guisan was elected as the General-in-Chief.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nBecause of its neutrality policy, the Swiss army does not currently take part in armed conflicts in other countries, but is part of some peacekeeping missions around the world. Since 2000 the armed force department has also maintained the Onyx intelligence gathering system to monitor satellite communications.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nFollowing the end of the Cold War there have been a number of attempts to curb military activity or even abolish the armed forces altogether. A notable referendum on the subject, launched by an anti-militarist group, was held on 26 November 1989. It was defeated with about two thirds of the voters against the proposal. A similar referendum, called for before, but held shortly after the 11 September attacks in the US, was defeated by over 78% of voters.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nGun politics in Switzerland are unique in Europe in that a relatively high percentage (29%) of citizens are legally armed. The large majority of firearms kept at home are militia-issued weapons, but ammunition is not issued.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nEconomy and labour law\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland has a stable, prosperous and high-tech economy and enjoys great wealth, being ranked as the wealthiest country in the world per capita in multiple rankings. In 2011 it was ranked as the wealthiest country in the world in per capita terms (with \\\"wealth\\\" being defined to include both financial and non-financial assets), while the 2013 Credit Suisse Global Wealth Report showed that Switzerland was the country with the highest average wealth per adult in 2013. It has the world's nineteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and the thirty-sixth largest by purchasing power parity. It is the twentieth largest exporter, despite its small size. Switzerland has the highest European rating in the Index of Economic Freedom 2010, while also providing large coverage through public services. The nominal per capita GDP is higher than those of the larger Western and Central European economies and Japan. If adjusted for purchasing power parity, Switzerland ranks 8th in the world in terms of GDP per capita, according to the World Bank and IMF (ranked 15th according to the CIA Worldfactbook).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report currently ranks Switzerland's economy as the most competitive in the world, while ranked by the European Union as Europe's most innovative country. For much of the 20th century, Switzerland was the wealthiest country in Europe by a considerable margin (by GDP – per capita). In 2007 the gross median household income in Switzerland was an estimated 137,094 USD at Purchasing power parity while the median income was 95,824 USD. Switzerland also has one of the world's largest account balances as a percentage of GDP.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland is home to several large multinational corporations. The largest Swiss companies by revenue are Glencore, Gunvor, Nestlé, Novartis, Hoffmann-La Roche, ABB, Mercuria Energy Group and Adecco. Also, notable are UBS AG, Zurich Financial Services, Credit Suisse, Barry Callebaut, Swiss Re, Tetra Pak, The Swatch Group and Swiss International Air Lines. Switzerland is ranked as having one of the most powerful economies in the world.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland's most important economic sector is manufacturing. Manufacturing consists largely of the production of specialist chemicals, health and pharmaceutical goods, scientific and precision measuring instruments and musical instruments. The largest exported goods are chemicals (34% of exported goods), machines/electronics (20.9%), and precision instruments/watches (16.9%). Exported services amount to a third of exports. The service sector – especially banking and insurance, tourism, and international organisations – is another important industry for Switzerland.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAround 3.8 million people work in Switzerland; about 25% of employees belonged to a trade union in 2004. Switzerland has a more flexible job market than neighbouring countries and the unemployment rate is very low. The unemployment rate increased from a low of 1.7% in June 2000 to a peak of 4.4% in December 2009. The unemployment rate is 3.2% in 2014.[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sz.html The World Factbook] Population growth from net immigration is quite high, at 0.52% of population in 2004. The foreign citizen population was 21.8% in 2004, about the same as in Australia. GDP per hour worked is the world's 16th highest, at 49.46 international dollars in 2012.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland has an overwhelmingly private sector economy and low tax rates by Western World standards; overall taxation is one of the smallest of developed countries. Switzerland is a relatively easy place to do business, currently ranking 20th of 189 countries in the Ease of Doing Business Index. The slow growth Switzerland experienced in the 1990s and the early 2000s has brought greater support for economic reforms and harmonization with the European Union. According to Credit Suisse, only about 37% of residents own their own homes, one of the lowest rates of home ownership in Europe. Housing and food price levels were 171% and 145% of the EU-25 index in 2007, compared to 113% and 104% in Germany.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe Swiss Federal budget had a size of 62.8 billion Swiss francs in 2010, which is an equivalent 11.35% of the country's GDP in that year; however, the regional (canton) budgets and the budgets of the municipalities are not counted as part of the federal budget and the total rate of government spending is closer to 33.8% of GDP. The main sources of income for the federal government are the value-added tax (33%) and the direct federal tax (29%) and the main expenditure is located in the areas of social welfare and finance & tax. The expenditures of the Swiss Confederation have been growing from 7% of GDP in 1960 to 9.7% in 1990 and to 10.7% in 2010. While the sectors social welfare and finance & tax have been growing from 35% in 1990 to 48.2% in 2010, a significant reduction of expenditures has been occurring in the sectors of agriculture and national defense; from 26.5% in to 12.4% (estimation for the year 2015).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAgricultural protectionism—a rare exception to Switzerland's free trade policies—has contributed to high food prices. Product market liberalisation is lagging behind many EU countries according to the OECD. Nevertheless, domestic purchasing power is one of the best in the world. Apart from agriculture, economic and trade barriers between the European Union and Switzerland are minimal and Switzerland has free trade agreements worldwide. Switzerland is a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nEducation and science\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nEducation in Switzerland is very diverse because the constitution of Switzerland delegates the authority for the school system to the cantons.[http://www.swissworld.org/en/education/general_overview/the_swiss_education_system/ The Swiss education system] swissworld.org, Retrieved on 23 June 2009 There are both public and private schools, including many private international schools. The minimum age for primary school is about six years in all cantons, but most cantons provide a free \\\"children's school\\\" starting at four or five years old. Primary school continues until grade four, five or six, depending on the school. Traditionally, the first foreign language in school was always one of the other national languages, although recently (2000) English was introduced first in a few cantons.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAt the end of primary school (or at the beginning of secondary school), pupils are separated according to their capacities in several (often three) sections. The fastest learners are taught advanced classes to be prepared for further studies and the matura, while students who assimilate a little more slowly receive an education more adapted to their needs.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThere are 12 universities in Switzerland, ten of which are maintained at cantonal level and usually offer a range of non-technical subjects. The first university in Switzerland was founded in 1460 in Basel (with a faculty of medicine) and has a tradition of chemical and medical research in Switzerland. The largest university in Switzerland is the University of Zurich with nearly 25,000 students.The Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETHZ) and the University of Zurich are listed 20th and 54th respectively, on the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe two institutes sponsored by the federal government are the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETHZ) in Zürich, founded 1855 and the EPFL in Lausanne, founded 1969 as such, which was formerly an institute associated with the University of Lausanne.In 2008, the ETH Zurich was ranked 15th in the field Natural Sciences and Mathematics by the Shanghai Academic Ranking of World Universities and the EPFL in Lausanne was ranked 18th in the field Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences by the same ranking.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nIn addition, there are various Universities of Applied Sciences. In business and management studies, the University of St. Gallen, (HSG) is ranked 329th in the world according to QS World University Rankings and the International Institute for Management Development (IMD), was ranked first in open programs worldwide by the Financial Times. Switzerland has the second highest rate (almost 18% in 2003) of foreign students in tertiary education, after Australia (slightly over 18%).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAs might befit a country that plays home to innumerable international organizations, the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, located in Geneva, is not only continental Europe's oldest graduate school of international and development studies, but also widely believed to be one of its most prestigious.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nMany Nobel Prize laureates have been Swiss scientists. They include the world-famous physicist Albert Einstein in the field of physics, who developed his Special relativity while working in Bern. More recently Vladimir Prelog, Heinrich Rohrer, Richard Ernst, Edmond Fischer, Rolf Zinkernagel and Kurt Wüthrich received Nobel Prizes in the sciences. In total, 113 Nobel Prize winners in all fields stand in relation to Switzerland Nobel prizes in non-science categories included. and the Nobel Peace Prize has been awarded nine times to organisations residing in Switzerland.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nGeneva and the nearby French department of Ain co-host the world's largest laboratory, CERN, dedicated to particle physics research. Another important research center is the Paul Scherrer Institute. Notable inventions include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), the scanning tunneling microscope (Nobel prize) and Velcro. Some technologies enabled the exploration of new worlds such as the pressurized balloon of Auguste Piccard and the Bathyscaphe which permitted Jacques Piccard to reach the deepest point of the world's oceans.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland Space Agency, the Swiss Space Office, has been involved in various space technologies and programs. In addition it was one of the 10 founders of the European Space Agency in 1975 and is the seventh largest contributor to the ESA budget. In the private sector, several companies are implicated in the space industry such as Oerlikon Space or Maxon Motors who provide spacecraft structures.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland and the European Union\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland voted against membership in the European Economic Area in a referendum in December 1992 and has since maintained and developed its relationships with the European Union (EU) and European countries through bilateral agreements. In March 2001, the Swiss people refused in a popular vote to start accession negotiations with the EU. In recent years, the Swiss have brought their economic practices largely into conformity with those of the EU in many ways, in an effort to enhance their international competitiveness. The economy grew at 3% in 2010, 1.9% in 2011, and 1% in 2012. Full EU membership is a long-term objective of some in the Swiss government, but there is considerable popular sentiment against this supported by the conservative SVP party. The western French-speaking areas and the urban regions of the rest of the country tend to be more pro-EU, however with far from any significant share of the population.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe government has established an Integration Office under the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Department of Economic Affairs. To minimise the negative consequences of Switzerland's isolation from the rest of Europe, Bern and Brussels signed seven bilateral agreements to further liberalise trade ties. These agreements were signed in 1999 and took effect in 2001. This first series of bilateral agreements included the free movement of persons. A second series covering nine areas was signed in 2004 and has since been ratified, which includes the Schengen Treaty and the Dublin Convention besides others. They continue to discuss further areas for cooperation.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nIn 2006, Switzerland approved 1 billion francs of supportive investment in the poorer Southern and Central European countries in support of cooperation and positive ties to the EU as a whole. A further referendum will be needed to approve 300 million francs to support Romania and Bulgaria and their recent admission. The Swiss have also been under EU and sometimes international pressure to reduce banking secrecy and to raise tax rates to parity with the EU. Preparatory discussions are being opened in four new areas: opening up the electricity market, participation in the European GNSS project Galileo, cooperating with the European centre for disease prevention and recognising certificates of origin for food products.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nOn 27 November 2008, the interior and justice ministers of European Union in Brussels announced Switzerland's accession to the Schengen passport-free zone from 12 December 2008. The land border checkpoints will remain in place only for goods movements, but should not run controls on people, though people entering the country had their passports checked until 29 March 2009 if they originated from a Schengen nation.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nOn 9 February 2014, Swiss voters narrowly approved by 50.3% a ballot initiative launched by the national conservative Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC) to restrict immigration, and thus reintroducing a quota system on the influx of foreigners. This initiative was mostly backed by rural (57.6% approvals), suburban (51.2% approvals), and isolated cities (51.3% approvals) of Switzerland as well as by a strong majority (69.2% approval) in the canton of Ticino, while metropolitan centres (58.5% rejection) and the French-speaking part (58.5% rejection) of Switzerland rather rejected it. Some news commentators claim that this proposal de facto contradicts the bilateral agreements on the free movement of persons from these respective countries.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nEnergy, infrastructure and environment\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nElectricity generated in Switzerland is 56% from hydroelectricity and 39% from nuclear power, resulting in a nearly CO2-free electricity-generating network. On 18 May 2003, two anti-nuclear initiatives were turned down: Moratorium Plus, aimed at forbidding the building of new nuclear power plants (41.6% supported and 58.4% opposed), and Electricity Without Nuclear (33.7% supported and 66.3% opposed).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe former ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants was the result of a citizens' initiative voted on in 1990 which had passed with 54.5% Yes vs. 45.5% No votes. Plans for a new nuclear plant in the Canton of Bern have been put on hold after the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi power plant in 2011. The Swiss Federal Office of Energy (SFOE) is the office responsible for all questions relating to energy supply and energy use within the Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC). The agency is supporting the 2000-watt society initiative to cut the nation's energy use by more than half by the year 2050.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nOn 25 May 2011 the Swiss government announced that it plans to end its use of nuclear energy in the next 2 or 3 decades. \\\"The government has voted for a phaseout because we want to ensure a secure and autonomous supply of energy\\\", Energy Minister Doris Leuthard said that day at a press conference in Bern. \\\"Fukushima showed that the risk of nuclear power is too high, which in turn has also increased the costs of this energy form.\\\" The first reactor would reportedly be taken offline in 2019 and the last one in 2034. Parliament will discuss the plan in June 2011, and there could be a referendum as well.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe most dense rail network in Europe of 5063 km carries over 350 million passengers annually. In 2007, each Swiss citizen travelled on average 2258 km by rail, which makes them the keenest rail users. The network is administered mainly by the Federal Railways, except in Graubünden, where the 366 km narrow gauge railway is operated by the Rhaetian Railways and includes some World Heritage lines. The building of new railway base tunnels through the Alps is under way to reduce the time of travel between north and south through the AlpTransit project.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwiss private-public managed road network is funded by road tolls and vehicle taxes. The Swiss autobahn/autoroute system requires the purchase of a vignette (toll sticker)—which costs 40 Swiss francs—for one calendar year in order to use its roadways, for both passenger cars and trucks. The Swiss autobahn/autoroute network has a total length of 1638 km (as of 2000) and has, by an area of 41290 km2, also one of the highest motorway densities in the world. Zürich Airport is Switzerland's largest international flight gateway, which handled 22.8 million passengers in 2012. The other international airports are Geneva Airport (13.9 million passengers in 2012), EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg which is located in France, Bern Airport, Lugano Airport, St. Gallen-Altenrhein Airport and Sion Airport. Swiss International Air Lines is the flag carrier of Switzerland. Its main hub is Zürich.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland has one of the best environmental records among nations in the developed world; it was one of the countries to sign the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 and ratified it in 2003. With Mexico and the Republic of Korea it forms the Environmental Integrity Group (EIG). The country is heavily active in recycling and anti-littering regulations and is one of the top recyclers in the world, with 66% to 96% of recyclable materials being recycled, depending on the area of the country. The 2014 Global Green Economy Index ranked Switzerland among the top 10 green economies in the world.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nIn many places in Switzerland, household rubbish disposal is charged for. Rubbish (except dangerous items, batteries etc.) is only collected if it is in bags which either have a payment sticker attached, or in official bags with the surcharge paid at the time of purchase. This gives a financial incentive to recycle as much as possible, since recycling is free. Illegal disposal of garbage is not tolerated but usually the enforcement of such laws is limited to violations that involve the unlawful disposal of larger volumes at traffic intersections and public areas. Fines for not paying the disposal fee range from CHF 200–500.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland also has internationally the most efficient system to recycle old newspapers and cardboard materials. Publicly organised collection by volunteers and economical railway transport logistics started as early as 1865 under the leadership of the notable industrialist Hans Caspar Escher (Escher Wyss AG) when the first modern Swiss paper manufacturing plant was built in Biberist.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nIn 2012, Switzerland's population slightly exceeded eight million. In common with other developed countries, the Swiss population increased rapidly during the industrial era, quadrupling between 1800 and 1990. Growth has since stabilized, and like most of Europe, Switzerland faces an aging population, albeit with consistent annual growth projected into 2035, due mostly to immigration and a fertility rate close to replacement level.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAs of 2012, resident foreigners made up 23.3% of the population, one of the largest proportions in the developed world. Most of these (64%) were from European Union or EFTA countries. Italians were the largest single group of foreigners, with 15.6% of total foreign population, followed closely by Germans (15.2%), immigrants from Portugal (12.7%), France (5.6%), Serbia (5.3%), Turkey (3.8%), Spain (3.7%), and Austria (2%). Immigrants from Sri Lanka, most of them former Tamil refugees, were the largest group among people of Asian origin (6.3%).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAdditionally, the figures from 2012 show that 34.7% of the permanent resident population aged 15 or over in Switzerland (around 2.33 million), had an immigrant background. A third of this population (853,000) held Swiss citizenship. Four fifths of persons with an immigration background were themselves immigrants (first generation foreigners and native-born and naturalised Swiss citizens), whereas one fifth were born in Switzerland (second generation foreigners and native-born and naturalised Swiss citizens).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nIn the 2000s, domestic and international institutions expressed concern about what was perceived as an increase in xenophobia, particularly in some political campaigns. In reply to one critical report, the Federal Council noted that \\\"racism unfortunately is present in Switzerland\\\", but stated that the high proportion of foreign citizens in the country, as well as the generally unproblematic integration of foreigners\\\", underlined Switzerland's openness.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nLanguages\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland has four official languages: principally German (spoken by 63.5% of the population in 2013); French (22.5%) in the west; and Italian (8.1%) in the south. The fourth official language, Romansh (0.5%), is a Romance language spoken locally in the southeastern trilingual canton of Graubünden, and is designated by Article 4 of the Federal Constitution as a national language along with German, French, and Italian, and in Article 70 as an official language if the authorities communicate with persons who speak Romansh. However, federal laws and other official acts do not need to be decreed in Romansh.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nIn 2013, the languages most spoken at home among permanent residents aged 15 and older were Swiss German (60.1%), French (23.4%), Standard German (10.1%), and Italian (8.4%). More than two-fifths (42.6%) of the permanent resident population indicated speaking more than one language regularly. Other languages spoken at home included English (4.6%), Portuguese (3.5%), Albanian (2.6%), Serbian and Croatian (2.5%), Spanish (2.2%), and Turkish (1.3%).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe federal government is obliged to communicate in the official languages, and in the federal parliament simultaneous translation is provided from and into German, French and Italian.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAside from the official forms of their respective languages, the four linguistic regions of Switzerland also have their local dialectal forms. The role played by dialects in each linguistic region varies dramatically: in the German-speaking regions, Swiss German dialects have become ever more prevalent since the second half of the 20th century, especially in the media, such as radio and television, and are used as an everyday language, while the Swiss variety of Standard German is almost always used instead of dialect for written communication (c.f. diglossic usage of a language). Conversely, in the French-speaking regions the local dialects have almost disappeared (only 6.3% of the population of Valais, 3.9% of Fribourg, and 3.1% of Jura still spoke dialects at the end of the 20th century), while in the Italian-speaking regions dialects are mostly limited to family settings and casual conversation.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe principal official languages (German, French, and Italian) have terms, not used outside of Switzerland, known as Helvetisms. German Helvetisms are, roughly speaking, a large group of words typical of Swiss Standard German, which do not appear either in Standard German, nor in other German dialects. These include terms from Switzerland's surrounding language cultures (German Billette from French), from similar term in another language (Italian azione used not only as act but also as discount from German Aktion). The French spoken in Switzerland has similar terms, which are equally known as Helvetisms. The most frequent characteristics of Helvetisms are in vocabulary, phrases, and pronunciation, but certain Helvetisms denote themselves as special in syntax and orthography likewise. Duden, one of the prescriptive sources for Standard German, is aware of about 3000 Helvetisms. Current French dictionaries, such as the Petit Larousse, include several hundred Helvetisms.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nLearning one of the other national languages at school is compulsory for all Swiss pupils, so many Swiss are supposed to be at least bilingual, especially those belonging to linguistic minority groups.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nHealth\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwiss citizens are universally required to buy health insurance from private insurance companies, which in turn are required to accept every applicant. While the cost of the system is among the highest it compares well with other European countries in terms of health outcomes; patients who are citizens have been reported as being, in general, highly satisfied with it. In 2012, life expectancy at birth was 80.4 years for men and 84.7 years for women — the highest in the world. However, spending on health is particularly high at 11.4% of GDP (2010), on par with Germany and France (11.6%) and other European countries, and notably less than spending in the USA (17.6%). From 1990, a steady increase can be observed, reflecting the high costs of the services provided.[http://www.oecd.org/document/47/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37562223_1_1_1_1,00.html OECD and WHO survey of Switzerland's health system] oecd.org. Retrieved on 29 June 2009 With an ageing population and new healthcare technologies, health spending will likely continue to rise.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nUrbanization\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nBetween two thirds and three quarters of the population live in urban areas. [http://www.are.admin.ch/dokumentation/00121/00224/index.html?lang\\nde&msg-id27412 Städte und Agglomerationen unter der Lupe] admin.ch. Retrieved on 26 June 2009 Switzerland has gone from a largely rural country to an urban one in just 70 years. Since 1935 urban development has claimed as much of the Swiss landscape as it did during the previous 2,000 years. This urban sprawl does not only affect the plateau but also the Jura and the Alpine foothills and there are growing concerns about land use. However, from the beginning of the 21st century, the population growth in urban areas is higher than in the countryside.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland has a dense network of cities, where large, medium and small cities are complementary. The plateau is very densely populated with about 450 people per km2 and the landscape continually shows signs of human presence. The weight of the largest metropolitan areas, which are Zürich, Geneva–Lausanne, Basel and Bern tend to increase. In international comparison the importance of these urban areas is stronger than their number of inhabitants suggests. In addition the two main centers of Zürich and Geneva are recognized for their particularly great quality of life.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland has no official state religion, though most of the cantons (except Geneva and Neuchâtel) recognize official churches, which are either the Catholic Church or the (Protestant) Swiss Reformed Church. These churches, and in some cantons also the Old Catholic Church and Jewish congregations, are financed by official taxation of adherents.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nChristianity is the predominant religion of Switzerland (about 71% of resident population and 75% of Swiss citizens ), divided between the Catholic Church (38.21% of the population), the Swiss Reformed Church (26.93%), further Protestant churches (2.89%) and other Christian denominations (2.79%). There has been a recent rise in Evangelicalism. Immigration has established Islam (4.95%) and Eastern Orthodoxy (around 2%) as sizeable minority religions. According to a 2015 poll by Gallup International, 12% of Swiss people self-identified as \\\"convinced atheists.\\\"\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAs of the 2000 census other Christian minority communities included Neo-Pietism (0.44%), Pentecostalism (0.28%, mostly incorporated in the Schweizer Pfingstmission), Methodism (0.13%), the New Apostolic Church (0.45%), Jehovah's Witnesses (0.28%), other Protestant denominations (0.20%), the Old Catholic Church (0.18%), other Christian denominations (0.20%). Non-Christian religions are Hinduism (0.38%), Buddhism (0.29%), Judaism (0.25%) and others (0.11%); 4.3% did not make a statement. 21.4% in 2012 declared themselves as unchurched i.e. not affiliated with any church or other religious body (Agnostic, Atheist, or just not related to any official religion).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe country was historically about evenly balanced between Catholic and Protestant, with a complex patchwork of majorities over most of the country. Geneva converted to Protestantism in 1536, just before John Calvin arrived there. One canton, Appenzell, was officially divided into Catholic and Protestant sections in 1597. The larger cities and their cantons (Bern, Geneva, Lausanne, Zürich and Basel) used to be predominantly Protestant. Central Switzerland, the Valais, the Ticino, Appenzell Innerrhodes, the Jura, and Fribourg are traditionally Catholic. The Swiss Constitution of 1848, under the recent impression of the clashes of Catholic vs. Protestant cantons that culminated in the Sonderbundskrieg, consciously defines a consociational state, allowing the peaceful co-existence of Catholics and Protestants. A 1980 initiative calling for the complete separation of church and state was rejected by 78.9% of the voters.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSome traditionally Protestant cantons and cities nowadays have a slight Catholic majority, not because they were growing in members, quite the contrary, but only because since about 1970 a steadily growing minority became not affiliated with any church or other religious body (21.4% in Switzerland, 2012) especially in traditionally Protestant regions, such as Basel-City (42%), canton of Neuchâtel (38%), canton of Geneva (35%), canton of Vaud (26%), or Zürich city (city: >25%; canton: 23%).\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThree of Europe's major languages are official in Switzerland. Swiss culture is characterised by diversity, which is reflected in a wide range of traditional customs. A region may be in some ways strongly culturally connected to the neighbouring country that shares its language, the country itself being rooted in western European culture. The linguistically isolated Romansh culture in Graubünden in eastern Switzerland constitutes an exception, it survives only in the upper valleys of the Rhine and the Inn and strives to maintain its rare linguistic tradition.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland is home to many notable contributors to literature, art, architecture, music and sciences. In addition the country attracted a number of creative persons during time of unrest or war in Europe. \\nSome 1000 museums are distributed through the country; the number has more than tripled since 1950. Among the most important cultural performances held annually are the Paléo Festival, Lucerne Festival, the Montreux Jazz Festival, the Locarno International Film Festival and the Art Basel.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAlpine symbolism has played an essential role in shaping the history of the country and the Swiss national identity. Nowadays some concentrated mountain areas have a strong highly energetic ski resort culture in winter, and a hiking (ger: das Wandern) or Mountain biking culture in summer. Other areas throughout the year have a recreational culture that caters to tourism, yet the quieter seasons are spring and autumn when there are fewer visitors. A traditional farmer and herder culture also predominates in many areas and small farms are omnipresent outside the cities. Folk art is kept alive in organisations all over the country. In Switzerland it is mostly expressed in music, dance, poetry, wood carving and embroidery. The alphorn, a trumpet-like musical instrument made of wood, has become alongside yodeling and the accordion an epitome of traditional Swiss music.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nLiterature\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAs the Confederation, from its foundation in 1291, was almost exclusively composed of German-speaking regions, the earliest forms of literature are in German. In the 18th century, French became the fashionable language in Bern and elsewhere, while the influence of the French-speaking allies and subject lands was more marked than before.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nAmong the classics of Swiss German literature are Jeremias Gotthelf (1797–1854) and Gottfried Keller (1819–1890). The undisputed giants of 20th century Swiss literature are Max Frisch (1911–91) and Friedrich Dürrenmatt (1921–90), whose repertoire includes Die Physiker (The Physicists) and Das Versprechen (The Pledge), released in 2001 as a Hollywood film.[http://www.swissworld.org/en/culture/literature/german_speaking_authors/ Literature] swissworld.org, Retrieved on 23 June 2009\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nProminent French-speaking writers were Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) and Germaine de Staël (1766–1817). More recent authors include Charles Ferdinand Ramuz (1878–1947), whose novels describe the lives of peasants and mountain dwellers, set in a harsh environment and Blaise Cendrars (born Frédéric Sauser, 1887–1961). Also Italian and Romansh-speaking authors contributed but in more modest way given their small number.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nProbably the most famous Swiss literary creation, Heidi, the story of an orphan girl who lives with her grandfather in the Alps, is one of the most popular children's books ever and has come to be a symbol of Switzerland. Her creator, Johanna Spyri (1827–1901), wrote a number of other books on similar themes.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nMedia\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe freedom of the press and the right to free expression is guaranteed in the federal constitution of Switzerland.[http://www.ch.ch/private/00085/00090/00479/00480/index.html?lang\\nen Press and the media] ch.ch. Retrieved on 25 June 2009 The Swiss News Agency (SNA) broadcasts information around-the-clock in three of the four national languages—on politics, economics, society and culture. The SNA supplies almost all Swiss media and a couple dozen foreign media services with its news.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland has historically boasted the greatest number of newspaper titles published in proportion to its population and size.[http://www.pressreference.com/Sw-Ur/Switzerland.html Press in Switzerland] pressreference.com. Retrieved on 25 June 2009 The most influential newspapers are the German-language Tages-Anzeiger and Neue Zürcher Zeitung NZZ, and the French-language Le Temps, but almost every city has at least one local newspaper. The cultural diversity accounts for a large number of newspapers.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe government exerts greater control over broadcast media than print media, especially due to finance and licensing. The Swiss Broadcasting Corporation, whose name was recently changed to SRG SSR, is charged with the production and broadcast of radio and television programs. SRG SSR studios are distributed throughout the various language regions. Radio content is produced in six central and four regional studios while the television programs are produced in Geneva, Zürich and Lugano. An extensive cable network also allows most Swiss to access the programs from neighboring countries.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSports\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSkiing, snowboarding and mountaineering are among the most popular sports in Switzerland, the nature of the country being particularly suited for such activities. Winter sports are practiced by the natives and tourists since the second half of the 19th century with the invention of bobsleigh in St. Moritz. The first world ski championships were held in Mürren (1931) and St. Moritz (1934). The latter town hosted the second Winter Olympic Games in 1928 and the fifth edition in 1948. Among the most successful skiers and world champions are Pirmin Zurbriggen and Didier Cuche.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nMost prominently watched sport events in Switzerland are football, ice hockey, Alpin skiing, \\\"Schwingen\\\", and tennis.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe headquarters of the international football's and ice hockey's governing bodies, the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) and International Ice Hockey Federation(IIHF), are located in Zürich. Actually many other headquarters of international sports federatios are to be found in Switzerland. For example, the International Olympic Committee (IOC), IOC's Olympic Museum and the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) are located in Lausanne.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nSwitzerland hosted the 1954 FIFA World Cup, and was the joint host, with Austria, of the Euro 2008 tournament. The Swiss Super League is the nation's professional football club league. Europe's highest football pitch, at above sea level, is located in Switzerland and is named the Ottmar Hitzfeld Stadium.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nMany Swiss also follow ice hockey and support one of the 12 clubs in the League A, which is the most attended league in Europe. In 2009, Switzerland hosted the IIHF World Championship for the 10th time. It also became World Vice-Champion in 2013. The numerous lakes make Switzerland an attractive place for sailing. The largest, Lake Geneva, is the home of the sailing team Alinghi which was the first European team to win the America's Cup in 2003 and which successfully defended the title in 2007. Tennis has become an increasingly popular sport, and Swiss players such as Martina Hingis, Roger Federer, and most recently, Stanislas Wawrinka have won multiple Grand Slams. Swiss professional wrestler Claudio Castagnoli is currently signed with WWE, and is a former United States champion.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nMotorsport racecourses and events were banned in Switzerland following the 1955 Le Mans disaster with exception to events such as Hillclimbing. During this period, the country still produced successful racing drivers such as Clay Regazzoni, Sébastien Buemi, Jo Siffert, Dominique Aegerter, successful World Touring Car Championship driver Alain Menu, 2014 24 Hours of Le Mans winner Marcel Fässler and 2015 24 Hours Nürburgring winner Nico Müller. Switzerland also won the A1GP World Cup of Motorsport in 2007–08 with driver Neel Jani. Swiss motorcycle racer Thomas Lüthi won the 2005 MotoGP World Championship in the 125cc category. In June 2007 the Swiss National Council, one house of the Federal Assembly of Switzerland, voted to overturn the ban, however the other house, the Swiss Council of States rejected the change and the ban remains in place.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nTraditional sports include Swiss wrestling or \\\"Schwingen\\\". It is an old tradition from the rural central cantons and considered the national sport by some. Hornussen is another indigenous Swiss sport, which is like a cross between baseball and golf. Steinstossen is the Swiss variant of stone put, a competition in throwing a heavy stone. Practiced only among the alpine population since prehistoric times, it is recorded to have taken place in Basel in the 13th century. It is also central to the Unspunnenfest, first held in 1805, with its symbol the 83.5 kg stone named Unspunnenstein.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe cuisine of Switzerland is multifaceted. While some dishes such as fondue, raclette or rösti are omnipresent through the country, each region developed its own gastronomy according to the differences of climate and languages. \\n Traditional Swiss cuisine uses ingredients similar to those in other European countries, as well as unique dairy products and cheeses such as Gruyère or Emmental, produced in the valleys of Gruyères and Emmental. The number of fine-dining establishments is high, particularly in western Switzerland.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nChocolate has been made in Switzerland since the 18th century but it gained its reputation at the end of the 19th century with the invention of modern techniques such as conching and tempering which enabled its production on a high quality level. Also a breakthrough was the invention of solid milk chocolate in 1875 by Daniel Peter. The Swiss are the world's largest consumers of chocolate.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nDue to the popularization of processed foods at the end of the 19th century, Swiss health food pioneer Maximilian Bircher-Benner created the first nutrition-based therapy in form of the well-known rolled oats cereal dish, called Birchermüesli.\",\n \"Switzerland\\n\\nThe most popular alcoholic drink in Switzerland is wine. Switzerland is notable for the variety of grapes grown because of the large variations in terroirs, with their specific mixes of soil, air, altitude and light. Swiss wine is produced mainly in Valais, Vaud (Lavaux), Geneva and Ticino, with a small majority of white wines. Vineyards have been cultivated in Switzerland since the Roman era, even though certain traces can be found of a more ancient origin. The most widespread varieties are the Chasselas (called Fendant in Valais) and Pinot noir. The Merlot is the main variety produced in Ticino.\",\n \"List of cities in Switzerland\\n\\nThese are lists of cities in Switzerland. Municipalities with more than 10,000 inhabitants are considered to be towns (in German: Städte, in French: villes, in Italian: città). See Municipalities of Switzerland for a table of the largest and smallest.\",\n \"List of cities in Switzerland\\n\\nLargest cities in Switzerland:\",\n \"List of cities in Switzerland\\n\\n#Zurich\\n#Geneva\\n#Basel\\n#Lausanne\\n#Bern\\n#Winterthur\\n#Lucerne\\n#St. Gallen\\n#Lugano\\n#Biel/Bienne\\n#Thun\\n#Köniz\\n#La Chaux-de-Fonds\\n#Fribourg\\n#Schaffhausen\\n#Vernier\\n#Chur\\n#Neuchâtel\\n#Uster\\n#Sion\",\n \"List of cities in Switzerland\\n\\nList of cities\",\n \"List of cities in Switzerland\\n\\nThis is an alphabetical list of cities with a population of more than 10,000 inhabitants and places with historic city rights or market towns.\",\n \"List of cities in Switzerland\\n\\n*Places in bold print are cities because of population and historic city rights.\\n*Places in italics are cities with a population below 10,000, either places with historic city rights or market towns. Market towns are identified with 1.\\n*Places in normal print are cities with a population of more than 10,000 only. Places that had lost historic city rights previously are identified with 2.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2072,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_15"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"The Ural Mountains form a natural border between which two continents?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Asia and Europe"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["asia and europe"],"string":"[\n \"asia and europe\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Europe Landforms and Land Statistics - WorldAtlas.com\n\nEurope Landforms and Land Statistics - Europe Landforms, Land Statistics\nPrint this map\nAlps:\nLocated in south-central Europe, they extend for almost 700 miles from the coastline of southern France (near Monaco) into Switzerland , northern Italy and Austria, then southeast through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina as the (Dinaric Alps). Ending in Albania on the rugged coastline of the Adriatic Sea. Known for stunning scenery, glaciers, lakes and valleys and the best skiing conditions on the planet, they're the source of many rivers and tributaries including the Danube, Po, Rhine and Rhone . The highest point is Mont Blanc at 15,771 ft. (4,807 m)\nApennines:\nThe source of almost all rivers in Italy including the Arno, Tiber, and Volturno , the Apennines Mountains (Ital. Appennino) 830 miles (1,350 km) in length, form the backbone of the country, and run the entire length of the Italian Peninsula, ending on the island of Sicily. The highest point is Mt. Corno at 9,560 ft. (2,914 m). Atlantic Highlands:\nFormed million of years ago during the Caledonian mountain-building periods as western lands were (forced) or pushed against the Scandinavian Shield.","Europe Landforms and Land Statistics - WorldAtlas.com\n\nSignificant mountain ranges here include the Kjolen in Norway and Sweden, and the Pennines that stretch through the central United Kingdom. Balkan Mountains\nThese mountains extend from Yugoslavia across Bulgaria. Additional ranges run through Albania, Greece and Macedonia. Its most famous mountain is Mt. Olympus, the highest and most awe-inspiring peak in all of Greece. In ancient times it was the mythical home of Zeus, and was declared the first national park in Greece in 1939. It stands at 9,568 ft. (2,918 m). Carpathian Mountains\nThis mountain system located in eastern Europe is the source of the Dniester, Tisza and Vistula Rivers . They form the natural border between Slovakia and southern Poland, and then extend southward through Ukraine and into Romania. There are major subdivisions, and the highest point is Mt. Gerlachovkain in northern Slovakia, standing at 8,711 ft. (2,655 m). Caucasus Mountains\nStretching from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, these volcanic mountains have many peaks above 15,000 ft. (4,572 m). The highest point (and the highest point in Europe) is located here; Mt. Elbrus at 18,506 ft. (5,642 m).","Europe Landforms and Land Statistics - WorldAtlas.com\n\nGreat Hungarian Plain\nLocated in southeastern Europe, and surrounded by mountains, the land features several small forests and large patches of grassland. It averages only 100 meters above sea level and often suffers from dry conditions, thus relying on winter snow run-off from the Alps and Carpathian Mountains. Kjolen Mountains\nThis jagged mountain system runs along the border of eastern Norway and western Sweden. The highest point is Mt. Kebnekaise, standing at 6,965 ft. (2,123 m). Massif Central\nThis mountainous plateau of southeastern France is the source of the Allier, Creuse and Loire . It's about 32,189 sq. miles (85, 001 sq. km) in size, and the highest point is Puy de Sancy at 6,186 ft. (1,885 m). Mesata\nThe central plateau, or Mesata, covers nearly half of the entire country of Spain. This high plateau averages about 2,300 ft. (700 m) in the north, and 2,000 ft. (600 m) in the south. It's surrounded by a series of mountain ranges including the Cantabrian, Sierra De Gata and Sierra Guadarrama in the north and central, and the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada in the south.","Europe Landforms and Land Statistics - WorldAtlas.com\n\nThese mountains separate the Meseta from the Costa Verde, the Ebro valley, the Mediterranean and the valleys of Andalucia. North European Plain\nThe fertile North European Plain slopes to the north-northeast from the Alps, extending to the Baltic Sea, and on into Denmark and southern Finland, Norway and Sweden. It continues east for almost 2,500 miles (4000 km), on into the Russian Federation. The land is largely flat with smaller areas of hills, including the Central Russian Uplands. Farming is prevalent and agricultural communities dot the landscape. Pyrenees\nThese mountains form the natural border between France and Spain and extend for about 270 miles from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean Sea . The highest point is Pico de Aneto at 11,168 ft. (3,404 m)\nScandinavian Shield\nAn ancient area of rocky earth peppered with granite rock that was literally ground down by receding glacial ice sheets. It's a rolling area of land covered with thousands of lakes (mostly small), linked by rivers. Ural Mountains\nThe Urals are 1,640 miles (2,640 km) in length and extend from the northern-edge of the Russian Federation down through Kazakhstan. They form a natural border between Asia and Europe. The highest point is Mt.","Europe Landforms and Land Statistics - WorldAtlas.com\n\nNarodnaya at 6,214 ft. (1,894 m).","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nEurope’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\nEurope’s Continental Boundaries\nEurope by night\n4,475 words\nOf the Earth’s seven continents, Europe is the second smallest in total area—only Australia is smaller. In terms of population density it is the second largest after Asia. Geographically, Europe is a peninsula of Eurasia. It has been described as a peninsula of peninsulas and islands. The surprising difficulty of defining Europe as a continent can be seen not only in differing definitions of its boundaries, or the bewildering number of candidates for its most extreme points north, south, east, and west, but even in disagreements over which locale constitutes the geographical center of Europe. The answers to all of these questions seem completely undeterminable in any precise kind of way. Fortunately, the broad outlines are clear. The “boundaries of Europe” discussed here concern only Europe as a continent ending (or beginning) at the Ural Mountains. This creates a formalistic and artificially truncated political and racial horizon. Europe: One of the most commonly used continental boundaries\nNotably, it ignores the Russian Federation as a unitary racial/political/social entity—a nation, including Russia-in-Asia, extending across much of northern Eurasia and constituting the world’s largest country in total area.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nIts 6.6 million square miles include one-eighth of the Earth’s inhabited land area—1.7 x the land area of Canada or 2 x the size of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent. Moreover, some countries still possess overseas territories outside Europe that are integral parts of the homeland. With the exception of Greenland and a few small islands close to Europe, such territories will not be discussed here. Due to Europe’s peninsular structure, the most difficult boundary to define is the eastern one, dividing continental Europe from continental Asia. Whether various countries or portions of countries are grouped geographically with Europe or Asia varies according to the sources consulted. Because the major maritime boundaries that separate the continent of Europe from the Earth’s other continents—the Mediterranean Sea on the south, the Atlantic Ocean on the west, and the Arctic Ocean on the north—have well-defined coastlines, the close analysis of such boundaries primarily involves the allocation of various islands to Europe or some other continent.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nThe Boundary of Europe and Asia\nThe Southeastern boundary between Europe and Asia\nEvidently the first man to define the eastern continental boundary between Europe and Asia pretty much as it exists today is Philip Johan von Strahlenberg (1676–1747), a Swedish army officer, explorer, and scholar of German descent. As defined in his book Das nord- und ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia (The north and east part of Europe and Asia) (Stockholm, 1730), which was translated into English, French, and Spanish, Strahlenberg’s border followed the chain of the Ural Mountains north-to-south, then the Emba River to the north coast of the Caspian Sea before passing through the Kuma-Manych Depression to the Black Sea. This Depression, named after two rivers, lies just north of the Caucasus Mountains which are today regarded as the true boundary. The continent’s eastern boundary cuts Russia in two—European Russia and Asian Russia. There is a strikingly uneven distribution of human and natural resources between the Asian and European regions. Asian Russia, about the size of China and India combined, occupies roughly three-quarters of Russian Federation territory.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nBut the quarter of the country west of the Urals—a major portion of continental Europe—is home to more than 75% of Russia’s population and most of its industry and agriculture. It was in European Russia that the Russian nation took shape. Despite governmental efforts to resettle Russians in sparsely populated Asian areas with abundant natural resources, the imbalance persists. The Urals boundary\nThe watershed divide of the Ural Mountains forms the natural land boundary between the continents of Europe and Asia. The range, averaging 3,000–4,000 ft. in height, extends about 1,640 miles north-south from the Arctic Ocean to the northern steppe of Kazakhstan. At 6,214 ft., Mount Narodnaya in the northern Urals is its highest peak. The densely forested central portion of the range, the Middle Urals, is broader and lower in altitude, a plateau region of 1,000–2,000 ft. Several low east-west passes provide major transportation routes through the Urals to the East (Asia). A glance at a map shows that from the Urals the continental boundary broadly follows the unnavigable Ural River that rises at the mountains’ south end and empties into the northern end of the Caspian Sea to the south.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nHowever, this segment of the land border is indeterminate, as one scholar has noted:\nFor most of its length, the eastern border of Europe, namely the Ural mountains, is beyond contention. But between the southern end of the Urals (from, say, the city of Orsk where the Ural river turns westwards) and the Caspian Sea there is a gap from north-east to south-west of some 400 km.[249 mi].","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nHere there is no agreement as to where Europe ends and Asia begins and at least three “natural” lines have been suggested, namely:\n(i) the Volga river, which however seems too far west and, moreover, divides a number of constituent republics of the Russian Federation between the two continents;\n(ii) the Emba river, which, of all major waterways, continues the most directly the line of the Urals in a broadly south-westerly direction towards the Caspian; this, however, would divide the Republic of Kazakhstan, usually considered as an Asian state, between Asia and Europe and there seems no good reason to accept the Emba as constituting the border;\n(iii) between the Volga and the Emba is the Ural river which, if we were to decide on a “natural” border, would be the most satisfactory of those proposed; this, however, would still leave a substantial part of Kazakhstan in Europe. (Glanville Price, Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe, 2000, p. xii.)\nThe author opts for the existing Russian-Kazakhstan border. The downside with such a choice is that political borders change constantly.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nPolitical boundaries of Southeastern Europe, the Black and Caspain Seas\nThe next major segment of the boundary is formed by the Caspian Sea, bordered in Europe by Russia and in Asia by Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, and Azerbaijan. 746 mi. long and 270 mi. wide, it is the largest completely enclosed body of water, or inland sea, on Earth. It is fed by the Volga, Ural, and Emba rivers from the north. This sea was known to the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Persians. The border of Russia with Georgia and Azerbaijan runs along Caucasus Mountains watershed. The European portion of the 700-mi. east-west mountain range between the Caspian and Black Seas is Ciscaucasia on the north. The Asiatic part, Transcaucasia, lies to the south. The range’s highest peak, Mt. Elbrus (18,481 ft.) is often counted as Europe’s highest. The Caucasus are crossed by several high passess, the two best known of which are Mamison Pass in the center, and Daryal (or Darial) Pass, which was fortified as early as 150 BC and has vertical rock walls 5,900 ft. high.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nThe Black Sea, Caucasus Mountains, and Caspian Sea\nThe Black Sea (ancient Euxine Sea) between Europe and Asia has been joined since ancient times with the Aegean Sea (part of the Mediterranean), and through it the Atlantic Ocean, by the Bosporus/Sea of Marmara/Dardanelles waterway. The Black Sea is connected to its own northern arm, the 200-mi. long Sea of Azov, by the Kerch Strait. Russia’s mighty Don River empties into the Sea of Azov at Azov, near the ancient site of Tanais, a Greek colony. Azov was captured by Vladimir I in the 900s AD and by the Genoese, who made it a trading port, in the 1200s. Sacked by the Mongol conqueror Tamerlane in 1395, it was held alternately by Russians and Turks until it was finally secured by Russia in 1739. It was Vladimir I who established the Orthodox Eastern Church as the state religion c. 989 AD, thereby linking Russia religiously and culturally to the Eastern Roman Empire throughout the medieval period. Major European rivers flowing into the Black Sea are the Danube, Dniester, Bug, Dnieper, and Kuban.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nThe steppe region north of the Black Sea has been proposed by some scholars as the original homeland (Urheimat) of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. Others contend that the heartland was further east toward the Caspian Sea, and still others that it was in Anatolia (present-day Turkey). Legendarily, the Black Sea was sailed by Jason and the Argonauts. In a sacred grove in ancient Colchis (contemporary Georgia) on its eastern shore, the Greek heroes sought the Golden Fleece. In ancient times the Black Sea was crossed by Hittites, Carians, Thracians, Greeks, Persians, Cimmerians, Scythians, and Romans, and later by the East Romans (Byzantines), Goths, Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Slavs, Varangians (East Vikings), European Crusaders, Venetians, and Genoese. The large peninsula extending into the Black Sea on its northern shore, framed on the east by the Sea of Azov, is the Crimea, site of the Crimean War (1854–1856). In the 8th century BC it was inhabited by the Cimmerians, who were expelled by the Scythians in the 7th century. The southern coast of the Crimea was settled in the 6th century BC by Greek traders who maintained extensive trade ties with Athens. In WWII Germans occupied the peninsula from 1941–1944.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nAt Yalta in 1945, FDR and Churchill handed Eastern Europe to the Communists. The Mediterranean Boundary\nThe Mediterranean Sea: Europe to the North, Africa to the South, Asia to the East\nTo the south Europe is separated from Africa and Asia by the Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar. Very unlike Europe north of the Alps, the Mediterranean climate has hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. European nations with a Mediterranean shoreline are Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, the island of Malta, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece and Turkey. Traditionally, “Turkey” refers to “European Turkey” or “Easterm Thrace”—the 3% of Turkey situated north of the Dardanelles/Sea of Marmara/Bosporus waterway and regarded as geographically part of Europe, distinguished from “Asiatic Turkey” (Anatolia or Asia Minor), the 97% of Turkey geographically situated in Asia. The Dardanelles, Sea of Marmara, and Bosporus waterways\nNavigable since ancient times, the strategic significance of this interlinked waterway between the Black and Mediterranean Seas was a factor that led Roman Emperor Constantine the Great to found Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) there in 330 AD. It became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, which endured for more than a thousand years.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nHistorically significant Greece, 80% mountainous and slightly smaller than the state of Alabama, has between 1,200–6,000 islands (depending upon how “island” is defined), 227 of them inhabited. The largest are Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, and Lesbos. Its many island chains and peninsulas and are extensions of its mountain ranges. Due to its highly indented shoreline and numerous islands, Greece boasts the twelfth longest coastline in the world, 8,498 miles. The main subdivisions of the Mediterranean Sea, all European, are the Adriatic, Aegean, Tyrrhenian, Ionian, and Ligurian Seas. The Mediterranean as a whole stretches 2,300 miles from east to west. Due to the narrow Strait of Gibraltar on the west, the Mediterranean has very low tides. European rivers flowing into the sea, all sources of fresh water, are the Ebro, Rhone, and Po. The Nile in Egypt, the world’s longest river, also empties into the Mediterranean. Oceanographically, evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin. Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nThis pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates westward, to spill over the Strait of Gibraltar. Thus, seawater flow is eastward in the Strait’s surface waters, and westward below; once in the Atlantic, this chemically distinct “Mediterranean Intermediate Water” can persist thousands of kilometres away from its source. (“Mediterranean Sea,” Wikipedia, citing Paul R. Pinet, Invitation to Oceanography, 3rd ed., 1996, 202–207.)\nIslands in the Mediterranean are allocated to Europe, Asia, or Africa respectively. Most of the major islands in the Mediterranean—Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete, Cyprus, Balearic Islands, Dodecanese, Cyclades, Sporades, Ionian Islands, and Malta—are associated with adjacent European countries. Of those that are not, the greatest number belong to Asian Turkey. (However, some definitions of Europe include Asian Turkey.) Five islands are associated with Tunisia in Africa, and one, Arwad, with Syria in Asia. Cyprus, with a population of 1.1 million, lies south of Turkey off the coast of Syria, north of Israel. Technically in Asia, it is a member of the Council of Europe and the European Union.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nThe UN classification of world regions places Cyprus in Western Asia, the CIA’s World Factbook in the Middle East.The earliest known human activity on the island dates to the 9th millennium BC. Copper, of which Cyprus was the ancient world’s primary source, was named after the island (Greek Kypros). Copper and its alloy bronze are of enormous significance in the study of European prehistory and archaeology. In a dispute with Greece, Turkey partitioned Cyprus in 1974, establishing the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus on 40 percent of the island, a de facto state recognized only by Turkey. International entities regard the entire island as a single independent republic, the Republic of Cyprus, which controls the remaining 60 percent of the island. In modern times Greek and Turkish Cypriots have been at loggerheads. The population is divided between Greek (80%) and Turkish (20%) ethnic groups differentiated by language (Greek, Turkish), nationality, and religion (Greek Orthodox, Sunni Islam). Leaving aside substantial recent foreign immigration, it is doubtful that the two sharply-defined ethnic groups differ racially. Malta, an independent European state situated south of the Italian island of Sicily, is the main island of the (three) Maltese Islands.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nOriginally a Phoenician and Carthaginian colony, it was captured by Rome in 218 BC. During WWII it became the world’s most bombed spot, undergoing more than 1,200 air raids. It achieved its indpendence from Great Britain in 1964. Looking East: The Strait of Gibraltar, Europe on the left, Africa on the right, the Mediterranean in the middle\nThe Strait of Gibraltar separating Spain from Africa in the western Mediterranean is an 8–23 mile wide, 36-mi. long passage linking the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Ownership of the “state” of Gibraltar, the 2.5 sq. mi. British territory on Spanish soil, is disputed by Spain. The towering, limestone Rock of Gibraltar and Mount Acho (ancient Abila) at Ceuta, a Spanish exclave in Morocco, Africa, form the classical Pillars of Hercules, which were crowned with silver columns by ancient Phoenician mariners to mark the limits of safe navigation for the Mediterranean peoples. The Semitic (not Jewish) Phoenicians, however, sailed well beyond them, quite possibly circumnavigating the southern tip of Africa and turning north on the other side.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nThe Atlantic Boundary\nIn the west, Europe’s boundary is defined by the Atlantic Ocean, with which the Irish, North, Baltic, Mediterranean, and Black Seas are all connected. This coastline is much warmer than it would otherwise be due to the warming effect of the Gulf Stream, the ocean current which originates in the Gulf of Mexico and joins the North Atlantic Drift to carry warmth to Europe’s shores. The Atlantic coast can be viewed to some extent as an interlinked geographical-anthropological region. Weather and physical conditions are relatively uniform, resulting in common landscapes, plants, and animals. Via waterborne contact, prehistoric Atlantic peoples presented certain common traits as indicated by artifacts and architectural styles. An example is the European Megalithic Culture . Sir Barry Cunliffe , an English archaeologist and prehistorian, has written a book from such a perspective, Facing the Ocean: The Atlantic and Its Peoples 8000 BC–AD 1500\n(2001). Some genetic studies also seem to interrelate specific groups of people from different parts of Atlantic Europe. Europe's Atlantic coast\nAs with Europe’s Mediterranean boundary, the allocation of islands between continents is significant along the Atlantic periphery.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nNevertheless, the situation is complex, and any treatment is to some extent arbitrary. The Canary Islands, a Spanish possession and Outermost Region of the European Union, lies 62 miles off the coast of Morocco and Western Sahara in northwest Africa. The Canaries are the Fortunate Isles of antiquity. They were visited by the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Carthaginians. As described by Roman scholar Pliny, large numbers of wild dogs (Latin canes), roamed the islands, which he therefore named Canaria. The indigenous population, the Guanche, a Berber people, eventually became extinct. The present population of 2.1 million is 86% Spanish and 14 % Negro/Moor/Berber. About 250 miles north of the Canaries and 440 miles from the coast of Africa (Morocco) is Madeira, an autonomous region of Portugal and Outermost Region of the EU. It was uninhabited at the time of its discovery by the Portuguese in 1420. Prince Henry the Navigator began colonization of the islands and established sugar plantations there which became the prototype for the plantation system developed in the Portuguese colonies in the Americas after 1550. Internationally recognized Madeira wines remain an important export.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nMadeira’s present population of 268,000 is classified as ethnic Portuguese, but has a marked degree of West African Negro and North African Berber admixture. North of Madeira is another autonomous region of Portugal and EU Outermost Region, the Azores, lying 800 miles off the coast of Portugal. The vast majority of its 245,000 inhabitants are an admixture of Portuguese, Sephardic Jews, Moors, Flemish, French, Spaniards, and other European populations. As with the Canaries and Madeira, emigration from the islands has been substantial. By the 1990s more Azoreans resided in the US and Canada than in the archipelago. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge\nMost of Europe’s Atlantic islands, including the Canaries, Madeira, and the British Isles, lie well to the east of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a 9,300-mile long submerged mountain chain on the ocean floor extending from the Antarctic Circle in the south to the Arctic Circle in the north, situated midway between the Western Hemisphere and Europe-Africa. From the seafloor, mountains rise 3,300 to 9,800 ft. and measure 930 mi. wide from east to west at their base. A few peaks in the ridge break the ocean’s surface, forming islands or groups of islands.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nThe Azores and Iceland are both situated atop such peaks. Greenland, geologically associated with North America to the west, is not. In terms of geographically allocating islands to the North American or European continents, the boundary is usually drawn between Greenland and Iceland, with Greenland on the American and Iceland on the European side. But although Greenland (Danish Grønland) is geographically part of North America, it is historically, politically, and culturally tied to Europe. Greenland formally withdrew from the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1985, but as an overseas territory of the Kingdom of Denmark with extensive home rule, its citizens possess EU citizenship. The largest island in the world, it lies mostly north of the Arctic Circle and is separated from Canada on the west by Davis Strait and Baffin Bay and Iceland on the east by the Denmark Strait. There are numerous islands along its coast, which is deeply indented by fjords. Eighty-five percent of its total area is ice cap. Most of the country’s population lives in villages along the mountainous coastal fringe. The island was discovered and settled around.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\n982 AD by outlaw Norwegian chieftain Eric the Red, whose Icelandic-born son, Leif Ericsson, later discovered America by sailing west from Greenland. Greenland was uninhabited at the time of the Norse arrival—the Inuit did not arrive until more than 200 years later, c. 1200 AD. In the 1200s the island fell under Norwegian and, subsequently Danish, rule. The Norse colonists mysteriously vanished around 1435, probably due to a climate change known as the Little Ice Age. Archaeological remains and written records indicate malnourishment among the last white inhabitants. Hvalsey Church, the best-preserved Norse ruins in Greenland. The last written records of the Norse Greenlanders are of a marriage ceremony conducted in this church in 1408\nJewish pop anthropologist Jared Diamond offered a typically racist “explanation” for the Greenlanders’ disappearance. They “chose” to fail by destroying the environment and practicing violence against the Inuit. Their selfish classism and Christian bigotry also contributed to their destruction. Diamond’s pseudo-scholarship is representative of the deep-seated anti-white hatred insinuated into every nook and cranny of contemporary society. A few centuries later, European explorers rediscovered the island, which was recolonized by Norway beginning in 1721. In 1815 it became part of Denmark.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nAfter Germany’s invasion of that country in 1940, the US occupied Greenland until war’s end. Today, Greenland’s population of 57,000 consists of 88% Inuit or Inuit-Danish hybrids and 12% Europeans, mostly Danish. The Danes occupy positions as administrators, professionals, academics and skilled tradesmen. Interestingly, the word “Inuit” does not appear in my American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (1973), nor in my unabridged Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (1981)—the heavy tome you see on its own stand in most libraries. Instead, “Eskimo”—originally the Algonquian Indian term for the northern natives—was still used, along with variants such as Eskimoid, Eskimology, and Eskimologist. The word “Saami,” for Lapps, also does not appear. Settled by Norwegians around 850–875 AD, Iceland is the westernmost state of Europe (Greenland is not a state), located 570 miles west of Norway and 155 miles southeast of Greenland. Indented by many long fjords, it measures about 300 mi. wide from east to west. It has many active volcanoes. Geothermal energy from hot springs is employed for heating. The country possesses one of the most advanced population genetics and geneaological research facilities in the world.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\ndeCODE genetics, a private firm, has funded the creation of a genealogy database called Íslendingabók, which attempts to cover all of Iceland’s known inhabitants. The Icelandic parliament, the Althing, first convened in 930 AD, is the oldest representative assembly in Europe. Old Norse literature attained its greatest flowering in Iceland between 1000 and 1350 AD. Grœnlendinga saga and Eiríks saga describe the discovery and settlement of Greenland and Vinland (Newfoundland). Norwegian rule was imposed in 1261, and thereafter Iceland belonged alternately to Norway and Denmark. Occupied by the US and Britain during WWII, it became independent in 1944. Icelandic, the official language, has changed less from Old Norse than any of the other Nordic languages. The Arctic Boundary\nThe Arctic Ocean defines Europe’s continental boundary on the north. European portions of the ocean identified by specific names include the Norwegian and Greenland Seas north of Scotland, the Barents Sea north of Scandinavia and Russia, and the Kara Sea north of Russia’s Ural Mountains.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nThe Arctic Ocean boundary, Greenland to Novaya Zemyla\nRegions within the Arctic Circle were first explored between 800–1100 AD by Norse Vikings who discovered Iceland, Greenland, North America, and, in Russia, the White Sea at which they had arrived by 800, and where their influence remained strong for centuries. The White Sea, an inlet of the Barents Sea in Russia whose main port is Arkhangelsk, is connected by a system of canals to the inland Baltic Sea at Leningrad. The notorious White Sea-Baltic Canal, built between 1931 and 1933 at tremendous human cost by over 100,000 concentration camp political prisoners (at least 9,000 of whom perished), is too shallow (minimum depth 11.5 ft.) to accommodate ocean-going vessels. The Jewish overseers of the project, Genrikh Yagoda, Deputy Chairman of the OGPU, Matvei Berman, head of the GULAG during the 1930s, Semyon G. Firin, Chief of Construction and head of the White Sea Baltic Corrective Labor Camp Directorate, Naftaly Frenkel, the Chief of Works, Lazar Kogan, chief of the BBK Construction Directorate and his deputy Yakov Davidovich Rappoport, were awarded medals by the Politburo upon the canal’s completion, July 15, 1933.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nDue to climatic conditions, Europe’s Arctic shores are sparsely populated. Non-white residents include the Mongolid Inuits of Greenland and the pastoral, reindeer-herding Mongolid Saamis (Lapps—about 55,000 people) of northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the Russian peninsula of Kola. Both groups have experienced significant white admixture. Few large towns exist. The largest cities are in Russia—Arkhangelsk (350,000), Murmansk (over 300,000), Norilsk (130,000), and Vorkuta (75,000); in Norway, Trondheim (165,000) and Tromsø (60,000). Other towns typically consist of small agglomerations of less than 5,000 residents. Constantin Korovin, \"Hammerfest: Aurora Borealis,\" 1894–1895. Oil on Canvas\nThe northernmost city in mainland Europe is Hammerfest, Norway, population 9,300, which annually experiences uninterrupted daylight from May 17–July 29, and no sun at all from November 21–January 21. Hammerfest was attacked and looted by the British navy during the Napoleonic Wars, and occupied by the Germans and bombed by the Soviet Air Force during WWII. The Norwegian Svalbard archipelago in the Arctic Ocean includes the Spitsbergen group, 360 mi. north of Norway. Probably known to the Vikings, Spitsbergen was discovered in 1596 by Dutch navigator Willem Barents, who commanded several expeditions that reached Novaya Zemlya in the course of his search for a northern passage to East Asia.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nBarents Island and the Barents Sea are named in his honor. During WWII the Germans and Allies fought here. Svalbard Airport, Longyear provides the main point of contact with the mainland. No roads link the settlements of its 2,800 inhabitants, who travel by snowmobile, aircraft, and boat. Covered with ice northeast of Svalbard, the 191 islands making up Russia’s Arctic archipelago of Franz Josef Land, about 600 miles from the North Pole, is the most northerly land in Europe and the Eastern hemisphere. Though Norwegian sealers may have reached the archipelago in 1865, its official discovery is attributed to the Austrian polar explorers Julius von Payer and Karl Weyprecht in 1873. They named the archipelago in honor of Austro-Hungarian emperor Franz Joseph I. In 1931 the German airship Graf Zeppelin made an historic flight from Berlin to Hooker Island in Franz Josef Land, and while there conducted an aerial survey of the archipelago as far north as Rudolf Island.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nTurning south and slightly east from Franz Josef Land, we connect with the two large islands known as Novaya Zemlya (New Land), which extend northward from the northern end of the Ural Mountains and are a continuation of that chain into the Arctic Ocean. A population of 50–300 reindeer-herding Nenetses (Mongolian Samoyed), who subsisted by fishing, trapping, herding, and hunting, was resettled to the mainland by the Soviets in 1952. On Novaya Zemlya on October 30, 1961, the Soviets exploded, by dropping from an aircraft, Tsar Bomba (“King of Bombs”) , the largest and most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated on Earth. The hydrogen bomb yielded the equivalent of 50 megatons of TNT—after being scaled down from its original design of 100 megatons! As mentioned, Novaya Zemlya is a continuation of the northern Urals to the south, thus completing our circuit of Europe’s external boundaries. Europe’s influence extends well beyond its formal geographic borders. European explorations, colonization, social, political, intellectual, artistic, and scientific innovations, empires, and revolutions, have transformed the world. While it is needful to comprehend Europe as a continent, the true geography of the Europeans extends to the far corners of the Earth—and beyond.","Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\n\nRelated\nRelated\nIf you enjoyed this piece, and wish to encourage more like it, give a tip through Paypal . You can earmark your tip directly to the author or translator, or you can put it in a general fund. (Be sure to specify which in the \"Add special instructions to seller\" box at Paypal .)","Mountain Ranges of Asia - Landforms of Asia, Lakes, Rivers ...\n\nMountain Ranges of Asia - Landforms of Asia, Lakes, Rivers and Deserts of Asia - Worldatlas.com\nLANDFORMS (Mountains)\nMountain Ranges of Asia - Landforms of Asia, Lakes, Rivers and Deserts of Asia\nASIA MOUNTAINS: Several significant mountain ranges stretch across Asia. Here we highlight on the map and describe the major ones, including the Altay, Gahats, Himalayan, Kunlun, Tien Shan, Ural and Zagros Mountains\nAltay (or Altai)\nThe Altay Mountains are a mountain range in East-Central Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan come together, and where the rivers Irtysh and Ob have their sources. Belukha Mountain is the highest peak at 4,506 m, (14,784 ft). Ghats\nThe Western Ghats is a mountain range along the western side of India with an average elevation around 1,200 m, (3,900 ft). The Eastern Ghats is a range of mountains along India's eastern coast. The highest point is Jindhagada Peak at 1,690 m (5,545 ft). Himalayas\nThe Himalayas, a huge mountain range immediately at the north of the Indian subcontinent, is the world's highest mountain range, and home to the world's highest peaks, including Mount Everest at 8,848 m (29,029 ft), and K2 at 8,611 m (28,251 feet) above sea level.","Mountain Ranges of Asia - Landforms of Asia, Lakes, Rivers ...\n\nThe Himalayan system includes over 100 mountains exceeding 7,200 m (23,600 ft). Kunlun\nThe Kunlun Mountains are one of the longest mountain chains in Asia, extending across wester China and the Tibetan Plateau. The highest mountain is the Kunlun Goddess at 7,167 m (23,514 ft). Tien (or Tian) Shan\nThe Tian Shan is a large mountain system located in Central Asia. It's positioned to the north and west of the Taklamakan Desert near the border region of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and western China. The highest peak is Victory Peak at 7,439 m (24,406 ft). Ural\nThe Urals are 1,640 miles (2,640 km) in length and extend from the northern-edge of the Russian Federation down through Kazakhstan. They form a natural border between Asia and Europe Russia. The highest point in this mountain range is Mt. Narodnaya at 1,895 m (6,217 ft). Zagros\nThe Zagros are the largest mountain range in Iran and Iraq spaning the whole length of the western and southwestern Iranian plateau and ending at the Strait of Hormuz. The highest point is Zard Kuhbakhtiari at 4,548 m, (14,921 ft)."],"string":"[\n \"Europe Landforms and Land Statistics - WorldAtlas.com\\n\\nEurope Landforms and Land Statistics - Europe Landforms, Land Statistics\\nPrint this map\\nAlps:\\nLocated in south-central Europe, they extend for almost 700 miles from the coastline of southern France (near Monaco) into Switzerland , northern Italy and Austria, then southeast through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina as the (Dinaric Alps). Ending in Albania on the rugged coastline of the Adriatic Sea. Known for stunning scenery, glaciers, lakes and valleys and the best skiing conditions on the planet, they're the source of many rivers and tributaries including the Danube, Po, Rhine and Rhone . The highest point is Mont Blanc at 15,771 ft. (4,807 m)\\nApennines:\\nThe source of almost all rivers in Italy including the Arno, Tiber, and Volturno , the Apennines Mountains (Ital. Appennino) 830 miles (1,350 km) in length, form the backbone of the country, and run the entire length of the Italian Peninsula, ending on the island of Sicily. The highest point is Mt. Corno at 9,560 ft. (2,914 m). Atlantic Highlands:\\nFormed million of years ago during the Caledonian mountain-building periods as western lands were (forced) or pushed against the Scandinavian Shield.\",\n \"Europe Landforms and Land Statistics - WorldAtlas.com\\n\\nSignificant mountain ranges here include the Kjolen in Norway and Sweden, and the Pennines that stretch through the central United Kingdom. Balkan Mountains\\nThese mountains extend from Yugoslavia across Bulgaria. Additional ranges run through Albania, Greece and Macedonia. Its most famous mountain is Mt. Olympus, the highest and most awe-inspiring peak in all of Greece. In ancient times it was the mythical home of Zeus, and was declared the first national park in Greece in 1939. It stands at 9,568 ft. (2,918 m). Carpathian Mountains\\nThis mountain system located in eastern Europe is the source of the Dniester, Tisza and Vistula Rivers . They form the natural border between Slovakia and southern Poland, and then extend southward through Ukraine and into Romania. There are major subdivisions, and the highest point is Mt. Gerlachovkain in northern Slovakia, standing at 8,711 ft. (2,655 m). Caucasus Mountains\\nStretching from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, these volcanic mountains have many peaks above 15,000 ft. (4,572 m). The highest point (and the highest point in Europe) is located here; Mt. Elbrus at 18,506 ft. (5,642 m).\",\n \"Europe Landforms and Land Statistics - WorldAtlas.com\\n\\nGreat Hungarian Plain\\nLocated in southeastern Europe, and surrounded by mountains, the land features several small forests and large patches of grassland. It averages only 100 meters above sea level and often suffers from dry conditions, thus relying on winter snow run-off from the Alps and Carpathian Mountains. Kjolen Mountains\\nThis jagged mountain system runs along the border of eastern Norway and western Sweden. The highest point is Mt. Kebnekaise, standing at 6,965 ft. (2,123 m). Massif Central\\nThis mountainous plateau of southeastern France is the source of the Allier, Creuse and Loire . It's about 32,189 sq. miles (85, 001 sq. km) in size, and the highest point is Puy de Sancy at 6,186 ft. (1,885 m). Mesata\\nThe central plateau, or Mesata, covers nearly half of the entire country of Spain. This high plateau averages about 2,300 ft. (700 m) in the north, and 2,000 ft. (600 m) in the south. It's surrounded by a series of mountain ranges including the Cantabrian, Sierra De Gata and Sierra Guadarrama in the north and central, and the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada in the south.\",\n \"Europe Landforms and Land Statistics - WorldAtlas.com\\n\\nThese mountains separate the Meseta from the Costa Verde, the Ebro valley, the Mediterranean and the valleys of Andalucia. North European Plain\\nThe fertile North European Plain slopes to the north-northeast from the Alps, extending to the Baltic Sea, and on into Denmark and southern Finland, Norway and Sweden. It continues east for almost 2,500 miles (4000 km), on into the Russian Federation. The land is largely flat with smaller areas of hills, including the Central Russian Uplands. Farming is prevalent and agricultural communities dot the landscape. Pyrenees\\nThese mountains form the natural border between France and Spain and extend for about 270 miles from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean Sea . The highest point is Pico de Aneto at 11,168 ft. (3,404 m)\\nScandinavian Shield\\nAn ancient area of rocky earth peppered with granite rock that was literally ground down by receding glacial ice sheets. It's a rolling area of land covered with thousands of lakes (mostly small), linked by rivers. Ural Mountains\\nThe Urals are 1,640 miles (2,640 km) in length and extend from the northern-edge of the Russian Federation down through Kazakhstan. They form a natural border between Asia and Europe. The highest point is Mt.\",\n \"Europe Landforms and Land Statistics - WorldAtlas.com\\n\\nNarodnaya at 6,214 ft. (1,894 m).\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nEurope’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\nEurope’s Continental Boundaries\\nEurope by night\\n4,475 words\\nOf the Earth’s seven continents, Europe is the second smallest in total area—only Australia is smaller. In terms of population density it is the second largest after Asia. Geographically, Europe is a peninsula of Eurasia. It has been described as a peninsula of peninsulas and islands. The surprising difficulty of defining Europe as a continent can be seen not only in differing definitions of its boundaries, or the bewildering number of candidates for its most extreme points north, south, east, and west, but even in disagreements over which locale constitutes the geographical center of Europe. The answers to all of these questions seem completely undeterminable in any precise kind of way. Fortunately, the broad outlines are clear. The “boundaries of Europe” discussed here concern only Europe as a continent ending (or beginning) at the Ural Mountains. This creates a formalistic and artificially truncated political and racial horizon. Europe: One of the most commonly used continental boundaries\\nNotably, it ignores the Russian Federation as a unitary racial/political/social entity—a nation, including Russia-in-Asia, extending across much of northern Eurasia and constituting the world’s largest country in total area.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nIts 6.6 million square miles include one-eighth of the Earth’s inhabited land area—1.7 x the land area of Canada or 2 x the size of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent. Moreover, some countries still possess overseas territories outside Europe that are integral parts of the homeland. With the exception of Greenland and a few small islands close to Europe, such territories will not be discussed here. Due to Europe’s peninsular structure, the most difficult boundary to define is the eastern one, dividing continental Europe from continental Asia. Whether various countries or portions of countries are grouped geographically with Europe or Asia varies according to the sources consulted. Because the major maritime boundaries that separate the continent of Europe from the Earth’s other continents—the Mediterranean Sea on the south, the Atlantic Ocean on the west, and the Arctic Ocean on the north—have well-defined coastlines, the close analysis of such boundaries primarily involves the allocation of various islands to Europe or some other continent.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nThe Boundary of Europe and Asia\\nThe Southeastern boundary between Europe and Asia\\nEvidently the first man to define the eastern continental boundary between Europe and Asia pretty much as it exists today is Philip Johan von Strahlenberg (1676–1747), a Swedish army officer, explorer, and scholar of German descent. As defined in his book Das nord- und ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia (The north and east part of Europe and Asia) (Stockholm, 1730), which was translated into English, French, and Spanish, Strahlenberg’s border followed the chain of the Ural Mountains north-to-south, then the Emba River to the north coast of the Caspian Sea before passing through the Kuma-Manych Depression to the Black Sea. This Depression, named after two rivers, lies just north of the Caucasus Mountains which are today regarded as the true boundary. The continent’s eastern boundary cuts Russia in two—European Russia and Asian Russia. There is a strikingly uneven distribution of human and natural resources between the Asian and European regions. Asian Russia, about the size of China and India combined, occupies roughly three-quarters of Russian Federation territory.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nBut the quarter of the country west of the Urals—a major portion of continental Europe—is home to more than 75% of Russia’s population and most of its industry and agriculture. It was in European Russia that the Russian nation took shape. Despite governmental efforts to resettle Russians in sparsely populated Asian areas with abundant natural resources, the imbalance persists. The Urals boundary\\nThe watershed divide of the Ural Mountains forms the natural land boundary between the continents of Europe and Asia. The range, averaging 3,000–4,000 ft. in height, extends about 1,640 miles north-south from the Arctic Ocean to the northern steppe of Kazakhstan. At 6,214 ft., Mount Narodnaya in the northern Urals is its highest peak. The densely forested central portion of the range, the Middle Urals, is broader and lower in altitude, a plateau region of 1,000–2,000 ft. Several low east-west passes provide major transportation routes through the Urals to the East (Asia). A glance at a map shows that from the Urals the continental boundary broadly follows the unnavigable Ural River that rises at the mountains’ south end and empties into the northern end of the Caspian Sea to the south.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nHowever, this segment of the land border is indeterminate, as one scholar has noted:\\nFor most of its length, the eastern border of Europe, namely the Ural mountains, is beyond contention. But between the southern end of the Urals (from, say, the city of Orsk where the Ural river turns westwards) and the Caspian Sea there is a gap from north-east to south-west of some 400 km.[249 mi].\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nHere there is no agreement as to where Europe ends and Asia begins and at least three “natural” lines have been suggested, namely:\\n(i) the Volga river, which however seems too far west and, moreover, divides a number of constituent republics of the Russian Federation between the two continents;\\n(ii) the Emba river, which, of all major waterways, continues the most directly the line of the Urals in a broadly south-westerly direction towards the Caspian; this, however, would divide the Republic of Kazakhstan, usually considered as an Asian state, between Asia and Europe and there seems no good reason to accept the Emba as constituting the border;\\n(iii) between the Volga and the Emba is the Ural river which, if we were to decide on a “natural” border, would be the most satisfactory of those proposed; this, however, would still leave a substantial part of Kazakhstan in Europe. (Glanville Price, Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe, 2000, p. xii.)\\nThe author opts for the existing Russian-Kazakhstan border. The downside with such a choice is that political borders change constantly.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nPolitical boundaries of Southeastern Europe, the Black and Caspain Seas\\nThe next major segment of the boundary is formed by the Caspian Sea, bordered in Europe by Russia and in Asia by Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, and Azerbaijan. 746 mi. long and 270 mi. wide, it is the largest completely enclosed body of water, or inland sea, on Earth. It is fed by the Volga, Ural, and Emba rivers from the north. This sea was known to the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Persians. The border of Russia with Georgia and Azerbaijan runs along Caucasus Mountains watershed. The European portion of the 700-mi. east-west mountain range between the Caspian and Black Seas is Ciscaucasia on the north. The Asiatic part, Transcaucasia, lies to the south. The range’s highest peak, Mt. Elbrus (18,481 ft.) is often counted as Europe’s highest. The Caucasus are crossed by several high passess, the two best known of which are Mamison Pass in the center, and Daryal (or Darial) Pass, which was fortified as early as 150 BC and has vertical rock walls 5,900 ft. high.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nThe Black Sea, Caucasus Mountains, and Caspian Sea\\nThe Black Sea (ancient Euxine Sea) between Europe and Asia has been joined since ancient times with the Aegean Sea (part of the Mediterranean), and through it the Atlantic Ocean, by the Bosporus/Sea of Marmara/Dardanelles waterway. The Black Sea is connected to its own northern arm, the 200-mi. long Sea of Azov, by the Kerch Strait. Russia’s mighty Don River empties into the Sea of Azov at Azov, near the ancient site of Tanais, a Greek colony. Azov was captured by Vladimir I in the 900s AD and by the Genoese, who made it a trading port, in the 1200s. Sacked by the Mongol conqueror Tamerlane in 1395, it was held alternately by Russians and Turks until it was finally secured by Russia in 1739. It was Vladimir I who established the Orthodox Eastern Church as the state religion c. 989 AD, thereby linking Russia religiously and culturally to the Eastern Roman Empire throughout the medieval period. Major European rivers flowing into the Black Sea are the Danube, Dniester, Bug, Dnieper, and Kuban.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nThe steppe region north of the Black Sea has been proposed by some scholars as the original homeland (Urheimat) of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. Others contend that the heartland was further east toward the Caspian Sea, and still others that it was in Anatolia (present-day Turkey). Legendarily, the Black Sea was sailed by Jason and the Argonauts. In a sacred grove in ancient Colchis (contemporary Georgia) on its eastern shore, the Greek heroes sought the Golden Fleece. In ancient times the Black Sea was crossed by Hittites, Carians, Thracians, Greeks, Persians, Cimmerians, Scythians, and Romans, and later by the East Romans (Byzantines), Goths, Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Slavs, Varangians (East Vikings), European Crusaders, Venetians, and Genoese. The large peninsula extending into the Black Sea on its northern shore, framed on the east by the Sea of Azov, is the Crimea, site of the Crimean War (1854–1856). In the 8th century BC it was inhabited by the Cimmerians, who were expelled by the Scythians in the 7th century. The southern coast of the Crimea was settled in the 6th century BC by Greek traders who maintained extensive trade ties with Athens. In WWII Germans occupied the peninsula from 1941–1944.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nAt Yalta in 1945, FDR and Churchill handed Eastern Europe to the Communists. The Mediterranean Boundary\\nThe Mediterranean Sea: Europe to the North, Africa to the South, Asia to the East\\nTo the south Europe is separated from Africa and Asia by the Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar. Very unlike Europe north of the Alps, the Mediterranean climate has hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. European nations with a Mediterranean shoreline are Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, the island of Malta, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece and Turkey. Traditionally, “Turkey” refers to “European Turkey” or “Easterm Thrace”—the 3% of Turkey situated north of the Dardanelles/Sea of Marmara/Bosporus waterway and regarded as geographically part of Europe, distinguished from “Asiatic Turkey” (Anatolia or Asia Minor), the 97% of Turkey geographically situated in Asia. The Dardanelles, Sea of Marmara, and Bosporus waterways\\nNavigable since ancient times, the strategic significance of this interlinked waterway between the Black and Mediterranean Seas was a factor that led Roman Emperor Constantine the Great to found Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) there in 330 AD. It became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, which endured for more than a thousand years.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nHistorically significant Greece, 80% mountainous and slightly smaller than the state of Alabama, has between 1,200–6,000 islands (depending upon how “island” is defined), 227 of them inhabited. The largest are Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, and Lesbos. Its many island chains and peninsulas and are extensions of its mountain ranges. Due to its highly indented shoreline and numerous islands, Greece boasts the twelfth longest coastline in the world, 8,498 miles. The main subdivisions of the Mediterranean Sea, all European, are the Adriatic, Aegean, Tyrrhenian, Ionian, and Ligurian Seas. The Mediterranean as a whole stretches 2,300 miles from east to west. Due to the narrow Strait of Gibraltar on the west, the Mediterranean has very low tides. European rivers flowing into the sea, all sources of fresh water, are the Ebro, Rhone, and Po. The Nile in Egypt, the world’s longest river, also empties into the Mediterranean. Oceanographically, evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin. Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nThis pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates westward, to spill over the Strait of Gibraltar. Thus, seawater flow is eastward in the Strait’s surface waters, and westward below; once in the Atlantic, this chemically distinct “Mediterranean Intermediate Water” can persist thousands of kilometres away from its source. (“Mediterranean Sea,” Wikipedia, citing Paul R. Pinet, Invitation to Oceanography, 3rd ed., 1996, 202–207.)\\nIslands in the Mediterranean are allocated to Europe, Asia, or Africa respectively. Most of the major islands in the Mediterranean—Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete, Cyprus, Balearic Islands, Dodecanese, Cyclades, Sporades, Ionian Islands, and Malta—are associated with adjacent European countries. Of those that are not, the greatest number belong to Asian Turkey. (However, some definitions of Europe include Asian Turkey.) Five islands are associated with Tunisia in Africa, and one, Arwad, with Syria in Asia. Cyprus, with a population of 1.1 million, lies south of Turkey off the coast of Syria, north of Israel. Technically in Asia, it is a member of the Council of Europe and the European Union.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nThe UN classification of world regions places Cyprus in Western Asia, the CIA’s World Factbook in the Middle East.The earliest known human activity on the island dates to the 9th millennium BC. Copper, of which Cyprus was the ancient world’s primary source, was named after the island (Greek Kypros). Copper and its alloy bronze are of enormous significance in the study of European prehistory and archaeology. In a dispute with Greece, Turkey partitioned Cyprus in 1974, establishing the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus on 40 percent of the island, a de facto state recognized only by Turkey. International entities regard the entire island as a single independent republic, the Republic of Cyprus, which controls the remaining 60 percent of the island. In modern times Greek and Turkish Cypriots have been at loggerheads. The population is divided between Greek (80%) and Turkish (20%) ethnic groups differentiated by language (Greek, Turkish), nationality, and religion (Greek Orthodox, Sunni Islam). Leaving aside substantial recent foreign immigration, it is doubtful that the two sharply-defined ethnic groups differ racially. Malta, an independent European state situated south of the Italian island of Sicily, is the main island of the (three) Maltese Islands.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nOriginally a Phoenician and Carthaginian colony, it was captured by Rome in 218 BC. During WWII it became the world’s most bombed spot, undergoing more than 1,200 air raids. It achieved its indpendence from Great Britain in 1964. Looking East: The Strait of Gibraltar, Europe on the left, Africa on the right, the Mediterranean in the middle\\nThe Strait of Gibraltar separating Spain from Africa in the western Mediterranean is an 8–23 mile wide, 36-mi. long passage linking the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Ownership of the “state” of Gibraltar, the 2.5 sq. mi. British territory on Spanish soil, is disputed by Spain. The towering, limestone Rock of Gibraltar and Mount Acho (ancient Abila) at Ceuta, a Spanish exclave in Morocco, Africa, form the classical Pillars of Hercules, which were crowned with silver columns by ancient Phoenician mariners to mark the limits of safe navigation for the Mediterranean peoples. The Semitic (not Jewish) Phoenicians, however, sailed well beyond them, quite possibly circumnavigating the southern tip of Africa and turning north on the other side.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nThe Atlantic Boundary\\nIn the west, Europe’s boundary is defined by the Atlantic Ocean, with which the Irish, North, Baltic, Mediterranean, and Black Seas are all connected. This coastline is much warmer than it would otherwise be due to the warming effect of the Gulf Stream, the ocean current which originates in the Gulf of Mexico and joins the North Atlantic Drift to carry warmth to Europe’s shores. The Atlantic coast can be viewed to some extent as an interlinked geographical-anthropological region. Weather and physical conditions are relatively uniform, resulting in common landscapes, plants, and animals. Via waterborne contact, prehistoric Atlantic peoples presented certain common traits as indicated by artifacts and architectural styles. An example is the European Megalithic Culture . Sir Barry Cunliffe , an English archaeologist and prehistorian, has written a book from such a perspective, Facing the Ocean: The Atlantic and Its Peoples 8000 BC–AD 1500\\n(2001). Some genetic studies also seem to interrelate specific groups of people from different parts of Atlantic Europe. Europe's Atlantic coast\\nAs with Europe’s Mediterranean boundary, the allocation of islands between continents is significant along the Atlantic periphery.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nNevertheless, the situation is complex, and any treatment is to some extent arbitrary. The Canary Islands, a Spanish possession and Outermost Region of the European Union, lies 62 miles off the coast of Morocco and Western Sahara in northwest Africa. The Canaries are the Fortunate Isles of antiquity. They were visited by the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Carthaginians. As described by Roman scholar Pliny, large numbers of wild dogs (Latin canes), roamed the islands, which he therefore named Canaria. The indigenous population, the Guanche, a Berber people, eventually became extinct. The present population of 2.1 million is 86% Spanish and 14 % Negro/Moor/Berber. About 250 miles north of the Canaries and 440 miles from the coast of Africa (Morocco) is Madeira, an autonomous region of Portugal and Outermost Region of the EU. It was uninhabited at the time of its discovery by the Portuguese in 1420. Prince Henry the Navigator began colonization of the islands and established sugar plantations there which became the prototype for the plantation system developed in the Portuguese colonies in the Americas after 1550. Internationally recognized Madeira wines remain an important export.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nMadeira’s present population of 268,000 is classified as ethnic Portuguese, but has a marked degree of West African Negro and North African Berber admixture. North of Madeira is another autonomous region of Portugal and EU Outermost Region, the Azores, lying 800 miles off the coast of Portugal. The vast majority of its 245,000 inhabitants are an admixture of Portuguese, Sephardic Jews, Moors, Flemish, French, Spaniards, and other European populations. As with the Canaries and Madeira, emigration from the islands has been substantial. By the 1990s more Azoreans resided in the US and Canada than in the archipelago. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge\\nMost of Europe’s Atlantic islands, including the Canaries, Madeira, and the British Isles, lie well to the east of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a 9,300-mile long submerged mountain chain on the ocean floor extending from the Antarctic Circle in the south to the Arctic Circle in the north, situated midway between the Western Hemisphere and Europe-Africa. From the seafloor, mountains rise 3,300 to 9,800 ft. and measure 930 mi. wide from east to west at their base. A few peaks in the ridge break the ocean’s surface, forming islands or groups of islands.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nThe Azores and Iceland are both situated atop such peaks. Greenland, geologically associated with North America to the west, is not. In terms of geographically allocating islands to the North American or European continents, the boundary is usually drawn between Greenland and Iceland, with Greenland on the American and Iceland on the European side. But although Greenland (Danish Grønland) is geographically part of North America, it is historically, politically, and culturally tied to Europe. Greenland formally withdrew from the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1985, but as an overseas territory of the Kingdom of Denmark with extensive home rule, its citizens possess EU citizenship. The largest island in the world, it lies mostly north of the Arctic Circle and is separated from Canada on the west by Davis Strait and Baffin Bay and Iceland on the east by the Denmark Strait. There are numerous islands along its coast, which is deeply indented by fjords. Eighty-five percent of its total area is ice cap. Most of the country’s population lives in villages along the mountainous coastal fringe. The island was discovered and settled around.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\n982 AD by outlaw Norwegian chieftain Eric the Red, whose Icelandic-born son, Leif Ericsson, later discovered America by sailing west from Greenland. Greenland was uninhabited at the time of the Norse arrival—the Inuit did not arrive until more than 200 years later, c. 1200 AD. In the 1200s the island fell under Norwegian and, subsequently Danish, rule. The Norse colonists mysteriously vanished around 1435, probably due to a climate change known as the Little Ice Age. Archaeological remains and written records indicate malnourishment among the last white inhabitants. Hvalsey Church, the best-preserved Norse ruins in Greenland. The last written records of the Norse Greenlanders are of a marriage ceremony conducted in this church in 1408\\nJewish pop anthropologist Jared Diamond offered a typically racist “explanation” for the Greenlanders’ disappearance. They “chose” to fail by destroying the environment and practicing violence against the Inuit. Their selfish classism and Christian bigotry also contributed to their destruction. Diamond’s pseudo-scholarship is representative of the deep-seated anti-white hatred insinuated into every nook and cranny of contemporary society. A few centuries later, European explorers rediscovered the island, which was recolonized by Norway beginning in 1721. In 1815 it became part of Denmark.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nAfter Germany’s invasion of that country in 1940, the US occupied Greenland until war’s end. Today, Greenland’s population of 57,000 consists of 88% Inuit or Inuit-Danish hybrids and 12% Europeans, mostly Danish. The Danes occupy positions as administrators, professionals, academics and skilled tradesmen. Interestingly, the word “Inuit” does not appear in my American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (1973), nor in my unabridged Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (1981)—the heavy tome you see on its own stand in most libraries. Instead, “Eskimo”—originally the Algonquian Indian term for the northern natives—was still used, along with variants such as Eskimoid, Eskimology, and Eskimologist. The word “Saami,” for Lapps, also does not appear. Settled by Norwegians around 850–875 AD, Iceland is the westernmost state of Europe (Greenland is not a state), located 570 miles west of Norway and 155 miles southeast of Greenland. Indented by many long fjords, it measures about 300 mi. wide from east to west. It has many active volcanoes. Geothermal energy from hot springs is employed for heating. The country possesses one of the most advanced population genetics and geneaological research facilities in the world.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\ndeCODE genetics, a private firm, has funded the creation of a genealogy database called Íslendingabók, which attempts to cover all of Iceland’s known inhabitants. The Icelandic parliament, the Althing, first convened in 930 AD, is the oldest representative assembly in Europe. Old Norse literature attained its greatest flowering in Iceland between 1000 and 1350 AD. Grœnlendinga saga and Eiríks saga describe the discovery and settlement of Greenland and Vinland (Newfoundland). Norwegian rule was imposed in 1261, and thereafter Iceland belonged alternately to Norway and Denmark. Occupied by the US and Britain during WWII, it became independent in 1944. Icelandic, the official language, has changed less from Old Norse than any of the other Nordic languages. The Arctic Boundary\\nThe Arctic Ocean defines Europe’s continental boundary on the north. European portions of the ocean identified by specific names include the Norwegian and Greenland Seas north of Scotland, the Barents Sea north of Scandinavia and Russia, and the Kara Sea north of Russia’s Ural Mountains.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nThe Arctic Ocean boundary, Greenland to Novaya Zemyla\\nRegions within the Arctic Circle were first explored between 800–1100 AD by Norse Vikings who discovered Iceland, Greenland, North America, and, in Russia, the White Sea at which they had arrived by 800, and where their influence remained strong for centuries. The White Sea, an inlet of the Barents Sea in Russia whose main port is Arkhangelsk, is connected by a system of canals to the inland Baltic Sea at Leningrad. The notorious White Sea-Baltic Canal, built between 1931 and 1933 at tremendous human cost by over 100,000 concentration camp political prisoners (at least 9,000 of whom perished), is too shallow (minimum depth 11.5 ft.) to accommodate ocean-going vessels. The Jewish overseers of the project, Genrikh Yagoda, Deputy Chairman of the OGPU, Matvei Berman, head of the GULAG during the 1930s, Semyon G. Firin, Chief of Construction and head of the White Sea Baltic Corrective Labor Camp Directorate, Naftaly Frenkel, the Chief of Works, Lazar Kogan, chief of the BBK Construction Directorate and his deputy Yakov Davidovich Rappoport, were awarded medals by the Politburo upon the canal’s completion, July 15, 1933.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nDue to climatic conditions, Europe’s Arctic shores are sparsely populated. Non-white residents include the Mongolid Inuits of Greenland and the pastoral, reindeer-herding Mongolid Saamis (Lapps—about 55,000 people) of northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the Russian peninsula of Kola. Both groups have experienced significant white admixture. Few large towns exist. The largest cities are in Russia—Arkhangelsk (350,000), Murmansk (over 300,000), Norilsk (130,000), and Vorkuta (75,000); in Norway, Trondheim (165,000) and Tromsø (60,000). Other towns typically consist of small agglomerations of less than 5,000 residents. Constantin Korovin, \\\"Hammerfest: Aurora Borealis,\\\" 1894–1895. Oil on Canvas\\nThe northernmost city in mainland Europe is Hammerfest, Norway, population 9,300, which annually experiences uninterrupted daylight from May 17–July 29, and no sun at all from November 21–January 21. Hammerfest was attacked and looted by the British navy during the Napoleonic Wars, and occupied by the Germans and bombed by the Soviet Air Force during WWII. The Norwegian Svalbard archipelago in the Arctic Ocean includes the Spitsbergen group, 360 mi. north of Norway. Probably known to the Vikings, Spitsbergen was discovered in 1596 by Dutch navigator Willem Barents, who commanded several expeditions that reached Novaya Zemlya in the course of his search for a northern passage to East Asia.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nBarents Island and the Barents Sea are named in his honor. During WWII the Germans and Allies fought here. Svalbard Airport, Longyear provides the main point of contact with the mainland. No roads link the settlements of its 2,800 inhabitants, who travel by snowmobile, aircraft, and boat. Covered with ice northeast of Svalbard, the 191 islands making up Russia’s Arctic archipelago of Franz Josef Land, about 600 miles from the North Pole, is the most northerly land in Europe and the Eastern hemisphere. Though Norwegian sealers may have reached the archipelago in 1865, its official discovery is attributed to the Austrian polar explorers Julius von Payer and Karl Weyprecht in 1873. They named the archipelago in honor of Austro-Hungarian emperor Franz Joseph I. In 1931 the German airship Graf Zeppelin made an historic flight from Berlin to Hooker Island in Franz Josef Land, and while there conducted an aerial survey of the archipelago as far north as Rudolf Island.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nTurning south and slightly east from Franz Josef Land, we connect with the two large islands known as Novaya Zemlya (New Land), which extend northward from the northern end of the Ural Mountains and are a continuation of that chain into the Arctic Ocean. A population of 50–300 reindeer-herding Nenetses (Mongolian Samoyed), who subsisted by fishing, trapping, herding, and hunting, was resettled to the mainland by the Soviets in 1952. On Novaya Zemlya on October 30, 1961, the Soviets exploded, by dropping from an aircraft, Tsar Bomba (“King of Bombs”) , the largest and most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated on Earth. The hydrogen bomb yielded the equivalent of 50 megatons of TNT—after being scaled down from its original design of 100 megatons! As mentioned, Novaya Zemlya is a continuation of the northern Urals to the south, thus completing our circuit of Europe’s external boundaries. Europe’s influence extends well beyond its formal geographic borders. European explorations, colonization, social, political, intellectual, artistic, and scientific innovations, empires, and revolutions, have transformed the world. While it is needful to comprehend Europe as a continent, the true geography of the Europeans extends to the far corners of the Earth—and beyond.\",\n \"Europe’s Continental Boundaries | Counter-Currents Publishing\\n\\nRelated\\nRelated\\nIf you enjoyed this piece, and wish to encourage more like it, give a tip through Paypal . You can earmark your tip directly to the author or translator, or you can put it in a general fund. (Be sure to specify which in the \\\"Add special instructions to seller\\\" box at Paypal .)\",\n \"Mountain Ranges of Asia - Landforms of Asia, Lakes, Rivers ...\\n\\nMountain Ranges of Asia - Landforms of Asia, Lakes, Rivers and Deserts of Asia - Worldatlas.com\\nLANDFORMS (Mountains)\\nMountain Ranges of Asia - Landforms of Asia, Lakes, Rivers and Deserts of Asia\\nASIA MOUNTAINS: Several significant mountain ranges stretch across Asia. Here we highlight on the map and describe the major ones, including the Altay, Gahats, Himalayan, Kunlun, Tien Shan, Ural and Zagros Mountains\\nAltay (or Altai)\\nThe Altay Mountains are a mountain range in East-Central Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan come together, and where the rivers Irtysh and Ob have their sources. Belukha Mountain is the highest peak at 4,506 m, (14,784 ft). Ghats\\nThe Western Ghats is a mountain range along the western side of India with an average elevation around 1,200 m, (3,900 ft). The Eastern Ghats is a range of mountains along India's eastern coast. The highest point is Jindhagada Peak at 1,690 m (5,545 ft). Himalayas\\nThe Himalayas, a huge mountain range immediately at the north of the Indian subcontinent, is the world's highest mountain range, and home to the world's highest peaks, including Mount Everest at 8,848 m (29,029 ft), and K2 at 8,611 m (28,251 feet) above sea level.\",\n \"Mountain Ranges of Asia - Landforms of Asia, Lakes, Rivers ...\\n\\nThe Himalayan system includes over 100 mountains exceeding 7,200 m (23,600 ft). Kunlun\\nThe Kunlun Mountains are one of the longest mountain chains in Asia, extending across wester China and the Tibetan Plateau. The highest mountain is the Kunlun Goddess at 7,167 m (23,514 ft). Tien (or Tian) Shan\\nThe Tian Shan is a large mountain system located in Central Asia. It's positioned to the north and west of the Taklamakan Desert near the border region of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and western China. The highest peak is Victory Peak at 7,439 m (24,406 ft). Ural\\nThe Urals are 1,640 miles (2,640 km) in length and extend from the northern-edge of the Russian Federation down through Kazakhstan. They form a natural border between Asia and Europe Russia. The highest point in this mountain range is Mt. Narodnaya at 1,895 m (6,217 ft). Zagros\\nThe Zagros are the largest mountain range in Iran and Iraq spaning the whole length of the western and southwestern Iranian plateau and ending at the Strait of Hormuz. The highest point is Zard Kuhbakhtiari at 4,548 m, (14,921 ft).\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2073,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_16"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What is the capital of Iraq?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Baghdad"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["baghdād iraq","bahgdad","baghdad administrative divisions","asia baghdad","bagdat","بغداد","baqdad","baghdād","baghdad iraq","89 official neighbourhoods","baghdad city","capital of iraq","bagdhad","mama ayser center","bhagdad","baġdād","baghdad"],"string":"[\n \"baghdād iraq\",\n \"bahgdad\",\n \"baghdad administrative divisions\",\n \"asia baghdad\",\n \"bagdat\",\n \"بغداد\",\n \"baqdad\",\n \"baghdād\",\n \"baghdad iraq\",\n \"89 official neighbourhoods\",\n \"baghdad city\",\n \"capital of iraq\",\n \"bagdhad\",\n \"mama ayser center\",\n \"bhagdad\",\n \"baġdād\",\n \"baghdad\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Iraq\n\nIraq (,, or; '), officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: ) is a country in Western Asia, bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Kuwait to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the southwest, and Syria to the west. The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds; others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, and Kawliya. Around 95% of the country's 36 million citizens are Shia or Sunni Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present.","Iraq\n\nIraq has a coastline measuring 58 km on the northern Persian Gulf and encompasses the Mesopotamian Alluvial Plain, the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, and the eastern part of the Syrian Desert. Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land.","Iraq\n\nThe region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, and live in cities under an organised government—notably Uruk, from which \"Iraq\" is derived. The area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian, and Babylonian empires. It was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires.","Iraq\n\nIraq's modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres. Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932. In 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party from 1968 until 2003. After an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Hussein's Ba'ath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country.","Iraq\n\nName","Iraq\n\nThe Arabic name ' has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk (Biblical Hebrew Erech) and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of ', containing the Sumerian word for \"city\", UR. \nAn Arabic folk etymology for the name is \"deeply rooted, well-watered; fertile\".","Iraq\n\nDuring the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī (\"Arabian Iraq\") for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī (\"Foreign Iraq\"), for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the plain south of the Hamrin Mountains and did not include the northernmost and westernmost parts of the modern territory of Iraq.","Iraq\n\nThe term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, contrasting it with the arid Arabian desert.\nAs an Arabic word, means \"hem\", \"shore\", \"bank\", or \"edge\", so that the name by folk etymology came to be interpreted as \"the escarpment\", viz. at the south and east of the Jazira Plateau, which forms the northern and western edge of the \"al-Iraq arabi\" area.","Iraq\n\nThe Arabic pronunciation is. In English, it is either (the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary and the first one in [http://merriam-webster.com/dictionary/iraq Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary]) or (listed first by MQD), the [//web.archive.org/web/20080314173050/http://www.bartleby.com/61/81/I0228100.html American Heritage Dictionary], and the [http://dictionary.infoplease.com/Iraq Random House Dictionary]. The pronunciation is frequently heard in US media.","Iraq\n\nHistory","Iraq\n\nPre-historic era","Iraq\n\nBetween 65,000 BC and 35,000 BC northern Iraq was home to a Neanderthal culture, archaeological remains of which have been discovered at Shanidar Cave \nThis same region is also the location of a number of pre-Neolithic cemeteries, dating from approximately 11,000 BC.","Iraq\n\nSince approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq (alongside Asia Minor and The Levant) was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture (known as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A) where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period (PPNB) is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum and burnt lime (Vaisselle blanche). Finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations.","Iraq\n\nFurther important sites of human advancement were Jarmo (circa 7100 BC), the Halaf culture and Ubaid period (between 6500 BC and 3800 BC), these periods show ever increasing levels of advancement in agriculture, tool making and architecture.","Iraq\n\nAncient Iraq","Iraq\n\nThe historical period in Iraq truly begins during the Uruk period (4000 BC to 3100 BC), with the founding of a number of Sumerian cities, and the use of Pictographs, Cylinder seals and mass-produced goods.","Iraq\n\nThe \"Cradle of Civilization\" is thus a common term for the area comprising modern Iraq as it was home to the earliest known civilisation, the Sumerian civilisation, which arose in the fertile Tigris-Euphrates river valley of southern Iraq in the Chalcolithic (Ubaid period).","Iraq\n\nIt was here in the late 4th millennium BC, that the world's first writing system and recorded history itself were born. The Sumerians were also the first to harness the wheel and create City States, and whose writings record the first evidence of Mathematics, Astronomy, Astrology, Written Law, Medicine and Organised religion.","Iraq\n\nThe Sumerians spoke a Language Isolate, in other words, a language utterly unrelated to any other, including the Semitic Languages, Indo-European Languages, Afroasiatic languages or any other isolates. The major city states of the early Sumerian period were; Eridu, Bad-tibira, Larsa, Sippar, Shuruppak, Uruk, Kish, Ur, Nippur, Lagash, Girsu, Umma, Hamazi, Adab, Mari, Isin, Kutha, Der and Akshak.","Iraq\n\nCities such as Ashur, Arbela (modern Irbil) and Arrapkha (modern Kirkuk) were also extant in what was to be called Assyria from the 25th century BC, however at this early stage they were Sumerian ruled administrative centres.","Iraq\n\nIn the 26th century BC, Eannatum of Lagash created what was perhaps the first Empire in history, though this was short lived. Later, Lugal-Zage-Si, the priest-king of Umma, overthrew the primacy of the Lagash dynasty in the area, then conquered Uruk, making it his capital, and claimed an empire extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. It was during this period that the Epic of Gilgamesh originates, which includes the tale of The Great Flood.","Iraq\n\nFrom approximately 3000 BC, a Semitic people had also entered Iraq from the west and settled amongst the Sumerians. These people spoke an East Semitic language which would later come to be known as Akkadian. From the 29th century BC Akkadian Semitic names began to appear on king lists and administrative documents of various city states.","Iraq\n\nDuring the 3rd millennium BCE a cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism. The influences between Sumerian and Akkadian are evident in all areas including lexical borrowing on a massive scale—and syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This mutual influence has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian of the 3rd millennium BCE as a Sprachbund. From this period the civilisation in Iraq came to be known as Sumero-Akkadian.","Iraq\n\nBetween the 29th and 24th centuries BC, a number of kingdoms and city states within Iraq began to have Akkadian speaking dynasties; including Assyria, Ekallatum, Isin and Larsa.","Iraq\n\nHowever, the Sumerians remained generally dominant until the rise of the Akkadian Empire (2335-2124 BC), based in the city of Akkad in central Iraq. Sargon of Akkad, originally a Rabshakeh to a Sumerian king, founded the empire, he conquered all of the city states of southern and central Iraq, and subjugated the kings of Assyria, thus uniting the Sumerians and Akkadians in one state. He then set about expanding his empire, conquering Gutium, Elam, Cissia and Turukku in Ancient Iran, the Hurrians, Luwians and Hattians of Anatolia, and the Amorites and Eblaites of Ancient Syria.","Iraq\n\nAfter the collapse of the Akkadian Empire in the late 22nd century BC, the Gutians occupied the south for a few decades, while Assyria reasserted its independence in the north. This was followed by a Sumerian renaissance in the form of the Neo-Sumerian Empire. The Sumerians under king Shulgi conquered almost all of Iraq except the northern reaches of Assyria, and asserted themselves over the Elamites, Gutians and Amorites.","Iraq\n\nAn Elamite invasion in 2004 BC brought the Sumerian revival to an end. By the mid 21st century BC the Akkadian speaking kingdom of Assyria, had risen to dominance in northern Iraq, it expanded territorially into the north eastern Levant, central Iraq, and eastern Anatolia, forming the Old Assyrian Empire (circa 2035-1750 BC) under kings such as Puzur-Ashur I, Sargon I, Ilushuma and Erishum I, the latter of whom produced the most detailed set of Written Laws yet written. The south broke up into a number of Akkadian speaking states, Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna being the major ones.","Iraq\n\nDuring the 20th century BC, the Canaanite speaking Northwest Semitic Amorites began to migrate into southern Mesopotamia. Eventually these Amorites began to set up small petty kingdoms in the south, as well as usurping the thrones of extant city states such as Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna.","Iraq\n\nOne of these small kingdoms founded in 1894 BC contained the then small administrative town of Babylon within its borders. It remained insignificant for over a century, overshadowed by older and more powerful states such as Assyria, Elam, Isin, Ehnunna and Larsa.","Iraq\n\nIn 1792 BC, an Amorite ruler named Hammurabi came to power in this state, and immediately set about building Babylon from a minor town into a major city, declaring himself its king. Hammurabi conquered the whole of southern and central Iraq, as well as Elam to the east and Mari to the west, then engaged in a protracted war with the Assyrian king Ishme-Dagan for domination of the region, creating the short lived Babylonian Empire. He eventually prevailed over the successor of Ishme-Dagan and subjected Assyria and its Anatolian colonies.","Iraq\n\nIt is from the period of Hammurabi that southern Iraq came to be known as Babylonia, while the north had already coalesced into Assyria hundreds of years before. However, his empire was short lived, and rapidly collapsed after his death, with both Assyria and southern Iraq, in the form of the Sealand Dynasty, falling back into native Akkadian hands. The foreign Amorites clung on to power in a once more weak and small Babylonia until it was sacked by the Indo-European speaking Hittite Empire based in Anatolia in 1595 BC. After this, another foreign people, the Language Isolate speaking Kassites, originating in the Zagros Mountains of Ancient Iran, seized control of Babylonia, where they were to rule for almost six hundred years, by far the longest dynasty ever to rule in Babylon.","Iraq\n\nIraq was from this point divided into three polities; Assyria in the north, Kassite Babylonia in the south central region, and the Sealand Dynasty in the far south. The Sealand Dynasty was finally conquered into Babylonia by the Kassites circa 1380 BC.","Iraq\n\nThe Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC) saw Assyria rise to be the most powerful nation in the known world. Beginning with the campaigns of Ashur-uballit I, Assyria destroyed the rival Hurrian-Mitanni Empire, annexed huge swathes of the Hittite Empire for itself, annexed northern Babylonia from the Kassites, forced the Egyptian Empire from the region, and defeated the Elamites, Phrygians, Canaanites, Phoenicians, Cilicians, Gutians, Dilmunites and Arameans. At its height the Middle Assyrian Empire stretched from The Caucasus to Dilmun (modern Bahrain), and from the Mediterranean coasts of Phoenicia to the Zagros Mountains of Iran. In 1235 BC, Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria took the throne of Babylon, thus becoming the very first native Mesopotamian to rule the state.","Iraq\n\nDuring the Bronze Age collapse (1200-900 BC) Babylonia was in a state of chaos, dominated for long periods by Assyria and Elam. The Kassites were driven from power by Assyria and Elam, allowing native south Mesopotamian kings to rule Babylonia for the first time, although often subject to Assyrian or Elamite rulers. However, these East Semitic Akkadian kings, were unable to prevent new waves of West Semitic migrants entering southern Iraq, and during the 11th century BC Arameans and Suteans entered Babylonia from The Levant, and these were followed in the late 10th to early 9th century BC by the migrant Chaldeans who were closely related to the earlier Arameans.","Iraq\n\nAfter a period of comparative decline in Assyria, it once more began to expand with the Neo Assyrian Empire (935–605 BC). This was to be the largest and most powerful empire the world had yet seen, and under rulers such as Adad-Nirari II, Ashurnasirpal, Shalmaneser III, Semiramis, Tiglath-pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, Iraq became the centre of an empire stretching from Persia, Parthia and Elam in the east, to Cyprus and Antioch in the west, and from The Caucasus in the north to Egypt, Nubia and Arabia in the south.","Iraq\n\nThe Arabs are first mentioned in written history (circa 850 BC) as a subject people of Shalmaneser III, dwelling in the Arabian Peninsula. The Chaldeans are first mentioned at this time also.","Iraq\n\nIt was during this period that an Akkadian influenced form of Eastern Aramaic was introduced by the Assyrians as the lingua franca of their vast empire, and Mesopotamian Aramaic began to supplant Akkadian as the spoken language of the general populace of both Assyria and Babylonia. The descendant dialects of this tongue survive amongst the Assyrians of northern Iraq to this day.","Iraq\n\nIn the late 7th century BC the Assyrian Empire tore itself apart with a series of brutal civil wars, weakening itself to such a degree that a coalition of its former subjects; the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Parthians, Scythians and Cimmerians, were able to attack Assyria, finally bringing its empire down by 605 BC.","Iraq\n\nThe short lived Neo-Babylonian Empire (620-539 BC) succeeded that of Assyria. It failed to attain the size, power or longevity of its predecessor, however it came to dominate The Levant, Canaan, Arabia, Israel and Judah, and to defeat Egypt. Initially, Babylon was ruled by yet another foreign dynasty, that of the Chaldeans, who had migrated to the region in the late 10th or early 9th century BC. Its greatest king, Nebuchadnezzar II rivalled another non native ruler, the ethnically unrelated Amorite king Hammurabi, as the greatest king of Babylon. However, by 556 BC the Chaldeans had been deposed from power by the Assyrian born Nabonidus and his son and regent Belshazzar.","Iraq\n\nIn the 6th century BC, Cyrus the Great of neighbouring Persia defeated the Neo-Babylonian Empire at the Battle of Opis and Iraq was subsumed into the Achaemenid Empire for nearly two centuries. The Achaemenids made Babylon their main capital. The Chaldeans and Chaldea disappeared at around this time, though both Assyria and Babylonia endured and thrived under Achaemenid rule (see Achaemenid Assyria). Little changed under the Persians, having spent three centuries under Assyrian rule, their kings saw themselves as successors to Ashurbanipal, and they retained Assyrian Imperial Aramaic as the language of empire, together with the Assyrian imperial infrastructure, and an Assyrian style of art and architecture.","Iraq\n\nIn the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Great conquered the region, putting it under Hellenistic Seleucid rule for over two centuries. The Seleucids introduced the Indo-Anatolian and Greek term Syria to the region. This name had for many centuries been the Indo-European word for Assyria and specifically and only meant Assyria, however the Seleucids also applied it to The Levant (Aramea, causing both the Assyria and the Assyrians of Iraq and the Arameans and The Levant to be called Syria and Syrians/Syriacs in the Greco-Roman world.","Iraq\n\nThe Parthians (247 BC – 224 AD) from Persia conquered the region during the reign of Mithridates I of Parthia (r. 171–138 BC). From Syria, the Romans invaded western parts of the region several times, briefly founding Assyria Provincia in Assyria. Christianity began to take hold in Iraq (particularly in Assyria) between the 1st and 3rd centuries, and Assyria became a centre of Syriac Christianity, the Church of the East and Syriac literature. A number of indigenous independent Neo-Assyrian states evolved in the north during the Parthian era, such as Adiabene, Assur, Osroene and Hatra.","Iraq\n\nA number of Assyrians from Mesopotamia were conscripted into or joined the Roman Army, and the Aramaic language of Assyria and Mesopotamia has been found as far afield as Hadrians Wall in northern Ancient Britain, with inscriptions written by Assyrian and Aramean soldiers of the Roman Empire.","Iraq\n\nThe Sassanids of Persia under Ardashir I destroyed the Parthian Empire and conquered the region in 224 AD. During the 240s and 250's AD the Sassanids gradually conquered the small Neo Assyrian states, culminating with Assur in 256 AD. The region was thus a province of the Sassanid Empire for over four centuries (see also; Asōristān), and became the frontier and battle ground between the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Empire, with both empires weakening each other greatly, paving the way for the Arab-Muslim conquest of Persia in the mid-7th century,","Iraq\n\nMiddle Ages","Iraq\n\nThe Arab Islamic conquest in the mid-7th century AD established Islam in Iraq and saw a large influx of Arabs. Under the Rashidun Caliphate, the prophet Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali, moved his capital to Kufa when he became the fourth caliph. The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the province of Iraq from Damascus in the 7th century. (However, eventually there was a separate, independent Caliphate of Córdoba in Iberia.)","Iraq\n\nThe Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad in the 8th century as its capital, and the city became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries. Baghdad was the largest multicultural city of the Middle Ages, peaking at a population of more than a million, and was the centre of learning during the Islamic Golden Age. The Mongols destroyed the city during the siege of Baghdad in the 13th century.","Iraq\n\nIn 1257 Hulagu Khan amassed an unusually large army, a significant portion of the Mongol Empire's forces, for the purpose of conquering Baghdad. When they arrived at the Islamic capital, Hulagu Khan demanded surrender but the last Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim refused. This angered Hulagu, and, consistent with Mongol strategy of discouraging resistance, he besieged Baghdad, sacked the city and massacred many of the inhabitants. Estimates of the number of dead range from 200,000 to a million.","Iraq\n\nThe Mongols destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate and Baghdad's House of Wisdom, which contained countless precious and historical documents. The city has never regained its previous pre-eminence as a major centre of culture and influence. Some historians believe that the Mongol invasion destroyed much of the irrigation infrastructure that had sustained Mesopotamia for millennia. Other historians point to soil salination as the culprit in the decline in agriculture.","Iraq\n\nThe mid-14th-century Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world. The best estimate for the Middle East is a death rate of roughly one-third.","Iraq\n\nIn 1401 a warlord of Mongol descent, Tamerlane (Timur Lenk), invaded Iraq. After the capture of Baghdad, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred. Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him (many warriors were so scared they killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign just to ensure they had heads to present to Timur). Timur also conducted massacres of the indigenous Assyrian Christian population, hitherto still the majority population in northern Mesopotamia, and it was during this time that the ancient Assyrian city of Assur was finally abandoned.","Iraq\n\nOttoman Iraq","Iraq\n\nDuring the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Black Sheep Turkmen ruled the area now known as Iraq. In 1466, the White Sheep Turkmen defeated the Black Sheep and took control. From the earliest 16th century, in 1508, as with all territories of the former White Sheep Turkmen, Iraq fell into the hands of the Iranian Safavids. Owing to the century long Turco-Iranian rivalary between the Safavids and the neighbouring Ottoman Turks, Iraq would be contested between the two for more than a hundred years during the frequent Ottoman-Persian Wars.","Iraq\n\nIn the course of the 17th century, in 1639 precisely with the Treaty of Zuhab, most of the territory of present-day Iraq eventually decisively came under the control of Ottoman Empire as the eyalet of Baghdad as a result of wars with neighbouring rivalling Safavid Iran. Throughout most of the period of Ottoman rule (1533–1918) the territory of present-day Iraq was a battle zone between the rival regional empires and tribal alliances.","Iraq\n\nBy the 17th century, the frequent conflicts with the Safavids had sapped the strength of the Ottoman Empire and had weakened its control over its provinces. The nomadic population swelled with the influx of bedouins from Najd, in the Arabian Peninsula. Bedouin raids on settled areas became impossible to curb.","Iraq\n\nDuring the years 1747–1831 Iraq was ruled by a Mamluk dynasty of Georgian origin who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Ottoman Porte, suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order and introduced a programme of modernisation of economy and military. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow the Mamluk regime and imposed their direct control over Iraq. The population of Iraq, estimated at 30 million in 800 AD, was only 5 million at the start of the 20th century.","Iraq\n\nDuring World War I, the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers. In the Mesopotamian campaign against the Central Powers, British forces invaded the country and initially suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Turkish army during the Siege of Kut (1915–1916). However, subsequent to this the British began to gain the upper hand, and were further aided by the support of local Arabs and Assyrians. In 1916, the British and French made a plan for the post-war division of Western Asia under the Sykes-Picot Agreement. British forces regrouped and captured Baghdad in 1917, and defeated the Ottomans. An armistice was signed in 1918.","Iraq\n\nDuring World War I the Ottomans were defeated and driven from much of the area by the United Kingdom during the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The British lost 92,000 soldiers in the Mesopotamian campaign. Ottoman losses are unknown but the British captured a total of 45,000 prisoners of war. By the end of 1918 the British had deployed 410,000 men in the area, of which 112,000 were combat troops.","Iraq\n\nBritish administration and independent Kingdom","Iraq\n\nOn 11 November 1920 Iraq became a League of Nations mandate under British control with the name \"State of Iraq\". The British established the Hashemite king, Faisal I of Iraq, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices.","Iraq\n\nFaced with spiraling costs and influenced by the public protestations of war hero T. E. Lawrence in The Times, Britain replaced Arnold Wilson in October 1920 with new Civil Commissioner Sir Percy Cox. Cox managed to quell a rebellion, yet was also responsible for implementing the fateful policy of close co-operation with Iraq's Sunni minority. The institution of slavery was abolished in the 1920s.","Iraq\n\nBritain granted independence to the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932, on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases, local militia in the form of Assyrian Levies, and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1933, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. Ghazi was followed by his underage son, Faisal II. 'Abd al-Ilah served as Regent during Faisal's minority.","Iraq\n\nOn 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup d'état and overthrew the government of 'Abd al-Ilah. During the subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War, the United Kingdom (which still maintained air bases in Iraq) invaded Iraq for fear that the Rashid Ali government might cut oil supplies to Western nations because of his links to the Axis powers. The war started on 2 May, and the British, together with loyal Assyrian Levies, defeated the forces of Al-Gaylani, forcing an armistice on 31 May.","Iraq\n\nA military occupation followed the restoration of the pre-coup government of the Hashemite monarchy. The occupation ended on 26 October 1947, although Britain was to retain military bases in Iraq until 1954, after which the Assyrian militias were disbanded. The rulers during the occupation and the remainder of the Hashemite monarchy were Nuri as-Said, the autocratic Prime Minister, who also ruled from 1930–1932, and 'Abd al-Ilah, the former Regent who now served as an adviser to King Faisal II.","Iraq\n\nRepublic and Ba'athist Iraq","Iraq\n\nIn 1958 a coup d'etat known as the 14 July Revolution led to the end of the monarchy. Brigadier General Abd al-Karim Qasim assumed power, but he was overthrown by Colonel Abdul Salam Arif in a February 1963 coup. After his death in 1966 he was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, who was overthrown by the Ba'ath Party in 1968. Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr became the first Ba'ath President of Iraq but then the movement gradually came under the control of General Saddam Hussein, who acceded to the presidency and control of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), then Iraq's supreme executive body, in July 1979.","Iraq\n\nIn 1979, the Iranian Revolution took place. Following months of cross-border raids between the two countries, Saddam declared war on Iran in September 1980, initiating the Iran–Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War). Taking the advantage of post-revolution chaos in Iran, Iraq captured some territories in southwest of Iran, but Iran recaptured all of the lost territories within 2 years, and for the next six years Iran was on the offensive. The war ended in stalemate in 1988 and cost the lives of between half a million and 1.5 million people. In 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed an Iraqi nuclear materials testing reactor at Osirak and was widely criticised at the United Nations. During the 8-year war with Iran, Saddam Hussein extensively used chemical weapons against Iranians, In the final stages of the Iran–Iraq War, the Ba'athist Iraqi regime led the Al-Anfal Campaign, a genocidal campaign that targeted Iraqi Kurds, and led to the killing of 50,000–100,000 civilians. Chemical weapons were also used against Iraqi Shia civilians during the 1991 uprisings in Iraq.","Iraq\n\nIn August 1990, Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait. This subsequently led to military intervention by United States-led forces in the First Gulf War. The coalition forces proceeded with a bombing campaign targeting military targets and then launched a 100-hour-long ground assault against Iraqi forces in Southern Iraq and those occupying Kuwait.","Iraq\n\nIraq's armed forces were devastated during the war and shortly after it ended in 1991, Shia and Kurdish Iraqis led several uprisings against Saddam Hussein's regime, but these were successfully repressed using the Iraqi security forces and chemical weapons. It is estimated that as many as 100,000 people, including many civilians were killed. During the uprisings the US, UK, France and Turkey, claiming authority under UNSCR 688, established the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Kurdish and Shiite populations from attacks by the Hussein regime's fixed-wing aircraft (but not helicopters).","Iraq\n\nIraq was ordered to destroy its chemical and biological weapons and the UN attempted to compel Saddam Hussein's government to disarm and agree to a ceasefire by imposing additional sanctions on the country in addition to the initial sanctions imposed following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The Iraqi Government's failure to disarm and agree to a ceasefire resulted in sanctions which remained in place until 2003. Studies dispute the effects of the sanctions on Iraqi civilians.","Iraq\n\nDuring the late 1990s, the UN considered relaxing the Iraq sanctions because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis and attacks on US aircraft patrolling the no-fly zones led to US bombing of Iraq in December 1998.","Iraq\n\nFollowing the 9/11 terrorist attacks the George W. Bush administration began planning the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's government and in October 2002, the US Congress passed the Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq. In November 2002 the UN Security Council passed UNSCR 1441 and in March 2003 the US and its allies invaded Iraq.","Iraq\n\n2003–2007","Iraq\n\nOn March 20, 2003, a United States-organized coalition invaded Iraq, under the pretext that Iraq had failed to abandon its weapons of mass destruction program in violation of U.N. Resolution 687. This claim was based on documents provided by the CIA and British government and were later found to be unreliable.","Iraq\n\nFollowing the invasion, the United States established the Coalition Provisional Authority to govern Iraq. In May 2003 L. Paul Bremer, the chief executive of the CPA, issued orders to exclude Baath Party members from the new Iraqi government (CPA Order 1) and to disband the Iraqi Army (CPA Order 2). The decision dissolved the largely Sunni Iraqi Army and excluded many of the country's former government officials from participating in the country's governance including 40,000 school teachers who had joined the Baath Party simply to keep their jobs, helping to bring about a chaotic post-invasion environment.","Iraq\n\nAn insurgency against the US-led coalition-rule of Iraq began in summer 2003 within elements of the former Iraqi secret police and army who formed guerilla units. In fall 2003, also self-entitled 'jihadist' groups began targeting coalition forces.\nVarious Sunni militias were created in 2003, for example Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi.\nThe insurgency included intense inter-ethnic violence between Sunnis and Shias. The Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal came to light, late 2003 in reports by Amnesty International and Associated Press.","Iraq\n\nThe Mahdi Army—a Shia militia created in the summer of 2003 by Muqtada al-Sadr—began to fight Coalition forces in April 2004. 2004 saw Sunni and Shia militants fighting against each other and against the new Iraqi Interim Government installed June 2004, and against Coalition forces, as well as the First Battle of Fallujah in April and Second Battle of Fallujah in November.\nSunni militia Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad became Al-Qaeda in Iraq in October 2004 and targeted Coalition forces as well as civilians, mainly Shia Muslims, further exacerbating ethnic tensions.","Iraq\n\nIn January 2005 the first elections since the invasion took place and in October a new Constitution was approved which was followed by parliamentary elections in December. Insurgent attacks were common however and increased to 34,131 in 2005 from 26,496 in 2004.","Iraq\n\nDuring 2006 fighting continued and reached its highest levels of violence, more war crimes scandals were made public, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi the leader of Al-Qaeda in Iraq was killed by US forces and Iraq's former dictator Saddam Hussein was sentenced to death for crimes against humanity and hanged. \nIn late 2006 the US government's Iraq Study Group recommended that the US begin focusing on training Iraqi military personnel and in January 2007 US President George W. Bush announced a \"Surge\" in the number of US troops deployed to the country.","Iraq\n\nIn May 2007 Iraq's Parliament called on the United States to set a timetable for withdrawal and US coalition partners such as the UK and Denmark began withdrawing their forces from the country. The war in Iraq has resulted in between 151,000 and 1.2 million Iraqis being killed.","Iraq\n\n2008–present","Iraq\n\nIn 2008 fighting continued and Iraq's newly trained armed forces launched attacks against militants. The Iraqi government signed the US–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement which required US forces to withdraw from Iraqi cities by 30 June 2009 and to withdraw completely out of Iraq by 31 December 2011.","Iraq\n\nUS troops handed over security duties to Iraqi forces in June 2009, though they continued to work with Iraqi forces after the pullout. On the morning of 18 December 2011, the final contingent of US troops to be withdrawn ceremonially exited over the border to Kuwait. Crime and violence initially spiked in the months following the US withdrawal from cities in mid-2009 but despite the initial increase in violence, in November 2009, Iraqi Interior Ministry officials reported that the civilian death toll in Iraq fell to its lowest level since the 2003 invasion.","Iraq\n\nFollowing the withdrawal of US troops in 2011 the insurgency continued and Iraq suffered from political instability. In February 2011 the Arab Spring protests spread to Iraq; but the initial protests did not topple the government.\nThe Iraqi National Movement, reportedly representing the majority of Iraqi Sunnis, boycotted Parliament for several weeks in late 2011 and early 2012, claiming that the Shiite-dominated government was striving to sideline Sunnis.","Iraq\n\nIn 2012 and 2013 levels of violence increased and armed groups inside Iraq were increasingly galvanised by the Syrian Civil War. Both Sunnis and Shias crossed the border to fight in Syria. In December 2012, mainly Sunni Arabs protested against the government who they claimed marginalised them.","Iraq\n\nDuring 2013 Sunni militant groups stepped up attacks targeting the Iraq's Shia population in an attempt to undermine confidence in the Nouri al-Maliki-led government. In 2014 Sunni insurgents belonging to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) terrorist group seized control of large swathes of land including several major Iraqi cities, like Tikrit, Fallujah and Mosul creating hundreds of thousands of internally displaced persons amid reports of atrocities by ISIL fighters.","Iraq\n\nAfter an inconclusive election in April 2014, Nouri al-Maliki served as caretaker-Prime-Minister.","Iraq\n\nOn 11 August, Iraq's highest court ruled that PM Maliki's bloc is biggest in parliament, meaning Maliki could stay Prime Minister. By 13 August, however, the Iraqi president had tasked Haider al-Abadi with forming a new government, and the United Nations, the United States, the European Union, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and some Iraqi politicians expressed their wish for a new leadership in Iraq, for example from Haider al-Abadi. Maliki on 14 August stepped down as PM, to support Mr al-Abadi and to \"safeguard the high interests of the country\". The US government welcomed this as \"another major step forward\" in uniting Iraq. On September 9, 2014, Haider al-Abadi had formed a new government and became the new prime minister. Intermittent conflict between Sunni, Shiite and Kurdish factions has led to increasing debate about the splitting of Iraq into three autonomous regions, including Kurdistan in the northeast, a Sunnistan in the west and a Shiastan in the southeast.","Iraq\n\nGeography","Iraq\n\nIraq lies between latitudes 29° and 38° N, and longitudes 39° and 49° E (a small area lies west of 39°). Spanning 437072 km2, it is the 58th-largest country in the world. It is comparable in size to the US state of California, and somewhat larger than Paraguay.","Iraq\n\nIraq mainly consists of desert, but near the two major rivers (Euphrates and Tigris) are fertile alluvial plains, as the rivers carry about 60000000 m3 of silt annually to the delta. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3611 m point, unnamed on the map opposite, but known locally as Cheekah Dar (black tent). Iraq has a small coastline measuring 58 km along the Persian Gulf. Close to the coast and along the Shatt al-Arab (known as arvandrūd: اروندرود among Iranians) there used to be marshlands, but many were drained in the 1990s.","Iraq\n\nClimate","Iraq\n\nMost of Iraq has a hot arid climate with subtropical influence. Summer temperatures average above 40 °C for most of the country and frequently exceed 48 °C. Winter temperatures infrequently exceed 21 °C with maxima roughly 15 to and night-time lows 2 to. Typically precipitation is low; most places receive less than 250 mm annually, with maximum rainfall occurring during the winter months. Rainfall during the summer is extremely rare, except in the far north of the country. The northern mountainous regions have cold winters with occasional heavy snows, sometimes causing extensive flooding.","Iraq\n\nGovernment and politics","Iraq\n\nThe federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as a democratic, federal parliamentary Islamic republic. The federal government is composed of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law.","Iraq\n\nThe National Alliance is the main Shia parliamentary bloc, and was established as a result of a merger of Prime Minister Nouri Maliki's State of Law Coalition and the Iraqi National Alliance. The Iraqi National Movement is led by Iyad Allawi, a secular Shia widely supported by Sunnis. The party has a more consistent anti-sectarian perspective than most of its rivals. The Kurdistan List is dominated by two parties, the Kurdistan Democratic Party led by Masood Barzani and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan headed by Jalal Talabani. Both parties are secular and enjoy close ties with the West.","Iraq\n\nIn 2010, according to the Failed States Index, Iraq was the world's seventh most politically unstable country. The concentration of power in the hands of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki and growing pressure on the opposition led to growing concern about the future of political rights in Iraq. Nevertheless, progress was made and the country had risen to 11th place by 2013. In August 2014 al-Maliki's reign came to an end. He announced on 14 August 2014 he would stand aside so Haider Al-Abadi, who had been nominated just days earlier by newly installed President Fuad Masum, could take over. Until that point al-Maliki had clung to power even asking the federal court to veto the president's nomination describing it as a violation of the constitution.","Iraq\n\nTransparency International ranks Iraq's government as the eighth-most-corrupt government in the world. Government payroll have increased from 1 million employees under Saddam Hussein to around 7 million employees in 2016. In combination with decreased oil prices, the government budget deficit is near 25% of GDP as of 2016.","Iraq\n\nSince the establishment of the no–fly zones following the Gulf War of 1990–1991, the Kurds established their own autonomous region..","Iraq\n\nLaw","Iraq\n\nIn October 2005, the new Constitution of Iraq was approved in a referendum with a 78% overall majority, although the percentage of support varying widely between the country's territories. The new constitution was backed by the Shia and Kurdish communities, but was rejected by Arab Sunnis. Under the terms of the constitution, the country conducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on December 15, 2005. All three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lines, as did Assyrian and Turcoman minorities.","Iraq\n\nLaw no. 188 of the year 1959 (Personal Status Law) made polygamy extremely difficult, granted child custody to the mother in case of divorce, prohibited repudiation and marriage under the age of 16. Article 1 of Civil Code also identifies Islamic law as a formal source of law. Iraq had no Sharia courts but civil courts used Sharia for issues of personal status including marriage and divorce. In 1995 Iraq introduced Sharia punishment for certain types of criminal offences. The code is based on French civil law as well as Sunni and Jafari (Shi’ite) interpretations of Sharia.","Iraq\n\nIn 2004, the CFA chief executive L. Paul Bremer said he would veto any constitutional draft stating that sharia is the principal basis of law. The declaration enraged many local Shia clerics, and by 2005 the United States had relented, allowing a role for sharia in the constitution to help end a stalemate on the draft constitution.","Iraq\n\nThe Iraqi Penal Code is the statutory law of Iraq.","Iraq\n\nMilitary","Iraq\n\nIraqi security forces are composed of forces serving under the Ministry of Interior (which controls the Police and Popular Mobilization Forces) and the Ministry of Defense, as well as the Iraqi Counter Terrorism Bureau, reporting directly to the Prime Minister of Iraq, which oversees the Iraqi Special Operations Forces. Ministry of Defense forces include the Iraqi Army, the Iraqi Air Force and the Iraqi Navy. The Peshmerga are a separate armed force loyal to the Kurdistan Regional Government. The regional government and the central government disagree as to whether they are under Baghdad's authority and to what extent.","Iraq\n\nThe Iraqi Army is an objective counter-insurgency force that as of November 2009 includes 14 divisions, each division consisting of 4 brigades. It is described as the most important element of the counter-insurgency fight. Light infantry brigades are equipped with small arms, machine guns, RPGs, body armour and light armoured vehicles. Mechanized infantry brigades are equipped with T-54/55 main battle tanks and BMP-1 infantry fighting vehicles. As of mid-2008, logistical problems included a maintenance crisis and ongoing supply problems.","Iraq\n\nThe Iraqi Air Force is designed to support ground forces with surveillance, reconnaissance and troop lift. Two reconnaissance squadrons use light aircraft, three helicopter squadrons are used to move troops and one air transportation squadron uses C-130 transport aircraft to move troops, equipment, and supplies. It currently has 3,000 personnel. It is planned to increase to 18,000 personnel, with 550 aircraft by 2018.","Iraq\n\nThe Iraqi Navy is a small force with 1,500 sailors and officers, including 800 Marines, designed to protect shoreline and inland waterways from insurgent infiltration. The navy is also responsible for the security of offshore oil platforms. The navy will have coastal patrol squadrons, assault boat squadrons and a marine battalion. The force will consist of 2,000 to 2,500 sailors by year 2010.","Iraq\n\nForeign relations","Iraq\n\nOn November 17, 2008, the US and Iraq agreed to a Status of Forces Agreement, as part of the broader Strategic Framework Agreement. This agreement states \"the Government of Iraq requests\" US forces to temporarily remain in Iraq to \"maintain security and stability,\" and that Iraq has jurisdiction over military contractors, and US personnel when not on US bases or on–duty.","Iraq\n\nOn 12 February 2009, Iraq officially became the 186th State Party to the Chemical Weapons Convention. Under the provisions of this treaty, Iraq is considered a party with declared stockpiles of chemical weapons. Because of their late accession, Iraq is the only State Party exempt from the existing timeline for destruction of their chemical weapons. Specific criteria is in development to address the unique nature of Iraqi accession.","Iraq\n\nIran–Iraq relations have flourished since 2005 by the exchange of high level visits: Iraqi PM Nouri al-Maliki made frequent visits to Iran, along with Jalal Talabani visiting numerous times, to help boost bilateral co-operation in all fields. A conflict occurred in December 2009, when Iraq accused Iran of seizing an oil well on the border.","Iraq\n\nRelationships with Turkey are tense, largely because of the Kurdistan Regional Government, as clashes between Turkey and the PKK continue. In October 2011, the Turkish parliament renewed a law that gives Turkish forces the ability to pursue rebels over the border in Iraq.\"","Iraq\n\nHuman rights","Iraq\n\nRelations between Iraq and its Kurdish population have been sour in recent history, especially with Saddam Hussein's genocidal campaign against them in the 1980s. After uprisings during the early 90s, many Kurds fled their homeland and no-fly zones were established in northern Iraq to prevent more conflicts. Despite historically poor relations, some progress has been made, and Iraq elected its first Kurdish president, Jalal Talabani, in 2005. Furthermore, Kurdish is now an official language of Iraq alongside Arabic according to Article 4 of the constitution.","Iraq\n\nLGBT rights in Iraq remain limited. Although decriminalised, homosexuality remains stigmatised in Iraqi society. Targeting people because of their gender identity or sexual orientation is not uncommon and is usually carried out in the name of family honour. People who dress in emo style are mistakenly associated with homosexuality and may suffer the same fate. A BBC article published in 2009, which includes interviews of homosexual and transgender Iraqis, suggests that LGBT people were less subject to violence under Hussein's regime.","Iraq\n\nAdministrative divisions","Iraq\n\nIraq is composed of nineteen governorates (or provinces) (Arabic: muhafadhat (singular muhafadhah); Kurdish: پارێزگا Pârizgah). The governorates are subdivided into districts (or qadhas), which are further divided into sub-districts (or nawāḥī). Iraqi Kurdistan (Erbil, Dohuk, Sulaymaniyah and Halabja) is the only legally defined region within Iraq, with its own government and quasi-official army Peshmerga.","Iraq\n\nEconomy","Iraq\n\nIraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. The lack of development in other sectors has resulted in 18%–30% unemployed and a depressed per capita GDP of $4,000. Public sector employment accounted for nearly 60% of full-time employment in 2011. The oil export industry, which dominates the Iraqi economy, generates very little employment. Currently only a modest percentage of women (the highest estimate for 2011 was 22%) participate in the labour force.","Iraq\n\nPrior to US occupation, Iraq's centrally planned economy prohibited foreign ownership of Iraqi businesses, ran most large industries as state-owned enterprises, and imposed large tariffs to keep out foreign goods. After the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, the Coalition Provisional Authority quickly began issuing many binding orders privatising Iraq's economy and opening it up to foreign investment.","Iraq\n\nOn November 20, 2004, the Paris Club of creditor nations agreed to write off 80% ($33 billion) of Iraq's $42 billion debt to Club members. Iraq's total external debt was around $120 billion at the time of the 2003 invasion, and had grown another $5 billion by 2004. The debt relief will be implemented in three stages: two of 30% each and one of 20%.","Iraq\n\nIn February 2011, Citigroup included Iraq in a group of countries which it described as 'Global Growth Generators', that it argued will enjoy significant economic growth in the future.","Iraq\n\nThe official currency in Iraq is the Iraqi dinar. The Coalition Provisional Authority issued new dinar coins and notes, with the notes printed by De La Rue using modern anti-forgery techniques. Jim Cramer's October 20, 2009 endorsement of the Iraqi Dinar on CNBC has further piqued interest in the investment.","Iraq\n\nFive years after the invasion, an estimated 2.4 million people were internally displaced (with a further two million refugees outside Iraq), four million Iraqis were considered food-insecure (a quarter of children were chronically malnourished) and only a third of Iraqi children had access to safe drinking water.","Iraq\n\nAccording to the Overseas Development Institute, international NGOs face challenges in carrying out their mission, leaving their assistance \"piecemeal and largely conducted undercover, hindered by insecurity, a lack of coordinated funding, limited operational capacity and patchy information\". International NGOs have been targeted and during the first 5 years, 94 aid workers were killed, 248 injured, 24 arrested or detained and 89 kidnapped or abducted.","Iraq\n\nOil and energy","Iraq\n\nWith its of proved oil reserves, Iraq ranks second in the world behind Saudi Arabia in the amount of oil reserves. Oil production levels reached 3.4 million barrels per day by December 2012. Iraq intends to increase its production to 5 million barrels per day by 2014. Only about 2,000 oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared with about 1 million wells in Texas alone. Iraq was one of the founding members of OPEC.","Iraq\n\n, despite improved security and billions of dollars in oil revenue, Iraq still generates about half the electricity that customers demand, leading to protests during the hot summer months.","Iraq\n\nThe Iraq oil law is a proposed piece of legislation submitted to the Iraqi Council of Representatives in May 2007. The Iraqi government has yet to reach an agreement on the law.","Iraq\n\nAccording to a US Study from May 2007, between 100000 oilbbl/d and 300000 oilbbl/d of Iraq's declared oil production over the past four years could have been siphoned off through corruption or smuggling. In 2008, Al Jazeera reported $13 billion of Iraqi oil revenues in US care was improperly accounted for, of which $2.6 billion is totally unaccounted for. Some reports that the government has reduced corruption in public procurement of oil; however, reliable reports of bribery and kickbacks to government officials continue to persist.","Iraq\n\nIn June 2008, the Iraqi Oil Ministry announced plans to go ahead with small one- or two-year no-bid contracts to Exxon Mobil, Shell, Total and BP — once partners in the Iraq Petroleum Company — along with Chevron and smaller firms to service Iraq's largest fields. These plans were cancelled in September because negotiations had stalled for so long that the work could not be completed within the time frame, according to Iraqi oil minister Hussain al-Shahristani. Several United States senators had also criticised the deal, arguing it was hindering efforts to pass the hydrocarbon law.","Iraq\n\nOn June 30 and December 11, 2009, the Iraqi ministry of oil awarded service contracts to international oil companies for some of Iraq's many oil fields. Oil fields contracted include the \"super-giant\" Majnoon Field, Halfaya Field, West Qurna Field and Rumaila Field. BP and China National Petroleum Corporation won a deal to develop Rumaila, the largest Iraqi oil field.","Iraq\n\nOn March 14, 2014, the International Energy Agency said Iraq's oil output jumped by half a million barrels a day in February to average 3.6 million barrels a day. The country hadn't pumped that much oil since 1979, when Saddam Hussein rose to power. On July 14, 2014 however as sectarian strife had taken hold, Kurdistan Regional Government forces seized control of the Bai Hassan and Kirkuk oilfields in the north of the country, taking them from Iraq's control. Baghdad condemned the seizure and threatened \"dire consequences\" if the fields were not returned.","Iraq\n\nWater supply and sanitation","Iraq\n\nWater supply and sanitation in Iraq is characterized by poor water and service quality. Three decades of war, combined with limited environmental awareness, have destroyed Iraq's water resources management system. \nAccess to potable water differs significantly among governorates and between urban and rural areas.\n91% of the entire population has access to potable water. But in rural areas, only 77% of the population has access to improved drinking water sources compared to 98% in urban areas. \nAlso, large amounts of water are wasted during production.","Iraq\n\nInfrastructure","Iraq\n\nAlthough many infrastructure projects are underway, Iraq remains in deep housing crisis, with the war-ravaged country likely to complete only 5 percent of the 2.5 million homes it needs to build by 2016 to keep up with demand, the Minister for Construction and Housing said in September 2013. \n* In 2009, the IBBC was established ([http://www.webuildiraq.org/ Iraq Britain Business Council]). The Council was established by Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne.\n* In August 2009, two American firms reached a deal with the Iraqi Government to build Basra Sports City, a new sports complex. Basra Sports City will be the venue for the 2014 Gulf Cup of Nations.\n* In October 2012, the Emirati property firm, Emaar Properties reached a deal with the Iraqi Ministry of Construction and Housing to build and develop housing and commercial projects in Iraq.\n* In January 2013, the Emirati property firm, Nakheel Properties signed a deal to build Al Nakheel City, a future town in Basra, Iraq.","Iraq\n\nDemographics","Iraq\n\nAn April 2009 estimate of the total Iraqi population is 31,234,000. Iraq's population was estimated to be 2 million in 1878. Iraq's population has reached 35 million amid a post-war population boom.","Iraq\n\nEthnic groups","Iraq\n\nArabs form 75%–80% of the population. 15% of Iraq's population are Kurds. Assyrians, Turkmen and other much smaller minorities such as Mandeans, Armenians, Circassians, Iranians, Shabakis, Yazidis and Kawliya make up the remainder 5%-10% of the population. Around 20,000 Marsh Arabs live in southern Iraq.","Iraq\n\nIraq has a community of 2,500 Chechens. In southern Iraq there is a community of Iraqis of African descent, a legacy of the slavery practised in the Islamic Caliphate beginning before the Zanj Rebellion of the 9th century, and Basra's role as a key port. It is the most populous country in the Arabian Plate.","Iraq\n\nLanguages","Iraq\n\nArabic is the majority language; Kurdish is spoken by approximately 10–15% of the population; and Turkmen, the Neo-Aramaic language of the Assyrians and others, by 5%. Other smaller minority languages include Mandaic, Shabaki, Armenian, Circassian and Persian. Arabic, Kurdish, Persian, and South Azeri are written with versions of the Arabic script, the Neo-Aramaic languages in the Syriac script and Armenian is written in the Armenian script.","Iraq\n\nPrior to the invasion in 2003, Arabic was the sole official language. Since the new Constitution of Iraq approved in June 2004, both Arabic and Kurdish are official languages, while Assyrian Neo-Aramaic and Turkmen language (referred to as respectively \"Syriac\" and \"Turkmen\" in the constitution) are recognised regional languages. In addition, any region or province may declare other languages official if a majority of the population approves in a general referendum.","Iraq\n\nAccording to the Iraqi constitution: \"The Arabic language and the Kurdish language are the two official languages of Iraq. The right of Iraqis to educate their children in their mother tongue, such as Turkmen, Assyrian, and Armenian shall be guaranteed in government educational institutions in accordance with educational guidelines, or in any other language in private educational institutions\".","Iraq\n\nUrban areas","Iraq\n\nReligion","Iraq\n\nIraq is a Muslim-majority country; Islam accounts for an estimated 95% of the population, while non-Muslims (mainly Assyrian Christians) account for just 5%. It has a mixed Shia and Sunni population. The CIA Factbook estimate that around 65% of Muslims in Iraq are Shia, and around 35% are Sunni. A 2011 Pew Research Center estimates that 51% of Muslims in Iraq are Shia, 42% are Sunni, while 5% identify themselves as \"Just a Muslim\".","Iraq\n\nThe Sunni population complains of facing discrimination in almost all aspects of life by the government. However, Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki denied it. \nChristians have lived in the area for about 2,000 years, and many descend from the pre-Arab ancient Mesopotamians-Assyrians. They numbered over 1.4 million in 1987 or 8% of the estimate population of 16.3 million and 550,000 in 1947 or 12% of the population.","Iraq\n\nIndigenous Neo Aramaic speaking Assyrians, most of whom are adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church, Assyrian Church of the East, Assyrian Pentecostal Church and Syriac Orthodox Church account for most of the Christian population. Estimates for the numbers of Christians suggest a decline from 8–12% in the mid-20th century to 5% in 2008. More than half of Iraqi Christians have fled to neighbouring countries since the start of the war, and many have not returned, although a number are migrating back to the traditional Assyrian homeland in the Kurdish Autonomous region.","Iraq\n\nThere are also small ethno-religious minority populations of Mandaeans, Shabaks, Yarsan and Yezidis. The Iraqi Jewish community, numbering around 150,000 in 1941, has almost entirely left the country.","Iraq\n\nIraq is home to two of the world's holiest places among Shias: Najaf and Karbala.","Iraq\n\nDiaspora and refugees","Iraq\n\nThe dispersion of native Iraqis to other countries is known as the Iraqi diaspora. The UN High Commission for Refugees has estimated that nearly two million Iraqis have fled the country after the Multi-National invasion of Iraq in 2003, mostly to Syria and Jordan. The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre estimates an additional 1.9 million are currently displaced within the country.","Iraq\n\nIn 2007, the U.N. said that about 40% of Iraq's middle class is believed to have fled and that most are fleeing systematic persecution and have no desire to return. Refugees are mired in poverty as they are generally barred from working in their host countries. \nIn recent years the diaspora seems to be returning with the increased security; the Iraqi government claimed that 46,000 refugees have returned to their homes in October 2007 alone.","Iraq\n\n, nearly 3 million Iraqis have been displaced, with 1.3 million within the Iraq and 1.6 million in neighbouring countries, mainly Jordan and Syria. More than half of Iraqi Christians have fled the country since the 2003 US-led invasion. According to official United States Citizenship and Immigration Services statistics, 58,811 Iraqis have been granted refugee-status citizenship as of May 25, 2011.","Iraq\n\nTo escape the civil war, over 160,000 Syrian refugees of varying ethnicities have fled to Iraq since 2012. Increasing violence during the Syrian civil war led to an increasing numbers of Iraqis returning to their native country.","Iraq\n\nHealth","Iraq\n\nIn 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 6.84% of the country's GDP. In 2008, there were 6.96 physicians and 13.92 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants. The life expectancy at birth was 68.49 years in 2010, or 65.13 years for males and 72.01 years for females. This is down from a peak life expectancy of 71.31 years in 1996.","Iraq\n\nIraq had developed a centralised free health care system in the 1970s using a hospital based, capital-intensive model of curative care. The country depended on large-scale imports of medicines, medical equipment and even nurses, paid for with oil export income, according to a \"Watching Brief\" report issued jointly by the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in July 2003.\nUnlike other poorer countries, which focused on mass health care using primary care practitioners, Iraq developed a Westernized system of sophisticated hospitals with advanced medical procedures, provided by specialist physicians. The UNICEF/WHO report noted that prior to 1990, 97% of the urban dwellers and 71% of the rural population had access to free primary health care; just 2% of hospital beds were privately managed.","Iraq\n\nEducation","Iraq\n\nThe CIA World Factbook estimates that in 2000 the adult literacy rate was 84% for males and 64% for females, with UN figures suggesting a small fall in literacy of Iraqis aged 15–24 between 2000 and 2008, from 84.8% to 82.4%. The Coalition Provisional Authority undertook a complete reform of Iraq's education system: Baathist ideology was removed from curricula and there were substantial increases in teacher salaries and training programs, which the Hussein regime neglected in the 1990s. In 2003 an estimated 80% of Iraq's 15,000 school buildings needed rehabilitation and lacked basic sanitary facilities, and most schools lacked libraries and laboratories.","Iraq\n\nEducation is mandatory only through the sixth grade, after which a national examination determines the possibility of continuing into the upper grades. Although a vocational track is available to those who do not pass the exam, few students elect that option because of its poor quality. Boys and girls generally attend separate schools beginning with seventh grade.","Iraq\n\nIn 2005 obstacles to further reform were poor security conditions in many areas, a centralised system that lacked accountability for teachers and administrators, and the isolation in which the system functioned for the previous 30 years. Few private schools exist. Prior to the invasion of 2003, some 240,000 persons were enrolled in institutions of higher education.","Iraq\n\nAccording to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the University of Dohuk (1717th worldwide), the University of Baghdad (3160th) and Babylon University (3946th).","Iraq\n\nCulture","Iraq\n\nPublic holidays in Iraq include Republic Day on July 14 and the National Day on October 3.","Iraq\n\nMusic","Iraq\n\nIraq is known primarily for its rich maqam heritage which has been passed down orally by the masters of the maqam in an unbroken chain of transmission leading up to the present. The maqam al-Iraqi is considered to be the most noble and perfect form of maqam. Al-maqam al-Iraqi is the collection of sung poems written either in one of the sixteen meters of classical Arabic or in Iraqi dialect (Zuhayri). This form of art is recognised by UNESCO as \"an intangible heritage of humanity\".","Iraq\n\nEarly in the 20th century, many of the most prominent musicians in Iraq were Jewish. In 1936, Iraq Radio was established with an ensemble made up entirely of Jews, with the exception of the percussion player. At the nightclubs of Baghdad, ensembles consisted of oud, qanun and two percussionists, while the same format with a ney and cello were used on the radio.","Iraq\n\nThe most famous singer of the 1930s–1940s was perhaps the Jew Salima Pasha (later Salima Murad). The respect and adoration for Pasha were unusual at the time since public performance by women was considered shameful, and most female singers were recruited from brothels.","Iraq\n\nThe most famous early composer from Iraq was Ezra Aharon, an oud player, while the most prominent instrumentalist was Daoud Al-Kuwaiti. Daoud and his brother Saleh formed the official ensemble for the Iraqi radio station and were responsible for introducing the cello and ney into the traditional ensemble.","Iraq\n\nArt and architecture","Iraq\n\nImportant cultural institutions in the capital include the Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra – rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during the Occupation of Iraq but have since returned to normal. The National Theatre of Iraq was looted during the 2003 invasion, but efforts are underway to restore it. The live theatre scene received a boost during the 1990s when UN sanctions limited the import of foreign films. As many as 30 cinemas were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions.","Iraq\n\nInstitutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include the Academy of Music, Institute of Fine Arts and the Music and Ballet school Baghdad. Baghdad also features a number of museums including the National Museum of Iraq – which houses the world's largest and finest collection of artefacts and relics of Ancient Iraqi civilisations; some of which were stolen during the Occupation of Iraq.","Iraq\n\nThe capital, Ninus or Nineveh, was taken by the Medes under Cyaxares, and some 200 years after Xenophon passed over its site, then mere mounds of earth. It remained buried until 1845, when Botta and Layard discovered the ruins of the Assyrian cities. The principal remains are those of Khorsabad, 10 mi N.E. of Mosul; of Nimroud, supposed to be the ancient Calah; and of Kouyunjik, in all probability the ancient Nineveh. In these cities are found fragments of several great buildings which seem to have been palace-temples. They were constructed chiefly of sun-dried bricks, and all that remains of them is the lower part of the walls, decorated with sculpture and paintings, portions of the pavements, a few indications of the elevation, and some interesting works connected with the drainage.","Iraq\n\nMedia","Iraq\n\nAfter the end of the full state control in 2003, there were a period of significant growth in the broadcast media in Iraq. Immediately, and the ban on satellite dishes is no longer in place, and by mid-2003, according to a BBC report, there were 20 radio stations from 0.15 to 17 television stations owned by Iraqis, and 200 Iraqi newspapers owned and operated. Significantly, there have been many of these newspapers in numbers disproportionate to the population of their locations. For example, in Najaf, which has a population of 300,000, is being published more than 30 newspapers and distributed.","Iraq\n\nIraqi media expert and author of a number of reports on this subject, Ibrahim Al Marashi, identifies four stages of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 where they had been taking the steps that have significant effects on the way for the later of the Iraqi media since then. Stages are: pre-invasion preparation, and the war and the actual choice of targets, the first post-war period, and a growing insurgency and hand over power to the Iraqi Interim Government (IIG) and Prime Minister Iyad Allawi.","Iraq\n\nCuisine","Iraq\n\nIraqi cuisine has a long history going back some 10,000 years – to the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Ancient Persians. Tablets found in ancient ruins in Iraq show recipes prepared in the temples during religious festivals – the first cookbooks in the world. Ancient Iraq, or Mesopotamia, was home to many sophisticated and highly advanced civilisations, in all fields of knowledge – including the culinary arts. However, it was in the medieval era when Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate that the Iraqi kitchen reached its zenith. Today the cuisine of Iraq reflects this rich inheritance as well as strong influences from the culinary traditions of neighbouring Turkey, Iran and the Greater Syria area.","Iraq\n\nSome characteristic ingredients of Iraqi cuisine include – vegetables such as aubergine, tomato, okra, onion, potato, courgette, garlic, peppers and chilli, cereals such as rice, bulgur wheat and barley, pulses and legumes such as lentils, chickpeas and cannellini, fruits such as dates, raisins, apricots, figs, grapes, melon, pomegranate and citrus fruits, especially lemon and lime.","Iraq\n\nSimilarly with other countries of Western Asia, chicken and especially lamb are the favourite meats. Most dishes are served with rice – usually Basmati, grown in the marshes of southern Iraq. Bulgur wheat is used in many dishes – having been a staple in the country since the days of the Ancient Assyrians.","Iraq\n\nSport","Iraq\n\nFootball is the most popular sport in Iraq. Football is a considerable uniting factor in Iraq following years of war and unrest. Basketball, swimming, weightlifting, bodybuilding, boxing, kick boxing and tennis are also popular sports.","Iraq\n\nThe Iraqi Football Association is the governing body of football in Iraq, controlling the Iraqi National Team and the Iraqi Premier League (also known as Dawri Al-Nokba). It was founded in 1948, and has been a member of FIFA since 1950 and the Asian Football Confederation since 1971. The biggest club in Iraq is Al Shorta, who won back-to-back league titles in 2013 and 2014 and were the first ever winners of the Arab Champions League. The Iraqi National Football Team were the 2007 AFC Asian Cup champions after defeating Saudi Arabia in the final by 1-0 thanks to a goal by captain Younis Mahmoud and they have participated in two FIFA competitions (the 1986 FIFA World Cup and the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup).","Iraq\n\nTechnology","Iraq\n\nMobile phones","Iraq\n\nDespite having mobile phones in the middle east since 1995, Iraqis were only able to use mobile phones after 2003. Mobile phones were banned under Saddam's rule.\nCurrently upwards to 78% of Iraqis own a mobile phone.","Iraq\n\nSatellite","Iraq\n\nAccording to Iraqi Ministry of Communication, Iraq is now in the second phase of building and launching a multipurpose strategic satellite.","Iraq\n\nA project which expected to cost $600 million is ongoing in co-operation with market leaders such as Astrium and Arianespace.","Iraq\n\nUndersea cable","Iraq\n\nOn the 18th January 2012 Iraq was connected to the undersea communications network for the first time.","Iraq\n\nThis had an immense impact on internet speed, availability and usage in Iraq.","Iraq\n\nOn 2 October 2013, the Iraqi Minister for Communication ordered the internet prices to be lowered by a third. This is an attempt to boost usage and comes as a result of significant improvements in Internet infrastructure in the country.","Baghdad\n\nBaghdad ( ', , Iraqi pronunciation:) is the capital of the Republic of Iraq. The population of Baghdad, , is approximately 7,216,040, making it the largest city in Iraq,Estimates of total population differ substantially. The Encyclopædia Britannica gives a 2001 population of 4,950,000, the 2006 Lancet Report states a population of 7,216,050 in 2011.\n*[http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9109394 \"Baghdad\"] Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13 November 2006.\n*. By Gilbert Burnham, Riyadh Lafta, Shannon Doocy, and Les Roberts. The Lancet, October 11, 2006\n*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/baghdad.htm Baghdad] from GlobalSecurity.org\n[http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/Iraq.htm \"Cities and urban areas in Iraq with population over 100,000\"], Mongabay.com the second largest city in the Arab world (after Cairo, Egypt), and the second largest city in Western Asia (after Tehran, Iran). According to the government, the population of the country has reached 35 million, with 9 million in the capital.","Baghdad\n\nLocated along the Tigris River, the city was founded in the 8th century and became the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. Within a short time of its inception, Baghdad evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center for the Islamic world. This, in addition to housing several key academic institutions (e.g. House of Wisdom), garnered the city a worldwide reputation as the \"Center of Learning\".","Baghdad\n\nThroughout the High Middle Ages, Baghdad was considered to be the largest city in the world with an estimated population of 1,200,000 people. The city was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires. With the recognition of Iraq as an independent state (formerly the British Mandate of Mesopotamia) in 1938, Baghdad gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center of Arab culture.","Baghdad\n\nIn contemporary times, the city has often faced severe infrastructural damage, most recently due to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and the subsequent Iraq War that lasted until December 2011. In recent years, the city has been frequently subjected to insurgency attacks. , Baghdad was listed as one of the least hospitable places in the world to live, and was ranked by Mercer as the worst of 221 major cities as measured by quality-of-life.","Baghdad\n\nEtymology","Baghdad\n\nThe name Baghdad is pre-Islamic. The site where the city of Baghdad came to stand has been populated for millennia and by the 8th century AD several (Assyrian Christian) villages had developed there, including a Persian hamlet called Baghdad, the name which would come to be used for the Abbasid metropolis.","Baghdad\n\nThe name is of Indo-European origin and a Middle Persian compound of Bagh () \"god\" and dād () \"given by\", translating to \"Bestowed by God\" or \"God's gift\". In Old Persian the first element can be traced to boghu and is related to Slavic bog \"god\", while the second can be traced to dadāti. A similar term in Middle Persian is the name Mithradāt (Mihrdād in New Persian), known in English by its Hellenistic form Mithridates meaning \"gift of Mithra\" (dāt is the more archaic form of dād, related to Latin dat and English donor). There are a number of other locations in the wider region whose names are compounds of the word bagh, including Baghlan and Bagram in Afghanistan or a village called Bagh-šan in Iran.","Baghdad\n\nThe name has been used as Baghdadu on Assyrian cuneiform and Babylonian records going back to at least 2000 BC. Baghdad, as a name, had been mentioned as Baghdadu on the Assyrian cuneiform records of the 9th century BC, and Babylonian bricks bearing the Royal Seal of King Nebuchadnezzar (6th century BC) were found in the Tigris. An inscription by Nebuchadnezzar (600 BC) describes how he rebuilt the old Babylonian town of Bagh-dadu.","Baghdad\n\nWhen the Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, founded a completely new city for his capital, he chose the name Madinat al-Salaam or City of Peace. This was the official name on coins, weights, and other official usage, although the common people continued to use the old name. By the 11th century, \"Baghdad\" became almost the exclusive name for the world-renowned metropolis.","Baghdad\n\nHistory","Baghdad\n\nFoundation","Baghdad\n\nAfter the fall of the Umayyads, the first Muslim dynasty, the victorious Abbasid rulers wanted their own capital to rule from. Choosing a site north of the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon (and also just north of where ancient Babylon once stood), on 30 July 762, the caliph Al-Mansur commissioned the construction of the city, and it was built under the supervision of the Barmakids. Mansur believed that Baghdad was the perfect city to be the capital of the Islamic empire under the Abbasids. Mansur loved the site so much he is quoted saying, \"This is indeed the city that I am to found, where I am to live, and where my descendants will reign afterward\".","Baghdad\n\nThe city's growth was helped by its excellent location, based on at least two factors: it had control over strategic and trading routes along the Tigris; the abundance of water in a dry climate. Water exists on both the north and south ends of the city, allowing all households to have a plentiful supply, which was very uncommon during this time.","Baghdad\n\nBaghdad eclipsed Ctesiphon, the capital of the Persian Empire, which was located some 30 km to the southeast. Today, all that remains of Ctesiphon is the shrine town of Salman Pak, just to the south of Greater Baghdad. Ctesiphon itself had replaced and absorbed Seleucia, the first capital of the Seleucid Empire. Seleucia had earlier replaced the city of Babylon.","Baghdad\n\nIn its early years, the city was known as a deliberate reminder of an expression in the Qur'an, when it refers to Paradise. It took four years to build (764-768). Mansur assembled engineers, surveyors, and art constructionists from around the world to come together and draw up plans for the city. Over 100,000 construction workers came to survey the plans; many were distributed salaries to start the building of the city. July was chosen as the starting time because two Astrologers, Naubakht Ahvazi and Mashallah, believed that the city should be built under the sign of the lion, Leo. Leo is associated with fire and symbolises productivity, pride, and expansion.","Baghdad\n\nThe bricks used to make the city were 18 in on all four sides. Abū Ḥanīfa was the counter of the bricks and he developed a canal, which brought water to the work site for the use of both human consumption and the manufacturing of the bricks. Marble was also used to make buildings throughout the city, and marble steps led down to the river's edge.","Baghdad\n\nThe basic framework of the city consists of two large semicircles about 19 km in diameter. The city was designed as a circle about 2 km in diameter, leading it to be known as the \"Round City\". The original design shows as single ring of residential and commercial structures along the inside of the city walls, but the final construction added another ring inside the first. Within the city there were many parks, gardens, villas, and promenades. In the center of the city lay the mosque, as well as headquarters for guards. The purpose or use of the remaining space in the center is unknown. The circular design of the city was a direct reflection of the traditional Persian Sasanian urban design. The Sasanian city of Gur in Fars, built 500 years before Baghdad, is nearly identical in its general circular design, radiating avenues, and the government buildings and temples at the centre of the city. This style of urban planning contrasted with Ancient Greek and Roman urban planning, in which cities are designed as squares or rectangles with streets intersecting each other at right angles.","Baghdad\n\nSurrounding walls","Baghdad\n\nThe four surrounding walls of Baghdad were named Kufa, Basra, Khurasan, and Syria; named because their gates pointed in the directions of these destinations. The distance between these gates was a little less than . Each gate had double doors that were made of iron; the doors were so heavy it took several men to open and close them. The wall itself was about 44 m thick at the base and about 12 m thick at the top. Also, the wall was 30 m high, which included merlons, a solid part of an embattled parapet usually pierced by embrasures. This wall was surrounded by another wall with a thickness of 50 m. The second wall had towers and rounded merlons, which surrounded the towers. This outer wall was protected by a solid glacis, which is made out of bricks and quicklime. Beyond the outer wall was a water-filled moat.","Baghdad\n\nGolden Gate Palace","Baghdad\n\nIn the middle of Baghdad, in the central square was the Golden Gate Palace. The Palace was the residence of the caliph and his family. In the central part of the building was a green dome that was 39 m high. Surrounding the palace was an esplanade, a waterside building, in which only the caliph could come riding on horseback. In addition, the palace was near other mansions and officer's residences. Near the Gate of Syria a building served as the home for the guards. It was made of brick and marble. The palace governor lived in the latter part of the building and the commander of the guards in the front. In 813, after the death of caliph Al-Amin the palace was no longer used as the home for the caliph and his family. \nThe roundness points to the fact that it was based on Arabic script. The two designers who were hired by Al-Mansur to plan the city's design were Naubakht, a Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city would be astrologically auspicious, and Mashallah, a Jew from Khorasan, Iran.","Baghdad\n\nAbbasids and the round city","Baghdad\n\nThe Abbasid Caliphate was based on their being the descendants of the uncle of Muhammad and being part of the Quraysh tribe. They used Shi'a resentment, Khorasanian movement, and appeals to the ambitions and traditions of the newly conquered Persian aristocracy to overthrow the Umayyads. \nThe Abbasids sought to combine the hegemony of the Arab tribes with the imperial, court, ceremonial, and administrative structures of the Persians. The Abbasids considered themselves the inherittures and the need of Mansur to place the capital in a place that was representative of Arab-Islamic identity by building the House of Wisdom, where ancient texts were translated from their original language, such as Greek, to Arabic. Mansur is credited with the \"Translation Movement\" for this. Further, Baghdad is also near the ancient Sassanid imperial seat of Ctesiphon on the Tigris River.","Baghdad\n\nCenter of learning (8th to 13th centuries)","Baghdad\n\nWithin a generation of its founding, Baghdad became a hub of learning and commerce. The House of Wisdom was an establishment dedicated to the translation of Greek, Middle Persian and Syriac works. Scholars headed to Baghdad from all over the Abbasid Caliphate, facilitating the introduction of Persian, Greek and Indian science into the Arabic and Islamic world at that time. Baghdad was likely the largest city in the world from shortly after its foundation until the 930s, when it was tied by Córdoba. \nSeveral estimates suggest that the city contained over a million inhabitants at its peak. Many of the One Thousand and One Nights tales are set in Baghdad during this period.","Baghdad\n\nAmong the notable features of Baghdad during this period were its exceptional libraries. Many of the Abbasid caliphs were patrons of learning and enjoyed collecting both ancient and contemporary literature. Although some of the princes of the previous Umayyad dynasty had begun to gather and translate Greek scientific literature, the Abbasids were the first to foster Greek learning on a large scale. Many of these libraries were private collections intended only for the use of the owners and their immediate friends, but the libraries of the caliphs and other officials soon took on a public or a semi-public character.Mackensen, Ruth Stellhorn . (1932). Four Great Libraries of Medieval Baghdad. The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy, Vol. 2, No. 3 (Jul., 1932), pp. 279-299. University of Chicago Press. Four great libraries were established in Baghdad during this period. The earliest was that of the famous Al Mamun, who was caliph from 813 to 833. Another was established by Sabur Ibn Ardashir in 991 or 993 for the literary men and scholars who frequented his academy. Unfortunately, this second library was plundered and burned by the Seljuks only seventy years after it was established.","Baghdad\n\nThis was a good example of the sort of library built up out of the needs and interests of a literary society. The last two were examples of madrasa or theological college libraries. The Nizamiyah was founded by the Persian Nizam al Mulk, who was vizier of two early Seljuk sultans. It continued to operate even after the coming of the Mongols in 1258. The Mustansiriyah madrasa, which owned an exceedingly rich library, was founded by Al Mustansir, the second last Abbasid caliph, who died in 1242. This would prove to be the last great library built by the caliphs of Baghdad.","Baghdad\n\nEnd of the Abbasids in Baghdad","Baghdad\n\nBy the 10th century, the city's population was between 1.2 millionGeorge Modelski, World Cities: –3000 to 2000, Washington, D.C.: FAROS 2000, 2003. ISBN 978-0-9676230-1-6. See also [http://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/ Evolutionary World Politics Homepage]. and 2 million. Baghdad's early meteoric growth eventually slowed due to troubles within the Caliphate, including relocations of the capital to Samarra (during 808–819 and 836–892), the loss of the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political domination by the Iranian Buwayhids (945–1055) and Seljuk Turks (1055–1135).","Baghdad\n\nThe Seljuks were a clan of the Oghuz Turks from the Central Asia that converted to the Sunni branch of Islam. In 1040, they destroyed the Ghaznavids, taking over their land and in 1055, Tughril Beg, the leader of the Seljuks, took over Baghdad. The Seljuks expelled the Buyid dynasty of Shiites that ruled for some time and took over power and control of Baghdad. They ruled as Sultans in the name of the Abbasid caliphs (they saw themselves as being part of the Abbasid regime). Tughril Beg saw himself as the protector of the Abbasid Caliphs.","Baghdad\n\nWars in which Baghdad was involved are listed below:","Baghdad\n\n* Siege of Baghdad (812–813), Fourth Fitna (Islamic Civil War)\n* Siege of Baghdad (865), Caliphal Civil War (865–866)\n* Battle of Baghdad (946), Buyid–Hamdanid War\n* Siege of Baghdad (1157), Abbasid–Seljuq Wars\n* Siege of Baghdad (1258), Mongol conquest of Baghdad\n* Siege of Baghdad (1401), by Tamerlane\n* Capture of Baghdad (1534), Ottoman–Safavid Wars\n* Capture of Baghdad (1623), Ottoman–Safavid Wars\n* Siege of Baghdad (1625), Ottoman–Safavid Wars\n* Capture of Baghdad (1638), Ottoman–Safavid Wars\n* Fall of Baghdad (1917), World War I\n* 1941 Iraqi coup d'état, World War II\n* Battle of Baghdad (2003), United States invasion of Iraq","Baghdad\n\nIn 1058, Baghdad was captured by the Fatimids under the Turkish general Abu'l-Ḥārith Arslān al-Basasiri, an adherent of the Ismailis along with the 'Uqaylid Quraysh. Not long before the arrival of the Saljuqs in Baghdad, al-Basasiri petitioned to the Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir to support him in conquering Baghdad on the Ismaili Imam's behalf. It has recently come to light that the famed Fatimid da'i, al-Mu'ayyad al-Shirazi, had a direct role in supporting al-Basasiri and helped the general to succeed in taking Mawṣil, Wāsit and Kufa. Soon after, by December 1058, a Shi'i adhān (call to prayer) was implemented in Baghdad and a khutbah (sermon) was delivered in the name of the Fatimid Imam-Caliph. Despite his Shi'i inclinations, Al-Basasiri received support from Sunnis and Shi'is alike, for whom opposition to the Saljuq power was a common factor.","Baghdad\n\nOn 10 February 1258, Baghdad was captured by the Mongols led by Hulegu, a grandson of Chingiz Khan (Genghis Khan), during the siege of Baghdad. Many quarters were ruined by fire, siege, or looting. The Mongols massacred most of the city's inhabitants, including the caliph Al-Musta'sim, and destroyed large sections of the city. The canals and dykes forming the city's irrigation system were also destroyed. During this time, in Baghdad, Christians and Shia were tolerated, while Sunnis were treated as enemies. The sack of Baghdad put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate, a blow from which the Islamic civilization never fully recovered.","Baghdad\n\nAt this point, Baghdad was ruled by the Ilkhanate, a breakaway state of the Mongol Empire, ruling from Iran. In 1401, Baghdad was again sacked, by the Central Asian Turkic conqueror Timur (\"Tamerlane\"). When his forces took Baghdad, he spared almost no one, and ordered that each of his soldiers bring back two severed human heads. It became a provincial capital controlled by the Mongol Jalayirid (1400–1411), Turkic Kara Koyunlu (1411–1469), Turkic Ak Koyunlu (1469–1508), and the Iranian Safavid (1508–1534) dynasties.","Baghdad\n\nOttoman era (16th to 19th centuries)","Baghdad\n\nIn 1534, Baghdad was captured by the Ottoman Turks. Under the Ottomans, Baghdad continued into a period of decline, partially as a result of the enmity between its rulers and Iranian Safavids, which did not accept the Sunni control of the city. Between 1623 and 1638, it returned to Iranian rule before falling back into Ottoman hands.","Baghdad\n\nBaghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague and cholera, and sometimes two-thirds of its population has been wiped out.","Baghdad\n\nFor a time, Baghdad had been the largest city in the Middle East. The city saw relative revival in the latter part of the 18th century under a Mamluk government. Direct Ottoman rule was reimposed by Ali Rıza Pasha in 1831. From 1851 to 1852 and from 1861 to 1867, Baghdad was governed, under the Ottoman Empire by Mehmed Namık Pasha. The Nuttall Encyclopedia reports the 1907 population of Baghdad as 185,000.","Baghdad\n\n20th and 21st centuries","Baghdad\n\nBaghdad and southern Iraq remained under Ottoman rule until 1917, when captured by the British during World War I. In 1920, Baghdad became the capital of the British Mandate of Mesopotamia and after receiving independence in 1932, the capital of the Kingdom of Iraq. The city's population grew from an estimated 145,000 in 1900 to 580,000 in 1950. During the Mandate, Baghdad's substantial Jewish community comprised a quarter of the city's population.","Baghdad\n\nOn 1 April 1941, members of the \"Golden Square\" and Rashid Ali staged a coup in Baghdad. Rashid Ali installed a pro-German and pro-Italian government to replace the pro-British government of Regent Abdul Ilah. On 31 May, after the resulting Anglo-Iraqi War and after Rashid Ali and his government had fled, the Mayor of Baghdad surrendered to British and Commonwealth forces.","Baghdad\n\nOn 14 July 1958, members of the Iraqi Army, under Abd al-Karim Qasim, staged a coup to topple the Kingdom of Iraq. King Faisal II, former Prime Minister Nuri as-Said, former Regent Prince 'Abd al-Ilah, members of the royal family, and others were brutally killed during the coup. Many of the victim's bodies were then dragged through the streets of Baghdad.","Baghdad\n\nDuring the 1970s, Baghdad experienced a period of prosperity and growth because of a sharp increase in the price of petroleum, Iraq's main export. New infrastructure including modern sewerage, water, and highway facilities were built during this period. The masterplans of the city (1967, 1973) were delivered by the Polish planning office Miastoprojekt-Kraków, mediated by Polservice. However, the Iran–Iraq War of the 1980s was a difficult time for the city, as money was diverted by Saddam Hussein to the army and thousands of residents were killed. Iran launched a number of missile attacks against Baghdad in retaliation for Saddam Hussein's continuous bombardments of Tehran's residential districts.","Baghdad\n\nIn 1991 and 2003, the Gulf War and the 2003 invasion of Iraq caused significant damage to Baghdad's transportation, power, and sanitary infrastructure as the US-led coalition forces launched massive aerial assaults in the city in the two wars. Also in 2003, the minor riot in the city (which took place on July 21) caused some disturbance in the population.","Baghdad\n\nThe historic \"Assyrian Quarter\" of the city, Dora, which boasted a population of 150,000 Assyrians in 2003, made up over 3% of the capital's Assyrian population then. The community has been subject to kidnappings, death threats, vandalism, and house burnings by Alqaida and other insurgent groups. As of the end of 2014, only 1,500 Assyrians remained in Dora.","Baghdad\n\nMain sights","Baghdad\n\nPoints of interest include the National Museum of Iraq whose priceless collection of artifacts was looted during the 2003 invasion, and the iconic Hands of Victory arches. Multiple Iraqi parties are in discussions as to whether the arches should remain as historical monuments or be dismantled. Thousands of ancient manuscripts in the National Library were destroyed under Saddam's command.","Baghdad\n\nMutanabbi Street","Baghdad\n\nMutanabbi Street (Arabic: شارع المتنبي) is located near the old quarter of Baghdad; at Al Rasheed Street. It is the historic center of Baghdad bookselling, a street filled with bookstores and outdoor book stalls. It was named after the 10th-century classical Iraqi poet Al-Mutanabbi. This street is well established for bookselling and has often been referred to as the heart and soul of the Baghdad literacy and intellectual community.","Baghdad\n\nBaghdad Zoo","Baghdad\n\nThe Baghdad Zoo was the largest zoo in the Middle East. Within eight days following the 2003 invasion, however, only 35 of the 650 animals in the facility survived. This was a result of theft of some animals for human food, and starvation of caged animals that had no food. South African Lawrence Anthony and some of the zoo keepers cared for the animals and fed the carnivores with donkeys they had bought locally. Eventually, L. Paul Bremer, Director of the Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq from May 11, 2003 to June 28, 2004 ordered protection of the zoo and U.S. engineers helped to reopen the facility.","Baghdad\n\nKadhimiya mosque","Baghdad\n\nThe Al-Kādhimiya Mosque is a shrine that is located in the Kādhimayn suburb of Baghdad, Iraq. It contains the tombs of the seventh Twelver Shīa Imām Musa al-Kadhim and the ninth Twelver Shīa Imām Muhammad at-Taqī al-Jawād. Many Shias travel to the mosque from far away places to commemorate.","Baghdad\n\nGeography","Baghdad\n\nThe city is located on a vast plain bisected by the River Tigris. The Tigris splits Baghdad in half, with the eastern half being called 'Risafa' and the Western half known as 'Karkh'. The land on which the city is built is almost entirely flat and low-lying, being of alluvial origin due to the periodic large floods which have occurred on the river.","Baghdad\n\nClimate","Baghdad\n\nBaghdad has a subtropical desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) and is one of the hottest cities in the world. In the summer from June to August, the average maximum temperature is as high as 44 °C accompanied by blazing sunshine: rainfall has in fact been recorded on fewer than half a dozen occasions at this time of year and has never exceeded 1 mm. Even at night temperatures in summer are seldom below 24 °C. Baghdad's record highest temperature of 124 degrees Fahrenheit (51 degrees Celsius) was reached in July 2015. The humidity is typically very low (under 10%) due to Baghdad's distance from the marshy southern Iraq and the coasts of Persian Gulf, and dust storms from the deserts to the west are a normal occurrence during the summer.","Baghdad\n\nWinters boast mild days and chilly nights. From December to February, Baghdad has maximum temperatures averaging , though highs above 70 F are not unheard of. Morning temperatures can be chilly: the average January low is but lows below freezing only occur a couple of times per year.","Baghdad\n\nAnnual rainfall, almost entirely confined to the period from November to March, averages around 150 mm, but has been as high as 338 mm and as low as 37 mm. On January 11, 2008, light snow fell across Baghdad for the first time in memory.","Baghdad\n\nAdministrative divisions","Baghdad\n\nAdministratively, Baghdad Governorate is divided into districts which are further divided into sub-districts. Municipally, the governorate is divided into 9 municipalities, which have responsibility for local issues. Regional services, however, are coordinated and carried out by a mayor who oversees the municipalities. There is no single city council that singularly governs Baghdad at a municipal level. The governorate council is responsible for the governorate-wide policy.","Baghdad\n\nThese official subdivisions of the city served as administrative centres for the delivery of municipal services but until 2003 had no political function. Beginning in April 2003, the U.S. controlled Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) began the process of creating new functions for these. The process initially focused on the election of neighbourhood councils in the official neighbourhoods, elected by neighbourhood caucuses.","Baghdad\n\nThe CPA convened a series of meetings in each neighbourhood to explain local government, to describe the caucus election process and to encourage participants to spread the word and bring friends, relatives and neighbours to subsequent meetings. Each neighbourhood process ultimately ended with a final meeting where candidates for the new neighbourhood councils identified themselves and asked their neighbours to vote for them.","Baghdad\n\nOnce all 88 (later increased to 89) neighbourhood councils were in place, each neighbourhood council elected representatives from among their members to serve on one of the city's nine district councils. The number of neighbourhood representatives on a district council is based upon the neighbourhood's population. The next step was to have each of the nine district councils elect representatives from their membership to serve on the 37 member Baghdad City Council. This three tier system of local government connected the people of Baghdad to the central government through their representatives from the neighbourhood, through the district, and up to the city council.","Baghdad\n\nThe same process was used to provide representative councils for the other communities in Baghdad Province outside of the city itself. There, local councils were elected from 20 neighbourhoods (Nahia) and these councils elected representatives from their members to serve on six district councils (Qada). As within the city, the district councils then elected representatives from among their members to serve on the 35 member Baghdad Regional Council.","Baghdad\n\nThe first step in the establishment of the system of local government for Baghdad Province was the election of the Baghdad Provincial Council. As before, the representatives to the Provincial Council were elected by their peers from the lower councils in numbers proportional to the population of the districts they represent. The 41 member Provincial Council took office in February, 2004 and served until national elections held in January 2005, when a new Provincial Council was elected.","Baghdad\n\nThis system of 127 separate councils may seem overly cumbersome; however, Baghdad Province is home to approximately seven million people. At the lowest level, the neighbourhood councils, each council represents an average of 75,000 people.","Baghdad\n\nThe nine District Advisory Councils (DAC) are as follows:","Baghdad\n\n*Adhamiyah\n*Karkh\n*Karrada \n*Kadhimiya \n*Mansour\n*Sadr City (Thawra)\n*Al Rashid \n*Rusafa\n*New Baghdad (Tisaa Nissan) (9 April)","Baghdad\n\nThe nine districts are subdivided into 89 smaller neighborhoods which may make up sectors of any of the districts above. The following is a selection (rather than a complete list) of these neighborhoods:","Baghdad\n\n*Al-Ghazaliya\n*Al-A'amiriya\n*Dora\n*Karrada\n*Al-Jadriya\n*Al-Hebnaa\n*Zayouna\n*Al-Saydiya\n*Al-Sa'adoon\n*Al-Shu'ala\n*Al-Mahmudiyah\n*Bab Al-Moatham\n**Al-Baya'\n*Al-Za'franiya\n*Hayy Ur\n*Sha'ab\n*Hayy Al-Jami'a\n*Al-Adel\n*Al Khadhraa\n*Hayy Al-Jihad\n*Hayy Al-A'amel\n*Hayy Aoor\n*Al-Hurriya\n*Hayy Al-Shurtta\n*Yarmouk\n*Jesr Diyala\n*Abu Disher\n*Raghiba Khatoun\n*Arab Jibor\n*Al-Fathel\n*Al-Ubedy\n*Al-Washash\n*Al-Wazireya","Baghdad\n\nDemographics","Baghdad\n\nBaghdad's population was estimated at 7.22 million in 2015. The city historically had a predominantly Sunni population, by the early 21st century around half of the city's population were Iraqi Shia. Following ethnic cleansing campaigns by Sunni and then Shia militia groups during the U.S. occupation of Iraq the city's population became overwhelmingly Shia and despite the government's promise to resettle Sunnis displaced by the violence, little has been done to bring this about. The Iraqi Civil War following ISIS' invasion in 2014 caused hundreds of thousands of Iraqi internally displaced people to flee to the city. The city currently has Shia, Sunni, Christian and mixed neighborhoods but is the world's second largest Shia city after Tehran.","Baghdad\n\nEconomy","Baghdad\n\nBaghdad accounts for 20 per cent of Iraq's population and 40 per cent of the country's gross domestic product (PPP). Iraqi Airways, the national airline of Iraq, has its headquarters on the grounds of Baghdad International Airport in Baghdad. Al-Naser Airlines has its head office in Karrada, Baghdad.","Baghdad\n\nReconstruction efforts","Baghdad\n\nMost Iraqi reconstruction efforts have been devoted to the restoration and repair of badly damaged urban infrastructure. More visible efforts at reconstruction through private development, like architect and urban designer Hisham N. Ashkouri's Baghdad Renaissance Plan and the Sindbad Hotel Complex and Conference Center have also been made.\n A plan was proposed by a Government agency to rebuild a tourist island in 2008. In late 2009, a construction plan was proposed to rebuild the heart of Baghdad, but the plan was never realized because corruption was involved in it.","Baghdad\n\nThe Baghdad Eye, a tall Ferris wheel, was proposed for Baghdad in August 2008. At that time, three possible locations had been identified, but no estimates of cost or completion date were given. In October 2008, it was reported that Al-Zawraa Park was expected to be the site, and a wheel was installed there in March 2011.","Baghdad\n\nIraq's Tourism Board is also seeking investors to develop a \"romantic\" island on the River Tigris in Baghdad that was once a popular honeymoon spot for newlywed Iraqis. The project would include a six-star hotel, spa, an 18-hole golf course and a country club. In addition, the go-ahead has been given to build numerous architecturally unique skyscrapers along the Tigris that would develop the city's financial centre in Kadhehemiah.","Baghdad\n\nIn October 2008, the Baghdad Metro resumed service. It connects the center to the southern neighborhood of Dora.\nIn May 2010, a new residential and commercial project nicknamed Baghdad Gate was announced. This project not only addresses the urgent need for new residential units in Baghdad but also acts as a real symbol of progress in the war torn city, as Baghdad has not seen projects of this scale for decades.","Baghdad\n\nRetails","Baghdad\n\n*Baghdad | Baghdad Mall (4 floors) + Baghdad Rayhan Hotel by Rotana + offices (30 floors) (105 metres) + offices (7 floors)","Baghdad\n\nStadiums","Baghdad\n\n*Baghdad | Taji | 60,000 seats Stadium.","Baghdad\n\nHousing","Baghdad\n\n*Baghdad | Bismayah New City | 100,000 housing units.\n*Baghdad | Zuhour | 5400 units (100 apartments)\n*Baghdad | Ibn Firnas Residential Project | 2016 housing Units\n*Baghdad | Al Ayadi Residential Project | 1335 housing Units\n*Baghdad | Riyadh Apartments | 8 floors","Baghdad\n\nIn 2012, the Central Bank of Iraq signed a deal with Zaha Hadid Architects to build a tower which will be used as the bank's new headquarters.","Baghdad\n\nEducation","Baghdad\n\nThe Mustansiriya Madrasah was established in 1227 by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustansir. The name was changed to Al-Mustansiriya University in 1963. The University of Baghdad is the largest university in Iraq and the second largest in the Arab world.","Baghdad\n\nPrior to the Gulf War multiple international schools operated in Baghdad, including:\n* École française de Bagdad \n* Deutsche Schule Bagdad \n* Baghdad Japanese School (バグダッド日本人学校), a nihonjin gakko","Baghdad\n\nUniversities","Baghdad\n\n*Al-Mustansiriya University\n*Iraqi University\n*Nahrain University\n*University of Baghdad\n*University of Technology, Iraq","Baghdad\n\nCulture","Baghdad\n\nBaghdad has always played a significant role in the broader Arab cultural sphere, contributing several significant writers, musicians and visual artists. Famous Arab poets and singers such as Nizar Qabbani, Umm Kulthum, Fairuz, Salah Al-Hamdani, Ilham al-Madfai and others have performed for the city.","Baghdad\n\nThe dialect of Arabic spoken in Baghdad today differs from that of other large urban centres in Iraq, having features more characteristic of nomadic Arabic dialects (Verseegh, The Arabic Language). It is possible that this was caused by the repopulating of the city with rural residents after the multiple sacks of the late Middle Ages.","Baghdad\n\nFor poetry written about Baghdad, see Reuven Snir (ed.), Baghdad: The City in Verse (Harvard, 2013)[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/features/baghdad/]","Baghdad\n\nInstitutions","Baghdad\n\nSome of the important cultural institutions in the city include:\n*Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra – Rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during the Second Gulf War, but have since returned to normal\n*National Theater – The theatre was looted during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, but efforts are underway to restore the theatre.","Baghdad\n\nThe live theatre scene received a boost during the 1990s, when UN sanctions limited the import of foreign films. As many as 30 movie theatres were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions.","Baghdad\n\nInstitutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include The Music and Ballet School of Baghdad and the Institute of Fine Arts Baghdad. Baghdad is also home to a number of museums which housed artifacts and relics of ancient civilization; many of these were stolen, and the museums looted, during the widespread chaos immediately after United States forces entered the city.","Baghdad\n\nDuring the 2003 occupation of Iraq, AFN Iraq (\"Freedom Radio\") broadcast news and entertainment within Baghdad, among other locations. There is also a private radio station called \"Dijlah\" (named after the Arabic word for the Tigris River) that was created in 2004 as Iraq's first independent talk radio station. Radio Dijlah offices, in the Jamia neighborhood of Baghdad, have been attacked on several occasions.","Baghdad\n\nSport","Baghdad\n\nBaghdad is home to some of the most successful football (soccer) teams in Iraq, the biggest being Al-Shorta (Police), Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya (Airforce club), Al-Zawra'a, and Talaba (Students). The largest stadium in Baghdad is Al-Shaab Stadium, which was opened in 1966. Another, but much larger stadium, is still in the opening stages of construction.","Baghdad\n\nThe city has also had a strong tradition of horse racing ever since World War I, known to Baghdadis simply as 'Races'. There are reports of pressures by the Islamists to stop this tradition due to the associated gambling.","Baghdad\n\nMajor streets","Baghdad\n\n*Haifa Street\n*Salihiya Residential area - situated off Al Sinak bridge in central Baghdad, surrounded by Al- Mansur Hotel in the north and Al-Rasheed hotel in the south\n*Hilla Road – Runs from the south into Baghdad via Yarmouk (Baghdad)\n*Caliphs Street – site of historical mosques and churches\n*Sadoun Street – stretching from Liberation Square to Masbah\n*Mohammed Al-Qassim highway near Adhamiyah\n*Abu Nuwas Street – runs along the Tigris from the Jumhouriya Bridge to 14 July Suspended Bridge\n*Damascus Street – goes from Damascus Square to the Baghdad Airport Road\n*Mutanabbi Street – A street with numerous books, named after the 10th century Iraqi poet Al-Mutanabbi\n*Rabia Street\n*Arbataash Tamuz (14th July) Street (Mosul Road)\n*Muthana al-Shaibani Street\n*Bor Saeed (Port Said) Street\n*Thawra Street\n*Al Qanat Street – runs through Baghdad north-south\n*Al Khat al Sare'a – Mohammed al Qasim (high speed lane) – runs through Bagdhad, north-south\n*Al Sinaa Street (Industry Street) runs by the University of Technology – centre of computers trade in Baghdad\n*Al Nidhal Street\n*Al Rasheed Street – city centre Baghdad\n*Al Jamhuriah Street – city centre Baghdad\n*Falastin Street\n*Tariq el Muaskar – (Al Rasheed Camp Road)\n*Aakhrot street\n*Baghdad Airport Road","Baghdad\n\nTwin towns – Sister cities","Baghdad\n\n* Amman, Jordan\n* Beirut, Lebanon \n* Dubai, United Arab Emirates"],"string":"[\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq (,, or; '), officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: ) is a country in Western Asia, bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Kuwait to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the southwest, and Syria to the west. The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds; others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, and Kawliya. Around 95% of the country's 36 million citizens are Shia or Sunni Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq has a coastline measuring 58 km on the northern Persian Gulf and encompasses the Mesopotamian Alluvial Plain, the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, and the eastern part of the Syrian Desert. Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, and live in cities under an organised government—notably Uruk, from which \\\"Iraq\\\" is derived. The area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian, and Babylonian empires. It was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq's modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres. Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932. In 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party from 1968 until 2003. After an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Hussein's Ba'ath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nName\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Arabic name ' has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk (Biblical Hebrew Erech) and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of ', containing the Sumerian word for \\\"city\\\", UR. \\nAn Arabic folk etymology for the name is \\\"deeply rooted, well-watered; fertile\\\".\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDuring the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī (\\\"Arabian Iraq\\\") for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī (\\\"Foreign Iraq\\\"), for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the plain south of the Hamrin Mountains and did not include the northernmost and westernmost parts of the modern territory of Iraq.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, contrasting it with the arid Arabian desert.\\nAs an Arabic word, means \\\"hem\\\", \\\"shore\\\", \\\"bank\\\", or \\\"edge\\\", so that the name by folk etymology came to be interpreted as \\\"the escarpment\\\", viz. at the south and east of the Jazira Plateau, which forms the northern and western edge of the \\\"al-Iraq arabi\\\" area.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Arabic pronunciation is. In English, it is either (the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary and the first one in [http://merriam-webster.com/dictionary/iraq Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary]) or (listed first by MQD), the [//web.archive.org/web/20080314173050/http://www.bartleby.com/61/81/I0228100.html American Heritage Dictionary], and the [http://dictionary.infoplease.com/Iraq Random House Dictionary]. The pronunciation is frequently heard in US media.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nPre-historic era\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nBetween 65,000 BC and 35,000 BC northern Iraq was home to a Neanderthal culture, archaeological remains of which have been discovered at Shanidar Cave \\nThis same region is also the location of a number of pre-Neolithic cemeteries, dating from approximately 11,000 BC.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nSince approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq (alongside Asia Minor and The Levant) was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture (known as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A) where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period (PPNB) is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum and burnt lime (Vaisselle blanche). Finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nFurther important sites of human advancement were Jarmo (circa 7100 BC), the Halaf culture and Ubaid period (between 6500 BC and 3800 BC), these periods show ever increasing levels of advancement in agriculture, tool making and architecture.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAncient Iraq\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe historical period in Iraq truly begins during the Uruk period (4000 BC to 3100 BC), with the founding of a number of Sumerian cities, and the use of Pictographs, Cylinder seals and mass-produced goods.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe \\\"Cradle of Civilization\\\" is thus a common term for the area comprising modern Iraq as it was home to the earliest known civilisation, the Sumerian civilisation, which arose in the fertile Tigris-Euphrates river valley of southern Iraq in the Chalcolithic (Ubaid period).\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIt was here in the late 4th millennium BC, that the world's first writing system and recorded history itself were born. The Sumerians were also the first to harness the wheel and create City States, and whose writings record the first evidence of Mathematics, Astronomy, Astrology, Written Law, Medicine and Organised religion.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Sumerians spoke a Language Isolate, in other words, a language utterly unrelated to any other, including the Semitic Languages, Indo-European Languages, Afroasiatic languages or any other isolates. The major city states of the early Sumerian period were; Eridu, Bad-tibira, Larsa, Sippar, Shuruppak, Uruk, Kish, Ur, Nippur, Lagash, Girsu, Umma, Hamazi, Adab, Mari, Isin, Kutha, Der and Akshak.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nCities such as Ashur, Arbela (modern Irbil) and Arrapkha (modern Kirkuk) were also extant in what was to be called Assyria from the 25th century BC, however at this early stage they were Sumerian ruled administrative centres.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn the 26th century BC, Eannatum of Lagash created what was perhaps the first Empire in history, though this was short lived. Later, Lugal-Zage-Si, the priest-king of Umma, overthrew the primacy of the Lagash dynasty in the area, then conquered Uruk, making it his capital, and claimed an empire extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. It was during this period that the Epic of Gilgamesh originates, which includes the tale of The Great Flood.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nFrom approximately 3000 BC, a Semitic people had also entered Iraq from the west and settled amongst the Sumerians. These people spoke an East Semitic language which would later come to be known as Akkadian. From the 29th century BC Akkadian Semitic names began to appear on king lists and administrative documents of various city states.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDuring the 3rd millennium BCE a cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism. The influences between Sumerian and Akkadian are evident in all areas including lexical borrowing on a massive scale—and syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This mutual influence has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian of the 3rd millennium BCE as a Sprachbund. From this period the civilisation in Iraq came to be known as Sumero-Akkadian.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nBetween the 29th and 24th centuries BC, a number of kingdoms and city states within Iraq began to have Akkadian speaking dynasties; including Assyria, Ekallatum, Isin and Larsa.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nHowever, the Sumerians remained generally dominant until the rise of the Akkadian Empire (2335-2124 BC), based in the city of Akkad in central Iraq. Sargon of Akkad, originally a Rabshakeh to a Sumerian king, founded the empire, he conquered all of the city states of southern and central Iraq, and subjugated the kings of Assyria, thus uniting the Sumerians and Akkadians in one state. He then set about expanding his empire, conquering Gutium, Elam, Cissia and Turukku in Ancient Iran, the Hurrians, Luwians and Hattians of Anatolia, and the Amorites and Eblaites of Ancient Syria.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAfter the collapse of the Akkadian Empire in the late 22nd century BC, the Gutians occupied the south for a few decades, while Assyria reasserted its independence in the north. This was followed by a Sumerian renaissance in the form of the Neo-Sumerian Empire. The Sumerians under king Shulgi conquered almost all of Iraq except the northern reaches of Assyria, and asserted themselves over the Elamites, Gutians and Amorites.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAn Elamite invasion in 2004 BC brought the Sumerian revival to an end. By the mid 21st century BC the Akkadian speaking kingdom of Assyria, had risen to dominance in northern Iraq, it expanded territorially into the north eastern Levant, central Iraq, and eastern Anatolia, forming the Old Assyrian Empire (circa 2035-1750 BC) under kings such as Puzur-Ashur I, Sargon I, Ilushuma and Erishum I, the latter of whom produced the most detailed set of Written Laws yet written. The south broke up into a number of Akkadian speaking states, Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna being the major ones.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDuring the 20th century BC, the Canaanite speaking Northwest Semitic Amorites began to migrate into southern Mesopotamia. Eventually these Amorites began to set up small petty kingdoms in the south, as well as usurping the thrones of extant city states such as Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOne of these small kingdoms founded in 1894 BC contained the then small administrative town of Babylon within its borders. It remained insignificant for over a century, overshadowed by older and more powerful states such as Assyria, Elam, Isin, Ehnunna and Larsa.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn 1792 BC, an Amorite ruler named Hammurabi came to power in this state, and immediately set about building Babylon from a minor town into a major city, declaring himself its king. Hammurabi conquered the whole of southern and central Iraq, as well as Elam to the east and Mari to the west, then engaged in a protracted war with the Assyrian king Ishme-Dagan for domination of the region, creating the short lived Babylonian Empire. He eventually prevailed over the successor of Ishme-Dagan and subjected Assyria and its Anatolian colonies.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIt is from the period of Hammurabi that southern Iraq came to be known as Babylonia, while the north had already coalesced into Assyria hundreds of years before. However, his empire was short lived, and rapidly collapsed after his death, with both Assyria and southern Iraq, in the form of the Sealand Dynasty, falling back into native Akkadian hands. The foreign Amorites clung on to power in a once more weak and small Babylonia until it was sacked by the Indo-European speaking Hittite Empire based in Anatolia in 1595 BC. After this, another foreign people, the Language Isolate speaking Kassites, originating in the Zagros Mountains of Ancient Iran, seized control of Babylonia, where they were to rule for almost six hundred years, by far the longest dynasty ever to rule in Babylon.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq was from this point divided into three polities; Assyria in the north, Kassite Babylonia in the south central region, and the Sealand Dynasty in the far south. The Sealand Dynasty was finally conquered into Babylonia by the Kassites circa 1380 BC.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC) saw Assyria rise to be the most powerful nation in the known world. Beginning with the campaigns of Ashur-uballit I, Assyria destroyed the rival Hurrian-Mitanni Empire, annexed huge swathes of the Hittite Empire for itself, annexed northern Babylonia from the Kassites, forced the Egyptian Empire from the region, and defeated the Elamites, Phrygians, Canaanites, Phoenicians, Cilicians, Gutians, Dilmunites and Arameans. At its height the Middle Assyrian Empire stretched from The Caucasus to Dilmun (modern Bahrain), and from the Mediterranean coasts of Phoenicia to the Zagros Mountains of Iran. In 1235 BC, Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria took the throne of Babylon, thus becoming the very first native Mesopotamian to rule the state.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDuring the Bronze Age collapse (1200-900 BC) Babylonia was in a state of chaos, dominated for long periods by Assyria and Elam. The Kassites were driven from power by Assyria and Elam, allowing native south Mesopotamian kings to rule Babylonia for the first time, although often subject to Assyrian or Elamite rulers. However, these East Semitic Akkadian kings, were unable to prevent new waves of West Semitic migrants entering southern Iraq, and during the 11th century BC Arameans and Suteans entered Babylonia from The Levant, and these were followed in the late 10th to early 9th century BC by the migrant Chaldeans who were closely related to the earlier Arameans.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAfter a period of comparative decline in Assyria, it once more began to expand with the Neo Assyrian Empire (935–605 BC). This was to be the largest and most powerful empire the world had yet seen, and under rulers such as Adad-Nirari II, Ashurnasirpal, Shalmaneser III, Semiramis, Tiglath-pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, Iraq became the centre of an empire stretching from Persia, Parthia and Elam in the east, to Cyprus and Antioch in the west, and from The Caucasus in the north to Egypt, Nubia and Arabia in the south.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Arabs are first mentioned in written history (circa 850 BC) as a subject people of Shalmaneser III, dwelling in the Arabian Peninsula. The Chaldeans are first mentioned at this time also.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIt was during this period that an Akkadian influenced form of Eastern Aramaic was introduced by the Assyrians as the lingua franca of their vast empire, and Mesopotamian Aramaic began to supplant Akkadian as the spoken language of the general populace of both Assyria and Babylonia. The descendant dialects of this tongue survive amongst the Assyrians of northern Iraq to this day.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn the late 7th century BC the Assyrian Empire tore itself apart with a series of brutal civil wars, weakening itself to such a degree that a coalition of its former subjects; the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Parthians, Scythians and Cimmerians, were able to attack Assyria, finally bringing its empire down by 605 BC.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe short lived Neo-Babylonian Empire (620-539 BC) succeeded that of Assyria. It failed to attain the size, power or longevity of its predecessor, however it came to dominate The Levant, Canaan, Arabia, Israel and Judah, and to defeat Egypt. Initially, Babylon was ruled by yet another foreign dynasty, that of the Chaldeans, who had migrated to the region in the late 10th or early 9th century BC. Its greatest king, Nebuchadnezzar II rivalled another non native ruler, the ethnically unrelated Amorite king Hammurabi, as the greatest king of Babylon. However, by 556 BC the Chaldeans had been deposed from power by the Assyrian born Nabonidus and his son and regent Belshazzar.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn the 6th century BC, Cyrus the Great of neighbouring Persia defeated the Neo-Babylonian Empire at the Battle of Opis and Iraq was subsumed into the Achaemenid Empire for nearly two centuries. The Achaemenids made Babylon their main capital. The Chaldeans and Chaldea disappeared at around this time, though both Assyria and Babylonia endured and thrived under Achaemenid rule (see Achaemenid Assyria). Little changed under the Persians, having spent three centuries under Assyrian rule, their kings saw themselves as successors to Ashurbanipal, and they retained Assyrian Imperial Aramaic as the language of empire, together with the Assyrian imperial infrastructure, and an Assyrian style of art and architecture.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Great conquered the region, putting it under Hellenistic Seleucid rule for over two centuries. The Seleucids introduced the Indo-Anatolian and Greek term Syria to the region. This name had for many centuries been the Indo-European word for Assyria and specifically and only meant Assyria, however the Seleucids also applied it to The Levant (Aramea, causing both the Assyria and the Assyrians of Iraq and the Arameans and The Levant to be called Syria and Syrians/Syriacs in the Greco-Roman world.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Parthians (247 BC – 224 AD) from Persia conquered the region during the reign of Mithridates I of Parthia (r. 171–138 BC). From Syria, the Romans invaded western parts of the region several times, briefly founding Assyria Provincia in Assyria. Christianity began to take hold in Iraq (particularly in Assyria) between the 1st and 3rd centuries, and Assyria became a centre of Syriac Christianity, the Church of the East and Syriac literature. A number of indigenous independent Neo-Assyrian states evolved in the north during the Parthian era, such as Adiabene, Assur, Osroene and Hatra.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nA number of Assyrians from Mesopotamia were conscripted into or joined the Roman Army, and the Aramaic language of Assyria and Mesopotamia has been found as far afield as Hadrians Wall in northern Ancient Britain, with inscriptions written by Assyrian and Aramean soldiers of the Roman Empire.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Sassanids of Persia under Ardashir I destroyed the Parthian Empire and conquered the region in 224 AD. During the 240s and 250's AD the Sassanids gradually conquered the small Neo Assyrian states, culminating with Assur in 256 AD. The region was thus a province of the Sassanid Empire for over four centuries (see also; Asōristān), and became the frontier and battle ground between the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Empire, with both empires weakening each other greatly, paving the way for the Arab-Muslim conquest of Persia in the mid-7th century,\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nMiddle Ages\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Arab Islamic conquest in the mid-7th century AD established Islam in Iraq and saw a large influx of Arabs. Under the Rashidun Caliphate, the prophet Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali, moved his capital to Kufa when he became the fourth caliph. The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the province of Iraq from Damascus in the 7th century. (However, eventually there was a separate, independent Caliphate of Córdoba in Iberia.)\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad in the 8th century as its capital, and the city became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries. Baghdad was the largest multicultural city of the Middle Ages, peaking at a population of more than a million, and was the centre of learning during the Islamic Golden Age. The Mongols destroyed the city during the siege of Baghdad in the 13th century.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn 1257 Hulagu Khan amassed an unusually large army, a significant portion of the Mongol Empire's forces, for the purpose of conquering Baghdad. When they arrived at the Islamic capital, Hulagu Khan demanded surrender but the last Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim refused. This angered Hulagu, and, consistent with Mongol strategy of discouraging resistance, he besieged Baghdad, sacked the city and massacred many of the inhabitants. Estimates of the number of dead range from 200,000 to a million.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Mongols destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate and Baghdad's House of Wisdom, which contained countless precious and historical documents. The city has never regained its previous pre-eminence as a major centre of culture and influence. Some historians believe that the Mongol invasion destroyed much of the irrigation infrastructure that had sustained Mesopotamia for millennia. Other historians point to soil salination as the culprit in the decline in agriculture.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe mid-14th-century Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world. The best estimate for the Middle East is a death rate of roughly one-third.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn 1401 a warlord of Mongol descent, Tamerlane (Timur Lenk), invaded Iraq. After the capture of Baghdad, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred. Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him (many warriors were so scared they killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign just to ensure they had heads to present to Timur). Timur also conducted massacres of the indigenous Assyrian Christian population, hitherto still the majority population in northern Mesopotamia, and it was during this time that the ancient Assyrian city of Assur was finally abandoned.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOttoman Iraq\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDuring the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Black Sheep Turkmen ruled the area now known as Iraq. In 1466, the White Sheep Turkmen defeated the Black Sheep and took control. From the earliest 16th century, in 1508, as with all territories of the former White Sheep Turkmen, Iraq fell into the hands of the Iranian Safavids. Owing to the century long Turco-Iranian rivalary between the Safavids and the neighbouring Ottoman Turks, Iraq would be contested between the two for more than a hundred years during the frequent Ottoman-Persian Wars.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn the course of the 17th century, in 1639 precisely with the Treaty of Zuhab, most of the territory of present-day Iraq eventually decisively came under the control of Ottoman Empire as the eyalet of Baghdad as a result of wars with neighbouring rivalling Safavid Iran. Throughout most of the period of Ottoman rule (1533–1918) the territory of present-day Iraq was a battle zone between the rival regional empires and tribal alliances.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nBy the 17th century, the frequent conflicts with the Safavids had sapped the strength of the Ottoman Empire and had weakened its control over its provinces. The nomadic population swelled with the influx of bedouins from Najd, in the Arabian Peninsula. Bedouin raids on settled areas became impossible to curb.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDuring the years 1747–1831 Iraq was ruled by a Mamluk dynasty of Georgian origin who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Ottoman Porte, suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order and introduced a programme of modernisation of economy and military. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow the Mamluk regime and imposed their direct control over Iraq. The population of Iraq, estimated at 30 million in 800 AD, was only 5 million at the start of the 20th century.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDuring World War I, the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers. In the Mesopotamian campaign against the Central Powers, British forces invaded the country and initially suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Turkish army during the Siege of Kut (1915–1916). However, subsequent to this the British began to gain the upper hand, and were further aided by the support of local Arabs and Assyrians. In 1916, the British and French made a plan for the post-war division of Western Asia under the Sykes-Picot Agreement. British forces regrouped and captured Baghdad in 1917, and defeated the Ottomans. An armistice was signed in 1918.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDuring World War I the Ottomans were defeated and driven from much of the area by the United Kingdom during the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The British lost 92,000 soldiers in the Mesopotamian campaign. Ottoman losses are unknown but the British captured a total of 45,000 prisoners of war. By the end of 1918 the British had deployed 410,000 men in the area, of which 112,000 were combat troops.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nBritish administration and independent Kingdom\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOn 11 November 1920 Iraq became a League of Nations mandate under British control with the name \\\"State of Iraq\\\". The British established the Hashemite king, Faisal I of Iraq, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nFaced with spiraling costs and influenced by the public protestations of war hero T. E. Lawrence in The Times, Britain replaced Arnold Wilson in October 1920 with new Civil Commissioner Sir Percy Cox. Cox managed to quell a rebellion, yet was also responsible for implementing the fateful policy of close co-operation with Iraq's Sunni minority. The institution of slavery was abolished in the 1920s.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nBritain granted independence to the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932, on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases, local militia in the form of Assyrian Levies, and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1933, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. Ghazi was followed by his underage son, Faisal II. 'Abd al-Ilah served as Regent during Faisal's minority.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOn 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup d'état and overthrew the government of 'Abd al-Ilah. During the subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War, the United Kingdom (which still maintained air bases in Iraq) invaded Iraq for fear that the Rashid Ali government might cut oil supplies to Western nations because of his links to the Axis powers. The war started on 2 May, and the British, together with loyal Assyrian Levies, defeated the forces of Al-Gaylani, forcing an armistice on 31 May.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nA military occupation followed the restoration of the pre-coup government of the Hashemite monarchy. The occupation ended on 26 October 1947, although Britain was to retain military bases in Iraq until 1954, after which the Assyrian militias were disbanded. The rulers during the occupation and the remainder of the Hashemite monarchy were Nuri as-Said, the autocratic Prime Minister, who also ruled from 1930–1932, and 'Abd al-Ilah, the former Regent who now served as an adviser to King Faisal II.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nRepublic and Ba'athist Iraq\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn 1958 a coup d'etat known as the 14 July Revolution led to the end of the monarchy. Brigadier General Abd al-Karim Qasim assumed power, but he was overthrown by Colonel Abdul Salam Arif in a February 1963 coup. After his death in 1966 he was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, who was overthrown by the Ba'ath Party in 1968. Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr became the first Ba'ath President of Iraq but then the movement gradually came under the control of General Saddam Hussein, who acceded to the presidency and control of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), then Iraq's supreme executive body, in July 1979.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn 1979, the Iranian Revolution took place. Following months of cross-border raids between the two countries, Saddam declared war on Iran in September 1980, initiating the Iran–Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War). Taking the advantage of post-revolution chaos in Iran, Iraq captured some territories in southwest of Iran, but Iran recaptured all of the lost territories within 2 years, and for the next six years Iran was on the offensive. The war ended in stalemate in 1988 and cost the lives of between half a million and 1.5 million people. In 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed an Iraqi nuclear materials testing reactor at Osirak and was widely criticised at the United Nations. During the 8-year war with Iran, Saddam Hussein extensively used chemical weapons against Iranians, In the final stages of the Iran–Iraq War, the Ba'athist Iraqi regime led the Al-Anfal Campaign, a genocidal campaign that targeted Iraqi Kurds, and led to the killing of 50,000–100,000 civilians. Chemical weapons were also used against Iraqi Shia civilians during the 1991 uprisings in Iraq.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn August 1990, Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait. This subsequently led to military intervention by United States-led forces in the First Gulf War. The coalition forces proceeded with a bombing campaign targeting military targets and then launched a 100-hour-long ground assault against Iraqi forces in Southern Iraq and those occupying Kuwait.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq's armed forces were devastated during the war and shortly after it ended in 1991, Shia and Kurdish Iraqis led several uprisings against Saddam Hussein's regime, but these were successfully repressed using the Iraqi security forces and chemical weapons. It is estimated that as many as 100,000 people, including many civilians were killed. During the uprisings the US, UK, France and Turkey, claiming authority under UNSCR 688, established the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Kurdish and Shiite populations from attacks by the Hussein regime's fixed-wing aircraft (but not helicopters).\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq was ordered to destroy its chemical and biological weapons and the UN attempted to compel Saddam Hussein's government to disarm and agree to a ceasefire by imposing additional sanctions on the country in addition to the initial sanctions imposed following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The Iraqi Government's failure to disarm and agree to a ceasefire resulted in sanctions which remained in place until 2003. Studies dispute the effects of the sanctions on Iraqi civilians.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDuring the late 1990s, the UN considered relaxing the Iraq sanctions because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis and attacks on US aircraft patrolling the no-fly zones led to US bombing of Iraq in December 1998.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nFollowing the 9/11 terrorist attacks the George W. Bush administration began planning the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's government and in October 2002, the US Congress passed the Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq. In November 2002 the UN Security Council passed UNSCR 1441 and in March 2003 the US and its allies invaded Iraq.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\n2003–2007\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOn March 20, 2003, a United States-organized coalition invaded Iraq, under the pretext that Iraq had failed to abandon its weapons of mass destruction program in violation of U.N. Resolution 687. This claim was based on documents provided by the CIA and British government and were later found to be unreliable.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nFollowing the invasion, the United States established the Coalition Provisional Authority to govern Iraq. In May 2003 L. Paul Bremer, the chief executive of the CPA, issued orders to exclude Baath Party members from the new Iraqi government (CPA Order 1) and to disband the Iraqi Army (CPA Order 2). The decision dissolved the largely Sunni Iraqi Army and excluded many of the country's former government officials from participating in the country's governance including 40,000 school teachers who had joined the Baath Party simply to keep their jobs, helping to bring about a chaotic post-invasion environment.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAn insurgency against the US-led coalition-rule of Iraq began in summer 2003 within elements of the former Iraqi secret police and army who formed guerilla units. In fall 2003, also self-entitled 'jihadist' groups began targeting coalition forces.\\nVarious Sunni militias were created in 2003, for example Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi.\\nThe insurgency included intense inter-ethnic violence between Sunnis and Shias. The Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal came to light, late 2003 in reports by Amnesty International and Associated Press.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Mahdi Army—a Shia militia created in the summer of 2003 by Muqtada al-Sadr—began to fight Coalition forces in April 2004. 2004 saw Sunni and Shia militants fighting against each other and against the new Iraqi Interim Government installed June 2004, and against Coalition forces, as well as the First Battle of Fallujah in April and Second Battle of Fallujah in November.\\nSunni militia Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad became Al-Qaeda in Iraq in October 2004 and targeted Coalition forces as well as civilians, mainly Shia Muslims, further exacerbating ethnic tensions.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn January 2005 the first elections since the invasion took place and in October a new Constitution was approved which was followed by parliamentary elections in December. Insurgent attacks were common however and increased to 34,131 in 2005 from 26,496 in 2004.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDuring 2006 fighting continued and reached its highest levels of violence, more war crimes scandals were made public, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi the leader of Al-Qaeda in Iraq was killed by US forces and Iraq's former dictator Saddam Hussein was sentenced to death for crimes against humanity and hanged. \\nIn late 2006 the US government's Iraq Study Group recommended that the US begin focusing on training Iraqi military personnel and in January 2007 US President George W. Bush announced a \\\"Surge\\\" in the number of US troops deployed to the country.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn May 2007 Iraq's Parliament called on the United States to set a timetable for withdrawal and US coalition partners such as the UK and Denmark began withdrawing their forces from the country. The war in Iraq has resulted in between 151,000 and 1.2 million Iraqis being killed.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\n2008–present\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn 2008 fighting continued and Iraq's newly trained armed forces launched attacks against militants. The Iraqi government signed the US–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement which required US forces to withdraw from Iraqi cities by 30 June 2009 and to withdraw completely out of Iraq by 31 December 2011.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nUS troops handed over security duties to Iraqi forces in June 2009, though they continued to work with Iraqi forces after the pullout. On the morning of 18 December 2011, the final contingent of US troops to be withdrawn ceremonially exited over the border to Kuwait. Crime and violence initially spiked in the months following the US withdrawal from cities in mid-2009 but despite the initial increase in violence, in November 2009, Iraqi Interior Ministry officials reported that the civilian death toll in Iraq fell to its lowest level since the 2003 invasion.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nFollowing the withdrawal of US troops in 2011 the insurgency continued and Iraq suffered from political instability. In February 2011 the Arab Spring protests spread to Iraq; but the initial protests did not topple the government.\\nThe Iraqi National Movement, reportedly representing the majority of Iraqi Sunnis, boycotted Parliament for several weeks in late 2011 and early 2012, claiming that the Shiite-dominated government was striving to sideline Sunnis.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn 2012 and 2013 levels of violence increased and armed groups inside Iraq were increasingly galvanised by the Syrian Civil War. Both Sunnis and Shias crossed the border to fight in Syria. In December 2012, mainly Sunni Arabs protested against the government who they claimed marginalised them.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDuring 2013 Sunni militant groups stepped up attacks targeting the Iraq's Shia population in an attempt to undermine confidence in the Nouri al-Maliki-led government. In 2014 Sunni insurgents belonging to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) terrorist group seized control of large swathes of land including several major Iraqi cities, like Tikrit, Fallujah and Mosul creating hundreds of thousands of internally displaced persons amid reports of atrocities by ISIL fighters.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAfter an inconclusive election in April 2014, Nouri al-Maliki served as caretaker-Prime-Minister.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOn 11 August, Iraq's highest court ruled that PM Maliki's bloc is biggest in parliament, meaning Maliki could stay Prime Minister. By 13 August, however, the Iraqi president had tasked Haider al-Abadi with forming a new government, and the United Nations, the United States, the European Union, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and some Iraqi politicians expressed their wish for a new leadership in Iraq, for example from Haider al-Abadi. Maliki on 14 August stepped down as PM, to support Mr al-Abadi and to \\\"safeguard the high interests of the country\\\". The US government welcomed this as \\\"another major step forward\\\" in uniting Iraq. On September 9, 2014, Haider al-Abadi had formed a new government and became the new prime minister. Intermittent conflict between Sunni, Shiite and Kurdish factions has led to increasing debate about the splitting of Iraq into three autonomous regions, including Kurdistan in the northeast, a Sunnistan in the west and a Shiastan in the southeast.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq lies between latitudes 29° and 38° N, and longitudes 39° and 49° E (a small area lies west of 39°). Spanning 437072 km2, it is the 58th-largest country in the world. It is comparable in size to the US state of California, and somewhat larger than Paraguay.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq mainly consists of desert, but near the two major rivers (Euphrates and Tigris) are fertile alluvial plains, as the rivers carry about 60000000 m3 of silt annually to the delta. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3611 m point, unnamed on the map opposite, but known locally as Cheekah Dar (black tent). Iraq has a small coastline measuring 58 km along the Persian Gulf. Close to the coast and along the Shatt al-Arab (known as arvandrūd: اروندرود among Iranians) there used to be marshlands, but many were drained in the 1990s.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nMost of Iraq has a hot arid climate with subtropical influence. Summer temperatures average above 40 °C for most of the country and frequently exceed 48 °C. Winter temperatures infrequently exceed 21 °C with maxima roughly 15 to and night-time lows 2 to. Typically precipitation is low; most places receive less than 250 mm annually, with maximum rainfall occurring during the winter months. Rainfall during the summer is extremely rare, except in the far north of the country. The northern mountainous regions have cold winters with occasional heavy snows, sometimes causing extensive flooding.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nGovernment and politics\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as a democratic, federal parliamentary Islamic republic. The federal government is composed of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe National Alliance is the main Shia parliamentary bloc, and was established as a result of a merger of Prime Minister Nouri Maliki's State of Law Coalition and the Iraqi National Alliance. The Iraqi National Movement is led by Iyad Allawi, a secular Shia widely supported by Sunnis. The party has a more consistent anti-sectarian perspective than most of its rivals. The Kurdistan List is dominated by two parties, the Kurdistan Democratic Party led by Masood Barzani and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan headed by Jalal Talabani. Both parties are secular and enjoy close ties with the West.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn 2010, according to the Failed States Index, Iraq was the world's seventh most politically unstable country. The concentration of power in the hands of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki and growing pressure on the opposition led to growing concern about the future of political rights in Iraq. Nevertheless, progress was made and the country had risen to 11th place by 2013. In August 2014 al-Maliki's reign came to an end. He announced on 14 August 2014 he would stand aside so Haider Al-Abadi, who had been nominated just days earlier by newly installed President Fuad Masum, could take over. Until that point al-Maliki had clung to power even asking the federal court to veto the president's nomination describing it as a violation of the constitution.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nTransparency International ranks Iraq's government as the eighth-most-corrupt government in the world. Government payroll have increased from 1 million employees under Saddam Hussein to around 7 million employees in 2016. In combination with decreased oil prices, the government budget deficit is near 25% of GDP as of 2016.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nSince the establishment of the no–fly zones following the Gulf War of 1990–1991, the Kurds established their own autonomous region..\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nLaw\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn October 2005, the new Constitution of Iraq was approved in a referendum with a 78% overall majority, although the percentage of support varying widely between the country's territories. The new constitution was backed by the Shia and Kurdish communities, but was rejected by Arab Sunnis. Under the terms of the constitution, the country conducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on December 15, 2005. All three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lines, as did Assyrian and Turcoman minorities.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nLaw no. 188 of the year 1959 (Personal Status Law) made polygamy extremely difficult, granted child custody to the mother in case of divorce, prohibited repudiation and marriage under the age of 16. Article 1 of Civil Code also identifies Islamic law as a formal source of law. Iraq had no Sharia courts but civil courts used Sharia for issues of personal status including marriage and divorce. In 1995 Iraq introduced Sharia punishment for certain types of criminal offences. The code is based on French civil law as well as Sunni and Jafari (Shi’ite) interpretations of Sharia.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn 2004, the CFA chief executive L. Paul Bremer said he would veto any constitutional draft stating that sharia is the principal basis of law. The declaration enraged many local Shia clerics, and by 2005 the United States had relented, allowing a role for sharia in the constitution to help end a stalemate on the draft constitution.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Iraqi Penal Code is the statutory law of Iraq.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nMilitary\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraqi security forces are composed of forces serving under the Ministry of Interior (which controls the Police and Popular Mobilization Forces) and the Ministry of Defense, as well as the Iraqi Counter Terrorism Bureau, reporting directly to the Prime Minister of Iraq, which oversees the Iraqi Special Operations Forces. Ministry of Defense forces include the Iraqi Army, the Iraqi Air Force and the Iraqi Navy. The Peshmerga are a separate armed force loyal to the Kurdistan Regional Government. The regional government and the central government disagree as to whether they are under Baghdad's authority and to what extent.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Iraqi Army is an objective counter-insurgency force that as of November 2009 includes 14 divisions, each division consisting of 4 brigades. It is described as the most important element of the counter-insurgency fight. Light infantry brigades are equipped with small arms, machine guns, RPGs, body armour and light armoured vehicles. Mechanized infantry brigades are equipped with T-54/55 main battle tanks and BMP-1 infantry fighting vehicles. As of mid-2008, logistical problems included a maintenance crisis and ongoing supply problems.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Iraqi Air Force is designed to support ground forces with surveillance, reconnaissance and troop lift. Two reconnaissance squadrons use light aircraft, three helicopter squadrons are used to move troops and one air transportation squadron uses C-130 transport aircraft to move troops, equipment, and supplies. It currently has 3,000 personnel. It is planned to increase to 18,000 personnel, with 550 aircraft by 2018.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Iraqi Navy is a small force with 1,500 sailors and officers, including 800 Marines, designed to protect shoreline and inland waterways from insurgent infiltration. The navy is also responsible for the security of offshore oil platforms. The navy will have coastal patrol squadrons, assault boat squadrons and a marine battalion. The force will consist of 2,000 to 2,500 sailors by year 2010.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nForeign relations\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOn November 17, 2008, the US and Iraq agreed to a Status of Forces Agreement, as part of the broader Strategic Framework Agreement. This agreement states \\\"the Government of Iraq requests\\\" US forces to temporarily remain in Iraq to \\\"maintain security and stability,\\\" and that Iraq has jurisdiction over military contractors, and US personnel when not on US bases or on–duty.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOn 12 February 2009, Iraq officially became the 186th State Party to the Chemical Weapons Convention. Under the provisions of this treaty, Iraq is considered a party with declared stockpiles of chemical weapons. Because of their late accession, Iraq is the only State Party exempt from the existing timeline for destruction of their chemical weapons. Specific criteria is in development to address the unique nature of Iraqi accession.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIran–Iraq relations have flourished since 2005 by the exchange of high level visits: Iraqi PM Nouri al-Maliki made frequent visits to Iran, along with Jalal Talabani visiting numerous times, to help boost bilateral co-operation in all fields. A conflict occurred in December 2009, when Iraq accused Iran of seizing an oil well on the border.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nRelationships with Turkey are tense, largely because of the Kurdistan Regional Government, as clashes between Turkey and the PKK continue. In October 2011, the Turkish parliament renewed a law that gives Turkish forces the ability to pursue rebels over the border in Iraq.\\\"\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nHuman rights\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nRelations between Iraq and its Kurdish population have been sour in recent history, especially with Saddam Hussein's genocidal campaign against them in the 1980s. After uprisings during the early 90s, many Kurds fled their homeland and no-fly zones were established in northern Iraq to prevent more conflicts. Despite historically poor relations, some progress has been made, and Iraq elected its first Kurdish president, Jalal Talabani, in 2005. Furthermore, Kurdish is now an official language of Iraq alongside Arabic according to Article 4 of the constitution.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nLGBT rights in Iraq remain limited. Although decriminalised, homosexuality remains stigmatised in Iraqi society. Targeting people because of their gender identity or sexual orientation is not uncommon and is usually carried out in the name of family honour. People who dress in emo style are mistakenly associated with homosexuality and may suffer the same fate. A BBC article published in 2009, which includes interviews of homosexual and transgender Iraqis, suggests that LGBT people were less subject to violence under Hussein's regime.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAdministrative divisions\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq is composed of nineteen governorates (or provinces) (Arabic: muhafadhat (singular muhafadhah); Kurdish: پارێزگا Pârizgah). The governorates are subdivided into districts (or qadhas), which are further divided into sub-districts (or nawāḥī). Iraqi Kurdistan (Erbil, Dohuk, Sulaymaniyah and Halabja) is the only legally defined region within Iraq, with its own government and quasi-official army Peshmerga.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. The lack of development in other sectors has resulted in 18%–30% unemployed and a depressed per capita GDP of $4,000. Public sector employment accounted for nearly 60% of full-time employment in 2011. The oil export industry, which dominates the Iraqi economy, generates very little employment. Currently only a modest percentage of women (the highest estimate for 2011 was 22%) participate in the labour force.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nPrior to US occupation, Iraq's centrally planned economy prohibited foreign ownership of Iraqi businesses, ran most large industries as state-owned enterprises, and imposed large tariffs to keep out foreign goods. After the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, the Coalition Provisional Authority quickly began issuing many binding orders privatising Iraq's economy and opening it up to foreign investment.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOn November 20, 2004, the Paris Club of creditor nations agreed to write off 80% ($33 billion) of Iraq's $42 billion debt to Club members. Iraq's total external debt was around $120 billion at the time of the 2003 invasion, and had grown another $5 billion by 2004. The debt relief will be implemented in three stages: two of 30% each and one of 20%.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn February 2011, Citigroup included Iraq in a group of countries which it described as 'Global Growth Generators', that it argued will enjoy significant economic growth in the future.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe official currency in Iraq is the Iraqi dinar. The Coalition Provisional Authority issued new dinar coins and notes, with the notes printed by De La Rue using modern anti-forgery techniques. Jim Cramer's October 20, 2009 endorsement of the Iraqi Dinar on CNBC has further piqued interest in the investment.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nFive years after the invasion, an estimated 2.4 million people were internally displaced (with a further two million refugees outside Iraq), four million Iraqis were considered food-insecure (a quarter of children were chronically malnourished) and only a third of Iraqi children had access to safe drinking water.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAccording to the Overseas Development Institute, international NGOs face challenges in carrying out their mission, leaving their assistance \\\"piecemeal and largely conducted undercover, hindered by insecurity, a lack of coordinated funding, limited operational capacity and patchy information\\\". International NGOs have been targeted and during the first 5 years, 94 aid workers were killed, 248 injured, 24 arrested or detained and 89 kidnapped or abducted.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOil and energy\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nWith its of proved oil reserves, Iraq ranks second in the world behind Saudi Arabia in the amount of oil reserves. Oil production levels reached 3.4 million barrels per day by December 2012. Iraq intends to increase its production to 5 million barrels per day by 2014. Only about 2,000 oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared with about 1 million wells in Texas alone. Iraq was one of the founding members of OPEC.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\n, despite improved security and billions of dollars in oil revenue, Iraq still generates about half the electricity that customers demand, leading to protests during the hot summer months.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Iraq oil law is a proposed piece of legislation submitted to the Iraqi Council of Representatives in May 2007. The Iraqi government has yet to reach an agreement on the law.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAccording to a US Study from May 2007, between 100000 oilbbl/d and 300000 oilbbl/d of Iraq's declared oil production over the past four years could have been siphoned off through corruption or smuggling. In 2008, Al Jazeera reported $13 billion of Iraqi oil revenues in US care was improperly accounted for, of which $2.6 billion is totally unaccounted for. Some reports that the government has reduced corruption in public procurement of oil; however, reliable reports of bribery and kickbacks to government officials continue to persist.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn June 2008, the Iraqi Oil Ministry announced plans to go ahead with small one- or two-year no-bid contracts to Exxon Mobil, Shell, Total and BP — once partners in the Iraq Petroleum Company — along with Chevron and smaller firms to service Iraq's largest fields. These plans were cancelled in September because negotiations had stalled for so long that the work could not be completed within the time frame, according to Iraqi oil minister Hussain al-Shahristani. Several United States senators had also criticised the deal, arguing it was hindering efforts to pass the hydrocarbon law.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOn June 30 and December 11, 2009, the Iraqi ministry of oil awarded service contracts to international oil companies for some of Iraq's many oil fields. Oil fields contracted include the \\\"super-giant\\\" Majnoon Field, Halfaya Field, West Qurna Field and Rumaila Field. BP and China National Petroleum Corporation won a deal to develop Rumaila, the largest Iraqi oil field.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOn March 14, 2014, the International Energy Agency said Iraq's oil output jumped by half a million barrels a day in February to average 3.6 million barrels a day. The country hadn't pumped that much oil since 1979, when Saddam Hussein rose to power. On July 14, 2014 however as sectarian strife had taken hold, Kurdistan Regional Government forces seized control of the Bai Hassan and Kirkuk oilfields in the north of the country, taking them from Iraq's control. Baghdad condemned the seizure and threatened \\\"dire consequences\\\" if the fields were not returned.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nWater supply and sanitation\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nWater supply and sanitation in Iraq is characterized by poor water and service quality. Three decades of war, combined with limited environmental awareness, have destroyed Iraq's water resources management system. \\nAccess to potable water differs significantly among governorates and between urban and rural areas.\\n91% of the entire population has access to potable water. But in rural areas, only 77% of the population has access to improved drinking water sources compared to 98% in urban areas. \\nAlso, large amounts of water are wasted during production.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nInfrastructure\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAlthough many infrastructure projects are underway, Iraq remains in deep housing crisis, with the war-ravaged country likely to complete only 5 percent of the 2.5 million homes it needs to build by 2016 to keep up with demand, the Minister for Construction and Housing said in September 2013. \\n* In 2009, the IBBC was established ([http://www.webuildiraq.org/ Iraq Britain Business Council]). The Council was established by Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne.\\n* In August 2009, two American firms reached a deal with the Iraqi Government to build Basra Sports City, a new sports complex. Basra Sports City will be the venue for the 2014 Gulf Cup of Nations.\\n* In October 2012, the Emirati property firm, Emaar Properties reached a deal with the Iraqi Ministry of Construction and Housing to build and develop housing and commercial projects in Iraq.\\n* In January 2013, the Emirati property firm, Nakheel Properties signed a deal to build Al Nakheel City, a future town in Basra, Iraq.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAn April 2009 estimate of the total Iraqi population is 31,234,000. Iraq's population was estimated to be 2 million in 1878. Iraq's population has reached 35 million amid a post-war population boom.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nEthnic groups\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nArabs form 75%–80% of the population. 15% of Iraq's population are Kurds. Assyrians, Turkmen and other much smaller minorities such as Mandeans, Armenians, Circassians, Iranians, Shabakis, Yazidis and Kawliya make up the remainder 5%-10% of the population. Around 20,000 Marsh Arabs live in southern Iraq.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq has a community of 2,500 Chechens. In southern Iraq there is a community of Iraqis of African descent, a legacy of the slavery practised in the Islamic Caliphate beginning before the Zanj Rebellion of the 9th century, and Basra's role as a key port. It is the most populous country in the Arabian Plate.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nLanguages\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nArabic is the majority language; Kurdish is spoken by approximately 10–15% of the population; and Turkmen, the Neo-Aramaic language of the Assyrians and others, by 5%. Other smaller minority languages include Mandaic, Shabaki, Armenian, Circassian and Persian. Arabic, Kurdish, Persian, and South Azeri are written with versions of the Arabic script, the Neo-Aramaic languages in the Syriac script and Armenian is written in the Armenian script.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nPrior to the invasion in 2003, Arabic was the sole official language. Since the new Constitution of Iraq approved in June 2004, both Arabic and Kurdish are official languages, while Assyrian Neo-Aramaic and Turkmen language (referred to as respectively \\\"Syriac\\\" and \\\"Turkmen\\\" in the constitution) are recognised regional languages. In addition, any region or province may declare other languages official if a majority of the population approves in a general referendum.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAccording to the Iraqi constitution: \\\"The Arabic language and the Kurdish language are the two official languages of Iraq. The right of Iraqis to educate their children in their mother tongue, such as Turkmen, Assyrian, and Armenian shall be guaranteed in government educational institutions in accordance with educational guidelines, or in any other language in private educational institutions\\\".\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nUrban areas\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq is a Muslim-majority country; Islam accounts for an estimated 95% of the population, while non-Muslims (mainly Assyrian Christians) account for just 5%. It has a mixed Shia and Sunni population. The CIA Factbook estimate that around 65% of Muslims in Iraq are Shia, and around 35% are Sunni. A 2011 Pew Research Center estimates that 51% of Muslims in Iraq are Shia, 42% are Sunni, while 5% identify themselves as \\\"Just a Muslim\\\".\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Sunni population complains of facing discrimination in almost all aspects of life by the government. However, Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki denied it. \\nChristians have lived in the area for about 2,000 years, and many descend from the pre-Arab ancient Mesopotamians-Assyrians. They numbered over 1.4 million in 1987 or 8% of the estimate population of 16.3 million and 550,000 in 1947 or 12% of the population.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIndigenous Neo Aramaic speaking Assyrians, most of whom are adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church, Assyrian Church of the East, Assyrian Pentecostal Church and Syriac Orthodox Church account for most of the Christian population. Estimates for the numbers of Christians suggest a decline from 8–12% in the mid-20th century to 5% in 2008. More than half of Iraqi Christians have fled to neighbouring countries since the start of the war, and many have not returned, although a number are migrating back to the traditional Assyrian homeland in the Kurdish Autonomous region.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThere are also small ethno-religious minority populations of Mandaeans, Shabaks, Yarsan and Yezidis. The Iraqi Jewish community, numbering around 150,000 in 1941, has almost entirely left the country.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq is home to two of the world's holiest places among Shias: Najaf and Karbala.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDiaspora and refugees\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe dispersion of native Iraqis to other countries is known as the Iraqi diaspora. The UN High Commission for Refugees has estimated that nearly two million Iraqis have fled the country after the Multi-National invasion of Iraq in 2003, mostly to Syria and Jordan. The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre estimates an additional 1.9 million are currently displaced within the country.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn 2007, the U.N. said that about 40% of Iraq's middle class is believed to have fled and that most are fleeing systematic persecution and have no desire to return. Refugees are mired in poverty as they are generally barred from working in their host countries. \\nIn recent years the diaspora seems to be returning with the increased security; the Iraqi government claimed that 46,000 refugees have returned to their homes in October 2007 alone.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\n, nearly 3 million Iraqis have been displaced, with 1.3 million within the Iraq and 1.6 million in neighbouring countries, mainly Jordan and Syria. More than half of Iraqi Christians have fled the country since the 2003 US-led invasion. According to official United States Citizenship and Immigration Services statistics, 58,811 Iraqis have been granted refugee-status citizenship as of May 25, 2011.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nTo escape the civil war, over 160,000 Syrian refugees of varying ethnicities have fled to Iraq since 2012. Increasing violence during the Syrian civil war led to an increasing numbers of Iraqis returning to their native country.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nHealth\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 6.84% of the country's GDP. In 2008, there were 6.96 physicians and 13.92 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants. The life expectancy at birth was 68.49 years in 2010, or 65.13 years for males and 72.01 years for females. This is down from a peak life expectancy of 71.31 years in 1996.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq had developed a centralised free health care system in the 1970s using a hospital based, capital-intensive model of curative care. The country depended on large-scale imports of medicines, medical equipment and even nurses, paid for with oil export income, according to a \\\"Watching Brief\\\" report issued jointly by the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in July 2003.\\nUnlike other poorer countries, which focused on mass health care using primary care practitioners, Iraq developed a Westernized system of sophisticated hospitals with advanced medical procedures, provided by specialist physicians. The UNICEF/WHO report noted that prior to 1990, 97% of the urban dwellers and 71% of the rural population had access to free primary health care; just 2% of hospital beds were privately managed.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe CIA World Factbook estimates that in 2000 the adult literacy rate was 84% for males and 64% for females, with UN figures suggesting a small fall in literacy of Iraqis aged 15–24 between 2000 and 2008, from 84.8% to 82.4%. The Coalition Provisional Authority undertook a complete reform of Iraq's education system: Baathist ideology was removed from curricula and there were substantial increases in teacher salaries and training programs, which the Hussein regime neglected in the 1990s. In 2003 an estimated 80% of Iraq's 15,000 school buildings needed rehabilitation and lacked basic sanitary facilities, and most schools lacked libraries and laboratories.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nEducation is mandatory only through the sixth grade, after which a national examination determines the possibility of continuing into the upper grades. Although a vocational track is available to those who do not pass the exam, few students elect that option because of its poor quality. Boys and girls generally attend separate schools beginning with seventh grade.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIn 2005 obstacles to further reform were poor security conditions in many areas, a centralised system that lacked accountability for teachers and administrators, and the isolation in which the system functioned for the previous 30 years. Few private schools exist. Prior to the invasion of 2003, some 240,000 persons were enrolled in institutions of higher education.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAccording to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the University of Dohuk (1717th worldwide), the University of Baghdad (3160th) and Babylon University (3946th).\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nPublic holidays in Iraq include Republic Day on July 14 and the National Day on October 3.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraq is known primarily for its rich maqam heritage which has been passed down orally by the masters of the maqam in an unbroken chain of transmission leading up to the present. The maqam al-Iraqi is considered to be the most noble and perfect form of maqam. Al-maqam al-Iraqi is the collection of sung poems written either in one of the sixteen meters of classical Arabic or in Iraqi dialect (Zuhayri). This form of art is recognised by UNESCO as \\\"an intangible heritage of humanity\\\".\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nEarly in the 20th century, many of the most prominent musicians in Iraq were Jewish. In 1936, Iraq Radio was established with an ensemble made up entirely of Jews, with the exception of the percussion player. At the nightclubs of Baghdad, ensembles consisted of oud, qanun and two percussionists, while the same format with a ney and cello were used on the radio.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe most famous singer of the 1930s–1940s was perhaps the Jew Salima Pasha (later Salima Murad). The respect and adoration for Pasha were unusual at the time since public performance by women was considered shameful, and most female singers were recruited from brothels.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe most famous early composer from Iraq was Ezra Aharon, an oud player, while the most prominent instrumentalist was Daoud Al-Kuwaiti. Daoud and his brother Saleh formed the official ensemble for the Iraqi radio station and were responsible for introducing the cello and ney into the traditional ensemble.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nArt and architecture\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nImportant cultural institutions in the capital include the Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra – rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during the Occupation of Iraq but have since returned to normal. The National Theatre of Iraq was looted during the 2003 invasion, but efforts are underway to restore it. The live theatre scene received a boost during the 1990s when UN sanctions limited the import of foreign films. As many as 30 cinemas were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nInstitutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include the Academy of Music, Institute of Fine Arts and the Music and Ballet school Baghdad. Baghdad also features a number of museums including the National Museum of Iraq – which houses the world's largest and finest collection of artefacts and relics of Ancient Iraqi civilisations; some of which were stolen during the Occupation of Iraq.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe capital, Ninus or Nineveh, was taken by the Medes under Cyaxares, and some 200 years after Xenophon passed over its site, then mere mounds of earth. It remained buried until 1845, when Botta and Layard discovered the ruins of the Assyrian cities. The principal remains are those of Khorsabad, 10 mi N.E. of Mosul; of Nimroud, supposed to be the ancient Calah; and of Kouyunjik, in all probability the ancient Nineveh. In these cities are found fragments of several great buildings which seem to have been palace-temples. They were constructed chiefly of sun-dried bricks, and all that remains of them is the lower part of the walls, decorated with sculpture and paintings, portions of the pavements, a few indications of the elevation, and some interesting works connected with the drainage.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nMedia\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAfter the end of the full state control in 2003, there were a period of significant growth in the broadcast media in Iraq. Immediately, and the ban on satellite dishes is no longer in place, and by mid-2003, according to a BBC report, there were 20 radio stations from 0.15 to 17 television stations owned by Iraqis, and 200 Iraqi newspapers owned and operated. Significantly, there have been many of these newspapers in numbers disproportionate to the population of their locations. For example, in Najaf, which has a population of 300,000, is being published more than 30 newspapers and distributed.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraqi media expert and author of a number of reports on this subject, Ibrahim Al Marashi, identifies four stages of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 where they had been taking the steps that have significant effects on the way for the later of the Iraqi media since then. Stages are: pre-invasion preparation, and the war and the actual choice of targets, the first post-war period, and a growing insurgency and hand over power to the Iraqi Interim Government (IIG) and Prime Minister Iyad Allawi.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nIraqi cuisine has a long history going back some 10,000 years – to the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Ancient Persians. Tablets found in ancient ruins in Iraq show recipes prepared in the temples during religious festivals – the first cookbooks in the world. Ancient Iraq, or Mesopotamia, was home to many sophisticated and highly advanced civilisations, in all fields of knowledge – including the culinary arts. However, it was in the medieval era when Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate that the Iraqi kitchen reached its zenith. Today the cuisine of Iraq reflects this rich inheritance as well as strong influences from the culinary traditions of neighbouring Turkey, Iran and the Greater Syria area.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nSome characteristic ingredients of Iraqi cuisine include – vegetables such as aubergine, tomato, okra, onion, potato, courgette, garlic, peppers and chilli, cereals such as rice, bulgur wheat and barley, pulses and legumes such as lentils, chickpeas and cannellini, fruits such as dates, raisins, apricots, figs, grapes, melon, pomegranate and citrus fruits, especially lemon and lime.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nSimilarly with other countries of Western Asia, chicken and especially lamb are the favourite meats. Most dishes are served with rice – usually Basmati, grown in the marshes of southern Iraq. Bulgur wheat is used in many dishes – having been a staple in the country since the days of the Ancient Assyrians.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nSport\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nFootball is the most popular sport in Iraq. Football is a considerable uniting factor in Iraq following years of war and unrest. Basketball, swimming, weightlifting, bodybuilding, boxing, kick boxing and tennis are also popular sports.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThe Iraqi Football Association is the governing body of football in Iraq, controlling the Iraqi National Team and the Iraqi Premier League (also known as Dawri Al-Nokba). It was founded in 1948, and has been a member of FIFA since 1950 and the Asian Football Confederation since 1971. The biggest club in Iraq is Al Shorta, who won back-to-back league titles in 2013 and 2014 and were the first ever winners of the Arab Champions League. The Iraqi National Football Team were the 2007 AFC Asian Cup champions after defeating Saudi Arabia in the final by 1-0 thanks to a goal by captain Younis Mahmoud and they have participated in two FIFA competitions (the 1986 FIFA World Cup and the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup).\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nTechnology\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nMobile phones\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nDespite having mobile phones in the middle east since 1995, Iraqis were only able to use mobile phones after 2003. Mobile phones were banned under Saddam's rule.\\nCurrently upwards to 78% of Iraqis own a mobile phone.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nSatellite\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nAccording to Iraqi Ministry of Communication, Iraq is now in the second phase of building and launching a multipurpose strategic satellite.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nA project which expected to cost $600 million is ongoing in co-operation with market leaders such as Astrium and Arianespace.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nUndersea cable\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOn the 18th January 2012 Iraq was connected to the undersea communications network for the first time.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nThis had an immense impact on internet speed, availability and usage in Iraq.\",\n \"Iraq\\n\\nOn 2 October 2013, the Iraqi Minister for Communication ordered the internet prices to be lowered by a third. This is an attempt to boost usage and comes as a result of significant improvements in Internet infrastructure in the country.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nBaghdad ( ', , Iraqi pronunciation:) is the capital of the Republic of Iraq. The population of Baghdad, , is approximately 7,216,040, making it the largest city in Iraq,Estimates of total population differ substantially. The Encyclopædia Britannica gives a 2001 population of 4,950,000, the 2006 Lancet Report states a population of 7,216,050 in 2011.\\n*[http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9109394 \\\"Baghdad\\\"] Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13 November 2006.\\n*. By Gilbert Burnham, Riyadh Lafta, Shannon Doocy, and Les Roberts. The Lancet, October 11, 2006\\n*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/baghdad.htm Baghdad] from GlobalSecurity.org\\n[http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/Iraq.htm \\\"Cities and urban areas in Iraq with population over 100,000\\\"], Mongabay.com the second largest city in the Arab world (after Cairo, Egypt), and the second largest city in Western Asia (after Tehran, Iran). According to the government, the population of the country has reached 35 million, with 9 million in the capital.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nLocated along the Tigris River, the city was founded in the 8th century and became the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. Within a short time of its inception, Baghdad evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center for the Islamic world. This, in addition to housing several key academic institutions (e.g. House of Wisdom), garnered the city a worldwide reputation as the \\\"Center of Learning\\\".\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThroughout the High Middle Ages, Baghdad was considered to be the largest city in the world with an estimated population of 1,200,000 people. The city was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires. With the recognition of Iraq as an independent state (formerly the British Mandate of Mesopotamia) in 1938, Baghdad gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center of Arab culture.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nIn contemporary times, the city has often faced severe infrastructural damage, most recently due to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and the subsequent Iraq War that lasted until December 2011. In recent years, the city has been frequently subjected to insurgency attacks. , Baghdad was listed as one of the least hospitable places in the world to live, and was ranked by Mercer as the worst of 221 major cities as measured by quality-of-life.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe name Baghdad is pre-Islamic. The site where the city of Baghdad came to stand has been populated for millennia and by the 8th century AD several (Assyrian Christian) villages had developed there, including a Persian hamlet called Baghdad, the name which would come to be used for the Abbasid metropolis.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe name is of Indo-European origin and a Middle Persian compound of Bagh () \\\"god\\\" and dād () \\\"given by\\\", translating to \\\"Bestowed by God\\\" or \\\"God's gift\\\". In Old Persian the first element can be traced to boghu and is related to Slavic bog \\\"god\\\", while the second can be traced to dadāti. A similar term in Middle Persian is the name Mithradāt (Mihrdād in New Persian), known in English by its Hellenistic form Mithridates meaning \\\"gift of Mithra\\\" (dāt is the more archaic form of dād, related to Latin dat and English donor). There are a number of other locations in the wider region whose names are compounds of the word bagh, including Baghlan and Bagram in Afghanistan or a village called Bagh-šan in Iran.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe name has been used as Baghdadu on Assyrian cuneiform and Babylonian records going back to at least 2000 BC. Baghdad, as a name, had been mentioned as Baghdadu on the Assyrian cuneiform records of the 9th century BC, and Babylonian bricks bearing the Royal Seal of King Nebuchadnezzar (6th century BC) were found in the Tigris. An inscription by Nebuchadnezzar (600 BC) describes how he rebuilt the old Babylonian town of Bagh-dadu.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nWhen the Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, founded a completely new city for his capital, he chose the name Madinat al-Salaam or City of Peace. This was the official name on coins, weights, and other official usage, although the common people continued to use the old name. By the 11th century, \\\"Baghdad\\\" became almost the exclusive name for the world-renowned metropolis.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nFoundation\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nAfter the fall of the Umayyads, the first Muslim dynasty, the victorious Abbasid rulers wanted their own capital to rule from. Choosing a site north of the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon (and also just north of where ancient Babylon once stood), on 30 July 762, the caliph Al-Mansur commissioned the construction of the city, and it was built under the supervision of the Barmakids. Mansur believed that Baghdad was the perfect city to be the capital of the Islamic empire under the Abbasids. Mansur loved the site so much he is quoted saying, \\\"This is indeed the city that I am to found, where I am to live, and where my descendants will reign afterward\\\".\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe city's growth was helped by its excellent location, based on at least two factors: it had control over strategic and trading routes along the Tigris; the abundance of water in a dry climate. Water exists on both the north and south ends of the city, allowing all households to have a plentiful supply, which was very uncommon during this time.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nBaghdad eclipsed Ctesiphon, the capital of the Persian Empire, which was located some 30 km to the southeast. Today, all that remains of Ctesiphon is the shrine town of Salman Pak, just to the south of Greater Baghdad. Ctesiphon itself had replaced and absorbed Seleucia, the first capital of the Seleucid Empire. Seleucia had earlier replaced the city of Babylon.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nIn its early years, the city was known as a deliberate reminder of an expression in the Qur'an, when it refers to Paradise. It took four years to build (764-768). Mansur assembled engineers, surveyors, and art constructionists from around the world to come together and draw up plans for the city. Over 100,000 construction workers came to survey the plans; many were distributed salaries to start the building of the city. July was chosen as the starting time because two Astrologers, Naubakht Ahvazi and Mashallah, believed that the city should be built under the sign of the lion, Leo. Leo is associated with fire and symbolises productivity, pride, and expansion.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe bricks used to make the city were 18 in on all four sides. Abū Ḥanīfa was the counter of the bricks and he developed a canal, which brought water to the work site for the use of both human consumption and the manufacturing of the bricks. Marble was also used to make buildings throughout the city, and marble steps led down to the river's edge.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe basic framework of the city consists of two large semicircles about 19 km in diameter. The city was designed as a circle about 2 km in diameter, leading it to be known as the \\\"Round City\\\". The original design shows as single ring of residential and commercial structures along the inside of the city walls, but the final construction added another ring inside the first. Within the city there were many parks, gardens, villas, and promenades. In the center of the city lay the mosque, as well as headquarters for guards. The purpose or use of the remaining space in the center is unknown. The circular design of the city was a direct reflection of the traditional Persian Sasanian urban design. The Sasanian city of Gur in Fars, built 500 years before Baghdad, is nearly identical in its general circular design, radiating avenues, and the government buildings and temples at the centre of the city. This style of urban planning contrasted with Ancient Greek and Roman urban planning, in which cities are designed as squares or rectangles with streets intersecting each other at right angles.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nSurrounding walls\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe four surrounding walls of Baghdad were named Kufa, Basra, Khurasan, and Syria; named because their gates pointed in the directions of these destinations. The distance between these gates was a little less than . Each gate had double doors that were made of iron; the doors were so heavy it took several men to open and close them. The wall itself was about 44 m thick at the base and about 12 m thick at the top. Also, the wall was 30 m high, which included merlons, a solid part of an embattled parapet usually pierced by embrasures. This wall was surrounded by another wall with a thickness of 50 m. The second wall had towers and rounded merlons, which surrounded the towers. This outer wall was protected by a solid glacis, which is made out of bricks and quicklime. Beyond the outer wall was a water-filled moat.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nGolden Gate Palace\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nIn the middle of Baghdad, in the central square was the Golden Gate Palace. The Palace was the residence of the caliph and his family. In the central part of the building was a green dome that was 39 m high. Surrounding the palace was an esplanade, a waterside building, in which only the caliph could come riding on horseback. In addition, the palace was near other mansions and officer's residences. Near the Gate of Syria a building served as the home for the guards. It was made of brick and marble. The palace governor lived in the latter part of the building and the commander of the guards in the front. In 813, after the death of caliph Al-Amin the palace was no longer used as the home for the caliph and his family. \\nThe roundness points to the fact that it was based on Arabic script. The two designers who were hired by Al-Mansur to plan the city's design were Naubakht, a Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city would be astrologically auspicious, and Mashallah, a Jew from Khorasan, Iran.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nAbbasids and the round city\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe Abbasid Caliphate was based on their being the descendants of the uncle of Muhammad and being part of the Quraysh tribe. They used Shi'a resentment, Khorasanian movement, and appeals to the ambitions and traditions of the newly conquered Persian aristocracy to overthrow the Umayyads. \\nThe Abbasids sought to combine the hegemony of the Arab tribes with the imperial, court, ceremonial, and administrative structures of the Persians. The Abbasids considered themselves the inherittures and the need of Mansur to place the capital in a place that was representative of Arab-Islamic identity by building the House of Wisdom, where ancient texts were translated from their original language, such as Greek, to Arabic. Mansur is credited with the \\\"Translation Movement\\\" for this. Further, Baghdad is also near the ancient Sassanid imperial seat of Ctesiphon on the Tigris River.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nCenter of learning (8th to 13th centuries)\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nWithin a generation of its founding, Baghdad became a hub of learning and commerce. The House of Wisdom was an establishment dedicated to the translation of Greek, Middle Persian and Syriac works. Scholars headed to Baghdad from all over the Abbasid Caliphate, facilitating the introduction of Persian, Greek and Indian science into the Arabic and Islamic world at that time. Baghdad was likely the largest city in the world from shortly after its foundation until the 930s, when it was tied by Córdoba. \\nSeveral estimates suggest that the city contained over a million inhabitants at its peak. Many of the One Thousand and One Nights tales are set in Baghdad during this period.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nAmong the notable features of Baghdad during this period were its exceptional libraries. Many of the Abbasid caliphs were patrons of learning and enjoyed collecting both ancient and contemporary literature. Although some of the princes of the previous Umayyad dynasty had begun to gather and translate Greek scientific literature, the Abbasids were the first to foster Greek learning on a large scale. Many of these libraries were private collections intended only for the use of the owners and their immediate friends, but the libraries of the caliphs and other officials soon took on a public or a semi-public character.Mackensen, Ruth Stellhorn . (1932). Four Great Libraries of Medieval Baghdad. The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy, Vol. 2, No. 3 (Jul., 1932), pp. 279-299. University of Chicago Press. Four great libraries were established in Baghdad during this period. The earliest was that of the famous Al Mamun, who was caliph from 813 to 833. Another was established by Sabur Ibn Ardashir in 991 or 993 for the literary men and scholars who frequented his academy. Unfortunately, this second library was plundered and burned by the Seljuks only seventy years after it was established.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThis was a good example of the sort of library built up out of the needs and interests of a literary society. The last two were examples of madrasa or theological college libraries. The Nizamiyah was founded by the Persian Nizam al Mulk, who was vizier of two early Seljuk sultans. It continued to operate even after the coming of the Mongols in 1258. The Mustansiriyah madrasa, which owned an exceedingly rich library, was founded by Al Mustansir, the second last Abbasid caliph, who died in 1242. This would prove to be the last great library built by the caliphs of Baghdad.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nEnd of the Abbasids in Baghdad\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nBy the 10th century, the city's population was between 1.2 millionGeorge Modelski, World Cities: –3000 to 2000, Washington, D.C.: FAROS 2000, 2003. ISBN 978-0-9676230-1-6. See also [http://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/ Evolutionary World Politics Homepage]. and 2 million. Baghdad's early meteoric growth eventually slowed due to troubles within the Caliphate, including relocations of the capital to Samarra (during 808–819 and 836–892), the loss of the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political domination by the Iranian Buwayhids (945–1055) and Seljuk Turks (1055–1135).\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe Seljuks were a clan of the Oghuz Turks from the Central Asia that converted to the Sunni branch of Islam. In 1040, they destroyed the Ghaznavids, taking over their land and in 1055, Tughril Beg, the leader of the Seljuks, took over Baghdad. The Seljuks expelled the Buyid dynasty of Shiites that ruled for some time and took over power and control of Baghdad. They ruled as Sultans in the name of the Abbasid caliphs (they saw themselves as being part of the Abbasid regime). Tughril Beg saw himself as the protector of the Abbasid Caliphs.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nWars in which Baghdad was involved are listed below:\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\n* Siege of Baghdad (812–813), Fourth Fitna (Islamic Civil War)\\n* Siege of Baghdad (865), Caliphal Civil War (865–866)\\n* Battle of Baghdad (946), Buyid–Hamdanid War\\n* Siege of Baghdad (1157), Abbasid–Seljuq Wars\\n* Siege of Baghdad (1258), Mongol conquest of Baghdad\\n* Siege of Baghdad (1401), by Tamerlane\\n* Capture of Baghdad (1534), Ottoman–Safavid Wars\\n* Capture of Baghdad (1623), Ottoman–Safavid Wars\\n* Siege of Baghdad (1625), Ottoman–Safavid Wars\\n* Capture of Baghdad (1638), Ottoman–Safavid Wars\\n* Fall of Baghdad (1917), World War I\\n* 1941 Iraqi coup d'état, World War II\\n* Battle of Baghdad (2003), United States invasion of Iraq\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nIn 1058, Baghdad was captured by the Fatimids under the Turkish general Abu'l-Ḥārith Arslān al-Basasiri, an adherent of the Ismailis along with the 'Uqaylid Quraysh. Not long before the arrival of the Saljuqs in Baghdad, al-Basasiri petitioned to the Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir to support him in conquering Baghdad on the Ismaili Imam's behalf. It has recently come to light that the famed Fatimid da'i, al-Mu'ayyad al-Shirazi, had a direct role in supporting al-Basasiri and helped the general to succeed in taking Mawṣil, Wāsit and Kufa. Soon after, by December 1058, a Shi'i adhān (call to prayer) was implemented in Baghdad and a khutbah (sermon) was delivered in the name of the Fatimid Imam-Caliph. Despite his Shi'i inclinations, Al-Basasiri received support from Sunnis and Shi'is alike, for whom opposition to the Saljuq power was a common factor.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nOn 10 February 1258, Baghdad was captured by the Mongols led by Hulegu, a grandson of Chingiz Khan (Genghis Khan), during the siege of Baghdad. Many quarters were ruined by fire, siege, or looting. The Mongols massacred most of the city's inhabitants, including the caliph Al-Musta'sim, and destroyed large sections of the city. The canals and dykes forming the city's irrigation system were also destroyed. During this time, in Baghdad, Christians and Shia were tolerated, while Sunnis were treated as enemies. The sack of Baghdad put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate, a blow from which the Islamic civilization never fully recovered.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nAt this point, Baghdad was ruled by the Ilkhanate, a breakaway state of the Mongol Empire, ruling from Iran. In 1401, Baghdad was again sacked, by the Central Asian Turkic conqueror Timur (\\\"Tamerlane\\\"). When his forces took Baghdad, he spared almost no one, and ordered that each of his soldiers bring back two severed human heads. It became a provincial capital controlled by the Mongol Jalayirid (1400–1411), Turkic Kara Koyunlu (1411–1469), Turkic Ak Koyunlu (1469–1508), and the Iranian Safavid (1508–1534) dynasties.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nOttoman era (16th to 19th centuries)\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nIn 1534, Baghdad was captured by the Ottoman Turks. Under the Ottomans, Baghdad continued into a period of decline, partially as a result of the enmity between its rulers and Iranian Safavids, which did not accept the Sunni control of the city. Between 1623 and 1638, it returned to Iranian rule before falling back into Ottoman hands.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nBaghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague and cholera, and sometimes two-thirds of its population has been wiped out.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nFor a time, Baghdad had been the largest city in the Middle East. The city saw relative revival in the latter part of the 18th century under a Mamluk government. Direct Ottoman rule was reimposed by Ali Rıza Pasha in 1831. From 1851 to 1852 and from 1861 to 1867, Baghdad was governed, under the Ottoman Empire by Mehmed Namık Pasha. The Nuttall Encyclopedia reports the 1907 population of Baghdad as 185,000.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\n20th and 21st centuries\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nBaghdad and southern Iraq remained under Ottoman rule until 1917, when captured by the British during World War I. In 1920, Baghdad became the capital of the British Mandate of Mesopotamia and after receiving independence in 1932, the capital of the Kingdom of Iraq. The city's population grew from an estimated 145,000 in 1900 to 580,000 in 1950. During the Mandate, Baghdad's substantial Jewish community comprised a quarter of the city's population.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nOn 1 April 1941, members of the \\\"Golden Square\\\" and Rashid Ali staged a coup in Baghdad. Rashid Ali installed a pro-German and pro-Italian government to replace the pro-British government of Regent Abdul Ilah. On 31 May, after the resulting Anglo-Iraqi War and after Rashid Ali and his government had fled, the Mayor of Baghdad surrendered to British and Commonwealth forces.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nOn 14 July 1958, members of the Iraqi Army, under Abd al-Karim Qasim, staged a coup to topple the Kingdom of Iraq. King Faisal II, former Prime Minister Nuri as-Said, former Regent Prince 'Abd al-Ilah, members of the royal family, and others were brutally killed during the coup. Many of the victim's bodies were then dragged through the streets of Baghdad.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nDuring the 1970s, Baghdad experienced a period of prosperity and growth because of a sharp increase in the price of petroleum, Iraq's main export. New infrastructure including modern sewerage, water, and highway facilities were built during this period. The masterplans of the city (1967, 1973) were delivered by the Polish planning office Miastoprojekt-Kraków, mediated by Polservice. However, the Iran–Iraq War of the 1980s was a difficult time for the city, as money was diverted by Saddam Hussein to the army and thousands of residents were killed. Iran launched a number of missile attacks against Baghdad in retaliation for Saddam Hussein's continuous bombardments of Tehran's residential districts.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nIn 1991 and 2003, the Gulf War and the 2003 invasion of Iraq caused significant damage to Baghdad's transportation, power, and sanitary infrastructure as the US-led coalition forces launched massive aerial assaults in the city in the two wars. Also in 2003, the minor riot in the city (which took place on July 21) caused some disturbance in the population.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe historic \\\"Assyrian Quarter\\\" of the city, Dora, which boasted a population of 150,000 Assyrians in 2003, made up over 3% of the capital's Assyrian population then. The community has been subject to kidnappings, death threats, vandalism, and house burnings by Alqaida and other insurgent groups. As of the end of 2014, only 1,500 Assyrians remained in Dora.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nMain sights\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nPoints of interest include the National Museum of Iraq whose priceless collection of artifacts was looted during the 2003 invasion, and the iconic Hands of Victory arches. Multiple Iraqi parties are in discussions as to whether the arches should remain as historical monuments or be dismantled. Thousands of ancient manuscripts in the National Library were destroyed under Saddam's command.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nMutanabbi Street\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nMutanabbi Street (Arabic: شارع المتنبي) is located near the old quarter of Baghdad; at Al Rasheed Street. It is the historic center of Baghdad bookselling, a street filled with bookstores and outdoor book stalls. It was named after the 10th-century classical Iraqi poet Al-Mutanabbi. This street is well established for bookselling and has often been referred to as the heart and soul of the Baghdad literacy and intellectual community.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nBaghdad Zoo\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe Baghdad Zoo was the largest zoo in the Middle East. Within eight days following the 2003 invasion, however, only 35 of the 650 animals in the facility survived. This was a result of theft of some animals for human food, and starvation of caged animals that had no food. South African Lawrence Anthony and some of the zoo keepers cared for the animals and fed the carnivores with donkeys they had bought locally. Eventually, L. Paul Bremer, Director of the Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq from May 11, 2003 to June 28, 2004 ordered protection of the zoo and U.S. engineers helped to reopen the facility.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nKadhimiya mosque\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe Al-Kādhimiya Mosque is a shrine that is located in the Kādhimayn suburb of Baghdad, Iraq. It contains the tombs of the seventh Twelver Shīa Imām Musa al-Kadhim and the ninth Twelver Shīa Imām Muhammad at-Taqī al-Jawād. Many Shias travel to the mosque from far away places to commemorate.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe city is located on a vast plain bisected by the River Tigris. The Tigris splits Baghdad in half, with the eastern half being called 'Risafa' and the Western half known as 'Karkh'. The land on which the city is built is almost entirely flat and low-lying, being of alluvial origin due to the periodic large floods which have occurred on the river.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nBaghdad has a subtropical desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) and is one of the hottest cities in the world. In the summer from June to August, the average maximum temperature is as high as 44 °C accompanied by blazing sunshine: rainfall has in fact been recorded on fewer than half a dozen occasions at this time of year and has never exceeded 1 mm. Even at night temperatures in summer are seldom below 24 °C. Baghdad's record highest temperature of 124 degrees Fahrenheit (51 degrees Celsius) was reached in July 2015. The humidity is typically very low (under 10%) due to Baghdad's distance from the marshy southern Iraq and the coasts of Persian Gulf, and dust storms from the deserts to the west are a normal occurrence during the summer.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nWinters boast mild days and chilly nights. From December to February, Baghdad has maximum temperatures averaging , though highs above 70 F are not unheard of. Morning temperatures can be chilly: the average January low is but lows below freezing only occur a couple of times per year.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nAnnual rainfall, almost entirely confined to the period from November to March, averages around 150 mm, but has been as high as 338 mm and as low as 37 mm. On January 11, 2008, light snow fell across Baghdad for the first time in memory.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nAdministrative divisions\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nAdministratively, Baghdad Governorate is divided into districts which are further divided into sub-districts. Municipally, the governorate is divided into 9 municipalities, which have responsibility for local issues. Regional services, however, are coordinated and carried out by a mayor who oversees the municipalities. There is no single city council that singularly governs Baghdad at a municipal level. The governorate council is responsible for the governorate-wide policy.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThese official subdivisions of the city served as administrative centres for the delivery of municipal services but until 2003 had no political function. Beginning in April 2003, the U.S. controlled Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) began the process of creating new functions for these. The process initially focused on the election of neighbourhood councils in the official neighbourhoods, elected by neighbourhood caucuses.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe CPA convened a series of meetings in each neighbourhood to explain local government, to describe the caucus election process and to encourage participants to spread the word and bring friends, relatives and neighbours to subsequent meetings. Each neighbourhood process ultimately ended with a final meeting where candidates for the new neighbourhood councils identified themselves and asked their neighbours to vote for them.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nOnce all 88 (later increased to 89) neighbourhood councils were in place, each neighbourhood council elected representatives from among their members to serve on one of the city's nine district councils. The number of neighbourhood representatives on a district council is based upon the neighbourhood's population. The next step was to have each of the nine district councils elect representatives from their membership to serve on the 37 member Baghdad City Council. This three tier system of local government connected the people of Baghdad to the central government through their representatives from the neighbourhood, through the district, and up to the city council.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe same process was used to provide representative councils for the other communities in Baghdad Province outside of the city itself. There, local councils were elected from 20 neighbourhoods (Nahia) and these councils elected representatives from their members to serve on six district councils (Qada). As within the city, the district councils then elected representatives from among their members to serve on the 35 member Baghdad Regional Council.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe first step in the establishment of the system of local government for Baghdad Province was the election of the Baghdad Provincial Council. As before, the representatives to the Provincial Council were elected by their peers from the lower councils in numbers proportional to the population of the districts they represent. The 41 member Provincial Council took office in February, 2004 and served until national elections held in January 2005, when a new Provincial Council was elected.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThis system of 127 separate councils may seem overly cumbersome; however, Baghdad Province is home to approximately seven million people. At the lowest level, the neighbourhood councils, each council represents an average of 75,000 people.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe nine District Advisory Councils (DAC) are as follows:\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\n*Adhamiyah\\n*Karkh\\n*Karrada \\n*Kadhimiya \\n*Mansour\\n*Sadr City (Thawra)\\n*Al Rashid \\n*Rusafa\\n*New Baghdad (Tisaa Nissan) (9 April)\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe nine districts are subdivided into 89 smaller neighborhoods which may make up sectors of any of the districts above. The following is a selection (rather than a complete list) of these neighborhoods:\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\n*Al-Ghazaliya\\n*Al-A'amiriya\\n*Dora\\n*Karrada\\n*Al-Jadriya\\n*Al-Hebnaa\\n*Zayouna\\n*Al-Saydiya\\n*Al-Sa'adoon\\n*Al-Shu'ala\\n*Al-Mahmudiyah\\n*Bab Al-Moatham\\n**Al-Baya'\\n*Al-Za'franiya\\n*Hayy Ur\\n*Sha'ab\\n*Hayy Al-Jami'a\\n*Al-Adel\\n*Al Khadhraa\\n*Hayy Al-Jihad\\n*Hayy Al-A'amel\\n*Hayy Aoor\\n*Al-Hurriya\\n*Hayy Al-Shurtta\\n*Yarmouk\\n*Jesr Diyala\\n*Abu Disher\\n*Raghiba Khatoun\\n*Arab Jibor\\n*Al-Fathel\\n*Al-Ubedy\\n*Al-Washash\\n*Al-Wazireya\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nBaghdad's population was estimated at 7.22 million in 2015. The city historically had a predominantly Sunni population, by the early 21st century around half of the city's population were Iraqi Shia. Following ethnic cleansing campaigns by Sunni and then Shia militia groups during the U.S. occupation of Iraq the city's population became overwhelmingly Shia and despite the government's promise to resettle Sunnis displaced by the violence, little has been done to bring this about. The Iraqi Civil War following ISIS' invasion in 2014 caused hundreds of thousands of Iraqi internally displaced people to flee to the city. The city currently has Shia, Sunni, Christian and mixed neighborhoods but is the world's second largest Shia city after Tehran.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nBaghdad accounts for 20 per cent of Iraq's population and 40 per cent of the country's gross domestic product (PPP). Iraqi Airways, the national airline of Iraq, has its headquarters on the grounds of Baghdad International Airport in Baghdad. Al-Naser Airlines has its head office in Karrada, Baghdad.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nReconstruction efforts\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nMost Iraqi reconstruction efforts have been devoted to the restoration and repair of badly damaged urban infrastructure. More visible efforts at reconstruction through private development, like architect and urban designer Hisham N. Ashkouri's Baghdad Renaissance Plan and the Sindbad Hotel Complex and Conference Center have also been made.\\n A plan was proposed by a Government agency to rebuild a tourist island in 2008. In late 2009, a construction plan was proposed to rebuild the heart of Baghdad, but the plan was never realized because corruption was involved in it.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe Baghdad Eye, a tall Ferris wheel, was proposed for Baghdad in August 2008. At that time, three possible locations had been identified, but no estimates of cost or completion date were given. In October 2008, it was reported that Al-Zawraa Park was expected to be the site, and a wheel was installed there in March 2011.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nIraq's Tourism Board is also seeking investors to develop a \\\"romantic\\\" island on the River Tigris in Baghdad that was once a popular honeymoon spot for newlywed Iraqis. The project would include a six-star hotel, spa, an 18-hole golf course and a country club. In addition, the go-ahead has been given to build numerous architecturally unique skyscrapers along the Tigris that would develop the city's financial centre in Kadhehemiah.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nIn October 2008, the Baghdad Metro resumed service. It connects the center to the southern neighborhood of Dora.\\nIn May 2010, a new residential and commercial project nicknamed Baghdad Gate was announced. This project not only addresses the urgent need for new residential units in Baghdad but also acts as a real symbol of progress in the war torn city, as Baghdad has not seen projects of this scale for decades.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nRetails\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\n*Baghdad | Baghdad Mall (4 floors) + Baghdad Rayhan Hotel by Rotana + offices (30 floors) (105 metres) + offices (7 floors)\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nStadiums\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\n*Baghdad | Taji | 60,000 seats Stadium.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nHousing\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\n*Baghdad | Bismayah New City | 100,000 housing units.\\n*Baghdad | Zuhour | 5400 units (100 apartments)\\n*Baghdad | Ibn Firnas Residential Project | 2016 housing Units\\n*Baghdad | Al Ayadi Residential Project | 1335 housing Units\\n*Baghdad | Riyadh Apartments | 8 floors\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nIn 2012, the Central Bank of Iraq signed a deal with Zaha Hadid Architects to build a tower which will be used as the bank's new headquarters.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe Mustansiriya Madrasah was established in 1227 by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustansir. The name was changed to Al-Mustansiriya University in 1963. The University of Baghdad is the largest university in Iraq and the second largest in the Arab world.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nPrior to the Gulf War multiple international schools operated in Baghdad, including:\\n* École française de Bagdad \\n* Deutsche Schule Bagdad \\n* Baghdad Japanese School (バグダッド日本人学校), a nihonjin gakko\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nUniversities\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\n*Al-Mustansiriya University\\n*Iraqi University\\n*Nahrain University\\n*University of Baghdad\\n*University of Technology, Iraq\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nBaghdad has always played a significant role in the broader Arab cultural sphere, contributing several significant writers, musicians and visual artists. Famous Arab poets and singers such as Nizar Qabbani, Umm Kulthum, Fairuz, Salah Al-Hamdani, Ilham al-Madfai and others have performed for the city.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe dialect of Arabic spoken in Baghdad today differs from that of other large urban centres in Iraq, having features more characteristic of nomadic Arabic dialects (Verseegh, The Arabic Language). It is possible that this was caused by the repopulating of the city with rural residents after the multiple sacks of the late Middle Ages.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nFor poetry written about Baghdad, see Reuven Snir (ed.), Baghdad: The City in Verse (Harvard, 2013)[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/features/baghdad/]\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nInstitutions\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nSome of the important cultural institutions in the city include:\\n*Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra – Rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during the Second Gulf War, but have since returned to normal\\n*National Theater – The theatre was looted during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, but efforts are underway to restore the theatre.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe live theatre scene received a boost during the 1990s, when UN sanctions limited the import of foreign films. As many as 30 movie theatres were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nInstitutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include The Music and Ballet School of Baghdad and the Institute of Fine Arts Baghdad. Baghdad is also home to a number of museums which housed artifacts and relics of ancient civilization; many of these were stolen, and the museums looted, during the widespread chaos immediately after United States forces entered the city.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nDuring the 2003 occupation of Iraq, AFN Iraq (\\\"Freedom Radio\\\") broadcast news and entertainment within Baghdad, among other locations. There is also a private radio station called \\\"Dijlah\\\" (named after the Arabic word for the Tigris River) that was created in 2004 as Iraq's first independent talk radio station. Radio Dijlah offices, in the Jamia neighborhood of Baghdad, have been attacked on several occasions.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nSport\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nBaghdad is home to some of the most successful football (soccer) teams in Iraq, the biggest being Al-Shorta (Police), Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya (Airforce club), Al-Zawra'a, and Talaba (Students). The largest stadium in Baghdad is Al-Shaab Stadium, which was opened in 1966. Another, but much larger stadium, is still in the opening stages of construction.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nThe city has also had a strong tradition of horse racing ever since World War I, known to Baghdadis simply as 'Races'. There are reports of pressures by the Islamists to stop this tradition due to the associated gambling.\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nMajor streets\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\n*Haifa Street\\n*Salihiya Residential area - situated off Al Sinak bridge in central Baghdad, surrounded by Al- Mansur Hotel in the north and Al-Rasheed hotel in the south\\n*Hilla Road – Runs from the south into Baghdad via Yarmouk (Baghdad)\\n*Caliphs Street – site of historical mosques and churches\\n*Sadoun Street – stretching from Liberation Square to Masbah\\n*Mohammed Al-Qassim highway near Adhamiyah\\n*Abu Nuwas Street – runs along the Tigris from the Jumhouriya Bridge to 14 July Suspended Bridge\\n*Damascus Street – goes from Damascus Square to the Baghdad Airport Road\\n*Mutanabbi Street – A street with numerous books, named after the 10th century Iraqi poet Al-Mutanabbi\\n*Rabia Street\\n*Arbataash Tamuz (14th July) Street (Mosul Road)\\n*Muthana al-Shaibani Street\\n*Bor Saeed (Port Said) Street\\n*Thawra Street\\n*Al Qanat Street – runs through Baghdad north-south\\n*Al Khat al Sare'a – Mohammed al Qasim (high speed lane) – runs through Bagdhad, north-south\\n*Al Sinaa Street (Industry Street) runs by the University of Technology – centre of computers trade in Baghdad\\n*Al Nidhal Street\\n*Al Rasheed Street – city centre Baghdad\\n*Al Jamhuriah Street – city centre Baghdad\\n*Falastin Street\\n*Tariq el Muaskar – (Al Rasheed Camp Road)\\n*Aakhrot street\\n*Baghdad Airport Road\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\nTwin towns – Sister cities\",\n \"Baghdad\\n\\n* Amman, Jordan\\n* Beirut, Lebanon \\n* Dubai, United Arab Emirates\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2074,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_17"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In which English County can you find 4 towns with the suffix Regis?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Dorset"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["dorset england","county of dorset","dorsetshire","dorset","dorcet"],"string":"[\n \"dorset england\",\n \"county of dorset\",\n \"dorsetshire\",\n \"dorset\",\n \"dorcet\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Dorset\n\nDorset (or archaically, Dorsetshire) is a county in South West England on the English Channel coast. The ceremonial county comprises the non-metropolitan county, which is governed by Dorset County Council, and the unitary authority areas of Poole and Bournemouth. Covering an area of 2653 km2, Dorset borders Devon to the west, Somerset to the north-west, Wiltshire to the north-east, and Hampshire to the east. The county town is Dorchester which is in the south. After the reorganisation of local government in 1974 the county's border was extended eastward to incorporate the Hampshire towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch. Around half of the population lives in the South East Dorset conurbation, while the rest of the county is largely rural with a low population density.","Dorset\n\nThe county has a long history of human settlement stretching back to the Neolithic era. The Romans conquered Dorset's indigenous Celtic tribe, and during the early Middle Ages, the Saxons settled the area and made Dorset a shire in the 7th century. The first recorded Viking raid on the British Isles occurred in Dorset during the eighth century, and the Black Death entered England at Melcombe Regis in 1348. Dorset has seen much civil unrest: during the English Civil War an uprising of vigilantes was crushed by Oliver Cromwell's forces in a pitched battle near Shaftesbury; the doomed Monmouth Rebellion began at Lyme Regis; and a group of farm labourers from Tolpuddle were instrumental in the formation of the trade union movement. During the World War II, Dorset was heavily involved in the preparations for the invasion of Normandy, and the large harbours of Portland and Poole were two of the main embarkation points. The former was the sailing venue in the 2012 Summer Olympics, and both have clubs or hire venues for sailing, Cornish pilot gig rowing, sea kayaking and powerboating.","Dorset\n\nDorset has a varied landscape featuring broad elevated chalk downs, steep limestone ridges and low-lying clay valleys. Over half the county is designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Three-quarters of its coastline is part of the Jurassic Coast Natural World Heritage Site due to its geological and palaeontologic significance. It features notable landforms such as Lulworth Cove, the Isle of Portland, Chesil Beach and Durdle Door. Agriculture was traditionally the major industry of Dorset but is now in decline and tourism has become increasingly important to the economy. There are no motorways in Dorset but a network of A roads cross the county and two railway main lines connect to London. Dorset has ports at Poole, Weymouth and Portland, and an international airport. The county has a variety of museums, theatres and festivals, and is host to one of Europe's largest outdoor shows. It is the birthplace of Thomas Hardy, who used the county as the principal setting of his novels, and William Barnes, whose poetry celebrates the ancient Dorset dialect.","Dorset\n\nToponymy","Dorset\n\nDorset derives its name from the county town of Dorchester. The Romans established the settlement in the 1st century and named it Durnovaria which was a Latinised version of a Common Brittonic word possibly meaning \"place with fist-sized pebbles\". The Saxons named the town Dornwaraceaster (the suffix \"ceaster\" being the Old English name for a Roman town) and Dornsæte came into use as the name for the inhabitants of the area from \"Dorn\"—a reduced form of Dornwaraceaster—and the Old English word \"sæte\" meaning people. It is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in AD 845 and in the 10th century the county's archaic name, \"Dorseteschyre\" (Dorsetshire), was first recorded.","Dorset\n\nHistory","Dorset\n\nThe first human visitors to Dorset were Mesolithic hunters, from around 8000 BC.Putnam (p.15) The first permanent Neolithic settlers appeared around 3000 BC and were responsible for the creation of the Dorset Cursus, a monument for ritual or ceremonial purposes.Putnam (p.19) From 2800 BC onwards Bronze Age farmers cleared Dorset's woodlands for agricultural use and Dorset's high chalk hills provided a location for numerous round barrows. During the Iron Age, the British tribe known as the Durotriges established a series of hill forts across the county—most notably Maiden Castle which is one of the largest in Europe.","Dorset\n\nThe Romans arrived in Dorset during their conquest of Britain in AD 43. Maiden Castle was captured by a Roman legion under the command of Vespasian, and the Roman settlement of Durnovaria was established nearby. Bokerley Dyke, a large defensive ditch built by the county's post-Roman inhabitants near the border with modern-day Hampshire, delayed the advance of the Saxons into Dorset for almost 150 years. However, by the end of the 7th century Dorset had fallen under Saxon control and been incorporated into the Kingdom of Wessex. The Saxons established a diocese at Sherborne and Dorset was made a shire—an administrative district of Wessex and predecessor to the English county system—with borders that have changed little since. In 789 the first recorded Viking attack on the British Isles took place in Dorset on the Portland coast, and they continued to raid into the county for the next two centuries.","Dorset\n\nAfter the Norman Conquest in 1066, feudal rule was established in Dorset and the bulk of the land was divided between the Crown and ecclesiastical institutions. The Normans consolidated their control over the area by constructing castles at Corfe, Wareham and Dorchester in the early part of the 12th century. Over the next 200 years Dorset's population grew substantially and additional land was enclosed for farming to provide the extra food required. The wool trade, the quarrying of Purbeck Marble and the busy ports of Weymouth, Melcombe Regis, Lyme Regis and Bridport brought prosperity to the county. However, Dorset was devastated by the bubonic plague in 1348 which arrived in Melcombe Regis on a ship from Gascony. The disease, more commonly known as the Black Death, created an epidemic that spread rapidly and wiped out a third of the population of the country.","Dorset\n\nThe dissolution of the monasteries (1536–1541) met little resistance in Dorset and many of the county's abbeys, including Shaftesbury, Cerne and Milton, were sold to private owners. In 1642, at the commencement of the English Civil War, the Royalists took control of the entire county apart from Poole and Lyme Regis. However, within three years their gains had been almost entirely reversed by the Parliamentarians. An uprising of Clubmen—vigilantes weary of the depredations of the war—took place in Dorset in 1645. Some 2,000 of these rebels offered battle to Lord Fairfax's Parliamentary army at Hambledon Hill but they were easily routed. Sherborne Castle was taken by Fairfax that same year and in 1646 Corfe Castle, the last remaining Royalist stronghold in Dorset, was captured after an act of betrayal: both were subsequently slighted. The Duke of Monmouth's unsuccessful attempt to overthrow James II began when he landed at Lyme Regis in 1685. A series of trials known as the Bloody Assizes took place to punish the rebels. Over a five-day period in Dorchester, Judge Jeffreys presided over 312 cases: 74 of the accused were executed, 175 were transported, and nine were publicly whipped.","Dorset\n\nIn 1686, at Charborough Park, a meeting took place to plot the downfall of James II of England. This meeting was effectively the start of the Glorious Revolution.","Dorset\n\nDuring the 18th century, much smuggling took place along the Dorset coast; its coves, caves and sandy beaches provided opportunities for gangs such as the Hawkhursts to stealthily bring smuggled goods ashore. Poole became Dorset's busiest port and established prosperous trade links with the fisheries of Newfoundland which supported cloth, rope and net manufacturing industries in the surrounding towns and villages. However, the industrial revolution largely bypassed Dorset which lacked coal resources and as a consequence the county remained predominantly agricultural. Farming has always been central to the economy of Dorset and the county became the birthplace of the modern trade union movement when, in 1834, six farm labourers formed a union to protest against falling wages. The labourers, who are now known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs, were subsequently arrested for administering \"unlawful oaths\" and sentenced to transportation but they were pardoned following massive protests by the working classes.","Dorset\n\nThe Dorsetshire Regiment were the first British unit to face a gas attack during the First World War (1914–1918) and they sustained particularly heavy losses at the Battle of the Somme. In total some 4,500 Dorset servicemen died in the war and of the county's towns and villages, only one, Langton Herring, known as a Thankful Village, had no residents killed. During the Second World War (1939–1945) Dorset was heavily involved in the preparations for the invasion of Normandy: beach landing exercises were carried out at Studland and Weymouth and the village of Tyneham was requisitioned for army training. Tens-of-thousands of troops departed Weymouth, Portland and Poole harbours during D-Day and gliders from RAF Tarrant Rushton dropped troops near Caen to begin Operation Tonga. Dorset experienced an increase in holiday-makers after the war. First popularised as a tourist destination by George III's frequent visits to Weymouth, the county's coastline, seaside resorts and its sparsely populated rural areas attract millions of visitors each year. With farming declining across the country, tourism has edged ahead as the primary revenue-earning sector.","Dorset\n\nSettlements","Dorset\n\nDorset is largely rural with many small villages, few large towns and no cities. The only major urban area is the South East Dorset conurbation, which is situated at the south-eastern end of the county and is atypical of the county as a whole. It consists of the seaside resort of Bournemouth, the historic port and borough of Poole, the towns of Christchurch and Ferndown plus many surrounding villages. Bournemouth, the most populous town in the conurbation, was established in the Georgian era when sea bathing became popular. Poole, the second largest settlement (once the largest town in the county), adjoins Bournemouth to the west and contains the suburb of Sandbanks which has some of the highest land values by area in the world.","Dorset\n\nThe other two major settlements in the county are Dorchester, which has been the county town since at least 1305, and Weymouth, a major seaside resort since the 18th century. Blandford Forum, Sherborne, Gillingham, Shaftesbury and Sturminster Newton are historic market towns which serve the farms and villages of the Blackmore Vale in north Dorset. Beaminster and Bridport are situated in the west of the county; Verwood and the historic Saxon market towns of Wareham and Wimborne Minster are located to the east. Lyme Regis and Swanage are small coastal towns popular with tourists. Under construction on the western edge of Dorchester is the experimental new town of Poundbury commissioned and co-designed by Prince Charles. The suburb, which is expected to be fully completed by 2025, was designed to integrate residential and retail buildings and counter the growth of dormitory towns and car-oriented development.","Dorset\n\nPhysical geography","Dorset\n\nDorset covers an area of 2653 km2 and contains considerable variety in its underlying geology, which is partly responsible for the diversity of landscape. A large percentage (66%) of the county comprises either chalk, clay or mixed sand and gravels. The remainder is less straightforward and includes Portland and Purbeck stone, other limestones, calcareous clays and shales. Portland and Purbeck stone are of national importance as a building material and for restoring some of Britain's most famous landmarks. Almost every type of rock known from the Early Jurassic to the Eocene epochs can be found in the county.","Dorset\n\nDorset has a number of limestone ridges which are mostly covered in either arable fields or calcareous grassland supporting sheep. These limestone areas include a wide band of Cretaceous chalk which crosses the county as a range of hills from north-east to south-west, incorporating Cranborne Chase and the Dorset Downs, and a narrow band running from south-west to south-east, incorporating the Purbeck Hills. Between the chalk hills are large, wide vales and wide flood plains. These vales are dotted with small villages, farms and coppices, and include the Blackmore Vale (Stour valley) and Frome valley. The Blackmore Vale is composed of older Jurassic deposits, largely clays interspersed with limestones, and has traditionally been a centre for dairy agriculture. South-east Dorset, including the lower Frome valley and around Poole and Bournemouth, comprises younger Eocene deposits, mainly sands and clays of poor agricultural quality. The soils created from these deposits support a heathland habitat which sustains all six native British reptile species. Most of the Dorset heathland has Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) status with three areas designated as internationally important Ramsar sites.","Dorset\n\nIn the far west of the county and along the coast there are frequent changes in rock strata, which appear in a less obviously sequential way compared to the landscapes of the chalk and the heath. In the west this results in a hilly landscape of diverse character that resembles that of neighbouring county Devon. Marshwood Vale, a valley of Lower Lias clay at the western tip of the county, lies to the south of the two highest points in Dorset: Lewesdon Hill at 279 m and Pilsdon Pen at 277 m.","Dorset\n\nA former river valley flooded by rising sea levels 6,000 years ago, Poole Harbour is one of the largest natural harbours in the world. \nThe harbour is very shallow in places and contains a number of islands, notably Brownsea Island, the birthplace of the Scouting movement and one of the few remaining sanctuaries for indigenous red squirrels in England. The harbour, and the chalk and limestone hills of the Isle of Purbeck to the south, lie atop Western Europe's largest onshore oil field. The field, operated by Perenco from Wytch Farm, has the world's oldest continuously pumping well at Kimmeridge which has been producing oil since the early 1960s.","Dorset\n\nDorset's diverse geography ensures it has an assortment of rivers, although a moderate annual rainfall coupled with rolling hills, means most are typically lowland in nature. Much of the county drains into three rivers, the Frome, Piddle and Stour which all flow to the sea in a south-easterly direction. The Frome and Piddle are chalk streams but the Stour, which rises in Wiltshire to the north, has its origins in clay soil. The River Avon, which flows mainly through Wiltshire and Hampshire, enters Dorset towards the end of its journey at Christchurch Harbour. The rivers Axe and Yeo, which principally drain the counties of Devon and Somerset respectively, have their sources in the north-west of the county. In the south-west, a number of small rivers run into the sea along the Dorset coastline; most notable of these are the Char, Brit, Bride and Wey.","Dorset\n\nMost of Dorset's coastline is part of the Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site, which stretches for 155 km between Studland and Exmouth in Devon. This coast documents the entire Mesozoic era, from Triassic to Cretaceous and is noted for its geological landforms. The Dorset section has yielded important fossils, including Jurassic trees and the first complete Ichthyosaur, discovered near Lyme Regis in 1811 by Mary Anning. The county features some notable coastal landforms, including examples of a cove (Lulworth Cove), a natural arch (Durdle Door) and chalk stacks (Old Harry Rocks). Jutting out into the English Channel at roughly the midpoint of the Dorset coastline is the Isle of Portland, a limestone island that is connected to the mainland by Chesil Beach, a 27 km long shingle barrier beach protecting Britain's largest tidal lagoon.","Dorset\n\nThe county has one of the highest proportions of conservation areas in England—and two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty covering 53% of the administrative county. It has two Heritage Coasts totalling 92 km and Sites of Special Scientific Interest covering 199 km2. The South West Coast Path, National Trail, begins at South Haven Point at the entrance to Poole Harbour.","Dorset\n\nClimate","Dorset\n\nDorset's climate of warm summers and mild winters is partly due to its position on Britain's south coast. The third most southerly county in the UK, Dorset is less affected by the more intense Atlantic winds than Cornwall and Devon. Dorset, along with the entire south-west, has higher winter temperatures, average , than the rest of the United Kingdom. However, Dorset maintains higher summer temperatures than Devon and Cornwall, with average highs of . Excluding hills such as the Dorset Downs, the average annual temperature of the county is .","Dorset\n\nThe south coast counties of Dorset, Hampshire, West Sussex, East Sussex and Kent enjoy more sunshine than anywhere else in the United Kingdom, receiving 1,541–1,885 hours a year. Average annual rainfall varies across the county—southern and eastern coastal areas receive 700 – per year; the Dorset Downs receive between 1000 and per year; less than Devon and Cornwall to the west but more than counties to the east.","Dorset\n\nDemography","Dorset\n\nThe 2011 Census records Dorset's population as 744,041. This consisted of 412,905 for the non-metropolitan county (not including Bournemouth and Poole), 183,491 for the unitary authority of Bournemouth and 147,645 for the unitary authority of Poole. In 2013 it was estimated that the population had risen by around 1.4% to 754,460: 416,720 in the non-metropolitan county and 188,730 and 149,010 in Bournemouth and Poole respectively. More than half of the county's residents live in the Bournemouth, Poole and Christchurch conurbation.","Dorset\n\nDorset's population has a high proportion of older people and a lower than average proportion of young people: According to 2013 mid-year estimates, 23.6% are over 65 years of age, higher than the England and Wales average of 17.4%, and 18.6% are less than 17 years old, lower than the England and Wales average of 21.3%. The working age population (females and males between 16 and 64) is lower than England and Wales average, 60% compared to 64%. Data collected between 2010 and 2012 shows that average life expectancy at birth in the county is 85.3 years for females and 81.2 years for males. This compares favourably with the averages for England and Wales of 82.9 and 79.1 years respectively. Around 95.2% of Dorset's population are of white ethnicity, 60.9% of the population are Christian and 28.5% say they are not religious.","Dorset\n\nMore than 33% of the county’s population possess a level 4 qualification or above, such as a Higher National Diploma, Degree or a Higher Degree; while nearly 6.3% have no qualifications at all. Almost 43.7% are employed in a professional or technical capacity (Standard Occupational Classification 2010, groups 1 – 3), just over 10.3% are administrators or secretaries (group 4), around 12.8% have a skilled trade (group 5), over 18% are employed at a low-level in the care, leisure, sales or customer relations sector (groups 6 and 7) and 14.8% are operatives or in elementary occupations (groups 8 and 9).","Dorset\n\nPolitics","Dorset\n\nLocal government in Dorset consists of a county council (Dorset County Council) and two unitary authorities (Bournemouth Borough Council and Poole Borough Council). Dorset County Council was created by the Local Government Act 1888 to govern the newly created administrative county of Dorset which was based largely on the historic county borders. Dorset became a two-tier non-metropolitan county after a reorganisation of local government in 1974 and its border was extended eastwards to incorporate the former Hampshire towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch. Following a review by the Local Government Commission for England, Bournemouth and Poole each became administratively independent single-tier unitary authorities in 1997, although they remain part of the county geographically and for ceremonial purposes. The county council is based in Dorchester and comprises six-second-tier districts: West Dorset, East Dorset, North Dorset, Purbeck, Christchurch, and Weymouth and Portland. The council is controlled by the Conservative Party: at the 2013 local elections 27 Conservative, 12 Liberal Democrat, 5 Labour and 1 UKIP county councillors were elected. Bournemouth is also Conservative-controlled: the council comprises 46 Conservative, three Liberal Democrat, three Labour and two independent councillors.","Dorset\n\nThe Conservatives lost overall control of Poole at local elections in 2011 but subsequently formed a minority administration—the council comprises 21 Conservative councillors, 18 Liberal Democrat and three Poole People (a political party of Poole residents).","Dorset\n\nFor representation in Parliament Dorset is divided into eight Parliamentary constituencies—five county constituencies and three borough constituencies. At the 2010 general election, the Conservative Party was dominant, strengthening their lead in six seats, and regaining one other from Labour. The borough constituencies of Bournemouth East, Bournemouth West and Poole are traditionally Conservative safe seats and are all represented by Conservative members of parliament. The county constituencies of North Dorset and Christchurch are also represented by Conservative MPs. West Dorset is represented by Conservative MP Oliver Letwin who is the Minister of State at the Cabinet Office. The marginal seat of South Dorset is represented by Richard Drax, who gained the seat from Dorset's only Labour representative, Jim Knight, in 2010. Mid Dorset and North Poole is held by Liberal Democrat MP Annette Brooke who retained her seat in 2010 with a slim majority of 269 (0.6% of the vote) over the Conservative candidate. For the European Parliament the county lies within the South West England constituency which elected three Conservative, two UK Independence Party and one Liberal Democrat Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) at the 2009 European Parliament election.","Dorset\n\nEconomy and industry","Dorset\n\nIn 2003 the gross value added (GVA) for the non-metropolitan county was £4,673 million, with an additional £4,705 million for Poole and Bournemouth. Primary industry produced 2.03% of GVA, secondary industry produced 22.44% and 75.53% came from tertiary industry. The average GVA for the 16 regions of South West England was £4,693 million.","Dorset\n\nThe principal industry in Dorset was once agriculture. It has not, however, been the largest employer since the mid 19th century as mechanisation substantially reduced the number of workers required. Agriculture has become less profitable and the industry has declined further. Within the administrative county between 1995 and 2003, GVA for primary industry (largely agriculture, fishing and quarrying) declined from £229 million to £188 million—7.1% to 4.0%. In 2007, 2039 km2 of the county was in agricultural use, up from 1986 km2 in 1989, although this was due to an increase in permanent grass, and land set aside. By contrast, in the same period, arable land decreased from 9925 to. Excluding fowl, sheep are the most common animal stock in the county; between 1989 and 2006 their numbers fell from 252,189 to 193,500. Cattle and pig farming has declined similarly; during the same period the number of cattle fell from 240,413 to 170,700, and pigs from 169,636 to 72,700.","Dorset\n\nIn 2009 there were 2,340 armed forces personnel stationed in Dorset including the Royal Armoured Corps at Bovington, Royal Signals at Blandford and the Royal Marines at Poole. The military presence has had a mixed effect on the local economy, bringing additional employment for civilians, but on occasion having a negative impact on the tourist trade, particularly when popular areas are closed for military manoeuvres. Plans to relocate the Royal School of Signals from Blandford to South Wales could result in a loss of up to £74 million GVA for the area.","Dorset\n\nOther major employers in the county include: BAE Systems, Sunseeker International, J.P. Morgan, Cobham plc and Bournemouth University. Dorset's three ports, Poole, Weymouth and Portland, and the smaller harbours of Christchurch, Swanage, Lyme Regis, Wareham and West Bay generate a substantial amount of international trade and tourism. Around 230 fishing vessels that predominantly catch crab and lobster are based in Dorset's ports. When the waters around Weymouth and Portland were chosen for the sailing events in the 2012 Summer Olympic Games, the area underwent an increased investment in infrastructure and a growth in the marine leisure sector. It is expected that this will continue to have a positive effect on local businesses and tourism.","Dorset\n\nTourism has grown in Dorset since the late 18th century and is now the predominant industry. It is estimated that 37,500 people work in Dorset's tourism sector. Some 3.2 million British and 326,000 foreign tourists visited the county in 2008, staying a total of 15.1 million nights. In addition there were 14.6 million day visitors. The combined spending of both groups was £1,458 million. Towns received 56% of Dorset's day trippers, 27% went to the coast and 17% to the countryside. A survey carried out in 1997 concluded that the primary reason tourists were drawn to Dorset was the attractiveness of the county's coast and countryside. Numbers of domestic and foreign tourists have fluctuated in recent years due to various factors including security and economic downturn, a trend reflected throughout the UK.","Dorset\n\nManufacturing industry in Dorset provided 10.3% of employment in 2008. This was slightly above the average for Great Britain but below that of the South West region which was at 10.7% for that period. The sector is the county's fourth largest employer, but a predicted decline suggests there will be 10,200 fewer jobs in manufacturing by 2026.","Dorset\n\nCulture","Dorset\n\nAs a largely rural county, Dorset has fewer major cultural institutions than larger or more densely populated areas. Major venues for concerts and theatre include Poole's Lighthouse arts centre, Bournemouth's BIC, Pavilion Theatre and O2 Academy, and the Pavilion theatre in Weymouth. One of Dorset's most noted cultural institutions is the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra which was founded in 1893. Based in Poole, the orchestra performs over 130 concerts across southern England each year.","Dorset\n\nDorset has more than 30 general and specialist museums. The Dorset County Museum in Dorchester was founded in 1846 and contains an extensive collection of exhibits covering the county's history and environment. The Tank Museum at Bovington contains more than 300 tanks and armoured vehicles from 30 nations. The museum is the largest in Dorset and its collection has been designated of national importance. Other museums which reflect the cultural heritage of the county include The Keep Military Museum in Dorchester, the Russell-Cotes Museum in Bournemouth, the Charmouth Heritage Coast Centre, Poole Museum, Portland Museum and Wareham Town Museum.","Dorset\n\nDorset contains 190 Conservation Areas, more than 1,500 Scheduled Ancient Monuments, over 30 registered parks and gardens and 12,850 listed buildings. Grade I listed buildings include: Portland Castle, a coastal fort commissioned by Henry VIII; a castle with more than a 1,000 years of history at Corfe; a Roman ruin described by English Heritage as the \"only Roman town house visible in Britain\"; Athelhampton, a Tudor manor house; Forde Abbey, a stately home and former Cistercian monastery; Christchurch Priory, the longest church in England; and St Edwold's church, one of the smallest.","Dorset\n\nDorset hosts a number of annual festivals, fairs and events including the Great Dorset Steam Fair near Blandford, one of the largest events of its kind in Europe, and the Bournemouth Air Festival, a free air show that attracted 1.3 million visitors in 2009. The Spirit of the Seas is a maritime festival held in Weymouth and Portland. Launched in 2008, the festival features sporting activities, cultural events and local entertainers. The Dorset County Show, which was first held in 1841, is a celebration of Dorset's agriculture. The two-day event exhibits local produce and livestock and attracts some 55,000 people. In addition to the smaller folk festivals held in towns such as Christchurch and Wimborne, Dorset holds several larger musical events such as Camp Bestival, Endorse It in Dorset, End of the Road and the Larmer Tree Festival.","Dorset\n\nDorset's only Football League club is A.F.C. Bournemouth, which plays in the Premier League— the highest division in the English football league system. Non-League semi-professional teams in the county include Southern Premier Division teams Dorchester Town F.C., Poole Town F.C., and Weymouth F.C.. Dorset County Cricket Club competes in the Minor Counties Cricket Championship and is based at Dean Park Cricket Ground in Bournemouth. Poole Stadium hosts regular greyhound racing and is the home to top-flight speedway team Poole Pirates. The county's coastline, on the English Channel, is noted for its watersports (particularly sailing, gig racing, windsurfing, power boating and kayaking) which take advantage of the sheltered waters in the bays of Weymouth and Poole, and the harbours of Poole and Portland. Dorset hosted the sailing events at the 2012 Summer Olympics and 2012 Summer Paralympics at the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy. The venue was completed in May 2009 and was used by international sailing teams in preparation for the Games.","Dorset\n\nDorset is famed in literature for being the native county of author and poet Thomas Hardy, and many of the places he describes in his novels in the fictional Wessex are in Dorset, which he renamed South Wessex. The National Trust owns Thomas Hardy's Cottage, in Higher Bockhampton, east of Dorchester; and Max Gate, his former house in Dorchester. Several other writers have called Dorset home, including Douglas Adams, who wrote much of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy while he lived in Stalbridge; John le Carré, author of espionage novels, was born in Poole; Tom Sharpe of Wilt fame lived in Bridport; John Fowles (The French Lieutenant's Woman) lived in Lyme Regis before he died in late 2005; T.F. Powys lived in Chaldon Herring for over 20 years and used it as inspiration for the fictitious village of Folly Down in his novel Mr. Weston's Good Wine; John Cowper Powys, his elder brother, also set a number of his works in Dorset, such as the novels Maiden Castle and Weymouth Sands. The 19th-century poet William Barnes was born in Bagber and wrote many poems in his native Dorset dialect.","Dorset\n\nOriginating from the ancient Norse and Saxon languages, the dialect was prevalent across the Blackmore Vale but has fallen into disuse.","Dorset\n\nDorset's flag, which is known as the Dorset Cross or St Wite's Cross, was adopted in 2008 following a public competition organised by Dorset County Council. The winning design, which features a white cross with a red border on a golden background, attracted 54% of the vote. All three colours are used in Dorset County Council's coat of arms and the red and white was used in recognition of the English flag. The golden colour represents Dorset's sandy beaches and the Dorset landmarks of Golden Cap and Gold Hill. It is also a reference to the Wessex Dragon, a symbol of the Saxon Kingdom which Dorset once belonged to, and the gold wreath featured on the badge of the Dorset Regiment.","Dorset\n\nTransport","Dorset\n\nDorset is connected to London by two main line railways. The West of England Main Line runs through the north of the county at Gillingham and Sherborne. Running west from London Waterloo to Exeter St Davids in Devon, it provides a service for those who live in the western districts of Dorset. The South Western Main Line runs through the south at Bournemouth, Poole, Dorchester and the terminus at Weymouth. Additionally, the Heart of Wessex Line runs north from Weymouth to Bristol and the Swanage Railway, a heritage steam and diesel railway, runs the 10 km between Norden and Swanage.","Dorset\n\nDorset is one of the few counties in England not to have a motorway. The A303, A35 and A31 trunk roads run through the county. The A303, which connects the West Country to London via the M3, clips the north-west of the county. The A35 crosses the county in a west-east direction from Honiton in Devon, via Bridport, Dorchester, Poole, Bournemouth and Christchurch, to Southampton in Hampshire. The A31 connects to the A35 at Bere Regis, and passes east through Wimborne and Ferndown to Hampshire, where it later becomes the M27. Other main roads in the county include the A338, A354, A37 and A350. The A338 heads north from Bournemouth to Ringwood (Hampshire) and on to Salisbury (Wiltshire) and beyond. The A354 also connects to Salisbury after travelling north-east from Weymouth in the south of the county. The A37 travels north-west from Dorchester to Yeovil in Somerset. The A350 also leads north, from Poole through Blandford and Shaftesbury, to Warminster in Wiltshire.","Dorset\n\nTwo passenger sea ports and an international airport are situated in the county. Brittany Ferries and Condor Ferries, operate out of Poole Harbour; Brittany Ferries provide access to Cherbourg in France and Condor Ferries sail a seasonal service to the Channel Islands and St Malo, France. Condor Ferries also operate services from Weymouth harbour to Guernsey, Jersey and St. Malo throughout the year. Poole, since the dredging of the main channel in 2008, and Portland harbours are capable of taking cruise liners. Bournemouth Airport, which is situated on the edge of Hurn village 6 km north of Bournemouth, has flights to 36 destinations and serves some 600,000 passengers a year. In August 2007 work began on a £32 million expansion programme which includes enlargement of the terminal building and an increase in parking.","Dorset\n\nDorset is served by 14 commercial bus operators. The Wilts & Dorset bus company has a county wide network with frequent services linking major towns and a limited service in rural locations. The First Group operate buses in the Weymouth and Bridport area, including: a regular route along the A35 from Weymouth to Axminster, which helps to compensate for the missing rail link west of Dorchester; and the Jurassic Coast service, one of the longest bus routes in the UK, which provides through travel from Poole to Exeter, exploiting a popular tourist route. Yellow Buses are the main providers of routes within the South East Dorset Conurbation. Damory Coaches is one of a number of operators that provide access to more rural communities.","Dorset\n\nReligious sites","Dorset\n\nUnlike all of its neighbouring counties, Dorset does not have a cathedral. Over 95% of the county falls within the Church of England Diocese of Salisbury. A small section to the west comes under the Diocese of Bath and Wells and to the east Christchurch and much of Bournemouth—both historically part of Hampshire—belong to the Diocese of Winchester. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Plymouth incorporates most of Dorset with the exception of Christchurch and a portion of Bournemouth which belongs to the Diocese of Portsmouth. Few purpose-built places of worship exist in Dorset for faiths other than Christianity. In 2008 a Hindu temple was constructed in Blandford Forum for the Gurkhas based at the town's military camp. Bournemouth, which contains a higher proportion of Jewish residents than the national average, has two synagogues.","Dorset\n\nChristianity was introduced to Dorset by the Romans. A 4th century Roman mosaic discovered near Hinton St Mary contains what is generally accepted to be an image of Christ. Christianity became firmly established in the county during the Saxon period although there are few surviving Saxon churches; the most complete is St. Martin's in Wareham which has features from the early 11th century. Mediaeval churches are more prevalent in Dorset; most are 15th century and are of a Perpendicular style. Sherborne Abbey, one of the county's largest, is noted for its broad fan vaulting added during an extensive 15th century rebuild. Founded in AD 705 by Aldhelm, the Abbey contained the chair of the Bishop of Sherborne and was granted cathedral status until 1075 when the diocese was transferred to Old Sarum. Wimborne Minster features a chained library and a 14th-century astronomical clock; Christchurch Priory is renowned for its miraculous beam which, according to legend, was installed by Christ; and the 15th century roof spanning the nave at St John the Baptist Church in Bere Regis is described by architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner as the \"finest timber roof of Dorset\".","Dorset\n\nSt Candida and Holy Cross at Whitchurch Canonicorum is the only church in the country, besides Westminster Abbey, to have a shrine that contains the relics of a saint.","Dorset\n\nMonastic foundations were once abundant in Dorset, but all ceased to exist at the Dissolution. The Reformation and the political and religious turmoil that ensued largely checked the building of new churches until the turn of the 18th century.Draper (p.82) Notable examples of Early Georgian churches include the Bastard brothers' Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in Blandford Forum, and St George's Church on the Isle of Portland, which has a steeple and tower inspired by the works of Christopher Wren. From the late 18th century onwards, churches in Dorset tended towards a Gothic Revival style. A notable exception to this trend, however, is the Church of St Mary in East Lulworth—the first freestanding Roman Catholic church built in England after the Reformation. George III gave permission to erect the building on the condition that it resembled a garden mausoleum rather than a church. It was completed in 1789. Bournemouth, founded in 1810, has a wealth of 19th-century churches including St Peter's and St Stephen's. St Dunstan's Church (formerly St Osmund's) in Poole is one of a small number of 20th-century churches in Dorset.","Dorset\n\nThe final major work of Edward Schroeder Prior, it is one of the last examples of the Neo Byzantine style. The Church of St Nicholas and St Magnus in Moreton is noted for its elaborate engraved glass windows designed by Laurence Whistler. Severely damaged by a stray German bomb in 1940, the church subsequently underwent extensive renovation and Whistler had replaced every window by 1984.","Dorset\n\nEducation","Dorset\n\nResponsibility for state schools in Dorset is divided between three local education authorities: Dorset County Council, which covers the majority of the county, and Bournemouth and Poole unitary authorities. Most of the Dorset County Council area operates a two-tier comprehensive system whereby pupils attend a primary school before completing their education at secondary school. Only Dorchester, Ferndown, Wimborne and Purbeck maintain a three-tier system (first, middle and high school), although Purbeck is expected to switch to a two-tier system by 2013 because of an excess of unfilled places. Bournemouth operates a two-tier system; Poole operates a three-tier system but will switch to two tiers from September 2013. Poole and Bournemouth are two of a minority of local authorities in England to maintain selective education, each containing two single-sex grammar schools which select pupils on the basis of an eleven plus examination. Some of the county's schools are academies—self-governing state schools which have become independent of their local education authority and are maintained directly by the Department for Education. In 2010, 59.4% of pupils attending schools in the county council area gained at least five GCSEs at A*–C grades including English and maths, above the national average of 53.4%.","Dorset\n\nBournemouth and Poole also recorded above average results at 56.5% and 55.3% respectively. However, most non-selective schools in the two unitary authorities fell below the national average.","Dorset\n\nDorset contains a range of privately funded independent schools. Many are boarding schools which also take day pupils, such as the co-educational Canford School which is built around a 19th-century Grade I listed manor house; St Mary's, a Catholic girls' school in Shaftesbury; and Sherborne School, a boys school founded in the 16th century.","Dorset\n\nFour of the county's five largest towns contain a further education college: Weymouth College, Kingston Maurward College in Dorchester and Bournemouth and Poole College which is one of the largest in the UK. Dorset has two higher education establishments situated in the heart of the county's south east conurbation. Bournemouth University has facilities across Bournemouth and Poole and over 17,000 students. Previously named Bournemouth Polytechnic, it was granted university status as a result of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992. The Arts University Bournemouth is situated between the border of Poole and Bournemouth. It became a higher education institute in 2001 and was given degree-awarding powers in 2008. It was granted full university status in 2012.","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nThe following list of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom includes both those granted a royal title or status by express wish of a specific monarch, and those with prefixes or suffixes such as \"King's\" or \"Regis\" that relate to historic ownership of the area by the Crown.","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nEngland","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nRoyal","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nThe following places have been explicitly granted or confirmed the use of the title \"royal\" by royal charter, letters patent or similar instrument issued by the monarch. Since 1926 the entitlement to the title \"royal borough\" has been strictly enforced. Devizes in Wiltshire, which had previously used the title without sanction, was forced to end the practice.","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nFormer","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\n* Royal Liberty of Havering – abolished in 1892.","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nRegis","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nRegis, Latin for \"of the king\", occurs in numerous placenames. This usually recalls the historical ownership of lands or manors by the Crown. The \"Regis\" form was often used in the past as an alternative form to \"King's\", for instance at King's Bromley and King's Lynn.","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nExamples include Houghton Regis in Bedfordshire, Salcombe Regis in Devon, Bere Regis, Melcombe Regis and Lyme Regis in Dorset, Milton Regis in Kent, Beeston Regis in Norfolk, Grafton Regis in Northamptonshire, Brompton Regis in Somerset, Newton Regis in Warwickshire and Rowley Regis in the West Midlands.","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nThere is one modern example of the granting of the suffix \"regis\". In 1929, George V, having spent several months recuperating from a serious illness in the seaside resort of Bognor, West Sussex, allowed it to be renamed as \"Bognor Regis\".","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nKing's","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\n*Kingham\n*Kingsbury\n*Kingsclere\n*King's Cliffe\n*King's Heath\n*Kingskerswell\n*Kings Langley\n*King's Lynn\n*King's Norton\n*King's Sutton\n*Kings Tamerton\n*Kingstanding\n*Kingsteignton\n*Kingston by Ferring\n*Kingston upon Hull\n*Kingston upon Thames\n*Kingswear\n*Kingswinford\n*Winterborne Kingston","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nSomerset","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\n*Kingsbridge\n*Kingsbury Episcopi\n*Kingsdon\n*Kingston Seymour\n*Kingston St Mary\n*Kingstone\n*Kingweston\n*Kingswood","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nQueen's","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\n*Queen Adelaide, Cambridgeshire\n*Queen Camel\n*Queen Charlton\n*Queen's Park\n*Queensbury","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nPrince's","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\n*Princes Risborough\n*Princetown","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nScotland","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nKing and Rìgh","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\n* Various places called Kingshouse\n* Kingdom of Fife\n* Dalrigh and possibly some of the places called Dalry\n* Portree (disputed)","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nKingsburgh, Skye is a corruption of Cinnseaborgh, which is in turn a corruption of a Norse name.","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nIn many place \"Kin(g)\" is a suffix meaning \"head\", an anglicisation of Ceann - Kinghorn and Kingussie, for example, are nothing to do with royal patronage.","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nRegis","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\n* Cramond, formerly referred to as Cramond Regis.","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nQueen","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\n* North and South Queensferry","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nRoyal","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\n* \"Royal\" Deeside","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nFormer royal burghs","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nIn Scotland a royal burgh was a burgh or incorporated town founded by, or subsequently granted, a royal charter. By 1707, when the Act of Union with England and Wales came into effect, there were 70 royal burghs. None were created after 1707, and they were formally abolished in 1975. Notwithstanding their abolition, the term is still used in many of the former burghs.","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nWales","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\nRoyal","List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\n\n* Royal Town of Caernarfon. The status of royal borough was granted to then municipal borough of Caernarvon in August 1963. The borough was abolished in 1974 and replaced by the community of Caernarfon, to which the status of royal town was granted. Caernarfon was the site of the investiture of Charles, Prince of Wales."],"string":"[\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset (or archaically, Dorsetshire) is a county in South West England on the English Channel coast. The ceremonial county comprises the non-metropolitan county, which is governed by Dorset County Council, and the unitary authority areas of Poole and Bournemouth. Covering an area of 2653 km2, Dorset borders Devon to the west, Somerset to the north-west, Wiltshire to the north-east, and Hampshire to the east. The county town is Dorchester which is in the south. After the reorganisation of local government in 1974 the county's border was extended eastward to incorporate the Hampshire towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch. Around half of the population lives in the South East Dorset conurbation, while the rest of the county is largely rural with a low population density.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nThe county has a long history of human settlement stretching back to the Neolithic era. The Romans conquered Dorset's indigenous Celtic tribe, and during the early Middle Ages, the Saxons settled the area and made Dorset a shire in the 7th century. The first recorded Viking raid on the British Isles occurred in Dorset during the eighth century, and the Black Death entered England at Melcombe Regis in 1348. Dorset has seen much civil unrest: during the English Civil War an uprising of vigilantes was crushed by Oliver Cromwell's forces in a pitched battle near Shaftesbury; the doomed Monmouth Rebellion began at Lyme Regis; and a group of farm labourers from Tolpuddle were instrumental in the formation of the trade union movement. During the World War II, Dorset was heavily involved in the preparations for the invasion of Normandy, and the large harbours of Portland and Poole were two of the main embarkation points. The former was the sailing venue in the 2012 Summer Olympics, and both have clubs or hire venues for sailing, Cornish pilot gig rowing, sea kayaking and powerboating.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset has a varied landscape featuring broad elevated chalk downs, steep limestone ridges and low-lying clay valleys. Over half the county is designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Three-quarters of its coastline is part of the Jurassic Coast Natural World Heritage Site due to its geological and palaeontologic significance. It features notable landforms such as Lulworth Cove, the Isle of Portland, Chesil Beach and Durdle Door. Agriculture was traditionally the major industry of Dorset but is now in decline and tourism has become increasingly important to the economy. There are no motorways in Dorset but a network of A roads cross the county and two railway main lines connect to London. Dorset has ports at Poole, Weymouth and Portland, and an international airport. The county has a variety of museums, theatres and festivals, and is host to one of Europe's largest outdoor shows. It is the birthplace of Thomas Hardy, who used the county as the principal setting of his novels, and William Barnes, whose poetry celebrates the ancient Dorset dialect.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nToponymy\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset derives its name from the county town of Dorchester. The Romans established the settlement in the 1st century and named it Durnovaria which was a Latinised version of a Common Brittonic word possibly meaning \\\"place with fist-sized pebbles\\\". The Saxons named the town Dornwaraceaster (the suffix \\\"ceaster\\\" being the Old English name for a Roman town) and Dornsæte came into use as the name for the inhabitants of the area from \\\"Dorn\\\"—a reduced form of Dornwaraceaster—and the Old English word \\\"sæte\\\" meaning people. It is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in AD 845 and in the 10th century the county's archaic name, \\\"Dorseteschyre\\\" (Dorsetshire), was first recorded.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nThe first human visitors to Dorset were Mesolithic hunters, from around 8000 BC.Putnam (p.15) The first permanent Neolithic settlers appeared around 3000 BC and were responsible for the creation of the Dorset Cursus, a monument for ritual or ceremonial purposes.Putnam (p.19) From 2800 BC onwards Bronze Age farmers cleared Dorset's woodlands for agricultural use and Dorset's high chalk hills provided a location for numerous round barrows. During the Iron Age, the British tribe known as the Durotriges established a series of hill forts across the county—most notably Maiden Castle which is one of the largest in Europe.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nThe Romans arrived in Dorset during their conquest of Britain in AD 43. Maiden Castle was captured by a Roman legion under the command of Vespasian, and the Roman settlement of Durnovaria was established nearby. Bokerley Dyke, a large defensive ditch built by the county's post-Roman inhabitants near the border with modern-day Hampshire, delayed the advance of the Saxons into Dorset for almost 150 years. However, by the end of the 7th century Dorset had fallen under Saxon control and been incorporated into the Kingdom of Wessex. The Saxons established a diocese at Sherborne and Dorset was made a shire—an administrative district of Wessex and predecessor to the English county system—with borders that have changed little since. In 789 the first recorded Viking attack on the British Isles took place in Dorset on the Portland coast, and they continued to raid into the county for the next two centuries.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nAfter the Norman Conquest in 1066, feudal rule was established in Dorset and the bulk of the land was divided between the Crown and ecclesiastical institutions. The Normans consolidated their control over the area by constructing castles at Corfe, Wareham and Dorchester in the early part of the 12th century. Over the next 200 years Dorset's population grew substantially and additional land was enclosed for farming to provide the extra food required. The wool trade, the quarrying of Purbeck Marble and the busy ports of Weymouth, Melcombe Regis, Lyme Regis and Bridport brought prosperity to the county. However, Dorset was devastated by the bubonic plague in 1348 which arrived in Melcombe Regis on a ship from Gascony. The disease, more commonly known as the Black Death, created an epidemic that spread rapidly and wiped out a third of the population of the country.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nThe dissolution of the monasteries (1536–1541) met little resistance in Dorset and many of the county's abbeys, including Shaftesbury, Cerne and Milton, were sold to private owners. In 1642, at the commencement of the English Civil War, the Royalists took control of the entire county apart from Poole and Lyme Regis. However, within three years their gains had been almost entirely reversed by the Parliamentarians. An uprising of Clubmen—vigilantes weary of the depredations of the war—took place in Dorset in 1645. Some 2,000 of these rebels offered battle to Lord Fairfax's Parliamentary army at Hambledon Hill but they were easily routed. Sherborne Castle was taken by Fairfax that same year and in 1646 Corfe Castle, the last remaining Royalist stronghold in Dorset, was captured after an act of betrayal: both were subsequently slighted. The Duke of Monmouth's unsuccessful attempt to overthrow James II began when he landed at Lyme Regis in 1685. A series of trials known as the Bloody Assizes took place to punish the rebels. Over a five-day period in Dorchester, Judge Jeffreys presided over 312 cases: 74 of the accused were executed, 175 were transported, and nine were publicly whipped.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nIn 1686, at Charborough Park, a meeting took place to plot the downfall of James II of England. This meeting was effectively the start of the Glorious Revolution.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDuring the 18th century, much smuggling took place along the Dorset coast; its coves, caves and sandy beaches provided opportunities for gangs such as the Hawkhursts to stealthily bring smuggled goods ashore. Poole became Dorset's busiest port and established prosperous trade links with the fisheries of Newfoundland which supported cloth, rope and net manufacturing industries in the surrounding towns and villages. However, the industrial revolution largely bypassed Dorset which lacked coal resources and as a consequence the county remained predominantly agricultural. Farming has always been central to the economy of Dorset and the county became the birthplace of the modern trade union movement when, in 1834, six farm labourers formed a union to protest against falling wages. The labourers, who are now known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs, were subsequently arrested for administering \\\"unlawful oaths\\\" and sentenced to transportation but they were pardoned following massive protests by the working classes.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nThe Dorsetshire Regiment were the first British unit to face a gas attack during the First World War (1914–1918) and they sustained particularly heavy losses at the Battle of the Somme. In total some 4,500 Dorset servicemen died in the war and of the county's towns and villages, only one, Langton Herring, known as a Thankful Village, had no residents killed. During the Second World War (1939–1945) Dorset was heavily involved in the preparations for the invasion of Normandy: beach landing exercises were carried out at Studland and Weymouth and the village of Tyneham was requisitioned for army training. Tens-of-thousands of troops departed Weymouth, Portland and Poole harbours during D-Day and gliders from RAF Tarrant Rushton dropped troops near Caen to begin Operation Tonga. Dorset experienced an increase in holiday-makers after the war. First popularised as a tourist destination by George III's frequent visits to Weymouth, the county's coastline, seaside resorts and its sparsely populated rural areas attract millions of visitors each year. With farming declining across the country, tourism has edged ahead as the primary revenue-earning sector.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nSettlements\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset is largely rural with many small villages, few large towns and no cities. The only major urban area is the South East Dorset conurbation, which is situated at the south-eastern end of the county and is atypical of the county as a whole. It consists of the seaside resort of Bournemouth, the historic port and borough of Poole, the towns of Christchurch and Ferndown plus many surrounding villages. Bournemouth, the most populous town in the conurbation, was established in the Georgian era when sea bathing became popular. Poole, the second largest settlement (once the largest town in the county), adjoins Bournemouth to the west and contains the suburb of Sandbanks which has some of the highest land values by area in the world.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nThe other two major settlements in the county are Dorchester, which has been the county town since at least 1305, and Weymouth, a major seaside resort since the 18th century. Blandford Forum, Sherborne, Gillingham, Shaftesbury and Sturminster Newton are historic market towns which serve the farms and villages of the Blackmore Vale in north Dorset. Beaminster and Bridport are situated in the west of the county; Verwood and the historic Saxon market towns of Wareham and Wimborne Minster are located to the east. Lyme Regis and Swanage are small coastal towns popular with tourists. Under construction on the western edge of Dorchester is the experimental new town of Poundbury commissioned and co-designed by Prince Charles. The suburb, which is expected to be fully completed by 2025, was designed to integrate residential and retail buildings and counter the growth of dormitory towns and car-oriented development.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nPhysical geography\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset covers an area of 2653 km2 and contains considerable variety in its underlying geology, which is partly responsible for the diversity of landscape. A large percentage (66%) of the county comprises either chalk, clay or mixed sand and gravels. The remainder is less straightforward and includes Portland and Purbeck stone, other limestones, calcareous clays and shales. Portland and Purbeck stone are of national importance as a building material and for restoring some of Britain's most famous landmarks. Almost every type of rock known from the Early Jurassic to the Eocene epochs can be found in the county.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset has a number of limestone ridges which are mostly covered in either arable fields or calcareous grassland supporting sheep. These limestone areas include a wide band of Cretaceous chalk which crosses the county as a range of hills from north-east to south-west, incorporating Cranborne Chase and the Dorset Downs, and a narrow band running from south-west to south-east, incorporating the Purbeck Hills. Between the chalk hills are large, wide vales and wide flood plains. These vales are dotted with small villages, farms and coppices, and include the Blackmore Vale (Stour valley) and Frome valley. The Blackmore Vale is composed of older Jurassic deposits, largely clays interspersed with limestones, and has traditionally been a centre for dairy agriculture. South-east Dorset, including the lower Frome valley and around Poole and Bournemouth, comprises younger Eocene deposits, mainly sands and clays of poor agricultural quality. The soils created from these deposits support a heathland habitat which sustains all six native British reptile species. Most of the Dorset heathland has Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) status with three areas designated as internationally important Ramsar sites.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nIn the far west of the county and along the coast there are frequent changes in rock strata, which appear in a less obviously sequential way compared to the landscapes of the chalk and the heath. In the west this results in a hilly landscape of diverse character that resembles that of neighbouring county Devon. Marshwood Vale, a valley of Lower Lias clay at the western tip of the county, lies to the south of the two highest points in Dorset: Lewesdon Hill at 279 m and Pilsdon Pen at 277 m.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nA former river valley flooded by rising sea levels 6,000 years ago, Poole Harbour is one of the largest natural harbours in the world. \\nThe harbour is very shallow in places and contains a number of islands, notably Brownsea Island, the birthplace of the Scouting movement and one of the few remaining sanctuaries for indigenous red squirrels in England. The harbour, and the chalk and limestone hills of the Isle of Purbeck to the south, lie atop Western Europe's largest onshore oil field. The field, operated by Perenco from Wytch Farm, has the world's oldest continuously pumping well at Kimmeridge which has been producing oil since the early 1960s.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset's diverse geography ensures it has an assortment of rivers, although a moderate annual rainfall coupled with rolling hills, means most are typically lowland in nature. Much of the county drains into three rivers, the Frome, Piddle and Stour which all flow to the sea in a south-easterly direction. The Frome and Piddle are chalk streams but the Stour, which rises in Wiltshire to the north, has its origins in clay soil. The River Avon, which flows mainly through Wiltshire and Hampshire, enters Dorset towards the end of its journey at Christchurch Harbour. The rivers Axe and Yeo, which principally drain the counties of Devon and Somerset respectively, have their sources in the north-west of the county. In the south-west, a number of small rivers run into the sea along the Dorset coastline; most notable of these are the Char, Brit, Bride and Wey.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nMost of Dorset's coastline is part of the Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site, which stretches for 155 km between Studland and Exmouth in Devon. This coast documents the entire Mesozoic era, from Triassic to Cretaceous and is noted for its geological landforms. The Dorset section has yielded important fossils, including Jurassic trees and the first complete Ichthyosaur, discovered near Lyme Regis in 1811 by Mary Anning. The county features some notable coastal landforms, including examples of a cove (Lulworth Cove), a natural arch (Durdle Door) and chalk stacks (Old Harry Rocks). Jutting out into the English Channel at roughly the midpoint of the Dorset coastline is the Isle of Portland, a limestone island that is connected to the mainland by Chesil Beach, a 27 km long shingle barrier beach protecting Britain's largest tidal lagoon.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nThe county has one of the highest proportions of conservation areas in England—and two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty covering 53% of the administrative county. It has two Heritage Coasts totalling 92 km and Sites of Special Scientific Interest covering 199 km2. The South West Coast Path, National Trail, begins at South Haven Point at the entrance to Poole Harbour.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset's climate of warm summers and mild winters is partly due to its position on Britain's south coast. The third most southerly county in the UK, Dorset is less affected by the more intense Atlantic winds than Cornwall and Devon. Dorset, along with the entire south-west, has higher winter temperatures, average , than the rest of the United Kingdom. However, Dorset maintains higher summer temperatures than Devon and Cornwall, with average highs of . Excluding hills such as the Dorset Downs, the average annual temperature of the county is .\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nThe south coast counties of Dorset, Hampshire, West Sussex, East Sussex and Kent enjoy more sunshine than anywhere else in the United Kingdom, receiving 1,541–1,885 hours a year. Average annual rainfall varies across the county—southern and eastern coastal areas receive 700 – per year; the Dorset Downs receive between 1000 and per year; less than Devon and Cornwall to the west but more than counties to the east.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDemography\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nThe 2011 Census records Dorset's population as 744,041. This consisted of 412,905 for the non-metropolitan county (not including Bournemouth and Poole), 183,491 for the unitary authority of Bournemouth and 147,645 for the unitary authority of Poole. In 2013 it was estimated that the population had risen by around 1.4% to 754,460: 416,720 in the non-metropolitan county and 188,730 and 149,010 in Bournemouth and Poole respectively. More than half of the county's residents live in the Bournemouth, Poole and Christchurch conurbation.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset's population has a high proportion of older people and a lower than average proportion of young people: According to 2013 mid-year estimates, 23.6% are over 65 years of age, higher than the England and Wales average of 17.4%, and 18.6% are less than 17 years old, lower than the England and Wales average of 21.3%. The working age population (females and males between 16 and 64) is lower than England and Wales average, 60% compared to 64%. Data collected between 2010 and 2012 shows that average life expectancy at birth in the county is 85.3 years for females and 81.2 years for males. This compares favourably with the averages for England and Wales of 82.9 and 79.1 years respectively. Around 95.2% of Dorset's population are of white ethnicity, 60.9% of the population are Christian and 28.5% say they are not religious.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nMore than 33% of the county’s population possess a level 4 qualification or above, such as a Higher National Diploma, Degree or a Higher Degree; while nearly 6.3% have no qualifications at all. Almost 43.7% are employed in a professional or technical capacity (Standard Occupational Classification 2010, groups 1 – 3), just over 10.3% are administrators or secretaries (group 4), around 12.8% have a skilled trade (group 5), over 18% are employed at a low-level in the care, leisure, sales or customer relations sector (groups 6 and 7) and 14.8% are operatives or in elementary occupations (groups 8 and 9).\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nPolitics\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nLocal government in Dorset consists of a county council (Dorset County Council) and two unitary authorities (Bournemouth Borough Council and Poole Borough Council). Dorset County Council was created by the Local Government Act 1888 to govern the newly created administrative county of Dorset which was based largely on the historic county borders. Dorset became a two-tier non-metropolitan county after a reorganisation of local government in 1974 and its border was extended eastwards to incorporate the former Hampshire towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch. Following a review by the Local Government Commission for England, Bournemouth and Poole each became administratively independent single-tier unitary authorities in 1997, although they remain part of the county geographically and for ceremonial purposes. The county council is based in Dorchester and comprises six-second-tier districts: West Dorset, East Dorset, North Dorset, Purbeck, Christchurch, and Weymouth and Portland. The council is controlled by the Conservative Party: at the 2013 local elections 27 Conservative, 12 Liberal Democrat, 5 Labour and 1 UKIP county councillors were elected. Bournemouth is also Conservative-controlled: the council comprises 46 Conservative, three Liberal Democrat, three Labour and two independent councillors.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nThe Conservatives lost overall control of Poole at local elections in 2011 but subsequently formed a minority administration—the council comprises 21 Conservative councillors, 18 Liberal Democrat and three Poole People (a political party of Poole residents).\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nFor representation in Parliament Dorset is divided into eight Parliamentary constituencies—five county constituencies and three borough constituencies. At the 2010 general election, the Conservative Party was dominant, strengthening their lead in six seats, and regaining one other from Labour. The borough constituencies of Bournemouth East, Bournemouth West and Poole are traditionally Conservative safe seats and are all represented by Conservative members of parliament. The county constituencies of North Dorset and Christchurch are also represented by Conservative MPs. West Dorset is represented by Conservative MP Oliver Letwin who is the Minister of State at the Cabinet Office. The marginal seat of South Dorset is represented by Richard Drax, who gained the seat from Dorset's only Labour representative, Jim Knight, in 2010. Mid Dorset and North Poole is held by Liberal Democrat MP Annette Brooke who retained her seat in 2010 with a slim majority of 269 (0.6% of the vote) over the Conservative candidate. For the European Parliament the county lies within the South West England constituency which elected three Conservative, two UK Independence Party and one Liberal Democrat Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) at the 2009 European Parliament election.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nEconomy and industry\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nIn 2003 the gross value added (GVA) for the non-metropolitan county was £4,673 million, with an additional £4,705 million for Poole and Bournemouth. Primary industry produced 2.03% of GVA, secondary industry produced 22.44% and 75.53% came from tertiary industry. The average GVA for the 16 regions of South West England was £4,693 million.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nThe principal industry in Dorset was once agriculture. It has not, however, been the largest employer since the mid 19th century as mechanisation substantially reduced the number of workers required. Agriculture has become less profitable and the industry has declined further. Within the administrative county between 1995 and 2003, GVA for primary industry (largely agriculture, fishing and quarrying) declined from £229 million to £188 million—7.1% to 4.0%. In 2007, 2039 km2 of the county was in agricultural use, up from 1986 km2 in 1989, although this was due to an increase in permanent grass, and land set aside. By contrast, in the same period, arable land decreased from 9925 to. Excluding fowl, sheep are the most common animal stock in the county; between 1989 and 2006 their numbers fell from 252,189 to 193,500. Cattle and pig farming has declined similarly; during the same period the number of cattle fell from 240,413 to 170,700, and pigs from 169,636 to 72,700.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nIn 2009 there were 2,340 armed forces personnel stationed in Dorset including the Royal Armoured Corps at Bovington, Royal Signals at Blandford and the Royal Marines at Poole. The military presence has had a mixed effect on the local economy, bringing additional employment for civilians, but on occasion having a negative impact on the tourist trade, particularly when popular areas are closed for military manoeuvres. Plans to relocate the Royal School of Signals from Blandford to South Wales could result in a loss of up to £74 million GVA for the area.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nOther major employers in the county include: BAE Systems, Sunseeker International, J.P. Morgan, Cobham plc and Bournemouth University. Dorset's three ports, Poole, Weymouth and Portland, and the smaller harbours of Christchurch, Swanage, Lyme Regis, Wareham and West Bay generate a substantial amount of international trade and tourism. Around 230 fishing vessels that predominantly catch crab and lobster are based in Dorset's ports. When the waters around Weymouth and Portland were chosen for the sailing events in the 2012 Summer Olympic Games, the area underwent an increased investment in infrastructure and a growth in the marine leisure sector. It is expected that this will continue to have a positive effect on local businesses and tourism.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nTourism has grown in Dorset since the late 18th century and is now the predominant industry. It is estimated that 37,500 people work in Dorset's tourism sector. Some 3.2 million British and 326,000 foreign tourists visited the county in 2008, staying a total of 15.1 million nights. In addition there were 14.6 million day visitors. The combined spending of both groups was £1,458 million. Towns received 56% of Dorset's day trippers, 27% went to the coast and 17% to the countryside. A survey carried out in 1997 concluded that the primary reason tourists were drawn to Dorset was the attractiveness of the county's coast and countryside. Numbers of domestic and foreign tourists have fluctuated in recent years due to various factors including security and economic downturn, a trend reflected throughout the UK.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nManufacturing industry in Dorset provided 10.3% of employment in 2008. This was slightly above the average for Great Britain but below that of the South West region which was at 10.7% for that period. The sector is the county's fourth largest employer, but a predicted decline suggests there will be 10,200 fewer jobs in manufacturing by 2026.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nAs a largely rural county, Dorset has fewer major cultural institutions than larger or more densely populated areas. Major venues for concerts and theatre include Poole's Lighthouse arts centre, Bournemouth's BIC, Pavilion Theatre and O2 Academy, and the Pavilion theatre in Weymouth. One of Dorset's most noted cultural institutions is the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra which was founded in 1893. Based in Poole, the orchestra performs over 130 concerts across southern England each year.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset has more than 30 general and specialist museums. The Dorset County Museum in Dorchester was founded in 1846 and contains an extensive collection of exhibits covering the county's history and environment. The Tank Museum at Bovington contains more than 300 tanks and armoured vehicles from 30 nations. The museum is the largest in Dorset and its collection has been designated of national importance. Other museums which reflect the cultural heritage of the county include The Keep Military Museum in Dorchester, the Russell-Cotes Museum in Bournemouth, the Charmouth Heritage Coast Centre, Poole Museum, Portland Museum and Wareham Town Museum.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset contains 190 Conservation Areas, more than 1,500 Scheduled Ancient Monuments, over 30 registered parks and gardens and 12,850 listed buildings. Grade I listed buildings include: Portland Castle, a coastal fort commissioned by Henry VIII; a castle with more than a 1,000 years of history at Corfe; a Roman ruin described by English Heritage as the \\\"only Roman town house visible in Britain\\\"; Athelhampton, a Tudor manor house; Forde Abbey, a stately home and former Cistercian monastery; Christchurch Priory, the longest church in England; and St Edwold's church, one of the smallest.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset hosts a number of annual festivals, fairs and events including the Great Dorset Steam Fair near Blandford, one of the largest events of its kind in Europe, and the Bournemouth Air Festival, a free air show that attracted 1.3 million visitors in 2009. The Spirit of the Seas is a maritime festival held in Weymouth and Portland. Launched in 2008, the festival features sporting activities, cultural events and local entertainers. The Dorset County Show, which was first held in 1841, is a celebration of Dorset's agriculture. The two-day event exhibits local produce and livestock and attracts some 55,000 people. In addition to the smaller folk festivals held in towns such as Christchurch and Wimborne, Dorset holds several larger musical events such as Camp Bestival, Endorse It in Dorset, End of the Road and the Larmer Tree Festival.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset's only Football League club is A.F.C. Bournemouth, which plays in the Premier League— the highest division in the English football league system. Non-League semi-professional teams in the county include Southern Premier Division teams Dorchester Town F.C., Poole Town F.C., and Weymouth F.C.. Dorset County Cricket Club competes in the Minor Counties Cricket Championship and is based at Dean Park Cricket Ground in Bournemouth. Poole Stadium hosts regular greyhound racing and is the home to top-flight speedway team Poole Pirates. The county's coastline, on the English Channel, is noted for its watersports (particularly sailing, gig racing, windsurfing, power boating and kayaking) which take advantage of the sheltered waters in the bays of Weymouth and Poole, and the harbours of Poole and Portland. Dorset hosted the sailing events at the 2012 Summer Olympics and 2012 Summer Paralympics at the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy. The venue was completed in May 2009 and was used by international sailing teams in preparation for the Games.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset is famed in literature for being the native county of author and poet Thomas Hardy, and many of the places he describes in his novels in the fictional Wessex are in Dorset, which he renamed South Wessex. The National Trust owns Thomas Hardy's Cottage, in Higher Bockhampton, east of Dorchester; and Max Gate, his former house in Dorchester. Several other writers have called Dorset home, including Douglas Adams, who wrote much of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy while he lived in Stalbridge; John le Carré, author of espionage novels, was born in Poole; Tom Sharpe of Wilt fame lived in Bridport; John Fowles (The French Lieutenant's Woman) lived in Lyme Regis before he died in late 2005; T.F. Powys lived in Chaldon Herring for over 20 years and used it as inspiration for the fictitious village of Folly Down in his novel Mr. Weston's Good Wine; John Cowper Powys, his elder brother, also set a number of his works in Dorset, such as the novels Maiden Castle and Weymouth Sands. The 19th-century poet William Barnes was born in Bagber and wrote many poems in his native Dorset dialect.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nOriginating from the ancient Norse and Saxon languages, the dialect was prevalent across the Blackmore Vale but has fallen into disuse.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset's flag, which is known as the Dorset Cross or St Wite's Cross, was adopted in 2008 following a public competition organised by Dorset County Council. The winning design, which features a white cross with a red border on a golden background, attracted 54% of the vote. All three colours are used in Dorset County Council's coat of arms and the red and white was used in recognition of the English flag. The golden colour represents Dorset's sandy beaches and the Dorset landmarks of Golden Cap and Gold Hill. It is also a reference to the Wessex Dragon, a symbol of the Saxon Kingdom which Dorset once belonged to, and the gold wreath featured on the badge of the Dorset Regiment.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset is connected to London by two main line railways. The West of England Main Line runs through the north of the county at Gillingham and Sherborne. Running west from London Waterloo to Exeter St Davids in Devon, it provides a service for those who live in the western districts of Dorset. The South Western Main Line runs through the south at Bournemouth, Poole, Dorchester and the terminus at Weymouth. Additionally, the Heart of Wessex Line runs north from Weymouth to Bristol and the Swanage Railway, a heritage steam and diesel railway, runs the 10 km between Norden and Swanage.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset is one of the few counties in England not to have a motorway. The A303, A35 and A31 trunk roads run through the county. The A303, which connects the West Country to London via the M3, clips the north-west of the county. The A35 crosses the county in a west-east direction from Honiton in Devon, via Bridport, Dorchester, Poole, Bournemouth and Christchurch, to Southampton in Hampshire. The A31 connects to the A35 at Bere Regis, and passes east through Wimborne and Ferndown to Hampshire, where it later becomes the M27. Other main roads in the county include the A338, A354, A37 and A350. The A338 heads north from Bournemouth to Ringwood (Hampshire) and on to Salisbury (Wiltshire) and beyond. The A354 also connects to Salisbury after travelling north-east from Weymouth in the south of the county. The A37 travels north-west from Dorchester to Yeovil in Somerset. The A350 also leads north, from Poole through Blandford and Shaftesbury, to Warminster in Wiltshire.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nTwo passenger sea ports and an international airport are situated in the county. Brittany Ferries and Condor Ferries, operate out of Poole Harbour; Brittany Ferries provide access to Cherbourg in France and Condor Ferries sail a seasonal service to the Channel Islands and St Malo, France. Condor Ferries also operate services from Weymouth harbour to Guernsey, Jersey and St. Malo throughout the year. Poole, since the dredging of the main channel in 2008, and Portland harbours are capable of taking cruise liners. Bournemouth Airport, which is situated on the edge of Hurn village 6 km north of Bournemouth, has flights to 36 destinations and serves some 600,000 passengers a year. In August 2007 work began on a £32 million expansion programme which includes enlargement of the terminal building and an increase in parking.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset is served by 14 commercial bus operators. The Wilts & Dorset bus company has a county wide network with frequent services linking major towns and a limited service in rural locations. The First Group operate buses in the Weymouth and Bridport area, including: a regular route along the A35 from Weymouth to Axminster, which helps to compensate for the missing rail link west of Dorchester; and the Jurassic Coast service, one of the longest bus routes in the UK, which provides through travel from Poole to Exeter, exploiting a popular tourist route. Yellow Buses are the main providers of routes within the South East Dorset Conurbation. Damory Coaches is one of a number of operators that provide access to more rural communities.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nReligious sites\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nUnlike all of its neighbouring counties, Dorset does not have a cathedral. Over 95% of the county falls within the Church of England Diocese of Salisbury. A small section to the west comes under the Diocese of Bath and Wells and to the east Christchurch and much of Bournemouth—both historically part of Hampshire—belong to the Diocese of Winchester. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Plymouth incorporates most of Dorset with the exception of Christchurch and a portion of Bournemouth which belongs to the Diocese of Portsmouth. Few purpose-built places of worship exist in Dorset for faiths other than Christianity. In 2008 a Hindu temple was constructed in Blandford Forum for the Gurkhas based at the town's military camp. Bournemouth, which contains a higher proportion of Jewish residents than the national average, has two synagogues.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nChristianity was introduced to Dorset by the Romans. A 4th century Roman mosaic discovered near Hinton St Mary contains what is generally accepted to be an image of Christ. Christianity became firmly established in the county during the Saxon period although there are few surviving Saxon churches; the most complete is St. Martin's in Wareham which has features from the early 11th century. Mediaeval churches are more prevalent in Dorset; most are 15th century and are of a Perpendicular style. Sherborne Abbey, one of the county's largest, is noted for its broad fan vaulting added during an extensive 15th century rebuild. Founded in AD 705 by Aldhelm, the Abbey contained the chair of the Bishop of Sherborne and was granted cathedral status until 1075 when the diocese was transferred to Old Sarum. Wimborne Minster features a chained library and a 14th-century astronomical clock; Christchurch Priory is renowned for its miraculous beam which, according to legend, was installed by Christ; and the 15th century roof spanning the nave at St John the Baptist Church in Bere Regis is described by architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner as the \\\"finest timber roof of Dorset\\\".\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nSt Candida and Holy Cross at Whitchurch Canonicorum is the only church in the country, besides Westminster Abbey, to have a shrine that contains the relics of a saint.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nMonastic foundations were once abundant in Dorset, but all ceased to exist at the Dissolution. The Reformation and the political and religious turmoil that ensued largely checked the building of new churches until the turn of the 18th century.Draper (p.82) Notable examples of Early Georgian churches include the Bastard brothers' Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in Blandford Forum, and St George's Church on the Isle of Portland, which has a steeple and tower inspired by the works of Christopher Wren. From the late 18th century onwards, churches in Dorset tended towards a Gothic Revival style. A notable exception to this trend, however, is the Church of St Mary in East Lulworth—the first freestanding Roman Catholic church built in England after the Reformation. George III gave permission to erect the building on the condition that it resembled a garden mausoleum rather than a church. It was completed in 1789. Bournemouth, founded in 1810, has a wealth of 19th-century churches including St Peter's and St Stephen's. St Dunstan's Church (formerly St Osmund's) in Poole is one of a small number of 20th-century churches in Dorset.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nThe final major work of Edward Schroeder Prior, it is one of the last examples of the Neo Byzantine style. The Church of St Nicholas and St Magnus in Moreton is noted for its elaborate engraved glass windows designed by Laurence Whistler. Severely damaged by a stray German bomb in 1940, the church subsequently underwent extensive renovation and Whistler had replaced every window by 1984.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nResponsibility for state schools in Dorset is divided between three local education authorities: Dorset County Council, which covers the majority of the county, and Bournemouth and Poole unitary authorities. Most of the Dorset County Council area operates a two-tier comprehensive system whereby pupils attend a primary school before completing their education at secondary school. Only Dorchester, Ferndown, Wimborne and Purbeck maintain a three-tier system (first, middle and high school), although Purbeck is expected to switch to a two-tier system by 2013 because of an excess of unfilled places. Bournemouth operates a two-tier system; Poole operates a three-tier system but will switch to two tiers from September 2013. Poole and Bournemouth are two of a minority of local authorities in England to maintain selective education, each containing two single-sex grammar schools which select pupils on the basis of an eleven plus examination. Some of the county's schools are academies—self-governing state schools which have become independent of their local education authority and are maintained directly by the Department for Education. In 2010, 59.4% of pupils attending schools in the county council area gained at least five GCSEs at A*–C grades including English and maths, above the national average of 53.4%.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nBournemouth and Poole also recorded above average results at 56.5% and 55.3% respectively. However, most non-selective schools in the two unitary authorities fell below the national average.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nDorset contains a range of privately funded independent schools. Many are boarding schools which also take day pupils, such as the co-educational Canford School which is built around a 19th-century Grade I listed manor house; St Mary's, a Catholic girls' school in Shaftesbury; and Sherborne School, a boys school founded in the 16th century.\",\n \"Dorset\\n\\nFour of the county's five largest towns contain a further education college: Weymouth College, Kingston Maurward College in Dorchester and Bournemouth and Poole College which is one of the largest in the UK. Dorset has two higher education establishments situated in the heart of the county's south east conurbation. Bournemouth University has facilities across Bournemouth and Poole and over 17,000 students. Previously named Bournemouth Polytechnic, it was granted university status as a result of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992. The Arts University Bournemouth is situated between the border of Poole and Bournemouth. It became a higher education institute in 2001 and was given degree-awarding powers in 2008. It was granted full university status in 2012.\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe following list of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom includes both those granted a royal title or status by express wish of a specific monarch, and those with prefixes or suffixes such as \\\"King's\\\" or \\\"Regis\\\" that relate to historic ownership of the area by the Crown.\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nEngland\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nRoyal\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe following places have been explicitly granted or confirmed the use of the title \\\"royal\\\" by royal charter, letters patent or similar instrument issued by the monarch. Since 1926 the entitlement to the title \\\"royal borough\\\" has been strictly enforced. Devizes in Wiltshire, which had previously used the title without sanction, was forced to end the practice.\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nFormer\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\n* Royal Liberty of Havering – abolished in 1892.\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nRegis\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nRegis, Latin for \\\"of the king\\\", occurs in numerous placenames. This usually recalls the historical ownership of lands or manors by the Crown. The \\\"Regis\\\" form was often used in the past as an alternative form to \\\"King's\\\", for instance at King's Bromley and King's Lynn.\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nExamples include Houghton Regis in Bedfordshire, Salcombe Regis in Devon, Bere Regis, Melcombe Regis and Lyme Regis in Dorset, Milton Regis in Kent, Beeston Regis in Norfolk, Grafton Regis in Northamptonshire, Brompton Regis in Somerset, Newton Regis in Warwickshire and Rowley Regis in the West Midlands.\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nThere is one modern example of the granting of the suffix \\\"regis\\\". In 1929, George V, having spent several months recuperating from a serious illness in the seaside resort of Bognor, West Sussex, allowed it to be renamed as \\\"Bognor Regis\\\".\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nKing's\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\n*Kingham\\n*Kingsbury\\n*Kingsclere\\n*King's Cliffe\\n*King's Heath\\n*Kingskerswell\\n*Kings Langley\\n*King's Lynn\\n*King's Norton\\n*King's Sutton\\n*Kings Tamerton\\n*Kingstanding\\n*Kingsteignton\\n*Kingston by Ferring\\n*Kingston upon Hull\\n*Kingston upon Thames\\n*Kingswear\\n*Kingswinford\\n*Winterborne Kingston\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nSomerset\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\n*Kingsbridge\\n*Kingsbury Episcopi\\n*Kingsdon\\n*Kingston Seymour\\n*Kingston St Mary\\n*Kingstone\\n*Kingweston\\n*Kingswood\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nQueen's\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\n*Queen Adelaide, Cambridgeshire\\n*Queen Camel\\n*Queen Charlton\\n*Queen's Park\\n*Queensbury\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nPrince's\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\n*Princes Risborough\\n*Princetown\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nScotland\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nKing and Rìgh\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\n* Various places called Kingshouse\\n* Kingdom of Fife\\n* Dalrigh and possibly some of the places called Dalry\\n* Portree (disputed)\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nKingsburgh, Skye is a corruption of Cinnseaborgh, which is in turn a corruption of a Norse name.\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn many place \\\"Kin(g)\\\" is a suffix meaning \\\"head\\\", an anglicisation of Ceann - Kinghorn and Kingussie, for example, are nothing to do with royal patronage.\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nRegis\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\n* Cramond, formerly referred to as Cramond Regis.\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nQueen\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\n* North and South Queensferry\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nRoyal\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\n* \\\"Royal\\\" Deeside\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nFormer royal burghs\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn Scotland a royal burgh was a burgh or incorporated town founded by, or subsequently granted, a royal charter. By 1707, when the Act of Union with England and Wales came into effect, there were 70 royal burghs. None were created after 1707, and they were formally abolished in 1975. Notwithstanding their abolition, the term is still used in many of the former burghs.\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nWales\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\nRoyal\",\n \"List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom\\n\\n* Royal Town of Caernarfon. The status of royal borough was granted to then municipal borough of Caernarvon in August 1963. The borough was abolished in 1974 and replaced by the community of Caernarfon, to which the status of royal town was granted. Caernarfon was the site of the investiture of Charles, Prince of Wales.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2075,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_18"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In which ocean is the island group the Maldives?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"The Indian Ocean"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["asian ocean","southern indian ocean","north indian ocean","india ocean","indian ocean","indian sea"],"string":"[\n \"asian ocean\",\n \"southern indian ocean\",\n \"north indian ocean\",\n \"india ocean\",\n \"indian ocean\",\n \"indian sea\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Maldives\n\nThe Maldives (,, or), officially the Republic of Maldives (, Dhivehi Raa'jeyge Jumhooriyya), is an island country in the Indian Ocean. It lies southwest of India and Sri Lanka. The chain of twenty six atolls stretches from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to the Addu Atoll in the south. Comprising a territory spanning roughly 90000 km2, the Maldives is one of the world's most geographically dispersed countries, as well as the smallest Asian country by both land area and population, with a little over over 393,500 inhabitants. Malé is the capital and largest city, traditionally called the \"King's Island\" for its central location.","Maldives\n\nThe Maldives archipelago is located atop the Chagos-Maldives-Laccadive Ridge, a vast submarine mountain range in the Indian Ocean, which also forms a terrestrial ecoregion, together with the Chagos and the Lakshadweep. With an average ground-level elevation of above sea level, it is the world's lowest country, with even its highest natural point being the lowest in the world, at . Due to the subsequent risks posed by rising sea-levels, the government has pledged to make the Maldives a carbon-neutral country by 2019.","Maldives\n\nThe Maldives have been historically and culturally linked to the Indian subcontinent since the fourth century BCE. The Maldivian archipelago was Islamised in the 12th century and consolidated as a sultanate, developing strong commercial and cultural ties with Asia and Africa. From the mid 16th-century, the region came under the increasing influence of colonial powers, with the Maldives becoming a British protectorate in 1887. Independence from the United Kingdom was achieved in 1965 and a presidential republic was established in 1968 with an elected People's Majlis. The ensuing decades have been characterized by political instability, efforts at demcoratic reform, and environmenntal challenges posed by climate change.","Maldives\n\nThe Maldives is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). It is also a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Non Aligned Movement. The World Bank classifies the Maldives as having an upper middle income economy. Fishing has historically been the dominant economic activity, and remains the largest sector by far, followed by the rapidly growing tourism industry. Along with Sri Lanka, it is one of only two South Asian countries rated \"high\" on the Human Development Index (HDI), with its per capita income the highest among SAARC nations.","Maldives\n\nToponymy","Maldives\n\nThe name Maldives may derive from the Malayalam words \"maala\" (garland) and \"dweepu\" (island) or the Tamil maalai (garland / evening) and theevu (island), or මාල දිවයින Maala Divaina (\"Necklace Islands\") in Sinhala. The Maldivian people are called Dhivehin. The word Theevu (archaic Dheevu, related to Tamil தீவு dheevu) means \"island\", and Dhives (Dhivehin) means \"islanders\" (i.e., Maldivians).","Maldives\n\nThe ancient Sri Lankan chronicle Mahawamsa refers to an island called Mahiladiva (\"Island of Women\", महिलादिभ) in Pali, which is probably a mistranslation of the same Sanskrit word meaning \"garland\".","Maldives\n\nJan S Hogendorn, Grossman Professor of Economics, theorises that the name Maldives derives from the Sanskrit mālādvīpa (मालाद्वीप), meaning \"garland of islands\". In Tamil, \"Garland of Islands\" can be translated as MalaiTheevu (மாலைத்தீவு). In Malayalam, \"Garland of Islands\" can be translated as Maladweepu (മാലദ്വീപ്). In Kannada, \"Garland of Islands\" can be translated as Maaledweepa (ಮಾಲೆದ್ವೀಪ). None of these names is mentioned in any literature, but classical Sanskrit texts dating back to the Vedic period mention the \"Hundred Thousand Islands\" (Lakshadweepa), a generic name which would include not only the Maldives, but also the Laccadives, Aminidivi Islands, Minicoy and the Chagos island groups.","Maldives\n\nSome medieval travellers such as Ibn Batuta called the islands Mahal Dibiyat (محل دبيأت) from the Arabic word Mahal (\"palace\"), which must be how the Berber traveller interpreted the local name, having been through Muslim North India, where Perso-Arabic words were introduced to the local vocabulary. This is the name currently inscribed on the scroll in the Maldive state emblem. The classical Persian/Arabic name for Maldives is Dibajat. The Dutch referred to the islands as the \"Maldivische Eilanden\", while the British anglicised the local name for the islands first to the \"Maldive Islands\" and later to \"Maldives.\"","Maldives\n\nHistory","Maldives\n\nAncient history and settlement","Maldives\n\nComparative studies of Maldivian oral, linguistic and cultural traditions and customs indicate that early settlers were Dravidian people from ancient Tamilakam in the Sangam period (300 BC–AD 300), most probably fishermen from the southwest coasts of what is now the south of the Indian Subcontinent and the western shores of Sri Lanka. One such community is the Giraavaru people descended from ancient Tamils. They are mentioned in ancient legends and local folklore about the establishment of the capital and kingly rule in Malé.","Maldives\n\nA strong underlying layer of Dravidian population and culture survives in Maldivian society, with a clear Dravidian-Malayalam substratum in the language, which also appears in place names, kinship terms, poetry, dance, and religious beliefs. Malabari seafaring culture led to Malayali settling of the Laccadives, and the Maldives were evidently viewed as an extension of that archipelago. Some argue (from the presence of Jat, Gujjar Titles and Gotra names) that Sindhis also accounted for an early layer of migration. Seafaring from Debal began during the Indus valley civilisation. The Jatakas and Puranas show abundant evidence of this maritime trade; the use of similar traditional boat building techniques in Northwestern South Asia and the Maldives, and the presence of silver punch mark coins from both regions, gives additional weight to this. There are minor signs of Southeast Asian settlers, probably some adrift from the main group of Austronesian reed boat migrants that settled Madagascar.","Maldives\n\nThe earliest written history of the Maldives is marked by the arrival of Sinhalese people, who were descended from the exiled Magadha Prince Vijaya from the ancient city known as Sinhapura. He and his party of several hundred landed in Sri Lanka, and some in the Maldives circa 543 to 483 BC. According to the Mahavansa, one of the ships that sailed with Prince Vijaya, who went to Sri Lanka around 500 BC, went adrift and arrived at an island called Mahiladvipika, which is being identified with the Maldives. It is also said that at that time, the people from Mahiladvipika used to travel to Sri Lanka. Their settlement in Sri Lanka and the Maldives marks a significant change in demographics and the development of the Indo-Aryan language Dhivehi, which is most similar in grammar, phonology, and structure to Sinhala, and especially to the more ancient Elu Prakrit, which has less Pali.","Maldives\n\nAlternatively, it is believed that Vijaya and his clan came from western India – a claim supported by linguistic and cultural features, and specific descriptions in the epics themselves, e.g. that Vijaya visited Bharukaccha (Bharuch in Gujarat) in his ship on the voyage down south.","Maldives\n\nPhilostorgius, a Greek historian of Late Antiquity, wrote of a hostage among the Romans, from the island called Diva, which is presumed to be the Maldives, who was baptised Theophilus. Theophilus was sent in the 350s to convert the Himyarites to Christianity, and went to his homeland from Arabia; he returned to Arabia, visited Axum, and settled in Antioch.","Maldives\n\nBuddhist period","Maldives\n\nBuddhism came to the Maldives at the time of Emperor Ashoka's expansion, and became the dominant religion of the people of the Maldives until the 12th century AD. The ancient Maldivian Kings promoted Buddhism, and the first Maldive writings and artistic achievements, in the form of highly developed sculpture and architecture, are from that period. Before embracing Buddhism as their way of life, Maldivians had practised an ancient form of Hinduism, ritualistic traditions known as Śrauta, in the form of venerating the Surya (the ancient ruling caste were of Aadheetta or Suryavanshi origins).","Maldives\n\nThe first archaeological study of the remains of early cultures in the Maldives began with the work of H.C.P. Bell, a British commissioner of the Ceylon Civil Service. Bell was first ordered to the islands in late 1879 he returned twice to the Maldives to investigate ancient ruins. He studied the ancient mounds, called havitta or ustubu (these names are derived from chaitiya and stupa) () by the Maldivians, which are found on many of the atolls. Although Bell asserted that the ancient Maldivians had followed Theravada Buddhism, many local Buddhist archaeological remains now in the Malé Museum in fact also display elements of Mahayana and Vajrayana iconography.","Maldives\n\nIn the early 11th century, the Minicoy and Thiladhunmathi, and possibly other northern Atolls, were conquered by the medieval Chola Tamil emperor Raja Raja Chola I, thus becoming a part of the Chola Empire.","Maldives\n\nAccording to a legend from Maldivian folklore, in the early 12th century AD, a medieval prince named Koimala, a nobleman of the Lion Race from Sri Lanka, sailed to Rasgetheemu island (literally \"Town of the Royal House\", or figuratively \"King's Town\") in the North Maalhosmadulu Atoll, and from there to Malé, and established a kingdom. By then, the Aadeetta (Sun) Dynasty (the Suryavanshi ruling cast) had for some time ceased to rule in Malé, possibly because of invasions by the Cholas of Southern India in the 10th century. Koimala Kalou (Lord Koimala), who reigned as King Maanaabarana, was a king of the Homa (Lunar) Dynasty (the Chandravanshi ruling cast), which some historians call the House of Theemuge.","Maldives\n\nThe Homa (Lunar) dynasty sovereigns intermarried with the Aaditta (Sun) Dynasty. This is why the formal titles of Maldive kings until 1968 contained references to \"kula sudha ira\", which means \"descended from the Moon and the Sun\". No official record exists of the Aadeetta dynasty's reign. Since Koimala's reign, the Maldive throne was also known as the Singaasana (Lion Throne). Before then, and in some situations since, it was also known as the Saridhaaleys (Ivory Throne). Some historians credit Koimala with freeing the Maldives from Chola rule.","Maldives\n\nSeveral foreign travellers, mainly Arabs, had written about a kingdom of the Maldives ruled over by a queen. This kingdom pre-dated Koimala's reign. al-Idrisi, referring to earlier writers, mentions the name of one of the queens, Damahaar, who was a member of the Aadeetta (Sun) dynasty.","Maldives\n\nIslamic Period","Maldives\n\nThe conversion to Islam is mentioned in the edicts written in copper plates from the end of the 12th century AD.","Maldives\n\nThe famous Moroccan traveller Ibn Batutta, who visited the Maldives in the 14th century, wrote how a Moroccan, one Abu Barakat the Berber, was believed to have been responsible for spreading Islam in the islands. Even though this report has been contested in later sources, it does explain some crucial aspects of Maldivian culture. For instance, historically Arabic has been the prime language of administration there, instead of the Persian and Urdu languages used in the nearby Muslim states. Another link to North Africa was the Maliki school of jurisprudence, used throughout most of North Africa, which was the official one in the Maldives until the 17th century.","Maldives\n\nSome scholars have suggested the possibility of Ibn Battuta misreading Maldive texts, and have posited another scenario where this Abu Barakat might have been a native of Berbera, a significant trading port on the north western coast of Somalia. This scenario would also help explain the usage of the Arabic language and the predominance of the Maliki school on the islands.","Maldives\n\nAnother interpretation, held by some of the islanders, is that Abu Barakat was an Iranian from Tabriz. In the Arabic script the words al-Barbari and al-Tabrizi are very much alike, owing to the fact that at the time, Arabic had several consonants that looked identical and could only be differentiated by overall context (this has since changed by addition of dots above or below letters to clarify pronunciation – For example, the letter \"B\" in modern Arabic has a dot below, whereas the letter \"T\" looks identical except there are two dots above it). The first reference to an Iranian origin dates to an 18th-century Persian text.","Maldives\n\nThe Maldives was the first landfall for traders from Basrah, sailing to Sri Lanka or Southeast Asia. In the Maldives, ships could take on fresh water, fruit and the delicious, basket-smoked red flesh of the black bonito, a delicacy exported to Sindh, China and Yemen. The people of the archipelago were described as gentle, civilised and hospitable. They produced brass utensils as well as fine cotton textiles, exported in the form of sarongs and turban lengths. These local industries must have depended on imported raw materials.","Maldives\n\nThe other essential product of the Maldives was coir, the fibre of the dried coconut husk. Cured in pits, beaten, spun and then twisted into cordage and ropes, coir's salient quality is its resistance to saltwater. It stitched together and rigged the dhows that plied the Indian Ocean. Maldivian coir was exported to Sindh, China, Yemen, and the Persian Gulf.","Maldives\n\n\"It is stronger than hemp\", wrote Ibn Battuta, \"and is used to sew together the planks of Sindhi and Yemeni dhows, for this sea abounds in reefs, and if the planks were fastened with iron nails, they would break into pieces when the vessel hit a rock. The coir gives the boat greater elasticity, so that it doesn't break up.\"","Maldives\n\nBritish protectorate, 1887–1965","Maldives\n\nOn 16 December 1887, the Sultan of the Maldives signed a contract with the British Governor of Ceylon turning the Maldives into a British protected state, thus giving up the islands' sovereignty in matters of foreign policy, but retaining internal self-government. The British government promised military protection and non-interference in local administration in exchange for an annual tribute, so that the islands were akin to an Indian princely state.","Maldives\n\nIn 1957, the British established an air base, RAF Gan, in the strategic southernmost atoll of Addu, paying £2000 a year, employing hundreds of locals. This served as a staging post for British military flights to the Far East and Australia, replacing RAF Mauripur in Pakistan which had been relinquished in 1956. The base was closed in 1976 as part of the larger British withdrawal of permanently stationed forces 'East of Suez' initiated by Labour government of Harold Wilson.","Maldives\n\nIn 1953, there was an abortive attempt to form a republic, but the sultanate survived. In 1959, objecting to Ibrahim Nasir's centralism, the inhabitants of the three southernmost atolls protested against the government. They formed the United Suvadive Republic and elected Abdullah Afeef as president and chose Hithadhoo as capital of this republic.","Maldives\n\nIndependence and Republic","Maldives\n\nIn line with the broader British policy of decolonisation on 26 July 1965 an agreement was signed on behalf of His Majesty the Sultan by Ibrahim Nasir Rannabandeyri Kilegefan, Prime Minister, and on behalf of Her Majesty The Queen by Sir Michael Walker, British Ambassador designate to the Maldive Islands, which ended the British responsibility for the defence and external affairs of the Maldives. The islands thus achieved full political independence, with the ceremony taking place at the British High Commissioner's Residence in Colombo. After this, the sultanate continued for another three years under Muhammad Fareed Didi, who declared himself King rather than Sultan.","Maldives\n\nOn 15 November 1967, a vote was taken in parliament to decide whether the Maldives should continue as a constitutional monarchy or become a republic. Of the 44 members of parliament, forty voted in favour of a republic. On 15 March 1968, a national referendum was held on the question, and 93.34% of those taking part voted in favour of establishing a republic. The republic was declared on 11 November 1968, thus ending the 853-year-old monarchy, which was replaced by a republic under the presidency of Ibrahim Nasir. As the King had held little real power, this was seen as a cosmetic change and required few alterations in the structures of government.","Maldives\n\nTourism began to be developed on the archipelago by the beginning of the 1970s. The first resort in the Maldives was Kurumba Maldives which welcomed the first guests on 3 October 1972. The first accurate census was held in December 1977 and showed 142,832 persons residing in Maldives. \nPolitical infighting during the '70s between Nasir's faction and other political figures led to the 1975 arrest and exile of elected prime minister Ahmed Zaki to a remote atoll. Economic decline followed the closure of the British airfield at Gan and the collapse of the market for dried fish, an important export. With support for his administration faltering, Nasir fled to Singapore in 1978, with millions of dollars from the treasury.","Maldives\n\nMaumoon Abdul Gayoom began his 30-year role as President in 1978, winning six consecutive elections without opposition. His election was seen as ushering in a period of political stability and economic development in view of Gayoom's priority to develop the poorer islands. Tourism flourished and increased foreign contact spurred development. However, Gayoom's rule was controversial, with some critics saying Gayoom was an autocrat who quelled dissent by limiting freedoms and political favouritism.","Maldives\n\nA series of coup attempts (in 1980, 1983, and 1988) by Nasir supporters and business interests tried to topple the government without success. While the first two attempts met with little success, the 1988 coup attempt involved a roughly 80-person mercenary force of the PLOTE Tamil militant group who seized the airport and caused Gayoom to flee from house to house until the intervention of 1600 Indian troops airlifted into Malé restored order.","Maldives\n\nA November 1988 coup was headed by Muhammadu Ibrahim Lutfee, a small-businessman. On the night of 3 November 1988, the Indian Air Force airlifted a parachute battalion group from Agra and flew them over 2000 km to the Maldives. The Indian paratroopers landed at Hulule and secured the airfield and restored the government rule at Malé within hours. The brief, bloodless operation, labelled Operation Cactus, also involved the Indian Navy.","Maldives\n\n21st century","Maldives\n\nOn 26 December 2004, following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the Maldives were devastated by a tsunami. Only nine islands were reported to have escaped any flooding, while fifty-seven islands faced serious damage to critical infrastructure, fourteen islands had to be totally evacuated, and six islands were destroyed. A further twenty-one resort islands were forced to close because of serious damage. The total damage was estimated at more than US$400 million, or some 62% of the GDP. 102 Maldivians and 6 foreigners reportedly died in the tsunami. The destructive impact of the waves on the low-lying islands was mitigated by the fact there was no continental shelf or land mass upon which the waves could gain height. The tallest waves were reported to be 14 ft high.","Maldives\n\nDuring the later part of Gayoom's rule, independent political movements emerged in Maldives, which challenged the then-ruling Dhivehi Rayyithunge Party (Maldivian People's Party) and demanded democratic reform.","Maldives\n\nThe dissident journalist Mohamed Nasheed rose to challenge the autocratic rule of Gayoom. Nasheed was imprisoned a total of 16 times under Gayoom’s rule. Persisting in his activism, he founded the Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) in 2003 while in exile. His activism, as well as civil unrest that year, pressured Gayoom into allowing for gradual political reforms.","Maldives\n\nThese movements brought about significant change in political structure. In 2008 a new constitution was approved and the first direct presidential elections occurred, which were won by Mohamed Nasheed and Mohammed Waheed Hassan (as Vice-President) in the second round. The 2009 parliamentary election saw the Maldivian Democratic Party of President Nasheed receive the most votes with 30.81%, gaining 26 seats, although the Dhivehi Rayyithunge Party, with 24.62% of the vote, received the most seats (28).","Maldives\n\nThe government of President Mohamed Nasheed faced many challenges, including the huge debts left by the previous government, the economic downturn following the 2004 tsunami, overspending (by means of overprinting of local currency rufiyaa) during his regime, unemployment, corruption, and increasing drug use.","Maldives\n\nTaxation on goods was imposed for the first time in the country, and import duties were reduced in many goods and services. Social welfare benefits were given to those above 65 years of age, single parents, and those with special needs. On 10 November 2008, Nasheed announced an intent to create a sovereign wealth fund with money earned from tourism that could be used to purchase land elsewhere for the Maldives people to relocate should rising sea levels due to climate change inundate the country. The government reportedly considered locations in Sri Lanka and India due to cultural and climate similarities, and as far away as Australia.","Maldives\n\nOn 23 December 2011, the opposition held a mass symposium with as many as 20,000 people in the name of protecting Islam, which they believed Nasheed's government was unable to maintain in the country. The mass event became the foundation of a campaign that brought about social unrest within the capital city.","Maldives\n\nOn 16 January 2012, the Maldives military, on orders from the interior ministry, unconstitutionally arrested Judge Abdulla Mohamed, the chief justice of the Maldives Criminal Court, on charges he was blocking the prosecution of corruption and human rights cases against allies of former President Gayoom. On 7 February, Nasheed ordered the police and army to subdue the anti-government protesters and allegedly told them to use force against the public. Police came out to protest against the government instead.","Maldives\n\nPresident Mohamed Nasheed resigned on 7 February 2012 by letter, and followed that with a televised public address informing Maldivians of his resignation. Later Nasheed told foreign media that he was deposed by a military coup led by President Waheed. There have been disputes over exactly what happened that day. Nasheed's vice president, Mohammed Waheed Hassan, was sworn in as President in accordance with the Constitution at the Peoples majlis in front of the Chief Justice.","Maldives\n\nMany countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, were quick to abandon Nasheed, instead endorsing his successor. (The United States backtracked in late 2012 in response to widespread criticism.) On 23 February 2012, the Commonwealth suspended the Maldives from its democracy and human rights watchdog while the ousting was being investigated, and backed Nasheed's call for elections before the end of 2012.","Maldives\n\nOn 8 October, Nasheed was arrested after failing to appear in court to face charges that he ordered the illegal arrest of a judge while in office. However, his supporters claim that this detention was politically motivated in order to prevent him from campaigning for the 2013 presidential elections.","Maldives\n\nIn March 2013 the former president Nasheed was convicted under the country's terrorism laws for ordering the arrest of an allegedly corrupt judge in 2012 and jailed for 13 years.","Maldives\n\nRecently (Oct. 2015) Nasheed has appealed to Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, suggesting Modi has the ability to “disentangle” the Maldives from the “mess we are in”. Maldives’ international partners including the EU, US, UK and the United Nations had said his rushed trial was seriously flawed following a UN panel ruling in the former president’s favour. The UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention has called for his immediate release.","Maldives\n\nAt the time Nasheed was jailed, President Mohammed Waheed Hassan announced a presidential election would be held in 2013.","Maldives\n\nThe elections in late 2013 were highly contested. Former president Mohammed Nasheed won the most votes in the first round. Contrary to the assessment of international election observers, the Supreme Court cited irregularities and annulled it. In the end, the opposition combined to gain a majority. Abdulla Yameen, half-brother of the former president Gayoom, assumed the presidency.","Maldives\n\nYameen implemented a foreign policy shift towards increased engagement with China, establishing diplomatic relations between the two countries. Yameen employed Islam as a tool of identity politics, framing religious mobilization as the solution to perceived Western attempts to undermine Maldivian national sovereignty. Yameen’s policy of connecting Islam with anti-Western rhetoric represented a new development.","Maldives\n\nOn 28 September 2015 there was an assassination attempt on President Abdulla Yameen as he was returning from Saudi Arabia after the haj pilgrimage. As his speedboat was docking at Male there was an explosion on board. Amid screams, the right door of the boat fell on the jetty and there was heavy smoke. Three people were injured, including his wife, but the President managed to escape unhurt.","Maldives\n\nIn a probe of the explosion targeting president, on 24 October 2015 Maldives vice president Ahmed Adheeb was arrested at the airport upon his return from a conference in China. 17 of Adheeb's supporters were also arrested for \"public order offences\". The government instituted a broader crackdown against political dissent. Though the popular image of the Maldives is that of a holiday paradise, its radicalised youths are enlisting in significant numbers to fight for Islamic State militants in the Middle East.","Maldives\n\nOn 4 November 2015, President Abdulla Yameen declared a 30-day state of emergency ahead of a planned anti-government rally.","Maldives\n\nOn 5 November 2015 (the next day), as per the State of Emergency bill made by the President, the people's Majlis decided to rush the process for the removal of Vice president Ahmed Adeeb by a no confidence vote that was submitted by PPM Parliament than the originally intended period. As a result, the Majlis passed the no confidence vote with a majority of 61 members favouring it, removing Adeeb from the post of Vice President in the process.","Maldives\n\nOn 10 November 2015, President Yameen revoked the State of Emergency citing that no imminent threats remain in the country.","Maldives\n\nGeography","Maldives\n\nThe Maldives consists of 1,192 coral islands grouped in a double chain of 26 atolls, along the north-south direction, spread over roughly 90000 km², making this one of the world's most dispersed countries. It lies between latitudes 1°S and 8°N, and longitudes 72° and 74°E. The atolls are composed of live coral reefs and sand bars, situated atop a submarine ridge 960 km long that rises abruptly from the depths of the Indian Ocean and runs north to south.","Maldives\n\nOnly near the southern end of this natural coral barricade do two open passages permit safe ship navigation from one side of the Indian Ocean to the other through the territorial waters of Maldives. For administrative purposes the Maldivian government organised these atolls into twenty one administrative divisions. The largest island of Maldives is Gan, which belongs to Laamu Atoll or Hahdhummathi Maldives. In Addu Atoll the westernmost islands are connected by roads over the reef (collectively called Link Road) and the total length of the road is 14 km.","Maldives\n\nMaldives is the lowest country in the world, with maximum and average natural ground levels of only and above sea level, respectively. In areas where construction exists, however, this has been increased to several metres. More than 80 per cent of the country's land is composed of coral islands which rise less than one metre above sea level. As a result, the Maldives are at high risk of being submerged due to rising sea levels. The UN's environmental panel has warned that, at current rates, sea level rise would be high enough to make the Maldives uninhabitable by 2100.","Maldives\n\nProtected areas of Maldives","Maldives\n\nProtected areas of Maldives are administrated by Ministry of Environment and Energy and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of Maldives. There are 31 protected areas in Maldives.","Maldives\n\nClimate","Maldives\n\nThe Maldives has a tropical-monsoon climate, which is affected by the large landmass of South Asia to the north. The presence of this landmass causes differential heating of land and water. These factors set off a rush of moisture-rich air from the Indian Ocean over South Asia, resulting in the southwest monsoon. Two seasons dominate Maldives' weather: the dry season associated with the winter northeastern monsoon and the rainy season which brings strong winds and storms.","Maldives\n\nThe shift from the dry northeast monsoon to the moist southwest monsoon occurs during April and May. During this period, the southwest winds contribute to the formation of the southwest monsoon, which reaches Maldives in the beginning of June and lasts until the end of August. However, the weather patterns of Maldives do not always conform to the monsoon patterns of South Asia. The annual rainfall averages 254 cm in the north and 381 cm}} in the south."],"string":"[\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe Maldives (,, or), officially the Republic of Maldives (, Dhivehi Raa'jeyge Jumhooriyya), is an island country in the Indian Ocean. It lies southwest of India and Sri Lanka. The chain of twenty six atolls stretches from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to the Addu Atoll in the south. Comprising a territory spanning roughly 90000 km2, the Maldives is one of the world's most geographically dispersed countries, as well as the smallest Asian country by both land area and population, with a little over over 393,500 inhabitants. Malé is the capital and largest city, traditionally called the \\\"King's Island\\\" for its central location.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe Maldives archipelago is located atop the Chagos-Maldives-Laccadive Ridge, a vast submarine mountain range in the Indian Ocean, which also forms a terrestrial ecoregion, together with the Chagos and the Lakshadweep. With an average ground-level elevation of above sea level, it is the world's lowest country, with even its highest natural point being the lowest in the world, at . Due to the subsequent risks posed by rising sea-levels, the government has pledged to make the Maldives a carbon-neutral country by 2019.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe Maldives have been historically and culturally linked to the Indian subcontinent since the fourth century BCE. The Maldivian archipelago was Islamised in the 12th century and consolidated as a sultanate, developing strong commercial and cultural ties with Asia and Africa. From the mid 16th-century, the region came under the increasing influence of colonial powers, with the Maldives becoming a British protectorate in 1887. Independence from the United Kingdom was achieved in 1965 and a presidential republic was established in 1968 with an elected People's Majlis. The ensuing decades have been characterized by political instability, efforts at demcoratic reform, and environmenntal challenges posed by climate change.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe Maldives is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). It is also a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Non Aligned Movement. The World Bank classifies the Maldives as having an upper middle income economy. Fishing has historically been the dominant economic activity, and remains the largest sector by far, followed by the rapidly growing tourism industry. Along with Sri Lanka, it is one of only two South Asian countries rated \\\"high\\\" on the Human Development Index (HDI), with its per capita income the highest among SAARC nations.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nToponymy\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe name Maldives may derive from the Malayalam words \\\"maala\\\" (garland) and \\\"dweepu\\\" (island) or the Tamil maalai (garland / evening) and theevu (island), or මාල දිවයින Maala Divaina (\\\"Necklace Islands\\\") in Sinhala. The Maldivian people are called Dhivehin. The word Theevu (archaic Dheevu, related to Tamil தீவு dheevu) means \\\"island\\\", and Dhives (Dhivehin) means \\\"islanders\\\" (i.e., Maldivians).\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe ancient Sri Lankan chronicle Mahawamsa refers to an island called Mahiladiva (\\\"Island of Women\\\", महिलादिभ) in Pali, which is probably a mistranslation of the same Sanskrit word meaning \\\"garland\\\".\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nJan S Hogendorn, Grossman Professor of Economics, theorises that the name Maldives derives from the Sanskrit mālādvīpa (मालाद्वीप), meaning \\\"garland of islands\\\". In Tamil, \\\"Garland of Islands\\\" can be translated as MalaiTheevu (மாலைத்தீவு). In Malayalam, \\\"Garland of Islands\\\" can be translated as Maladweepu (മാലദ്വീപ്). In Kannada, \\\"Garland of Islands\\\" can be translated as Maaledweepa (ಮಾಲೆದ್ವೀಪ). None of these names is mentioned in any literature, but classical Sanskrit texts dating back to the Vedic period mention the \\\"Hundred Thousand Islands\\\" (Lakshadweepa), a generic name which would include not only the Maldives, but also the Laccadives, Aminidivi Islands, Minicoy and the Chagos island groups.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nSome medieval travellers such as Ibn Batuta called the islands Mahal Dibiyat (محل دبيأت) from the Arabic word Mahal (\\\"palace\\\"), which must be how the Berber traveller interpreted the local name, having been through Muslim North India, where Perso-Arabic words were introduced to the local vocabulary. This is the name currently inscribed on the scroll in the Maldive state emblem. The classical Persian/Arabic name for Maldives is Dibajat. The Dutch referred to the islands as the \\\"Maldivische Eilanden\\\", while the British anglicised the local name for the islands first to the \\\"Maldive Islands\\\" and later to \\\"Maldives.\\\"\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nAncient history and settlement\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nComparative studies of Maldivian oral, linguistic and cultural traditions and customs indicate that early settlers were Dravidian people from ancient Tamilakam in the Sangam period (300 BC–AD 300), most probably fishermen from the southwest coasts of what is now the south of the Indian Subcontinent and the western shores of Sri Lanka. One such community is the Giraavaru people descended from ancient Tamils. They are mentioned in ancient legends and local folklore about the establishment of the capital and kingly rule in Malé.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nA strong underlying layer of Dravidian population and culture survives in Maldivian society, with a clear Dravidian-Malayalam substratum in the language, which also appears in place names, kinship terms, poetry, dance, and religious beliefs. Malabari seafaring culture led to Malayali settling of the Laccadives, and the Maldives were evidently viewed as an extension of that archipelago. Some argue (from the presence of Jat, Gujjar Titles and Gotra names) that Sindhis also accounted for an early layer of migration. Seafaring from Debal began during the Indus valley civilisation. The Jatakas and Puranas show abundant evidence of this maritime trade; the use of similar traditional boat building techniques in Northwestern South Asia and the Maldives, and the presence of silver punch mark coins from both regions, gives additional weight to this. There are minor signs of Southeast Asian settlers, probably some adrift from the main group of Austronesian reed boat migrants that settled Madagascar.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe earliest written history of the Maldives is marked by the arrival of Sinhalese people, who were descended from the exiled Magadha Prince Vijaya from the ancient city known as Sinhapura. He and his party of several hundred landed in Sri Lanka, and some in the Maldives circa 543 to 483 BC. According to the Mahavansa, one of the ships that sailed with Prince Vijaya, who went to Sri Lanka around 500 BC, went adrift and arrived at an island called Mahiladvipika, which is being identified with the Maldives. It is also said that at that time, the people from Mahiladvipika used to travel to Sri Lanka. Their settlement in Sri Lanka and the Maldives marks a significant change in demographics and the development of the Indo-Aryan language Dhivehi, which is most similar in grammar, phonology, and structure to Sinhala, and especially to the more ancient Elu Prakrit, which has less Pali.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nAlternatively, it is believed that Vijaya and his clan came from western India – a claim supported by linguistic and cultural features, and specific descriptions in the epics themselves, e.g. that Vijaya visited Bharukaccha (Bharuch in Gujarat) in his ship on the voyage down south.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nPhilostorgius, a Greek historian of Late Antiquity, wrote of a hostage among the Romans, from the island called Diva, which is presumed to be the Maldives, who was baptised Theophilus. Theophilus was sent in the 350s to convert the Himyarites to Christianity, and went to his homeland from Arabia; he returned to Arabia, visited Axum, and settled in Antioch.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nBuddhist period\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nBuddhism came to the Maldives at the time of Emperor Ashoka's expansion, and became the dominant religion of the people of the Maldives until the 12th century AD. The ancient Maldivian Kings promoted Buddhism, and the first Maldive writings and artistic achievements, in the form of highly developed sculpture and architecture, are from that period. Before embracing Buddhism as their way of life, Maldivians had practised an ancient form of Hinduism, ritualistic traditions known as Śrauta, in the form of venerating the Surya (the ancient ruling caste were of Aadheetta or Suryavanshi origins).\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe first archaeological study of the remains of early cultures in the Maldives began with the work of H.C.P. Bell, a British commissioner of the Ceylon Civil Service. Bell was first ordered to the islands in late 1879 he returned twice to the Maldives to investigate ancient ruins. He studied the ancient mounds, called havitta or ustubu (these names are derived from chaitiya and stupa) () by the Maldivians, which are found on many of the atolls. Although Bell asserted that the ancient Maldivians had followed Theravada Buddhism, many local Buddhist archaeological remains now in the Malé Museum in fact also display elements of Mahayana and Vajrayana iconography.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nIn the early 11th century, the Minicoy and Thiladhunmathi, and possibly other northern Atolls, were conquered by the medieval Chola Tamil emperor Raja Raja Chola I, thus becoming a part of the Chola Empire.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nAccording to a legend from Maldivian folklore, in the early 12th century AD, a medieval prince named Koimala, a nobleman of the Lion Race from Sri Lanka, sailed to Rasgetheemu island (literally \\\"Town of the Royal House\\\", or figuratively \\\"King's Town\\\") in the North Maalhosmadulu Atoll, and from there to Malé, and established a kingdom. By then, the Aadeetta (Sun) Dynasty (the Suryavanshi ruling cast) had for some time ceased to rule in Malé, possibly because of invasions by the Cholas of Southern India in the 10th century. Koimala Kalou (Lord Koimala), who reigned as King Maanaabarana, was a king of the Homa (Lunar) Dynasty (the Chandravanshi ruling cast), which some historians call the House of Theemuge.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe Homa (Lunar) dynasty sovereigns intermarried with the Aaditta (Sun) Dynasty. This is why the formal titles of Maldive kings until 1968 contained references to \\\"kula sudha ira\\\", which means \\\"descended from the Moon and the Sun\\\". No official record exists of the Aadeetta dynasty's reign. Since Koimala's reign, the Maldive throne was also known as the Singaasana (Lion Throne). Before then, and in some situations since, it was also known as the Saridhaaleys (Ivory Throne). Some historians credit Koimala with freeing the Maldives from Chola rule.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nSeveral foreign travellers, mainly Arabs, had written about a kingdom of the Maldives ruled over by a queen. This kingdom pre-dated Koimala's reign. al-Idrisi, referring to earlier writers, mentions the name of one of the queens, Damahaar, who was a member of the Aadeetta (Sun) dynasty.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nIslamic Period\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe conversion to Islam is mentioned in the edicts written in copper plates from the end of the 12th century AD.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe famous Moroccan traveller Ibn Batutta, who visited the Maldives in the 14th century, wrote how a Moroccan, one Abu Barakat the Berber, was believed to have been responsible for spreading Islam in the islands. Even though this report has been contested in later sources, it does explain some crucial aspects of Maldivian culture. For instance, historically Arabic has been the prime language of administration there, instead of the Persian and Urdu languages used in the nearby Muslim states. Another link to North Africa was the Maliki school of jurisprudence, used throughout most of North Africa, which was the official one in the Maldives until the 17th century.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nSome scholars have suggested the possibility of Ibn Battuta misreading Maldive texts, and have posited another scenario where this Abu Barakat might have been a native of Berbera, a significant trading port on the north western coast of Somalia. This scenario would also help explain the usage of the Arabic language and the predominance of the Maliki school on the islands.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nAnother interpretation, held by some of the islanders, is that Abu Barakat was an Iranian from Tabriz. In the Arabic script the words al-Barbari and al-Tabrizi are very much alike, owing to the fact that at the time, Arabic had several consonants that looked identical and could only be differentiated by overall context (this has since changed by addition of dots above or below letters to clarify pronunciation – For example, the letter \\\"B\\\" in modern Arabic has a dot below, whereas the letter \\\"T\\\" looks identical except there are two dots above it). The first reference to an Iranian origin dates to an 18th-century Persian text.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe Maldives was the first landfall for traders from Basrah, sailing to Sri Lanka or Southeast Asia. In the Maldives, ships could take on fresh water, fruit and the delicious, basket-smoked red flesh of the black bonito, a delicacy exported to Sindh, China and Yemen. The people of the archipelago were described as gentle, civilised and hospitable. They produced brass utensils as well as fine cotton textiles, exported in the form of sarongs and turban lengths. These local industries must have depended on imported raw materials.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe other essential product of the Maldives was coir, the fibre of the dried coconut husk. Cured in pits, beaten, spun and then twisted into cordage and ropes, coir's salient quality is its resistance to saltwater. It stitched together and rigged the dhows that plied the Indian Ocean. Maldivian coir was exported to Sindh, China, Yemen, and the Persian Gulf.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\n\\\"It is stronger than hemp\\\", wrote Ibn Battuta, \\\"and is used to sew together the planks of Sindhi and Yemeni dhows, for this sea abounds in reefs, and if the planks were fastened with iron nails, they would break into pieces when the vessel hit a rock. The coir gives the boat greater elasticity, so that it doesn't break up.\\\"\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nBritish protectorate, 1887–1965\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nOn 16 December 1887, the Sultan of the Maldives signed a contract with the British Governor of Ceylon turning the Maldives into a British protected state, thus giving up the islands' sovereignty in matters of foreign policy, but retaining internal self-government. The British government promised military protection and non-interference in local administration in exchange for an annual tribute, so that the islands were akin to an Indian princely state.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nIn 1957, the British established an air base, RAF Gan, in the strategic southernmost atoll of Addu, paying £2000 a year, employing hundreds of locals. This served as a staging post for British military flights to the Far East and Australia, replacing RAF Mauripur in Pakistan which had been relinquished in 1956. The base was closed in 1976 as part of the larger British withdrawal of permanently stationed forces 'East of Suez' initiated by Labour government of Harold Wilson.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nIn 1953, there was an abortive attempt to form a republic, but the sultanate survived. In 1959, objecting to Ibrahim Nasir's centralism, the inhabitants of the three southernmost atolls protested against the government. They formed the United Suvadive Republic and elected Abdullah Afeef as president and chose Hithadhoo as capital of this republic.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nIndependence and Republic\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nIn line with the broader British policy of decolonisation on 26 July 1965 an agreement was signed on behalf of His Majesty the Sultan by Ibrahim Nasir Rannabandeyri Kilegefan, Prime Minister, and on behalf of Her Majesty The Queen by Sir Michael Walker, British Ambassador designate to the Maldive Islands, which ended the British responsibility for the defence and external affairs of the Maldives. The islands thus achieved full political independence, with the ceremony taking place at the British High Commissioner's Residence in Colombo. After this, the sultanate continued for another three years under Muhammad Fareed Didi, who declared himself King rather than Sultan.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nOn 15 November 1967, a vote was taken in parliament to decide whether the Maldives should continue as a constitutional monarchy or become a republic. Of the 44 members of parliament, forty voted in favour of a republic. On 15 March 1968, a national referendum was held on the question, and 93.34% of those taking part voted in favour of establishing a republic. The republic was declared on 11 November 1968, thus ending the 853-year-old monarchy, which was replaced by a republic under the presidency of Ibrahim Nasir. As the King had held little real power, this was seen as a cosmetic change and required few alterations in the structures of government.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nTourism began to be developed on the archipelago by the beginning of the 1970s. The first resort in the Maldives was Kurumba Maldives which welcomed the first guests on 3 October 1972. The first accurate census was held in December 1977 and showed 142,832 persons residing in Maldives. \\nPolitical infighting during the '70s between Nasir's faction and other political figures led to the 1975 arrest and exile of elected prime minister Ahmed Zaki to a remote atoll. Economic decline followed the closure of the British airfield at Gan and the collapse of the market for dried fish, an important export. With support for his administration faltering, Nasir fled to Singapore in 1978, with millions of dollars from the treasury.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nMaumoon Abdul Gayoom began his 30-year role as President in 1978, winning six consecutive elections without opposition. His election was seen as ushering in a period of political stability and economic development in view of Gayoom's priority to develop the poorer islands. Tourism flourished and increased foreign contact spurred development. However, Gayoom's rule was controversial, with some critics saying Gayoom was an autocrat who quelled dissent by limiting freedoms and political favouritism.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nA series of coup attempts (in 1980, 1983, and 1988) by Nasir supporters and business interests tried to topple the government without success. While the first two attempts met with little success, the 1988 coup attempt involved a roughly 80-person mercenary force of the PLOTE Tamil militant group who seized the airport and caused Gayoom to flee from house to house until the intervention of 1600 Indian troops airlifted into Malé restored order.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nA November 1988 coup was headed by Muhammadu Ibrahim Lutfee, a small-businessman. On the night of 3 November 1988, the Indian Air Force airlifted a parachute battalion group from Agra and flew them over 2000 km to the Maldives. The Indian paratroopers landed at Hulule and secured the airfield and restored the government rule at Malé within hours. The brief, bloodless operation, labelled Operation Cactus, also involved the Indian Navy.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\n21st century\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nOn 26 December 2004, following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the Maldives were devastated by a tsunami. Only nine islands were reported to have escaped any flooding, while fifty-seven islands faced serious damage to critical infrastructure, fourteen islands had to be totally evacuated, and six islands were destroyed. A further twenty-one resort islands were forced to close because of serious damage. The total damage was estimated at more than US$400 million, or some 62% of the GDP. 102 Maldivians and 6 foreigners reportedly died in the tsunami. The destructive impact of the waves on the low-lying islands was mitigated by the fact there was no continental shelf or land mass upon which the waves could gain height. The tallest waves were reported to be 14 ft high.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nDuring the later part of Gayoom's rule, independent political movements emerged in Maldives, which challenged the then-ruling Dhivehi Rayyithunge Party (Maldivian People's Party) and demanded democratic reform.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe dissident journalist Mohamed Nasheed rose to challenge the autocratic rule of Gayoom. Nasheed was imprisoned a total of 16 times under Gayoom’s rule. Persisting in his activism, he founded the Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) in 2003 while in exile. His activism, as well as civil unrest that year, pressured Gayoom into allowing for gradual political reforms.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThese movements brought about significant change in political structure. In 2008 a new constitution was approved and the first direct presidential elections occurred, which were won by Mohamed Nasheed and Mohammed Waheed Hassan (as Vice-President) in the second round. The 2009 parliamentary election saw the Maldivian Democratic Party of President Nasheed receive the most votes with 30.81%, gaining 26 seats, although the Dhivehi Rayyithunge Party, with 24.62% of the vote, received the most seats (28).\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe government of President Mohamed Nasheed faced many challenges, including the huge debts left by the previous government, the economic downturn following the 2004 tsunami, overspending (by means of overprinting of local currency rufiyaa) during his regime, unemployment, corruption, and increasing drug use.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nTaxation on goods was imposed for the first time in the country, and import duties were reduced in many goods and services. Social welfare benefits were given to those above 65 years of age, single parents, and those with special needs. On 10 November 2008, Nasheed announced an intent to create a sovereign wealth fund with money earned from tourism that could be used to purchase land elsewhere for the Maldives people to relocate should rising sea levels due to climate change inundate the country. The government reportedly considered locations in Sri Lanka and India due to cultural and climate similarities, and as far away as Australia.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nOn 23 December 2011, the opposition held a mass symposium with as many as 20,000 people in the name of protecting Islam, which they believed Nasheed's government was unable to maintain in the country. The mass event became the foundation of a campaign that brought about social unrest within the capital city.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nOn 16 January 2012, the Maldives military, on orders from the interior ministry, unconstitutionally arrested Judge Abdulla Mohamed, the chief justice of the Maldives Criminal Court, on charges he was blocking the prosecution of corruption and human rights cases against allies of former President Gayoom. On 7 February, Nasheed ordered the police and army to subdue the anti-government protesters and allegedly told them to use force against the public. Police came out to protest against the government instead.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nPresident Mohamed Nasheed resigned on 7 February 2012 by letter, and followed that with a televised public address informing Maldivians of his resignation. Later Nasheed told foreign media that he was deposed by a military coup led by President Waheed. There have been disputes over exactly what happened that day. Nasheed's vice president, Mohammed Waheed Hassan, was sworn in as President in accordance with the Constitution at the Peoples majlis in front of the Chief Justice.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nMany countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, were quick to abandon Nasheed, instead endorsing his successor. (The United States backtracked in late 2012 in response to widespread criticism.) On 23 February 2012, the Commonwealth suspended the Maldives from its democracy and human rights watchdog while the ousting was being investigated, and backed Nasheed's call for elections before the end of 2012.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nOn 8 October, Nasheed was arrested after failing to appear in court to face charges that he ordered the illegal arrest of a judge while in office. However, his supporters claim that this detention was politically motivated in order to prevent him from campaigning for the 2013 presidential elections.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nIn March 2013 the former president Nasheed was convicted under the country's terrorism laws for ordering the arrest of an allegedly corrupt judge in 2012 and jailed for 13 years.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nRecently (Oct. 2015) Nasheed has appealed to Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, suggesting Modi has the ability to “disentangle” the Maldives from the “mess we are in”. Maldives’ international partners including the EU, US, UK and the United Nations had said his rushed trial was seriously flawed following a UN panel ruling in the former president’s favour. The UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention has called for his immediate release.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nAt the time Nasheed was jailed, President Mohammed Waheed Hassan announced a presidential election would be held in 2013.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe elections in late 2013 were highly contested. Former president Mohammed Nasheed won the most votes in the first round. Contrary to the assessment of international election observers, the Supreme Court cited irregularities and annulled it. In the end, the opposition combined to gain a majority. Abdulla Yameen, half-brother of the former president Gayoom, assumed the presidency.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nYameen implemented a foreign policy shift towards increased engagement with China, establishing diplomatic relations between the two countries. Yameen employed Islam as a tool of identity politics, framing religious mobilization as the solution to perceived Western attempts to undermine Maldivian national sovereignty. Yameen’s policy of connecting Islam with anti-Western rhetoric represented a new development.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nOn 28 September 2015 there was an assassination attempt on President Abdulla Yameen as he was returning from Saudi Arabia after the haj pilgrimage. As his speedboat was docking at Male there was an explosion on board. Amid screams, the right door of the boat fell on the jetty and there was heavy smoke. Three people were injured, including his wife, but the President managed to escape unhurt.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nIn a probe of the explosion targeting president, on 24 October 2015 Maldives vice president Ahmed Adheeb was arrested at the airport upon his return from a conference in China. 17 of Adheeb's supporters were also arrested for \\\"public order offences\\\". The government instituted a broader crackdown against political dissent. Though the popular image of the Maldives is that of a holiday paradise, its radicalised youths are enlisting in significant numbers to fight for Islamic State militants in the Middle East.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nOn 4 November 2015, President Abdulla Yameen declared a 30-day state of emergency ahead of a planned anti-government rally.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nOn 5 November 2015 (the next day), as per the State of Emergency bill made by the President, the people's Majlis decided to rush the process for the removal of Vice president Ahmed Adeeb by a no confidence vote that was submitted by PPM Parliament than the originally intended period. As a result, the Majlis passed the no confidence vote with a majority of 61 members favouring it, removing Adeeb from the post of Vice President in the process.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nOn 10 November 2015, President Yameen revoked the State of Emergency citing that no imminent threats remain in the country.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe Maldives consists of 1,192 coral islands grouped in a double chain of 26 atolls, along the north-south direction, spread over roughly 90000 km², making this one of the world's most dispersed countries. It lies between latitudes 1°S and 8°N, and longitudes 72° and 74°E. The atolls are composed of live coral reefs and sand bars, situated atop a submarine ridge 960 km long that rises abruptly from the depths of the Indian Ocean and runs north to south.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nOnly near the southern end of this natural coral barricade do two open passages permit safe ship navigation from one side of the Indian Ocean to the other through the territorial waters of Maldives. For administrative purposes the Maldivian government organised these atolls into twenty one administrative divisions. The largest island of Maldives is Gan, which belongs to Laamu Atoll or Hahdhummathi Maldives. In Addu Atoll the westernmost islands are connected by roads over the reef (collectively called Link Road) and the total length of the road is 14 km.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nMaldives is the lowest country in the world, with maximum and average natural ground levels of only and above sea level, respectively. In areas where construction exists, however, this has been increased to several metres. More than 80 per cent of the country's land is composed of coral islands which rise less than one metre above sea level. As a result, the Maldives are at high risk of being submerged due to rising sea levels. The UN's environmental panel has warned that, at current rates, sea level rise would be high enough to make the Maldives uninhabitable by 2100.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nProtected areas of Maldives\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nProtected areas of Maldives are administrated by Ministry of Environment and Energy and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of Maldives. There are 31 protected areas in Maldives.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe Maldives has a tropical-monsoon climate, which is affected by the large landmass of South Asia to the north. The presence of this landmass causes differential heating of land and water. These factors set off a rush of moisture-rich air from the Indian Ocean over South Asia, resulting in the southwest monsoon. Two seasons dominate Maldives' weather: the dry season associated with the winter northeastern monsoon and the rainy season which brings strong winds and storms.\",\n \"Maldives\\n\\nThe shift from the dry northeast monsoon to the moist southwest monsoon occurs during April and May. During this period, the southwest winds contribute to the formation of the southwest monsoon, which reaches Maldives in the beginning of June and lasts until the end of August. However, the weather patterns of Maldives do not always conform to the monsoon patterns of South Asia. The annual rainfall averages 254 cm in the north and 381 cm}} in the south.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2076,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_19"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which river runs through the Grand Canyon?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"The Colorado"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["colorado river crossing","colorado river system southwest u s","colorado river basin","colorado river colo mexico","colorado river us","colorado","colorado river u s","river colorado","río colorado","history of colorado river","colorado river united states","colorado river","grand river colorado"],"string":"[\n \"colorado river crossing\",\n \"colorado river system southwest u s\",\n \"colorado river basin\",\n \"colorado river colo mexico\",\n \"colorado river us\",\n \"colorado\",\n \"colorado river u s\",\n \"river colorado\",\n \"río colorado\",\n \"history of colorado river\",\n \"colorado river united states\",\n \"colorado river\",\n \"grand river colorado\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Grand Canyon\n\nThe Grand Canyon (Hopi: Ongtupqa; , Navajo: Tsékooh Hatsoh, Spanish: Gran Cañón) is a steep-sided canyon carved by the Colorado River in the state of Arizona in the United States. It is contained within and managed by Grand Canyon National Park, the Kaibab National Forest, Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument, the Hualapai Tribal Nation, the Havasupai people and the Navajo Nation. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of preservation of the Grand Canyon area, and visited it on numerous occasions to hunt and enjoy the scenery.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe Grand Canyon is 277 mi long, up to 18 mi wide and attains a depth of over a mile (6093 ft). Nearly two billion years of Earth's geological history have been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut their channels through layer after layer of rock while the Colorado Plateau was uplifted.[http://www.nps.gov/grca/naturescience/geologicformations.htm Geologic Formations of the Grand Canyon] National Park Service Retrieved 2009-11-17 While some aspects about the history of incision of the canyon are debated by geologists, several recent studies support the hypothesis that the Colorado River established its course through the area about 5 to 6 million years ago. Since that time, the Colorado River has driven the down-cutting of the tributaries and retreat of the cliffs, simultaneously deepening and widening the canyon.","Grand Canyon\n\nFor thousands of years, the area has been continuously inhabited by Native Americans, who built settlements within the canyon and its many caves. The Pueblo people considered the Grand Canyon a holy site, and made pilgrimages to it. The first European known to have viewed the Grand Canyon was García López de Cárdenas from Spain, who arrived in 1540.","Grand Canyon\n\nGeography","Grand Canyon\n\nThe Grand Canyon is a river valley in the Colorado Plateau that exposes uplifted Proterozoic and Paleozoic strata, and is also one of the 19 distinct physiographic sections of the Colorado Plateau province. It is not the deepest canyon in the world (Kali Gandaki Gorge in Nepal is much deeper). However, the Grand Canyon is known for its visually overwhelming size and its intricate and colorful landscape. Geologically, it is significant because of the thick sequence of ancient rocks that are well preserved and exposed in the walls of the canyon. These rock layers record much of the early geologic history of the North American continent.","Grand Canyon\n\nUplift associated with mountain formation later moved these sediments thousands of feet upward and created the Colorado Plateau. The higher elevation has also resulted in greater precipitation in the Colorado River drainage area, but not enough to change the Grand Canyon area from being semi-arid. The uplift of the Colorado Plateau is uneven, and the Kaibab Plateau that Grand Canyon bisects is over a 1000 ft higher at the North Rim (about 1000 ft) than at the South Rim. Almost all runoff from the North Rim (which also gets more rain and snow) flows toward the Grand Canyon, while much of the runoff on the plateau behind the South Rim flows away from the canyon (following the general tilt). The result is deeper and longer tributary washes and canyons on the north side and shorter and steeper side canyons on the south side.","Grand Canyon\n\nTemperatures on the North Rim are generally lower than those on the South Rim because of the greater elevation (averaging above sea level). Heavy rains are common on both rims during the summer months. Access to the North Rim via the primary route leading to the canyon (State Route 67) is limited during the winter season due to road closures.","Grand Canyon\n\nGeology","Grand Canyon\n\nThe Grand Canyon is part of the Colorado River basin which has developed over the past 40 million years. A recent study places the origins of the canyon beginning about 17 million years ago. Previous estimates had placed the age of the canyon at 5–6 million years. The study, which was published in the journal Science in 2008, used uranium-lead dating to analyze calcite deposits found on the walls of nine caves throughout the canyon. There is a substantial amount of controversy because this research suggests such a substantial departure from prior widely supported scientific consensus. In December 2012, a study published in the journal Science claimed new tests had suggested the Grand Canyon could be as old as 70 million years. However, this study has been criticized by those who support the \"young canyon\" age of around six million years as \"[an] attempt to push the interpretation of their new data to their limits without consideration of the whole range of other geologic data sets.\"","Grand Canyon\n\nThe canyon is the result of erosion which exposes one of the most complete geologic columns on the planet.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe major geologic exposures in the Grand Canyon range in age from the 2-billion-year-old Vishnu Schist at the bottom of the Inner Gorge to the 230-million-year-old Kaibab Limestone on the Rim. There is a gap of about a billion years between the 500-million-year-old stratum and the level below it, which dates to about 1.5 billion years ago. This large unconformity indicates a long period for which no deposits are present.","Grand Canyon\n\nMany of the formations were deposited in warm shallow seas, near-shore environments (such as beaches), and swamps as the seashore repeatedly advanced and retreated over the edge of a proto-North America. Major exceptions include the Permian Coconino Sandstone, which contains abundant geological evidence of aeolian sand dune deposition. Several parts of the Supai Group also were deposited in non–marine environments.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe great depth of the Grand Canyon and especially the height of its strata (most of which formed below sea level) can be attributed to (5000 to) of uplift of the Colorado Plateau, starting about 65 million years ago (during the Laramide Orogeny). This uplift has steepened the stream gradient of the Colorado River and its tributaries, which in turn has increased their speed and thus their ability to cut through rock (see the elevation summary of the Colorado River for present conditions).","Grand Canyon\n\nWeather conditions during the ice ages also increased the amount of water in the Colorado River drainage system. The ancestral Colorado River responded by cutting its channel faster and deeper.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe base level and course of the Colorado River (or its ancestral equivalent) changed 5.3 million years ago when the Gulf of California opened and lowered the river's base level (its lowest point). This increased the rate of erosion and cut nearly all of the Grand Canyon's current depth by 1.2 million years ago. The terraced walls of the canyon were created by differential erosion.","Grand Canyon\n\nBetween 100,000 and 3 million years ago, volcanic activity deposited ash and lava over the area which at times completely obstructed the river. These volcanic rocks are the youngest in the canyon.","Grand Canyon\n\nHistory","Grand Canyon\n\nNative Americans","Grand Canyon\n\nThe Ancestral Puebloans were a Native American culture centered on the present-day Four Corners area of the United States. They were the first people known to live in the Grand Canyon area. The cultural group has often been referred to in archaeology as the Anasazi, although the term is not preferred by the modern Puebloan peoples. The word \"Anasazi\" is Navajo for \"Ancient Ones\" or \"Ancient Enemy\".","Grand Canyon\n\nArchaeologists still debate when this distinct culture emerged. The current consensus, based on terminology defined by the Pecos Classification, suggests their emergence was around 1200 during the Basketmaker II Era. Beginning with the earliest explorations and excavations, researchers have believed that the Ancient Puebloans are ancestors of the modern Pueblo peoples.","Grand Canyon\n\nIn addition to the Ancestral Puebloans, a number of distinct cultures have inhabited the Grand Canyon area. The Cohonina lived to the west of the Grand Canyon, between 500 and 1200 . The Cohonina were ancestors of the Yuman, Havasupai, and Walapai peoples who inhabit the area today.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe Sinagua were a cultural group occupying an area to the southeast of the Grand Canyon, between the Little Colorado River and the Salt River, between approximately 500 and 1425 . The Sinagua may have been ancestors of several Hopi clans.","Grand Canyon\n\nBy the time of the arrival of Europeans in the 16thcentury, newer cultures had evolved. The Hualapai inhabit a 100 mi stretch along the pine-clad southern side of the Grand Canyon. The Havasupai have been living in the area near Cataract Canyon since the beginning of the 13thcentury, occupying an area the size of Delaware. The Southern Paiutes live in what is now southern Utah and northern Arizona. The Navajo, or Diné, live in a wide area stretching from the San Francisco Peaks eastwards towards the Four Corners. Archaeological and linguistic evidence suggests the Navajo descended from the Athabaskan people near Great Slave Lake, Canada, who migrated after the 11thcentury.","Grand Canyon\n\nEuropean arrival and settlement","Grand Canyon\n\nSpanish explorers","Grand Canyon\n\nIn September 1540, under orders from the conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado to search for the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola, Captain García López de Cárdenas, along with Hopi guides and a small group of Spanish soldiers, traveled to the South Rim of the Grand Canyon between Desert View and Moran Point. Pablo de Melgrossa, Juan Galeras, and a third soldier descended some one third of the way into the Canyon until they were forced to return because of lack of water. In their report, they noted that some of the rocks in the Canyon were \"bigger than the great tower of Seville, Giralda \" It is speculated that their Hopi guides likely knew routes to the canyon floor, but may have been reluctant to lead the Spanish to the river. No Europeans visited the Canyon again for more than two hundred years.","Grand Canyon\n\nFathers Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante were two Spanish priests who, with a group of Spanish soldiers, explored southern Utah and traveled along the North Rim of the Canyon in Glen and Marble Canyons in search of a route from Santa Fe to California in 1776. They eventually found a crossing, formerly known as the \"Crossing of the Fathers,\" that today lies under Lake Powell.","Grand Canyon\n\nAlso in 1776, Fray Francisco Garces, a Franciscan missionary, spent a week near Havasupai, unsuccessfully attempting to convert a band of Native Americans to Christianity. He described the Canyon as \"profound\".","Grand Canyon\n\nAmerican exploration","Grand Canyon\n\nJames Ohio Pattie, along with a group of American trappers and mountain men, may have been the next European to reach the Canyon, in 1826.","Grand Canyon\n\nJacob Hamblin, a Mormon missionary, was sent by Brigham Young in the 1850s to locate suitable river crossing sites in the Canyon. Building good relations with local Native Americans Hualapai Nation and white settlers, he found the Crossing of the Fathers, and the locations what would become Lees Ferry in 1858 and Pearce Ferry (later operated by, and named for, Harrison Pearce) – only the latter two sites suitable for ferry operation. He also acted as an advisor to John Wesley Powell before his second expedition to the Grand Canyon, serving as a diplomat between Powell and the local native tribes to ensure the safety of his party.","Grand Canyon\n\nIn 1857, Edward Fitzgerald Beale was superintendent of an expedition to survey a wagon road along the 35th parallel from Fort Defiance, Arizona to the Colorado River. He led a small party of men in search of water on the Coconino Plateau near the Canyon's South Rim. On September 19, near present-day National Canyon, they came upon what May Humphreys Stacey described in his journal as \"...a wonderful canyon four thousand feet deep. Everyone (in the party) admitted that he never before saw anything to match or equal this astonishing natural curiosity.\"","Grand Canyon\n\nAlso in 1857, the U.S. War Department asked Lieutenant Joseph Ives to lead an expedition to assess the feasibility of an up-river navigation from the Gulf of California. Also in a stern wheeler steamboat \"Explorer\", after two months and 350 mi of difficult navigation, his party reached Black Canyon some two months after George Johnson. The \"Explorer\" struck a rock and was abandoned. Ives led his party east into the Canyon — they may have been the first Europeans to travel the Diamond Creek drainage and traveled eastwards along the South Rim. In his \"Colorado River of the West\" report to the Senate in 1861 he states that \"One or two trappers profess to have seen the canyon.\"","Grand Canyon\n\nAccording to the San Francisco Herald, in a series of articles run in 1853, Captain Joseph R. Walker in January 1851 with his nephew James T. Walker and six men, traveled up the Colorado River to a point where it joined the Virgin River and continued east into Arizona, traveling along the Grand Canyon and making short exploratory side trips along the way. Walker is reported to have said he wanted to visit the Moqui Indians, as the Hopi were then called by whites. He had met these people briefly in previous years, thought them exceptionally interesting and wanted to become better acquainted. The Herald reporter then reported: \"We believe that Capt. Joe Walker is the only white man in this country that has ever visited this strange people.\"","Grand Canyon\n\nIn 1858, John Strong Newberry became probably the first geologist to visit the Grand Canyon.","Grand Canyon\n\nIn 1869, Major John Wesley Powell led the first expedition down the Canyon. Powell set out to explore the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon. Gathering nine men, four boats and food for 10 months, he set out from Green River, Wyoming on May 24. Passing through (or portaging around) a series of dangerous rapids, the group passed down the Green River to its confluence with the Colorado River, near present-day Moab, Utah and completed the journey with many hardships through the Grand Canyon on August 13, 1869. In 1871 Powell first used the term \"Grand Canyon\"; previously it had been called the \"Big Canyon\".","Grand Canyon\n\nIn 1889, Frank M. Brown wanted to build a railroad along the Colorado River to carry coal. He, his chief engineer Robert Brewster Stanton, and 14 others started to explore the Grand Canyon in poorly designed cedar wood boats, with no life preservers. Brown drowned in an accident near Marble Canyon: Stanton made new boats and proceeded to explore the Colorado all of the way to the Gulf of California.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe Grand Canyon became an official national monument in 1908 and a national park in 1919.","Grand Canyon\n\nSettlers in and near the canyon","Grand Canyon\n\n* Miners: \"Captain\" John Hance, William W. Bass, Louis Boucher \"The Hermit\", Seth Tanner, Charles Spencer, D. W. \"James\" Mooney\n* Lees Ferry: John Doyle Lee, Emma Lee French (17th of John Lee's 19 wives), J. S. Emmett, Charles Spencer\n* Phantom Ranch: David Rust, Mary Colter\n* Grand Canyon Village: Ralph H. Cameron, Emery & Ellsworth Kolb","Grand Canyon\n\nFederal protection","Grand Canyon\n\nU.S. President Theodore Roosevelt visited the Grand Canyon in 1903. An avid outdoorsman and staunch conservationist, he established the Grand Canyon Game Preserve on November 28, 1906. Livestock grazing was reduced, but predators such as mountain lions, eagles, and wolves were eradicated. Roosevelt added adjacent national forest lands and redesignated the preserve a U.S. National Monument on January 11, 1908. Opponents such as land and mining claim holders blocked efforts to reclassify the monument as a U.S. National Park for 11 years. Grand Canyon National Park was finally established as the 17th U.S. National Park by an Act of Congress signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on February 26, 1919.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe federal government administrators who manage park resources face many challenges. These include issues related to the recent reintroduction into the wild of the highly endangered California condor, air tour overflight noise levels, water rights disputes with various tribal reservations that border the park, and forest fire management. The Grand Canyon National Park superintendent is Steve Martin, appointed on February 5, 2007 to replace retiring superintendent Joe Alston. Martin was previously the National Park Service Deputy Director and superintendent of several other national parks, including Denali and Grand Teton. Federal officials started a flood in the Grand Canyon in hopes of restoring its ecosystem on March 5, 2008. The canyon's ecosystem was permanently changed after the construction of the Glen Canyon Dam in 1963.","Grand Canyon\n\nBetween 2003 and 2011, 2,215 mining claims had been requested that are adjacent to the Canyon, including claims for uranium mines. Mining has been suspended since 2009, when U.S. Interior Secretary Ken Salazar withdrew 1 e6acre from the permitting process, pending assessment of the environmental impact of mining. Critics of the mines are concerned that, once mined, the uranium will leach into the water of the Colorado River and contaminate the water supply for up to 18 million people. Salazar's so-called \"Northern Arizona Withdrawal\" is a 20-year moratorium on new mines, but allows existing mines to continue. In 2012, the federal government stopped new mines in the area, which was upheld by the U.S. District Court for Arizona in 2014, but appealed by the National Mining Association, joined by the state of Arizona under Attorney General Mark Brnovich as well as Utah, Montana and Nevada. National Mining Association v. Jewell is pending before the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals as of September 2015.","Grand Canyon\n\nSouth Rim buildings","Grand Canyon\n\nThere are several historic buildings located along the South Rim with most in the vicinity of Grand Canyon Village.","Grand Canyon\n\n* Buckey O'Neill Cabin was built during the 1890s by William Owen \"Buckey\" O'Neill. He built the cabin because of a copper deposit that was nearby. He had several occupations such as miner, judge, politician, author and tour guide. This cabin is the longest continually standing structure on the South Rim. It is currently used as a guest house; booking is required well in advance. * Kolb Studio was built in 1904 by brothers Ellsworth and Emery Kolb. They were photographers who made a living by photographing visitors walking down the Bright Angel Trail. In 1911, the Kolb brothers filmed their journey down the Green and Colorado Rivers. Emery Kolb showed this movie regularly in his studio until 1976, when he died at the age of 95. Today the building serves as an art gallery and exhibit. * The El Tovar Hotel was built in 1905 and is the most luxurious lodging on the South Rim. The hotel consists of 4 stories with a rustic chalet appearance called \"National Park Rustic.\" It was designed by Charles Whittlesley. A gift shop and restaurant are located inside the hotel. * Hopi House was built by Mary Jane Colter in 1905.","Grand Canyon\n\nIt is based on structures that were built in an ancient Hopi settlement called Old Oraibi, located on the Third Mesa in eastern Arizona. It served as a residence for the Hopi Indians who sold arts and crafts to South Rim visitors. * Verkamp's Curios, which stands next to the Hopi House, was built by John Verkamp in 1905. He sold arts and crafts as well as souvenirs. Until September 2008, it was run by his descendants; in November 2008, the building reopened as a visitor center focusing on the history of the Grand Canyon Village community.","Grand Canyon\n\n*Grand Canyon Railway Depot was completed in 1910 and contains 2 levels. Gordon Chappell, Regional Historian for the Park Service, claims that this depot building is one of only three log-cabin-style train stations currently standing, out of fourteen ever built in the U.S. The depot is the northern terminus of the Grand Canyon Railway which begins in Williams, Arizona. *Lookout Studio, another Mary Colter design, was built in 1914. Photography, artwork, books, souvenirs, and rock and fossil specimens are sold here. A great view of Bright Angel Trail can be seen here. *Desert View Watchtower, one of Mary Colter's best-known works, was built in 1932. Situated at the far eastern end of the South Rim, 27 miles (43 km) from Grand Canyon Village, the tower stands 70 ft tall. The top of the tower is 7522 ft above sea level, the highest point on the South Rim. It offers one of the few full views of the bottom of the Canyon and the Colorado River. It was designed to mimic Anasazi watchtowers, though, with four levels, it is significantly taller than historical towers. *Bright Angel Lodge was built of logs and stone in 1935.","Grand Canyon\n\nMary Colter designed the lodge and it was built by the Fred Harvey Company. Inside the lodge is a small museum honoring Fred Harvey (June 27, 1835 – February 9, 1901), who played a major role in popularizing the Grand Canyon. In the History Room is a stone fireplace layered in the same sequence as those in the canyon.","Grand Canyon\n\nWeather","Grand Canyon\n\nWeather in the Grand Canyon varies according to elevation. The forested rims are high enough to receive winter snowfall, but along the Colorado River in the Inner Gorge, temperatures are similar to those found in Tucson and other low elevation desert locations in Arizona. Conditions in the Grand Canyon region are generally dry, but substantial precipitation occurs twice annually, during seasonal pattern shifts in winter (when Pacific storms usually deliver widespread, moderate rain and high-elevation snow to the region from the west) and in late summer (due to the North American Monsoon, which delivers waves of moisture from the southeast, causing dramatic, localized thunderstorms fueled by the heat of the day). Average annual precipitation on the South Rim is less than 16 in, with 60 in of snow; the higher North Rim usually receives 27 in of moisture, with a typical snowfall of 144 in; and Phantom Ranch, far below the Canyon's rims along the Colorado River at 2,500 feet (762 m) gets just 8 in of rain, and snow is a rarity.","Grand Canyon\n\nTemperatures vary wildly throughout the year, with summer highs within the Inner Gorge commonly exceeding 100 °F (37.8 °C) and winter minimum temperatures sometimes falling below zero degrees Fahrenheit (−17.8 °C) along the canyon's rims. Visitors are often surprised by these potentially extreme conditions, and this, along with the high altitude of the canyon's rims, can lead to unpleasant side effects such as dehydration, sunburn, and hypothermia.","Grand Canyon\n\nWeather conditions can greatly affect hiking and canyon exploration, and visitors should obtain accurate forecasts because of hazards posed by exposure to extreme temperatures, winter storms and late summer monsoons. While the park service posts weather information at gates and visitor centers, this is a rough approximation only, and should not be relied upon for trip planning. For accurate weather in the Canyon, hikers should consult the National Weather Service's NOAA weather radio or the official National Weather Service website.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe National Weather Service has had a cooperative station on the South Rim since 1903. The record high temperature on the South Rim was 105 °F (41 °C) on June 26, 1974, and the record low temperature was −20 °F (−29 °C) on January 1, 1919, February 1, 1985, and December 23, 1990.","Grand Canyon\n\nAir quality","Grand Canyon\n\nThe Grand Canyon area has some of the cleanest air in the United States.","Grand Canyon\n\nHowever at times the air quality can be considerably affected by events such as forest fires and dust storms in the Southwest.","Grand Canyon\n\nWhat effect there is on air quality and visibility in the Canyon has been mainly from sulfates, soils, and organics. The sulfates largely result from urban emissions in southern California, borne on the prevailing westerly winds throughout much of the year, and emissions from Arizona’s copper smelter region, borne on southerly or southeasterly winds during the monsoon season. Airborne soils originate with windy conditions and road dust. Organic particles result from vehicle emissions, long-range transport from urban areas, and forest fires, as well as from VOCs emitted by vegetation in the surrounding forests. Nitrates, carried in from urban areas, stationary sources, and vehicle emissions; as well as black carbon from forest fires and vehicle emissions, also contribute to a lesser extent.","Grand Canyon\n\nA number of actions have been taken to preserve and further improve air quality and visibility at the Canyon.\nIn 1990, amendments to the Clean Air Act established the Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission (GCVTC) to advise the US EPA on strategies for protecting visual air quality on the Colorado Plateau. The GCVTC released its final report in 1996 and initiated the Western Regional Air Partnership (WRAP), a partnership of state, tribal and federal agencies to help coordinate implementation of the Commission’s recommendations.","Grand Canyon\n\nIn 1999, the Regional Haze Rule established a goal of restoring visibility in national parks and wilderness areas (Class 1 areas), such as the Grand Canyon, to natural background levels by 2064. Subsequent revisions to the rule provide specific requirements for making reasonable progress toward that goal.","Grand Canyon\n\nIn the early 1990s, studies indicated that emissions of SO2, a sulfate precursor, from the Navajo Generating Station affected visibility in the Canyon mainly in the winter, and which if controlled would improve wintertime visibility by 2 to 7%.","Grand Canyon\n\nAs a result, scrubbers were added to the plant’s three units in 1997 through 1999, reducing SO2 emissions by more than 90%. The plant also installed low-NOx SOFA burners in 2009 -2011, reducing emissions of NOx, a nitrate precursor, by 40%.\nEmissions from the Mohave Generating Station to the west were similarly found to affect visibility in the Canyon. The plant was required to have installed SO2 scrubbers, but was instead shut down in 2005, completely eliminating its emissions.","Grand Canyon\n\nPrescribed fires are typically conducted in the spring and fall in the forests adjacent to the Canyon to reduce the potential for severe forest fires and resulting smoke conditions. Although prescribed fires also affect air quality, the controlled conditions allow the use of management techniques to minimize their impact.","Grand Canyon\n\nBiology and ecology","Grand Canyon\n\nPlants","Grand Canyon\n\nThere are approximately 1,737 known species of vascular plants, 167 species of fungi, 64 species of moss and 195 species of lichen found in Grand Canyon National Park. This variety is largely due to the elevation change from the Colorado River up to the highest point on the North Rim. Grand Canyon boasts a dozen endemic plants (known only within the Park's boundaries) while only ten percent of the Park's flora is exotic. Sixty-three plants found here have been given special status by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe Mojave Desert influences the western sections of the canyon, Sonoran Desert vegetation covers the eastern sections, and ponderosa and pinyon pine forests grow on both rims.","Grand Canyon\n\nNatural seeps and springs percolating out of the canyon walls are home to 11% of all the plant species found in the Grand Canyon. The Canyon itself can act as a connection between the east and the west by providing corridors of appropriate habitat along its length. The canyon can also be a genetic barrier to some species, like the tassel-eared squirrel.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe aspect, or direction a slope faces, also plays a major role in adding diversity to the Grand Canyon. North-facing slopes receive about one-third the normal amount of sunlight, so plants growing there are similar to plants found at higher elevations, or in more northern latitudes. The south-facing slopes receive the full amount of sunlight and are covered in vegetation typical of the Sonoran Desert.","Grand Canyon\n\nAnimals","Grand Canyon\n\nOf the 34 mammal species found along the Colorado River corridor, 18 are rodents and eight are bats.","Grand Canyon\n\nLife zones and communities","Grand Canyon\n\nThe Park contains several major ecosystems. Its great biological diversity can be attributed to the presence of five of the seven life zones and three of the four desert types in North America. The five life zones represented are the Lower Sonoran, Upper Sonoran, Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian. This is equivalent to traveling from Mexico to Canada. Differences in elevation and the resulting variations in climate are the major factors that form the various life zones and communities in and around the canyon. Grand Canyon National Park contains 129 vegetation communities, and the composition and distribution of plant species is influenced by climate, geomorphology and geology.","Grand Canyon\n\nLower Sonoran","Grand Canyon\n\nThe Lower Sonoran life zone spans from the Colorado River up to 3500 ft. Along the Colorado River and its perennial tributaries, a riparian community exists. Coyote willow, arrowweed, seep-willow, western honey mesquite, catclaw acacia, and exotic tamarisk (saltcedar) are the predominant species. Hanging gardens, seeps and springs often contain rare plants such as the white-flowering western redbud, stream orchid, and McDougall's flaveria. Endangered fish in the river include the humpback chub and the razorback sucker.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe three most common amphibians in these riparian communities are the canyon tree frog, red-spotted toad, and Woodhouse’s Rocky Mountain toad. Leopard frogs are very rare in the Colorado River corridor, and are known to exist at only a few sites. There are 33 crustacean species found in the Colorado River and its tributaries within Grand Canyon National Park. Of these 33, 16 are considered true zooplankton organisms.","Grand Canyon\n\nOnly 48 bird species regularly nest along the river, while others use the river as a migration corridor or as overwintering habitat. The bald eagle is one species that uses the river corridor as winter habitat.","Grand Canyon\n\nRiver otters may have disappeared from the park in late 20th century, and muskrats are extremely rare. Beavers cut willows, cottonwoods, and shrubs for food, and can significantly affect the riparian vegetation. Other rodents, such as antelope squirrels and pocket mice, are mostly omnivorous, using many different vegetation types. Grand Canyon bats typically roost in desert uplands, but forage on the abundance of insects along the river and its tributaries. In addition to bats, coyotes, ringtails, and spotted skunks are the most numerous riparian predators and prey on invertebrates, rodents, and reptiles.","Grand Canyon\n\nRaccoons, weasels, bobcats, gray foxes, and mountain lions are also present, but are much more rare. Mule deer and desert bighorn sheep are the ungulates that frequent the river corridor. Since the removal of 500 feral burros in the early 1980s, bighorn sheep numbers have rebounded. Mule deer are generally not permanent residents along the river, but travel down from the rim when food and water resources there become scarce.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe insect species commonly found in the river corridor and tributaries are midges, caddis flies, mayflies, stoneflies, black flies, mites, beetles, butterflies, moths, and fire ants. Numerous species of spiders and several species of scorpions including the bark scorpion and the giant desert hairy scorpion inhabit the riparian zone.","Grand Canyon\n\nEleven aquatic and 26 terrestrial species of mollusks have been identified in and around Grand Canyon National Park. Of the aquatic species, two are bivalves (clams) and nine are gastropods (snails). Twenty-six species of terrestrial gastropods have been identified, primarily land snails and slugs.","Grand Canyon\n\nThere are approximately 47 reptile species in Grand Canyon National Park. Ten are considered common along the river corridor and include lizards and snakes. Lizard density tends to be highest along the stretch of land between the water's edge and the beginning of the upland desert community. The two largest lizards in the Canyon are gila monsters and chuckwallas. Many snake species, which are not directly dependent on surface water, may be found both within the inner gorge and the Colorado River corridor. Six rattlesnake species have been recorded in the park.","Grand Canyon\n\nAbove the river corridor a desert scrub community, composed of North American desert flora, thrives. Typical warm desert species such as creosote bush, white bursage, brittlebush, catclaw acacia, ocotillo, mariola, western honey mesquite, four-wing saltbush, big sagebrush, blackbrush and rubber rabbitbrush grow in this community. The mammalian fauna in the woodland scrub community consists of 50 species, mostly rodents and bats. Three of the five Park woodrat species live in the desert scrub community.","Grand Canyon\n\nExcept for the western (desert) banded gecko, which seems to be distributed only near water along the Colorado River, all of the reptiles found near the river also appear in the uplands, but in lower densities. The desert gopher tortoise, a threatened species, inhabits the desert scrublands in the western end of the park.","Grand Canyon\n\nSome of the common insects found at elevations above are orange paper wasps, honey bees, black flies, tarantula hawks, stink bugs, beetles, black ants, and monarch and swallowtail butterflies. Solifugids, wood spiders, garden spiders, black widow spiders and tarantulas can be found in the desert scrub and higher elevations.","Grand Canyon\n\nUpper Sonoran and Transition","Grand Canyon\n\nThe Upper Sonoran Life Zone includes most of the inner canyon and South Rim at elevations from 3500 to. This zone is generally dominated by blackbrush, sagebrush, and pinyon-juniper woodlands. Elevations of 3500 to are in the Mojave Desert Scrub community of the Upper Sonoran. This community is dominated by the four-winged saltbush and creosote bush; other important plants include Utah agave, narrowleaf mesquite, ratany, catclaw acacia, and various cacti species.","Grand Canyon\n\nApproximately 30 bird species breed primarily in the desert uplands and cliffs of the inner canyon. Virtually all bird species present breed in other suitable habitats throughout the Sonoran and Mohave deserts. The abundance of bats, swifts, and riparian birds provides ample food for peregrines, and suitable eyrie sites are plentiful along the steep canyon walls. Also, several critically endangered California condors that were re-introduced to the Colorado Plateau on the Arizona Strip, have made the eastern part of the Park their home.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe conifer forests provide habitat for 52 mammal species. Porcupines, shrews, red squirrels, tassel eared Kaibab and Abert's squirrels, black bear, mule deer, and elk are found at the park's higher elevations on the Kaibab Plateau.","Grand Canyon\n\nAbove the desert scrub and up to 6200 ft is a pinyon pine forest and one seed juniper woodland. Within this woodland one can find big sagebrush, snakeweed, Mormon tea, Utah agave, banana and narrowleaf Yucca, winterfat, Indian ricegrass, dropseed, and needlegrass. There are a variety of snakes and lizards here, but one species of reptile, the mountain short-horned lizard, is a particularly abundant inhabitant of the piñon-juniper and ponderosa pine forests.","Grand Canyon\n\nPonderosa pine forests grow at elevations between 6500 and, on both North and South rims in the Transition life zone. The South Rim includes species such as gray fox, mule deer, bighorn sheep, rock squirrels, pinyon pine and Utah juniper. Additional species such as Gambel oak, New Mexico locust, mountain mahogany, elderberry, creeping mahonia, and fescue have been identified in these forests. The Utah tiger salamander and the Great Basin spadefoot toad are two amphibians that are common in the rim forests. Of the approximately 90 bird species that breed in the coniferous forests, 51 are summer residents and at least 15 of these are known to be neotropical migrants.","Grand Canyon\n\nCanadian and Hudsonian","Grand Canyon\n\nElevations of are in the Canadian Life Zone, which includes the North Rim and the Kaibab Plateau. Spruce-fir forests characterized by Engelmann spruce, blue spruce, Douglas fir, white fir, aspen, and mountain ash, along with several species of perennial grasses, groundsels, yarrow, cinquefoil, lupines, sedges, and asters, grow in this sub-alpine climate. Mountain lions, Kaibab squirrels, and northern goshawks are found here.","Grand Canyon\n\nMontane meadows and subalpine grassland communities of the Hudsonian life zone are rare and located only on the North Rim. Both are typified by many grass species. Some of these grasses include blue and black grama, big galleta, Indian ricegrass and three-awns. The wettest areas support sedges and forbs.","Grand Canyon\n\nGrand Canyon tourism","Grand Canyon\n\nGrand Canyon National Park is one of the world's premier natural attractions, attracting about five million visitors per year. Overall, 83% were from the United States: California (12.2%), Arizona (8.9%), Texas (4.8%), Florida (3.4%) and New York (3.2%) represented the top domestic visitors. Seventeen percent of visitors were from outside the United States; the most prominently represented nations were the United Kingdom (3.8%), Canada (3.5%), Japan (2.1%), Germany (1.9%) and The Netherlands (1.2%). \nThe South Rim is open all year round weather permitting. The North Rim is generally open mid-May to mid-October.","Grand Canyon\n\nActivities","Grand Canyon\n\nAside from casual sightseeing from the South Rim (averaging 7,000 feet [2,100 m] above sea level), skydiving, rafting, hiking, running, and helicopter tours are popular. The Grand Canyon Ultra Marathon is a 78 mi race over 24 hours. The floor of the valley is accessible by foot, muleback, or by boat or raft from upriver. Hiking down to the river and back up to the rim in one day is discouraged by park officials because of the distance, steep and rocky trails, change in elevation, and danger of heat exhaustion from the much higher temperatures at the bottom. Rescues are required annually of unsuccessful rim-to-river-to-rim travelers. Nevertheless, hundreds of fit and experienced hikers complete the trip every year.","Grand Canyon\n\nCamping on the North and South Rims is generally restricted to established campgrounds and reservations are highly recommended, especially at the busier South Rim. There is at large camping available along many parts of the North Rim managed by Kaibab National Forest. North Rim campsites are only open seasonally due to road closures from weather and winter snowpack. All overnight camping below the rim requires a backcountry permit from the Backcountry Office (BCO). Each year Grand Canyon National Park receives approximately 30,000 requests for backcountry permits. The park issues 13,000 permits, and close to 40,000 people camp overnight. The earliest a permit application is accepted is the first of the month, four months before the proposed start month.","Grand Canyon\n\nTourists wishing for a more vertical perspective can go skydiving, board helicopters and small airplanes in Boulder, Las Vegas, Phoenix and Grand Canyon National Park Airport (seven miles from the South Rim) for canyon flyovers. Scenic flights are no longer allowed to fly within 1500 feet of the rim within the national park because of a late 1990s crash. The last aerial video footage from below the rim was filmed in 1984. However, some helicopter flights land on the Havasupai and Hualapai Indian Reservations within Grand Canyon (outside of the park boundaries).","Grand Canyon\n\nIn 2007, the Hualapai Tribe opened the glass-bottomed Grand Canyon Skywalk on their property, Grand Canyon West. The Skywalk has seen mixed reviews since the site is only accessible by driving down a 10 mi dirt road, costs a minimum of $85 in total for reservation fees, a tour package and admission to the Skywalk itself and the fact that cameras or other personal equipment are not permitted on the Skywalk at any time due to the hazard of damaging the glass if dropped. The Skywalk is about 250 mi by road from Grand Canyon Village at the South Rim. \t\nThe skywalk has attracted \"thousands of visitors a year, most from Las Vegas\".","Grand Canyon\n\nIn 2016 Skydiving at the Grand Canyon become possible with the first Grand Canyon Skydiving operation opening up at the Grand Canyon National Park Airport, on the South rim.","Grand Canyon\n\nIn 2014, a developer announced plans to build a multimedia complex on the canyon's rim called the Grand Canyon Escalade. On 420 acres there would be shops, an IMAX theater, hotels and an RV park. A gondola would enable easy visits to the canyon floor where a \"riverwalk\" of \"connected walkways, an eatery, a tramway station, a seating area and a wastewater package plant\" would be situated. Navajo Nation President Ben Shelly has indicated agreement; the tribe would have to invest $65 million for road, water and communication facilities for the $1 billion complex. One of the developers is Navajo and has cited an 8 to 18 percent share of the gross revenue for the tribe as an incentive.","Grand Canyon\n\nViewing the canyon","Grand Canyon\n\nLipan Point is a promontory located on the South Rim. This point is located to the east of the Grand Canyon Village along the Desert View Drive. There is a parking lot for visitors who care to drive along with the Canyon's bus service that routinely stops at the point. The trailhead to the Tanner Trail is located just before the parking lot. The view from Lipan Point shows a wide array of rock strata and the Unkar Creek area in the inner canyon.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe canyon can be seen from the Toroweap (or Tuweep) Overlook situated 3000 vertical feet above the Colorado River, about 50 miles downriver from the South Rim and 70 upriver from the Grand Canyon Skywalk. This region — \"one of the most remote in the United States\" according to the National Park Service — is reached only by one of three lengthy dirt tracks beginning in from St. George, Utah, Colorado City or near Pipe Spring National Monument (both in Arizona). Each road traverses wild, uninhabited land for 97, 62 and 64 miles respectively. The Park Service manages the area for primitive value with minimal improvements and services.","Grand Canyon\n\nGrand Canyon fatalities","Grand Canyon\n\nAbout 600 deaths have occurred in the Grand Canyon since the 1870s. Some of these deaths occurred as the result of overly zealous photographic endeavors, some were the result of airplane collisions within the canyon, and some visitors drowned in the Colorado River.","Grand Canyon\n\nOf the fatalities, 53 have resulted from falls; 65 deaths were attributable to environmental causes, including heat stroke, cardiac arrest, dehydration, and hypothermia; 7 were caught in flash floods; 79 were drowned in the Colorado River; 242 perished in airplane and helicopter crashes (128 of them in the 1956 disaster mentioned below); 25 died in freak errors and accidents, including lightning strikes and rock falls; and 23 were the victims of homicides.","Grand Canyon\n\n1956 air disaster","Grand Canyon\n\nIn 1956 the Grand Canyon was the site of the deadliest commercial aviation disaster in history at the time.","Grand Canyon\n\nOn the morning of June 30, 1956, a TWA Lockheed Super Constellation and a United Airlines Douglas DC-7 departed Los Angeles International Airport within three minutes of one another on eastbound transcontinental flights. Approximately 90 minutes later, the two propeller-driven airliners collided above the canyon while both were flying in unmonitored airspace.","Grand Canyon\n\nThe wreckage of both planes fell into the eastern portion of the canyon, on Temple and Chuar Buttes, near the confluence of the Colorado and Little Colorado rivers. The disaster killed all 128 passengers and crew members aboard both planes.","Grand Canyon\n\nThis accident led to the institution of high-altitude airways and positive control by en route ground controllers.","Colorado River\n\nThe Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico (the other being the Rio Grande). The 1,450-mile (2,330 km) Colorado River drains an expansive, arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. and two Mexican states. Starting in the central Rocky Mountains in the U.S., the river flows generally southwest across the Colorado Plateau and through the Grand Canyon before reaching Lake Mead on the Arizona–Nevada border, where it turns south toward the international border. After entering Mexico, the Colorado approaches the large Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora.","Colorado River\n\nKnown for its dramatic canyons and whitewater rapids, the Colorado is a vital source of water for agricultural and urban areas in much of the southwestern desert lands of North America. The river and its tributaries are controlled by an extensive system of dams, reservoirs, and aqueducts, which in most years divert its entire flow to furnish irrigation and municipal water supply for almost 40 million people both inside and outside the watershed. The Colorado's large flow and steep gradient are used for generating hydroelectric power, and its major dams regulate peaking power demands in much of the Intermountain West. This intensive consumption has dried up the lower 100 mi of the river, such that it has reached the sea only a few times since the 1960s.","Colorado River\n\nBeginning with small bands of nomadic hunter-gatherers, Native Americans have inhabited the Colorado River basin for at least 8,000 years. Between 2,000 and 1,000 years ago, the river and its tributaries fostered large agricultural civilizations, which may have been some of the most sophisticated indigenous cultures in North America. These societies are believed to have collapsed because of a combination of severe drought and poor land use practices. Most native peoples that inhabit the basin today are descended from other groups that settled in the region beginning about 1,000 years ago. Europeans first entered the Colorado Basin in the 16th century, when explorers from Spain began mapping and claiming the area, which later became part of Mexico upon its independence in 1821. Early contact between foreigners and natives was generally limited to the fur trade in the headwaters and sporadic trade interactions along the lower river.","Colorado River\n\nAfter the greater Colorado River basin became part of the U.S. in 1846, the bulk of the river's course was still largely the subject of myths and speculation. Several expeditions charted the Colorado in the mid-19th century, one of which, led by John Wesley Powell in 1869, was the first to run the rapids of the Grand Canyon. American explorers collected valuable information that would later be used to develop the river for navigation and water supply. Large-scale settlement of the lower basin began in the mid- to late-19th century, with steamboats providing transportation from the Gulf of California to landings along the Colorado River that linked to wagon roads into the interior of New Mexico Territory. Lesser numbers settled in the upper basin, which was the scene of major gold strikes in the 1860s and 1870s.","Colorado River\n\nMajor engineering of the river basin began around the start of the 20th century, with many guidelines established in a series of domestic and international treaties known as the \"Law of the River\". The U.S. federal government was the main driving force behind the construction of hydraulic engineering projects in the river system, although many state and local water agencies were also involved. Most of the major dams in the river basin were built between 1910 and 1970, and the system keystone, Hoover Dam, was completed in 1935. The Colorado is now considered among the most controlled and litigated rivers in the world, with every drop of its water fully allocated.","Colorado River\n\nThe damming and diversion of the Colorado River system have been opposed by the environmental movement in the American Southwest because of the detrimental effect on the ecology and natural beauty of the river and its tributaries. During the construction of Glen Canyon Dam, environmental organizations vowed to block any further development of the river, and a number of later dam and aqueduct proposals were defeated by citizen opposition. As demands for Colorado River water continue to rise, the level of human development and control of the river continues to generate controversy.","Colorado River\n\nCourse","Colorado River\n\nThe Colorado begins at La Poudre Pass in the Southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado, at just under 2 mi above sea level. After a short run south, the river turns west below Grand Lake, the largest natural lake in the state. For the first 250 mi of its course, the Colorado carves its way through the mountainous Western Slope, a sparsely populated region defined by the portion of the state west of the Continental Divide. As it flows southwest, it gains strength from many small tributaries, as well as larger ones including the Blue, Eagle and Roaring Fork rivers. After passing through De Beque Canyon, the Colorado emerges from the Rockies into the Grand Valley, a major farming and ranching region where it meets one of its largest tributaries, the Gunnison River, at Grand Junction. Most of the upper river is a swift whitewater stream ranging from 200 to wide, the depth ranging from 6 to, with a few notable exceptions, such as the Blackrocks reach where the river is nearly 100 ft deep. In a few areas, such as the marshy Kawuneeche Valley near the headwaters and the Grand Valley, it exhibits braided characteristics.","Colorado River\n\nArcing northwest, the Colorado begins to cut across the eponymous Colorado Plateau, a vast area of high desert centered at the Four Corners of the southwestern United States. Here, the climate becomes significantly drier than that in the Rocky Mountains, and the river becomes entrenched in progressively deeper gorges of bare rock, beginning with Ruby Canyon and then Westwater Canyon as it enters Utah, now once again heading southwest. Farther downstream it receives the Dolores River and defines the southern border of Arches National Park, before passing Moab and flowing through \"The Portal\", where it exits the Moab Valley between a pair of 1000 ft sandstone cliffs.","Colorado River\n\nIn Utah, the Colorado flows primarily through the \"slickrock\" country, which is characterized by its narrow canyons and unique \"folds\" created by the tilting of sedimentary rock layers along faults. This is one of the most inaccessible regions of the continental United States. Below the confluence with the Green River, its largest tributary, in Canyonlands National Park, the Colorado enters Cataract Canyon, named for its dangerous rapids, and then Glen Canyon, known for its arches and erosion-sculpted Navajo sandstone formations. Here, the San Juan River, carrying runoff from the southern slope of Colorado's San Juan Mountains, joins the Colorado from the east. The Colorado then enters northern Arizona, where since the 1960s Glen Canyon Dam near Page has flooded the Glen Canyon reach of the river, forming Lake Powell for water supply and hydroelectricity generation.","Colorado River\n\nIn Arizona, the river passes Lee's Ferry, an important crossing for early explorers and settlers and since the early 20th century the principal point where Colorado River flows are measured for apportionment to the seven U.S. and two Mexican states in the basin. Downstream, the river enters Marble Canyon, the beginning of the Grand Canyon, passing under the Navajo Bridges on a now southward course. Below the confluence with the Little Colorado River, the river swings west into Granite Gorge, the most dramatic portion of the Grand Canyon, where the river cuts up to 1 mi into the Colorado Plateau, exposing some of the oldest visible rocks on Earth, dating as long ago as 2 billion years. The 277 mi of the river that flow through the Grand Canyon are largely encompassed by Grand Canyon National Park and are known for their difficult whitewater, separated by pools that reach up to 110 ft in depth.","Colorado River\n\nAt the lower end of Grand Canyon, the Colorado widens into Lake Mead, the largest reservoir in the continental United States, formed by Hoover Dam on the border of Arizona and Nevada. Situated southeast of metropolitan Las Vegas, the dam is an integral component for management of the Colorado River, controlling floods and storing water for farms and cities in the lower Colorado River basin. Below the dam the river passes under the Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge – which at nearly 900 ft above the water is the highest concrete arch bridge in the Western Hemisphere – and then turns due south towards Mexico, defining the Arizona–Nevada and Arizona–California borders.","Colorado River\n\nAfter leaving the confines of the Black Canyon, the river emerges from the Colorado Plateau into the Lower Colorado River Valley (LCRV), a desert region dependent on irrigation agriculture and tourism and also home to several major Indian reservations. The river widens here to a broad, moderately deep waterway averaging 500 to wide and reaching up to across, with depths ranging from 8 to. Before channelization of the Colorado in the 20th century, the lower river was subject to frequent course changes caused by seasonal flow variations. Joseph C. Ives, who surveyed the lower river in 1861, wrote that \"the shifting of the channel, the banks, the islands, the bars is so continual and rapid that a detailed description, derived from the experiences of one trip, would be found incorrect, not only during the subsequent year, but perhaps in the course of a week, or even a day.\"","Colorado River\n\nThe LCRV is one of the most densely populated areas along the river, and there are numerous towns including Bullhead City, Arizona, Needles, California, and Lake Havasu City, Arizona. Here, many diversions draw from the river, providing water for both local uses and distant regions including the Salt River Valley of Arizona and metropolitan Southern California. The last major U.S. diversion is at Imperial Dam, where over 90 percent of the river's remaining flow is moved into the All-American Canal to irrigate California's Imperial Valley, the most productive winter agricultural region in the United States.","Colorado River\n\nBelow Imperial Dam, only a small portion of the Colorado River makes it beyond Yuma, Arizona, and the confluence with the intermittent Gila River – which carries runoff from western New Mexico and most of Arizona – before defining about 24 mi of the Mexico–United States border. At Morelos Dam, the entire remaining flow of the Colorado is diverted to irrigate the Mexicali Valley, among Mexico's most fertile agricultural lands. Below San Luis Río Colorado, the Colorado passes entirely into Mexico, defining the Baja California–Sonora border; in most years, the stretch of the Colorado between here and the Gulf of California is dry or a trickle formed by irrigation return flows. The Hardy River provides most of the flow into the Colorado River Delta, a vast alluvial floodplain covering about 3000 mi2 of northwestern Mexico. A large estuary is formed here before the Colorado empties into the Gulf about 75 mi south of Yuma. Before 20th-century development dewatered the lower Colorado, a major tidal bore was present in the delta and estuary; the first historical record was made by the Croatian missionary in Spanish service Father Ferdinand Konščak on July 18, 1746.","Colorado River\n\nDuring spring tide conditions, the tidal bore – locally called El Burro – formed in the estuary about Montague Island in Baja California and propagated upstream.","Colorado River\n\nMajor tributaries","Colorado River\n\nThe Colorado is joined by over 25 significant tributaries, of which the Green River is the largest by both length and discharge. The Green takes drainage from the Wind River Range of west-central Wyoming, from Utah's Uinta Mountains, and from the Rockies of northwestern Colorado. The Gila River is the second longest and drains a greater area than the Green, but has a significantly lower flow because of a more arid climate and larger diversions for irrigation and cities. Both the Gunnison and San Juan rivers, which derive most of their water from Rocky Mountains snowmelt, contribute more water than the Gila did naturally.","Colorado River\n\nDischarge","Colorado River\n\nIn its natural state, the Colorado River poured about into the Gulf of California each year, amounting to an average flow rate of 22500 cuft/s. Its flow regime was not at all steady – indeed, \"prior to the construction of federal dams and reservoirs, the Colorado was a river of extremes like no other in the United States.\" Once, the river reached peaks of more than 100000 cuft/s in the summer and low flows of less than 2500 cuft/s in the winter annually. At Topock, Arizona, about 300 mi upstream from the Gulf, a maximum historical discharge of 384000 cuft/s was recorded in 1884 and a minimum of 422 cuft/s was recorded in 1935. In contrast, the regulated discharge rates on the lower Colorado below Hoover Dam rarely exceed 35000 cuft/s or drop below 4000 cuft/s. Annual runoff volume has ranged from a high of in 1984 to a low of in 2002, although in most years only a small portion of this flow, if any, reaches the Gulf.","Colorado River\n\nBetween 85 and 90 percent of the Colorado River's discharge originates in snowmelt, mostly from the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and Wyoming. The three major upper tributaries of the Colorado – the Gunnison, Green, and San Juan – alone deliver almost 9 e6acre.ft per year to the main stem, mostly from snowmelt. The remaining 10 to 15 percent comes from a variety of sources, principally groundwater base flow and summer monsoon storms. The latter often produces heavy, highly localized floods on lower tributaries of the river, but does not often contribute significant volumes of runoff. Most of the annual runoff in the basin occurs with the melting of Rocky Mountains snowpack, which begins in April and peaks during May and June before exhausting in late July or early August.","Colorado River\n\nFlows at the mouth have steadily declined since the beginning of the 20th century, and in most years after 1960 the Colorado River has run dry before reaching the sea. Irrigation, industrial, and municipal diversions, evaporation from reservoirs, natural runoff, and likely climate change have all contributed to this substantial reduction in flow, threatening the future water supply. For example, the Gila River – formerly one of the Colorado's largest tributaries – contributes little more than a trickle in most years due to use of its water by cities and farms in central Arizona. The average flow rate of the Colorado at the northernmost point of the Mexico–United States border (NIB, or Northerly International Boundary) is about 2060 cuft/s, per year – less than a 10th of the natural flow – due to upstream water use. Below here, all of the remaining flow is diverted to irrigate the Mexicali Valley, leaving a dry riverbed from Morelos Dam to the sea that is supplemented by intermittent flows of irrigation drainage water. There have been exceptions, however, namely in the early to mid-1980s, when the Colorado once again reached the sea during several consecutive years of record-breaking precipitation and snowmelt.","Colorado River\n\nIn 1984, so much excess runoff occurred that some , or 22860 cuft/s, poured into the sea.","Colorado River\n\nThe United States Geological Survey (USGS) operates or has operated 46 stream gauges to measure the discharge of the Colorado River, ranging from the headwaters near Grand Lake to the Mexico–U.S. border. The tables at right list data associated with eight of these gauges. River flows as gauged at Lee's Ferry, Arizona, about halfway along the length of the Colorado and 16 mi below Glen Canyon Dam, are used to determine water allocations in the Colorado River basin. The average discharge recorded there was approximately 14800 cuft/s, per year, from 1921 to 2010. This figure has been heavily affected by upstream diversions and reservoir evaporation, especially after the completion of the Colorado River Storage Project in the 1970s. Prior to the completion of Glen Canyon Dam in 1964, the average discharge recorded between 1912 and 1962 was 17850 cuft/s, per year.","Colorado River\n\nWatershed","Colorado River\n\nThe drainage basin or watershed of the Colorado River encompasses 246000 mi2 of southwestern North America, making it the seventh largest on the continent. About 238600 mi2, or 97 percent of the watershed, is in the United States. The river and its tributaries drain most of western Colorado and New Mexico, southwestern Wyoming, eastern and southern Utah, southeastern Nevada and California, and nearly all of Arizona. The areas drained within Baja California and Sonora are very small and do not contribute measurable runoff. Most of the basin is arid, defined by the Sonoran and Mojave deserts and the expanse of the Colorado Plateau, although significant expanses of forest are found in the Rocky Mountains; the Kaibab, Aquarius, and Markagunt plateaus in southern Utah and northern Arizona; the Mogollon Rim through central Arizona; and other smaller mountain ranges and sky islands. Elevations range from sea level at the Gulf of California to 14321 ft at the summit of Uncompahgre Peak in Colorado, with an average of 5500 ft across the entire basin.","Colorado River\n\nClimate varies widely across the watershed. Mean monthly high temperatures are in the upper basin and in the lower basin, and lows average , respectively. Annual precipitation averages 164 mm, ranging from over 40 in in some areas of the Rockies to just along the Mexican reach of the river. The upper basin generally receives snow and rain during the winter and early spring, while precipitation in the lower basin falls mainly during intense but infrequent summer thunderstorms brought on by the North American Monsoon.","Colorado River\n\nAs of 2010, approximately 12.7 million people lived in the Colorado River basin. Phoenix in Arizona and Las Vegas in Nevada are the largest metropolitan areas in the watershed. Population densities are also high along the lower Colorado River below Davis Dam, which includes Bullhead City, Lake Havasu City, and Yuma. Other significant population centers in the basin include Tucson, Arizona; St. George, Utah; and Grand Junction, Colorado. Colorado River basin states are among the fastest-growing in the U.S.; the population of Nevada alone increased by about 66 percent between 1990 and 2000 as Arizona grew by some 40 percent.","Colorado River\n\nThe Colorado River basin shares drainage boundaries with many other major watersheds of North America. The Continental Divide of the Americas forms a large portion of the eastern boundary of the watershed, separating it from the basins of the Yellowstone River and the Platte River – both tributaries of the Missouri River – on the northeast, and from the headwaters of the Arkansas River on the east. Both the Missouri and Arkansas rivers are part of the Mississippi River system. Further south, the Colorado River basin borders on the Rio Grande drainage, which along with the Mississippi flows to the Gulf of Mexico, as well as a series of endorheic (closed) drainage basins in southwestern New Mexico and extreme southeastern Arizona.","Colorado River\n\nFor a short stretch, the Colorado watershed meets the drainage basin of the Snake River, a tributary of the Columbia River, in the Wind River Range of western Wyoming. Southwest of there, the northern divide of the Colorado watershed skirts the edge of the Great Basin, bordering on the closed drainage basins of the Great Salt Lake and the Sevier River in central Utah, and other closed basins in southern Utah and Nevada. To the west in California, the Colorado River watershed borders on those of small closed basins in the Mojave Desert, the largest of which is the Salton Sea drainage north of the Colorado River Delta. On the south, the watersheds of the Sonoyta, Concepción, and Yaqui rivers, all of which drain to the Gulf of California, border that of the Colorado.","Colorado River\n\nGeology","Colorado River\n\nAs recently as the Cretaceous period 100 million years ago, much of western North America was still part of the Pacific Ocean. Tectonic forces from the collision of the Farallon Plate with the North American Plate pushed up the Rocky Mountains between 75 and 50 million years ago in a mountain-building episode known as the Laramide orogeny. The Colorado first formed as a west-flowing stream draining the southwestern portion of the range, and the uplift also diverted the Green River from its original course to the Mississippi River west towards the Colorado. About 30 to 20 million years ago, volcanic activity related to the orogeny led to the Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up, which created smaller formations such as the Chiricahua Mountains in Arizona and deposited massive amounts of volcanic ash and debris over the watershed. The Colorado Plateau first began to rise during the Eocene, between about 55 and 34 million years ago, but did not attain its present height until about 5 million years ago, about when the Colorado River established its present course into the Gulf of California.","Colorado River\n\nThe time scale and sequence over which the river's present course and the Grand Canyon were formed is uncertain. Before the Gulf of California was formed around 12 to 5 million years ago by faulting processes along the boundary of the North American and Pacific plates, the Colorado flowed west to an outlet on the Pacific Ocean – possibly Monterey Bay on the Central California coast, forming the Monterey submarine canyon. The uplift of the Sierra Nevada mountains began about 4.5 million years ago, diverting the Colorado southwards towards the Gulf. As the Colorado Plateau continued to rise between 5 and 2.5 million years ago, the river maintained its ancestral course (as an antecedent stream) and began to cut the Grand Canyon. Antecedence played a major part in shaping other peculiar geographic features in the watershed, including the Dolores River's bisection of Paradox Valley in Colorado and the Green River's cut through the Uinta Mountains in Utah.","Colorado River\n\nSediments carried from the plateau by the Colorado River created a vast delta made of more than 10000 mi3 of material that walled off the northernmost part of the gulf in approximately 1 million years. Cut off from the ocean, the portion of the gulf north of the delta eventually evaporated and formed the Salton Sink, which reached about 260 ft below sea level. Since then the river has changed course into the Salton Sink at least three times, transforming it into Lake Cahuilla, which at maximum size flooded up the valley to present-day Indio, California. The lake took about 50 years to evaporate after the Colorado resumed flowing to the Gulf. The present-day Salton Sea can be considered the most recent incarnation of Lake Cahuilla, though on a much smaller scale.","Colorado River\n\nBetween 1.8 million and 10,000 years ago, massive flows of basalt from the Uinkaret volcanic field in northern Arizona dammed the Colorado River within the Grand Canyon. At least 13 lava dams were formed, the largest of which was more than 2300 ft high, backing the river up for nearly 500 mi to present-day Moab, Utah. The lack of associated sediment deposits along this stretch of the Colorado River, which would have accumulated in the impounded lakes over time, suggests that most of these dams did not survive for more than a few decades before collapsing or being washed away. Failure of the lava dams caused by erosion, leaks and cavitation caused catastrophic floods, which may have been some of the largest ever to occur in North America, rivaling the late-Pleistocene Missoula Floods of the northwestern United States. Mapping of flood deposits indicate that crests as high as 700 ft passed through the Grand Canyon, reaching peak discharges as great as 17 e6cuft/s.","Colorado River\n\nHistory","Colorado River\n\nIndigenous peoples","Colorado River\n\nThe first humans of the Colorado River basin were likely Paleo-Indians of the Clovis and Folsom cultures, who first arrived on the Colorado Plateau about 12,000 years ago. Very little human activity occurred in the watershed until the rise of the Desert Archaic Culture, which from 8,000 to 2,000 years ago constituted most of the region's human population. These prehistoric inhabitants led a generally nomadic lifestyle, gathering plants and hunting small animals (though some of the earliest peoples hunted larger mammals that became extinct in North America after the end of the Pleistocene epoch). Another notable early group was the Fremont culture, whose peoples inhabited the Colorado Plateau from 2,000 to 700 years ago. The Fremont were likely the first peoples of the Colorado River basin to domesticate crops and construct masonry dwellings; they also left behind a large amount of rock art and petroglyphs, many of which have survived to the present day.","Colorado River\n\nBeginning in the early centuries A.D., Colorado River basin peoples began to form large agriculture-based societies, some of which lasted hundreds of years and grew into well-organized civilizations encompassing tens of thousands of inhabitants. The Ancient Puebloan (also known as Anasazi or Hisatsinom) people of the Four Corners region were descended from the Desert Archaic culture. The Anasazi people developed a complex distribution system to supply drinking and irrigation water in Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico.","Colorado River\n\nThe Puebloans dominated the basin of the San Juan River, and the center of their civilization was in Chaco Canyon. In Chaco Canyon and the surrounding lands, they built more than 150 multi-story pueblos or \"great houses\", the largest of which, Pueblo Bonito, is composed of more than 600 rooms. The Hohokam culture was present along the middle Gila River beginning around 1 A.D. Between 600 and 700 A.D. they began to employ irrigation on a large scale, and did so more prolifically than any other native group in the Colorado River basin. An extensive system of irrigation canals was constructed on the Gila and Salt rivers, with various estimates of a total length ranging from 180 to and capable of irrigating 25000 to. Both civilizations supported large populations at their height; the Chaco Canyon Puebloans numbered between 6,000 and 15,000 and estimates for the Hohokam range between 30,000 and 200,000.","Colorado River\n\nThese sedentary peoples heavily exploited their surroundings, practicing logging and harvesting of other resources on a large scale. The construction of irrigation canals may have led to a significant change in the morphology of many waterways in the Colorado River basin. Prior to human contact, rivers such as the Gila, Salt and Chaco were shallow perennial streams with low, vegetated banks and large floodplains. In time, flash floods caused significant downcutting on irrigation canals, which in turn led to the entrenchment of the original streams into arroyos, making agriculture difficult. A variety of methods were employed to combat these problems, including the construction of large dams, but when a megadrought hit the region in the 14th century A.D. the ancient civilizations of the Colorado River basin abruptly collapsed. Some Puebloans migrated to the Rio Grande Valley of central New Mexico and south-central Colorado, becoming the predecessors of the Hopi, Zuni, Laguna and Acoma people in western New Mexico. Many of the tribes that inhabited the Colorado River basin at the time of European contact were descended from Puebloan and Hohokam survivors, while others already had a long history of living in the region or migrated in from bordering lands.","Colorado River\n\nThe Navajo were an Athabaskan people who migrated from the north into the Colorado River basin around 1025 A.D. They soon established themselves as the dominant Native American tribe in the Colorado River basin, and their territory stretched over parts of present-day Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado – in the original homelands of the Puebloans. In fact, the Navajo acquired agricultural skills from the Puebloans before the collapse of the Pueblo civilization in the 14th century. A profusion of other tribes have made a continued, lasting presence along the Colorado River. The Mohave have lived along the rich bottomlands of the lower Colorado below Black Canyon since 1200 A.D. They were fishermen – navigating the river on rafts made of reeds to catch Gila trout and Colorado pikeminnow – and farmers, relying on the annual floods of the river rather than irrigation to water their crops. Ute peoples have inhabited the northern Colorado River basin, mainly in present-day Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, for at least 2,000 years, but did not become well established in the Four Corners area until 1500 A.D.","Colorado River\n\nThe Apache, Maricopa, Pima, Havasupai and Hualapai are among many other groups that lived along or had territories bordering on the Colorado River and its tributaries.","Colorado River\n\nBeginning in the 17th century, contact with Europeans brought significant changes to the lifestyles of Native Americans in the Colorado River basin. Missionaries sought to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity – an effort sometimes successful, such as in Father Eusebio Francisco Kino's 1694 encounter with the \"docile Pimas of the Gila Valley [who] readily accepted Father Kino and his Christian teachings\". The Spanish introduced sheep and goats to the Navajo, who came to rely heavily on them for meat, milk and wool. By the mid-16th century, the Utes, having acquired horses from the Spanish, introduced them to the Colorado River basin. The use of horses spread through the basin via trade between the various tribes and greatly facilitated hunting, communications and travel for indigenous peoples. More warlike groups such as the Utes and Navajos often used horses to their advantage in raids against tribes that were slower to adopt them, such as the Goshutes and Southern Paiutes.","Colorado River\n\nThe gradual influx of European and American explorers, fortune seekers and settlers into the region eventually led to conflicts that forced many Native Americans off their traditional lands. After the acquisition of the Colorado River basin from Mexico in the Mexican–American War in 1846, U.S. military forces commanded by Kit Carson forced more than 8,000 Navajo men, women and children from their homes after a series of unsuccessful attempts to confine their territory, many of which were met with violent resistance. In what is now known as the Long Walk of the Navajo, the captives were marched from Arizona to Fort Sumner in New Mexico, and many died along the route. Four years later, the Navajo signed a treaty that moved them onto a reservation in the Four Corners region that is now known as the Navajo Nation. It is the largest Native American reservation in the United States, encompassing 27000 mi2 with a population of over 180,000 as of 2000.","Colorado River\n\nThe Mohave were expelled from their territory after a series of minor skirmishes and raids on wagon trains passing through the area in the late 1850s, culminating in an 1859 battle with American forces that concluded the Mohave War. In 1870, the Mohave were relocated to a reservation at Fort Mojave, which spans the borders of Arizona, California and Nevada. Some Mohave were also moved to the 432 mi2 Colorado River Indian Reservation on the Arizona–California border, originally established for the Mohave and Chemehuevi people in 1865. In the 1940s, some Hopi and Navajo people were also relocated to this reservation. The four tribes now form a geopolitical body known as the Colorado River Indian Tribes.","Colorado River\n\nWater rights of Native Americans in the Colorado River basin were largely ignored during the extensive water resources development carried out on the river and its tributaries in the 19th and 20th centuries. The construction of dams has often had negative impacts on tribal peoples, such as the Chemehuevi when their riverside lands were flooded after the completion of Parker Dam in 1938. Ten Native American tribes in the basin now hold or continue to claim water rights to the Colorado River. The U.S. government has taken some actions to help quantify and develop the water resources of Native American reservations. The first federally funded irrigation project in the U.S. was the construction of an irrigation canal on the Colorado River Indian Reservation in 1867. Other water projects include the Navajo Indian Irrigation Project, authorized in 1962 for the irrigation of lands in part of the Navajo Nation in north-central New Mexico. The Navajo continue to seek expansion of their water rights because of difficulties with the water supply on their reservation; about 40 percent of its inhabitants must haul water by truck many miles to their homes.","Colorado River\n\nIn the 21st century, they have filed legal claims against the governments of Arizona, New Mexico and Utah for increased water rights. Some of these claims have been successful for the Navajo, such as a 2004 settlement in which they received a 326000 acre foot allotment from New Mexico.","Colorado River\n\nEarly explorers","Colorado River\n\nDuring the 16th century, the Spanish began to explore and colonize western North America. An early motive was the search for the Seven Cities of Gold, or \"Cibola\", rumored to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest. According to a United States Geological Survey publication, it is likely that Francisco de Ulloa was the first European to see the Colorado River when in 1536 he sailed to the head of the Gulf of California. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado's 1540–1542 expedition began as a search for the fabled Cities of Gold, but after learning from natives in New Mexico of a large river to the west, he sent García López de Cárdenas to lead a small contingent to find it. With the guidance of Hopi Indians, Cárdenas and his men became the first outsiders to see the Grand Canyon. Cárdenas was reportedly unimpressed with the canyon, assuming the width of the Colorado River at 6 ft and estimating 300 ft-tall rock formations to be the size of a man. After failing at an attempt to descend to the river, they left the area, defeated by the difficult terrain and torrid weather.","Colorado River\n\nIn 1540, Hernando de Alarcón and his fleet reached the mouth of the river, intending to provide additional supplies to Coronado's expedition. Alarcón may have sailed the Colorado as far upstream as the present-day California–Arizona border. Coronado never reached the Gulf of California, and Alarcón eventually gave up and left. Melchior Díaz reached the delta in the same year, intending to establish contact with Alarcón, but the latter was already gone by the time of Díaz's arrival. Díaz named the Colorado River Rio del Tizon (\"Firebrand River\") after seeing a practice used by the local natives for warming themselves. The name Tizon lasted for the next 200 years, while the name Rio Colorado (\"Red River\") was first applied to a tributary of the Gila River, possibly the Verde River, circa 1720. The first known map to label the main stem as the Colorado was drawn by French cartographer Jacques-Nicolas Bellin in 1743.","Colorado River\n\nDuring the 18th and early 19th centuries, many Americans and Spanish believed in the existence of the Buenaventura River, purported to run from the Rocky Mountains in Utah or Colorado to the Pacific Ocean. The name Buenaventura was given to the Green River by Silvestre Vélez de Escalante as early as 1776, but Escalante did not know that the Green drained to the Colorado. Many later maps showed the headwaters of the Green and Colorado rivers connecting with the Sevier River (Rio San Ysabel) and Utah Lake (Lake Timpanogos) before flowing west through the Sierra Nevada into California. Mountain man Jedediah Smith reached the lower Colorado by way of the Virgin River canyon in 1826. Smith called the Colorado the \"Seedskeedee\", as the Green River in Wyoming was known to fur trappers, correctly believing it to be a continuation of the Green and not a separate river as others believed under the Buenaventura myth. John C. Frémont's 1843 Great Basin expedition proved that no river traversed the Great Basin and Sierra Nevada, officially debunking the Buenaventura myth.","Colorado River\n\nIn 1857, Lieutenant Joseph C. Ives led an expedition to explore the feasibility of using the Colorado River as a navigation route in the Southwest. Ives and his men used a specially built steamboat, the shallow-draft U.S.S. Explorer, and traveled up the river as far as Black Canyon on what is now the Arizona–Nevada border. After experiencing numerous groundings and accidents and having been inhibited by low water in the river, Ives declared: \"Ours has been the first, and will doubtless be the last, party of whites to visit this profitless locality. It seems intended by nature that the Colorado River, along the greater portion of its lonely and majestic way, shall be forever unvisited and undisturbed.\"","Colorado River\n\nUp until the mid-19th century, long stretches of the Colorado and Green rivers between Wyoming and Nevada remained largely unexplored due to their remote location and dangers of navigation. Because of the dramatic drop in elevation of the two rivers, there were rumors of huge waterfalls and violent rapids, and Native American tales strengthened their credibility. In 1869, one-armed Civil War veteran John Wesley Powell led an expedition from Green River Station in Wyoming, aiming to run the two rivers all the way down to St. Thomas, Nevada, near present-day Hoover Dam. Powell and nine men – none of whom had prior whitewater experience – set out in May. After braving the rapids of the Gates of Lodore, Cataract Canyon and other gorges along the Colorado, the party arrived at the mouth of the Little Colorado River, where Powell noted down arguably the most famous words ever written about the Grand Canyon of the Colorado:","Colorado River\n\nOn August 28, 1869, three men deserted the expedition, convinced that they could not possibly survive the trip through the Grand Canyon. They were killed by either Native Americans or Mormon settlers after making it to the rim of the canyon; two days later, the expedition ran the last of the Grand Canyon rapids and reached St. Thomas. Powell led a second expedition in 1871, this time with financial backing from the U.S. government. The explorers named many features along the Colorado and Green rivers, including Glen Canyon, the Dirty Devil River, Flaming Gorge, and the Gates of Lodore. In what is perhaps a twist of irony, modern-day Lake Powell, which floods Glen Canyon, is also named for their leader.","Colorado River\n\nAmerican settlement","Colorado River\n\nDuring the Manifest Destiny era of the mid-19th century, American pioneers settled many western states but generally avoided the Colorado River basin until the 1850s. Under Brigham Young's grand vision for a \"vast empire in the desert\", (the State of Deseret) Mormon settlers were among the first whites to establish a permanent presence in the watershed, Fort Clara or Fort Santa Clara, in the winter of 1855-1856 along the Santa Clara River, tributary of the Virgin River. In 1860, anticipating the American Civil War, the Mormons established a number of settlements to grow cotton along the Virgin River in Washington County, Utah. From 1863 to 1865, Mormon colonists founded St. Thomas and other colonies on the Muddy and Virgin rivers in northwestern Arizona Territory, (now Clark County, Nevada). Stone's Ferry was established by these colonists on the Colorado at the mouth of the Virgin River to carry their produce on a wagon road to the mining districts of Mohave County, Arizona to the south. Also, in 1866, a steamboat landing was established at Callville, intended as an outlet to the Pacific Ocean via the Colorado River, for Mormon settlements in the Great Basin.","Colorado River\n\nThese settlements reached a peak population of about 600 before being abandoned in 1871, and for nearly a decade these valleys became a haven for outlaws and cattle rustlers. One Mormon settler Daniel Bonelli, remained, operating the ferry and began mining salt in nearby mines, bring it in barges, down river to El Dorado Canyon where it was used to process silver ore. From 1879 to 1887, Colorado Steam Navigation Company steamboats carried the salt, operating up river in the high spring flood waters, through Boulder Canyon, to the landing at Rioville at the mouth of the Virgin River. From 1879 to 1882 the Southwestern Mining Company, largest in El Dorado Canyon, brought in a 56-foot sloop the Sou'Wester that sailed up and down river carrying the salt in the low water time of year until it was wrecked in the Quick and Dirty Rapids of Black Canyon.[http://www.ansac.az.gov/UserFiles/PDF/08182014/X028_FMIBurtellLingenfelterSteamboats/FMI%20Lingenfelter%20Steamboats/Steamboats%20on%20the%20Colorado%20River%201852-1916.pdf Richard E. Lingenfelter, Steamboats on the Colorado River, 1852-1916, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1978]","Colorado River\n\nMormons founded the settlement of Vernal along the Green River in Utah in 1878, and populated the Little Colorado River valley later in the century, creating towns such as St. Johns, Arizona. They also established settlements along the Gila River in central Arizona beginning in 1871. These early settlers were impressed by the extensive ruins of the Hohokam civilization that previously occupied the Gila River valley, and are said to have \"envisioned their new agricultural civilization rising as the mythical phoenix bird from the ashes of Hohokam society\". The Mormons were the first whites to develop the water resources of the basin on a large scale, and built complex networks of dams and canals to irrigate wheat, oats and barley in addition to establishing extensive sheep and cattle ranches.","Colorado River\n\nOne of the main reasons the Mormons were able to colonize Arizona was the existence of Jacob Hamblin's ferry across the Colorado at Lee's Ferry (then known as Pahreah Crossing), which began running in March 1864. This location was the only section of river for hundreds of miles in both directions where the canyon walls dropped away, allowing for the development of a transport route. John Doyle Lee established a more permanent ferry system at the site in 1870. One reason Lee chose to run the ferry was to flee from Mormon leaders who held him responsible for the Mountain Meadows Massacre, in which 120 emigrants in a wagon train were killed by a local militia disguised as Native Americans. Even though it was located along a major travel route, Lee's Ferry was very isolated, and there Lee and his family established the aptly named Lonely Dell Ranch. In 1928, the ferry sank, resulting in the deaths of three men. Later that year, the Navajo Bridge was completed at a point 5 mi downstream, rendering the ferry obsolete.","Colorado River\n\nGold strikes from the mid-19th to early 20th centuries played a major role in attracting settlers to the upper Colorado River basin. In 1859, a group of adventurers from Georgia discovered gold along the Blue River in Colorado and established the mining boomtown of Breckenridge. During 1875, even bigger strikes were made along the Uncompahgre and San Miguel rivers, also in Colorado, and these led to the creation of Ouray and Telluride, respectively. Because most gold deposits along the upper Colorado River and its tributaries occur in lode deposits, extensive mining systems and heavy machinery were required to extract them. Mining remains a substantial contributor to the economy of the upper basin and has led to acid mine drainage problems in some regional streams and rivers.","Colorado River\n\nStarting in the latter half of the 19th century, the lower Colorado below Black Canyon became an important waterway for steamboat commerce. In 1852, the Uncle Sam was launched to provide supplies to the U.S. Army outpost at Fort Yuma. Although this vessel accidentally foundered and sank early in its career, commercial traffic quickly proliferated because river transport was much cheaper than hauling freight over land. Navigation on the Colorado River was dangerous because of the shallow channel and flow variations, so the first sternwheeler on the river, the Colorado of 1855, was designed to carry 60 ST while drawing less than 2 ft of water. The tidal bore of the lower Colorado also presented a major hazard; in 1922, a 15 ft-high wave swamped a ship bound for Yuma, killing between 86 and 130 people. Steamboats quickly became the principal source of communication and trade along the river until competition from railroads began in the 1870s, and finally the construction of dams along the lower river, none of which had locks to allow the passage of ships.","Colorado River\n\nNaming of the upper Colorado River and controversy","Colorado River\n\nPrior to 1921, the upper Colorado River above the confluence with the Green River in Utah had assumed various names. Fathers Dominguez and Escalante named it Rio San Rafael in 1776. Through the mid-1800s, the river between Green River and the Gunnison River was most commonly known as the Grand River. The river above the junction with the Gunnison River, however, was known variously as the Bunkara River, the North Fork of the Grand River, the Blue River, and the Grand River. The latter name did not become consistently applied until the 1870s.","Colorado River\n\nIn 1921, U.S. Representative Edward T. Taylor of Colorado petitioned the Congressional Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce to rename the Grand River as the Colorado River. Taylor saw the fact that the Colorado River started outside the border of his state as an \"abomination\". On July 25, the name change was made official in House Joint Resolution 460 of the 66th Congress, over the objections of representatives from Wyoming, Utah, and the USGS, which noted that the Green River was much longer and had a larger drainage basin above its confluence with the Grand River, although the Grand contributed a greater flow of water.","Colorado River\n\nEngineering and development","Colorado River\n\n36 to 40 million people depend on its water for agricultural, industrial and domestic needs. Southern Nevada Water Authority called the Colorado River one of the \"most controlled, controversial and litigated rivers in the world\". Over 29 major dams and hundreds of miles of canals serve to supply thirsty cities, provide irrigation water to some 4 million acres (1.6 million hectares), and meet peaking power demands in the Southwest, generating more than 12 billion kWh of hydroelectricity each year. Often called \"America's Nile\", the Colorado is so carefully managed – with basin reservoirs capable of holding four times the river's annual flow – that each drop of its water is used an average of 17 times in a single year.","Colorado River\n\nOne of the earliest water projects in the Colorado River basin was the Grand Ditch, a 16 mi diversion canal that sends water from the Never Summer Mountains, which would naturally have drained into the headwaters of the Colorado River, to bolster supplies in Colorado's Front Range Urban Corridor. Constructed primarily by Japanese and Mexican laborers, the ditch was considered an engineering marvel when completed in 1890, delivering 17700 acre.ft across the Continental Divide each year. Because roughly 75 percent of Colorado's precipitation falls west of the Rocky Mountains while 80 percent of the population lives east of the range, more of these interbasin water transfers, locally known as transmountain diversions, followed. While first envisioned in the late 19th century, construction on the Colorado-Big Thompson Project (C-BT) did not begin until the 1930s. The C-BT now delivers more than 11 times the Grand Ditch's flow from the Colorado River watershed to cities along the Front Range.","Colorado River\n\nMeanwhile, large-scale development was also beginning on the opposite end of the Colorado River. In 1900, entrepreneurs of the California Development Company (CDC) looked to the Imperial Valley of southern California as an excellent location to develop agriculture irrigated by the waters of the river. Engineer George Chaffey was hired to design the Alamo Canal, which split off from the Colorado River near Pilot Knob, curved south into Mexico, and dumped into the Alamo River, a dry arroyo which had historically carried flood flows of the Colorado into the Salton Sink. With a stable year-round flow in the Alamo River, irrigators in the Imperial Valley were able to begin large-scale farming, and small towns in the region started to expand with the influx of job-seeking migrants. By 1903, more than 100000 acre in the valley were under cultivation, supporting a growing population of 4,000.","Colorado River\n\nIt was not long before the Colorado River began to wreak havoc with its erratic flows. In autumn, the river would drop below the level of the canal inlet, and temporary brush diversion dams had to be constructed. In early 1905, heavy floods destroyed the headworks of the canal, and water began to flow uncontrolled down the canal towards the Salton Sink. On August 9, the entire flow of the Colorado swerved into the canal and began to flood the bottom of the Imperial Valley. In a desperate gamble to close the breach, crews of the Southern Pacific Railroad, whose tracks ran through the valley, attempted to dam the Colorado above the canal, only to see their work demolished by a flash flood. It took seven attempts, more than $3 million, and two years for the railroad, the CDC, and the federal government to permanently block the breach and send the Colorado on its natural course to the gulf – but not before part of the Imperial Valley was flooded under a 45 mi lake, today's Salton Sea. After the immediate flooding threat passed, it was realized that a more permanent solution would be needed to rein in the Colorado.","Colorado River\n\nLower Basin development, 1930s-50s","Colorado River\n\nIn 1922, six U.S. states in the Colorado River basin signed the Colorado River Compact, which divided half of the river's flow to both the Upper Basin (the drainage area above Lee's Ferry, comprising parts of Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming and a small portion of Arizona) and the Lower Basin (Arizona, California, Nevada, and parts of New Mexico and Utah). Each was given rights to of water per year, a figure believed to represent half of the river's minimum flow at Lee's Ferry. This was followed by a U.S.–Mexico treaty in 1944, allocating of Colorado River water to the latter country per annum. Arizona refused to ratify the Colorado River Compact in 1922 because it feared that California would take too much of the lower basin allotment; in 1944 a compromise was reached in which Arizona would get a firm allocation of , but only if California's allocation was prioritized during drought years. These and nine other decisions, compacts, federal acts and agreements made between 1922 and 1973 form what is now known as the Law of the River.","Colorado River\n\nOn September 30, 1935, the United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) completed Hoover Dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River. Behind the dam rose Lake Mead, the largest artificial lake in the U.S., capable of holding more than two years of the Colorado's flow. The construction of Hoover was a major step towards stabilizing the lower channel of the Colorado River, storing water for irrigation in times of drought, and providing much-needed flood control as part of a program known as the Boulder Canyon Project. Hoover was the tallest dam in the world at the time of construction and also had the world's largest hydroelectric power plant. Flow regulation from Hoover Dam opened the doors for rapid development on the lower Colorado River; Imperial and Parker dams followed in 1938, and Davis Dam was completed in 1950.","Colorado River\n\nCompleted in 1938 some 20 mi above Yuma, Imperial Dam diverts nearly all of the Colorado's flow into two irrigation canals. The All-American Canal, built as a permanent replacement for the Alamo Canal, is so named because it lies completely within the U.S., unlike its ill–fated predecessor. With a capacity of over 26000 cuft/s, the All-American is the largest irrigation canal in the world, supplying water to 500000 acre of California's Imperial Valley. Because the valley's warm and sunny climate lends to a year-round growing season in addition to the large water supply furnished by the Colorado, the Imperial Valley is now one of the most productive agricultural regions in North America. In 1957, the USBR completed a second canal, the Gila Gravity Main Canal, to irrigate about 110000 acre in southwestern Arizona with Colorado River water as part of the Gila Project.","Colorado River\n\nThe Lower Basin states also sought to develop the Colorado for municipal supplies. Central Arizona initially relied on the Gila River and its tributaries through projects such as the Theodore Roosevelt and Coolidge Dams – completed in 1924 and 1928, respectively. Roosevelt was the first large dam constructed by the USBR and provided the water needed to start large-scale agricultural and urban development in the region. The Colorado River Aqueduct, which delivers water nearly 250 mi from near Parker Dam to 10 million people in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, was completed in 1941. The San Diego Aqueduct branch, whose initial phase was complete by 1947, furnishes water to nearly 3 million people in San Diego and its suburbs. The Las Vegas Valley of Nevada experienced rapid growth in part due to Hoover Dam construction, and Las Vegas had tapped a pipeline into Lake Mead by 1937. Nevada officials, believing that groundwater resources in the southern part of the state were sufficient for future growth, were more concerned with securing a large amount of the dam's power supply than water from the Colorado; thus they settled for the smallest allocation of all the states in the Colorado River Compact.","Colorado River\n\nUpper Basin development, 1950s-1970s","Colorado River\n\nThrough the early decades of the 20th century, the Upper Basin states, with the exception of Colorado, remained relatively undeveloped and used little of the water allowed to them under the Colorado River Compact. Water use had increased significantly by the 1950s, and more water was being diverted out of the Colorado River basin to the Front Range corridor, the Salt Lake City area in Utah, and the Rio Grande basin in New Mexico. Such projects included the Roberts Tunnel, completed in 1956, which diverts 63000 acre.ft per year from the Blue River to the city of Denver, and the Fryingpan-Arkansas Project, which delivers 69200 acre.ft from the Fryingpan River to the Arkansas River basin each year. Without the addition of surface water storage in the upper basin, there was no guarantee that the upper basin states would be able to use the full amount of water given to them by the compact. There was also the concern that drought could impair the upper basin's ability to deliver the required past Lee's Ferry per year as stipulated by the compact.","Colorado River\n\nA 1956 act of Congress cleared the way for the USBR's Colorado River Storage Project (CRSP), which entailed the construction of large dams on the Colorado, Green, Gunnison and San Juan Rivers.","Colorado River\n\nThe initial blueprints for the CRSP included two dams on the Green River within Dinosaur National Monument's Echo Park Canyon, a move criticized by both the U.S. National Park Service and environmentalist groups such as the Sierra Club. Controversy reached a nationwide scale, and the USBR dropped its plans for the Dinosaur dams in exchange for a dam at Flaming Gorge and a raise to an already-proposed dam at Glen Canyon. The famed opposition to Glen Canyon Dam, the primary feature of the CRSP, did not build momentum until construction was well underway. This was primarily because of Glen Canyon's remote location and the result that most of the American public did not even know of the existence of the impressive gorge; the few who had contended that it had much greater scenic value than Echo Park. Sierra Club leader David Brower fought the dam both during the construction and for many years afterwards until his death in 2000. Brower strongly believed that he was personally responsible for the failure to prevent Glen Canyon's flooding, calling it his \"greatest mistake, greatest sin\".","Colorado River\n\nPacific Southwest Water Plan","Colorado River\n\nAgricultural and urban growth in Arizona eventually outstripped the capacity of local rivers; these concerns were reflected in the creation of a Pacific Southwest Water Plan in the 1950s, which aimed to build a project that would permit Arizona to fully utilize its allotment of the river. The Pacific Southwest Water Plan was the first major proposal to divert water to the Colorado Basin from other river basins – namely, from the wetter northwestern United States. It was intended to boost supplies for the Lower Basin states of Arizona, California and Nevada as well as Mexico, thus allowing the Upper Basin states to retain native Colorado River flows for their own use. Although there was still a surplus of water in the Colorado Basin during the mid-20th century, the Bureau of Reclamation predicted, correctly, that eventually population growth would outstrip the available supply and require the transfer of water from other sources.","Colorado River\n\nThe original version of the plan proposed to divert water from the Trinity River in northern California to reduce Southern California's dependence on the Colorado, allowing more water to be pumped, by exchange, to central Arizona. Because of the large amount of power that would be required to pump Colorado River water to Arizona, the CAP originally included provisions for hydroelectric dams at Bridge Canyon and Marble Canyon, which would have flooded large portions of the Colorado within the Grand Canyon and dewatered much of the remainder. When these plans were publicized, the environmental movement – still reeling from the Glen Canyon controversy – successfully lobbied against the project. As a result, the Grand Canyon dams were removed from the CAP agenda, the boundaries of Grand Canyon National Park were extended to preclude any further development in the area, and the pumping power was replaced by the building of the coal-fired Navajo Generating Station near Page, Arizona, in 1976. The resulting Central Arizona Project (CAP) irrigates more than 830000 acre and provides municipal supplies to over 5 million people from Phoenix to Tucson using water from the Colorado River.","Colorado River\n\nEnvironmental impacts","Colorado River\n\nHistorically, the Colorado transported from 85 to of sediment or silt to the Gulf of California each year – second only to the Mississippi among North American rivers. This sediment nourished wetlands and riparian areas along the river's lower course, particularly in its 3000 mi2 delta, once the largest desert estuary on the continent. Currently, the majority of sediments carried by the Colorado River are deposited at the upper end of Lake Powell, and most of the remainder ends up in Lake Mead. Various estimates place the time it would take for Powell to completely fill with silt at 300 to 700 years. Dams trapping sediment not only pose damage to river habitat but also threaten future operations of the Colorado River reservoir system.","Colorado River\n\nReduction in flow caused by dams, diversions, water for thermoelectric power stations, and evaporation losses from reservoirs – the latter of which consumes more than 15 percent of the river's natural runoff – has had severe ecological consequences in the Colorado River Delta and the Gulf of California. Historically, the delta with its large freshwater outflow and extensive salt marshes provided an important breeding ground for aquatic species in the Gulf. Today's desiccated delta, at only a fraction of its former size, no longer provides suitable habitat, and populations of fish, shrimp and sea mammals in the gulf have seen a dramatic decline. Since 1963, the only times when the Colorado River has reached the ocean have been during El Niño events in the 1980s and 1990s.","Colorado River\n\nReduced flows have led to increases in the concentration of certain substances in the lower river that have impacted water quality. Salinity is one of the major issues. The lower Colorado's salt content was about 50 parts per million (ppm) in its natural state, but by the 1960s, it had increased to well over 2000 ppm. By the early 1970s, there was also serious concern about salinity caused by salts leached from local soils by irrigation drainage water, which were estimated to add 10 e6ST of excess salt to the river per year. The Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act was passed in 1974, mandating conservation practices including the reduction of saline drainage. The program reduced the annual load by about , but salinity remains an ongoing issue. In 1997, the USBR estimated that saline irrigation water caused crop damages exceeding $500 million in the U.S. and $100 million in Mexico. Further efforts have been made to combat the salt issue in the lower Colorado, including the construction of a desalination plant at Yuma. In 2011, the seven U.S. states agreed upon a \"Plan of Implementation\", which aims to reduce salinity by 644000 ST per year by 2030.","Colorado River\n\nAgricultural runoff containing pesticide residues has also been concentrated in the lower river in greater amounts. Toxins derived from pesticides have led to fish kills; six of these events were recorded between 1964 and 1968 alone. The pesticide issue is even greater in streams and water bodies near agricultural lands irrigated by the Imperial Irrigation District with Colorado River water. In the Imperial Valley, Colorado River water used for irrigation overflows into the New and Alamo rivers and into the Salton Sea. Both rivers and the sea are among the most polluted bodies of water in the United States, posing dangers not only to aquatic life but to contact by humans and migrating birds. Pollution from agricultural runoff is not limited to the lower river; the issue is also significant in upstream reaches such as Colorado's Grand Valley, also a major center of irrigated agriculture.","Colorado River\n\nLarge dams such as Hoover and Glen Canyon typically release water from lower levels of their reservoirs, resulting in stable and relatively cold year-round temperatures in long reaches of the river. The Colorado's average temperature once ranged from 85 F at the height of summer to near freezing in winter, but modern flows through the Grand Canyon, for example, rarely deviate significantly from 46 F. Changes in temperature regime have caused declines of native fish populations, and stable flows have enabled increased vegetation growth, obstructing riverside habitat. These flow patterns have also made the Colorado more dangerous to recreational boaters; people are more likely to die of hypothermia in the colder water, and the general lack of flooding allows rockslides to build up, making the river more difficult to navigate.","Colorado River\n\nMinute 319","Colorado River\n\nIn the 21st century, there has been renewed interest in restoring a limited water flow to the delta. In November 2012, the U.S. and Mexico reached an agreement, known as Minute 319, permitting Mexico storage of its water allotment in U.S. reservoirs during wet years, thus increasing the efficiency with which the water can be used. In addition to renovating irrigation canals in the Mexicali Valley to reduce leakage, this will make about 45000 acre.ft per year available for release to the delta on average. The water will be used to provide both an annual base flow and a spring \"pulse flow\" to mimic the river's original snowmelt-driven regime. The first pulse flow, an eight-week release of 105000 acre.ft, was initiated on March 21, 2014, with the aim of revitalising 2350 acre of wetland. This pulse reached the sea on May 16, 2014, marking the first time in 16 years that any water from the Colorado flowed into the ocean, and was hailed as \"an experiment of historic political and ecological significance\" and a landmark in U.S.–Mexican cooperation in conservation.","Colorado River\n\nThe pulse will be followed by the steady release of 52000 acre.ft over the following three years, just a small fraction of its average flow before damming.","Colorado River\n\nUncertain future","Colorado River\n\nWhen the Colorado River Compact was drafted in the 1920s, it was based on barely 30 years of streamflow records that suggested an average annual flow of past Lee's Ferry. Modern studies of tree rings revealed that those three decades were probably the wettest in the past 500 to 1,200 years and that the natural long-term annual flow past Lee's Ferry is probably closer to , as compared to the natural flow at the mouth of . This has resulted in more water being allocated to river users than actually flows through the Colorado. Droughts have exacerbated the issue of water over-allocation, including the Texas drought of the 1950s, which saw several consecutive years of notably low water and has often been used in planning for \"a worst-case scenario\".","Colorado River\n\nThe most severe drought on record began in the early 21st century, in which the river basin produced normal or above-average runoff in only four years between 2000 and 2012. Major reservoirs in the basin dropped to historic lows, with Lake Powell falling to just one-third of capacity in early 2005, the lowest level on record since the reservoir was first filling in 1969. The watershed is experiencing a warming trend, which is accompanied by earlier snowmelt and a general reduction in precipitation. A 2004 study showed that a 1–6 percent decrease of precipitation would lead to runoff declining by as much as 18 percent by 2050. Average reservoir storage declined by at least 32 percent, further crippling the region's water supply and hydropower generation. A study by the Scripps Research Institute in 2008 predicted that both Lake Mead and Lake Powell stand an even chance of dropping to useless levels or \"dead pool\" by 2021 if current drying trends and water usage rates continue.","Colorado River\n\nIn late 2010, Lake Mead dropped to just 8 ft above the first \"drought trigger\" elevation, a level at which Arizona and Nevada would have to begin rationing water as delineated by the Colorado River Compact. Despite above-average runoff in 2011 that raised the immense reservoir more than 30 ft, record drought conditions returned in 2012 and 2013. Reservoir levels were low enough at the beginning of water year 2014 that the Bureau of Reclamation cut releases from Lake Powell by 750000 acre feet – the first such reduction since the 1960s, when Lake Powell was being filled for the first time. This resulted in Lake Mead dropping to its lowest recorded level since 1937, when it was first being filled. Rapid development and economic growth further complicate the issue of a secure water supply, particularly in the case of California's senior water rights over those of Nevada and Arizona: in case of a reduction in water supply, Nevada and Arizona would have to endure severe cuts before any reduction in the California allocation, which is also larger than the other two combined.","Colorado River\n\nAlthough stringent water conservation measures have been implemented, the threat of severe shortfalls in the Colorado River basin continues to increase each year.","Colorado River\n\nWildlife and plants","Colorado River\n\nThe Colorado River and its tributaries often nourish extensive corridors of riparian growth as they traverse the arid desert regions of the watershed. Although riparian zones represent a relatively small proportion of the basin and have been affected by engineering projects and river diversion in many places, they have the greatest biodiversity of any habitat in the basin. The most prominent riparian zones along the river occur along the lower Colorado below Davis Dam, especially in the Colorado River Delta, where riparian areas support 358 species of birds despite the reduction in freshwater flow and invasive plants such as tamarisk (salt cedar). Reduction of the delta's size has also threatened animals such as jaguars and the vaquita porpoise, which is endemic to the gulf. Human development of the Colorado River has also helped to create new riparian zones by smoothing the river's seasonal flow, notably through the Grand Canyon.","Colorado River\n\nMore than 1,600 species of plants grow in the Colorado River watershed, ranging from the creosote bush, saguaro cactus, and Joshua trees of the Sonoran and Mojave Deserts to the forests of the Rocky Mountains and other uplands, composed mainly of ponderosa pine, subalpine fir, Douglas-fir and Engelmann spruce. Before logging in the 19th century, forests were abundant in high elevations as far south as the Mexico–U.S. border, and runoff from these areas nourished abundant grassland communities in river valleys. Some arid regions of the watershed, such as the upper Green River valley in Wyoming, Canyonlands National Park in Utah and the San Pedro River valley in Arizona and Sonora, supported extensive reaches of grassland roamed by large mammals such as buffalo and antelope as late as the 1860s. Near Tucson, Arizona, \"where now there is only powder-dry desert, the grass once reached as high as the head of a man on horse back\".","Colorado River\n\nRivers and streams in the Colorado basin were once home to 49 species of native fish, of which 42 were endemic. Engineering projects and river regulation have led to the extinction of four species and severe declines in the populations of 40 species. Bonytail chub, razorback sucker, Colorado pikeminnow, and humpback chub are among those considered the most at risk; all are unique to the Colorado River system and well adapted to the river's natural silty conditions and flow variations. Clear, cold water released by dams has significantly changed characteristics of habitat for these and other Colorado River basin fishes. A further 40 species that occur in the river today, notably the brown trout, were introduced during the 19th and 20th centuries, mainly for sport fishing.","Colorado River\n\nRecreation","Colorado River\n\nFamed for its dramatic rapids and canyons, the Colorado is one of the most desirable whitewater rivers in the United States, and its Grand Canyon section – run by more than 22,000 people annually – has been called the \"granddaddy of rafting trips\". Grand Canyon trips typically begin at Lee's Ferry and take out at Diamond Creek or Lake Mead, and range from one to eighteen days for commercial trips and from two to twenty-five days for private trips. Private (noncommercial) trips are extremely difficult to arrange because the National Park Service limits river traffic for environmental purposes; people who desire such a trip often have to wait more than 10 years for the opportunity.","Colorado River\n\nSeveral other sections of the river and its tributaries are popular whitewater runs, and many of these are also served by commercial outfitters. The Colorado's Cataract Canyon and many reaches in the Colorado headwaters are even more heavily used than the Grand Canyon, and about 60,000 boaters run a single section above Radium, Colorado, each year. The upper Colorado also includes many of the river's most challenging rapids, including those in Gore Canyon, which is considered so dangerous that \"boating is not recommended\". Another section of the river above Moab, known as the Colorado \"Daily\" or \"Fisher Towers Section\", is the most visited whitewater run in Utah, with more than 77,000 visitors in 2011 alone. The rapids of the Green River's Gray and Desolation Canyons and the less difficult \"Goosenecks\" section of the lower San Juan River are also frequently traversed by boaters.","Colorado River\n\nEleven U.S. national parks – Arches, Black Canyon of the Gunnison, Bryce Canyon, Canyonlands, Capitol Reef, Grand Canyon, Mesa Verde, Petrified Forest, Rocky Mountain, Saguaro, and Zion – are in the watershed, in addition to many national forests, state parks and recreation areas. Hiking, backpacking, camping, skiing and fishing are among the multiple recreation opportunities offered by these areas. Fisheries have declined in many streams in the watershed, especially in the Rocky Mountains, because of polluted runoff from mining and agricultural activities. The Colorado's major reservoirs are also heavily traveled summer destinations. Houseboating and water-skiing are popular activities on Lakes Mead, Powell, Havasu and Mojave, as well as Flaming Gorge Reservoir in Utah and Wyoming, and Navajo Reservoir in New Mexico and Colorado. Lake Powell and surrounding Glen Canyon National Recreation Area received more than 2 million visitors per year as of 2007, while nearly 7.9 million people visited Lake Mead and the Lake Mead National Recreation Area in 2008. Colorado River recreation employs some 250,000 people and contributes $26 billion each year to the Southwest economy.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThe Colorado River is a major river of the western United States and northwest Mexico in North America. Its headwaters are in the Rocky Mountains of north central Colorado. It flows southwest through the Colorado Plateau country of western Colorado, southeastern Utah and northwestern Arizona where it flows through the Grand Canyon. It turns south near Las Vegas, Nevada, forming the Arizona–Nevada border in Lake Mead and the Arizona–California border below Hoover Dam. Before entering Mexico in the Colorado Desert most of its waters are diverted into the Imperial Valley of Southern California. In Mexico its course forms the boundary between Sonora and Baja California before entering the Gulf of California. This article describes most of the major features along the river.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nColorado","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThe Colorado River rises on the Continental Divide at La Poudre Pass, in Rocky Mountain National Park, about 40 km. north of Lake Granby, as a tiny stream draining a wet meadow. At the river's headwater, the Continental Divide forms the boundary between the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Ocean watersheds of North America, between Colorado's Grand and Larimer counties, and the northern boundary of Rocky Mountain National Park.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThe river's first diversion is here at its headwater. The Grand Ditch redirects water from the Never Summer Mountains, which would have flowed into the Colorado River, to instead flow across the divide through La Poudre Pass to irrigate farmland to the east.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nAbout a mile (1.5 km) downstream from its source, the Colorado River has carved its first canyon, the narrow, deep Little Yellowstone Canyon. It then flows through the broad Kawuneeche Valley, where it is joined by U.S. Highway 34, which will roughly parallel it to the town of Granby. It finally exits Rocky Mountain National Park, flowing into Shadow Mountain Lake and then into Lake Granby, which are portions of the Colorado-Big Thompson Project, a large trans-basin water storage and delivery project that diverts water from the Colorado River under the Front Range mountains to provide an agricultural and municipal water supply for the northern Front Range and plains of Colorado.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nStarting in Granby, the river is roughly paralleled by U.S. Highway 40 to the town of Kremmling, and by the tracks of the Union Pacific Railroad until about the Utah border, carrying the Amtrak California Zephyr passenger train. The canyons and valleys of the Upper Colorado River are among the scenic attractions for passengers on this rail route.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nJust downstream from Granby, the Colorado is joined by the Fraser River and flows through Windy Gap Reservoir, where more water is diverted to the Front Range via the Windy Gap Project. At Hot Sulphur Springs the river flows through Byers Canyon and then is joined by the Williams Fork from the left and Muddy Creek from the right shortly thereafter. Just below Kremmling it is joined by the Blue River from the left before flowing through Gore Canyon, famous for its challenging rapids for the sport of whitewater rafting, and where it drops significantly until State Highway 131 crosses at the village of State Bridge, where the Piney River joins from the left. The Eagle River joins from the left in the town of Dotsero, from where Interstate 70 will parallel the Colorado almost until it enters Utah.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nBelow Dotsero the Colorado flows through Glenwood Canyon, emerging at the city of Glenwood Springs where the swift flowing Roaring Fork River, its second largest tributary in Colorado joins from the left. West of Glenwood Springs, the Colorado runs through a wider valley along the northern foothills of the Grand Mesa, passing the towns of New Castle, Silt, Rifle and De Beque. It then flows through De Beque Canyon, where it is joined by Plateau Creek.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThe Colorado then enters the Grand Valley, where its waters are used to irrigate over 40000 acre of agricultural land. Here it passes Grand Junction, the largest town on the upper Colorado, where it is joined by the Gunnison River, its largest tributary within Colorado and second largest overall. The Gunnison drains from the northern San Juan Mountains, Elk Mountains and Sawatch Range – which includes Colorado's highest peak, 14440 ft Mount Elbert – and carves the Black Canyon of the Gunnison before joining the Colorado. In the Grand Valley the Colorado becomes a meandering river in contrast to the steep mountain canyons above Grand Junction. It ranges from 200 to wide and from 6 to in depth with occasional deeper areas.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nFrom there the Colorado turns northwest, past Fruita and entering Ruby Canyon as it approaches the Colorado Plateau. It turns southwest once again just before entering Utah.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nUtah","Course of the Colorado River\n\nIn Utah the Colorado enters the high desert canyon country of the Colorado Plateau, flowing swiftly southwest through Westwater Canyon. Near Dewey it picks up the Dolores River, which together with its tributary the San Miguel drains the western slope of the San Juan Mountains. It then passes the Fisher Towers and forms part of the southern border of Arches National Park before entering the Moab Valley at Moab. Just below Moab it carves through a 1000 ft deep mountain pass known as \"The Portal\".","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThe Colorado then passes by Dead Horse Point State Park before entering the backcountry of Canyonlands National Park where it is joined from the north by the Green River, its biggest tributary. The Green, flowing from the Wind River Range of western Wyoming, drains 48000 mi2 in southwest Wyoming, northeast Utah and northwest Colorado. It is much longer than the Colorado above their confluence and carries a larger load of silt, though the Colorado has a slightly greater flow. Before an act of Congress changed the name in 1921 this confluence marked the official beginning of the Colorado River proper. The approximately 450 mi of the Colorado above the confluence of the Green, including the entire section within Colorado, was known as the Grand River.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nBelow the Green River the Colorado flows through Cataract Canyon, which contains some of its most difficult rapids. At Hite the Hite Crossing Bridge – the only bridge over the Colorado for nearly 300 mi – carries Utah State Route 95 over the river. Below here the Colorado is joined by the Dirty Devil River and begins to widen into Lake Powell, the giant reservoir formed by Glen Canyon Dam 185 mi downstream. Lake Powell, a popular houseboating destination, is surrounded by the Glen Canyon National Recreation Area and receives over 2 million visitors each year despite its remote location. Before the dam was completed in 1966 the Colorado flowed through Glen Canyon, a sandstone gorge known for its colorful and intricately sculpted rock formations.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThe Escalante River, a desert stream which runs through the sinuous slot canyons of Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, joins about two-thirds of the way down Lake Powell. The San Juan River, which carries runoff from the southern slopes of the San Juan Mountains and the Four Corners region in Colorado and New Mexico, joins several miles further downstream; it forms an arm of the lake nearly 70 mi long. Although the San Juan contributes only about one-tenth of the Colorado River flow, it is extremely muddy, contributing as much as 40 percent of the total sediment load. The area around the confluence is dominated geographically by Navajo Mountain which rises over a mile (1.6 km) above the surrounding landscape, which is part of the Navajo Nation. Rainbow Bridge, one of the highest natural bridges in the world, is located at the tip of an arm of Lake Powell at the foot of Navajo Mountain.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nArizona","Course of the Colorado River\n\nGlen Canyon Dam, which creates Lake Powell, is situated in the town of Page in northern Arizona only about 15 mi by river from the Utah border. The 710 ft dam impounds the Colorado primarily for hydroelectricity generation. In front of the dam the Glen Canyon Bridge carries U.S. Route 89 over the Colorado River. Below here the Colorado flows through the last 16 mi of Glen Canyon, passing the scenic Horseshoe Bend, before emerging briefly from its canyons at Lee's Ferry, where it is joined by the warm, shallow, muddy Paria River. Historically a ford used by Native Americans, explorers and settlers, Lee's Ferry serves as the dividing point between the Upper and Colorado River Basins, which were each allocated one-half of the Colorado River flow in the Colorado River Compact of 1922.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nBelow Lee's Ferry the Colorado begins to trend more south than southwest, through the vertical-walled Marble Canyon which is crossed by the twin Navajo Bridges as it enters Grand Canyon National Park. At the southern end of Marble Canyon, the river is joined by another tributary, the capricious Little Colorado River, which drains the Painted Desert region of northeast Arizona and western New Mexico. Although normally a calm and clear spring-fed stream, it can rise dramatically following monsoon storms over the Colorado Plateau.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThen the river then turns abruptly west directly across the folds and fault line of the plateau, through the Upper and Lower Granite Gorges of Grand Canyon, which is 217 mi long and from 4 to between the upper cliffs. The walls, 4000 to high, drop in successive escarpments of 500 to, banded in splendid colors toward the narrow gorge of the present river. The river itself is a nearly uninterrupted series of violent rapids separated by calm, short pools. Deep inside the canyon it is joined from the north by Kanab Creek, which flows from southern Utah, and then from the south by Havasu Creek, known for the waterfalls it forms on the Havasupai Reservation. Further downstream it passes the Uinkaret volcanic field, where basalt eruptions millions of years ago formed huge lava dams across the Colorado. Although the dams have mostly been erased by erosion, a small portion remains as Lava Falls, generally considered the most difficult and dangerous rapids for boaters on the Colorado River.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThe Colorado then swings sharply south and turns northwest north of Peach Springs, emerging from the Grand Canyon at the Grand Wash Cliffs, where it widens into the upper reaches of Lake Mead. The area also marks the general boundary between the Colorado Plateau and the Mojave Desert. Shortly west of that point it begins to form the border of Nevada to the north/west and Arizona to the south/east.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nNevada/Arizona","Course of the Colorado River\n\nLake Mead, formed by the 726 ft-high Hoover Dam about 30 mi southeast of Las Vegas, Nevada, is the largest reservoir in the United States with a full capacity of 28945000 acre feet and a water surface of nearly 250 mi2. However, the lake has not been full for many years due to a combination of drought and increased water usage by Colorado River Basin states. Situated in the Lake Mead National Recreation Area, Lake Mead is a popular recreation site – visited by almost 8 million people a year – and a critical source of water for the Las Vegas metropolitan area, Central Arizona and Southern California.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThe lake is divided into three main bodies – from upstream to downstream they are the Gregg, Virgin and Boulder Basins, of which Virgin Basin is the largest. Virgin Canyon connects Gregg Basin to Virgin Basin, and the much narrower Boulder Canyon links Virgin Basin to Boulder Basin. Overton Arm, stretching northward for more than 40 mi from Virgin Basin, is fed by the Virgin River – which flows from Utah's Zion National Park – and the Muddy River, which drains a large area of the southern Nevada desert. Before Lake Mead was filled in the 1930s the Muddy River flowed into the Virgin River, which ran southward through what is now Overton Arm to join the Colorado River near the now-ghost town of St. Thomas, Nevada.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nAt Hoover Dam, the Colorado turns due south through Black Canyon, a direction it will follow for the remainder of its course to the Gulf of California. It passes under the Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge (Hoover Dam Bypass), the highest concrete arch bridge in the world, carrying U.S. Route 93 at a height of 900 ft above the Colorado River.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nAt the end of Black Canyon the Colorado widens into Lake Mohave, created by the Davis Dam in Pyramid Canyon above Laughlin, Nevada, where a bridge carries NV 163 (Laughlin Highway)/AZ 95 over the Colorado River. Prior to the completion of the Hoover Dam Bypass project in 2010, this bridge was the main crossing for freight traffic between Arizona and Nevada as trucks were not allowed over Hoover Dam for security reasons after the September 11, 2001 attacks. The Colorado then passes by Bullhead City, Arizona and Fort Mohave, Arizona and the Fort Mojave Reservation.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nCalifornia/Arizona","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThe Colorado forms the border of California to the west and Arizona to the east for most of its course through the desert Lower Colorado River Valley (LCRV), where its character changes significantly from fast-flowing whitewater to a low gradient braided stream with a wide floodplain. Here, the Colorado River ranges in width from 700 to and from 8 to in depth. It becomes a losing stream, with a gradual reduction in volume both due to evaporation in the hot desert climate and massive diversions for irrigation, urban areas, industry and thermo-electric power generation. The average flow rate of 14180 cuft/s at Davis Dam diminishes to just 2060 cuft/s at the Mexican border.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nAt Needles, California the Colorado is crossed by Interstate 40; shortly downstream it passes the Topock Marsh in Topock Gorge and widens into Lake Havasu, formed by Parker Dam. Lake Havasu provides recreation as well as the home of the retired U.K. London Bridge in Lake Havasu City, Arizona, now the New London Bridge. Near Parker Dam are the first two major diversions of the lower Colorado: the Colorado River Aqueduct, which travels 240 mi west to Los Angeles and San Diego, California; and the Central Arizona Project, which sends water 340 mi east towards Phoenix and Tucson, Arizona. The intermittent Bill Williams River joins the Colorado from the east in Lake Havasu, just above Parker Dam.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThe river flows through the Parker Valley, much of which belongs to the Colorado River Indian Reservation, and then the Palo Verde Valley, where it is crossed by Interstate 10 near Blythe, California. The small Headgate Rock Dam removes water for irrigation in the Parker Valley and the Palo Verde Dam provides water to the Palo Verde Valley. The river then flows through a canyon in the Trigo Mountains, where the Cibola and Imperial National Wildlife Refuge encompass the wetland areas formed above Imperial Dam, which filled with silt shortly upon its completion in the 1930s. Most of the Colorado's remaining flow is removed for irrigation here. The Gila Gravity Main Canal provides water for the Gila Valley in Arizona. The All-American Canal, which runs west to the Imperial Valley of California, is the largest irrigation canal in the world, capable of carrying 26155 cuft/s – the entire natural flow of the Colorado prior to damming. The canal supplies more than half a million acres (2000 km2) which due to its mild climate grows most of the winter produce in the United States.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nBelow Imperial Dam the remnants of the Colorado river lessen in gradient and in its lower course flows through the Colorado Desert in a broad sedimentary plain upriver from Yuma, Arizona, where it is joined by the Gila River. The Gila was once one of the Colorado's largest tributaries, draining a huge swath of Arizona and western New Mexico. Today, most of its flow is diverted for irrigation and municipal use in the Phoenix area which leave the river below Gila Bend dry in most years. However, in certain seasons of extreme precipitation, such as the floods of January 1993, the Gila can carry massive amounts of water far exceeding the natural flow of the Colorado River.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThe channel through much of this region is bedded in a dike-like embankment lying above the floodplain over which the escaping water spills in time of flood. This natural dike cuts off the flow of the river to the remarkable low area in southern California known as the Salton Sink in the Coachella Valley, and the Imperial Valley. The Salton Sink and its Salton Sea are located below sea level; therefore, the descent from the river near Yuma is very much greater than the descent from Yuma to the Gulf of California. This geographical peculiarity is the result of the Colorado River Delta, formed over millions of years by over 10000 mi3 of rock and sand eroded from the Grand Canyon and other canyons along the river's course. The delta eventually split the Gulf of California in two; the northern part in present day California, cut off from the sea, eventually evaporated, creating a \"sink\" more than 200 ft below sea level.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nIn 1905, an attempt to establish an irrigation canal from the Colorado River to the Imperial Valley resulted in disaster as the Colorado escaped its channel into a pair of dry arroyos, the New River and Alamo River. For the next two years the Colorado flowed uncontrollably into the Salton Sink flooding farmland and creating the Salton Sea, which still exists today as the largest inland body of water in California. The river was finally diverted back to its present course in 1907. Geological evidence suggests that this has happened naturally many times in the past, filling Lake Cahuilla, with the floodwaters slowly evaporating over spans of decades before being re-flooded by the Colorado.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nMexico","Course of the Colorado River\n\nThe Colorado River meets the Mexico–United States border at the Northern International Boundary (NIB), where the Morelos Dam diverts nearly the entire remaining flow into the Reforma Canal and the Tijuana Aqueduct. Most of this water is used for irrigation in the Mexicali Valley, one of Mexico's most fertile agricultural regions. Below the Morelos Dam the Colorado forms the international border for a short distance, between Baja California and Arizona, before reaching the Southern International Boundary at San Luis Rio Colorado, where it crosses entirely into Mexico.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nFor the remainder of its course to the Gulf, the river forms the boundary between Baja California (west) and Sonora (east). \"River\", however, is a misnomer as the Colorado is dry or small stream most of the year, due to its flow being almost completely exhausted by upstream diversions. The river bed will occasionally contain water, though, due either to monsoon storms over the Gila River Basin, or more rarely due to a particularly heavy snowmelt in the Rocky Mountains. Since the filling of Lake Powell in the 1960s the latter has only occurred four times – the unusually wet years of 1983 through 1986. In May 2014, an agreement between the US and Mexican governments known as Minute 319 enabled the intentional release of water into the Colorado River bed for the first time, with the goal of revitalizing the ecosystem of the Colorado River Delta.","Course of the Colorado River\n\nPrior to the mid 20th century, the 3000 mi2 Colorado River Delta provided a rich estuarine marshland; while today it is now essentially desiccated, the river is still an important salt-water estuary resource. The estuary of the Colorado River was subjected to a major tidal bore that has almost disappeared with the drastic reduction in the freshwater flow following the irrigation diversions of the Colorado River, and to a lesser extent because of some dredging of the estuary channel. The first historical record of the tidal bore was that of the Croatian missionary in Spanish service Father Ferdinand Konščak on 18 July 1746. During spring tide conditions, the tidal bore formed in the estuary about Montague Island and propagated upstream. It was called locally 'El Burro' or 'burro'. Today the tidal bore is rarely seen although there are still some anecdotal observations."],"string":"[\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe Grand Canyon (Hopi: Ongtupqa; , Navajo: Tsékooh Hatsoh, Spanish: Gran Cañón) is a steep-sided canyon carved by the Colorado River in the state of Arizona in the United States. It is contained within and managed by Grand Canyon National Park, the Kaibab National Forest, Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument, the Hualapai Tribal Nation, the Havasupai people and the Navajo Nation. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of preservation of the Grand Canyon area, and visited it on numerous occasions to hunt and enjoy the scenery.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe Grand Canyon is 277 mi long, up to 18 mi wide and attains a depth of over a mile (6093 ft). Nearly two billion years of Earth's geological history have been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut their channels through layer after layer of rock while the Colorado Plateau was uplifted.[http://www.nps.gov/grca/naturescience/geologicformations.htm Geologic Formations of the Grand Canyon] National Park Service Retrieved 2009-11-17 While some aspects about the history of incision of the canyon are debated by geologists, several recent studies support the hypothesis that the Colorado River established its course through the area about 5 to 6 million years ago. Since that time, the Colorado River has driven the down-cutting of the tributaries and retreat of the cliffs, simultaneously deepening and widening the canyon.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nFor thousands of years, the area has been continuously inhabited by Native Americans, who built settlements within the canyon and its many caves. The Pueblo people considered the Grand Canyon a holy site, and made pilgrimages to it. The first European known to have viewed the Grand Canyon was García López de Cárdenas from Spain, who arrived in 1540.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe Grand Canyon is a river valley in the Colorado Plateau that exposes uplifted Proterozoic and Paleozoic strata, and is also one of the 19 distinct physiographic sections of the Colorado Plateau province. It is not the deepest canyon in the world (Kali Gandaki Gorge in Nepal is much deeper). However, the Grand Canyon is known for its visually overwhelming size and its intricate and colorful landscape. Geologically, it is significant because of the thick sequence of ancient rocks that are well preserved and exposed in the walls of the canyon. These rock layers record much of the early geologic history of the North American continent.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nUplift associated with mountain formation later moved these sediments thousands of feet upward and created the Colorado Plateau. The higher elevation has also resulted in greater precipitation in the Colorado River drainage area, but not enough to change the Grand Canyon area from being semi-arid. The uplift of the Colorado Plateau is uneven, and the Kaibab Plateau that Grand Canyon bisects is over a 1000 ft higher at the North Rim (about 1000 ft) than at the South Rim. Almost all runoff from the North Rim (which also gets more rain and snow) flows toward the Grand Canyon, while much of the runoff on the plateau behind the South Rim flows away from the canyon (following the general tilt). The result is deeper and longer tributary washes and canyons on the north side and shorter and steeper side canyons on the south side.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nTemperatures on the North Rim are generally lower than those on the South Rim because of the greater elevation (averaging above sea level). Heavy rains are common on both rims during the summer months. Access to the North Rim via the primary route leading to the canyon (State Route 67) is limited during the winter season due to road closures.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nGeology\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe Grand Canyon is part of the Colorado River basin which has developed over the past 40 million years. A recent study places the origins of the canyon beginning about 17 million years ago. Previous estimates had placed the age of the canyon at 5–6 million years. The study, which was published in the journal Science in 2008, used uranium-lead dating to analyze calcite deposits found on the walls of nine caves throughout the canyon. There is a substantial amount of controversy because this research suggests such a substantial departure from prior widely supported scientific consensus. In December 2012, a study published in the journal Science claimed new tests had suggested the Grand Canyon could be as old as 70 million years. However, this study has been criticized by those who support the \\\"young canyon\\\" age of around six million years as \\\"[an] attempt to push the interpretation of their new data to their limits without consideration of the whole range of other geologic data sets.\\\"\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe canyon is the result of erosion which exposes one of the most complete geologic columns on the planet.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe major geologic exposures in the Grand Canyon range in age from the 2-billion-year-old Vishnu Schist at the bottom of the Inner Gorge to the 230-million-year-old Kaibab Limestone on the Rim. There is a gap of about a billion years between the 500-million-year-old stratum and the level below it, which dates to about 1.5 billion years ago. This large unconformity indicates a long period for which no deposits are present.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nMany of the formations were deposited in warm shallow seas, near-shore environments (such as beaches), and swamps as the seashore repeatedly advanced and retreated over the edge of a proto-North America. Major exceptions include the Permian Coconino Sandstone, which contains abundant geological evidence of aeolian sand dune deposition. Several parts of the Supai Group also were deposited in non–marine environments.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe great depth of the Grand Canyon and especially the height of its strata (most of which formed below sea level) can be attributed to (5000 to) of uplift of the Colorado Plateau, starting about 65 million years ago (during the Laramide Orogeny). This uplift has steepened the stream gradient of the Colorado River and its tributaries, which in turn has increased their speed and thus their ability to cut through rock (see the elevation summary of the Colorado River for present conditions).\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nWeather conditions during the ice ages also increased the amount of water in the Colorado River drainage system. The ancestral Colorado River responded by cutting its channel faster and deeper.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe base level and course of the Colorado River (or its ancestral equivalent) changed 5.3 million years ago when the Gulf of California opened and lowered the river's base level (its lowest point). This increased the rate of erosion and cut nearly all of the Grand Canyon's current depth by 1.2 million years ago. The terraced walls of the canyon were created by differential erosion.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nBetween 100,000 and 3 million years ago, volcanic activity deposited ash and lava over the area which at times completely obstructed the river. These volcanic rocks are the youngest in the canyon.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nNative Americans\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe Ancestral Puebloans were a Native American culture centered on the present-day Four Corners area of the United States. They were the first people known to live in the Grand Canyon area. The cultural group has often been referred to in archaeology as the Anasazi, although the term is not preferred by the modern Puebloan peoples. The word \\\"Anasazi\\\" is Navajo for \\\"Ancient Ones\\\" or \\\"Ancient Enemy\\\".\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nArchaeologists still debate when this distinct culture emerged. The current consensus, based on terminology defined by the Pecos Classification, suggests their emergence was around 1200 during the Basketmaker II Era. Beginning with the earliest explorations and excavations, researchers have believed that the Ancient Puebloans are ancestors of the modern Pueblo peoples.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIn addition to the Ancestral Puebloans, a number of distinct cultures have inhabited the Grand Canyon area. The Cohonina lived to the west of the Grand Canyon, between 500 and 1200 . The Cohonina were ancestors of the Yuman, Havasupai, and Walapai peoples who inhabit the area today.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe Sinagua were a cultural group occupying an area to the southeast of the Grand Canyon, between the Little Colorado River and the Salt River, between approximately 500 and 1425 . The Sinagua may have been ancestors of several Hopi clans.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nBy the time of the arrival of Europeans in the 16thcentury, newer cultures had evolved. The Hualapai inhabit a 100 mi stretch along the pine-clad southern side of the Grand Canyon. The Havasupai have been living in the area near Cataract Canyon since the beginning of the 13thcentury, occupying an area the size of Delaware. The Southern Paiutes live in what is now southern Utah and northern Arizona. The Navajo, or Diné, live in a wide area stretching from the San Francisco Peaks eastwards towards the Four Corners. Archaeological and linguistic evidence suggests the Navajo descended from the Athabaskan people near Great Slave Lake, Canada, who migrated after the 11thcentury.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nEuropean arrival and settlement\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nSpanish explorers\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIn September 1540, under orders from the conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado to search for the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola, Captain García López de Cárdenas, along with Hopi guides and a small group of Spanish soldiers, traveled to the South Rim of the Grand Canyon between Desert View and Moran Point. Pablo de Melgrossa, Juan Galeras, and a third soldier descended some one third of the way into the Canyon until they were forced to return because of lack of water. In their report, they noted that some of the rocks in the Canyon were \\\"bigger than the great tower of Seville, Giralda \\\" It is speculated that their Hopi guides likely knew routes to the canyon floor, but may have been reluctant to lead the Spanish to the river. No Europeans visited the Canyon again for more than two hundred years.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nFathers Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante were two Spanish priests who, with a group of Spanish soldiers, explored southern Utah and traveled along the North Rim of the Canyon in Glen and Marble Canyons in search of a route from Santa Fe to California in 1776. They eventually found a crossing, formerly known as the \\\"Crossing of the Fathers,\\\" that today lies under Lake Powell.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nAlso in 1776, Fray Francisco Garces, a Franciscan missionary, spent a week near Havasupai, unsuccessfully attempting to convert a band of Native Americans to Christianity. He described the Canyon as \\\"profound\\\".\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nAmerican exploration\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nJames Ohio Pattie, along with a group of American trappers and mountain men, may have been the next European to reach the Canyon, in 1826.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nJacob Hamblin, a Mormon missionary, was sent by Brigham Young in the 1850s to locate suitable river crossing sites in the Canyon. Building good relations with local Native Americans Hualapai Nation and white settlers, he found the Crossing of the Fathers, and the locations what would become Lees Ferry in 1858 and Pearce Ferry (later operated by, and named for, Harrison Pearce) – only the latter two sites suitable for ferry operation. He also acted as an advisor to John Wesley Powell before his second expedition to the Grand Canyon, serving as a diplomat between Powell and the local native tribes to ensure the safety of his party.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIn 1857, Edward Fitzgerald Beale was superintendent of an expedition to survey a wagon road along the 35th parallel from Fort Defiance, Arizona to the Colorado River. He led a small party of men in search of water on the Coconino Plateau near the Canyon's South Rim. On September 19, near present-day National Canyon, they came upon what May Humphreys Stacey described in his journal as \\\"...a wonderful canyon four thousand feet deep. Everyone (in the party) admitted that he never before saw anything to match or equal this astonishing natural curiosity.\\\"\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nAlso in 1857, the U.S. War Department asked Lieutenant Joseph Ives to lead an expedition to assess the feasibility of an up-river navigation from the Gulf of California. Also in a stern wheeler steamboat \\\"Explorer\\\", after two months and 350 mi of difficult navigation, his party reached Black Canyon some two months after George Johnson. The \\\"Explorer\\\" struck a rock and was abandoned. Ives led his party east into the Canyon — they may have been the first Europeans to travel the Diamond Creek drainage and traveled eastwards along the South Rim. In his \\\"Colorado River of the West\\\" report to the Senate in 1861 he states that \\\"One or two trappers profess to have seen the canyon.\\\"\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nAccording to the San Francisco Herald, in a series of articles run in 1853, Captain Joseph R. Walker in January 1851 with his nephew James T. Walker and six men, traveled up the Colorado River to a point where it joined the Virgin River and continued east into Arizona, traveling along the Grand Canyon and making short exploratory side trips along the way. Walker is reported to have said he wanted to visit the Moqui Indians, as the Hopi were then called by whites. He had met these people briefly in previous years, thought them exceptionally interesting and wanted to become better acquainted. The Herald reporter then reported: \\\"We believe that Capt. Joe Walker is the only white man in this country that has ever visited this strange people.\\\"\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIn 1858, John Strong Newberry became probably the first geologist to visit the Grand Canyon.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIn 1869, Major John Wesley Powell led the first expedition down the Canyon. Powell set out to explore the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon. Gathering nine men, four boats and food for 10 months, he set out from Green River, Wyoming on May 24. Passing through (or portaging around) a series of dangerous rapids, the group passed down the Green River to its confluence with the Colorado River, near present-day Moab, Utah and completed the journey with many hardships through the Grand Canyon on August 13, 1869. In 1871 Powell first used the term \\\"Grand Canyon\\\"; previously it had been called the \\\"Big Canyon\\\".\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIn 1889, Frank M. Brown wanted to build a railroad along the Colorado River to carry coal. He, his chief engineer Robert Brewster Stanton, and 14 others started to explore the Grand Canyon in poorly designed cedar wood boats, with no life preservers. Brown drowned in an accident near Marble Canyon: Stanton made new boats and proceeded to explore the Colorado all of the way to the Gulf of California.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe Grand Canyon became an official national monument in 1908 and a national park in 1919.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nSettlers in and near the canyon\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\n* Miners: \\\"Captain\\\" John Hance, William W. Bass, Louis Boucher \\\"The Hermit\\\", Seth Tanner, Charles Spencer, D. W. \\\"James\\\" Mooney\\n* Lees Ferry: John Doyle Lee, Emma Lee French (17th of John Lee's 19 wives), J. S. Emmett, Charles Spencer\\n* Phantom Ranch: David Rust, Mary Colter\\n* Grand Canyon Village: Ralph H. Cameron, Emery & Ellsworth Kolb\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nFederal protection\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nU.S. President Theodore Roosevelt visited the Grand Canyon in 1903. An avid outdoorsman and staunch conservationist, he established the Grand Canyon Game Preserve on November 28, 1906. Livestock grazing was reduced, but predators such as mountain lions, eagles, and wolves were eradicated. Roosevelt added adjacent national forest lands and redesignated the preserve a U.S. National Monument on January 11, 1908. Opponents such as land and mining claim holders blocked efforts to reclassify the monument as a U.S. National Park for 11 years. Grand Canyon National Park was finally established as the 17th U.S. National Park by an Act of Congress signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on February 26, 1919.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe federal government administrators who manage park resources face many challenges. These include issues related to the recent reintroduction into the wild of the highly endangered California condor, air tour overflight noise levels, water rights disputes with various tribal reservations that border the park, and forest fire management. The Grand Canyon National Park superintendent is Steve Martin, appointed on February 5, 2007 to replace retiring superintendent Joe Alston. Martin was previously the National Park Service Deputy Director and superintendent of several other national parks, including Denali and Grand Teton. Federal officials started a flood in the Grand Canyon in hopes of restoring its ecosystem on March 5, 2008. The canyon's ecosystem was permanently changed after the construction of the Glen Canyon Dam in 1963.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nBetween 2003 and 2011, 2,215 mining claims had been requested that are adjacent to the Canyon, including claims for uranium mines. Mining has been suspended since 2009, when U.S. Interior Secretary Ken Salazar withdrew 1 e6acre from the permitting process, pending assessment of the environmental impact of mining. Critics of the mines are concerned that, once mined, the uranium will leach into the water of the Colorado River and contaminate the water supply for up to 18 million people. Salazar's so-called \\\"Northern Arizona Withdrawal\\\" is a 20-year moratorium on new mines, but allows existing mines to continue. In 2012, the federal government stopped new mines in the area, which was upheld by the U.S. District Court for Arizona in 2014, but appealed by the National Mining Association, joined by the state of Arizona under Attorney General Mark Brnovich as well as Utah, Montana and Nevada. National Mining Association v. Jewell is pending before the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals as of September 2015.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nSouth Rim buildings\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThere are several historic buildings located along the South Rim with most in the vicinity of Grand Canyon Village.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\n* Buckey O'Neill Cabin was built during the 1890s by William Owen \\\"Buckey\\\" O'Neill. He built the cabin because of a copper deposit that was nearby. He had several occupations such as miner, judge, politician, author and tour guide. This cabin is the longest continually standing structure on the South Rim. It is currently used as a guest house; booking is required well in advance. * Kolb Studio was built in 1904 by brothers Ellsworth and Emery Kolb. They were photographers who made a living by photographing visitors walking down the Bright Angel Trail. In 1911, the Kolb brothers filmed their journey down the Green and Colorado Rivers. Emery Kolb showed this movie regularly in his studio until 1976, when he died at the age of 95. Today the building serves as an art gallery and exhibit. * The El Tovar Hotel was built in 1905 and is the most luxurious lodging on the South Rim. The hotel consists of 4 stories with a rustic chalet appearance called \\\"National Park Rustic.\\\" It was designed by Charles Whittlesley. A gift shop and restaurant are located inside the hotel. * Hopi House was built by Mary Jane Colter in 1905.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIt is based on structures that were built in an ancient Hopi settlement called Old Oraibi, located on the Third Mesa in eastern Arizona. It served as a residence for the Hopi Indians who sold arts and crafts to South Rim visitors. * Verkamp's Curios, which stands next to the Hopi House, was built by John Verkamp in 1905. He sold arts and crafts as well as souvenirs. Until September 2008, it was run by his descendants; in November 2008, the building reopened as a visitor center focusing on the history of the Grand Canyon Village community.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\n*Grand Canyon Railway Depot was completed in 1910 and contains 2 levels. Gordon Chappell, Regional Historian for the Park Service, claims that this depot building is one of only three log-cabin-style train stations currently standing, out of fourteen ever built in the U.S. The depot is the northern terminus of the Grand Canyon Railway which begins in Williams, Arizona. *Lookout Studio, another Mary Colter design, was built in 1914. Photography, artwork, books, souvenirs, and rock and fossil specimens are sold here. A great view of Bright Angel Trail can be seen here. *Desert View Watchtower, one of Mary Colter's best-known works, was built in 1932. Situated at the far eastern end of the South Rim, 27 miles (43 km) from Grand Canyon Village, the tower stands 70 ft tall. The top of the tower is 7522 ft above sea level, the highest point on the South Rim. It offers one of the few full views of the bottom of the Canyon and the Colorado River. It was designed to mimic Anasazi watchtowers, though, with four levels, it is significantly taller than historical towers. *Bright Angel Lodge was built of logs and stone in 1935.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nMary Colter designed the lodge and it was built by the Fred Harvey Company. Inside the lodge is a small museum honoring Fred Harvey (June 27, 1835 – February 9, 1901), who played a major role in popularizing the Grand Canyon. In the History Room is a stone fireplace layered in the same sequence as those in the canyon.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nWeather\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nWeather in the Grand Canyon varies according to elevation. The forested rims are high enough to receive winter snowfall, but along the Colorado River in the Inner Gorge, temperatures are similar to those found in Tucson and other low elevation desert locations in Arizona. Conditions in the Grand Canyon region are generally dry, but substantial precipitation occurs twice annually, during seasonal pattern shifts in winter (when Pacific storms usually deliver widespread, moderate rain and high-elevation snow to the region from the west) and in late summer (due to the North American Monsoon, which delivers waves of moisture from the southeast, causing dramatic, localized thunderstorms fueled by the heat of the day). Average annual precipitation on the South Rim is less than 16 in, with 60 in of snow; the higher North Rim usually receives 27 in of moisture, with a typical snowfall of 144 in; and Phantom Ranch, far below the Canyon's rims along the Colorado River at 2,500 feet (762 m) gets just 8 in of rain, and snow is a rarity.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nTemperatures vary wildly throughout the year, with summer highs within the Inner Gorge commonly exceeding 100 °F (37.8 °C) and winter minimum temperatures sometimes falling below zero degrees Fahrenheit (−17.8 °C) along the canyon's rims. Visitors are often surprised by these potentially extreme conditions, and this, along with the high altitude of the canyon's rims, can lead to unpleasant side effects such as dehydration, sunburn, and hypothermia.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nWeather conditions can greatly affect hiking and canyon exploration, and visitors should obtain accurate forecasts because of hazards posed by exposure to extreme temperatures, winter storms and late summer monsoons. While the park service posts weather information at gates and visitor centers, this is a rough approximation only, and should not be relied upon for trip planning. For accurate weather in the Canyon, hikers should consult the National Weather Service's NOAA weather radio or the official National Weather Service website.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe National Weather Service has had a cooperative station on the South Rim since 1903. The record high temperature on the South Rim was 105 °F (41 °C) on June 26, 1974, and the record low temperature was −20 °F (−29 °C) on January 1, 1919, February 1, 1985, and December 23, 1990.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nAir quality\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe Grand Canyon area has some of the cleanest air in the United States.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nHowever at times the air quality can be considerably affected by events such as forest fires and dust storms in the Southwest.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nWhat effect there is on air quality and visibility in the Canyon has been mainly from sulfates, soils, and organics. The sulfates largely result from urban emissions in southern California, borne on the prevailing westerly winds throughout much of the year, and emissions from Arizona’s copper smelter region, borne on southerly or southeasterly winds during the monsoon season. Airborne soils originate with windy conditions and road dust. Organic particles result from vehicle emissions, long-range transport from urban areas, and forest fires, as well as from VOCs emitted by vegetation in the surrounding forests. Nitrates, carried in from urban areas, stationary sources, and vehicle emissions; as well as black carbon from forest fires and vehicle emissions, also contribute to a lesser extent.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nA number of actions have been taken to preserve and further improve air quality and visibility at the Canyon.\\nIn 1990, amendments to the Clean Air Act established the Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission (GCVTC) to advise the US EPA on strategies for protecting visual air quality on the Colorado Plateau. The GCVTC released its final report in 1996 and initiated the Western Regional Air Partnership (WRAP), a partnership of state, tribal and federal agencies to help coordinate implementation of the Commission’s recommendations.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIn 1999, the Regional Haze Rule established a goal of restoring visibility in national parks and wilderness areas (Class 1 areas), such as the Grand Canyon, to natural background levels by 2064. Subsequent revisions to the rule provide specific requirements for making reasonable progress toward that goal.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIn the early 1990s, studies indicated that emissions of SO2, a sulfate precursor, from the Navajo Generating Station affected visibility in the Canyon mainly in the winter, and which if controlled would improve wintertime visibility by 2 to 7%.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nAs a result, scrubbers were added to the plant’s three units in 1997 through 1999, reducing SO2 emissions by more than 90%. The plant also installed low-NOx SOFA burners in 2009 -2011, reducing emissions of NOx, a nitrate precursor, by 40%.\\nEmissions from the Mohave Generating Station to the west were similarly found to affect visibility in the Canyon. The plant was required to have installed SO2 scrubbers, but was instead shut down in 2005, completely eliminating its emissions.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nPrescribed fires are typically conducted in the spring and fall in the forests adjacent to the Canyon to reduce the potential for severe forest fires and resulting smoke conditions. Although prescribed fires also affect air quality, the controlled conditions allow the use of management techniques to minimize their impact.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nBiology and ecology\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nPlants\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThere are approximately 1,737 known species of vascular plants, 167 species of fungi, 64 species of moss and 195 species of lichen found in Grand Canyon National Park. This variety is largely due to the elevation change from the Colorado River up to the highest point on the North Rim. Grand Canyon boasts a dozen endemic plants (known only within the Park's boundaries) while only ten percent of the Park's flora is exotic. Sixty-three plants found here have been given special status by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe Mojave Desert influences the western sections of the canyon, Sonoran Desert vegetation covers the eastern sections, and ponderosa and pinyon pine forests grow on both rims.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nNatural seeps and springs percolating out of the canyon walls are home to 11% of all the plant species found in the Grand Canyon. The Canyon itself can act as a connection between the east and the west by providing corridors of appropriate habitat along its length. The canyon can also be a genetic barrier to some species, like the tassel-eared squirrel.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe aspect, or direction a slope faces, also plays a major role in adding diversity to the Grand Canyon. North-facing slopes receive about one-third the normal amount of sunlight, so plants growing there are similar to plants found at higher elevations, or in more northern latitudes. The south-facing slopes receive the full amount of sunlight and are covered in vegetation typical of the Sonoran Desert.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nAnimals\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nOf the 34 mammal species found along the Colorado River corridor, 18 are rodents and eight are bats.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nLife zones and communities\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe Park contains several major ecosystems. Its great biological diversity can be attributed to the presence of five of the seven life zones and three of the four desert types in North America. The five life zones represented are the Lower Sonoran, Upper Sonoran, Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian. This is equivalent to traveling from Mexico to Canada. Differences in elevation and the resulting variations in climate are the major factors that form the various life zones and communities in and around the canyon. Grand Canyon National Park contains 129 vegetation communities, and the composition and distribution of plant species is influenced by climate, geomorphology and geology.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nLower Sonoran\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe Lower Sonoran life zone spans from the Colorado River up to 3500 ft. Along the Colorado River and its perennial tributaries, a riparian community exists. Coyote willow, arrowweed, seep-willow, western honey mesquite, catclaw acacia, and exotic tamarisk (saltcedar) are the predominant species. Hanging gardens, seeps and springs often contain rare plants such as the white-flowering western redbud, stream orchid, and McDougall's flaveria. Endangered fish in the river include the humpback chub and the razorback sucker.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe three most common amphibians in these riparian communities are the canyon tree frog, red-spotted toad, and Woodhouse’s Rocky Mountain toad. Leopard frogs are very rare in the Colorado River corridor, and are known to exist at only a few sites. There are 33 crustacean species found in the Colorado River and its tributaries within Grand Canyon National Park. Of these 33, 16 are considered true zooplankton organisms.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nOnly 48 bird species regularly nest along the river, while others use the river as a migration corridor or as overwintering habitat. The bald eagle is one species that uses the river corridor as winter habitat.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nRiver otters may have disappeared from the park in late 20th century, and muskrats are extremely rare. Beavers cut willows, cottonwoods, and shrubs for food, and can significantly affect the riparian vegetation. Other rodents, such as antelope squirrels and pocket mice, are mostly omnivorous, using many different vegetation types. Grand Canyon bats typically roost in desert uplands, but forage on the abundance of insects along the river and its tributaries. In addition to bats, coyotes, ringtails, and spotted skunks are the most numerous riparian predators and prey on invertebrates, rodents, and reptiles.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nRaccoons, weasels, bobcats, gray foxes, and mountain lions are also present, but are much more rare. Mule deer and desert bighorn sheep are the ungulates that frequent the river corridor. Since the removal of 500 feral burros in the early 1980s, bighorn sheep numbers have rebounded. Mule deer are generally not permanent residents along the river, but travel down from the rim when food and water resources there become scarce.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe insect species commonly found in the river corridor and tributaries are midges, caddis flies, mayflies, stoneflies, black flies, mites, beetles, butterflies, moths, and fire ants. Numerous species of spiders and several species of scorpions including the bark scorpion and the giant desert hairy scorpion inhabit the riparian zone.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nEleven aquatic and 26 terrestrial species of mollusks have been identified in and around Grand Canyon National Park. Of the aquatic species, two are bivalves (clams) and nine are gastropods (snails). Twenty-six species of terrestrial gastropods have been identified, primarily land snails and slugs.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThere are approximately 47 reptile species in Grand Canyon National Park. Ten are considered common along the river corridor and include lizards and snakes. Lizard density tends to be highest along the stretch of land between the water's edge and the beginning of the upland desert community. The two largest lizards in the Canyon are gila monsters and chuckwallas. Many snake species, which are not directly dependent on surface water, may be found both within the inner gorge and the Colorado River corridor. Six rattlesnake species have been recorded in the park.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nAbove the river corridor a desert scrub community, composed of North American desert flora, thrives. Typical warm desert species such as creosote bush, white bursage, brittlebush, catclaw acacia, ocotillo, mariola, western honey mesquite, four-wing saltbush, big sagebrush, blackbrush and rubber rabbitbrush grow in this community. The mammalian fauna in the woodland scrub community consists of 50 species, mostly rodents and bats. Three of the five Park woodrat species live in the desert scrub community.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nExcept for the western (desert) banded gecko, which seems to be distributed only near water along the Colorado River, all of the reptiles found near the river also appear in the uplands, but in lower densities. The desert gopher tortoise, a threatened species, inhabits the desert scrublands in the western end of the park.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nSome of the common insects found at elevations above are orange paper wasps, honey bees, black flies, tarantula hawks, stink bugs, beetles, black ants, and monarch and swallowtail butterflies. Solifugids, wood spiders, garden spiders, black widow spiders and tarantulas can be found in the desert scrub and higher elevations.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nUpper Sonoran and Transition\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe Upper Sonoran Life Zone includes most of the inner canyon and South Rim at elevations from 3500 to. This zone is generally dominated by blackbrush, sagebrush, and pinyon-juniper woodlands. Elevations of 3500 to are in the Mojave Desert Scrub community of the Upper Sonoran. This community is dominated by the four-winged saltbush and creosote bush; other important plants include Utah agave, narrowleaf mesquite, ratany, catclaw acacia, and various cacti species.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nApproximately 30 bird species breed primarily in the desert uplands and cliffs of the inner canyon. Virtually all bird species present breed in other suitable habitats throughout the Sonoran and Mohave deserts. The abundance of bats, swifts, and riparian birds provides ample food for peregrines, and suitable eyrie sites are plentiful along the steep canyon walls. Also, several critically endangered California condors that were re-introduced to the Colorado Plateau on the Arizona Strip, have made the eastern part of the Park their home.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe conifer forests provide habitat for 52 mammal species. Porcupines, shrews, red squirrels, tassel eared Kaibab and Abert's squirrels, black bear, mule deer, and elk are found at the park's higher elevations on the Kaibab Plateau.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nAbove the desert scrub and up to 6200 ft is a pinyon pine forest and one seed juniper woodland. Within this woodland one can find big sagebrush, snakeweed, Mormon tea, Utah agave, banana and narrowleaf Yucca, winterfat, Indian ricegrass, dropseed, and needlegrass. There are a variety of snakes and lizards here, but one species of reptile, the mountain short-horned lizard, is a particularly abundant inhabitant of the piñon-juniper and ponderosa pine forests.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nPonderosa pine forests grow at elevations between 6500 and, on both North and South rims in the Transition life zone. The South Rim includes species such as gray fox, mule deer, bighorn sheep, rock squirrels, pinyon pine and Utah juniper. Additional species such as Gambel oak, New Mexico locust, mountain mahogany, elderberry, creeping mahonia, and fescue have been identified in these forests. The Utah tiger salamander and the Great Basin spadefoot toad are two amphibians that are common in the rim forests. Of the approximately 90 bird species that breed in the coniferous forests, 51 are summer residents and at least 15 of these are known to be neotropical migrants.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nCanadian and Hudsonian\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nElevations of are in the Canadian Life Zone, which includes the North Rim and the Kaibab Plateau. Spruce-fir forests characterized by Engelmann spruce, blue spruce, Douglas fir, white fir, aspen, and mountain ash, along with several species of perennial grasses, groundsels, yarrow, cinquefoil, lupines, sedges, and asters, grow in this sub-alpine climate. Mountain lions, Kaibab squirrels, and northern goshawks are found here.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nMontane meadows and subalpine grassland communities of the Hudsonian life zone are rare and located only on the North Rim. Both are typified by many grass species. Some of these grasses include blue and black grama, big galleta, Indian ricegrass and three-awns. The wettest areas support sedges and forbs.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nGrand Canyon tourism\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nGrand Canyon National Park is one of the world's premier natural attractions, attracting about five million visitors per year. Overall, 83% were from the United States: California (12.2%), Arizona (8.9%), Texas (4.8%), Florida (3.4%) and New York (3.2%) represented the top domestic visitors. Seventeen percent of visitors were from outside the United States; the most prominently represented nations were the United Kingdom (3.8%), Canada (3.5%), Japan (2.1%), Germany (1.9%) and The Netherlands (1.2%). \\nThe South Rim is open all year round weather permitting. The North Rim is generally open mid-May to mid-October.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nActivities\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nAside from casual sightseeing from the South Rim (averaging 7,000 feet [2,100 m] above sea level), skydiving, rafting, hiking, running, and helicopter tours are popular. The Grand Canyon Ultra Marathon is a 78 mi race over 24 hours. The floor of the valley is accessible by foot, muleback, or by boat or raft from upriver. Hiking down to the river and back up to the rim in one day is discouraged by park officials because of the distance, steep and rocky trails, change in elevation, and danger of heat exhaustion from the much higher temperatures at the bottom. Rescues are required annually of unsuccessful rim-to-river-to-rim travelers. Nevertheless, hundreds of fit and experienced hikers complete the trip every year.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nCamping on the North and South Rims is generally restricted to established campgrounds and reservations are highly recommended, especially at the busier South Rim. There is at large camping available along many parts of the North Rim managed by Kaibab National Forest. North Rim campsites are only open seasonally due to road closures from weather and winter snowpack. All overnight camping below the rim requires a backcountry permit from the Backcountry Office (BCO). Each year Grand Canyon National Park receives approximately 30,000 requests for backcountry permits. The park issues 13,000 permits, and close to 40,000 people camp overnight. The earliest a permit application is accepted is the first of the month, four months before the proposed start month.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nTourists wishing for a more vertical perspective can go skydiving, board helicopters and small airplanes in Boulder, Las Vegas, Phoenix and Grand Canyon National Park Airport (seven miles from the South Rim) for canyon flyovers. Scenic flights are no longer allowed to fly within 1500 feet of the rim within the national park because of a late 1990s crash. The last aerial video footage from below the rim was filmed in 1984. However, some helicopter flights land on the Havasupai and Hualapai Indian Reservations within Grand Canyon (outside of the park boundaries).\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIn 2007, the Hualapai Tribe opened the glass-bottomed Grand Canyon Skywalk on their property, Grand Canyon West. The Skywalk has seen mixed reviews since the site is only accessible by driving down a 10 mi dirt road, costs a minimum of $85 in total for reservation fees, a tour package and admission to the Skywalk itself and the fact that cameras or other personal equipment are not permitted on the Skywalk at any time due to the hazard of damaging the glass if dropped. The Skywalk is about 250 mi by road from Grand Canyon Village at the South Rim. \\t\\nThe skywalk has attracted \\\"thousands of visitors a year, most from Las Vegas\\\".\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIn 2016 Skydiving at the Grand Canyon become possible with the first Grand Canyon Skydiving operation opening up at the Grand Canyon National Park Airport, on the South rim.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIn 2014, a developer announced plans to build a multimedia complex on the canyon's rim called the Grand Canyon Escalade. On 420 acres there would be shops, an IMAX theater, hotels and an RV park. A gondola would enable easy visits to the canyon floor where a \\\"riverwalk\\\" of \\\"connected walkways, an eatery, a tramway station, a seating area and a wastewater package plant\\\" would be situated. Navajo Nation President Ben Shelly has indicated agreement; the tribe would have to invest $65 million for road, water and communication facilities for the $1 billion complex. One of the developers is Navajo and has cited an 8 to 18 percent share of the gross revenue for the tribe as an incentive.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nViewing the canyon\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nLipan Point is a promontory located on the South Rim. This point is located to the east of the Grand Canyon Village along the Desert View Drive. There is a parking lot for visitors who care to drive along with the Canyon's bus service that routinely stops at the point. The trailhead to the Tanner Trail is located just before the parking lot. The view from Lipan Point shows a wide array of rock strata and the Unkar Creek area in the inner canyon.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe canyon can be seen from the Toroweap (or Tuweep) Overlook situated 3000 vertical feet above the Colorado River, about 50 miles downriver from the South Rim and 70 upriver from the Grand Canyon Skywalk. This region — \\\"one of the most remote in the United States\\\" according to the National Park Service — is reached only by one of three lengthy dirt tracks beginning in from St. George, Utah, Colorado City or near Pipe Spring National Monument (both in Arizona). Each road traverses wild, uninhabited land for 97, 62 and 64 miles respectively. The Park Service manages the area for primitive value with minimal improvements and services.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nGrand Canyon fatalities\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nAbout 600 deaths have occurred in the Grand Canyon since the 1870s. Some of these deaths occurred as the result of overly zealous photographic endeavors, some were the result of airplane collisions within the canyon, and some visitors drowned in the Colorado River.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nOf the fatalities, 53 have resulted from falls; 65 deaths were attributable to environmental causes, including heat stroke, cardiac arrest, dehydration, and hypothermia; 7 were caught in flash floods; 79 were drowned in the Colorado River; 242 perished in airplane and helicopter crashes (128 of them in the 1956 disaster mentioned below); 25 died in freak errors and accidents, including lightning strikes and rock falls; and 23 were the victims of homicides.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\n1956 air disaster\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nIn 1956 the Grand Canyon was the site of the deadliest commercial aviation disaster in history at the time.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nOn the morning of June 30, 1956, a TWA Lockheed Super Constellation and a United Airlines Douglas DC-7 departed Los Angeles International Airport within three minutes of one another on eastbound transcontinental flights. Approximately 90 minutes later, the two propeller-driven airliners collided above the canyon while both were flying in unmonitored airspace.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThe wreckage of both planes fell into the eastern portion of the canyon, on Temple and Chuar Buttes, near the confluence of the Colorado and Little Colorado rivers. The disaster killed all 128 passengers and crew members aboard both planes.\",\n \"Grand Canyon\\n\\nThis accident led to the institution of high-altitude airways and positive control by en route ground controllers.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico (the other being the Rio Grande). The 1,450-mile (2,330 km) Colorado River drains an expansive, arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. and two Mexican states. Starting in the central Rocky Mountains in the U.S., the river flows generally southwest across the Colorado Plateau and through the Grand Canyon before reaching Lake Mead on the Arizona–Nevada border, where it turns south toward the international border. After entering Mexico, the Colorado approaches the large Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nKnown for its dramatic canyons and whitewater rapids, the Colorado is a vital source of water for agricultural and urban areas in much of the southwestern desert lands of North America. The river and its tributaries are controlled by an extensive system of dams, reservoirs, and aqueducts, which in most years divert its entire flow to furnish irrigation and municipal water supply for almost 40 million people both inside and outside the watershed. The Colorado's large flow and steep gradient are used for generating hydroelectric power, and its major dams regulate peaking power demands in much of the Intermountain West. This intensive consumption has dried up the lower 100 mi of the river, such that it has reached the sea only a few times since the 1960s.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nBeginning with small bands of nomadic hunter-gatherers, Native Americans have inhabited the Colorado River basin for at least 8,000 years. Between 2,000 and 1,000 years ago, the river and its tributaries fostered large agricultural civilizations, which may have been some of the most sophisticated indigenous cultures in North America. These societies are believed to have collapsed because of a combination of severe drought and poor land use practices. Most native peoples that inhabit the basin today are descended from other groups that settled in the region beginning about 1,000 years ago. Europeans first entered the Colorado Basin in the 16th century, when explorers from Spain began mapping and claiming the area, which later became part of Mexico upon its independence in 1821. Early contact between foreigners and natives was generally limited to the fur trade in the headwaters and sporadic trade interactions along the lower river.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nAfter the greater Colorado River basin became part of the U.S. in 1846, the bulk of the river's course was still largely the subject of myths and speculation. Several expeditions charted the Colorado in the mid-19th century, one of which, led by John Wesley Powell in 1869, was the first to run the rapids of the Grand Canyon. American explorers collected valuable information that would later be used to develop the river for navigation and water supply. Large-scale settlement of the lower basin began in the mid- to late-19th century, with steamboats providing transportation from the Gulf of California to landings along the Colorado River that linked to wagon roads into the interior of New Mexico Territory. Lesser numbers settled in the upper basin, which was the scene of major gold strikes in the 1860s and 1870s.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nMajor engineering of the river basin began around the start of the 20th century, with many guidelines established in a series of domestic and international treaties known as the \\\"Law of the River\\\". The U.S. federal government was the main driving force behind the construction of hydraulic engineering projects in the river system, although many state and local water agencies were also involved. Most of the major dams in the river basin were built between 1910 and 1970, and the system keystone, Hoover Dam, was completed in 1935. The Colorado is now considered among the most controlled and litigated rivers in the world, with every drop of its water fully allocated.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe damming and diversion of the Colorado River system have been opposed by the environmental movement in the American Southwest because of the detrimental effect on the ecology and natural beauty of the river and its tributaries. During the construction of Glen Canyon Dam, environmental organizations vowed to block any further development of the river, and a number of later dam and aqueduct proposals were defeated by citizen opposition. As demands for Colorado River water continue to rise, the level of human development and control of the river continues to generate controversy.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nCourse\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe Colorado begins at La Poudre Pass in the Southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado, at just under 2 mi above sea level. After a short run south, the river turns west below Grand Lake, the largest natural lake in the state. For the first 250 mi of its course, the Colorado carves its way through the mountainous Western Slope, a sparsely populated region defined by the portion of the state west of the Continental Divide. As it flows southwest, it gains strength from many small tributaries, as well as larger ones including the Blue, Eagle and Roaring Fork rivers. After passing through De Beque Canyon, the Colorado emerges from the Rockies into the Grand Valley, a major farming and ranching region where it meets one of its largest tributaries, the Gunnison River, at Grand Junction. Most of the upper river is a swift whitewater stream ranging from 200 to wide, the depth ranging from 6 to, with a few notable exceptions, such as the Blackrocks reach where the river is nearly 100 ft deep. In a few areas, such as the marshy Kawuneeche Valley near the headwaters and the Grand Valley, it exhibits braided characteristics.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nArcing northwest, the Colorado begins to cut across the eponymous Colorado Plateau, a vast area of high desert centered at the Four Corners of the southwestern United States. Here, the climate becomes significantly drier than that in the Rocky Mountains, and the river becomes entrenched in progressively deeper gorges of bare rock, beginning with Ruby Canyon and then Westwater Canyon as it enters Utah, now once again heading southwest. Farther downstream it receives the Dolores River and defines the southern border of Arches National Park, before passing Moab and flowing through \\\"The Portal\\\", where it exits the Moab Valley between a pair of 1000 ft sandstone cliffs.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIn Utah, the Colorado flows primarily through the \\\"slickrock\\\" country, which is characterized by its narrow canyons and unique \\\"folds\\\" created by the tilting of sedimentary rock layers along faults. This is one of the most inaccessible regions of the continental United States. Below the confluence with the Green River, its largest tributary, in Canyonlands National Park, the Colorado enters Cataract Canyon, named for its dangerous rapids, and then Glen Canyon, known for its arches and erosion-sculpted Navajo sandstone formations. Here, the San Juan River, carrying runoff from the southern slope of Colorado's San Juan Mountains, joins the Colorado from the east. The Colorado then enters northern Arizona, where since the 1960s Glen Canyon Dam near Page has flooded the Glen Canyon reach of the river, forming Lake Powell for water supply and hydroelectricity generation.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIn Arizona, the river passes Lee's Ferry, an important crossing for early explorers and settlers and since the early 20th century the principal point where Colorado River flows are measured for apportionment to the seven U.S. and two Mexican states in the basin. Downstream, the river enters Marble Canyon, the beginning of the Grand Canyon, passing under the Navajo Bridges on a now southward course. Below the confluence with the Little Colorado River, the river swings west into Granite Gorge, the most dramatic portion of the Grand Canyon, where the river cuts up to 1 mi into the Colorado Plateau, exposing some of the oldest visible rocks on Earth, dating as long ago as 2 billion years. The 277 mi of the river that flow through the Grand Canyon are largely encompassed by Grand Canyon National Park and are known for their difficult whitewater, separated by pools that reach up to 110 ft in depth.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nAt the lower end of Grand Canyon, the Colorado widens into Lake Mead, the largest reservoir in the continental United States, formed by Hoover Dam on the border of Arizona and Nevada. Situated southeast of metropolitan Las Vegas, the dam is an integral component for management of the Colorado River, controlling floods and storing water for farms and cities in the lower Colorado River basin. Below the dam the river passes under the Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge – which at nearly 900 ft above the water is the highest concrete arch bridge in the Western Hemisphere – and then turns due south towards Mexico, defining the Arizona–Nevada and Arizona–California borders.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nAfter leaving the confines of the Black Canyon, the river emerges from the Colorado Plateau into the Lower Colorado River Valley (LCRV), a desert region dependent on irrigation agriculture and tourism and also home to several major Indian reservations. The river widens here to a broad, moderately deep waterway averaging 500 to wide and reaching up to across, with depths ranging from 8 to. Before channelization of the Colorado in the 20th century, the lower river was subject to frequent course changes caused by seasonal flow variations. Joseph C. Ives, who surveyed the lower river in 1861, wrote that \\\"the shifting of the channel, the banks, the islands, the bars is so continual and rapid that a detailed description, derived from the experiences of one trip, would be found incorrect, not only during the subsequent year, but perhaps in the course of a week, or even a day.\\\"\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe LCRV is one of the most densely populated areas along the river, and there are numerous towns including Bullhead City, Arizona, Needles, California, and Lake Havasu City, Arizona. Here, many diversions draw from the river, providing water for both local uses and distant regions including the Salt River Valley of Arizona and metropolitan Southern California. The last major U.S. diversion is at Imperial Dam, where over 90 percent of the river's remaining flow is moved into the All-American Canal to irrigate California's Imperial Valley, the most productive winter agricultural region in the United States.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nBelow Imperial Dam, only a small portion of the Colorado River makes it beyond Yuma, Arizona, and the confluence with the intermittent Gila River – which carries runoff from western New Mexico and most of Arizona – before defining about 24 mi of the Mexico–United States border. At Morelos Dam, the entire remaining flow of the Colorado is diverted to irrigate the Mexicali Valley, among Mexico's most fertile agricultural lands. Below San Luis Río Colorado, the Colorado passes entirely into Mexico, defining the Baja California–Sonora border; in most years, the stretch of the Colorado between here and the Gulf of California is dry or a trickle formed by irrigation return flows. The Hardy River provides most of the flow into the Colorado River Delta, a vast alluvial floodplain covering about 3000 mi2 of northwestern Mexico. A large estuary is formed here before the Colorado empties into the Gulf about 75 mi south of Yuma. Before 20th-century development dewatered the lower Colorado, a major tidal bore was present in the delta and estuary; the first historical record was made by the Croatian missionary in Spanish service Father Ferdinand Konščak on July 18, 1746.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nDuring spring tide conditions, the tidal bore – locally called El Burro – formed in the estuary about Montague Island in Baja California and propagated upstream.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nMajor tributaries\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe Colorado is joined by over 25 significant tributaries, of which the Green River is the largest by both length and discharge. The Green takes drainage from the Wind River Range of west-central Wyoming, from Utah's Uinta Mountains, and from the Rockies of northwestern Colorado. The Gila River is the second longest and drains a greater area than the Green, but has a significantly lower flow because of a more arid climate and larger diversions for irrigation and cities. Both the Gunnison and San Juan rivers, which derive most of their water from Rocky Mountains snowmelt, contribute more water than the Gila did naturally.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nDischarge\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIn its natural state, the Colorado River poured about into the Gulf of California each year, amounting to an average flow rate of 22500 cuft/s. Its flow regime was not at all steady – indeed, \\\"prior to the construction of federal dams and reservoirs, the Colorado was a river of extremes like no other in the United States.\\\" Once, the river reached peaks of more than 100000 cuft/s in the summer and low flows of less than 2500 cuft/s in the winter annually. At Topock, Arizona, about 300 mi upstream from the Gulf, a maximum historical discharge of 384000 cuft/s was recorded in 1884 and a minimum of 422 cuft/s was recorded in 1935. In contrast, the regulated discharge rates on the lower Colorado below Hoover Dam rarely exceed 35000 cuft/s or drop below 4000 cuft/s. Annual runoff volume has ranged from a high of in 1984 to a low of in 2002, although in most years only a small portion of this flow, if any, reaches the Gulf.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nBetween 85 and 90 percent of the Colorado River's discharge originates in snowmelt, mostly from the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and Wyoming. The three major upper tributaries of the Colorado – the Gunnison, Green, and San Juan – alone deliver almost 9 e6acre.ft per year to the main stem, mostly from snowmelt. The remaining 10 to 15 percent comes from a variety of sources, principally groundwater base flow and summer monsoon storms. The latter often produces heavy, highly localized floods on lower tributaries of the river, but does not often contribute significant volumes of runoff. Most of the annual runoff in the basin occurs with the melting of Rocky Mountains snowpack, which begins in April and peaks during May and June before exhausting in late July or early August.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nFlows at the mouth have steadily declined since the beginning of the 20th century, and in most years after 1960 the Colorado River has run dry before reaching the sea. Irrigation, industrial, and municipal diversions, evaporation from reservoirs, natural runoff, and likely climate change have all contributed to this substantial reduction in flow, threatening the future water supply. For example, the Gila River – formerly one of the Colorado's largest tributaries – contributes little more than a trickle in most years due to use of its water by cities and farms in central Arizona. The average flow rate of the Colorado at the northernmost point of the Mexico–United States border (NIB, or Northerly International Boundary) is about 2060 cuft/s, per year – less than a 10th of the natural flow – due to upstream water use. Below here, all of the remaining flow is diverted to irrigate the Mexicali Valley, leaving a dry riverbed from Morelos Dam to the sea that is supplemented by intermittent flows of irrigation drainage water. There have been exceptions, however, namely in the early to mid-1980s, when the Colorado once again reached the sea during several consecutive years of record-breaking precipitation and snowmelt.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIn 1984, so much excess runoff occurred that some , or 22860 cuft/s, poured into the sea.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe United States Geological Survey (USGS) operates or has operated 46 stream gauges to measure the discharge of the Colorado River, ranging from the headwaters near Grand Lake to the Mexico–U.S. border. The tables at right list data associated with eight of these gauges. River flows as gauged at Lee's Ferry, Arizona, about halfway along the length of the Colorado and 16 mi below Glen Canyon Dam, are used to determine water allocations in the Colorado River basin. The average discharge recorded there was approximately 14800 cuft/s, per year, from 1921 to 2010. This figure has been heavily affected by upstream diversions and reservoir evaporation, especially after the completion of the Colorado River Storage Project in the 1970s. Prior to the completion of Glen Canyon Dam in 1964, the average discharge recorded between 1912 and 1962 was 17850 cuft/s, per year.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nWatershed\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe drainage basin or watershed of the Colorado River encompasses 246000 mi2 of southwestern North America, making it the seventh largest on the continent. About 238600 mi2, or 97 percent of the watershed, is in the United States. The river and its tributaries drain most of western Colorado and New Mexico, southwestern Wyoming, eastern and southern Utah, southeastern Nevada and California, and nearly all of Arizona. The areas drained within Baja California and Sonora are very small and do not contribute measurable runoff. Most of the basin is arid, defined by the Sonoran and Mojave deserts and the expanse of the Colorado Plateau, although significant expanses of forest are found in the Rocky Mountains; the Kaibab, Aquarius, and Markagunt plateaus in southern Utah and northern Arizona; the Mogollon Rim through central Arizona; and other smaller mountain ranges and sky islands. Elevations range from sea level at the Gulf of California to 14321 ft at the summit of Uncompahgre Peak in Colorado, with an average of 5500 ft across the entire basin.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nClimate varies widely across the watershed. Mean monthly high temperatures are in the upper basin and in the lower basin, and lows average , respectively. Annual precipitation averages 164 mm, ranging from over 40 in in some areas of the Rockies to just along the Mexican reach of the river. The upper basin generally receives snow and rain during the winter and early spring, while precipitation in the lower basin falls mainly during intense but infrequent summer thunderstorms brought on by the North American Monsoon.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nAs of 2010, approximately 12.7 million people lived in the Colorado River basin. Phoenix in Arizona and Las Vegas in Nevada are the largest metropolitan areas in the watershed. Population densities are also high along the lower Colorado River below Davis Dam, which includes Bullhead City, Lake Havasu City, and Yuma. Other significant population centers in the basin include Tucson, Arizona; St. George, Utah; and Grand Junction, Colorado. Colorado River basin states are among the fastest-growing in the U.S.; the population of Nevada alone increased by about 66 percent between 1990 and 2000 as Arizona grew by some 40 percent.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe Colorado River basin shares drainage boundaries with many other major watersheds of North America. The Continental Divide of the Americas forms a large portion of the eastern boundary of the watershed, separating it from the basins of the Yellowstone River and the Platte River – both tributaries of the Missouri River – on the northeast, and from the headwaters of the Arkansas River on the east. Both the Missouri and Arkansas rivers are part of the Mississippi River system. Further south, the Colorado River basin borders on the Rio Grande drainage, which along with the Mississippi flows to the Gulf of Mexico, as well as a series of endorheic (closed) drainage basins in southwestern New Mexico and extreme southeastern Arizona.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nFor a short stretch, the Colorado watershed meets the drainage basin of the Snake River, a tributary of the Columbia River, in the Wind River Range of western Wyoming. Southwest of there, the northern divide of the Colorado watershed skirts the edge of the Great Basin, bordering on the closed drainage basins of the Great Salt Lake and the Sevier River in central Utah, and other closed basins in southern Utah and Nevada. To the west in California, the Colorado River watershed borders on those of small closed basins in the Mojave Desert, the largest of which is the Salton Sea drainage north of the Colorado River Delta. On the south, the watersheds of the Sonoyta, Concepción, and Yaqui rivers, all of which drain to the Gulf of California, border that of the Colorado.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nGeology\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nAs recently as the Cretaceous period 100 million years ago, much of western North America was still part of the Pacific Ocean. Tectonic forces from the collision of the Farallon Plate with the North American Plate pushed up the Rocky Mountains between 75 and 50 million years ago in a mountain-building episode known as the Laramide orogeny. The Colorado first formed as a west-flowing stream draining the southwestern portion of the range, and the uplift also diverted the Green River from its original course to the Mississippi River west towards the Colorado. About 30 to 20 million years ago, volcanic activity related to the orogeny led to the Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up, which created smaller formations such as the Chiricahua Mountains in Arizona and deposited massive amounts of volcanic ash and debris over the watershed. The Colorado Plateau first began to rise during the Eocene, between about 55 and 34 million years ago, but did not attain its present height until about 5 million years ago, about when the Colorado River established its present course into the Gulf of California.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe time scale and sequence over which the river's present course and the Grand Canyon were formed is uncertain. Before the Gulf of California was formed around 12 to 5 million years ago by faulting processes along the boundary of the North American and Pacific plates, the Colorado flowed west to an outlet on the Pacific Ocean – possibly Monterey Bay on the Central California coast, forming the Monterey submarine canyon. The uplift of the Sierra Nevada mountains began about 4.5 million years ago, diverting the Colorado southwards towards the Gulf. As the Colorado Plateau continued to rise between 5 and 2.5 million years ago, the river maintained its ancestral course (as an antecedent stream) and began to cut the Grand Canyon. Antecedence played a major part in shaping other peculiar geographic features in the watershed, including the Dolores River's bisection of Paradox Valley in Colorado and the Green River's cut through the Uinta Mountains in Utah.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nSediments carried from the plateau by the Colorado River created a vast delta made of more than 10000 mi3 of material that walled off the northernmost part of the gulf in approximately 1 million years. Cut off from the ocean, the portion of the gulf north of the delta eventually evaporated and formed the Salton Sink, which reached about 260 ft below sea level. Since then the river has changed course into the Salton Sink at least three times, transforming it into Lake Cahuilla, which at maximum size flooded up the valley to present-day Indio, California. The lake took about 50 years to evaporate after the Colorado resumed flowing to the Gulf. The present-day Salton Sea can be considered the most recent incarnation of Lake Cahuilla, though on a much smaller scale.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nBetween 1.8 million and 10,000 years ago, massive flows of basalt from the Uinkaret volcanic field in northern Arizona dammed the Colorado River within the Grand Canyon. At least 13 lava dams were formed, the largest of which was more than 2300 ft high, backing the river up for nearly 500 mi to present-day Moab, Utah. The lack of associated sediment deposits along this stretch of the Colorado River, which would have accumulated in the impounded lakes over time, suggests that most of these dams did not survive for more than a few decades before collapsing or being washed away. Failure of the lava dams caused by erosion, leaks and cavitation caused catastrophic floods, which may have been some of the largest ever to occur in North America, rivaling the late-Pleistocene Missoula Floods of the northwestern United States. Mapping of flood deposits indicate that crests as high as 700 ft passed through the Grand Canyon, reaching peak discharges as great as 17 e6cuft/s.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIndigenous peoples\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe first humans of the Colorado River basin were likely Paleo-Indians of the Clovis and Folsom cultures, who first arrived on the Colorado Plateau about 12,000 years ago. Very little human activity occurred in the watershed until the rise of the Desert Archaic Culture, which from 8,000 to 2,000 years ago constituted most of the region's human population. These prehistoric inhabitants led a generally nomadic lifestyle, gathering plants and hunting small animals (though some of the earliest peoples hunted larger mammals that became extinct in North America after the end of the Pleistocene epoch). Another notable early group was the Fremont culture, whose peoples inhabited the Colorado Plateau from 2,000 to 700 years ago. The Fremont were likely the first peoples of the Colorado River basin to domesticate crops and construct masonry dwellings; they also left behind a large amount of rock art and petroglyphs, many of which have survived to the present day.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nBeginning in the early centuries A.D., Colorado River basin peoples began to form large agriculture-based societies, some of which lasted hundreds of years and grew into well-organized civilizations encompassing tens of thousands of inhabitants. The Ancient Puebloan (also known as Anasazi or Hisatsinom) people of the Four Corners region were descended from the Desert Archaic culture. The Anasazi people developed a complex distribution system to supply drinking and irrigation water in Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe Puebloans dominated the basin of the San Juan River, and the center of their civilization was in Chaco Canyon. In Chaco Canyon and the surrounding lands, they built more than 150 multi-story pueblos or \\\"great houses\\\", the largest of which, Pueblo Bonito, is composed of more than 600 rooms. The Hohokam culture was present along the middle Gila River beginning around 1 A.D. Between 600 and 700 A.D. they began to employ irrigation on a large scale, and did so more prolifically than any other native group in the Colorado River basin. An extensive system of irrigation canals was constructed on the Gila and Salt rivers, with various estimates of a total length ranging from 180 to and capable of irrigating 25000 to. Both civilizations supported large populations at their height; the Chaco Canyon Puebloans numbered between 6,000 and 15,000 and estimates for the Hohokam range between 30,000 and 200,000.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThese sedentary peoples heavily exploited their surroundings, practicing logging and harvesting of other resources on a large scale. The construction of irrigation canals may have led to a significant change in the morphology of many waterways in the Colorado River basin. Prior to human contact, rivers such as the Gila, Salt and Chaco were shallow perennial streams with low, vegetated banks and large floodplains. In time, flash floods caused significant downcutting on irrigation canals, which in turn led to the entrenchment of the original streams into arroyos, making agriculture difficult. A variety of methods were employed to combat these problems, including the construction of large dams, but when a megadrought hit the region in the 14th century A.D. the ancient civilizations of the Colorado River basin abruptly collapsed. Some Puebloans migrated to the Rio Grande Valley of central New Mexico and south-central Colorado, becoming the predecessors of the Hopi, Zuni, Laguna and Acoma people in western New Mexico. Many of the tribes that inhabited the Colorado River basin at the time of European contact were descended from Puebloan and Hohokam survivors, while others already had a long history of living in the region or migrated in from bordering lands.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe Navajo were an Athabaskan people who migrated from the north into the Colorado River basin around 1025 A.D. They soon established themselves as the dominant Native American tribe in the Colorado River basin, and their territory stretched over parts of present-day Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado – in the original homelands of the Puebloans. In fact, the Navajo acquired agricultural skills from the Puebloans before the collapse of the Pueblo civilization in the 14th century. A profusion of other tribes have made a continued, lasting presence along the Colorado River. The Mohave have lived along the rich bottomlands of the lower Colorado below Black Canyon since 1200 A.D. They were fishermen – navigating the river on rafts made of reeds to catch Gila trout and Colorado pikeminnow – and farmers, relying on the annual floods of the river rather than irrigation to water their crops. Ute peoples have inhabited the northern Colorado River basin, mainly in present-day Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, for at least 2,000 years, but did not become well established in the Four Corners area until 1500 A.D.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe Apache, Maricopa, Pima, Havasupai and Hualapai are among many other groups that lived along or had territories bordering on the Colorado River and its tributaries.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nBeginning in the 17th century, contact with Europeans brought significant changes to the lifestyles of Native Americans in the Colorado River basin. Missionaries sought to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity – an effort sometimes successful, such as in Father Eusebio Francisco Kino's 1694 encounter with the \\\"docile Pimas of the Gila Valley [who] readily accepted Father Kino and his Christian teachings\\\". The Spanish introduced sheep and goats to the Navajo, who came to rely heavily on them for meat, milk and wool. By the mid-16th century, the Utes, having acquired horses from the Spanish, introduced them to the Colorado River basin. The use of horses spread through the basin via trade between the various tribes and greatly facilitated hunting, communications and travel for indigenous peoples. More warlike groups such as the Utes and Navajos often used horses to their advantage in raids against tribes that were slower to adopt them, such as the Goshutes and Southern Paiutes.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe gradual influx of European and American explorers, fortune seekers and settlers into the region eventually led to conflicts that forced many Native Americans off their traditional lands. After the acquisition of the Colorado River basin from Mexico in the Mexican–American War in 1846, U.S. military forces commanded by Kit Carson forced more than 8,000 Navajo men, women and children from their homes after a series of unsuccessful attempts to confine their territory, many of which were met with violent resistance. In what is now known as the Long Walk of the Navajo, the captives were marched from Arizona to Fort Sumner in New Mexico, and many died along the route. Four years later, the Navajo signed a treaty that moved them onto a reservation in the Four Corners region that is now known as the Navajo Nation. It is the largest Native American reservation in the United States, encompassing 27000 mi2 with a population of over 180,000 as of 2000.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe Mohave were expelled from their territory after a series of minor skirmishes and raids on wagon trains passing through the area in the late 1850s, culminating in an 1859 battle with American forces that concluded the Mohave War. In 1870, the Mohave were relocated to a reservation at Fort Mojave, which spans the borders of Arizona, California and Nevada. Some Mohave were also moved to the 432 mi2 Colorado River Indian Reservation on the Arizona–California border, originally established for the Mohave and Chemehuevi people in 1865. In the 1940s, some Hopi and Navajo people were also relocated to this reservation. The four tribes now form a geopolitical body known as the Colorado River Indian Tribes.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nWater rights of Native Americans in the Colorado River basin were largely ignored during the extensive water resources development carried out on the river and its tributaries in the 19th and 20th centuries. The construction of dams has often had negative impacts on tribal peoples, such as the Chemehuevi when their riverside lands were flooded after the completion of Parker Dam in 1938. Ten Native American tribes in the basin now hold or continue to claim water rights to the Colorado River. The U.S. government has taken some actions to help quantify and develop the water resources of Native American reservations. The first federally funded irrigation project in the U.S. was the construction of an irrigation canal on the Colorado River Indian Reservation in 1867. Other water projects include the Navajo Indian Irrigation Project, authorized in 1962 for the irrigation of lands in part of the Navajo Nation in north-central New Mexico. The Navajo continue to seek expansion of their water rights because of difficulties with the water supply on their reservation; about 40 percent of its inhabitants must haul water by truck many miles to their homes.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIn the 21st century, they have filed legal claims against the governments of Arizona, New Mexico and Utah for increased water rights. Some of these claims have been successful for the Navajo, such as a 2004 settlement in which they received a 326000 acre foot allotment from New Mexico.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nEarly explorers\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nDuring the 16th century, the Spanish began to explore and colonize western North America. An early motive was the search for the Seven Cities of Gold, or \\\"Cibola\\\", rumored to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest. According to a United States Geological Survey publication, it is likely that Francisco de Ulloa was the first European to see the Colorado River when in 1536 he sailed to the head of the Gulf of California. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado's 1540–1542 expedition began as a search for the fabled Cities of Gold, but after learning from natives in New Mexico of a large river to the west, he sent García López de Cárdenas to lead a small contingent to find it. With the guidance of Hopi Indians, Cárdenas and his men became the first outsiders to see the Grand Canyon. Cárdenas was reportedly unimpressed with the canyon, assuming the width of the Colorado River at 6 ft and estimating 300 ft-tall rock formations to be the size of a man. After failing at an attempt to descend to the river, they left the area, defeated by the difficult terrain and torrid weather.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIn 1540, Hernando de Alarcón and his fleet reached the mouth of the river, intending to provide additional supplies to Coronado's expedition. Alarcón may have sailed the Colorado as far upstream as the present-day California–Arizona border. Coronado never reached the Gulf of California, and Alarcón eventually gave up and left. Melchior Díaz reached the delta in the same year, intending to establish contact with Alarcón, but the latter was already gone by the time of Díaz's arrival. Díaz named the Colorado River Rio del Tizon (\\\"Firebrand River\\\") after seeing a practice used by the local natives for warming themselves. The name Tizon lasted for the next 200 years, while the name Rio Colorado (\\\"Red River\\\") was first applied to a tributary of the Gila River, possibly the Verde River, circa 1720. The first known map to label the main stem as the Colorado was drawn by French cartographer Jacques-Nicolas Bellin in 1743.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nDuring the 18th and early 19th centuries, many Americans and Spanish believed in the existence of the Buenaventura River, purported to run from the Rocky Mountains in Utah or Colorado to the Pacific Ocean. The name Buenaventura was given to the Green River by Silvestre Vélez de Escalante as early as 1776, but Escalante did not know that the Green drained to the Colorado. Many later maps showed the headwaters of the Green and Colorado rivers connecting with the Sevier River (Rio San Ysabel) and Utah Lake (Lake Timpanogos) before flowing west through the Sierra Nevada into California. Mountain man Jedediah Smith reached the lower Colorado by way of the Virgin River canyon in 1826. Smith called the Colorado the \\\"Seedskeedee\\\", as the Green River in Wyoming was known to fur trappers, correctly believing it to be a continuation of the Green and not a separate river as others believed under the Buenaventura myth. John C. Frémont's 1843 Great Basin expedition proved that no river traversed the Great Basin and Sierra Nevada, officially debunking the Buenaventura myth.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIn 1857, Lieutenant Joseph C. Ives led an expedition to explore the feasibility of using the Colorado River as a navigation route in the Southwest. Ives and his men used a specially built steamboat, the shallow-draft U.S.S. Explorer, and traveled up the river as far as Black Canyon on what is now the Arizona–Nevada border. After experiencing numerous groundings and accidents and having been inhibited by low water in the river, Ives declared: \\\"Ours has been the first, and will doubtless be the last, party of whites to visit this profitless locality. It seems intended by nature that the Colorado River, along the greater portion of its lonely and majestic way, shall be forever unvisited and undisturbed.\\\"\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nUp until the mid-19th century, long stretches of the Colorado and Green rivers between Wyoming and Nevada remained largely unexplored due to their remote location and dangers of navigation. Because of the dramatic drop in elevation of the two rivers, there were rumors of huge waterfalls and violent rapids, and Native American tales strengthened their credibility. In 1869, one-armed Civil War veteran John Wesley Powell led an expedition from Green River Station in Wyoming, aiming to run the two rivers all the way down to St. Thomas, Nevada, near present-day Hoover Dam. Powell and nine men – none of whom had prior whitewater experience – set out in May. After braving the rapids of the Gates of Lodore, Cataract Canyon and other gorges along the Colorado, the party arrived at the mouth of the Little Colorado River, where Powell noted down arguably the most famous words ever written about the Grand Canyon of the Colorado:\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nOn August 28, 1869, three men deserted the expedition, convinced that they could not possibly survive the trip through the Grand Canyon. They were killed by either Native Americans or Mormon settlers after making it to the rim of the canyon; two days later, the expedition ran the last of the Grand Canyon rapids and reached St. Thomas. Powell led a second expedition in 1871, this time with financial backing from the U.S. government. The explorers named many features along the Colorado and Green rivers, including Glen Canyon, the Dirty Devil River, Flaming Gorge, and the Gates of Lodore. In what is perhaps a twist of irony, modern-day Lake Powell, which floods Glen Canyon, is also named for their leader.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nAmerican settlement\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nDuring the Manifest Destiny era of the mid-19th century, American pioneers settled many western states but generally avoided the Colorado River basin until the 1850s. Under Brigham Young's grand vision for a \\\"vast empire in the desert\\\", (the State of Deseret) Mormon settlers were among the first whites to establish a permanent presence in the watershed, Fort Clara or Fort Santa Clara, in the winter of 1855-1856 along the Santa Clara River, tributary of the Virgin River. In 1860, anticipating the American Civil War, the Mormons established a number of settlements to grow cotton along the Virgin River in Washington County, Utah. From 1863 to 1865, Mormon colonists founded St. Thomas and other colonies on the Muddy and Virgin rivers in northwestern Arizona Territory, (now Clark County, Nevada). Stone's Ferry was established by these colonists on the Colorado at the mouth of the Virgin River to carry their produce on a wagon road to the mining districts of Mohave County, Arizona to the south. Also, in 1866, a steamboat landing was established at Callville, intended as an outlet to the Pacific Ocean via the Colorado River, for Mormon settlements in the Great Basin.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThese settlements reached a peak population of about 600 before being abandoned in 1871, and for nearly a decade these valleys became a haven for outlaws and cattle rustlers. One Mormon settler Daniel Bonelli, remained, operating the ferry and began mining salt in nearby mines, bring it in barges, down river to El Dorado Canyon where it was used to process silver ore. From 1879 to 1887, Colorado Steam Navigation Company steamboats carried the salt, operating up river in the high spring flood waters, through Boulder Canyon, to the landing at Rioville at the mouth of the Virgin River. From 1879 to 1882 the Southwestern Mining Company, largest in El Dorado Canyon, brought in a 56-foot sloop the Sou'Wester that sailed up and down river carrying the salt in the low water time of year until it was wrecked in the Quick and Dirty Rapids of Black Canyon.[http://www.ansac.az.gov/UserFiles/PDF/08182014/X028_FMIBurtellLingenfelterSteamboats/FMI%20Lingenfelter%20Steamboats/Steamboats%20on%20the%20Colorado%20River%201852-1916.pdf Richard E. Lingenfelter, Steamboats on the Colorado River, 1852-1916, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1978]\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nMormons founded the settlement of Vernal along the Green River in Utah in 1878, and populated the Little Colorado River valley later in the century, creating towns such as St. Johns, Arizona. They also established settlements along the Gila River in central Arizona beginning in 1871. These early settlers were impressed by the extensive ruins of the Hohokam civilization that previously occupied the Gila River valley, and are said to have \\\"envisioned their new agricultural civilization rising as the mythical phoenix bird from the ashes of Hohokam society\\\". The Mormons were the first whites to develop the water resources of the basin on a large scale, and built complex networks of dams and canals to irrigate wheat, oats and barley in addition to establishing extensive sheep and cattle ranches.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nOne of the main reasons the Mormons were able to colonize Arizona was the existence of Jacob Hamblin's ferry across the Colorado at Lee's Ferry (then known as Pahreah Crossing), which began running in March 1864. This location was the only section of river for hundreds of miles in both directions where the canyon walls dropped away, allowing for the development of a transport route. John Doyle Lee established a more permanent ferry system at the site in 1870. One reason Lee chose to run the ferry was to flee from Mormon leaders who held him responsible for the Mountain Meadows Massacre, in which 120 emigrants in a wagon train were killed by a local militia disguised as Native Americans. Even though it was located along a major travel route, Lee's Ferry was very isolated, and there Lee and his family established the aptly named Lonely Dell Ranch. In 1928, the ferry sank, resulting in the deaths of three men. Later that year, the Navajo Bridge was completed at a point 5 mi downstream, rendering the ferry obsolete.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nGold strikes from the mid-19th to early 20th centuries played a major role in attracting settlers to the upper Colorado River basin. In 1859, a group of adventurers from Georgia discovered gold along the Blue River in Colorado and established the mining boomtown of Breckenridge. During 1875, even bigger strikes were made along the Uncompahgre and San Miguel rivers, also in Colorado, and these led to the creation of Ouray and Telluride, respectively. Because most gold deposits along the upper Colorado River and its tributaries occur in lode deposits, extensive mining systems and heavy machinery were required to extract them. Mining remains a substantial contributor to the economy of the upper basin and has led to acid mine drainage problems in some regional streams and rivers.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nStarting in the latter half of the 19th century, the lower Colorado below Black Canyon became an important waterway for steamboat commerce. In 1852, the Uncle Sam was launched to provide supplies to the U.S. Army outpost at Fort Yuma. Although this vessel accidentally foundered and sank early in its career, commercial traffic quickly proliferated because river transport was much cheaper than hauling freight over land. Navigation on the Colorado River was dangerous because of the shallow channel and flow variations, so the first sternwheeler on the river, the Colorado of 1855, was designed to carry 60 ST while drawing less than 2 ft of water. The tidal bore of the lower Colorado also presented a major hazard; in 1922, a 15 ft-high wave swamped a ship bound for Yuma, killing between 86 and 130 people. Steamboats quickly became the principal source of communication and trade along the river until competition from railroads began in the 1870s, and finally the construction of dams along the lower river, none of which had locks to allow the passage of ships.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nNaming of the upper Colorado River and controversy\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nPrior to 1921, the upper Colorado River above the confluence with the Green River in Utah had assumed various names. Fathers Dominguez and Escalante named it Rio San Rafael in 1776. Through the mid-1800s, the river between Green River and the Gunnison River was most commonly known as the Grand River. The river above the junction with the Gunnison River, however, was known variously as the Bunkara River, the North Fork of the Grand River, the Blue River, and the Grand River. The latter name did not become consistently applied until the 1870s.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIn 1921, U.S. Representative Edward T. Taylor of Colorado petitioned the Congressional Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce to rename the Grand River as the Colorado River. Taylor saw the fact that the Colorado River started outside the border of his state as an \\\"abomination\\\". On July 25, the name change was made official in House Joint Resolution 460 of the 66th Congress, over the objections of representatives from Wyoming, Utah, and the USGS, which noted that the Green River was much longer and had a larger drainage basin above its confluence with the Grand River, although the Grand contributed a greater flow of water.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nEngineering and development\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\n36 to 40 million people depend on its water for agricultural, industrial and domestic needs. Southern Nevada Water Authority called the Colorado River one of the \\\"most controlled, controversial and litigated rivers in the world\\\". Over 29 major dams and hundreds of miles of canals serve to supply thirsty cities, provide irrigation water to some 4 million acres (1.6 million hectares), and meet peaking power demands in the Southwest, generating more than 12 billion kWh of hydroelectricity each year. Often called \\\"America's Nile\\\", the Colorado is so carefully managed – with basin reservoirs capable of holding four times the river's annual flow – that each drop of its water is used an average of 17 times in a single year.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nOne of the earliest water projects in the Colorado River basin was the Grand Ditch, a 16 mi diversion canal that sends water from the Never Summer Mountains, which would naturally have drained into the headwaters of the Colorado River, to bolster supplies in Colorado's Front Range Urban Corridor. Constructed primarily by Japanese and Mexican laborers, the ditch was considered an engineering marvel when completed in 1890, delivering 17700 acre.ft across the Continental Divide each year. Because roughly 75 percent of Colorado's precipitation falls west of the Rocky Mountains while 80 percent of the population lives east of the range, more of these interbasin water transfers, locally known as transmountain diversions, followed. While first envisioned in the late 19th century, construction on the Colorado-Big Thompson Project (C-BT) did not begin until the 1930s. The C-BT now delivers more than 11 times the Grand Ditch's flow from the Colorado River watershed to cities along the Front Range.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nMeanwhile, large-scale development was also beginning on the opposite end of the Colorado River. In 1900, entrepreneurs of the California Development Company (CDC) looked to the Imperial Valley of southern California as an excellent location to develop agriculture irrigated by the waters of the river. Engineer George Chaffey was hired to design the Alamo Canal, which split off from the Colorado River near Pilot Knob, curved south into Mexico, and dumped into the Alamo River, a dry arroyo which had historically carried flood flows of the Colorado into the Salton Sink. With a stable year-round flow in the Alamo River, irrigators in the Imperial Valley were able to begin large-scale farming, and small towns in the region started to expand with the influx of job-seeking migrants. By 1903, more than 100000 acre in the valley were under cultivation, supporting a growing population of 4,000.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIt was not long before the Colorado River began to wreak havoc with its erratic flows. In autumn, the river would drop below the level of the canal inlet, and temporary brush diversion dams had to be constructed. In early 1905, heavy floods destroyed the headworks of the canal, and water began to flow uncontrolled down the canal towards the Salton Sink. On August 9, the entire flow of the Colorado swerved into the canal and began to flood the bottom of the Imperial Valley. In a desperate gamble to close the breach, crews of the Southern Pacific Railroad, whose tracks ran through the valley, attempted to dam the Colorado above the canal, only to see their work demolished by a flash flood. It took seven attempts, more than $3 million, and two years for the railroad, the CDC, and the federal government to permanently block the breach and send the Colorado on its natural course to the gulf – but not before part of the Imperial Valley was flooded under a 45 mi lake, today's Salton Sea. After the immediate flooding threat passed, it was realized that a more permanent solution would be needed to rein in the Colorado.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nLower Basin development, 1930s-50s\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIn 1922, six U.S. states in the Colorado River basin signed the Colorado River Compact, which divided half of the river's flow to both the Upper Basin (the drainage area above Lee's Ferry, comprising parts of Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming and a small portion of Arizona) and the Lower Basin (Arizona, California, Nevada, and parts of New Mexico and Utah). Each was given rights to of water per year, a figure believed to represent half of the river's minimum flow at Lee's Ferry. This was followed by a U.S.–Mexico treaty in 1944, allocating of Colorado River water to the latter country per annum. Arizona refused to ratify the Colorado River Compact in 1922 because it feared that California would take too much of the lower basin allotment; in 1944 a compromise was reached in which Arizona would get a firm allocation of , but only if California's allocation was prioritized during drought years. These and nine other decisions, compacts, federal acts and agreements made between 1922 and 1973 form what is now known as the Law of the River.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nOn September 30, 1935, the United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) completed Hoover Dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River. Behind the dam rose Lake Mead, the largest artificial lake in the U.S., capable of holding more than two years of the Colorado's flow. The construction of Hoover was a major step towards stabilizing the lower channel of the Colorado River, storing water for irrigation in times of drought, and providing much-needed flood control as part of a program known as the Boulder Canyon Project. Hoover was the tallest dam in the world at the time of construction and also had the world's largest hydroelectric power plant. Flow regulation from Hoover Dam opened the doors for rapid development on the lower Colorado River; Imperial and Parker dams followed in 1938, and Davis Dam was completed in 1950.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nCompleted in 1938 some 20 mi above Yuma, Imperial Dam diverts nearly all of the Colorado's flow into two irrigation canals. The All-American Canal, built as a permanent replacement for the Alamo Canal, is so named because it lies completely within the U.S., unlike its ill–fated predecessor. With a capacity of over 26000 cuft/s, the All-American is the largest irrigation canal in the world, supplying water to 500000 acre of California's Imperial Valley. Because the valley's warm and sunny climate lends to a year-round growing season in addition to the large water supply furnished by the Colorado, the Imperial Valley is now one of the most productive agricultural regions in North America. In 1957, the USBR completed a second canal, the Gila Gravity Main Canal, to irrigate about 110000 acre in southwestern Arizona with Colorado River water as part of the Gila Project.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe Lower Basin states also sought to develop the Colorado for municipal supplies. Central Arizona initially relied on the Gila River and its tributaries through projects such as the Theodore Roosevelt and Coolidge Dams – completed in 1924 and 1928, respectively. Roosevelt was the first large dam constructed by the USBR and provided the water needed to start large-scale agricultural and urban development in the region. The Colorado River Aqueduct, which delivers water nearly 250 mi from near Parker Dam to 10 million people in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, was completed in 1941. The San Diego Aqueduct branch, whose initial phase was complete by 1947, furnishes water to nearly 3 million people in San Diego and its suburbs. The Las Vegas Valley of Nevada experienced rapid growth in part due to Hoover Dam construction, and Las Vegas had tapped a pipeline into Lake Mead by 1937. Nevada officials, believing that groundwater resources in the southern part of the state were sufficient for future growth, were more concerned with securing a large amount of the dam's power supply than water from the Colorado; thus they settled for the smallest allocation of all the states in the Colorado River Compact.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nUpper Basin development, 1950s-1970s\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThrough the early decades of the 20th century, the Upper Basin states, with the exception of Colorado, remained relatively undeveloped and used little of the water allowed to them under the Colorado River Compact. Water use had increased significantly by the 1950s, and more water was being diverted out of the Colorado River basin to the Front Range corridor, the Salt Lake City area in Utah, and the Rio Grande basin in New Mexico. Such projects included the Roberts Tunnel, completed in 1956, which diverts 63000 acre.ft per year from the Blue River to the city of Denver, and the Fryingpan-Arkansas Project, which delivers 69200 acre.ft from the Fryingpan River to the Arkansas River basin each year. Without the addition of surface water storage in the upper basin, there was no guarantee that the upper basin states would be able to use the full amount of water given to them by the compact. There was also the concern that drought could impair the upper basin's ability to deliver the required past Lee's Ferry per year as stipulated by the compact.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nA 1956 act of Congress cleared the way for the USBR's Colorado River Storage Project (CRSP), which entailed the construction of large dams on the Colorado, Green, Gunnison and San Juan Rivers.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe initial blueprints for the CRSP included two dams on the Green River within Dinosaur National Monument's Echo Park Canyon, a move criticized by both the U.S. National Park Service and environmentalist groups such as the Sierra Club. Controversy reached a nationwide scale, and the USBR dropped its plans for the Dinosaur dams in exchange for a dam at Flaming Gorge and a raise to an already-proposed dam at Glen Canyon. The famed opposition to Glen Canyon Dam, the primary feature of the CRSP, did not build momentum until construction was well underway. This was primarily because of Glen Canyon's remote location and the result that most of the American public did not even know of the existence of the impressive gorge; the few who had contended that it had much greater scenic value than Echo Park. Sierra Club leader David Brower fought the dam both during the construction and for many years afterwards until his death in 2000. Brower strongly believed that he was personally responsible for the failure to prevent Glen Canyon's flooding, calling it his \\\"greatest mistake, greatest sin\\\".\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nPacific Southwest Water Plan\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nAgricultural and urban growth in Arizona eventually outstripped the capacity of local rivers; these concerns were reflected in the creation of a Pacific Southwest Water Plan in the 1950s, which aimed to build a project that would permit Arizona to fully utilize its allotment of the river. The Pacific Southwest Water Plan was the first major proposal to divert water to the Colorado Basin from other river basins – namely, from the wetter northwestern United States. It was intended to boost supplies for the Lower Basin states of Arizona, California and Nevada as well as Mexico, thus allowing the Upper Basin states to retain native Colorado River flows for their own use. Although there was still a surplus of water in the Colorado Basin during the mid-20th century, the Bureau of Reclamation predicted, correctly, that eventually population growth would outstrip the available supply and require the transfer of water from other sources.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe original version of the plan proposed to divert water from the Trinity River in northern California to reduce Southern California's dependence on the Colorado, allowing more water to be pumped, by exchange, to central Arizona. Because of the large amount of power that would be required to pump Colorado River water to Arizona, the CAP originally included provisions for hydroelectric dams at Bridge Canyon and Marble Canyon, which would have flooded large portions of the Colorado within the Grand Canyon and dewatered much of the remainder. When these plans were publicized, the environmental movement – still reeling from the Glen Canyon controversy – successfully lobbied against the project. As a result, the Grand Canyon dams were removed from the CAP agenda, the boundaries of Grand Canyon National Park were extended to preclude any further development in the area, and the pumping power was replaced by the building of the coal-fired Navajo Generating Station near Page, Arizona, in 1976. The resulting Central Arizona Project (CAP) irrigates more than 830000 acre and provides municipal supplies to over 5 million people from Phoenix to Tucson using water from the Colorado River.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nEnvironmental impacts\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nHistorically, the Colorado transported from 85 to of sediment or silt to the Gulf of California each year – second only to the Mississippi among North American rivers. This sediment nourished wetlands and riparian areas along the river's lower course, particularly in its 3000 mi2 delta, once the largest desert estuary on the continent. Currently, the majority of sediments carried by the Colorado River are deposited at the upper end of Lake Powell, and most of the remainder ends up in Lake Mead. Various estimates place the time it would take for Powell to completely fill with silt at 300 to 700 years. Dams trapping sediment not only pose damage to river habitat but also threaten future operations of the Colorado River reservoir system.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nReduction in flow caused by dams, diversions, water for thermoelectric power stations, and evaporation losses from reservoirs – the latter of which consumes more than 15 percent of the river's natural runoff – has had severe ecological consequences in the Colorado River Delta and the Gulf of California. Historically, the delta with its large freshwater outflow and extensive salt marshes provided an important breeding ground for aquatic species in the Gulf. Today's desiccated delta, at only a fraction of its former size, no longer provides suitable habitat, and populations of fish, shrimp and sea mammals in the gulf have seen a dramatic decline. Since 1963, the only times when the Colorado River has reached the ocean have been during El Niño events in the 1980s and 1990s.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nReduced flows have led to increases in the concentration of certain substances in the lower river that have impacted water quality. Salinity is one of the major issues. The lower Colorado's salt content was about 50 parts per million (ppm) in its natural state, but by the 1960s, it had increased to well over 2000 ppm. By the early 1970s, there was also serious concern about salinity caused by salts leached from local soils by irrigation drainage water, which were estimated to add 10 e6ST of excess salt to the river per year. The Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act was passed in 1974, mandating conservation practices including the reduction of saline drainage. The program reduced the annual load by about , but salinity remains an ongoing issue. In 1997, the USBR estimated that saline irrigation water caused crop damages exceeding $500 million in the U.S. and $100 million in Mexico. Further efforts have been made to combat the salt issue in the lower Colorado, including the construction of a desalination plant at Yuma. In 2011, the seven U.S. states agreed upon a \\\"Plan of Implementation\\\", which aims to reduce salinity by 644000 ST per year by 2030.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nAgricultural runoff containing pesticide residues has also been concentrated in the lower river in greater amounts. Toxins derived from pesticides have led to fish kills; six of these events were recorded between 1964 and 1968 alone. The pesticide issue is even greater in streams and water bodies near agricultural lands irrigated by the Imperial Irrigation District with Colorado River water. In the Imperial Valley, Colorado River water used for irrigation overflows into the New and Alamo rivers and into the Salton Sea. Both rivers and the sea are among the most polluted bodies of water in the United States, posing dangers not only to aquatic life but to contact by humans and migrating birds. Pollution from agricultural runoff is not limited to the lower river; the issue is also significant in upstream reaches such as Colorado's Grand Valley, also a major center of irrigated agriculture.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nLarge dams such as Hoover and Glen Canyon typically release water from lower levels of their reservoirs, resulting in stable and relatively cold year-round temperatures in long reaches of the river. The Colorado's average temperature once ranged from 85 F at the height of summer to near freezing in winter, but modern flows through the Grand Canyon, for example, rarely deviate significantly from 46 F. Changes in temperature regime have caused declines of native fish populations, and stable flows have enabled increased vegetation growth, obstructing riverside habitat. These flow patterns have also made the Colorado more dangerous to recreational boaters; people are more likely to die of hypothermia in the colder water, and the general lack of flooding allows rockslides to build up, making the river more difficult to navigate.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nMinute 319\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIn the 21st century, there has been renewed interest in restoring a limited water flow to the delta. In November 2012, the U.S. and Mexico reached an agreement, known as Minute 319, permitting Mexico storage of its water allotment in U.S. reservoirs during wet years, thus increasing the efficiency with which the water can be used. In addition to renovating irrigation canals in the Mexicali Valley to reduce leakage, this will make about 45000 acre.ft per year available for release to the delta on average. The water will be used to provide both an annual base flow and a spring \\\"pulse flow\\\" to mimic the river's original snowmelt-driven regime. The first pulse flow, an eight-week release of 105000 acre.ft, was initiated on March 21, 2014, with the aim of revitalising 2350 acre of wetland. This pulse reached the sea on May 16, 2014, marking the first time in 16 years that any water from the Colorado flowed into the ocean, and was hailed as \\\"an experiment of historic political and ecological significance\\\" and a landmark in U.S.–Mexican cooperation in conservation.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe pulse will be followed by the steady release of 52000 acre.ft over the following three years, just a small fraction of its average flow before damming.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nUncertain future\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nWhen the Colorado River Compact was drafted in the 1920s, it was based on barely 30 years of streamflow records that suggested an average annual flow of past Lee's Ferry. Modern studies of tree rings revealed that those three decades were probably the wettest in the past 500 to 1,200 years and that the natural long-term annual flow past Lee's Ferry is probably closer to , as compared to the natural flow at the mouth of . This has resulted in more water being allocated to river users than actually flows through the Colorado. Droughts have exacerbated the issue of water over-allocation, including the Texas drought of the 1950s, which saw several consecutive years of notably low water and has often been used in planning for \\\"a worst-case scenario\\\".\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe most severe drought on record began in the early 21st century, in which the river basin produced normal or above-average runoff in only four years between 2000 and 2012. Major reservoirs in the basin dropped to historic lows, with Lake Powell falling to just one-third of capacity in early 2005, the lowest level on record since the reservoir was first filling in 1969. The watershed is experiencing a warming trend, which is accompanied by earlier snowmelt and a general reduction in precipitation. A 2004 study showed that a 1–6 percent decrease of precipitation would lead to runoff declining by as much as 18 percent by 2050. Average reservoir storage declined by at least 32 percent, further crippling the region's water supply and hydropower generation. A study by the Scripps Research Institute in 2008 predicted that both Lake Mead and Lake Powell stand an even chance of dropping to useless levels or \\\"dead pool\\\" by 2021 if current drying trends and water usage rates continue.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nIn late 2010, Lake Mead dropped to just 8 ft above the first \\\"drought trigger\\\" elevation, a level at which Arizona and Nevada would have to begin rationing water as delineated by the Colorado River Compact. Despite above-average runoff in 2011 that raised the immense reservoir more than 30 ft, record drought conditions returned in 2012 and 2013. Reservoir levels were low enough at the beginning of water year 2014 that the Bureau of Reclamation cut releases from Lake Powell by 750000 acre feet – the first such reduction since the 1960s, when Lake Powell was being filled for the first time. This resulted in Lake Mead dropping to its lowest recorded level since 1937, when it was first being filled. Rapid development and economic growth further complicate the issue of a secure water supply, particularly in the case of California's senior water rights over those of Nevada and Arizona: in case of a reduction in water supply, Nevada and Arizona would have to endure severe cuts before any reduction in the California allocation, which is also larger than the other two combined.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nAlthough stringent water conservation measures have been implemented, the threat of severe shortfalls in the Colorado River basin continues to increase each year.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nWildlife and plants\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nThe Colorado River and its tributaries often nourish extensive corridors of riparian growth as they traverse the arid desert regions of the watershed. Although riparian zones represent a relatively small proportion of the basin and have been affected by engineering projects and river diversion in many places, they have the greatest biodiversity of any habitat in the basin. The most prominent riparian zones along the river occur along the lower Colorado below Davis Dam, especially in the Colorado River Delta, where riparian areas support 358 species of birds despite the reduction in freshwater flow and invasive plants such as tamarisk (salt cedar). Reduction of the delta's size has also threatened animals such as jaguars and the vaquita porpoise, which is endemic to the gulf. Human development of the Colorado River has also helped to create new riparian zones by smoothing the river's seasonal flow, notably through the Grand Canyon.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nMore than 1,600 species of plants grow in the Colorado River watershed, ranging from the creosote bush, saguaro cactus, and Joshua trees of the Sonoran and Mojave Deserts to the forests of the Rocky Mountains and other uplands, composed mainly of ponderosa pine, subalpine fir, Douglas-fir and Engelmann spruce. Before logging in the 19th century, forests were abundant in high elevations as far south as the Mexico–U.S. border, and runoff from these areas nourished abundant grassland communities in river valleys. Some arid regions of the watershed, such as the upper Green River valley in Wyoming, Canyonlands National Park in Utah and the San Pedro River valley in Arizona and Sonora, supported extensive reaches of grassland roamed by large mammals such as buffalo and antelope as late as the 1860s. Near Tucson, Arizona, \\\"where now there is only powder-dry desert, the grass once reached as high as the head of a man on horse back\\\".\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nRivers and streams in the Colorado basin were once home to 49 species of native fish, of which 42 were endemic. Engineering projects and river regulation have led to the extinction of four species and severe declines in the populations of 40 species. Bonytail chub, razorback sucker, Colorado pikeminnow, and humpback chub are among those considered the most at risk; all are unique to the Colorado River system and well adapted to the river's natural silty conditions and flow variations. Clear, cold water released by dams has significantly changed characteristics of habitat for these and other Colorado River basin fishes. A further 40 species that occur in the river today, notably the brown trout, were introduced during the 19th and 20th centuries, mainly for sport fishing.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nRecreation\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nFamed for its dramatic rapids and canyons, the Colorado is one of the most desirable whitewater rivers in the United States, and its Grand Canyon section – run by more than 22,000 people annually – has been called the \\\"granddaddy of rafting trips\\\". Grand Canyon trips typically begin at Lee's Ferry and take out at Diamond Creek or Lake Mead, and range from one to eighteen days for commercial trips and from two to twenty-five days for private trips. Private (noncommercial) trips are extremely difficult to arrange because the National Park Service limits river traffic for environmental purposes; people who desire such a trip often have to wait more than 10 years for the opportunity.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nSeveral other sections of the river and its tributaries are popular whitewater runs, and many of these are also served by commercial outfitters. The Colorado's Cataract Canyon and many reaches in the Colorado headwaters are even more heavily used than the Grand Canyon, and about 60,000 boaters run a single section above Radium, Colorado, each year. The upper Colorado also includes many of the river's most challenging rapids, including those in Gore Canyon, which is considered so dangerous that \\\"boating is not recommended\\\". Another section of the river above Moab, known as the Colorado \\\"Daily\\\" or \\\"Fisher Towers Section\\\", is the most visited whitewater run in Utah, with more than 77,000 visitors in 2011 alone. The rapids of the Green River's Gray and Desolation Canyons and the less difficult \\\"Goosenecks\\\" section of the lower San Juan River are also frequently traversed by boaters.\",\n \"Colorado River\\n\\nEleven U.S. national parks – Arches, Black Canyon of the Gunnison, Bryce Canyon, Canyonlands, Capitol Reef, Grand Canyon, Mesa Verde, Petrified Forest, Rocky Mountain, Saguaro, and Zion – are in the watershed, in addition to many national forests, state parks and recreation areas. Hiking, backpacking, camping, skiing and fishing are among the multiple recreation opportunities offered by these areas. Fisheries have declined in many streams in the watershed, especially in the Rocky Mountains, because of polluted runoff from mining and agricultural activities. The Colorado's major reservoirs are also heavily traveled summer destinations. Houseboating and water-skiing are popular activities on Lakes Mead, Powell, Havasu and Mojave, as well as Flaming Gorge Reservoir in Utah and Wyoming, and Navajo Reservoir in New Mexico and Colorado. Lake Powell and surrounding Glen Canyon National Recreation Area received more than 2 million visitors per year as of 2007, while nearly 7.9 million people visited Lake Mead and the Lake Mead National Recreation Area in 2008. Colorado River recreation employs some 250,000 people and contributes $26 billion each year to the Southwest economy.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThe Colorado River is a major river of the western United States and northwest Mexico in North America. Its headwaters are in the Rocky Mountains of north central Colorado. It flows southwest through the Colorado Plateau country of western Colorado, southeastern Utah and northwestern Arizona where it flows through the Grand Canyon. It turns south near Las Vegas, Nevada, forming the Arizona–Nevada border in Lake Mead and the Arizona–California border below Hoover Dam. Before entering Mexico in the Colorado Desert most of its waters are diverted into the Imperial Valley of Southern California. In Mexico its course forms the boundary between Sonora and Baja California before entering the Gulf of California. This article describes most of the major features along the river.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nColorado\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThe Colorado River rises on the Continental Divide at La Poudre Pass, in Rocky Mountain National Park, about 40 km. north of Lake Granby, as a tiny stream draining a wet meadow. At the river's headwater, the Continental Divide forms the boundary between the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Ocean watersheds of North America, between Colorado's Grand and Larimer counties, and the northern boundary of Rocky Mountain National Park.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThe river's first diversion is here at its headwater. The Grand Ditch redirects water from the Never Summer Mountains, which would have flowed into the Colorado River, to instead flow across the divide through La Poudre Pass to irrigate farmland to the east.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nAbout a mile (1.5 km) downstream from its source, the Colorado River has carved its first canyon, the narrow, deep Little Yellowstone Canyon. It then flows through the broad Kawuneeche Valley, where it is joined by U.S. Highway 34, which will roughly parallel it to the town of Granby. It finally exits Rocky Mountain National Park, flowing into Shadow Mountain Lake and then into Lake Granby, which are portions of the Colorado-Big Thompson Project, a large trans-basin water storage and delivery project that diverts water from the Colorado River under the Front Range mountains to provide an agricultural and municipal water supply for the northern Front Range and plains of Colorado.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nStarting in Granby, the river is roughly paralleled by U.S. Highway 40 to the town of Kremmling, and by the tracks of the Union Pacific Railroad until about the Utah border, carrying the Amtrak California Zephyr passenger train. The canyons and valleys of the Upper Colorado River are among the scenic attractions for passengers on this rail route.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nJust downstream from Granby, the Colorado is joined by the Fraser River and flows through Windy Gap Reservoir, where more water is diverted to the Front Range via the Windy Gap Project. At Hot Sulphur Springs the river flows through Byers Canyon and then is joined by the Williams Fork from the left and Muddy Creek from the right shortly thereafter. Just below Kremmling it is joined by the Blue River from the left before flowing through Gore Canyon, famous for its challenging rapids for the sport of whitewater rafting, and where it drops significantly until State Highway 131 crosses at the village of State Bridge, where the Piney River joins from the left. The Eagle River joins from the left in the town of Dotsero, from where Interstate 70 will parallel the Colorado almost until it enters Utah.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nBelow Dotsero the Colorado flows through Glenwood Canyon, emerging at the city of Glenwood Springs where the swift flowing Roaring Fork River, its second largest tributary in Colorado joins from the left. West of Glenwood Springs, the Colorado runs through a wider valley along the northern foothills of the Grand Mesa, passing the towns of New Castle, Silt, Rifle and De Beque. It then flows through De Beque Canyon, where it is joined by Plateau Creek.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThe Colorado then enters the Grand Valley, where its waters are used to irrigate over 40000 acre of agricultural land. Here it passes Grand Junction, the largest town on the upper Colorado, where it is joined by the Gunnison River, its largest tributary within Colorado and second largest overall. The Gunnison drains from the northern San Juan Mountains, Elk Mountains and Sawatch Range – which includes Colorado's highest peak, 14440 ft Mount Elbert – and carves the Black Canyon of the Gunnison before joining the Colorado. In the Grand Valley the Colorado becomes a meandering river in contrast to the steep mountain canyons above Grand Junction. It ranges from 200 to wide and from 6 to in depth with occasional deeper areas.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nFrom there the Colorado turns northwest, past Fruita and entering Ruby Canyon as it approaches the Colorado Plateau. It turns southwest once again just before entering Utah.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nUtah\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nIn Utah the Colorado enters the high desert canyon country of the Colorado Plateau, flowing swiftly southwest through Westwater Canyon. Near Dewey it picks up the Dolores River, which together with its tributary the San Miguel drains the western slope of the San Juan Mountains. It then passes the Fisher Towers and forms part of the southern border of Arches National Park before entering the Moab Valley at Moab. Just below Moab it carves through a 1000 ft deep mountain pass known as \\\"The Portal\\\".\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThe Colorado then passes by Dead Horse Point State Park before entering the backcountry of Canyonlands National Park where it is joined from the north by the Green River, its biggest tributary. The Green, flowing from the Wind River Range of western Wyoming, drains 48000 mi2 in southwest Wyoming, northeast Utah and northwest Colorado. It is much longer than the Colorado above their confluence and carries a larger load of silt, though the Colorado has a slightly greater flow. Before an act of Congress changed the name in 1921 this confluence marked the official beginning of the Colorado River proper. The approximately 450 mi of the Colorado above the confluence of the Green, including the entire section within Colorado, was known as the Grand River.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nBelow the Green River the Colorado flows through Cataract Canyon, which contains some of its most difficult rapids. At Hite the Hite Crossing Bridge – the only bridge over the Colorado for nearly 300 mi – carries Utah State Route 95 over the river. Below here the Colorado is joined by the Dirty Devil River and begins to widen into Lake Powell, the giant reservoir formed by Glen Canyon Dam 185 mi downstream. Lake Powell, a popular houseboating destination, is surrounded by the Glen Canyon National Recreation Area and receives over 2 million visitors each year despite its remote location. Before the dam was completed in 1966 the Colorado flowed through Glen Canyon, a sandstone gorge known for its colorful and intricately sculpted rock formations.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThe Escalante River, a desert stream which runs through the sinuous slot canyons of Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, joins about two-thirds of the way down Lake Powell. The San Juan River, which carries runoff from the southern slopes of the San Juan Mountains and the Four Corners region in Colorado and New Mexico, joins several miles further downstream; it forms an arm of the lake nearly 70 mi long. Although the San Juan contributes only about one-tenth of the Colorado River flow, it is extremely muddy, contributing as much as 40 percent of the total sediment load. The area around the confluence is dominated geographically by Navajo Mountain which rises over a mile (1.6 km) above the surrounding landscape, which is part of the Navajo Nation. Rainbow Bridge, one of the highest natural bridges in the world, is located at the tip of an arm of Lake Powell at the foot of Navajo Mountain.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nArizona\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nGlen Canyon Dam, which creates Lake Powell, is situated in the town of Page in northern Arizona only about 15 mi by river from the Utah border. The 710 ft dam impounds the Colorado primarily for hydroelectricity generation. In front of the dam the Glen Canyon Bridge carries U.S. Route 89 over the Colorado River. Below here the Colorado flows through the last 16 mi of Glen Canyon, passing the scenic Horseshoe Bend, before emerging briefly from its canyons at Lee's Ferry, where it is joined by the warm, shallow, muddy Paria River. Historically a ford used by Native Americans, explorers and settlers, Lee's Ferry serves as the dividing point between the Upper and Colorado River Basins, which were each allocated one-half of the Colorado River flow in the Colorado River Compact of 1922.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nBelow Lee's Ferry the Colorado begins to trend more south than southwest, through the vertical-walled Marble Canyon which is crossed by the twin Navajo Bridges as it enters Grand Canyon National Park. At the southern end of Marble Canyon, the river is joined by another tributary, the capricious Little Colorado River, which drains the Painted Desert region of northeast Arizona and western New Mexico. Although normally a calm and clear spring-fed stream, it can rise dramatically following monsoon storms over the Colorado Plateau.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThen the river then turns abruptly west directly across the folds and fault line of the plateau, through the Upper and Lower Granite Gorges of Grand Canyon, which is 217 mi long and from 4 to between the upper cliffs. The walls, 4000 to high, drop in successive escarpments of 500 to, banded in splendid colors toward the narrow gorge of the present river. The river itself is a nearly uninterrupted series of violent rapids separated by calm, short pools. Deep inside the canyon it is joined from the north by Kanab Creek, which flows from southern Utah, and then from the south by Havasu Creek, known for the waterfalls it forms on the Havasupai Reservation. Further downstream it passes the Uinkaret volcanic field, where basalt eruptions millions of years ago formed huge lava dams across the Colorado. Although the dams have mostly been erased by erosion, a small portion remains as Lava Falls, generally considered the most difficult and dangerous rapids for boaters on the Colorado River.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThe Colorado then swings sharply south and turns northwest north of Peach Springs, emerging from the Grand Canyon at the Grand Wash Cliffs, where it widens into the upper reaches of Lake Mead. The area also marks the general boundary between the Colorado Plateau and the Mojave Desert. Shortly west of that point it begins to form the border of Nevada to the north/west and Arizona to the south/east.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nNevada/Arizona\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nLake Mead, formed by the 726 ft-high Hoover Dam about 30 mi southeast of Las Vegas, Nevada, is the largest reservoir in the United States with a full capacity of 28945000 acre feet and a water surface of nearly 250 mi2. However, the lake has not been full for many years due to a combination of drought and increased water usage by Colorado River Basin states. Situated in the Lake Mead National Recreation Area, Lake Mead is a popular recreation site – visited by almost 8 million people a year – and a critical source of water for the Las Vegas metropolitan area, Central Arizona and Southern California.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThe lake is divided into three main bodies – from upstream to downstream they are the Gregg, Virgin and Boulder Basins, of which Virgin Basin is the largest. Virgin Canyon connects Gregg Basin to Virgin Basin, and the much narrower Boulder Canyon links Virgin Basin to Boulder Basin. Overton Arm, stretching northward for more than 40 mi from Virgin Basin, is fed by the Virgin River – which flows from Utah's Zion National Park – and the Muddy River, which drains a large area of the southern Nevada desert. Before Lake Mead was filled in the 1930s the Muddy River flowed into the Virgin River, which ran southward through what is now Overton Arm to join the Colorado River near the now-ghost town of St. Thomas, Nevada.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nAt Hoover Dam, the Colorado turns due south through Black Canyon, a direction it will follow for the remainder of its course to the Gulf of California. It passes under the Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge (Hoover Dam Bypass), the highest concrete arch bridge in the world, carrying U.S. Route 93 at a height of 900 ft above the Colorado River.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nAt the end of Black Canyon the Colorado widens into Lake Mohave, created by the Davis Dam in Pyramid Canyon above Laughlin, Nevada, where a bridge carries NV 163 (Laughlin Highway)/AZ 95 over the Colorado River. Prior to the completion of the Hoover Dam Bypass project in 2010, this bridge was the main crossing for freight traffic between Arizona and Nevada as trucks were not allowed over Hoover Dam for security reasons after the September 11, 2001 attacks. The Colorado then passes by Bullhead City, Arizona and Fort Mohave, Arizona and the Fort Mojave Reservation.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nCalifornia/Arizona\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThe Colorado forms the border of California to the west and Arizona to the east for most of its course through the desert Lower Colorado River Valley (LCRV), where its character changes significantly from fast-flowing whitewater to a low gradient braided stream with a wide floodplain. Here, the Colorado River ranges in width from 700 to and from 8 to in depth. It becomes a losing stream, with a gradual reduction in volume both due to evaporation in the hot desert climate and massive diversions for irrigation, urban areas, industry and thermo-electric power generation. The average flow rate of 14180 cuft/s at Davis Dam diminishes to just 2060 cuft/s at the Mexican border.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nAt Needles, California the Colorado is crossed by Interstate 40; shortly downstream it passes the Topock Marsh in Topock Gorge and widens into Lake Havasu, formed by Parker Dam. Lake Havasu provides recreation as well as the home of the retired U.K. London Bridge in Lake Havasu City, Arizona, now the New London Bridge. Near Parker Dam are the first two major diversions of the lower Colorado: the Colorado River Aqueduct, which travels 240 mi west to Los Angeles and San Diego, California; and the Central Arizona Project, which sends water 340 mi east towards Phoenix and Tucson, Arizona. The intermittent Bill Williams River joins the Colorado from the east in Lake Havasu, just above Parker Dam.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThe river flows through the Parker Valley, much of which belongs to the Colorado River Indian Reservation, and then the Palo Verde Valley, where it is crossed by Interstate 10 near Blythe, California. The small Headgate Rock Dam removes water for irrigation in the Parker Valley and the Palo Verde Dam provides water to the Palo Verde Valley. The river then flows through a canyon in the Trigo Mountains, where the Cibola and Imperial National Wildlife Refuge encompass the wetland areas formed above Imperial Dam, which filled with silt shortly upon its completion in the 1930s. Most of the Colorado's remaining flow is removed for irrigation here. The Gila Gravity Main Canal provides water for the Gila Valley in Arizona. The All-American Canal, which runs west to the Imperial Valley of California, is the largest irrigation canal in the world, capable of carrying 26155 cuft/s – the entire natural flow of the Colorado prior to damming. The canal supplies more than half a million acres (2000 km2) which due to its mild climate grows most of the winter produce in the United States.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nBelow Imperial Dam the remnants of the Colorado river lessen in gradient and in its lower course flows through the Colorado Desert in a broad sedimentary plain upriver from Yuma, Arizona, where it is joined by the Gila River. The Gila was once one of the Colorado's largest tributaries, draining a huge swath of Arizona and western New Mexico. Today, most of its flow is diverted for irrigation and municipal use in the Phoenix area which leave the river below Gila Bend dry in most years. However, in certain seasons of extreme precipitation, such as the floods of January 1993, the Gila can carry massive amounts of water far exceeding the natural flow of the Colorado River.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThe channel through much of this region is bedded in a dike-like embankment lying above the floodplain over which the escaping water spills in time of flood. This natural dike cuts off the flow of the river to the remarkable low area in southern California known as the Salton Sink in the Coachella Valley, and the Imperial Valley. The Salton Sink and its Salton Sea are located below sea level; therefore, the descent from the river near Yuma is very much greater than the descent from Yuma to the Gulf of California. This geographical peculiarity is the result of the Colorado River Delta, formed over millions of years by over 10000 mi3 of rock and sand eroded from the Grand Canyon and other canyons along the river's course. The delta eventually split the Gulf of California in two; the northern part in present day California, cut off from the sea, eventually evaporated, creating a \\\"sink\\\" more than 200 ft below sea level.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nIn 1905, an attempt to establish an irrigation canal from the Colorado River to the Imperial Valley resulted in disaster as the Colorado escaped its channel into a pair of dry arroyos, the New River and Alamo River. For the next two years the Colorado flowed uncontrollably into the Salton Sink flooding farmland and creating the Salton Sea, which still exists today as the largest inland body of water in California. The river was finally diverted back to its present course in 1907. Geological evidence suggests that this has happened naturally many times in the past, filling Lake Cahuilla, with the floodwaters slowly evaporating over spans of decades before being re-flooded by the Colorado.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nMexico\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nThe Colorado River meets the Mexico–United States border at the Northern International Boundary (NIB), where the Morelos Dam diverts nearly the entire remaining flow into the Reforma Canal and the Tijuana Aqueduct. Most of this water is used for irrigation in the Mexicali Valley, one of Mexico's most fertile agricultural regions. Below the Morelos Dam the Colorado forms the international border for a short distance, between Baja California and Arizona, before reaching the Southern International Boundary at San Luis Rio Colorado, where it crosses entirely into Mexico.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nFor the remainder of its course to the Gulf, the river forms the boundary between Baja California (west) and Sonora (east). \\\"River\\\", however, is a misnomer as the Colorado is dry or small stream most of the year, due to its flow being almost completely exhausted by upstream diversions. The river bed will occasionally contain water, though, due either to monsoon storms over the Gila River Basin, or more rarely due to a particularly heavy snowmelt in the Rocky Mountains. Since the filling of Lake Powell in the 1960s the latter has only occurred four times – the unusually wet years of 1983 through 1986. In May 2014, an agreement between the US and Mexican governments known as Minute 319 enabled the intentional release of water into the Colorado River bed for the first time, with the goal of revitalizing the ecosystem of the Colorado River Delta.\",\n \"Course of the Colorado River\\n\\nPrior to the mid 20th century, the 3000 mi2 Colorado River Delta provided a rich estuarine marshland; while today it is now essentially desiccated, the river is still an important salt-water estuary resource. The estuary of the Colorado River was subjected to a major tidal bore that has almost disappeared with the drastic reduction in the freshwater flow following the irrigation diversions of the Colorado River, and to a lesser extent because of some dredging of the estuary channel. The first historical record of the tidal bore was that of the Croatian missionary in Spanish service Father Ferdinand Konščak on 18 July 1746. During spring tide conditions, the tidal bore formed in the estuary about Montague Island and propagated upstream. It was called locally 'El Burro' or 'burro'. Today the tidal bore is rarely seen although there are still some anecdotal observations.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2077,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_22"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What country had the Roman name Hibernia?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Ireland"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["irlandia","erin s isle","héireann","airlann","ireland","irelanders","airlan","mikra britannia","irelander","population of ireland","west coast of ireland","scotia major","symbol of ireland","irland","auld sod","island of ireland","ireland region","irlanda","ireland ulster","ierne placename","island ireland","ireland island","ireland and ulster"],"string":"[\n \"irlandia\",\n \"erin s isle\",\n \"héireann\",\n \"airlann\",\n \"ireland\",\n \"irelanders\",\n \"airlan\",\n \"mikra britannia\",\n \"irelander\",\n \"population of ireland\",\n \"west coast of ireland\",\n \"scotia major\",\n \"symbol of ireland\",\n \"irland\",\n \"auld sod\",\n \"island of ireland\",\n \"ireland region\",\n \"irlanda\",\n \"ireland ulster\",\n \"ierne placename\",\n \"island ireland\",\n \"ireland island\",\n \"ireland and ulster\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Hibernia\n\nHibernia is the Classical Latin name for the island of Ireland. The name Hibernia was taken from Greek geographical accounts. During his exploration of northwest Europe (c. 320 BC), Pytheas of Massilia called the island Iérnē (written ). In his book Geographia (c. 150 AD), Claudius Ptolemaeus (\"Ptolemy\") called the island Iouerníā (written , where \"ου\"-ou stands for w).\nThe Roman historian Tacitus, in his book Agricola (c. 98 AD), uses the name Hibernia. The Romans also sometimes used Scotia, \"land of the Scoti\", as a geographical term for Ireland in general, as well as just the part inhabited by those people.","Hibernia\n\nΙουέρνια Iouerníā was a Greek rendering of the Q-Celtic name *Īweriū from which eventually arose the Irish names Ériu and Éire. The original meaning of the name is thought to be \"abundant land\".","Hibernia\n\nPost-Roman usage","Hibernia\n\nThe High King Brian Boru (c. 941–1014) based his title on being emperor of the Irish people, which was in Latin: \"Imperator Scottorum\", as distinct from claiming to be Emperor of the island of Ireland. From 1172 the Lordship of Ireland gave the King of England the additional title \"Dominus Hibernie\" (sic, for Hiberniae; also \"Dominus Hybernie\"), Lord of Ireland. The Kingdom of Ireland created the title Rex Hiberniae, King of Ireland, for use in Latin texts. Gerard Mercator called Ireland \"Hybernia\" on his [http://www.teachnet.ie/dhorgan/2006/firstmaps.html world map of 1541]. In 1642 the motto of the Irish Confederates, a Catholic-landlord administration that ruled much of Ireland until 1650 was: Pro Deo, Rege et Patria, Hibernia Unanimis. (In English: For God, King and Fatherland, Ireland is United).","Hibernia\n\nHowever, unlike many Roman geographical names, the Latin \"Hibernia\" did not become the basis for the name for Ireland in any modern languages, with even Italian using Irlanda. Apart from the Celtic languages all modern languages use a local variant of the English \"Ireland\". This is presumably because direct medieval contacts between Ireland and continental Europe were at too low a level to embed use of the Hibernian root, or the original Irish Éire, in local vernaculars. This contrasts with Wales, which is still \"Pays de Galles\" in French, with similar terms in other Romance languages.","Hibernia\n\nBy the classicising 18th century the use of Hibernia had revived in some contexts, just as had the use of Caledonia, one of the Latin terms for Scotland, and Britannia for Britain. \"Hibernia\" was used on Irish coins and companies such as the Hibernian Insurance Company were established (later renamed the Hibernian Group). The name took on popularity with the success of the Irish Patriot Party. At a time when Palladian classical architecture and design were being adopted in northern Europe, Hibernia was a useful word to describe Ireland with overtones of classical style and civility, particularly by the prosperous Anglo-Irish Ascendancy who were taught Latin at school. \"Hibernian\" was used as a term for people, and a general adjective. The Royal Exchange in Dublin was built in 1769–79 with the carved inscription \"SPQH\" for Senatus PopulusQue Hibernicus – The senate and people of Ireland. The Royal Hibernian Academy dates from 1823.","Hibernia\n\nHibernia is a word that is rarely used today with regard to Ireland, except in long-established names. It is occasionally used for names of organisations and various other things; for instance: Hibernia National Bank, Hibernian Insurance Group, Ancient Order of Hibernians, The Hibernian magazine, Hibernia College, Hibernian Football Club, HMS Hibernia, and modern derivatives, from Latin like Respublica Hibernica (Irish Republic) and Universitas Hiberniae Nationalis (National University of Ireland). In Canada, Hibernia lends its name to the Hibernia oil field off Newfoundland, and to a large sea oil platform there, the Hibernia.","Hibernia\n\nAnother occurrence is in familial Hibernian fever or TRAPS (tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated periodic syndrome), a periodic fever first described in 1982 in a family of Irish and Scottish descent, but found in all ethnic groups.","Hibernia\n\nThe compound form Hiberno- remains more common, as in Hiberno-Norse, Hiberno-English, Hiberno-Scottish, Hibernophile, etc.","Hibernia\n\nAn Edinburgh team playing in the SPFL have adopted the name.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nHMS Hibernia was a King Edward VII-class pre-dreadnought battleship of Britain's Royal Navy. Like all ships of the class (apart from HMS King Edward VII) she was named after an important part of the British Empire, namely Ireland. Commissioned in early 1907, she served as the flagship of the Rear Admirals of firstly the Atlantic Fleet and then the Channel Fleet. When the latter fleet was reorganised to the Home Fleet, she was based at the Nore.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nIn 1912, Hibernia hosted trials in naval aviation with the temporary addition of a runway to her foredeck, and the first launch of an aircraft from a vessel underway was achieved from her in early May. Later in 1912, after her experiment with aviation was completed, she and her sister ships formed the 3rd Battle Squadron. The squadron was assigned to the Grand Fleet at the beginning of World War I, and served on the Northern Patrol. In 1915 she supported the Dardanelles Campaign and provided cover for the evacuation from the Gallipoli Peninsula. On returning to the United Kingdom she was again attached to the Grand Fleet before being transferred to Nore Command in May 1916, finishing the war as an accommodation ship. She was decommissioned in 1919 and scrapped in 1922.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nTechnical characteristics","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nHMS Hibernia was laid down at Devonport Dockyard on 6 January 1904, launched on 17 June 1905, and completed in December 1906. She was the last of the eight King Edward VII-class battleships to be completed.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nAlthough Hibernia and her seven sister ships of the King Edward VII class were a direct descendant of the Majestic class, they were also the first class to make a significant departure from the Majestic design, displacing about 1,000 tons more and mounting for the first time an intermediate battery of four 9.2-inch (234-mm) guns in addition to the standard outfit of 6-inch (152-mm) guns. The 9.2-inch was a quick-firing gun like the 6-inch, and its heavier shell made it a formidable weapon by the standards of the day when Hibernia and her sisters were designed; it was adopted out of concerns that British battleships were undergunned for their displacement and were becoming outgunned by foreign battleships that had begun to mount 8-inch (203-mm) intermediate batteries. The four 9.2-inch were mounted in single turrets abreast the foremast and mainmast, and Hibernia thus could bring two of them to bear on either broadside. Even then, Hibernia and her sisters were criticised for not having, a uniform secondary battery of 9.2-inch guns, something considered but rejected because of the length of time it would have taken to design the ships with such a radical revision of the secondary armament layout.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nIn the end, it proved impossible to distinguish 12-inch and 9.2-inch shell splashes from one another, making fire control impractical for ships mounting both calibres, although Hibernia had fire-control platforms on her fore- and mainmasts rather than the fighting tops of earlier classes.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nLike all British battleships since the Majestic class, the King Edward VII-class ships had four 12-inch (305-mm) guns in two twin turrets (one forward and one aft), although the final three King Edwards, including Hibernia, mounted the Mark X 12-inch, a improvement on the Mark IX mounted by the first five King Edwards. Mounting of the 6-inch guns in casemates was abandoned in Hibernia and her sister ships, the 6-inch instead being placed in a central battery amidships protected by 7-inch (178-mm) armoured walls. Otherwise, Hibernias armour was much as in the London-class battleships, although there were various differences in detail from the Londons.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nHibernia and her sisters were the first British battleships with balanced rudders since the 1870s and were very manoeuvrable, with a tactical diameter of 340 yards (311 m) at 15 knots (27.75 km/h). However, they were difficult to keep on a straight course, and this characteristic led to them being nicknamed \"the Wobbly Eight\" during their 1914–1916 service in the Grand Fleet. They had a slightly faster roll than previous British battleship classes, but were good gun platforms, although very wet in bad weather.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nPrimarily powered by coal, Hibernia had oil sprayers installed during her construction, as did all of her sisters except HMS New Zealand, the first time this had been done in British battleships. These allowed steam pressure to be rapidly increased, improving Hibernias acceleration. The eight ships between them were given four different boiler installations for comparative purposes; Hibernias outfit of boilers, reported as 12 Babcock & Wilcox and three cylindrical by some sources and as 18 Babcock & Wilcox and three cylindrical by others, allowed her to exceed her designed speed on trials.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nHibernia was a powerful ship when she was designed, and completely fulfilled the goals set for her at that time. However, she was unlucky in that the years of her design and construction were ones of revolutionary advancement in naval guns, fire control, armour, and propulsion. She joined the fleet at the beginning of 1907, but already had been made obsolete by the commissioning of the revolutionary battleship at the end of 1906, and large numbers of the new dreadnought battleships would commission in succeeding years. By 1914, Hibernia and her King Edward VII-class sisters were, like all predreadnoughts, so outclassed that they spent much of their 1914–1916 Grand Fleet service steaming at the heads of divisions of the far more valuable dreadnoughts, protecting the dreadnoughts from naval mines by being the first battleships to either sight or strike them.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nOperational history","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nEarly career","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nHMS Hibernia commissioned on 2 January 1907 at Devonport Dockyard for service as flagship of the Rear-Admiral, Atlantic Fleet. She transferred to the Channel Fleet for service as Flagship, Rear-Admiral on 27 February 1907. During this period, William Boyle, 12th Earl of Cork, served as her executive officer. In January 1909 she became Flagship, Vice-Admiral commanding. Under a fleet reorganisation on 24 March 1909, the Channel Fleet became the 2nd Division, Home Fleet, and Hibernia became a Home Fleet unit in that division. On 14 July 1910 she was rammed by the barque Loch Trool just after Loch Trool had collided with battleship Britannia, but suffered no noteworthy damage. In January 1912, she was relieved in the Second Division by battleship Orion and was reduced to a nucleus crew in the Third Division at the Nore.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nIn January 1912, aviation experiments began at Sheerness aboard the battleship Africa, during which the first British launch of an aeroplane – the Short Improved S.27 biplane \"S.38\" (or \"RNAS No. 2\") flown by Commander Charles Samson – from a ship took place. Africa transferred her flying-off equipment, including a runway constructed over her foredeck above her forward 12-inch (305-mm) turret and stretching from her bridge to her bows, to Hibernia in May 1912, and Hibernia hosted further experiments. Among these was the first launch of an aeroplane from a warship underway; Commander Samson, again flying \"S.38,\" became the first man to take off from a ship which was underway – sources differ on whether the date of the flight was 2 May, 4 May, or 9 May 1912 – by launching from Hibernia while Hibernia steamed at 10.5 knots (19 km/h) at the Royal Fleet Review in Weymouth Bay, England. During the fleet review, King George V witnessed a number of flights at Portland over a period of four days. Hibernia then transferred her aviation equipment to battleship London.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nBased on the experiments, the Royal Navy concluded that aircraft were useful aboard ship for spotting and other purposes, but that interference with the firing of guns caused by the runway built over the foredeck and the danger and impracticality of recovering seaplanes that alighted in the water in anything but calm weather more than offset the desirability of having aeroplanes aboard. However, shipboard naval aviation had begun in the Royal Navy, and would become a major part of fleet operations by 1917.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nUnder a fleet reorganisation in May 1912, Hibernia and all seven of her sisters of the King Edward VII class (Africa, Britannia, Commonwealth, Dominion, Hindustan, King Edward VII, and Zealandia) were assigned to form the 3rd Battle Squadron, assigned to the First Fleet, Home Fleet. Hibernia returned to full commission on 14 May 1912 for service as Second Flagship, Rear-Admiral, of the squadron. The squadron was detached to the Mediterranean in November 1912 because of the First Balkan War (October 1912 – May 1913); it arrived at Malta on 27 November 1912 and subsequently participated in a blockade by an international force of Montenegro and in an occupation of Scutari. The squadron returned to the United Kingdom in 1913 and rejoined the Home Fleet on 27 June 1913","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nWorld War I","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nUpon the outbreak of World War I, the 3rd Battle Squadron was assigned to the Grand Fleet and based at Rosyth. It was used to supplement the Grand Fleet's cruisers on the Northern Patrol, and Hibernia continued her service as Second Flagship of the squadron. On 2 November 1914, the squadron was detached to reinforce the Channel Fleet and was rebased at Portland. It returned to the Grand Fleet on 13 November 1914.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nHibernia served in the Grand Fleet until November 1915. During sweeps by the fleet, she and her sister ships often steamed at the heads of divisions of the far more valuable dreadnoughts, where they could protect the dreadnoughts by watching for mines or by being the first to strike them.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nIn November 1915, a division of the 3rd Battle Squadron consisting of Hibernia (which served as flagship of the division commander, Rear-Admiral Sydney Fremantle) and battleships Zealandia, Russell, and Albemarle was detached for service in the Dardanelles Campaign. The ships departed Scapa Flow on 6 November 1915; Albemarle suffered heavy damage in a storm on the first night of the voyage and had to return for repairs, assisted by Hibernia and accompanied by Zealandia. Hibernia, Zealandia, and Russell then pressed on and arrived at the Dardanelles on 14 December 1915. Hibernia served as stand-by battleship at Kephalo and covered the evacuation of V and W Beaches at Cape Helles on 8 and 9 January 1916. Among those serving aboard her during this time was Augustus Agar, later V.C. and famous for exploits against the Bolsheviks and as captain of heavy cruiser Dorsetshire in World War II. Later in January, Hibernia was stationed at Milo in case she was needed to cover an evacuation of the French force at Salonika.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nBefore the end of January, Russell relieved her as divisional flagship, and Hibernia returned to the United Kingdom, being reassigned to the Grand Fleet upon arrival at Devonport Dockyard on 5 February 1916. She underwent a refit there in February and March 1916 before rejoining the Grand Fleet.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nOn 29 April 1916, the 3rd Battle Squadron was rebased at Sheerness, and on 3 May 1916 it was separated from the Grand Fleet, being transferred to the Nore Command. Hibernia remained there with the squadron until October 1917.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nIn 1917 Hibernias ten 6-inch (152-mm) guns were removed from their casemates because they were flooded in heavy seas and replaced with four 6-inch (152-mm) guns on the higher shelter deck.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nSubsidiary duties","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nIn October 1917, Hibernia left the 3rd Battle Squadron and paid off into the Nore Reserve at Chatham Dockyard, where she served as an overflow accommodation ship.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nIn September 1918, the Commander-in-Chief, Grand Fleet, Admiral David Beatty, called for a large target to be provided which would allow the battleships of the Grand Fleet, which had seen little action since the Battle of Jutland in 1916, realistic gunnery practice. To meet this requirement, it was suggested that Hibernia be converted to radio control and undergo other modifications so that she could assume duty as a target ship, but ultimately the predreadnought battleship HMS Agamemnon became available and was selected instead.","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nDisposal","HMS Hibernia (1905)\n\nIn July 1919, Hibernia was placed on the disposal list at Chatham, and on 8 November 1921 she was sold for scrapping to Stanlee Shipbreaking Company of Dover. She was resold to Slough Trading Company in 1922, resold yet again to German scrappers, and towed to Germany for scrapping in November 1922.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThe history of Wales in the Roman era began in 48 CE with a military invasion by the imperial governor of Roman Britain. The conquest would be completed by 78, and Roman rule would endure until the region was abandoned in AD 383. Once the conquest was complete, the region and the people living there would be a virtually anonymous part of Roman Britain until the Roman departure.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nRoman rule in Wales was a military occupation, except for the southern coastal region of South Wales east of the Gower Peninsula, where there is a legacy of Romanisation, and some southern sites such as Carmarthen. The only town in Wales founded by the Romans, Caerwent, is located in South Wales. Wales was a rich source of mineral wealth, and the Romans used their engineering technology to extract large amounts of gold, copper, and lead, as well as modest amounts of some other metals such as zinc and silver.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nIt is the Roman campaigns of conquest that are most widely known, due to the spirited but unsuccessful defence of their homelands by two native tribes, the Silures and the Ordovices. Aside from the many Roman-related finds along the southern coast, Roman archaeological remains in Wales consist almost entirely of military roads and fortifications.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nBritain in AD 47","Wales in the Roman era\n\nOn the eve of the Roman invasion of Wales, the Roman military under Governor Aulus Plautius was in control of all of southeastern Britain as well as Dumnonia, perhaps including the lowland English Midlands as far as the Dee Estuary and the River Mersey, and having an understanding with the Brigantes to the north. They controlled most of the islands centers of wealth, as well as much of its trade and resources.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nIn Wales the known tribes (the list may be incomplete) included the Ordovices and Deceangli in the north, and the Silures and Demetae in the south. Archaeology combined with ancient Greek and Roman accounts have shown that there was exploitation of natural resources, such as copper, gold, tin, lead and silver at multiple locations in Britain, including in Wales. Apart from this we have little knowledge of the Welsh tribes of this era.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nInvasion and conquest","Wales in the Roman era\n\nIn AD 47 or 48 the new governor, Publius Ostorius Scapula, moved against the Deceangli along the northeastern coast of Wales, devastating their lands. He campaigned successfully but indecisively against the Silures and then the Ordovices, the most notable feature of which is the leadership of both tribes against him by Caratacus. Scapula died in 52, the same year that the resurgent Silures inflicted a defeat on one of the Roman legions. Scapula was succeeded by a number of governors who made steady but inconclusive gains against the two tribes. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was in the process of conquering Anglesey in AD 60 when the revolt led by Boudica in the east forced a delay in the final conquest of Wales.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThere followed a decade of relative peace while Roman imperial attention was focused elsewhere. When expansion into Wales resumed in 73, Roman progress was steady and successful under Sextus Julius Frontinus, who decisively defeated the Silures,, History of Wales, Wales and Rome followed by the success of Gnaeus Julius Agricola in defeating the Ordovices, and in completing the conquest of Anglesey in AD 77–78.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThere is no indication of any Roman campaigns against the Demetae, and their territory was not planted with a series of forts, nor overlaid with roads, suggesting that they quickly made their peace with Rome. The main fort in their territory was at Moridunum (modern Carmarthen), built around AD 75, and it eventually became the centre of a Roman civitas. The Demetae are the only pre-Roman Welsh tribe that would emerge from Roman rule with their tribal name intact.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nWales in Roman Society","Wales in the Roman era\n\nMining","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThe mineral wealth of Britain was well-known prior to the Roman invasion and was one of the expected benefits of conquest. All mineral extractions were state-sponsored and under military control, as mineral rights belonged to the emperor. His agents soon found substantial deposits of gold, copper, and lead in Wales, along with some zinc and silver. Gold was mined at Dolaucothi prior to the invasion, but Roman engineering would be applied to greatly increase the amount extracted, and to extract huge amounts of the other metals. This would continue until the process was no longer practical or profitable, at which time the mine would be abandoned., An Atlas of Roman Britain, The Economy","Wales in the Roman era\n\nModern scholars have made efforts to quantify the value of these extracted metals to the Roman economy, and to determine the point at which the Roman occupation of Britain was \"profitable\" to the Empire. While these efforts have not produced deterministic results, the benefits to Rome were substantial. The gold production at Dolaucothi alone may have been of economic significance.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nIndustrial production","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThe production of goods for trade and export in Roman Britain was concentrated in the south and east, with virtually none situated in Wales.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThis was largely due to circumstance, with iron forges located near iron supplies, pewter (tin with some lead or copper) moulds located near the tin supplies and suitable soil (for the moulds), clusters of pottery kilns located near suitable clayey soil, grain-drying ovens located in agricultural areas where sheep raising (for wool) was also located, and salt production concentrated in its historical pre-Roman locations. Glass-making sites were located in or near urban centres.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nIn Wales none of the needed materials were available in suitable combination, and the forested, mountainous countryside was not amenable to this kind of industrialisation.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nClusters of tileries, both large and small, were at first operated by the Roman military to meet their own needs, and so there were temporary sites wherever the army went and could find suitable soil. This included a few places in Wales. However, as Roman influence grew, the army was able to obtain tiles from civilian sources who located their kilns in the lowland areas containing good soil, and then shipped the tiles to wherever they were needed.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nRomanisation","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThe Romans occupied the whole of the area now known as Wales, where they built Roman roads and castra, mined gold at Luentinum and conducted commerce, but their interest in the area was limited because of the difficult geography and shortage of flat agricultural land. Most of the Roman remains in Wales are military in nature. Sarn Helen, a major highway, linked the North with South Wales.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThe area was controlled by Roman legionary bases at Deva Victrix (modern Chester) and Isca Augusta (Caerleon), two of the three such bases in Roman Britain, with roads linking these bases to auxiliaries' forts such as Segontium (Caernarfon) and Moridunum (Carmarthen).","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThe best indicators of Romanising acculturation is the presence of urban sites (areas with towns, coloniae, and tribal civitates) and villas in the countryside. In Wales, this can be said only of the southeasternmost coastal region of South Wales. The only civitates in Wales were at Carmarthen and Caerwent. There were three small urban sites near Caerwent, and these and Roman Monmouth were the only other \"urbanised\" sites in Wales.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nIn the southwestern homeland of the Demetae, several sites have been classified as villas in the past, but excavation of these and examination of sites as yet unexcavated suggest that they are pre-Roman family homesteads, sometimes updated through Roman technology (such as stone masonry), but having a native character quite different than the true Roman-derived villas that are found to the east, such as in Oxfordshire.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nPerhaps surprisingly, the presence of Roman-era Latin inscriptions is not suggestive of Romanisation. They are most numerous at military sites, and their occurrence elsewhere depended on access to suitable stone and the presence of stonemasons, as well as patronage. The Roman fort complex at Tomen y Mur near the coast of northwestern Wales has produced more inscriptions than either Segontium (near modern Caernarfon) or Noviomagus Reginorum (Chichester).","Wales in the Roman era\n\nHill forts","Wales in the Roman era\n\nIn areas of civil control, such as the territories of a civitas, the fortification and occupation of hill forts was banned as a matter of Roman policy. However, further inland and northward, a number of pre-Roman hill forts continued to be used in the Roman Era, while others were abandoned during the Roman Era, and still others were newly occupied. The inference is that local leaders who were willing to accommodate Roman interests were encouraged and allowed to continue, providing local leadership under local law and custom.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nReligion","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThere is virtually no evidence to shed light on the practice of religion in Wales during the Roman era, save the anecdotal account of the strange appearance and bloodthirsty customs of the druids of Anglesey by Tacitus during the conquest of Wales. It is fortunate for Rome's reputation that Tacitus described the druids as horrible, else it would be a story of the Roman massacre of defenceless, unarmed men and women. The likelihood of partisan propaganda and an appeal to salacious interests combine to suggest that the account merits suspicion.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThe Welsh region of Britain was not significant to the Romanisation of the island and contains almost no buildings related to religious practice, save where the Roman military was located, and these reflect the practices of non-native soldiers. Any native religious sites would have been constructed of wood that has not survived and so are difficult to locate anywhere in Britain, let alone in mountainous, forest-covered Wales.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThe time of the arrival of Christianity to Wales is unknown. Archaeology suggests that it came to Roman Britain slowly, gaining adherents among coastal merchants and in the upper classes first, and never becoming widespread outside of the southeast in the Roman Era. There is also evidence of a preference for non-Christian devotion in parts of Britain, such as in the upper regions of the Severn Estuary in the 4th century, from the Forest of Dean east of the River Wye continuously around the coast of the estuary, up to and including Somerset.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nIn the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, written c. 540, Gildas provides a story of the martyrdom of Saint Alban at Verulamium, and of Julius and Aaron at Legionum Urbis, the 'City of the Legion', saying that this occurred during a persecution of Christians at a time when 'decrees' against them were issued. Bede repeats the story in his Ecclesiastical History, written c. 731. The otherwise unspecified 'City of the Legion' is arguably Caerleon, Welsh Caerllion, the 'Fortress of the Legion', and the only candidate with a long and continuous military presence that lay within a Romanised region of Britain, with nearby towns and a Roman civitas. Other candidates are Chester and Carlisle, though both were located far from the Romanised area of Britain and had a transitory, more military-oriented history.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nA parenthetical note concerns Saint Patrick, a patron saint of Ireland. He was a Briton born c. 387 in Banna Venta Berniae, a location that is unknown due to the transcription errors in surviving manuscripts. His home is a matter of conjecture, with sites near Carlisle farvoured by some, while coastal South Wales is favoured by others.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nIrish settlement","Wales in the Roman era\n\nBy the middle of the 4th century the Roman presence in Britain was no longer vigorous. Once-unfortified towns were now being surrounded by defensive walls, including both Carmarthen and Caerwent. Political control finally collapsed and a number of alien tribes then took advantage of the situation, raiding widely throughout the island, joined by Roman soldiers who had deserted and by elements of the native Britons themselves. Order was restored in 369, but Roman Britain would not recover.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nIt was at this time that Wales received an infusion of settlers from southern Ireland, the Uí Liatháin, Laigin, and possibly Déisi, the last no longer seen as certain, with only the first two verified by reliable sources and place-name evidence. The Irish were concentrated along the southern and western coasts, in Anglesey and Gwynedd (excepting the cantrefi of Arfon and Arllechwedd), and in the territory of the Demetae.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThe circumstances of their arrival are unknown, and theories include categorising them as \"raiders\", as \"invaders\" who established a hegemony, and as \"foederati\" invited by the Romans. It might as easily have been the consequence of a depopulation in Wales caused by plague or famine, both of which were usually ignored by ancient chroniclers.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nWhat is known is that their characteristically Irish circular huts are found where they settled; that the inscription stones found in Wales, whether in Latin or ogham or both, are characteristically Irish; that when both Latin and ogham are present on a stone, the name in the Latin text is given in Brittonic form while the same name is given in Irish form in ogham; and that medieval Welsh royal genealogies include Irish-named ancestors who also appear in the native Irish narrative The Expulsion of the Déisi. This phenomenon may however be the result of later influences and again only the presence of the Uí Liatháin and Laigin in Wales has been verified.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nEnd of the Roman era","Wales in the Roman era\n\nHistorical accounts tell of the upheavals in the Roman Empire during the 3rd and 4th centuries, with notice of the withdrawal of troops from Roman Britain in support of the imperial ambitions of Roman generals stationed there. In much of Wales, where Roman troops were the only indication of Roman rule, that rule ended when troops left and did not return. The end came to different regions at different times.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nTradition holds that Roman customs held on for several years in southern Wales, lasting into the end of the 5th century, and that is true in part. Caerwent continued to be occupied after the Roman departure, while Carmarthen was probably abandoned in the late 4th century. In addition, southwestern Wales was the tribal territory of the Demetae, who had never become thoroughly Romanised. The entire region of southernmost and southwestern Wales had been settled by Irish newcomers in the late 4th century, and it seems far-fetched to suggest that they were ever fully Romanised.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nMagnus Maximus","Wales in the Roman era\n\nIn Welsh literary tradition, Magnus Maximus is the central figure in the emergence of a free Britain in the post-Roman era. Royal and religious genealogies compiled in the Middle Ages have him as the ancestor of kings and saints. In the Welsh story of Breuddwyd Macsen Wledig (The Dream of Emperor Maximus), he is Emperor of Rome and marries a wondrous British woman, telling her that she may name her desires, to be received as a wedding portion. She asks that her father be given sovereignty over Britain, thus formalising the transfer of authority from Rome back to the Britons themselves.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nHistorically Magnus Maximus was a Roman general who served in Britain in the late 4th century, launching his successful bid for imperial power from Britain in 383. This is the last date for any evidence of a Roman military presence in Wales, the western Pennines, and Deva (i.e., the entire non-Romanised region of Britain south of Hadrian's Wall). Coins dated later than 383 have been excavated along the Wall, suggesting that troops were not stripped from it, as was once thought., Britannia, The End of Roman Britain. In the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae written c. 540, Gildas says that Maximus left Britain not only with all of its Roman troops, but also with all of its armed bands, governors, and the flower of its youth, never to return. Having left with the troops and senior administrators, and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain, his practical course was to transfer local authority to local rulers. Welsh legend provides a mythic story that says he did exactly that.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nAfter he became emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Maximus would return to Britain to campaign against the Picts and Scots (i.e., Irish), probably in support of Rome's long-standing allies the Damnonii, Votadini, and Novantae (all located in modern Scotland). While there he likely made similar arrangements for a formal transfer of authority to local chiefs: the later rulers of Galloway, home to the Novantae, would claim Maximus as the founder of their line, the same as did the Welsh kings.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nMaximus would rule the Roman West until he was killed in 388. A succession of governors would rule southeastern Britain until 407, but there is nothing to suggest that any Roman effort was made to regain control of the west or north after 383, and that year would be the definitive end of the Roman era in Wales.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nLegacy","Wales in the Roman era\n\nWendy Davies has argued that the later medieval Welsh approach to property and estates was a Roman legacy, but this issue and others related to legacy are not yet resolved. For example, Leslie Alcock has argued that that the approach to property and estates cannot pre-date the 6th century and is thus post-Roman.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThere was little Latin linguistic heritage left to the Welsh language, only a number of borrowings from the Latin lexicon. With the absence of early written Welsh sources there is no way of knowing when these borrowings were incorporated into Welsh, and may date from a later post-Roman era when the language of literacy was still Latin. Borrowings include a few common words and word forms. For example, Welsh ffenestr is from Latin fenestra, 'window'; llyfr is from liber, 'book'; ysgrif is from scribo, 'scribe'; and the suffix -wys found in Welsh folk names is derived from the Latin suffix -ēnsēs. There are a few military terms, such as caer from Latin castra, 'fortress'. Eglwys, meaning 'church', is ultimately derived from the Greek klēros.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nWelsh kings would later use the authority of Magnus Maximus as the basis of their inherited political legitimacy. While imperial Roman entries in Welsh royal genealogies lack any historical foundation, they serve to illustrate the belief that legitimate royal authority began with Magnus Maximus. As told in The Dream of Emperor Maximus, Maximus married a Briton, and their supposed children are given in genealogies as the ancestors of kings. Tracing ancestries back further, Roman emperors are listed as the sons of earlier Roman emperors, thus incorporating many famous Romans (e.g., Constantine the Great) into the royal genealogies.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nThe kings of medieval Gwynedd trace their origins to the northern British kingdom of Manaw Gododdin (located in modern Scotland), and they also claim a connection to Roman authority in their genealogies (\"Eternus son of Paternus son of Tacitus\"). This claim may be either an independent one, or was perhaps an invention intended to rival the legitimacy of kings claiming descent from the historical Maximus.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nGwyn A. Williams argues that even at the time of the erection of Offa's Dyke (that divided Wales from medieval England) the people to its west saw themselves as \"Roman\", citing the number of Latin inscriptions still being made into the 8th century.","Wales in the Roman era\n\nCitations"],"string":"[\n \"Hibernia\\n\\nHibernia is the Classical Latin name for the island of Ireland. The name Hibernia was taken from Greek geographical accounts. During his exploration of northwest Europe (c. 320 BC), Pytheas of Massilia called the island Iérnē (written ). In his book Geographia (c. 150 AD), Claudius Ptolemaeus (\\\"Ptolemy\\\") called the island Iouerníā (written , where \\\"ου\\\"-ou stands for w).\\nThe Roman historian Tacitus, in his book Agricola (c. 98 AD), uses the name Hibernia. The Romans also sometimes used Scotia, \\\"land of the Scoti\\\", as a geographical term for Ireland in general, as well as just the part inhabited by those people.\",\n \"Hibernia\\n\\nΙουέρνια Iouerníā was a Greek rendering of the Q-Celtic name *Īweriū from which eventually arose the Irish names Ériu and Éire. The original meaning of the name is thought to be \\\"abundant land\\\".\",\n \"Hibernia\\n\\nPost-Roman usage\",\n \"Hibernia\\n\\nThe High King Brian Boru (c. 941–1014) based his title on being emperor of the Irish people, which was in Latin: \\\"Imperator Scottorum\\\", as distinct from claiming to be Emperor of the island of Ireland. From 1172 the Lordship of Ireland gave the King of England the additional title \\\"Dominus Hibernie\\\" (sic, for Hiberniae; also \\\"Dominus Hybernie\\\"), Lord of Ireland. The Kingdom of Ireland created the title Rex Hiberniae, King of Ireland, for use in Latin texts. Gerard Mercator called Ireland \\\"Hybernia\\\" on his [http://www.teachnet.ie/dhorgan/2006/firstmaps.html world map of 1541]. In 1642 the motto of the Irish Confederates, a Catholic-landlord administration that ruled much of Ireland until 1650 was: Pro Deo, Rege et Patria, Hibernia Unanimis. (In English: For God, King and Fatherland, Ireland is United).\",\n \"Hibernia\\n\\nHowever, unlike many Roman geographical names, the Latin \\\"Hibernia\\\" did not become the basis for the name for Ireland in any modern languages, with even Italian using Irlanda. Apart from the Celtic languages all modern languages use a local variant of the English \\\"Ireland\\\". This is presumably because direct medieval contacts between Ireland and continental Europe were at too low a level to embed use of the Hibernian root, or the original Irish Éire, in local vernaculars. This contrasts with Wales, which is still \\\"Pays de Galles\\\" in French, with similar terms in other Romance languages.\",\n \"Hibernia\\n\\nBy the classicising 18th century the use of Hibernia had revived in some contexts, just as had the use of Caledonia, one of the Latin terms for Scotland, and Britannia for Britain. \\\"Hibernia\\\" was used on Irish coins and companies such as the Hibernian Insurance Company were established (later renamed the Hibernian Group). The name took on popularity with the success of the Irish Patriot Party. At a time when Palladian classical architecture and design were being adopted in northern Europe, Hibernia was a useful word to describe Ireland with overtones of classical style and civility, particularly by the prosperous Anglo-Irish Ascendancy who were taught Latin at school. \\\"Hibernian\\\" was used as a term for people, and a general adjective. The Royal Exchange in Dublin was built in 1769–79 with the carved inscription \\\"SPQH\\\" for Senatus PopulusQue Hibernicus – The senate and people of Ireland. The Royal Hibernian Academy dates from 1823.\",\n \"Hibernia\\n\\nHibernia is a word that is rarely used today with regard to Ireland, except in long-established names. It is occasionally used for names of organisations and various other things; for instance: Hibernia National Bank, Hibernian Insurance Group, Ancient Order of Hibernians, The Hibernian magazine, Hibernia College, Hibernian Football Club, HMS Hibernia, and modern derivatives, from Latin like Respublica Hibernica (Irish Republic) and Universitas Hiberniae Nationalis (National University of Ireland). In Canada, Hibernia lends its name to the Hibernia oil field off Newfoundland, and to a large sea oil platform there, the Hibernia.\",\n \"Hibernia\\n\\nAnother occurrence is in familial Hibernian fever or TRAPS (tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated periodic syndrome), a periodic fever first described in 1982 in a family of Irish and Scottish descent, but found in all ethnic groups.\",\n \"Hibernia\\n\\nThe compound form Hiberno- remains more common, as in Hiberno-Norse, Hiberno-English, Hiberno-Scottish, Hibernophile, etc.\",\n \"Hibernia\\n\\nAn Edinburgh team playing in the SPFL have adopted the name.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nHMS Hibernia was a King Edward VII-class pre-dreadnought battleship of Britain's Royal Navy. Like all ships of the class (apart from HMS King Edward VII) she was named after an important part of the British Empire, namely Ireland. Commissioned in early 1907, she served as the flagship of the Rear Admirals of firstly the Atlantic Fleet and then the Channel Fleet. When the latter fleet was reorganised to the Home Fleet, she was based at the Nore.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nIn 1912, Hibernia hosted trials in naval aviation with the temporary addition of a runway to her foredeck, and the first launch of an aircraft from a vessel underway was achieved from her in early May. Later in 1912, after her experiment with aviation was completed, she and her sister ships formed the 3rd Battle Squadron. The squadron was assigned to the Grand Fleet at the beginning of World War I, and served on the Northern Patrol. In 1915 she supported the Dardanelles Campaign and provided cover for the evacuation from the Gallipoli Peninsula. On returning to the United Kingdom she was again attached to the Grand Fleet before being transferred to Nore Command in May 1916, finishing the war as an accommodation ship. She was decommissioned in 1919 and scrapped in 1922.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nTechnical characteristics\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nHMS Hibernia was laid down at Devonport Dockyard on 6 January 1904, launched on 17 June 1905, and completed in December 1906. She was the last of the eight King Edward VII-class battleships to be completed.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nAlthough Hibernia and her seven sister ships of the King Edward VII class were a direct descendant of the Majestic class, they were also the first class to make a significant departure from the Majestic design, displacing about 1,000 tons more and mounting for the first time an intermediate battery of four 9.2-inch (234-mm) guns in addition to the standard outfit of 6-inch (152-mm) guns. The 9.2-inch was a quick-firing gun like the 6-inch, and its heavier shell made it a formidable weapon by the standards of the day when Hibernia and her sisters were designed; it was adopted out of concerns that British battleships were undergunned for their displacement and were becoming outgunned by foreign battleships that had begun to mount 8-inch (203-mm) intermediate batteries. The four 9.2-inch were mounted in single turrets abreast the foremast and mainmast, and Hibernia thus could bring two of them to bear on either broadside. Even then, Hibernia and her sisters were criticised for not having, a uniform secondary battery of 9.2-inch guns, something considered but rejected because of the length of time it would have taken to design the ships with such a radical revision of the secondary armament layout.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nIn the end, it proved impossible to distinguish 12-inch and 9.2-inch shell splashes from one another, making fire control impractical for ships mounting both calibres, although Hibernia had fire-control platforms on her fore- and mainmasts rather than the fighting tops of earlier classes.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nLike all British battleships since the Majestic class, the King Edward VII-class ships had four 12-inch (305-mm) guns in two twin turrets (one forward and one aft), although the final three King Edwards, including Hibernia, mounted the Mark X 12-inch, a improvement on the Mark IX mounted by the first five King Edwards. Mounting of the 6-inch guns in casemates was abandoned in Hibernia and her sister ships, the 6-inch instead being placed in a central battery amidships protected by 7-inch (178-mm) armoured walls. Otherwise, Hibernias armour was much as in the London-class battleships, although there were various differences in detail from the Londons.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nHibernia and her sisters were the first British battleships with balanced rudders since the 1870s and were very manoeuvrable, with a tactical diameter of 340 yards (311 m) at 15 knots (27.75 km/h). However, they were difficult to keep on a straight course, and this characteristic led to them being nicknamed \\\"the Wobbly Eight\\\" during their 1914–1916 service in the Grand Fleet. They had a slightly faster roll than previous British battleship classes, but were good gun platforms, although very wet in bad weather.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nPrimarily powered by coal, Hibernia had oil sprayers installed during her construction, as did all of her sisters except HMS New Zealand, the first time this had been done in British battleships. These allowed steam pressure to be rapidly increased, improving Hibernias acceleration. The eight ships between them were given four different boiler installations for comparative purposes; Hibernias outfit of boilers, reported as 12 Babcock & Wilcox and three cylindrical by some sources and as 18 Babcock & Wilcox and three cylindrical by others, allowed her to exceed her designed speed on trials.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nHibernia was a powerful ship when she was designed, and completely fulfilled the goals set for her at that time. However, she was unlucky in that the years of her design and construction were ones of revolutionary advancement in naval guns, fire control, armour, and propulsion. She joined the fleet at the beginning of 1907, but already had been made obsolete by the commissioning of the revolutionary battleship at the end of 1906, and large numbers of the new dreadnought battleships would commission in succeeding years. By 1914, Hibernia and her King Edward VII-class sisters were, like all predreadnoughts, so outclassed that they spent much of their 1914–1916 Grand Fleet service steaming at the heads of divisions of the far more valuable dreadnoughts, protecting the dreadnoughts from naval mines by being the first battleships to either sight or strike them.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nOperational history\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nEarly career\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nHMS Hibernia commissioned on 2 January 1907 at Devonport Dockyard for service as flagship of the Rear-Admiral, Atlantic Fleet. She transferred to the Channel Fleet for service as Flagship, Rear-Admiral on 27 February 1907. During this period, William Boyle, 12th Earl of Cork, served as her executive officer. In January 1909 she became Flagship, Vice-Admiral commanding. Under a fleet reorganisation on 24 March 1909, the Channel Fleet became the 2nd Division, Home Fleet, and Hibernia became a Home Fleet unit in that division. On 14 July 1910 she was rammed by the barque Loch Trool just after Loch Trool had collided with battleship Britannia, but suffered no noteworthy damage. In January 1912, she was relieved in the Second Division by battleship Orion and was reduced to a nucleus crew in the Third Division at the Nore.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nIn January 1912, aviation experiments began at Sheerness aboard the battleship Africa, during which the first British launch of an aeroplane – the Short Improved S.27 biplane \\\"S.38\\\" (or \\\"RNAS No. 2\\\") flown by Commander Charles Samson – from a ship took place. Africa transferred her flying-off equipment, including a runway constructed over her foredeck above her forward 12-inch (305-mm) turret and stretching from her bridge to her bows, to Hibernia in May 1912, and Hibernia hosted further experiments. Among these was the first launch of an aeroplane from a warship underway; Commander Samson, again flying \\\"S.38,\\\" became the first man to take off from a ship which was underway – sources differ on whether the date of the flight was 2 May, 4 May, or 9 May 1912 – by launching from Hibernia while Hibernia steamed at 10.5 knots (19 km/h) at the Royal Fleet Review in Weymouth Bay, England. During the fleet review, King George V witnessed a number of flights at Portland over a period of four days. Hibernia then transferred her aviation equipment to battleship London.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nBased on the experiments, the Royal Navy concluded that aircraft were useful aboard ship for spotting and other purposes, but that interference with the firing of guns caused by the runway built over the foredeck and the danger and impracticality of recovering seaplanes that alighted in the water in anything but calm weather more than offset the desirability of having aeroplanes aboard. However, shipboard naval aviation had begun in the Royal Navy, and would become a major part of fleet operations by 1917.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nUnder a fleet reorganisation in May 1912, Hibernia and all seven of her sisters of the King Edward VII class (Africa, Britannia, Commonwealth, Dominion, Hindustan, King Edward VII, and Zealandia) were assigned to form the 3rd Battle Squadron, assigned to the First Fleet, Home Fleet. Hibernia returned to full commission on 14 May 1912 for service as Second Flagship, Rear-Admiral, of the squadron. The squadron was detached to the Mediterranean in November 1912 because of the First Balkan War (October 1912 – May 1913); it arrived at Malta on 27 November 1912 and subsequently participated in a blockade by an international force of Montenegro and in an occupation of Scutari. The squadron returned to the United Kingdom in 1913 and rejoined the Home Fleet on 27 June 1913\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nWorld War I\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nUpon the outbreak of World War I, the 3rd Battle Squadron was assigned to the Grand Fleet and based at Rosyth. It was used to supplement the Grand Fleet's cruisers on the Northern Patrol, and Hibernia continued her service as Second Flagship of the squadron. On 2 November 1914, the squadron was detached to reinforce the Channel Fleet and was rebased at Portland. It returned to the Grand Fleet on 13 November 1914.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nHibernia served in the Grand Fleet until November 1915. During sweeps by the fleet, she and her sister ships often steamed at the heads of divisions of the far more valuable dreadnoughts, where they could protect the dreadnoughts by watching for mines or by being the first to strike them.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nIn November 1915, a division of the 3rd Battle Squadron consisting of Hibernia (which served as flagship of the division commander, Rear-Admiral Sydney Fremantle) and battleships Zealandia, Russell, and Albemarle was detached for service in the Dardanelles Campaign. The ships departed Scapa Flow on 6 November 1915; Albemarle suffered heavy damage in a storm on the first night of the voyage and had to return for repairs, assisted by Hibernia and accompanied by Zealandia. Hibernia, Zealandia, and Russell then pressed on and arrived at the Dardanelles on 14 December 1915. Hibernia served as stand-by battleship at Kephalo and covered the evacuation of V and W Beaches at Cape Helles on 8 and 9 January 1916. Among those serving aboard her during this time was Augustus Agar, later V.C. and famous for exploits against the Bolsheviks and as captain of heavy cruiser Dorsetshire in World War II. Later in January, Hibernia was stationed at Milo in case she was needed to cover an evacuation of the French force at Salonika.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nBefore the end of January, Russell relieved her as divisional flagship, and Hibernia returned to the United Kingdom, being reassigned to the Grand Fleet upon arrival at Devonport Dockyard on 5 February 1916. She underwent a refit there in February and March 1916 before rejoining the Grand Fleet.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nOn 29 April 1916, the 3rd Battle Squadron was rebased at Sheerness, and on 3 May 1916 it was separated from the Grand Fleet, being transferred to the Nore Command. Hibernia remained there with the squadron until October 1917.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nIn 1917 Hibernias ten 6-inch (152-mm) guns were removed from their casemates because they were flooded in heavy seas and replaced with four 6-inch (152-mm) guns on the higher shelter deck.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nSubsidiary duties\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nIn October 1917, Hibernia left the 3rd Battle Squadron and paid off into the Nore Reserve at Chatham Dockyard, where she served as an overflow accommodation ship.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nIn September 1918, the Commander-in-Chief, Grand Fleet, Admiral David Beatty, called for a large target to be provided which would allow the battleships of the Grand Fleet, which had seen little action since the Battle of Jutland in 1916, realistic gunnery practice. To meet this requirement, it was suggested that Hibernia be converted to radio control and undergo other modifications so that she could assume duty as a target ship, but ultimately the predreadnought battleship HMS Agamemnon became available and was selected instead.\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nDisposal\",\n \"HMS Hibernia (1905)\\n\\nIn July 1919, Hibernia was placed on the disposal list at Chatham, and on 8 November 1921 she was sold for scrapping to Stanlee Shipbreaking Company of Dover. She was resold to Slough Trading Company in 1922, resold yet again to German scrappers, and towed to Germany for scrapping in November 1922.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThe history of Wales in the Roman era began in 48 CE with a military invasion by the imperial governor of Roman Britain. The conquest would be completed by 78, and Roman rule would endure until the region was abandoned in AD 383. Once the conquest was complete, the region and the people living there would be a virtually anonymous part of Roman Britain until the Roman departure.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nRoman rule in Wales was a military occupation, except for the southern coastal region of South Wales east of the Gower Peninsula, where there is a legacy of Romanisation, and some southern sites such as Carmarthen. The only town in Wales founded by the Romans, Caerwent, is located in South Wales. Wales was a rich source of mineral wealth, and the Romans used their engineering technology to extract large amounts of gold, copper, and lead, as well as modest amounts of some other metals such as zinc and silver.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nIt is the Roman campaigns of conquest that are most widely known, due to the spirited but unsuccessful defence of their homelands by two native tribes, the Silures and the Ordovices. Aside from the many Roman-related finds along the southern coast, Roman archaeological remains in Wales consist almost entirely of military roads and fortifications.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nBritain in AD 47\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nOn the eve of the Roman invasion of Wales, the Roman military under Governor Aulus Plautius was in control of all of southeastern Britain as well as Dumnonia, perhaps including the lowland English Midlands as far as the Dee Estuary and the River Mersey, and having an understanding with the Brigantes to the north. They controlled most of the islands centers of wealth, as well as much of its trade and resources.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nIn Wales the known tribes (the list may be incomplete) included the Ordovices and Deceangli in the north, and the Silures and Demetae in the south. Archaeology combined with ancient Greek and Roman accounts have shown that there was exploitation of natural resources, such as copper, gold, tin, lead and silver at multiple locations in Britain, including in Wales. Apart from this we have little knowledge of the Welsh tribes of this era.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nInvasion and conquest\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nIn AD 47 or 48 the new governor, Publius Ostorius Scapula, moved against the Deceangli along the northeastern coast of Wales, devastating their lands. He campaigned successfully but indecisively against the Silures and then the Ordovices, the most notable feature of which is the leadership of both tribes against him by Caratacus. Scapula died in 52, the same year that the resurgent Silures inflicted a defeat on one of the Roman legions. Scapula was succeeded by a number of governors who made steady but inconclusive gains against the two tribes. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was in the process of conquering Anglesey in AD 60 when the revolt led by Boudica in the east forced a delay in the final conquest of Wales.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThere followed a decade of relative peace while Roman imperial attention was focused elsewhere. When expansion into Wales resumed in 73, Roman progress was steady and successful under Sextus Julius Frontinus, who decisively defeated the Silures,, History of Wales, Wales and Rome followed by the success of Gnaeus Julius Agricola in defeating the Ordovices, and in completing the conquest of Anglesey in AD 77–78.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThere is no indication of any Roman campaigns against the Demetae, and their territory was not planted with a series of forts, nor overlaid with roads, suggesting that they quickly made their peace with Rome. The main fort in their territory was at Moridunum (modern Carmarthen), built around AD 75, and it eventually became the centre of a Roman civitas. The Demetae are the only pre-Roman Welsh tribe that would emerge from Roman rule with their tribal name intact.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nWales in Roman Society\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nMining\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThe mineral wealth of Britain was well-known prior to the Roman invasion and was one of the expected benefits of conquest. All mineral extractions were state-sponsored and under military control, as mineral rights belonged to the emperor. His agents soon found substantial deposits of gold, copper, and lead in Wales, along with some zinc and silver. Gold was mined at Dolaucothi prior to the invasion, but Roman engineering would be applied to greatly increase the amount extracted, and to extract huge amounts of the other metals. This would continue until the process was no longer practical or profitable, at which time the mine would be abandoned., An Atlas of Roman Britain, The Economy\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nModern scholars have made efforts to quantify the value of these extracted metals to the Roman economy, and to determine the point at which the Roman occupation of Britain was \\\"profitable\\\" to the Empire. While these efforts have not produced deterministic results, the benefits to Rome were substantial. The gold production at Dolaucothi alone may have been of economic significance.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nIndustrial production\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThe production of goods for trade and export in Roman Britain was concentrated in the south and east, with virtually none situated in Wales.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThis was largely due to circumstance, with iron forges located near iron supplies, pewter (tin with some lead or copper) moulds located near the tin supplies and suitable soil (for the moulds), clusters of pottery kilns located near suitable clayey soil, grain-drying ovens located in agricultural areas where sheep raising (for wool) was also located, and salt production concentrated in its historical pre-Roman locations. Glass-making sites were located in or near urban centres.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nIn Wales none of the needed materials were available in suitable combination, and the forested, mountainous countryside was not amenable to this kind of industrialisation.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nClusters of tileries, both large and small, were at first operated by the Roman military to meet their own needs, and so there were temporary sites wherever the army went and could find suitable soil. This included a few places in Wales. However, as Roman influence grew, the army was able to obtain tiles from civilian sources who located their kilns in the lowland areas containing good soil, and then shipped the tiles to wherever they were needed.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nRomanisation\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThe Romans occupied the whole of the area now known as Wales, where they built Roman roads and castra, mined gold at Luentinum and conducted commerce, but their interest in the area was limited because of the difficult geography and shortage of flat agricultural land. Most of the Roman remains in Wales are military in nature. Sarn Helen, a major highway, linked the North with South Wales.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThe area was controlled by Roman legionary bases at Deva Victrix (modern Chester) and Isca Augusta (Caerleon), two of the three such bases in Roman Britain, with roads linking these bases to auxiliaries' forts such as Segontium (Caernarfon) and Moridunum (Carmarthen).\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThe best indicators of Romanising acculturation is the presence of urban sites (areas with towns, coloniae, and tribal civitates) and villas in the countryside. In Wales, this can be said only of the southeasternmost coastal region of South Wales. The only civitates in Wales were at Carmarthen and Caerwent. There were three small urban sites near Caerwent, and these and Roman Monmouth were the only other \\\"urbanised\\\" sites in Wales.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nIn the southwestern homeland of the Demetae, several sites have been classified as villas in the past, but excavation of these and examination of sites as yet unexcavated suggest that they are pre-Roman family homesteads, sometimes updated through Roman technology (such as stone masonry), but having a native character quite different than the true Roman-derived villas that are found to the east, such as in Oxfordshire.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nPerhaps surprisingly, the presence of Roman-era Latin inscriptions is not suggestive of Romanisation. They are most numerous at military sites, and their occurrence elsewhere depended on access to suitable stone and the presence of stonemasons, as well as patronage. The Roman fort complex at Tomen y Mur near the coast of northwestern Wales has produced more inscriptions than either Segontium (near modern Caernarfon) or Noviomagus Reginorum (Chichester).\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nHill forts\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nIn areas of civil control, such as the territories of a civitas, the fortification and occupation of hill forts was banned as a matter of Roman policy. However, further inland and northward, a number of pre-Roman hill forts continued to be used in the Roman Era, while others were abandoned during the Roman Era, and still others were newly occupied. The inference is that local leaders who were willing to accommodate Roman interests were encouraged and allowed to continue, providing local leadership under local law and custom.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThere is virtually no evidence to shed light on the practice of religion in Wales during the Roman era, save the anecdotal account of the strange appearance and bloodthirsty customs of the druids of Anglesey by Tacitus during the conquest of Wales. It is fortunate for Rome's reputation that Tacitus described the druids as horrible, else it would be a story of the Roman massacre of defenceless, unarmed men and women. The likelihood of partisan propaganda and an appeal to salacious interests combine to suggest that the account merits suspicion.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThe Welsh region of Britain was not significant to the Romanisation of the island and contains almost no buildings related to religious practice, save where the Roman military was located, and these reflect the practices of non-native soldiers. Any native religious sites would have been constructed of wood that has not survived and so are difficult to locate anywhere in Britain, let alone in mountainous, forest-covered Wales.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThe time of the arrival of Christianity to Wales is unknown. Archaeology suggests that it came to Roman Britain slowly, gaining adherents among coastal merchants and in the upper classes first, and never becoming widespread outside of the southeast in the Roman Era. There is also evidence of a preference for non-Christian devotion in parts of Britain, such as in the upper regions of the Severn Estuary in the 4th century, from the Forest of Dean east of the River Wye continuously around the coast of the estuary, up to and including Somerset.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nIn the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, written c. 540, Gildas provides a story of the martyrdom of Saint Alban at Verulamium, and of Julius and Aaron at Legionum Urbis, the 'City of the Legion', saying that this occurred during a persecution of Christians at a time when 'decrees' against them were issued. Bede repeats the story in his Ecclesiastical History, written c. 731. The otherwise unspecified 'City of the Legion' is arguably Caerleon, Welsh Caerllion, the 'Fortress of the Legion', and the only candidate with a long and continuous military presence that lay within a Romanised region of Britain, with nearby towns and a Roman civitas. Other candidates are Chester and Carlisle, though both were located far from the Romanised area of Britain and had a transitory, more military-oriented history.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nA parenthetical note concerns Saint Patrick, a patron saint of Ireland. He was a Briton born c. 387 in Banna Venta Berniae, a location that is unknown due to the transcription errors in surviving manuscripts. His home is a matter of conjecture, with sites near Carlisle farvoured by some, while coastal South Wales is favoured by others.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nIrish settlement\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nBy the middle of the 4th century the Roman presence in Britain was no longer vigorous. Once-unfortified towns were now being surrounded by defensive walls, including both Carmarthen and Caerwent. Political control finally collapsed and a number of alien tribes then took advantage of the situation, raiding widely throughout the island, joined by Roman soldiers who had deserted and by elements of the native Britons themselves. Order was restored in 369, but Roman Britain would not recover.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nIt was at this time that Wales received an infusion of settlers from southern Ireland, the Uí Liatháin, Laigin, and possibly Déisi, the last no longer seen as certain, with only the first two verified by reliable sources and place-name evidence. The Irish were concentrated along the southern and western coasts, in Anglesey and Gwynedd (excepting the cantrefi of Arfon and Arllechwedd), and in the territory of the Demetae.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThe circumstances of their arrival are unknown, and theories include categorising them as \\\"raiders\\\", as \\\"invaders\\\" who established a hegemony, and as \\\"foederati\\\" invited by the Romans. It might as easily have been the consequence of a depopulation in Wales caused by plague or famine, both of which were usually ignored by ancient chroniclers.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nWhat is known is that their characteristically Irish circular huts are found where they settled; that the inscription stones found in Wales, whether in Latin or ogham or both, are characteristically Irish; that when both Latin and ogham are present on a stone, the name in the Latin text is given in Brittonic form while the same name is given in Irish form in ogham; and that medieval Welsh royal genealogies include Irish-named ancestors who also appear in the native Irish narrative The Expulsion of the Déisi. This phenomenon may however be the result of later influences and again only the presence of the Uí Liatháin and Laigin in Wales has been verified.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nEnd of the Roman era\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nHistorical accounts tell of the upheavals in the Roman Empire during the 3rd and 4th centuries, with notice of the withdrawal of troops from Roman Britain in support of the imperial ambitions of Roman generals stationed there. In much of Wales, where Roman troops were the only indication of Roman rule, that rule ended when troops left and did not return. The end came to different regions at different times.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nTradition holds that Roman customs held on for several years in southern Wales, lasting into the end of the 5th century, and that is true in part. Caerwent continued to be occupied after the Roman departure, while Carmarthen was probably abandoned in the late 4th century. In addition, southwestern Wales was the tribal territory of the Demetae, who had never become thoroughly Romanised. The entire region of southernmost and southwestern Wales had been settled by Irish newcomers in the late 4th century, and it seems far-fetched to suggest that they were ever fully Romanised.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nMagnus Maximus\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nIn Welsh literary tradition, Magnus Maximus is the central figure in the emergence of a free Britain in the post-Roman era. Royal and religious genealogies compiled in the Middle Ages have him as the ancestor of kings and saints. In the Welsh story of Breuddwyd Macsen Wledig (The Dream of Emperor Maximus), he is Emperor of Rome and marries a wondrous British woman, telling her that she may name her desires, to be received as a wedding portion. She asks that her father be given sovereignty over Britain, thus formalising the transfer of authority from Rome back to the Britons themselves.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nHistorically Magnus Maximus was a Roman general who served in Britain in the late 4th century, launching his successful bid for imperial power from Britain in 383. This is the last date for any evidence of a Roman military presence in Wales, the western Pennines, and Deva (i.e., the entire non-Romanised region of Britain south of Hadrian's Wall). Coins dated later than 383 have been excavated along the Wall, suggesting that troops were not stripped from it, as was once thought., Britannia, The End of Roman Britain. In the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae written c. 540, Gildas says that Maximus left Britain not only with all of its Roman troops, but also with all of its armed bands, governors, and the flower of its youth, never to return. Having left with the troops and senior administrators, and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain, his practical course was to transfer local authority to local rulers. Welsh legend provides a mythic story that says he did exactly that.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nAfter he became emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Maximus would return to Britain to campaign against the Picts and Scots (i.e., Irish), probably in support of Rome's long-standing allies the Damnonii, Votadini, and Novantae (all located in modern Scotland). While there he likely made similar arrangements for a formal transfer of authority to local chiefs: the later rulers of Galloway, home to the Novantae, would claim Maximus as the founder of their line, the same as did the Welsh kings.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nMaximus would rule the Roman West until he was killed in 388. A succession of governors would rule southeastern Britain until 407, but there is nothing to suggest that any Roman effort was made to regain control of the west or north after 383, and that year would be the definitive end of the Roman era in Wales.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nWendy Davies has argued that the later medieval Welsh approach to property and estates was a Roman legacy, but this issue and others related to legacy are not yet resolved. For example, Leslie Alcock has argued that that the approach to property and estates cannot pre-date the 6th century and is thus post-Roman.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThere was little Latin linguistic heritage left to the Welsh language, only a number of borrowings from the Latin lexicon. With the absence of early written Welsh sources there is no way of knowing when these borrowings were incorporated into Welsh, and may date from a later post-Roman era when the language of literacy was still Latin. Borrowings include a few common words and word forms. For example, Welsh ffenestr is from Latin fenestra, 'window'; llyfr is from liber, 'book'; ysgrif is from scribo, 'scribe'; and the suffix -wys found in Welsh folk names is derived from the Latin suffix -ēnsēs. There are a few military terms, such as caer from Latin castra, 'fortress'. Eglwys, meaning 'church', is ultimately derived from the Greek klēros.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nWelsh kings would later use the authority of Magnus Maximus as the basis of their inherited political legitimacy. While imperial Roman entries in Welsh royal genealogies lack any historical foundation, they serve to illustrate the belief that legitimate royal authority began with Magnus Maximus. As told in The Dream of Emperor Maximus, Maximus married a Briton, and their supposed children are given in genealogies as the ancestors of kings. Tracing ancestries back further, Roman emperors are listed as the sons of earlier Roman emperors, thus incorporating many famous Romans (e.g., Constantine the Great) into the royal genealogies.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nThe kings of medieval Gwynedd trace their origins to the northern British kingdom of Manaw Gododdin (located in modern Scotland), and they also claim a connection to Roman authority in their genealogies (\\\"Eternus son of Paternus son of Tacitus\\\"). This claim may be either an independent one, or was perhaps an invention intended to rival the legitimacy of kings claiming descent from the historical Maximus.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nGwyn A. Williams argues that even at the time of the erection of Offa's Dyke (that divided Wales from medieval England) the people to its west saw themselves as \\\"Roman\\\", citing the number of Latin inscriptions still being made into the 8th century.\",\n \"Wales in the Roman era\\n\\nCitations\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2078,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_24"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which superhero has a butler named Alfred?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Batman"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["brucewayne","batman handbook ultimate training manual","batman bruce wayne","bat man","caped crusader","silver age batman","batman","batmarine","fictional history of batman","bat embargo","batdude","golden age batman","skills and abilities of batman","skills abilities resources and equipment of batman","batsy","history of batman","na na na na na na na na","batman war on crime","bruce wayne batman","bruno diaz","new look batman","batman comics","batman emblem","batman dc comics","bruce wayne","matches malone"],"string":"[\n \"brucewayne\",\n \"batman handbook ultimate training manual\",\n \"batman bruce wayne\",\n \"bat man\",\n \"caped crusader\",\n \"silver age batman\",\n \"batman\",\n \"batmarine\",\n \"fictional history of batman\",\n \"bat embargo\",\n \"batdude\",\n \"golden age batman\",\n \"skills and abilities of batman\",\n \"skills abilities resources and equipment of batman\",\n \"batsy\",\n \"history of batman\",\n \"na na na na na na na na\",\n \"batman war on crime\",\n \"bruce wayne batman\",\n \"bruno diaz\",\n \"new look batman\",\n \"batman comics\",\n \"batman emblem\",\n \"batman dc comics\",\n \"bruce wayne\",\n \"matches malone\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Superhero\n\nIn modern popular fiction, a superhero (sometimes rendered super-hero or super hero) is a type of costumed heroic character who possesses supernatural or superhuman powers and who is dedicated to fighting crime, protecting the public, and usually battling supervillains. A female superhero is sometimes called a superheroine (also rendered super-heroine or super heroine). Fiction centered on such characters, especially in American comic books since the 1930s, is known as superhero fiction.","Superhero\n\nBy most definitions, characters do not require actual supernatural or superhuman powers or phenomena to be deemed superheroes. While the Dictionary.com definition of 'superhero' is \"A figure, especially in a comic strip or cartoon, endowed with superhuman powers and usually portrayed as fighting evil or crime\", the longstanding Merriam-Webster dictionary gives the definition as \"a fictional hero having extraordinary or superhuman powers; also: an exceptionally skillful or successful person\". Terms such as masked crime fighters, costumed adventurers or masked vigilantes are sometimes used to refer to characters such as the Spirit, who may not be explicitly referred to as superheroes but nevertheless share similar traits.","Superhero\n\nSome superheroes use their powers to counter day-to-day crime while also combating threats against humanity from supervillains, who are their criminal counterparts. Often at least one of these supervillains will be the superhero's archenemy. Some long-running superheroes such as Superman, Batman, Spider-Man, Wonder Woman, Captain America, Wolverine, Green Lantern, The Flash, Hulk, Thor and Iron Man have a rogues gallery of many villains.","Superhero\n\nHistory","Superhero\n\nEarly history","Superhero\n\nThe word 'superhero' dates to at least 1917. Antecedents of the archetype include such folkloric heroes as Robin Hood, who adventured in distinctive clothing. The 1903 play The Scarlet Pimpernel and its spinoffs popularized the idea of a masked avenger and the superhero trope of a secret identity. Shortly afterward, masked and costumed pulp-fiction characters such as Zorro (1919) and comic strip heroes, such as the Phantom (1936) began appearing, as did non-costumed characters with super strength, including Patoruzú (1928), the comic-strip character Popeye (1929) and novelist Philip Wylie's protagonist Hugo Danner (1930).","Superhero\n\nIn the 1930s, both trends came together in some of the earliest superpowered costumed heroes such as Japan's very own Ōgon Bat (visualized in painted panels used by kamishibai oral storytellers in Japan since 1931), Mandrake the Magician (1934), and Superman in 1938 at the beginning of the Golden Age of Comic Books.","Superhero\n\n1940s","Superhero\n\nThis era saw the debut of first known female superhero, writer-artist Fletcher Hanks's character Fantomah, an ageless ancient Egyptian woman in the modern day who could transform into a skull-faced creature with superpowers to fight evil; she debuted in Fiction House's Jungle Comics #2 (Feb. 1940), credited to the pseudonymous \"Barclay Flagg\". The Invisible Scarlet O'Neil, a non-costumed character who fought crime and wartime saboteurs using the superpower of invisibility created by Russell Stamm, would debut in the eponymous syndicated newspaper comic strip a few months later on June 3, 1940.","Superhero\n\nOne superpowered character was portrayed as an antiheroine, a rarity for its time: the Black Widow, a costumed emissary of Satan who killed evildoers in order to send them to Hell — debuted in Mystic Comics #4 (Aug. 1940), from Timely Comics, the 1940s predecessor of Marvel Comics. Most of the other female costumed crime-fighters during this era lacked superpowers. Notable characters include The Woman in Red, introduced in Standard Comics' Thrilling Comics #2 (March 1940); Lady Luck, debuting in the Sunday-newspaper comic-book insert The Spirit Section June 2, 1940; the comedic character Red Tornado, debuting in All-American Comics #20 (Nov 1940); Miss Fury, debuting in the eponymous comic strip by female cartoonist Tarpé Mills on April 6, 1941; the Phantom Lady, introduced in Quality Comics Police Comics #1 (Aug. 1941); the Black Cat, introduced in Harvey Comics' Pocket Comics #1 (also Aug. 1941); and the Black Canary, introduced in Flash Comics #86 (Aug. 1947) as a supporting character.Jim Amash & Eric Nolen-Weathington, (2010), Carmine Infantino: Penciler, Publisher, Provocateur p.30-32 The most iconic comic book superheroine, who debuted during the Golden Age, is Wonder Woman.","Superhero\n\nInspired by the Amazons of Greek mythology, she was created by psychologist William Moulton Marston, with help and inspiration from his wife Elizabeth and their mutual lover Olive Byrne. Wonder Woman's first appearance was in All Star Comics #8 (Jan. 1942), published by All-American Publications, one of two companies that would merge to form DC Comics in 1944.","Superhero\n\n1950s","Superhero\n\nIn 1952, Osamu Tezuka's manga Tetsuwan Atom (more popularly known in the west as Astro Boy) was published. The series focused upon a robot boy built by a scientist to replace his deceased son. Being built from an incomplete robot originally intended for military purposes Astro Boy possessed amazing powers such as flight through thrusters in his feet and the incredible mechanical strength of his limbs.","Superhero\n\nThe 1950s saw the Silver Age of Comics. During this era DC introduced the likes of Batwoman in 1956, Supergirl, Miss Arrowette, and Bat-Girl; all female derivatives of established male superheroes. 1958 saw the debut of superhero Moonlight Mask on Japanese television.","Superhero\n\n1960s","Superhero\n\nThe Marvel Comics teams of the early 1960s typically included at least one (and often the only) female member, much like DC's flagship superhero team the Justice League of America (whose initial roster included Wonder Woman as the token female); examples include the Fantastic Four's Invisible Girl, the X-Men's Jean Grey (originally known as Marvel Girl), the Avengers' Wasp, and the Brotherhood of Mutants' Scarlet Witch (who later joined the Avengers). In 1963, Astro Boy was adapted into a highly influential anime television series. Phantom Agents in 1964 focused on ninjas working for the Japanese government and would be the foundation for Sentai-type series. 1966 saw the debut of sci-fi/horror series Ultra Q created by Eiji Tsuburaya this would eventually lead on to the sequel Ultraman, spawning a successful franchise focused upon the Giant Hero subgenre where the Superheroes would be as big as giant monsters (Kaiju) that they fought.","Superhero\n\n1970s","Superhero\n\nIn 1972, the Science Ninja Team Gatchaman anime debuted, which built upon the superhero team idea of the live-action Phantom Agents as well as introducing different colors for team members and special vehicles to support them, said vehicles could also combine into a larger one. Another important event was the debut of Mazinger Z by Go Nagai, creating the Super Robot genre. Go Nagai also wrote the manga Cutey Honey in 1973, although the Magical Girl genre already existed, Nagai's manga introduced Transformation sequences that would become a staple of Magical Girl media.","Superhero\n\nThe 1970s would see more anti-heroes introduced into Superhero fiction such examples included the debut of Shotaro Ishinomori's Skull Man in 1970, Go Nagai's Devilman in 1972 and Gerry Conway and John Romita's Punisher in 1974.","Superhero\n\nThe dark Skull Man manga would later get a television adaptation and underwent drastic changes. The protagonist was redesigned resemble a grasshopper, becoming the renowned first masked hero of the Kamen Rider series. Kamen Rider is a motorcycle riding hero in an insect-like costume, who shouts Henshin (Transform) to don his costume and gain superhuman powers.","Superhero\n\nThe ideas of second-wave feminism, which spread through the 1960s into the 1970s, greatly influenced the way comic book companies would depict as well as market their female characters: Wonder Woman was for a time revamped as a mod-dressing martial artist directly inspired by the Emma Peel character from the British television series The Avengers (no relation to the superhero team of the same name), but later reverted to Marston's original concept after the editors of Ms. magazine publicly disapproved of the character being depowered and without her traditional costume; Supergirl was moved from being a secondary feature on Action Comics to headline Adventure Comics in 1969; the Lady Liberators appeared in an issue of The Avengers as a group of mind-controlled superheroines led by Valkyrie (actually a disguised supervillainess) and were meant to be a caricatured parody of feminist activists; and Jean Grey became the embodiment of a cosmic being known as the Phoenix Force with seemingly unlimited power in the late 1970s, a stark contrast from her depiction as the weakest member of her team a decade ago.","Superhero\n\nBoth major publishers began introducing new superheroines with a more distinct feminist theme as part of their origin stories and/or character development. Examples include Big Barda, Power Girl, and the Huntress by DC comics; and from Marvel, the second Black Widow, Shanna the She-Devil, and The Cat. Female supporting characters who were successful professionals or hold positions of authority in their own right also debuted in the pages of several popular superhero titles from the late 1950s onward: Hal Jordan's love interest Carol Ferris was introduced as the Vice-President of Ferris Aircraft and later took over the company from her father; Medusa, who was first introduced in the Fantastic Four series, is a member of the Inhuman Royal Family and a prominent statesperson within her people's quasi-feudal society; and Carol Danvers, a decorated officer in the United States Air Force who would become a costumed superhero herself years later.","Superhero\n\nIn 1975 Shotaro Ishinomori's Himitsu Sentai Gorenger debuted on what is now TV Asahi, it brought the concepts of multi-colored teams and supporting vehicles that debuted in Gatchaman into live-action. In 1978, Toei adapted Spider-Man into a live-action series. In this continuity, Spider-Man had a vehicle called Marveller that could transform into a giant and powerful robot called Leopardon, this idea would be carried over to Toei's Battle Fever J and now multi-colored teams not only had support vehicles but giant robots to fight giant monsters with.","Superhero\n\n1980s onwards","Superhero\n\nIn subsequent decades, popular characters like Dazzler, She-Hulk, Elektra, Catwoman, Witchblade, Spider-Girl, Batgirl and the Birds of Prey became stars of long-running eponymous titles. Female characters began assuming leadership roles in many ensemble superhero teams; the Uncanny X-Men series and its related spin-off titles in particular have included many female characters in pivotal roles since the 1970s. Volume 4 of the X-Men comic book series featured an all-female team as part of the Marvel NOW! branding initiative in 2013. Internationally, the Japanese comic book character Sailor Moon is recognized as one of the most important and popular female superheroes ever created. Superpowered female characters like Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Darna have a tremendous influence on popular culture in their respective countries of origin.","Superhero\n\nSuperheroines can sport improbably large breasts and costumes that sexualize them. For example, Power Girl's includes a small window between her breasts; Emma Frost's costume traditionally resembles erotic lingerie; and Starfire's started as a full-body covering and over the years became progressively much skimpier. This visual treatment of women in American comics has led to accusations of systemic sexism and objectification.","Superhero\n\nCommon traits","Superhero\n\nMany superhero characters display the following traits:\n* Extraordinary powers or abilities. Superhero powers vary widely; superhuman strength, the ability to fly, enhanced senses, and the projection of energy bolts are all common. Some characters like Batman, Mockingbird, the Phantom and the Question possess no superhuman powers but have mastered skills such as martial arts, espionage techniques, and applied or forensic sciences to a highly remarkable degree. Others rely on fantastical weapons or technology, such as Iron Man's powered armor suits, Green Lantern’s power ring, and trick arrows employed by Green Arrow and Hawkeye, some have acquired their abilities from cosmic rays such as the Fantastic Four. Many characters supplement their innate superhuman powers with a special weapon or device (e.g. Captain America's shield, Wonder Woman's lasso and bracelets, Thor's weather manipulating hammer, and Wolverine's adamantium claws). * A strong moral code, including a willingness to risk one's own safety in the service of good without expectation of reward. Such a code often includes a refusal or strong reluctance to kill or wield lethal weapons. * A motivation, such as a sense of responsibility and guilt (e.g. Spider-Man), a formal calling (e.g.","Superhero\n\nWonder Woman), a childhood trauma or personal vendetta against criminals (e.g. Batman), or a strong belief in justice and humanitarian service (e.g. Superman).","Superhero\n\n* A secret identity that protects the superhero's friends and family from becoming targets of his or her enemies, such as Clark Kent (Superman), or to protect themselves from getting arrested by the police, like Spider-Man, although many superheroes have a confidant (usually a friend or relative who has been sworn to secrecy). Most superheroes use a descriptive or metaphoric code name for their public deeds. However, there are also rare ones whose true identities are common public knowledge, even with a costumed identity (e.g. Iron Man and Captain America). * A distinctive costume, often used to conceal the secret identity (see Common costume features). * An underlying motif or theme that affects the hero's name, costume, personal effects, and other aspects of his or her character (e.g. Batman wears a bat-themed costume, uses bat-themed gadgetry and equipment and operates at night; Spider-Man can project artificial webbing from wrist-mounted web shooting gadgets, has a spider web pattern on his costume, and other spider-like abilities). * A supporting cast of recurring characters, including the hero's friends, co-workers and/or love interests, who may or may not know of the superhero's secret identity.","Superhero\n\nOften the hero's personal relationships are complicated by this dual life, a common theme in Batman, Spider-Man and Superman stories in particular. * A rogues gallery consisting of enemies that he/she fights repeatedly. In some cases superheroes begin by fighting run-of-the-mill criminals before supervillains surface in their respective story lines. In many cases the hero is in part responsible for the appearance of these supervillains (the Scorpion was created as the perfect enemy to defeat Spider-Man; the Sentinels were designed to hunt mutants who often represent the protagonists of Marvel stories; and characters in Batman's comics often accuse him of inadvertently creating the villains he fights). Often superheroes have a recurring archenemy who is especially threatening, or a nemesis who is depicted as a doppelganger or foil (e.g. Wolverine is outmatched physically by Sabretooth, who embraces his savage instincts while the former attempts to suppress his; the psychopathic Reverse-Flash's costume and abilities are very similar to the Flash's; the Joker is flamboyant and colorful in contrast to the moody, grim Batman. Magneto is restless and hostile in contrast to the calm and peaceful Professor X.)\n* Independent wealth (e.g.","Superhero\n\nBatman's family fortune, the X-Men's patron Professor X, Iron Man's father's weapon and technology company) or an occupation that allows for minimal supervision (e.g. Spider-Man's civilian job as a freelance photographer). * A backstory that explains the circumstances by which the character acquired his or her abilities as well as his or her motivation for becoming a superhero. Many origin stories involve tragic elements and/or freak accidents that result in the development of the hero's abilities.","Superhero\n\nMany superheroes work independently. However, there are also many superhero teams. Some, such as the Fantastic Four, DNAgents, and the X-Men, have common origins and usually operate as a group. Some are families in which the parents and kids have superpowers, like The Incredibles. Others, such as DC Comics’s Justice League and Marvel’s Avengers, are \"all-star\" groups consisting of heroes with separate origins who also operate individually, yet will team up to confront larger threats. The shared setting or \"universes\" of Marvel, DC and other publishers also allow for regular superhero crossover team-ups. Some superheroes, especially those introduced in the 1940s, work with a young sidekick (e.g. Batman and Robin, Captain America and Bucky). This has become less common since more sophisticated writing and older audiences have lessened the need for characters who specifically appeal to child readers. Sidekicks are seen as a separate classification of superheroes.","Superhero\n\nAlthough superhero fiction is considered a form of fantasy/adventure, it crosses into many genres. Some superhero franchises resemble crime fiction (e.g. Batman, Spider-Man, Daredevil), horror fiction (e.g. Hellboy, The Spectre), paranoid fiction (e.g. Watchmen, Marvelman/Miracleman), and conventional science fiction (e.g. Green Lantern, Guardians of the Galaxy). Many of the earliest superheroes, such as the Sandman and the Clock, were rooted in the pulp fiction of their predecessors.","Superhero\n\nWithin their own fictional universes, public perception of superheroes varies greatly. Some, like Superman and the Fantastic Four, are adored and seen as important civic leaders or even celebrities. Others, like Hulk, Spider-Man and the characters of Watchmen, are met with public skepticism or outright hostility. A few, such as the X-Men and Doom Patrol, defend a populace that almost unanimously misunderstands and despises them.","Superhero\n\nCommon costume features","Superhero\n\nA superhero's costume helps make him or her recognizable to the general public. Costumes are often colorful to enhance the character's visual appeal and frequently incorporate the superhero's name and theme. For example, Daredevil resembles a red devil, Captain America's costume echoes the American flag, Batman's costume resembles a large bat, and Spider-Man's costume features a spiderweb pattern. The convention of superheroes wearing masks (frequently without visible pupils) and skintight unitards originated with Lee Falk's comic strip The Phantom.","Superhero\n\nMany features of superhero costumes recur frequently, including the following:","Superhero\n\n* Superheroes who maintain a secret identity often wear a mask, ranging from the domino of Robin and the Green Hornet to the full-face masks of Spider-Man and Black Panther. Most common are masks covering the upper face, leaving the mouth and jaw exposed. This allows for both a believable disguise and recognizable facial expressions. A notable exception is Superman, who wears nothing on his face while fighting crime, but uses large glasses in his civilian life as Clark Kent. Some characters wear helmets, such as Doctor Fate or Magneto. * A symbol, such as a stylized letter or visual icon, usually on the chest. Examples include the uppercase \"S\" of Superman, the bat emblem of Batman, and the spider emblem of Spider-Man. Often, they also wear a common symbol referring to their group or league, such as the \"4\" on the Fantastic Four's suits, the \"X\" on the X-Men's costumes, or the \"i\" on the Incredible Family's costumes. * Form-fitting clothing, often referred to as tights or Spandex, although the exact material is usually unidentified. Such material displays a character’s athletic build and heroic sex appeal and allows a simple design for illustrators to reproduce.","Superhero\n\n* While a great many superhero costumes do not feature capes, the garment is still closely associated with them, likely because two of the most widely recognized superheroes, Batman and Superman, wear capes. In fact, police officers in Batman’s home of Gotham City are depicted as using the word \"cape\" as a shorthand for all superheroes and costumed crime-fighters. The comic-book miniseries Watchmen and the animated movie The Incredibles commented on the potentially lethal impracticality of capes. In Marvel Comics, the term \"cape-killer\" has been used to describe the fictional Superhuman Restraint Unit organization, even though few notable Marvel heroes wear capes. * While most superhero costumes merely hide the hero’s identity and present a recognizable image, parts of the costume (or the costume itself) have functional uses. For example, the Venom symbiote suit and Spawn's \"necroplasmic armor\", with their supernatural abilities have both been of great assistance to the wearer. Iron Man's armor, in particular, protects him and provides technological advantages. * When thematically appropriate, some superheroes dress like people from various professions or subcultures.","Superhero\n\nZatanna, who possesses wizard-like powers, dresses like a stage magician, and Ghost Rider, who rides a superpowered motorcycle, dresses in the leather garb of a biker. * Some characters eschew the traditional superhero outfit for apparel considered to be more practical and utilitarian. Shoulder, knee and elbow pads, Kevlar-coated vests, metal-plated armor, heavy-duty belts, and ammunition pouches appears on 1990s-era antiheroes such as Cable, Deadpool, and many Image Comics characters. Other characters, such as the Runaways and the various protagonists of the Infamous video game series, do not wear any distinctive outfits at all.","Superhero\n\nBases/headquarters","Superhero\n\nMany superheroes (and supervillains) operate from a base or headquarters. These bases are often equipped with state-of-the-art, highly advanced, and/or alien technologies. They are typically set in disguised and/or in secret locations to avoid being detected by enemies or the general public (for example, Superman's Fortress of Solitude or the Batcave). Some bases, such as the Baxter Building or the Hall of Justice, are common public knowledge (even if their precise location may remain secret). Many heroes and villains who do not have a permanent headquarters may have a mobile base of operations instead.","Superhero\n\nTo the heroes and villains who have secret bases, these bases can serve a variety of functions, including (but not limited to) the following:","Superhero\n\n* a control room where specialized monitors and other advanced technology alert superheroes to activities requiring their intervention\n* a command center where they are allowed the ability to send out commands through monitoring equipment\n* an operations room that stores their technological and alien devices\n* a crime lab or laboratory, for experiments and scientific study\n* a safehouse, where the heroes can conceal themselves from their enemies\n* a research library, covering a variety of topics including science, history, or criminal profiling\n* an armory, for weapons design, construction and storage\n* a garage, hangar, or dock, for storage of vehicles\n* an information centre or communications center\n* a weapons platform, for defense of the facility (these are more common to supervillains)\n* a trophy room, where mementos of significant battles and adventures are displayed\n* a common area, for social activity (typically for larger teams, such as the Justice League or the Avengers)","Superhero\n\nTrademark status","Superhero\n\nMost dictionary definitions and common usages of the term are generic and not limited to the characters of any particular company or companies.","Superhero\n\nNevertheless, variations on the term \"Super Hero\" are jointly claimed by DC Comics and Marvel Comics as trademarks in the United States. Registrations of \"Super Hero\" marks have been maintained by DC and Marvel since the 1960s, including U.S. Trademark Serial Nos. 72243225 and 73222079. In 2009, the term \"Super Heroes\" was registered as a typography-independent \"descriptive\" US trademark co-owned by DC and Marvel.","Superhero\n\nCritics in the legal community dispute whether the \"Super Hero\" marks meet the legal standard for trademark protection in the United States-distinctive designation of a single source of a product or service. Controversy exists over each element of that standard: whether \"Super Hero\" is distinctive rather than generic, whether \"Super Hero\" designates a source of products or services, and whether DC and Marvel jointly represent a single source. Some critics further characterize the marks as a misuse of trademark law to chill competition.","Superhero\n\nMinority superheroes","Superhero\n\nIn keeping with their origin as representing the archetypical hero stock character in 1930s American comics, superheroes\nare predominantly depicted as white Anglo-Saxon American middle- or upper-class heterosexual young adult males who are typically tall, athletic, educated, physically attractive and in perfect health. Beginning in the 1960s with the civil rights movement in the United States, and increasingly with the rising concern over political correctness in the 1980s, superhero fiction centered on cultural, ethnic, national and racial minority groups (from the perspective of US demographics) began to be produced. This began with depiction of black superheroes in the 1960s, followed in the 1970s with a number of other ethnic superheroes. In keeping with the political mood of the time, cultural diversity and inclusivism would be an important part of superhero groups starting from the 1980s. In the 1990s, this was further augmented by the first depictions of superheroes as homosexual.","Superhero\n\nEthnic and religious minorities","Superhero\n\nIn 1966, Marvel Comics introduced the Black Panther, an African monarch who became the first non-caricatured black superhero. The first African-American superhero, the Falcon, followed in 1969, and three years later, Luke Cage, a self-styled \"hero-for-hire\", became the first black superhero to star in his own series. In 1989, the Monica Rambeau incarnation of Captain Marvel was the first female black superhero from a major publisher to get her own title in a special one-shot issue. In 1971, Red Wolf became the first Native American in the superheroic tradition to headline a series. In 1973, Shang-Chi became the first prominent Asian superhero to star in an American comic book (Kato had been the deuteragonist of the Green Hornet media franchise series since its inception in the 1930s. ). Kitty Pryde, a member of the X-Men, was an openly Jewish superhero in mainstream American comic books as early as 1978.","Superhero\n\nComic-book companies were in the early stages of cultural expansion and many of these characters played to specific stereotypes; Cage and many of his contemporaries often employed lingo similar to that of blaxploitation films, Native Americans were often associated with shamanism and wild animals, and Asian Americans were often portrayed as kung fu martial artists. Subsequent minority heroes, such as the X-Men's Storm and the Teen Titans' Cyborg avoided such conventions; they were both part of ensemble teams, which became increasingly diverse in subsequent years. The X-Men, in particular, were revived in 1975 with a line-up of characters culled from several nations, including the Kenyan Storm, German Nightcrawler, Russian Colossus, Irish Banshee, and Japanese Sunfire. In 1993, Milestone Comics, an African-American-owned media/publishing company entered into a publishing agreement with DC Comics that allowed them to introduce a line of comics that included characters of many ethnic minorities. Milestone's initial run lasted four years, during which it introduced Static, a character adapted into the WB Network animated series Static Shock.","Superhero\n\nIn addition to the creation of new minority heroes, publishers have filled the identities and roles of once-Caucasian heroes with new characters from minority backgrounds. The African-American John Stewart appeared in the 1970s as an alternate for Earth's Green Lantern Hal Jordan, and would become a regular member of the Green Lantern Corps from the 1980s onwards. The creators of the 2000s-era Justice League animated series selected Stewart as the show's Green Lantern. In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Miles Morales, a multiracial American youth who was also bitten by a genetically-altered spider, debuted as the new Spider-Man after the apparent death of the original. Kamala Khan, a Pakistani-American teenager who is revealed to have Inhuman lineage after her shapeshifting powers manifested, takes on the identity of Ms. Marvel in 2014. Her self-titled comic book series became a cultural phenomenon, with extensive media coverage by CNN, the New York Times and The Colbert Report, and embraced by anti-Islamophobia campaigners in San Francisco who plastered over anti-Muslim bus adverts with Kamala stickers. Other such successor-heroes of color include James \"Rhodey\" Rhodes as Iron Man, Ryan Choi as the Atom, and Jaime Reyes as Blue Beetle.","Superhero\n\nCertain established characters have had their ethnicity changed when adapted to another continuity and/or media. A notable example is Nick Fury, who is reinterpreted as African-American both in the Ultimate Marvel as well as the Marvel Cinematic Universe continuities.","Superhero\n\nSexual orientation and gender identity","Superhero\n\nIn 1992, Marvel revealed that Northstar, a member of the Canadian mutant superhero team Alpha Flight, was homosexual, after years of implication. This ended a long-standing editorial mandate that there would be no homosexual characters in Marvel comics. Although some minor secondary characters in DC Comics' mature-audience 1980s miniseries Watchmen were gay, and the reformed supervillain Pied Piper came out to Wally West in an issue of The Flash in 1991, Northstar is considered to be the first openly gay superhero appearing in mainstream comic books. From the mid-2000s onwards, several established Marvel and DC comics characters (or a variant version of the pre-existing character) were outed or reintroduced as LGBT individuals by both publishers. Examples include the Mikaal Tomas incarnation of Starman in 1998; Colossus in the Ultimate X-Men series; Renee Montoya in DC's Gotham Central series in 2003; the Kate Kane incarnation of Batwoman in 2006; Rictor and Shatterstar in an issue of X-Factor in 2009; the Golden Age Green Lantern Alan Scott is reimagined as openly gay following the The New 52 reboot; and in 2015, a younger time displaced version of Iceman in an issue of All-New X-Men.","Superhero\n\nMany new openly gay, lesbian and bisexual characters have since emerged in superhero fiction, such as Gen¹³'s Rainmaker, Apollo and Midnighter of The Authority, and Wiccan and Hulkling of the Young Avengers. Notable transgender or gender bending characters are fewer in number by comparison: the alter ego of superheroine Zsazsa Zaturnnah, a seminal character in Philippine popular culture, is an effeminate gay man who transforms into a female superhuman after ingesting a magical stone. Desire from Neil Gaiman's The Sandman series and Xavin from the Runaways are both characters who could (and often) change their gender at will. Alysia Yeoh, a supporting character created by writer Gail Simone for the Batgirl ongoing series published by DC Comics, received substantial media attention in 2011 for being the first major transgender character written in a contemporary context in a mainstream American comic book.","Superhero\n\nThe Sailor Moon series is known for featuring a substantial number of openly LGBT characters since its inception, as Japan have traditionally been more open about portraying homosexuality in its children's media compared to many countries in the West. Certain characters who are presented as homosexual or transgender in one continuity may not be presented as such in others, particularly with dubbed versions made for international release.","Superhero\n\nSubtypes","Superhero\n\n*List of child superheroes\n*List of anthropomorphic animal superheroes\n*List of alien races in DC Comics\n*List of alien races in Marvel Comics\n*List of metahumans in DC Comics","Butler\n\nA butler is a domestic worker in a large household. In great houses, the household is sometimes divided into departments with the butler in charge of the dining room, wine cellar, and pantry. Some also have charge of the entire parlour floor, and housekeepers caring for the entire house and its appearance. A butler is usually male, and in charge of male servants, while a housekeeper is usually a woman, and in charge of female servants. Traditionally, male servants (such as footmen) were rarer and therefore better paid and of higher status than female servants. The butler, as the senior male servant, has the highest servant status. He can also be sometimes used as a chauffeur.","Butler\n\nIn older houses where the butler is the most senior worker, titles such as majordomo, butler administrator, house manager, manservant, staff manager, chief of staff, staff captain, estate manager and head of household staff are sometimes given. The precise duties of the employee will vary to some extent in line with the title given, but perhaps, more importantly in line with the requirements of the individual employer. In the grandest homes or when the employer owns more than one residence, there is sometimes an estate manager of higher rank than the butler.","Butler\n\nBackground","Butler\n\nThe word \"butler\" comes from Anglo-Norman buteler, variant form of Old Norman *butelier, corresponding to Old French botellier \"officer in charge of the king's wine bottles\", derived of boteille \"bottle\", Modern French bouteille, itself from Gallo-Romance BUTICULA \"bottle\". The role of the butler, for centuries, has been that of the chief steward of a household, the attendant entrusted with the care and serving of wine and other bottled beverages which in ancient times might have represented a considerable portion of the household's assets.","Butler\n\nIn Britain, the butler was originally a middle-ranking member of the staff of a grand household. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the butler gradually became the senior, usually male, member of a household's staff in the very grandest households. However, there was sometimes a steward who ran the outside estate and financial affairs, rather than just the household, and who was senior to the butler in social status into the 19th century. Butlers used always to be attired in a special uniform, distinct from the livery of junior servants, but today a butler is more likely to wear a business suit or business casual clothing and appear in uniform only on special occasions.","Butler\n\nA silverman or silver butler has expertise and professional knowledge of the management, secure storage, use and cleaning of all silverware, associated tableware and other paraphernalia for use at military and other special functions. See also Silver (household).","Butler\n\nTo Butler (verb): To butler, to dispense wines or liquors; to act as a butler. (simple past and past participle butlered)","Butler\n\nOrigin and history","Butler\n\nThe modern role of the butler has evolved from earlier roles that were generally concerned with the care and serving of alcoholic beverages.","Butler\n\nAncient through medieval eras","Butler\n\nFrom ancient through medieval times, alcoholic beverages were chiefly stored first in earthenware vessels, then later in wooden barrels, rather than in glass bottles; these containers would have been an important part of a household's possessions. The care of these assets was therefore generally reserved for trusted slaves, although the job could also go to free persons because of heredity-based class lines or the inheritance of trades.","Butler\n\nThe biblical book of Genesis contains a reference to a role precursive to modern butlers. The early Hebrew Joseph interpreted a dream of Pharaoh's שקה (shaqah) (literally \"to give to drink\"), which is most often translated into English as \"chief butler\" or \"chief cup-bearer\".","Butler\n\nIn ancient Greece and Rome, it was nearly always slaves who were charged with the care and service of wine, while during the Medieval Era the pincerna, usually a serf, filled the role within the noble court. The English word \"butler\" itself comes from the Middle English word bo(u)teler (and several other forms), from Anglo-Norman buteler, itself from Old Norman butelier, corresponding to Old French botellier (\"bottle bearer\"), Modern French bouteiller, and before that from Medieval Latin butticula. The modern English \"butler\" thus relates both to bottles and casks.","Butler\n\nEventually the European butler emerged as a middle-ranking member of the servants of a great house, in charge of the buttery (originally a storeroom for \"butts\" of liquor, although the term later came to mean a general storeroom or pantry). While this is so for household butlers, those with the same title but in service to the Crown enjoyed a position of administrative power and were only minimally involved with various stores.","Butler\n\nElizabethan through Victorian eras","Butler\n\nThe Steward of the Elizabethan era was more akin to the butler that later emerged. Gradually, throughout the 19th century and particularly the Victorian era, as the number of butlers and other domestic servants greatly increased in various countries, the butler became a senior male servant of a household's staff. By this time he was in charge of the more modern wine cellar, the \"buttery\" or pantry (from French pan from Latin panis, bread) as it came to be called, which supplied bread, butter, cheese, and other basic provisions, and the ewery, which contained napkins and basins for washing and shaving. In the very grandest households there was sometimes an Estate Steward or other senior steward who oversaw the butler and his duties. Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management, a manual published in Britain in 1861, reported:","Butler\n\nThe number of the male domestics in a family varies according to the wealth and position of the master, from the owner of the ducal mansion, with a retinue of attendants, at the head of which is the chamberlain and house-steward, to the occupier of the humbler house, where a single footman, or even the odd man-of-all-work, is the only male retainer. The majority of gentlemen's establishments probably comprise a servant out of livery, or butler, a footman, and coachman, or coachman and groom, where the horses exceed two or three.","Butler\n\nButlers were head of a strict service hierarchy and therein held a position of power and respect. They were more managerial than \"hands on\"—more so than serving, they officiated in service. For example, although the butler was at the door to greet and announce the arrival of a formal guest, the door was actually opened by a footman, who would receive the guest's hat and coat. Even though the butler helped his employer into his coat, this had been handed to him by a footman. However, even the highest-ranking butler would \"pitch in\" when necessary, such as during a staff shortage, to ensure that the household ran smoothly, although some evidence suggests this was so even during normal times.","Butler\n\nThe household itself was generally divided into areas of responsibility. The butler was in charge of the dining room, the wine cellar, pantry, and sometimes the entire main floor. Directly under the butler was the first footman (or head footman), although there could also be a deputy butler or under-butler who would fill in as butler during the butler's illness or absence. The footman—there were frequently numerous young men in the role within a household—performed a range of duties including serving meals, attending doors, carrying or moving heavy items, and they often doubled as valets. Valets themselves performed a variety of personal duties for their employer. Butlers engaged and directed all these junior staff and each reported directly to him. The housekeeper was in charge of the house as a whole and its appearance. In a household without an official head housekeeper, female servants and kitchen staff were also directly under the butler's management, while in smaller households, the butler usually doubled as valet. Employers and their children and guests addressed the butler (and under-butler, if there was one) by last name alone; fellow servants, retainers, and tradespersons as \"Mr. [Surname]\".","Butler\n\nButlers were typically hired by the master of the house but usually reported to its lady. Beeton in her manual suggested a GBP 25–50 (USD 2,675–5,350) per-year salary for butlers; room and board and livery clothing were additional benefits, and tipping known as vails, were common. The few butlers who were married had to make separate housing arrangements for their families, as did all other servants within the hierarchy.","Butler\n\nButlers in early America","Butler\n\nFrom the beginning of slavery in America, in the early 17th century, African Americans were put to task as domestic servants. Some eventually became butlers. Gary Puckrein, a social historian, argues that those used in particularly affluent homes authentically internalised the sorts of \"refined\" norms and personal attributes that would reflect highly upon the social stature of their masters or mistresses. One of the first books written and published through a commercial U.S. publisher by an African American was by a butler named Robert Roberts. The book, The House Servant's Directory, first published in 1827, is essentially a manual for butlers and waiters, and is called by Puckrein \"the most remarkable book by an African American in antebellum America\". The book generated such interest that a second edition was published in 1828, and a third in 1843.","Butler\n\nEuropean indentured servants formed a corps of domestic workers from which butlers were eventually drawn. Although not the victims of institutionalised slavery, many of them had not volunteered for domestic service, but were forced into it by indebtedness or coercion. As with African American slaves, they could rise in domestic service, and their happiness or misery depended greatly on the disposition of their masters.","Butler\n\nThe modern butler","Butler\n\nBeginning around the early 1920s (following World War I), employment in domestic service occupations began a sharp overall decline in western European countries, and even more markedly in the United States. Even so, there were still around 30,000 butlers employed in Britain by World War II. As few as one hundred were estimated to remain by the mid-1980s. Social historian Barry Higman argues that a high number of domestic workers within a society correlates with a high level of socio-economic inequality. Conversely, as a society undergoes levelling among its social classes, the number employed in domestic service declines.","Butler\n\nFollowing varied shifts and changes accompanying accelerated globalisation beginning in the late 1980s, overall global demand for butlers since the turn of the millennium has risen dramatically. According to Charles MacPherson, President of Charles MacPherson Associates and owner of The Charles MacPherson Academy for Butlers and Household Managers, the proximate cause is that the number of millionaires and billionaires has increased in recent years, and such people are finding that they desire assistance in managing their households. MacPherson emphasises that the number of wealthy people in China has increased particularly, creating in that country a high demand for professional butlers who have been trained in the European butlering tradition. There is also increasing demand for such butlers in other Asian countries, India, and the petroleum-rich Middle East.","Butler\n\nHigman additionally argues that the inequality/equality levels of societies are a major determinant of the nature of the domestic servant/employer relationship. As the 21st century approached, many butlers began carrying out an increasing number of duties formerly reserved for more junior household servants. Butlers today may be called upon to do whatever household and personal duties their employers deem fitting, in the goal of freeing their employers to carry out their own personal and professional affairs. Professional butler and author Steven M. Ferry states that the image of tray-wielding butlers who specialise in serving tables and decanting wine is now anachronistic, and that employers may well be more interested in a butler who is capable of managing a full array of household affairs—from providing the traditional dinner service, to acting as valet, to managing high-tech systems and multiple homes with complexes of staff. While in truly grand houses the modern butler may still function exclusively as a top-ranked household affairs manager, in lesser homes, such as those of dual-income middle-class professionals, they perform a full array of household and personal assistant duties, including mundane housekeeping.","Butler\n\nButlers today may also be situated within corporate settings, embassies, cruise ships, yachts, or within their own small \"Rent-a-Butler\" business or similar agency.","Butler\n\nAlong with these changes of scope and context, butlering attire has changed. Whereas butlers have traditionally worn a special uniform that separated them from junior servants, and although this is still often the case, butlers today may wear more casual clothing geared for climate, while exchanging it for formal business attire only upon special service occasions. There are cultural distinctions, as well. In the United States, butlers may frequently don a polo shirt and slacks, while in Bali they typically wear sarongs.","Butler\n\nIn 2007, the number of butlers in Britain had risen to an estimated 5,000.","Butler\n\nThe period drama, Downton Abbey, has been credited as the reason for a sudden upsurge in the demand for 'properly trained butlers'.","Butler\n\nTraining","Butler\n\nButlers traditionally learned their position while progressing their way up the service ladder. For example, in the documentary The Authenticity of Gosford Park, retired butler Arthur Inch (born 1915) describes starting as a hall boy. While this is still often the case, numerous private butlering schools exist today, such as The British Butler Institute, and top graduates can start at US$50,000–60,000 (£25,350–30,400). Additionally, major up-market hotels such as the Ritz-Carlton offer traditional butler training, while some hotels have trained a sort of pseudo-butler for service in defined areas such as \"technology butlers\", who fix guests' computers and other electronic devices, and \"bath butlers\" who draw custom baths. In addition to formal training, a few books have been published to assist butlers in their duties, including Arthur Inch's and Arlene Hirst's 2003 Dinner is Served. Moreover, websites, as well as a news publication, Modern Butlers' Journal, help butlers to network and keep abreast of developments within their field.","Butler\n\nGender and butlering","Butler\n\nButlers have traditionally been male, and this remains the norm. Probably the first mention of a female butler is in the 1892 book Interludes being Two Essays, a Story, and Some Verses by Horace Smith. In it Smith quotes a certain Sydney Smith who had apparently run into lean times:","Butler\n\nA man servant was too expensive, so I caught up a little garden girl, made like a milestone, christened her Bunch, put a napkin in her hand, and made her my butler. The girls taught her to read, Mrs. Sydney to wait, and I undertook her morals. Bunch became the best butler in the country.","Butler\n\nToday, female butlers are sometimes preferred, especially for work within Middle and Far Eastern families where it may be religiously problematic for males to work closely with females in a household. Western female celebrities may also prefer a female butler, as may households where the wife is driving the decision to hire a butler. In 2004, Buckingham Palace announced it was actively recruiting females for the position. Despite these trends, the Ivor Spencer School asserts that female butlers are not easily placed, on the whole.","Butler\n\nThe Charles MacPherson Academy for Butlers and Household Managers reports that 40% of the students admitted into its program are women. The school goes onto report that the labour market still has a preference for male butlers, however, the market is becoming more progressive and increasing numbers of female butlers are being hired.","Butler\n\nIn ancient times, the roles precursive to butlering were reserved for chattel or those confined within heredity-based class structures. With the advent of the medieval era, butlering became an opportunity for social advancement—even more so during Victorian times. Although still based upon various antecedent roles as manifested during different eras, butlering today has frequently taken over many of the roles formerly reserved for lower-ranking domestic servants. At the same time it has become a potentially lucrative career option.","Butler\n\nHistorically important butlers","Butler\n\n*Eugene Allen, White House butler who served under eight U.S. presidents\n*Grant Harrold, butler to Charles, Prince of Wales and etiquette expert, founder of Nicholas Veitch Limited\n*Paul Burrell, butler to Diana, Princess of Wales\n*Ivor Spencer, toastmaster and etiquette specialist, head of the Ivor Spencer International School for Butler Administrators/Personal Assistants and Estate Managers\n*Leslie Bartlett, butler, toastmaster and founder of The London School of British Butlers\n*Alonzo Fields, White House chief butler from 1932–1953","Butler\n\nIn visual art","Butler\n\nButlers have been occasionally depicted in visual art. A famous painting, Heads of Six of Hogarth's Servants (c. 1758), is unique among such works. In it, the 18th-century English artist William Hogarth depicted his household servants, each surrounding the butler. In showing the group in a close-knit assemblage rather than in the performance of their routine household duties, Hogarth sought to humanise and dignify them in a manner akin to wealthy-class members, who were the normal subjects of such portraits. While this was a subversive act that certainly raised many eyebrows in his day—Hogarth conspicuously displayed the work in his estate home in full view of guests—at the same time he had painted his servants' facial expressions to convey the sincerity and deference expected of servant-class members.","Butler\n\nIn contemporary art, \"The Butler's in Love\" series by U.S. artist Mark Stock is especially poignant. In the series, Stock portrays the butler as sick with love, but the possibility of fulfillment is hopeless: the love is a forbidden love, perhaps felt for the lady of the house, and so it must be suffered alone in silent concealment. In addition to the ongoing mannerisms and facial expressions of the butler, a seated lady once appearing in a curtained room and a recurring lipstick-stained absinthe glass over which the butler obsesses provide the interpretive clues. In selecting a butler as his subject, Stock sought to provide a \"universal character\", a pathos-laden figure that could be widely related to and that could depict the universality of loneliness felt by someone who can only look in from the outside. Stock began the series in 1985 to express his difficult feelings during a personal experience of unrequited love. One of the paintings was inspiration for a 3-D short film, \"The Butler's in Love\" by actor/director David Arquette, shot in 2008 at San Francisco's historic Westerfield Mansion.","Butler\n\nIn fiction","Butler\n\nThe real-life modern butler attempts to be discreet and unobtrusive, friendly but not familiar, keenly anticipative of the needs of his or her employer, and graceful and precise in execution of duty. The butler of fiction, by contrast, often tends to be larger than life and has become a plot device in literature and a traditional role in the performing arts. Butlers may provide comic relief with wry comments, clues as to the perpetrators of various crimes, and are represented as at least as intelligent and moral as their “betters,” or even more so. They are often portrayed as being serious and expressionless and in the case that the wealthy hero is an orphan—such as Batman, Chrono Crusade's Satella Harvenheit, or Tomb Raider's Lara Croft—may be a father figure to said hero. Regardless of the genre in which they are cast, butlers in fiction almost invariably follow the \"British butler\" model and are given an appropriate-sounding surname. The fictional butler tends to be given a typical Anglo-Celtic surname and have an English accent. The Asian, African American, or Caribbean houseboy is a variant, but even these major-domos are based on the British icon.","Butler\n\nToday, butlers are usually portrayed as being refined and well-spoken. However, in 19th century fiction such as Dracula, butlers generally spoke with a strong Cockney or other regional accent.","Butler\n\n\"The butler\" is integral to the plot of countless potboilers and melodramas, whether or not the character has been given a name. Butlers figure so prominently in period pieces and whodunits that they can be considered stock characters in film and theatre, where a catchphrase is \"The butler did it!\"","Butler\n\nThe best-known fictional manservant, and the prototype of the quintessential British butler, is himself not a butler at all. Reginald Jeeves, the iconic creation of author P. G. Wodehouse is a \"gentleman's gentleman\" and general factotum. Probably the best-known fictional butlers are Alfred from the Batman comic and films; Hudson of Upstairs, Downstairs television fame; Mr Carson from the Downton Abbey television series; and Crichton from J. M. Barrie's The Admirable Crichton. Lesser-knowns include Mr. Belvedere from the novel Belvedere, which was adapted into a feature film with sequels and later a television series; Lurch, from the television series The Addams Family, based on Charles Addams' The New Yorker cartoons; Beach, from the Wodehouse series about Blandings Castle; Niles, the butler at the Sheffield house in American sitcom The Nanny, and Benson from the two series Soap and Benson.","Butler\n\nNot all fictional butlers portray the \"butler stereotype\", however. Alan Bates, who played the butler Jennings in the film Gosford Park, was coached in brooding detail by Arthur Inch, a longtime real-life butler. Mr. Stevens, the butler played by Anthony Hopkins in the film Remains of the Day, was also acted with remarkable realism. A female butler, Sarah Stevens, is the principal character in Linda Howard's 2002 Dying to Please, a murder/romance novel. Howard gives detailed and generally accurate descriptions of butlering in the work.","Butler\n\nExamples","Butler\n\n*Alfred Pennyworth, Bruce Wayne's butler from Batman\n*Edwin Jarvis, Tony Stark's butler from Iron Man\n*Geoffrey Butler, the butler for the Banks Family on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air\n*Ronove, the demon butler and highest-ranking furniture of the Golden Witch; Beatrice and the Endless Sorcerer, Battler from Umineko no Naku Koro ni\n*Angus Hudson, from the television show Upstairs, Downstairs\n*Benson DuBois, the Tate butler in the hit 1970's sitcom, Soap\n*Edmund Blackadder, butler to Prince George the Prince Regent, in the TV Series Blackadder the Third\n*Nestor, the butler of Marlinspike Hall in The Adventures of Tintin\n*Niles the butler in the TV Series The Nanny\n*Sebastian Michaelis, a demon disguised as a man bound by contract to his master in the Black Butler manga and anime series\n*Sebastian Beach, from the Blandings Castle stories by P. G. Wodehouse, frequently conspires with the clever Gally Threepwood\n*Smithers, Veronica Lodge's fictional butler\n*Hugh Edgar, butler, The Edwardian Country House, 2002 British historical recreation TV series\n*Charles Carson, butler to the Crawley family in Downton Abbey\n*John Lawless, a central character in the 1967 Sherman Brothers' musical movie The Happiest Millionaire played by 60 teen idol Tommy Steele.","Butler\n\n*Wadsworth, the protagonist in the movie Clue\n*Mr. Stevens, the protagonist of Kazuo Ishiguro's Booker Prize-winning novel, The Remains of the Day and movie of the same name\n*Spencer, butler in Power Rangers Operation Overdrive\n*Cadbury, butler to Richie Rich\n*Higgins, from the sitcom Our Man Higgins and the radio comedy on which it was based, It's Higgins, Sir\n*Underling, the butler in the 2006 Broadway Musical The Drowsy Chaperone\n*The titular protagonist of Hayate the Combat Butler; Hayate Ayasaki\n*Butler, the butler for Prince Salde Canarl Shellbrick III off of the puzzle game Puyo Puyo Fever 2\n*Giles, the butler for ABC's Whodunnit? TV series\n*Subaru Konoe, the female butler of Kanade Suzutsuki who is disguised as a male in the Mayo Chiki! anime, manga and light novel\n*Domovoi Butler, butler to Artemis Fowl in Eoin Colfer's Artemis Fowl book series.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAlfred Thaddeus Crane Pennyworth is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, most commonly in association with Batman. The character first appears in Batman #16 (April 1943), and was created by writers Bob Kane and Bill Finger, and artist Jerry Robinson. Alfred serves as a loyal, tireless butler who assists his employer's secret life as Batman. In modern interpretations, he is depicted as Bruce Wayne's butler, legal guardian, best friend, aide-de-camp, and surrogate father following the murders of Thomas and Martha Wayne. He sometimes has been called \"Batman's batman\". He also provides comic relief, as his sometimes sarcastic and cynical attitude often adds humor to dialogue between himself and Batman. A vital part of the Batman mythos, Alfred was nominated for the Wizard Fan Award for Favorite Supporting Male Character in 1994.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn non-comics media, the character has been portrayed by noted actors William Austin, Eric Wilton,\nMichael Gough, Michael Caine, and Jeremy Irons on film and by Alan Napier, Efrem Zimbalist, Jr., Ian Abercrombie, and Sean Pertwee on television.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nFictional character biography","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nWhen Alfred Pennyworth first appeared, he was overweight and clean-shaven; however, when the 1943 Batman serial was released, William Austin, the actor who played Alfred, was trim and sported a thin moustache. DC editors wanted the comic Alfred to resemble his cinematic counterpart, so in Detective Comics #83 (January 1944), Alfred vacationed at a health resort, where he slimmed down and grew a mustache. This look has remained with the character ever since, even surviving his \"death\" and resurrection.Detective Comics #356 in 1966","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAlfred was originally conceived as a comedic foil for Batman and Robin. In most early tales, he made bungling attempts to be a detective on a par with the young masters. He was given a four-page feature of his own, and the feature lasted thirteen issues, skipping Batman #35, with the last story in Batman #36. The stories followed a simple formula, with Alfred solving a crime and catching the culprits entirely by accident. In later years, the comedic aspects of the character were downplayed.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nPre-Crisis","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nThe Pre-Crisis comics (the comics that were published by DC Comics between 1938 and 1986) established Alfred as a retired actor and intelligence agent who followed the deathbed wish of his dying father Jarvis Pennyworth to carry on the tradition of serving the Wayne family. To that end, Alfred introduced himself to Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson at Wayne Manor and insisted on becoming their valet. Although the pair did not want one, especially since they did not want to jeopardize their secret identities with a servant in the house, they did not have the heart to reject Alfred.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nInitially, Alfred discovered their identities by accident; while fighting a burglar in Batman #16 (Alfred's first appearance), he accidentally hit a switch and opened a sliding panel leading to the Batcave. He is helpful to the duo, following them to a theatre where they are captured, bound and gagged by a criminal gang, and rescues them after Batman attracts his attention by knocking a rope down before the crooks return. This was revised in Batman #110 (September 1957); during his first night at Wayne Manor, Alfred awoke to moaning and followed the sound to the secret passage to the staircase leading to the Batcave and met his would-be employers in their superhero identities. As it turned out, the wounds were actually insignificant, but Alfred's care convinced the residents that their butler could be trusted. Since then, Alfred included the support staff duties of the Dynamic Duo on top of his regular tasks.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIronically, Alfred's loyalty would lead him to become a member of Batman's rogue's gallery. While pushing Batman and Robin out of the way of a falling boulder, Alfred was seemingly killed in Detective #328 (June 1964). It was revealed in Detective #356 (October 1966) that he had been revived by a scientist named Brandon Crawford. His attempt at regeneration resulted in a dramatic change: Alfred awoke from his apparent death with pasty white skin with circular markings, superhuman powers, including telekinesis, and a desire to destroy Batman and Robin. Calling himself The Outsider, he indirectly battled the Dynamic Duo on a number of occasions, using others as his puppets – the Grasshopper Gang in Detective #334, Zatanna in Detective #336, and even the Batmobile itself in Detective #340 – and generally only appeared as a mocking voice over the radio. He did not physically appear in the comics until Detective #356, when he is bathed again in the rays of the regeneration machine during a struggle with Batman, and returns to normal, with no memory of his time as a supervillain. His time as the Outsider is collected in Showcase Presents: Batman Volumes 1 and 2.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAlfred was later reunited with his long-lost daughter, Julia Remarque, though this element was not included in Post-Crisis comics. Her mother was the DC war heroine Mademoiselle Marie, whom Alfred had met while working as an intelligence agent in occupied France during World War II.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nPost-Crisis","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn the Post-Crisis comics' continuity, Alfred has been the Wayne family valet all of Bruce's life and had helped his master establish his superhero career from the beginning. In addition, he was Bruce's legal guardian following the deaths of his parents. Alfred's history has been modified several times over the years, creating assorted versions. In one such version, Alfred was hired away from the British Royal Family by Bruce's parents, and he virtually raised Bruce after they were murdered.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nMeanwhile, another version of Alfred's Post-Crisis life was slightly more closely linked to his pre-Crisis counterpart. In this version, Alfred is an actor on the English stage who agrees to become the Waynes' butler to honor his father's dying wish. At the time he begins working for the Waynes, Bruce is a young child. After several months, Alfred voices the desire to quit and return home to continue his life as an actor. However, these plans are momentarily forgotten when young Bruce returns home after getting into a fight with a school bully. Alfred teaches Bruce to handle the bully strategically, rather than using brute force. Following Alfred's advice, Bruce takes care of his bully problem. Upon returning home, Bruce requests that Alfred stay, and Alfred agrees without a second thought. Alfred raises Bruce after the Waynes are murdered.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAlfred later helps Bruce raise Dick Grayson, Jason Todd, and Tim Drake, all of whom were adopted by Bruce Wayne and became his partner Robin. He also had close friendships with other members of the Bat-Clan including Barbara Gordon and Cassandra Cain. Alfred often acts as a father-figure to Bruce, and a grandfather to Dick, Jason, and Tim. He is also highly respected by those heroes who are aware of his existence, including Superman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern, and the original Teen Titans.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAlfred has also been romantically linked to Dr. Leslie Thompkins, though his relationship with her never came to anything, particularly after she apparently allowed Stephanie Brown to die from neglect. He also developed feelings for Tim Drake's stepmother, but again, nothing came of it.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nDuring the events of Knightquest, Alfred accompanies Wayne to England and becomes enraged when Wayne insists on endangering his own health while paraplegic. This was the culmination of several weeks of Wayne's self-destructive behavior, and when Wayne returns to Gotham City, Alfred remains in England, tendering his resignation. He spends some time vacationing in Antarctica and The Bahamas before returning to England. Dick Grayson tracks him down several months later and convinces him to return to Wayne Manor. In that story, it was revealed he had walked out of his own wedding years earlier.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nHis resourcefulness came to the fore in the No Man's Land storyline, especially in Legends of the Dark Knight #118. Batman is missing for weeks, leaving Alfred alone to watch his city for him. He uses his skills as an actor, storyteller, medic, and spy to survive and collect information on the recently destroyed society. Alfred even uses hand-to-hand combat in a rare one-panel fight sequence between him and a pair of slavers that ends with his rescue by Batman.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn Batman #677, agents of Batman's mysterious enemy the Black Glove attack and beat Alfred in front of Bruce and Jezebel Jet, severely injuring him. In the same issue, a reporter from The Gotham Gazette suggests to Commissioner Gordon that Alfred may be Bruce's biological father and that this may be a reason for the murder of Martha Wayne. Alfred later denies the entire story, agreeing with Bruce that it was a fabrication. In Batman and the Outsiders Special, Alfred is seen apologizing at the graves of Thomas and Martha Wayne at the loss of Bruce, commenting that he grieves as a parent, regarding Bruce as his son. Later, a secret panel in Alfred's room opens, the result of a fail-safe planted by Bruce in the event of his death. Bruce leaves his one final task and also gives him an emotional goodbye, telling Alfred he considered him as a father.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAlfred is left emotionally shattered, commenting more than once that, even if his biological fatherhood is a fabrication, in a deeper sense he actually was Bruce Wayne's father, having watched over him for years and feeling he failed him in the last moments.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAfter the event of Final Crisis, when Batman was apparently killed in action, Alfred finds himself with the task of raising Bruce's biological son Damian with Grayson. Batman: Battle for the Cowl sees Alfred allowing Damian Wayne to take on his first mission as Robin, giving Damian a Robin tunic and calling on Squire to assist the new Boy Wonder in finding Tim Drake, who went missing hunting down Jason Todd. Alfred also assists Grayson in his role as Gotham's new Dark Knight.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAfter discovering that the original Batman was actually lost in time after his battle with Darkseid, Alfred immediately seeks clues to his whereabouts. Eventually, Bruce finds his way to the present. After Batman successfully expands his mission globally with Batman Inc., Bruce assumes full responsibility as a father, and Alfred assists him in raising Damian.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nThe New 52","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn The New 52 (a reboot of the DC universe), it is revealed that Alfred's father Jarvis Pennyworth was the butler of the Wayne family before Alfred when Bruce was still a child. Jarvis was blackmailed by the Court of Owls to set a trap for the pregnant Martha Wayne. Despite declining, the Court managed to cause a car accident that caused the child to be born prematurely and eventually to have died. Jarvis attempted to resign from his services and write a letter to his son in which he describes the manor as a cursed place, and tells Alfred that he should not begin his service under the Wayne family. However, Jarvis was unable to send it as he was murdered that night.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nDuring Batman: Eternal, Alfred is reunited with his long-absent daughter, Julia Pennyworth, an agent of the Special Reconnaissance Regiment, when Batman finds her in Hong Kong and takes her back to Wayne Manor for medical treatment after she is stabbed with a samurai sword through the chest by a Chinese gang boss she was hunting. Although Julia is initially hostile to Alfred, feeling that he has wasted his life going from a soldier to tending to a fop like Bruce Wayne, after Alfred is attacked by Hush and infected with a fear toxin, she discovers the Batcave and takes on her father's role to coordinate the Bat-Family's efforts against their foes. Alfred is briefly transferred to Arkham before it is attacked as part of the conspiracy, but he manages to survive the explosion and trick Bane into helping him reach an emergency cave Batman had installed under Arkham, the cave's defences knocking Bane out and allowing Alfred to call for help.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nWhen Hush was briefly kept prisoner in the Batcave, he managed to break out of his cell and lock Alfred in it before sabotaging the Bat-Family's equipment via the Batcomputer as they fought various villains, including crashing the Batwing with Batman still in it. However, he was swiftly returned to captivity when Alfred escaped the cell and knocked Hush out, Alfred harshly informing Tommy that he was hardly going to be locked up in his own home.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nDuring the Batman: Endgame arc, the Joker broke into the Batcave, and during a confrontation with Alfred, cut off Alfred's hand. Julia confirms to Bruce later in the issue that Alfred survived the encounter and is in a stable condition. Following the death of Bruce Wayne, Julia says that with current medical technology, they can have Alfred's hand reattached without any complications. However Alfred refuses, stating that with Bruce dead, he no longer has need of it as he has no one left to serve.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nEven with the loss of Bruce as Batman, Alfred still assists the Bat-Family in the Batcave along with Julia. After Bruce is discovered to be alive but with no memory of who he is or his life as Batman, Alfred tells Bruce everything that had happened in his life up to the point of the creation of Batman, but accepts Bruce's request not to learn any more. Alfred did this so that after years of service to the people of Gotham and the world that Bruce had earned the reward of a life without pain and the burning to desire to be Batman, so that his life as Bruce Wayne can finally begin.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nHowever, when the new villain Mr Bloom launches a mass attack that apparently kills Jim Gordon- the new Batman- the amnesic Bruce convinces Alfred to subject him to a machine that will theoretically download all of his memories as Batman into his mind; Bruce's original plan was for this machine to be used to create a series of clones of himself that could be programmed to continue his mission, but although the process failed because the human mind could not handle Batman's trauma, Bruce comes through the process by having Alfred take him to the point of brain-death and then download his memories onto his blank brain.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nOther versions","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAll Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn Frank Miller and Jim Lee's All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder, Alfred is a tougher individual with a different backstory. Following Batman's assault on the corrupt Gotham City police, Alfred and Vicki Vale are caught in the devastating car wreckage Batman creates (not aware of their presence) and Vale is badly hurt. Alfred is seen, shirtless and muscled, applying a tourniquet and generally taking control of the situation. He is described as having been a medic in the Royal Air Force and as ex-British Secret Service.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nBatman: The Dark Knight Returns","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, an elderly Alfred still acts as Bruce's butler, mourning Bruce's diminished social contacts while continuing to loyally serve his master even after Bruce becomes Batman once again after a ten-year retirement. At the story's conclusion, having set Wayne Manor to self-destruct to protect Bruce Wayne's full secrets after his faked death during his fight with Superman, Alfred dies of a stroke, his last thoughts being to consider how utterly proper it is that he should die as Wayne Manor ceases to exist.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn the sequel, Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again, the Batcave computer has been programmed with an artificial intelligence named and apparently patterned after Alfred, to the point that it refers to Bruce as \"Sir\".","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nEarth One","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAlfred appears as a main character in Geoff Johns' and Gary Frank's Batman: Earth One. In this incarnation, Alfred was a member of the Royal Marines. Alfred met Thomas Wayne during a tour of duty in the Middle East and the two became good friends. During a battle, Alfred saved Thomas' life but lost his right leg in the process. It is also implied that both he and Thomas are keeping a traumatic secret. Discharged back to his home in London, Alfred received a gift from Thomas in the form of a very expensive prosthetic leg. He later traveled to Gotham City to visit his friend and found himself arriving on the night of a campaign party for Thomas' bid at the mayoral office. Afraid for his friend after hearing of the death threats on his life, Alfred tried to talk Thomas out of going to the movies with his wife and son, but Thomas refused to allow threats to keep him from enjoying his weekly movie night with Martha and Bruce.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nLater that night, Alfred was called to the police station. Thomas and Martha had been killed by a mugger outside the theatre and Bruce had been orphaned. To Alfred's shock, he discovered that Thomas and Martha had named him Bruce's legal guardian some time ago. Unsure of himself, Alfred still made it his mission to look out for Bruce as he grew up.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nWhen Bruce took on his costumed persona of Batman and began his war on crime, Alfred reluctantly took on the role of confidante and advisor, often telling Bruce to simply carry a gun instead of a belt full of untested gadgets. Alfred later saved Bruce's life by shooting Mayor Oswald Cobblepot.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nThough Alfred introduced himself to the eight-year-old Bruce as his butler, it is obvious he never serves as a manservant in the story otherwise as Bruce's guardian and mentor. However, he is recruited by Thomas as his family's head of security prior of Thomas and his wife's deaths. He is also a skilled martial artist, and trains Bruce the combat skills he would eventually utilize as Batman. He has a daughter living in Seoul, South Korea with her mother, where Alfred had previously worked at a security firm, implying Julia Remarque's existence in this continuity.Batman: Earth One","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nElseworlds","Alfred Pennyworth\n\n* Alfred appears in the Elseworlds series Superman & Batman: Generations. He serves the Wayne family before dying in 1967, but his spirit remains around to give Bruce advice. In Generations 2, he makes his final appearance in 1975, when he convinces the ghost of Dick Grayson not to kill the Joker. He manages to convince Dick to pass over, but in the process his own soul crosses over, meaning he cannot come back. * In Batman: Dark Knight Dynasty, in a timeline where the Waynes were never killed, Alfred assists Bruce in investigating his parents' deaths when they apparently fall out of their penthouse (Revealed to have been done due to the influence of Vandal Savage's henchwoman the Scarecrone when the Waynes threatened his plan to acquire the meteor that gave him his powers). While studying available information on the meteor after Bruce determines its connection to events, Alfred discovers a record of the unusual energy reading it emits, but triggers a booby-trap that destroys Wayne Manor and kills him. Five centuries later, Bruce's descendant Brenda Wayne discovers a fragmented recording of Alfred and the energy reading that assists her in her own investigations into Savage's activities.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\n* Alfred plays a prominent role in the \"Vampire Batman\" trilogy where Batman is turned into a vampire to fight Dracula, forging Batman's weapons to use against the remaining members of Dracula's 'family' and subsequently working with Commissioner Gordon after Batman succumbs to his vampiric instincts and begins to kill his old enemies. At the conclusion of the trilogy, with Gordon being hunted by Two-Face and Killer Croc in the remains of the Batcave, Alfred sacrifices his life to allow Batman to drink his blood, giving his old master the strength to save Gordon and Gotham itself one last time before he allows himself to die to end the threat that he has become.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nEarth-3","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nDuring the \"Trinity War\" event of The New 52, it is revealed that the leader of the Secret Society is Alfred from Earth-3 who serves Owlman of the Crime Syndicate of America. Flashbacks reveal that Alfred helped Thomas Wayne Jr. kill his parents and brother when he was a child, Owlman reflecting that Alfred was the only member of his family that he could control.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nInjustice: Gods Among Us","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn the comic tie in to the video game, Alfred remained loyal to Bruce even when Bruce began the Insurgency and opposed Superman and had his secret identity exposed. When Superman invades the Batcave and breaks Batman's back, Alfred ingests the 5-U-93-R pill (which gives a person superhuman strength and durability) and subdues Superman, breaking his nose and beating him down. Alfred takes Bruce to the Tower of Fate, where Zatanna and Doctor Fate are hiding and will heal Bruce. For over seven months, Alfred oversees Bruce's slow recovery. When the Insurgency began their attack on Superman's Regime, Alfred provided a Kryptonite tipped bullet to Black Canary for her to face Superman.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn the following years, Alfred remained the caretaker of Wayne Manor despite Bruce's absence, and still maintained a close relationship with Damian Wayne despite Damian's decision to join Superman. He is visited by Superman in Year Five, the Kryptonian wanting to know the ever-elusive Batman's location. Alfred, unaware where Batman is and not willing to help nonetheless, ignores Superman. He is eventually killed by Victor Zsasz, whom Superman sent to get information on Batman's location. His death pushes Batman out of hiding to confront Zsasz and Damian wants revenge.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nTangent Comics","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAlfred makes a very brief appearance in the 1997 Tangent Comics One Shot Green Lantern in a story revolving around the Tangent versions of King Faraday and Roy Raymond. In this version Alfred Pennyworth is the head of a publishing empire that owned \"The House Of Mystery\".","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nTiny Titans","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAlfred appears in Tiny Titans, and often has to make Robin stand in the corner because he has misbehaved.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nName","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAlfred introduced himself as the son of a butler named Jarvis in one of his early appearances, and the convention being that British butlers are known by their surnames, it was unclear whether Jarvis was his father's first or last name, the latter case which would have made Alfred's name Alfred Jarvis. Whether by coincidence or not, the name \"Jarvis\" was later used for the Avengers' butler, Edwin Jarvis, a character with many similarities to Alfred.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAlfred's name was later given officially as Alfred Beagle. This name was subsequently given to an alternative version of the character from the world of Earth-Two, and Pennyworth became Alfred's accepted surname in the mainstream continuity. Alfred has also used the alias \"Thaddeus Crane\", which is derived from his middle names. His full name of Alfred Thaddeus Crane Pennyworth was depicted on his tombstone in Superman/Batman: Generations.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nThe Beagle surname was brought back into continuity (post-Crisis on Infinite Earths but pre-Infinite Crisis) as Alfred's original name as an actor and Cold War spy. He adopted the \"Pennyworth\" surname after his brief intelligence career, based on a comment from his handler that his life was not even worth a penny (in reference to a cyanide pill concealed within a fake penny).","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nGrant Morrison's run has referred to the Beagle surname as a possible stage name.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn the 2012 film The Dark Knight Rises, Bruce Wayne leaves the residue of his estate to Alfred, listing him in the will as Alfred J. Pennyworth.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nFamily","Alfred Pennyworth\n\n* Jarvis: Alfred's father in both pre-Crisis and New 52 continuity.\n* Mademoiselle Marie: A war heroine with whom Alfred (while working as an intelligence agent in France) has a daughter in pre-Crisis continuity.Detective Comics #501-502\n* Julia Remarque: Alfred's daughter by Mademoiselle Marie.\n* Wilfred Pennyworth: Alfred's brother, Wilfred is referenced in the late 1960s and early 1970s and is mentioned in the 1997 film Batman & Robin.\n* Margaret Wilson née Pennyworth: Alfred and Wilfred Pennyworth's sister, in the 1997 film Batman & Robin.\n* Daphne Pennyworth: Alfred Pennyworth's niece, daughter of Wilfred Pennyworth, Daphne briefly appeared in the late 1960s/early 1970s.\n* Barbara Wilson: Alfred's niece, daughter of Margaret Wilson née Pennyworth in the 1997 film Batman & Robin.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nSkills, resources, and abilities","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nA highly intelligent and resourceful man, Alfred runs the day-to-day operations of Wayne Manor and maintains much of the equipment of the Batcave beneath it. A former actor, he can use his acting and disguise skills to help Batman in the field when necessary, and is even capable of impersonating Bruce Wayne on the telephone convincingly, as well as giving Bruce various lessons that help him maintain his covers. He has also provided first aid up to and including suturing wounds and removing bullets, as well as occasional tactical support. He is also able to perform arthroscopy and other advanced medical procedures, thus limiting, if not eliminating, the need for hospital medical treatment even in the face of grievous injuries, helping to maintain Batman's secret identity by ensuring that Bruce Wayne has no need to visit hospitals for wounds inflicted as Batman. Nevertheless, Batman still requires professional medical treatment when Bane breaks his back (Batman: Knightfall) and Hush's machinations result in his suffering a skull fracture (Batman: Hush). On these occasions, Alfred admits that his own skills are inadequate for such medical procedures.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nWhile not as skilled at martial arts as Bruce Wayne, Alfred is still nearly as resourceful. In one story in which he is kidnapped, he readily escapes and overcomes his captors without disturbing the cut of his suit. It was later mentioned that he had been kidnapped unsuccessfully 27 times (it should be noted, however, that these events take place in the Gotham Adventures comics, based on the animated adventures of Batman, and not within the standard DCU continuity). During Batman: The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul, Ubu, Ra's al Ghul's musclebound bodyguard, attempts to use Alfred as a hostage, only to be disabled by a well timed sucker punch from Alfred.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nPresumably due to his lack of superpowers, the advanced combat training Bruce's other associates have, and Alfred's age, Alfred is the only member of the \"Batman Family\" that Bruce does not mind using a firearm, in his case favoring a shotgun when dealing with direct attacks on his person.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nCurrent issues of the various Batman comics seem to indicate that Alfred is a pioneer in and has also mastered several fields of rose breeding (even creating his own, the \"Pennyworth Blue\"), computer programming, computer engineering, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, nanotechnology, and biotechnology as he singlehandedly builds, programs, and maintains much of Batman's next-generational technology such as the Batcomputer.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn other media","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nTelevision","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nLive-action","Alfred Pennyworth\n\n* Alan Napier portrayed Alfred in the live-action TV series Batman starring Adam West and Burt Ward. However, his surname Pennyworth was never used. If Bruce Wayne was in occasional danger, Alfred would secretly wear the Batman costume. This emergency situation occurred in a few episodes of this series.\n* Ian Abercrombie portrayed Alfred Pennyworth in the live-action TV series Birds of Prey.\n* Sean Pertwee portrays a younger, more deadly, version of Alfred Pennyworth in the Batman prequel series Gotham. He is portrayed as former Royal Marines whom Bruce convinces to train him. As in Batman Begins, he is Bruce Wayne's legal guardian after the murder of Thomas and Martha Wayne; yet the adolescent Bruce asserts himself as Alfred's employer, creating a conflict of authorities. This version of Alfred is adept at hand-to-hand combat, proving highly dangerous in a fight. He is also show to be skilled with firearms and has a degree of familiarity with and understanding of the criminal underworld.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAnimation","Alfred Pennyworth\n\n* Olan Soule voiced Alfred in the cartoon The Batman/Superman Hour. * Alfred Pennyworth appeared in the Challenge of the Super Friends, voiced by William Callaway. In the episode \"Wanted: The Superfriends\", he is among the male humans that get turned into a Bizarro. * Alfred Pennyworth appeared in The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians, voiced by Jack Angel. * Alfred Pennyworth appeared as recurring character in the DC animated universe, voiced by Clive Revill (in the first three produced episodes for Batman: The Animated Series before leaving due to a previous commitment) and by Efrem Zimbalist, Jr. (throughout the rest of Batman: The Animated Series as well as for the character's appearances in The New Batman Adventures, Superman: The Animated Series, Static Shock and the Justice League cartoon series). This version combines elements from pre-Crisis and post-Crisis continuities; Alfred has been serving the Wayne family since before Thomas's and Martha's death and helped his young charge assume the Batman identity, but was also revealed to be a former agent for the British Intelligence Agency MI-6. His character is also alluded occasionally in Batman Beyond. * Alfred Pennyworth appears in the animated TV series The Batman, voiced by Alastair Duncan.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn this incarnation, his grandfather served the Penguin's obnoxious family in England, but was mistreated and then fired. Also, Alfred is shown to be younger than other depictions. * Alfred Pennyworth is featured in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced by James Garrett. He appears in a non-speaking cameo in Batman's flashbacks in \"Invasion of the Secret Santas\", and appears again in a non-speaking cameo in \"Chill of the Night!\". In \"The Super-Batman of Planet X\", a robot likeness named Alpha-Red (voiced by James Arnold Taylor) appears and serves as the robotic butler of the Batman of Zur-En-Arrh. In \"The Knights of Tomorrow\", Alfred works on a book about the events depicted in the episode. In \"The Triumvirate of Terror\", when Lex Luthor breaks into the Batcave, Alfred briefly masquerades as Batman and fights Luthor to give Bruce enough time to change into his outfit and avoid Lex finding out his secret identity. * Alfred Pennyworth appears in the Young Justice episode \"Downtime\", voiced by Jeff Bennett. * Alfred Pennyworth appears as a main character in Beware the Batman, voiced by J. B. Blanc.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nIn the series, he is portrayed as a former agent of MI-6, along with being Bruce Wayne's butler and bodyguard. He is also godfather to Katana. Unlike earlier portrayals, he has a muscular physique and is a proficient hand-to-hand combatant. Alfred is also more involved in the story line, having connections to major villains Ra's al Ghul and Deathstroke. * Alfred Pennyworth appears in Lego Batman: Be-Leaguered, voiced by Nolan North.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nFilm","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nLive action","Alfred Pennyworth\n\n* William Austin portrayed Alfred Pennyworth in the 1943 serial Batman. Austin's appearance influenced the change of Alfred's design from the original fat, clean shaven Alfred. * Eric Wilton portrayed Alfred Pennyworth in the 1949 serial Batman and Robin. * Alan Napier portrayed Alfred in the 1966 live-action film Batman, based on the 1960s TV series. * Michael Gough portrayed Alfred Pennyworth in the Tim Burton/Joel Schumacher Batman film series. In the fourth film Batman & Robin, he has a niece named Barbara Wilson who turns into Batgirl. Gough also portrayed Alfred in a 1989 Diet Coke commercial, in the BBC radio-drama presentation of the \"Knightfall\" story arc from the Batman comics, and in a series of OnStar commercials featuring Batman. In flashback scenes of Batman & Robin, a young Alfred is portrayed by Jon Simmons. * Michael Caine portrayed Alfred Pennyworth in the The Dark Knight Trilogy. ** In Batman Begins, he is Bruce Wayne's legal guardian after Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne are murdered by Joe Chill. When Bruce vanishes for seven years and is declared dead by Wayne Enterprises' CEO William Earle in order to claim his shares, this plan is thwarted because Bruce left everything to Alfred.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAfter Bruce returns from training in the League of Shadows, Alfred is told of his goal to become a symbol to frighten the criminals of Gotham City. Alfred helps Bruce arrange the order of the tools necessary for Bruce to become Batman, and encourages Bruce to feign a social life to deflect attention from the idea that he could be Batman. When the League of Shadows attack Wayne Manor, Alfred saves Bruce when trapped under a beam and rallies his surrogate son to resume his fight to save Gotham. In the aftermath, Alfred offers some suggestions about updating the Batcave. ** In The Dark Knight, Alfred and Bruce Wayne have moved to a downtown penthouse and the Batcave has been relocated to Gotham Harbor while Wayne Manor is being rebuilt. When Bruce travels to Hong Kong to capture a Mafia accountant, Alfred invents an alibi for Bruce. While reflecting on the Joker's reign of terror in Gotham, Alfred recalls a tale from his past career as a British intelligence agent about a thrill-seeking bandit in order to explain to Bruce that some men \"just want to watch the world burn\".","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nRachel Dawes gives Alfred the task of giving Bruce a letter \"when the time is right\". After Rachel's death, Alfred reads the letter and discovers that she was going to marry Harvey Dent. He later burns the letter, reflecting that, just as the people of Gotham would need to believe in Dent, Bruce needed to believe that Rachel loved him. ** In The Dark Knight Rises, Alfred has grown concerned as Bruce has not moved on from Rachel or Batman eight years later. Alfred reveals that during Bruce's absence, he frequently visited a restaurant in Florence with the fantasy that he would one day see Bruce there, settled down and happy. Alfred reluctantly assists Bruce in finding out information about the mercenary Bane. Following Batman's first encounter with Bane, Alfred fears that Bruce will get himself killed, and threatens to leave in order to dissuade Bruce. Alfred then tells Bruce that Rachel wanted to marry Harvey Dent, and that he burned her letter to protect Bruce's feelings. Angry and hurt, Bruce orders Alfred to leave. Alfred returns after Batman apparently sacrifices himself to save Gotham, and attends Bruce's funeral with Commissioner James Gordon, Lucius Fox and Detective John Blake.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nOver Bruce's grave, Alfred tearfully apologizes to Thomas and Martha for having failed to protect their son. When Alfred returns to the Florentine restaurant, he looks across to see Bruce alive and dining with Selina Kyle. They exchange knowing smiles and Alfred leaves, happy that Bruce has begun moving on with his life. * Jeremy Irons portrays Alfred in the DC Extended Universe. ** In Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, While still loyal to Bruce, he subtly mourns his master's non-existent social life and attempts to act as a humanising influence, such as trying to discourage Bruce using a kryptonite sample salvaged by Lex Luthor against Superman. After Bruce accepts Superman as an ally, Alfred pilots the Batplane by remote while Bruce saves Martha Kent. ** Irons will be reprising his role in the upcoming film Justice League.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAnimation","Alfred Pennyworth\n\n* Efrem Zimbalist, Jr. voiced Alfred Pennyworth in the animated films Batman: Mask of the Phantasm, Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero, and Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman. * Alastair Duncan voiced Alfred Pennyworth in the animated film The Batman vs. Dracula and Batman Unlimited: Animal Instincts. * David McCallum voiced Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: Gotham Knight, Son of Batman and Batman vs. Robin. * Alan Oppenheimer voiced Alfred Pennyworth in Superman/Batman: Public Enemies. * Jim Piddock voiced Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: Under the Red Hood. * Jeff Bennett reprises his role as Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: Year One. * Robin Atkin Downes voiced Alfred Pennyworth in Justice League: Doom. * Michael Jackson voiced Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Part 1 and 2. * Alfred Pennyworth makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Lego Batman: The Movie - DC Super Heroes Unite, an adaptation of the video game of the same name. * Martin Jarvis reprises his role as Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: Assault on Arkham. * James Garrett reprises his role as Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: Bad Blood. * Brian George voiced Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: The Killing Joke.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\n* Ralph Fiennes will be voicing Alfred in the upcoming animated movie The Lego Batman Movie.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nVideo games","Alfred Pennyworth\n\n* An Easter egg in World of Warcraft: Wrath of the Lich King shows a character named Alfred Copperworth, a homage to Alfred Pennyworth, located in the Purple Parlor in the city of Dalaran (a copper is the lowest form of currency in the game, equivalent almost to a penny, and was the metal used to make the original U.S. penny).\n* Alfred Pennyworth appears in the Batman Begins video game, voiced by Michael Caine.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nLego series","Alfred Pennyworth\n\n* Alfred Pennyworth appears in LEGO Batman for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Nintendo DS and Wii as a playable character. \n* Alfred Pennyworth appears in Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes, voiced by Steven Blum.\n* Alfred Pennyworth appears as a playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Robin Atkin Downes. In one level, Batman ends up mind-controlled by Brainiac's ship causing Robin and Alfred to follow him through the Batcave. When playable, the tray that Alfred is carrying can enable him to cross through fiery areas.\n** Downes would later return to voice the character in Lego Dimensions.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nArkham series","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nAlfred Pennyworth is a supporting character in the Batman: Arkham franchise where he is voiced by Martin Jarvis. * Alfred Pennyworth's biography can be unlocked in Batman: Arkham Asylum. The player must scan a plaque describing one of Bruce Wayne's donations to the Arkham Medical Center. * He is referenced consistently in Batman: Arkham City, while the character does not make an actual appearance, he remains in constant radio contact with the players as the game's storyline progresses, and his bio appears. * In Batman: Arkham Origins, The character makes his first in-game appearance in the series, as the prequel shows his different mentality towards Bruce Wayne's adventures as Batman. Throughout the game, there are several instances where he disapproves of the techniques which Batman uses. Batman seems to hold Alfred at a distance, often shown taking advantage of his butler and shunning any attempts of warmth. When hired assassins target Batman, Alfred pleads with him to abandon his vigilante persona, but his words fall on deaf ears. Bane knows that Batman and Bruce Wayne are one and the same.","Alfred Pennyworth\n\nHe breaks into the Batcave and beats Alfred close to death before Batman can get to him (having taken a detour to defeat Firefly). Arriving in time to see Alfred die, Batman is able to save him by electric shocks from Electrocutioner's gauntlets which helped to restart Alfred's heart. The event leaves Batman so shaken he considers giving up on saving the city. With his understanding of Batman renewed, Alfred convinces him to keep fighting. After this, he continues to help Batman as he travels to Blackgate Prison to stop the chaos. This time, Batman shows gratitude towards Alfred. In the \"Cold, Cold Heart\" DLC, Alfred is present with Bruce Wayne at a party at Wayne Manor commemorating Ferris Boyle until Mr. Freeze crashes the party with Penguin's gang to capture Boyle. Upon Bruce becoming Batman, he was able to rescue Alfred and the other hostages. * In Batman: Arkham Knight, He contacts Batman throughout the game again through a holographic projector giving Batman valuable information. In the ending where Batman's secret identity is revealed, he and Alfred are supposedly killed in a large explosion at Wayne Manor, though it is possible they faked their deaths."],"string":"[\n \"Superhero\\n\\nIn modern popular fiction, a superhero (sometimes rendered super-hero or super hero) is a type of costumed heroic character who possesses supernatural or superhuman powers and who is dedicated to fighting crime, protecting the public, and usually battling supervillains. A female superhero is sometimes called a superheroine (also rendered super-heroine or super heroine). Fiction centered on such characters, especially in American comic books since the 1930s, is known as superhero fiction.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nBy most definitions, characters do not require actual supernatural or superhuman powers or phenomena to be deemed superheroes. While the Dictionary.com definition of 'superhero' is \\\"A figure, especially in a comic strip or cartoon, endowed with superhuman powers and usually portrayed as fighting evil or crime\\\", the longstanding Merriam-Webster dictionary gives the definition as \\\"a fictional hero having extraordinary or superhuman powers; also: an exceptionally skillful or successful person\\\". Terms such as masked crime fighters, costumed adventurers or masked vigilantes are sometimes used to refer to characters such as the Spirit, who may not be explicitly referred to as superheroes but nevertheless share similar traits.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nSome superheroes use their powers to counter day-to-day crime while also combating threats against humanity from supervillains, who are their criminal counterparts. Often at least one of these supervillains will be the superhero's archenemy. Some long-running superheroes such as Superman, Batman, Spider-Man, Wonder Woman, Captain America, Wolverine, Green Lantern, The Flash, Hulk, Thor and Iron Man have a rogues gallery of many villains.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nEarly history\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nThe word 'superhero' dates to at least 1917. Antecedents of the archetype include such folkloric heroes as Robin Hood, who adventured in distinctive clothing. The 1903 play The Scarlet Pimpernel and its spinoffs popularized the idea of a masked avenger and the superhero trope of a secret identity. Shortly afterward, masked and costumed pulp-fiction characters such as Zorro (1919) and comic strip heroes, such as the Phantom (1936) began appearing, as did non-costumed characters with super strength, including Patoruzú (1928), the comic-strip character Popeye (1929) and novelist Philip Wylie's protagonist Hugo Danner (1930).\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nIn the 1930s, both trends came together in some of the earliest superpowered costumed heroes such as Japan's very own Ōgon Bat (visualized in painted panels used by kamishibai oral storytellers in Japan since 1931), Mandrake the Magician (1934), and Superman in 1938 at the beginning of the Golden Age of Comic Books.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\n1940s\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nThis era saw the debut of first known female superhero, writer-artist Fletcher Hanks's character Fantomah, an ageless ancient Egyptian woman in the modern day who could transform into a skull-faced creature with superpowers to fight evil; she debuted in Fiction House's Jungle Comics #2 (Feb. 1940), credited to the pseudonymous \\\"Barclay Flagg\\\". The Invisible Scarlet O'Neil, a non-costumed character who fought crime and wartime saboteurs using the superpower of invisibility created by Russell Stamm, would debut in the eponymous syndicated newspaper comic strip a few months later on June 3, 1940.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nOne superpowered character was portrayed as an antiheroine, a rarity for its time: the Black Widow, a costumed emissary of Satan who killed evildoers in order to send them to Hell — debuted in Mystic Comics #4 (Aug. 1940), from Timely Comics, the 1940s predecessor of Marvel Comics. Most of the other female costumed crime-fighters during this era lacked superpowers. Notable characters include The Woman in Red, introduced in Standard Comics' Thrilling Comics #2 (March 1940); Lady Luck, debuting in the Sunday-newspaper comic-book insert The Spirit Section June 2, 1940; the comedic character Red Tornado, debuting in All-American Comics #20 (Nov 1940); Miss Fury, debuting in the eponymous comic strip by female cartoonist Tarpé Mills on April 6, 1941; the Phantom Lady, introduced in Quality Comics Police Comics #1 (Aug. 1941); the Black Cat, introduced in Harvey Comics' Pocket Comics #1 (also Aug. 1941); and the Black Canary, introduced in Flash Comics #86 (Aug. 1947) as a supporting character.Jim Amash & Eric Nolen-Weathington, (2010), Carmine Infantino: Penciler, Publisher, Provocateur p.30-32 The most iconic comic book superheroine, who debuted during the Golden Age, is Wonder Woman.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nInspired by the Amazons of Greek mythology, she was created by psychologist William Moulton Marston, with help and inspiration from his wife Elizabeth and their mutual lover Olive Byrne. Wonder Woman's first appearance was in All Star Comics #8 (Jan. 1942), published by All-American Publications, one of two companies that would merge to form DC Comics in 1944.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\n1950s\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nIn 1952, Osamu Tezuka's manga Tetsuwan Atom (more popularly known in the west as Astro Boy) was published. The series focused upon a robot boy built by a scientist to replace his deceased son. Being built from an incomplete robot originally intended for military purposes Astro Boy possessed amazing powers such as flight through thrusters in his feet and the incredible mechanical strength of his limbs.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nThe 1950s saw the Silver Age of Comics. During this era DC introduced the likes of Batwoman in 1956, Supergirl, Miss Arrowette, and Bat-Girl; all female derivatives of established male superheroes. 1958 saw the debut of superhero Moonlight Mask on Japanese television.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\n1960s\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nThe Marvel Comics teams of the early 1960s typically included at least one (and often the only) female member, much like DC's flagship superhero team the Justice League of America (whose initial roster included Wonder Woman as the token female); examples include the Fantastic Four's Invisible Girl, the X-Men's Jean Grey (originally known as Marvel Girl), the Avengers' Wasp, and the Brotherhood of Mutants' Scarlet Witch (who later joined the Avengers). In 1963, Astro Boy was adapted into a highly influential anime television series. Phantom Agents in 1964 focused on ninjas working for the Japanese government and would be the foundation for Sentai-type series. 1966 saw the debut of sci-fi/horror series Ultra Q created by Eiji Tsuburaya this would eventually lead on to the sequel Ultraman, spawning a successful franchise focused upon the Giant Hero subgenre where the Superheroes would be as big as giant monsters (Kaiju) that they fought.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\n1970s\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nIn 1972, the Science Ninja Team Gatchaman anime debuted, which built upon the superhero team idea of the live-action Phantom Agents as well as introducing different colors for team members and special vehicles to support them, said vehicles could also combine into a larger one. Another important event was the debut of Mazinger Z by Go Nagai, creating the Super Robot genre. Go Nagai also wrote the manga Cutey Honey in 1973, although the Magical Girl genre already existed, Nagai's manga introduced Transformation sequences that would become a staple of Magical Girl media.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nThe 1970s would see more anti-heroes introduced into Superhero fiction such examples included the debut of Shotaro Ishinomori's Skull Man in 1970, Go Nagai's Devilman in 1972 and Gerry Conway and John Romita's Punisher in 1974.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nThe dark Skull Man manga would later get a television adaptation and underwent drastic changes. The protagonist was redesigned resemble a grasshopper, becoming the renowned first masked hero of the Kamen Rider series. Kamen Rider is a motorcycle riding hero in an insect-like costume, who shouts Henshin (Transform) to don his costume and gain superhuman powers.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nThe ideas of second-wave feminism, which spread through the 1960s into the 1970s, greatly influenced the way comic book companies would depict as well as market their female characters: Wonder Woman was for a time revamped as a mod-dressing martial artist directly inspired by the Emma Peel character from the British television series The Avengers (no relation to the superhero team of the same name), but later reverted to Marston's original concept after the editors of Ms. magazine publicly disapproved of the character being depowered and without her traditional costume; Supergirl was moved from being a secondary feature on Action Comics to headline Adventure Comics in 1969; the Lady Liberators appeared in an issue of The Avengers as a group of mind-controlled superheroines led by Valkyrie (actually a disguised supervillainess) and were meant to be a caricatured parody of feminist activists; and Jean Grey became the embodiment of a cosmic being known as the Phoenix Force with seemingly unlimited power in the late 1970s, a stark contrast from her depiction as the weakest member of her team a decade ago.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nBoth major publishers began introducing new superheroines with a more distinct feminist theme as part of their origin stories and/or character development. Examples include Big Barda, Power Girl, and the Huntress by DC comics; and from Marvel, the second Black Widow, Shanna the She-Devil, and The Cat. Female supporting characters who were successful professionals or hold positions of authority in their own right also debuted in the pages of several popular superhero titles from the late 1950s onward: Hal Jordan's love interest Carol Ferris was introduced as the Vice-President of Ferris Aircraft and later took over the company from her father; Medusa, who was first introduced in the Fantastic Four series, is a member of the Inhuman Royal Family and a prominent statesperson within her people's quasi-feudal society; and Carol Danvers, a decorated officer in the United States Air Force who would become a costumed superhero herself years later.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nIn 1975 Shotaro Ishinomori's Himitsu Sentai Gorenger debuted on what is now TV Asahi, it brought the concepts of multi-colored teams and supporting vehicles that debuted in Gatchaman into live-action. In 1978, Toei adapted Spider-Man into a live-action series. In this continuity, Spider-Man had a vehicle called Marveller that could transform into a giant and powerful robot called Leopardon, this idea would be carried over to Toei's Battle Fever J and now multi-colored teams not only had support vehicles but giant robots to fight giant monsters with.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\n1980s onwards\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nIn subsequent decades, popular characters like Dazzler, She-Hulk, Elektra, Catwoman, Witchblade, Spider-Girl, Batgirl and the Birds of Prey became stars of long-running eponymous titles. Female characters began assuming leadership roles in many ensemble superhero teams; the Uncanny X-Men series and its related spin-off titles in particular have included many female characters in pivotal roles since the 1970s. Volume 4 of the X-Men comic book series featured an all-female team as part of the Marvel NOW! branding initiative in 2013. Internationally, the Japanese comic book character Sailor Moon is recognized as one of the most important and popular female superheroes ever created. Superpowered female characters like Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Darna have a tremendous influence on popular culture in their respective countries of origin.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nSuperheroines can sport improbably large breasts and costumes that sexualize them. For example, Power Girl's includes a small window between her breasts; Emma Frost's costume traditionally resembles erotic lingerie; and Starfire's started as a full-body covering and over the years became progressively much skimpier. This visual treatment of women in American comics has led to accusations of systemic sexism and objectification.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nCommon traits\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nMany superhero characters display the following traits:\\n* Extraordinary powers or abilities. Superhero powers vary widely; superhuman strength, the ability to fly, enhanced senses, and the projection of energy bolts are all common. Some characters like Batman, Mockingbird, the Phantom and the Question possess no superhuman powers but have mastered skills such as martial arts, espionage techniques, and applied or forensic sciences to a highly remarkable degree. Others rely on fantastical weapons or technology, such as Iron Man's powered armor suits, Green Lantern’s power ring, and trick arrows employed by Green Arrow and Hawkeye, some have acquired their abilities from cosmic rays such as the Fantastic Four. Many characters supplement their innate superhuman powers with a special weapon or device (e.g. Captain America's shield, Wonder Woman's lasso and bracelets, Thor's weather manipulating hammer, and Wolverine's adamantium claws). * A strong moral code, including a willingness to risk one's own safety in the service of good without expectation of reward. Such a code often includes a refusal or strong reluctance to kill or wield lethal weapons. * A motivation, such as a sense of responsibility and guilt (e.g. Spider-Man), a formal calling (e.g.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nWonder Woman), a childhood trauma or personal vendetta against criminals (e.g. Batman), or a strong belief in justice and humanitarian service (e.g. Superman).\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\n* A secret identity that protects the superhero's friends and family from becoming targets of his or her enemies, such as Clark Kent (Superman), or to protect themselves from getting arrested by the police, like Spider-Man, although many superheroes have a confidant (usually a friend or relative who has been sworn to secrecy). Most superheroes use a descriptive or metaphoric code name for their public deeds. However, there are also rare ones whose true identities are common public knowledge, even with a costumed identity (e.g. Iron Man and Captain America). * A distinctive costume, often used to conceal the secret identity (see Common costume features). * An underlying motif or theme that affects the hero's name, costume, personal effects, and other aspects of his or her character (e.g. Batman wears a bat-themed costume, uses bat-themed gadgetry and equipment and operates at night; Spider-Man can project artificial webbing from wrist-mounted web shooting gadgets, has a spider web pattern on his costume, and other spider-like abilities). * A supporting cast of recurring characters, including the hero's friends, co-workers and/or love interests, who may or may not know of the superhero's secret identity.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nOften the hero's personal relationships are complicated by this dual life, a common theme in Batman, Spider-Man and Superman stories in particular. * A rogues gallery consisting of enemies that he/she fights repeatedly. In some cases superheroes begin by fighting run-of-the-mill criminals before supervillains surface in their respective story lines. In many cases the hero is in part responsible for the appearance of these supervillains (the Scorpion was created as the perfect enemy to defeat Spider-Man; the Sentinels were designed to hunt mutants who often represent the protagonists of Marvel stories; and characters in Batman's comics often accuse him of inadvertently creating the villains he fights). Often superheroes have a recurring archenemy who is especially threatening, or a nemesis who is depicted as a doppelganger or foil (e.g. Wolverine is outmatched physically by Sabretooth, who embraces his savage instincts while the former attempts to suppress his; the psychopathic Reverse-Flash's costume and abilities are very similar to the Flash's; the Joker is flamboyant and colorful in contrast to the moody, grim Batman. Magneto is restless and hostile in contrast to the calm and peaceful Professor X.)\\n* Independent wealth (e.g.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nBatman's family fortune, the X-Men's patron Professor X, Iron Man's father's weapon and technology company) or an occupation that allows for minimal supervision (e.g. Spider-Man's civilian job as a freelance photographer). * A backstory that explains the circumstances by which the character acquired his or her abilities as well as his or her motivation for becoming a superhero. Many origin stories involve tragic elements and/or freak accidents that result in the development of the hero's abilities.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nMany superheroes work independently. However, there are also many superhero teams. Some, such as the Fantastic Four, DNAgents, and the X-Men, have common origins and usually operate as a group. Some are families in which the parents and kids have superpowers, like The Incredibles. Others, such as DC Comics’s Justice League and Marvel’s Avengers, are \\\"all-star\\\" groups consisting of heroes with separate origins who also operate individually, yet will team up to confront larger threats. The shared setting or \\\"universes\\\" of Marvel, DC and other publishers also allow for regular superhero crossover team-ups. Some superheroes, especially those introduced in the 1940s, work with a young sidekick (e.g. Batman and Robin, Captain America and Bucky). This has become less common since more sophisticated writing and older audiences have lessened the need for characters who specifically appeal to child readers. Sidekicks are seen as a separate classification of superheroes.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nAlthough superhero fiction is considered a form of fantasy/adventure, it crosses into many genres. Some superhero franchises resemble crime fiction (e.g. Batman, Spider-Man, Daredevil), horror fiction (e.g. Hellboy, The Spectre), paranoid fiction (e.g. Watchmen, Marvelman/Miracleman), and conventional science fiction (e.g. Green Lantern, Guardians of the Galaxy). Many of the earliest superheroes, such as the Sandman and the Clock, were rooted in the pulp fiction of their predecessors.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nWithin their own fictional universes, public perception of superheroes varies greatly. Some, like Superman and the Fantastic Four, are adored and seen as important civic leaders or even celebrities. Others, like Hulk, Spider-Man and the characters of Watchmen, are met with public skepticism or outright hostility. A few, such as the X-Men and Doom Patrol, defend a populace that almost unanimously misunderstands and despises them.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nCommon costume features\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nA superhero's costume helps make him or her recognizable to the general public. Costumes are often colorful to enhance the character's visual appeal and frequently incorporate the superhero's name and theme. For example, Daredevil resembles a red devil, Captain America's costume echoes the American flag, Batman's costume resembles a large bat, and Spider-Man's costume features a spiderweb pattern. The convention of superheroes wearing masks (frequently without visible pupils) and skintight unitards originated with Lee Falk's comic strip The Phantom.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nMany features of superhero costumes recur frequently, including the following:\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\n* Superheroes who maintain a secret identity often wear a mask, ranging from the domino of Robin and the Green Hornet to the full-face masks of Spider-Man and Black Panther. Most common are masks covering the upper face, leaving the mouth and jaw exposed. This allows for both a believable disguise and recognizable facial expressions. A notable exception is Superman, who wears nothing on his face while fighting crime, but uses large glasses in his civilian life as Clark Kent. Some characters wear helmets, such as Doctor Fate or Magneto. * A symbol, such as a stylized letter or visual icon, usually on the chest. Examples include the uppercase \\\"S\\\" of Superman, the bat emblem of Batman, and the spider emblem of Spider-Man. Often, they also wear a common symbol referring to their group or league, such as the \\\"4\\\" on the Fantastic Four's suits, the \\\"X\\\" on the X-Men's costumes, or the \\\"i\\\" on the Incredible Family's costumes. * Form-fitting clothing, often referred to as tights or Spandex, although the exact material is usually unidentified. Such material displays a character’s athletic build and heroic sex appeal and allows a simple design for illustrators to reproduce.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\n* While a great many superhero costumes do not feature capes, the garment is still closely associated with them, likely because two of the most widely recognized superheroes, Batman and Superman, wear capes. In fact, police officers in Batman’s home of Gotham City are depicted as using the word \\\"cape\\\" as a shorthand for all superheroes and costumed crime-fighters. The comic-book miniseries Watchmen and the animated movie The Incredibles commented on the potentially lethal impracticality of capes. In Marvel Comics, the term \\\"cape-killer\\\" has been used to describe the fictional Superhuman Restraint Unit organization, even though few notable Marvel heroes wear capes. * While most superhero costumes merely hide the hero’s identity and present a recognizable image, parts of the costume (or the costume itself) have functional uses. For example, the Venom symbiote suit and Spawn's \\\"necroplasmic armor\\\", with their supernatural abilities have both been of great assistance to the wearer. Iron Man's armor, in particular, protects him and provides technological advantages. * When thematically appropriate, some superheroes dress like people from various professions or subcultures.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nZatanna, who possesses wizard-like powers, dresses like a stage magician, and Ghost Rider, who rides a superpowered motorcycle, dresses in the leather garb of a biker. * Some characters eschew the traditional superhero outfit for apparel considered to be more practical and utilitarian. Shoulder, knee and elbow pads, Kevlar-coated vests, metal-plated armor, heavy-duty belts, and ammunition pouches appears on 1990s-era antiheroes such as Cable, Deadpool, and many Image Comics characters. Other characters, such as the Runaways and the various protagonists of the Infamous video game series, do not wear any distinctive outfits at all.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nBases/headquarters\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nMany superheroes (and supervillains) operate from a base or headquarters. These bases are often equipped with state-of-the-art, highly advanced, and/or alien technologies. They are typically set in disguised and/or in secret locations to avoid being detected by enemies or the general public (for example, Superman's Fortress of Solitude or the Batcave). Some bases, such as the Baxter Building or the Hall of Justice, are common public knowledge (even if their precise location may remain secret). Many heroes and villains who do not have a permanent headquarters may have a mobile base of operations instead.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nTo the heroes and villains who have secret bases, these bases can serve a variety of functions, including (but not limited to) the following:\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\n* a control room where specialized monitors and other advanced technology alert superheroes to activities requiring their intervention\\n* a command center where they are allowed the ability to send out commands through monitoring equipment\\n* an operations room that stores their technological and alien devices\\n* a crime lab or laboratory, for experiments and scientific study\\n* a safehouse, where the heroes can conceal themselves from their enemies\\n* a research library, covering a variety of topics including science, history, or criminal profiling\\n* an armory, for weapons design, construction and storage\\n* a garage, hangar, or dock, for storage of vehicles\\n* an information centre or communications center\\n* a weapons platform, for defense of the facility (these are more common to supervillains)\\n* a trophy room, where mementos of significant battles and adventures are displayed\\n* a common area, for social activity (typically for larger teams, such as the Justice League or the Avengers)\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nTrademark status\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nMost dictionary definitions and common usages of the term are generic and not limited to the characters of any particular company or companies.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nNevertheless, variations on the term \\\"Super Hero\\\" are jointly claimed by DC Comics and Marvel Comics as trademarks in the United States. Registrations of \\\"Super Hero\\\" marks have been maintained by DC and Marvel since the 1960s, including U.S. Trademark Serial Nos. 72243225 and 73222079. In 2009, the term \\\"Super Heroes\\\" was registered as a typography-independent \\\"descriptive\\\" US trademark co-owned by DC and Marvel.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nCritics in the legal community dispute whether the \\\"Super Hero\\\" marks meet the legal standard for trademark protection in the United States-distinctive designation of a single source of a product or service. Controversy exists over each element of that standard: whether \\\"Super Hero\\\" is distinctive rather than generic, whether \\\"Super Hero\\\" designates a source of products or services, and whether DC and Marvel jointly represent a single source. Some critics further characterize the marks as a misuse of trademark law to chill competition.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nMinority superheroes\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nIn keeping with their origin as representing the archetypical hero stock character in 1930s American comics, superheroes\\nare predominantly depicted as white Anglo-Saxon American middle- or upper-class heterosexual young adult males who are typically tall, athletic, educated, physically attractive and in perfect health. Beginning in the 1960s with the civil rights movement in the United States, and increasingly with the rising concern over political correctness in the 1980s, superhero fiction centered on cultural, ethnic, national and racial minority groups (from the perspective of US demographics) began to be produced. This began with depiction of black superheroes in the 1960s, followed in the 1970s with a number of other ethnic superheroes. In keeping with the political mood of the time, cultural diversity and inclusivism would be an important part of superhero groups starting from the 1980s. In the 1990s, this was further augmented by the first depictions of superheroes as homosexual.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nEthnic and religious minorities\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nIn 1966, Marvel Comics introduced the Black Panther, an African monarch who became the first non-caricatured black superhero. The first African-American superhero, the Falcon, followed in 1969, and three years later, Luke Cage, a self-styled \\\"hero-for-hire\\\", became the first black superhero to star in his own series. In 1989, the Monica Rambeau incarnation of Captain Marvel was the first female black superhero from a major publisher to get her own title in a special one-shot issue. In 1971, Red Wolf became the first Native American in the superheroic tradition to headline a series. In 1973, Shang-Chi became the first prominent Asian superhero to star in an American comic book (Kato had been the deuteragonist of the Green Hornet media franchise series since its inception in the 1930s. ). Kitty Pryde, a member of the X-Men, was an openly Jewish superhero in mainstream American comic books as early as 1978.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nComic-book companies were in the early stages of cultural expansion and many of these characters played to specific stereotypes; Cage and many of his contemporaries often employed lingo similar to that of blaxploitation films, Native Americans were often associated with shamanism and wild animals, and Asian Americans were often portrayed as kung fu martial artists. Subsequent minority heroes, such as the X-Men's Storm and the Teen Titans' Cyborg avoided such conventions; they were both part of ensemble teams, which became increasingly diverse in subsequent years. The X-Men, in particular, were revived in 1975 with a line-up of characters culled from several nations, including the Kenyan Storm, German Nightcrawler, Russian Colossus, Irish Banshee, and Japanese Sunfire. In 1993, Milestone Comics, an African-American-owned media/publishing company entered into a publishing agreement with DC Comics that allowed them to introduce a line of comics that included characters of many ethnic minorities. Milestone's initial run lasted four years, during which it introduced Static, a character adapted into the WB Network animated series Static Shock.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nIn addition to the creation of new minority heroes, publishers have filled the identities and roles of once-Caucasian heroes with new characters from minority backgrounds. The African-American John Stewart appeared in the 1970s as an alternate for Earth's Green Lantern Hal Jordan, and would become a regular member of the Green Lantern Corps from the 1980s onwards. The creators of the 2000s-era Justice League animated series selected Stewart as the show's Green Lantern. In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Miles Morales, a multiracial American youth who was also bitten by a genetically-altered spider, debuted as the new Spider-Man after the apparent death of the original. Kamala Khan, a Pakistani-American teenager who is revealed to have Inhuman lineage after her shapeshifting powers manifested, takes on the identity of Ms. Marvel in 2014. Her self-titled comic book series became a cultural phenomenon, with extensive media coverage by CNN, the New York Times and The Colbert Report, and embraced by anti-Islamophobia campaigners in San Francisco who plastered over anti-Muslim bus adverts with Kamala stickers. Other such successor-heroes of color include James \\\"Rhodey\\\" Rhodes as Iron Man, Ryan Choi as the Atom, and Jaime Reyes as Blue Beetle.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nCertain established characters have had their ethnicity changed when adapted to another continuity and/or media. A notable example is Nick Fury, who is reinterpreted as African-American both in the Ultimate Marvel as well as the Marvel Cinematic Universe continuities.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nSexual orientation and gender identity\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nIn 1992, Marvel revealed that Northstar, a member of the Canadian mutant superhero team Alpha Flight, was homosexual, after years of implication. This ended a long-standing editorial mandate that there would be no homosexual characters in Marvel comics. Although some minor secondary characters in DC Comics' mature-audience 1980s miniseries Watchmen were gay, and the reformed supervillain Pied Piper came out to Wally West in an issue of The Flash in 1991, Northstar is considered to be the first openly gay superhero appearing in mainstream comic books. From the mid-2000s onwards, several established Marvel and DC comics characters (or a variant version of the pre-existing character) were outed or reintroduced as LGBT individuals by both publishers. Examples include the Mikaal Tomas incarnation of Starman in 1998; Colossus in the Ultimate X-Men series; Renee Montoya in DC's Gotham Central series in 2003; the Kate Kane incarnation of Batwoman in 2006; Rictor and Shatterstar in an issue of X-Factor in 2009; the Golden Age Green Lantern Alan Scott is reimagined as openly gay following the The New 52 reboot; and in 2015, a younger time displaced version of Iceman in an issue of All-New X-Men.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nMany new openly gay, lesbian and bisexual characters have since emerged in superhero fiction, such as Gen¹³'s Rainmaker, Apollo and Midnighter of The Authority, and Wiccan and Hulkling of the Young Avengers. Notable transgender or gender bending characters are fewer in number by comparison: the alter ego of superheroine Zsazsa Zaturnnah, a seminal character in Philippine popular culture, is an effeminate gay man who transforms into a female superhuman after ingesting a magical stone. Desire from Neil Gaiman's The Sandman series and Xavin from the Runaways are both characters who could (and often) change their gender at will. Alysia Yeoh, a supporting character created by writer Gail Simone for the Batgirl ongoing series published by DC Comics, received substantial media attention in 2011 for being the first major transgender character written in a contemporary context in a mainstream American comic book.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nThe Sailor Moon series is known for featuring a substantial number of openly LGBT characters since its inception, as Japan have traditionally been more open about portraying homosexuality in its children's media compared to many countries in the West. Certain characters who are presented as homosexual or transgender in one continuity may not be presented as such in others, particularly with dubbed versions made for international release.\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\nSubtypes\",\n \"Superhero\\n\\n*List of child superheroes\\n*List of anthropomorphic animal superheroes\\n*List of alien races in DC Comics\\n*List of alien races in Marvel Comics\\n*List of metahumans in DC Comics\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nA butler is a domestic worker in a large household. In great houses, the household is sometimes divided into departments with the butler in charge of the dining room, wine cellar, and pantry. Some also have charge of the entire parlour floor, and housekeepers caring for the entire house and its appearance. A butler is usually male, and in charge of male servants, while a housekeeper is usually a woman, and in charge of female servants. Traditionally, male servants (such as footmen) were rarer and therefore better paid and of higher status than female servants. The butler, as the senior male servant, has the highest servant status. He can also be sometimes used as a chauffeur.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nIn older houses where the butler is the most senior worker, titles such as majordomo, butler administrator, house manager, manservant, staff manager, chief of staff, staff captain, estate manager and head of household staff are sometimes given. The precise duties of the employee will vary to some extent in line with the title given, but perhaps, more importantly in line with the requirements of the individual employer. In the grandest homes or when the employer owns more than one residence, there is sometimes an estate manager of higher rank than the butler.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nBackground\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nThe word \\\"butler\\\" comes from Anglo-Norman buteler, variant form of Old Norman *butelier, corresponding to Old French botellier \\\"officer in charge of the king's wine bottles\\\", derived of boteille \\\"bottle\\\", Modern French bouteille, itself from Gallo-Romance BUTICULA \\\"bottle\\\". The role of the butler, for centuries, has been that of the chief steward of a household, the attendant entrusted with the care and serving of wine and other bottled beverages which in ancient times might have represented a considerable portion of the household's assets.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nIn Britain, the butler was originally a middle-ranking member of the staff of a grand household. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the butler gradually became the senior, usually male, member of a household's staff in the very grandest households. However, there was sometimes a steward who ran the outside estate and financial affairs, rather than just the household, and who was senior to the butler in social status into the 19th century. Butlers used always to be attired in a special uniform, distinct from the livery of junior servants, but today a butler is more likely to wear a business suit or business casual clothing and appear in uniform only on special occasions.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nA silverman or silver butler has expertise and professional knowledge of the management, secure storage, use and cleaning of all silverware, associated tableware and other paraphernalia for use at military and other special functions. See also Silver (household).\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nTo Butler (verb): To butler, to dispense wines or liquors; to act as a butler. (simple past and past participle butlered)\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nOrigin and history\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nThe modern role of the butler has evolved from earlier roles that were generally concerned with the care and serving of alcoholic beverages.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nAncient through medieval eras\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nFrom ancient through medieval times, alcoholic beverages were chiefly stored first in earthenware vessels, then later in wooden barrels, rather than in glass bottles; these containers would have been an important part of a household's possessions. The care of these assets was therefore generally reserved for trusted slaves, although the job could also go to free persons because of heredity-based class lines or the inheritance of trades.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nThe biblical book of Genesis contains a reference to a role precursive to modern butlers. The early Hebrew Joseph interpreted a dream of Pharaoh's שקה (shaqah) (literally \\\"to give to drink\\\"), which is most often translated into English as \\\"chief butler\\\" or \\\"chief cup-bearer\\\".\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nIn ancient Greece and Rome, it was nearly always slaves who were charged with the care and service of wine, while during the Medieval Era the pincerna, usually a serf, filled the role within the noble court. The English word \\\"butler\\\" itself comes from the Middle English word bo(u)teler (and several other forms), from Anglo-Norman buteler, itself from Old Norman butelier, corresponding to Old French botellier (\\\"bottle bearer\\\"), Modern French bouteiller, and before that from Medieval Latin butticula. The modern English \\\"butler\\\" thus relates both to bottles and casks.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nEventually the European butler emerged as a middle-ranking member of the servants of a great house, in charge of the buttery (originally a storeroom for \\\"butts\\\" of liquor, although the term later came to mean a general storeroom or pantry). While this is so for household butlers, those with the same title but in service to the Crown enjoyed a position of administrative power and were only minimally involved with various stores.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nElizabethan through Victorian eras\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nThe Steward of the Elizabethan era was more akin to the butler that later emerged. Gradually, throughout the 19th century and particularly the Victorian era, as the number of butlers and other domestic servants greatly increased in various countries, the butler became a senior male servant of a household's staff. By this time he was in charge of the more modern wine cellar, the \\\"buttery\\\" or pantry (from French pan from Latin panis, bread) as it came to be called, which supplied bread, butter, cheese, and other basic provisions, and the ewery, which contained napkins and basins for washing and shaving. In the very grandest households there was sometimes an Estate Steward or other senior steward who oversaw the butler and his duties. Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management, a manual published in Britain in 1861, reported:\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nThe number of the male domestics in a family varies according to the wealth and position of the master, from the owner of the ducal mansion, with a retinue of attendants, at the head of which is the chamberlain and house-steward, to the occupier of the humbler house, where a single footman, or even the odd man-of-all-work, is the only male retainer. The majority of gentlemen's establishments probably comprise a servant out of livery, or butler, a footman, and coachman, or coachman and groom, where the horses exceed two or three.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nButlers were head of a strict service hierarchy and therein held a position of power and respect. They were more managerial than \\\"hands on\\\"—more so than serving, they officiated in service. For example, although the butler was at the door to greet and announce the arrival of a formal guest, the door was actually opened by a footman, who would receive the guest's hat and coat. Even though the butler helped his employer into his coat, this had been handed to him by a footman. However, even the highest-ranking butler would \\\"pitch in\\\" when necessary, such as during a staff shortage, to ensure that the household ran smoothly, although some evidence suggests this was so even during normal times.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nThe household itself was generally divided into areas of responsibility. The butler was in charge of the dining room, the wine cellar, pantry, and sometimes the entire main floor. Directly under the butler was the first footman (or head footman), although there could also be a deputy butler or under-butler who would fill in as butler during the butler's illness or absence. The footman—there were frequently numerous young men in the role within a household—performed a range of duties including serving meals, attending doors, carrying or moving heavy items, and they often doubled as valets. Valets themselves performed a variety of personal duties for their employer. Butlers engaged and directed all these junior staff and each reported directly to him. The housekeeper was in charge of the house as a whole and its appearance. In a household without an official head housekeeper, female servants and kitchen staff were also directly under the butler's management, while in smaller households, the butler usually doubled as valet. Employers and their children and guests addressed the butler (and under-butler, if there was one) by last name alone; fellow servants, retainers, and tradespersons as \\\"Mr. [Surname]\\\".\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nButlers were typically hired by the master of the house but usually reported to its lady. Beeton in her manual suggested a GBP 25–50 (USD 2,675–5,350) per-year salary for butlers; room and board and livery clothing were additional benefits, and tipping known as vails, were common. The few butlers who were married had to make separate housing arrangements for their families, as did all other servants within the hierarchy.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nButlers in early America\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nFrom the beginning of slavery in America, in the early 17th century, African Americans were put to task as domestic servants. Some eventually became butlers. Gary Puckrein, a social historian, argues that those used in particularly affluent homes authentically internalised the sorts of \\\"refined\\\" norms and personal attributes that would reflect highly upon the social stature of their masters or mistresses. One of the first books written and published through a commercial U.S. publisher by an African American was by a butler named Robert Roberts. The book, The House Servant's Directory, first published in 1827, is essentially a manual for butlers and waiters, and is called by Puckrein \\\"the most remarkable book by an African American in antebellum America\\\". The book generated such interest that a second edition was published in 1828, and a third in 1843.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nEuropean indentured servants formed a corps of domestic workers from which butlers were eventually drawn. Although not the victims of institutionalised slavery, many of them had not volunteered for domestic service, but were forced into it by indebtedness or coercion. As with African American slaves, they could rise in domestic service, and their happiness or misery depended greatly on the disposition of their masters.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nThe modern butler\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nBeginning around the early 1920s (following World War I), employment in domestic service occupations began a sharp overall decline in western European countries, and even more markedly in the United States. Even so, there were still around 30,000 butlers employed in Britain by World War II. As few as one hundred were estimated to remain by the mid-1980s. Social historian Barry Higman argues that a high number of domestic workers within a society correlates with a high level of socio-economic inequality. Conversely, as a society undergoes levelling among its social classes, the number employed in domestic service declines.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nFollowing varied shifts and changes accompanying accelerated globalisation beginning in the late 1980s, overall global demand for butlers since the turn of the millennium has risen dramatically. According to Charles MacPherson, President of Charles MacPherson Associates and owner of The Charles MacPherson Academy for Butlers and Household Managers, the proximate cause is that the number of millionaires and billionaires has increased in recent years, and such people are finding that they desire assistance in managing their households. MacPherson emphasises that the number of wealthy people in China has increased particularly, creating in that country a high demand for professional butlers who have been trained in the European butlering tradition. There is also increasing demand for such butlers in other Asian countries, India, and the petroleum-rich Middle East.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nHigman additionally argues that the inequality/equality levels of societies are a major determinant of the nature of the domestic servant/employer relationship. As the 21st century approached, many butlers began carrying out an increasing number of duties formerly reserved for more junior household servants. Butlers today may be called upon to do whatever household and personal duties their employers deem fitting, in the goal of freeing their employers to carry out their own personal and professional affairs. Professional butler and author Steven M. Ferry states that the image of tray-wielding butlers who specialise in serving tables and decanting wine is now anachronistic, and that employers may well be more interested in a butler who is capable of managing a full array of household affairs—from providing the traditional dinner service, to acting as valet, to managing high-tech systems and multiple homes with complexes of staff. While in truly grand houses the modern butler may still function exclusively as a top-ranked household affairs manager, in lesser homes, such as those of dual-income middle-class professionals, they perform a full array of household and personal assistant duties, including mundane housekeeping.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nButlers today may also be situated within corporate settings, embassies, cruise ships, yachts, or within their own small \\\"Rent-a-Butler\\\" business or similar agency.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nAlong with these changes of scope and context, butlering attire has changed. Whereas butlers have traditionally worn a special uniform that separated them from junior servants, and although this is still often the case, butlers today may wear more casual clothing geared for climate, while exchanging it for formal business attire only upon special service occasions. There are cultural distinctions, as well. In the United States, butlers may frequently don a polo shirt and slacks, while in Bali they typically wear sarongs.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nIn 2007, the number of butlers in Britain had risen to an estimated 5,000.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nThe period drama, Downton Abbey, has been credited as the reason for a sudden upsurge in the demand for 'properly trained butlers'.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nTraining\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nButlers traditionally learned their position while progressing their way up the service ladder. For example, in the documentary The Authenticity of Gosford Park, retired butler Arthur Inch (born 1915) describes starting as a hall boy. While this is still often the case, numerous private butlering schools exist today, such as The British Butler Institute, and top graduates can start at US$50,000–60,000 (£25,350–30,400). Additionally, major up-market hotels such as the Ritz-Carlton offer traditional butler training, while some hotels have trained a sort of pseudo-butler for service in defined areas such as \\\"technology butlers\\\", who fix guests' computers and other electronic devices, and \\\"bath butlers\\\" who draw custom baths. In addition to formal training, a few books have been published to assist butlers in their duties, including Arthur Inch's and Arlene Hirst's 2003 Dinner is Served. Moreover, websites, as well as a news publication, Modern Butlers' Journal, help butlers to network and keep abreast of developments within their field.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nGender and butlering\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nButlers have traditionally been male, and this remains the norm. Probably the first mention of a female butler is in the 1892 book Interludes being Two Essays, a Story, and Some Verses by Horace Smith. In it Smith quotes a certain Sydney Smith who had apparently run into lean times:\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nA man servant was too expensive, so I caught up a little garden girl, made like a milestone, christened her Bunch, put a napkin in her hand, and made her my butler. The girls taught her to read, Mrs. Sydney to wait, and I undertook her morals. Bunch became the best butler in the country.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nToday, female butlers are sometimes preferred, especially for work within Middle and Far Eastern families where it may be religiously problematic for males to work closely with females in a household. Western female celebrities may also prefer a female butler, as may households where the wife is driving the decision to hire a butler. In 2004, Buckingham Palace announced it was actively recruiting females for the position. Despite these trends, the Ivor Spencer School asserts that female butlers are not easily placed, on the whole.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nThe Charles MacPherson Academy for Butlers and Household Managers reports that 40% of the students admitted into its program are women. The school goes onto report that the labour market still has a preference for male butlers, however, the market is becoming more progressive and increasing numbers of female butlers are being hired.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nIn ancient times, the roles precursive to butlering were reserved for chattel or those confined within heredity-based class structures. With the advent of the medieval era, butlering became an opportunity for social advancement—even more so during Victorian times. Although still based upon various antecedent roles as manifested during different eras, butlering today has frequently taken over many of the roles formerly reserved for lower-ranking domestic servants. At the same time it has become a potentially lucrative career option.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nHistorically important butlers\",\n \"Butler\\n\\n*Eugene Allen, White House butler who served under eight U.S. presidents\\n*Grant Harrold, butler to Charles, Prince of Wales and etiquette expert, founder of Nicholas Veitch Limited\\n*Paul Burrell, butler to Diana, Princess of Wales\\n*Ivor Spencer, toastmaster and etiquette specialist, head of the Ivor Spencer International School for Butler Administrators/Personal Assistants and Estate Managers\\n*Leslie Bartlett, butler, toastmaster and founder of The London School of British Butlers\\n*Alonzo Fields, White House chief butler from 1932–1953\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nIn visual art\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nButlers have been occasionally depicted in visual art. A famous painting, Heads of Six of Hogarth's Servants (c. 1758), is unique among such works. In it, the 18th-century English artist William Hogarth depicted his household servants, each surrounding the butler. In showing the group in a close-knit assemblage rather than in the performance of their routine household duties, Hogarth sought to humanise and dignify them in a manner akin to wealthy-class members, who were the normal subjects of such portraits. While this was a subversive act that certainly raised many eyebrows in his day—Hogarth conspicuously displayed the work in his estate home in full view of guests—at the same time he had painted his servants' facial expressions to convey the sincerity and deference expected of servant-class members.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nIn contemporary art, \\\"The Butler's in Love\\\" series by U.S. artist Mark Stock is especially poignant. In the series, Stock portrays the butler as sick with love, but the possibility of fulfillment is hopeless: the love is a forbidden love, perhaps felt for the lady of the house, and so it must be suffered alone in silent concealment. In addition to the ongoing mannerisms and facial expressions of the butler, a seated lady once appearing in a curtained room and a recurring lipstick-stained absinthe glass over which the butler obsesses provide the interpretive clues. In selecting a butler as his subject, Stock sought to provide a \\\"universal character\\\", a pathos-laden figure that could be widely related to and that could depict the universality of loneliness felt by someone who can only look in from the outside. Stock began the series in 1985 to express his difficult feelings during a personal experience of unrequited love. One of the paintings was inspiration for a 3-D short film, \\\"The Butler's in Love\\\" by actor/director David Arquette, shot in 2008 at San Francisco's historic Westerfield Mansion.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nIn fiction\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nThe real-life modern butler attempts to be discreet and unobtrusive, friendly but not familiar, keenly anticipative of the needs of his or her employer, and graceful and precise in execution of duty. The butler of fiction, by contrast, often tends to be larger than life and has become a plot device in literature and a traditional role in the performing arts. Butlers may provide comic relief with wry comments, clues as to the perpetrators of various crimes, and are represented as at least as intelligent and moral as their “betters,” or even more so. They are often portrayed as being serious and expressionless and in the case that the wealthy hero is an orphan—such as Batman, Chrono Crusade's Satella Harvenheit, or Tomb Raider's Lara Croft—may be a father figure to said hero. Regardless of the genre in which they are cast, butlers in fiction almost invariably follow the \\\"British butler\\\" model and are given an appropriate-sounding surname. The fictional butler tends to be given a typical Anglo-Celtic surname and have an English accent. The Asian, African American, or Caribbean houseboy is a variant, but even these major-domos are based on the British icon.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nToday, butlers are usually portrayed as being refined and well-spoken. However, in 19th century fiction such as Dracula, butlers generally spoke with a strong Cockney or other regional accent.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\n\\\"The butler\\\" is integral to the plot of countless potboilers and melodramas, whether or not the character has been given a name. Butlers figure so prominently in period pieces and whodunits that they can be considered stock characters in film and theatre, where a catchphrase is \\\"The butler did it!\\\"\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nThe best-known fictional manservant, and the prototype of the quintessential British butler, is himself not a butler at all. Reginald Jeeves, the iconic creation of author P. G. Wodehouse is a \\\"gentleman's gentleman\\\" and general factotum. Probably the best-known fictional butlers are Alfred from the Batman comic and films; Hudson of Upstairs, Downstairs television fame; Mr Carson from the Downton Abbey television series; and Crichton from J. M. Barrie's The Admirable Crichton. Lesser-knowns include Mr. Belvedere from the novel Belvedere, which was adapted into a feature film with sequels and later a television series; Lurch, from the television series The Addams Family, based on Charles Addams' The New Yorker cartoons; Beach, from the Wodehouse series about Blandings Castle; Niles, the butler at the Sheffield house in American sitcom The Nanny, and Benson from the two series Soap and Benson.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nNot all fictional butlers portray the \\\"butler stereotype\\\", however. Alan Bates, who played the butler Jennings in the film Gosford Park, was coached in brooding detail by Arthur Inch, a longtime real-life butler. Mr. Stevens, the butler played by Anthony Hopkins in the film Remains of the Day, was also acted with remarkable realism. A female butler, Sarah Stevens, is the principal character in Linda Howard's 2002 Dying to Please, a murder/romance novel. Howard gives detailed and generally accurate descriptions of butlering in the work.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\nExamples\",\n \"Butler\\n\\n*Alfred Pennyworth, Bruce Wayne's butler from Batman\\n*Edwin Jarvis, Tony Stark's butler from Iron Man\\n*Geoffrey Butler, the butler for the Banks Family on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air\\n*Ronove, the demon butler and highest-ranking furniture of the Golden Witch; Beatrice and the Endless Sorcerer, Battler from Umineko no Naku Koro ni\\n*Angus Hudson, from the television show Upstairs, Downstairs\\n*Benson DuBois, the Tate butler in the hit 1970's sitcom, Soap\\n*Edmund Blackadder, butler to Prince George the Prince Regent, in the TV Series Blackadder the Third\\n*Nestor, the butler of Marlinspike Hall in The Adventures of Tintin\\n*Niles the butler in the TV Series The Nanny\\n*Sebastian Michaelis, a demon disguised as a man bound by contract to his master in the Black Butler manga and anime series\\n*Sebastian Beach, from the Blandings Castle stories by P. G. Wodehouse, frequently conspires with the clever Gally Threepwood\\n*Smithers, Veronica Lodge's fictional butler\\n*Hugh Edgar, butler, The Edwardian Country House, 2002 British historical recreation TV series\\n*Charles Carson, butler to the Crawley family in Downton Abbey\\n*John Lawless, a central character in the 1967 Sherman Brothers' musical movie The Happiest Millionaire played by 60 teen idol Tommy Steele.\",\n \"Butler\\n\\n*Wadsworth, the protagonist in the movie Clue\\n*Mr. Stevens, the protagonist of Kazuo Ishiguro's Booker Prize-winning novel, The Remains of the Day and movie of the same name\\n*Spencer, butler in Power Rangers Operation Overdrive\\n*Cadbury, butler to Richie Rich\\n*Higgins, from the sitcom Our Man Higgins and the radio comedy on which it was based, It's Higgins, Sir\\n*Underling, the butler in the 2006 Broadway Musical The Drowsy Chaperone\\n*The titular protagonist of Hayate the Combat Butler; Hayate Ayasaki\\n*Butler, the butler for Prince Salde Canarl Shellbrick III off of the puzzle game Puyo Puyo Fever 2\\n*Giles, the butler for ABC's Whodunnit? TV series\\n*Subaru Konoe, the female butler of Kanade Suzutsuki who is disguised as a male in the Mayo Chiki! anime, manga and light novel\\n*Domovoi Butler, butler to Artemis Fowl in Eoin Colfer's Artemis Fowl book series.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAlfred Thaddeus Crane Pennyworth is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, most commonly in association with Batman. The character first appears in Batman #16 (April 1943), and was created by writers Bob Kane and Bill Finger, and artist Jerry Robinson. Alfred serves as a loyal, tireless butler who assists his employer's secret life as Batman. In modern interpretations, he is depicted as Bruce Wayne's butler, legal guardian, best friend, aide-de-camp, and surrogate father following the murders of Thomas and Martha Wayne. He sometimes has been called \\\"Batman's batman\\\". He also provides comic relief, as his sometimes sarcastic and cynical attitude often adds humor to dialogue between himself and Batman. A vital part of the Batman mythos, Alfred was nominated for the Wizard Fan Award for Favorite Supporting Male Character in 1994.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn non-comics media, the character has been portrayed by noted actors William Austin, Eric Wilton,\\nMichael Gough, Michael Caine, and Jeremy Irons on film and by Alan Napier, Efrem Zimbalist, Jr., Ian Abercrombie, and Sean Pertwee on television.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nFictional character biography\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nWhen Alfred Pennyworth first appeared, he was overweight and clean-shaven; however, when the 1943 Batman serial was released, William Austin, the actor who played Alfred, was trim and sported a thin moustache. DC editors wanted the comic Alfred to resemble his cinematic counterpart, so in Detective Comics #83 (January 1944), Alfred vacationed at a health resort, where he slimmed down and grew a mustache. This look has remained with the character ever since, even surviving his \\\"death\\\" and resurrection.Detective Comics #356 in 1966\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAlfred was originally conceived as a comedic foil for Batman and Robin. In most early tales, he made bungling attempts to be a detective on a par with the young masters. He was given a four-page feature of his own, and the feature lasted thirteen issues, skipping Batman #35, with the last story in Batman #36. The stories followed a simple formula, with Alfred solving a crime and catching the culprits entirely by accident. In later years, the comedic aspects of the character were downplayed.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nPre-Crisis\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nThe Pre-Crisis comics (the comics that were published by DC Comics between 1938 and 1986) established Alfred as a retired actor and intelligence agent who followed the deathbed wish of his dying father Jarvis Pennyworth to carry on the tradition of serving the Wayne family. To that end, Alfred introduced himself to Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson at Wayne Manor and insisted on becoming their valet. Although the pair did not want one, especially since they did not want to jeopardize their secret identities with a servant in the house, they did not have the heart to reject Alfred.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nInitially, Alfred discovered their identities by accident; while fighting a burglar in Batman #16 (Alfred's first appearance), he accidentally hit a switch and opened a sliding panel leading to the Batcave. He is helpful to the duo, following them to a theatre where they are captured, bound and gagged by a criminal gang, and rescues them after Batman attracts his attention by knocking a rope down before the crooks return. This was revised in Batman #110 (September 1957); during his first night at Wayne Manor, Alfred awoke to moaning and followed the sound to the secret passage to the staircase leading to the Batcave and met his would-be employers in their superhero identities. As it turned out, the wounds were actually insignificant, but Alfred's care convinced the residents that their butler could be trusted. Since then, Alfred included the support staff duties of the Dynamic Duo on top of his regular tasks.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIronically, Alfred's loyalty would lead him to become a member of Batman's rogue's gallery. While pushing Batman and Robin out of the way of a falling boulder, Alfred was seemingly killed in Detective #328 (June 1964). It was revealed in Detective #356 (October 1966) that he had been revived by a scientist named Brandon Crawford. His attempt at regeneration resulted in a dramatic change: Alfred awoke from his apparent death with pasty white skin with circular markings, superhuman powers, including telekinesis, and a desire to destroy Batman and Robin. Calling himself The Outsider, he indirectly battled the Dynamic Duo on a number of occasions, using others as his puppets – the Grasshopper Gang in Detective #334, Zatanna in Detective #336, and even the Batmobile itself in Detective #340 – and generally only appeared as a mocking voice over the radio. He did not physically appear in the comics until Detective #356, when he is bathed again in the rays of the regeneration machine during a struggle with Batman, and returns to normal, with no memory of his time as a supervillain. His time as the Outsider is collected in Showcase Presents: Batman Volumes 1 and 2.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAlfred was later reunited with his long-lost daughter, Julia Remarque, though this element was not included in Post-Crisis comics. Her mother was the DC war heroine Mademoiselle Marie, whom Alfred had met while working as an intelligence agent in occupied France during World War II.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nPost-Crisis\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn the Post-Crisis comics' continuity, Alfred has been the Wayne family valet all of Bruce's life and had helped his master establish his superhero career from the beginning. In addition, he was Bruce's legal guardian following the deaths of his parents. Alfred's history has been modified several times over the years, creating assorted versions. In one such version, Alfred was hired away from the British Royal Family by Bruce's parents, and he virtually raised Bruce after they were murdered.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nMeanwhile, another version of Alfred's Post-Crisis life was slightly more closely linked to his pre-Crisis counterpart. In this version, Alfred is an actor on the English stage who agrees to become the Waynes' butler to honor his father's dying wish. At the time he begins working for the Waynes, Bruce is a young child. After several months, Alfred voices the desire to quit and return home to continue his life as an actor. However, these plans are momentarily forgotten when young Bruce returns home after getting into a fight with a school bully. Alfred teaches Bruce to handle the bully strategically, rather than using brute force. Following Alfred's advice, Bruce takes care of his bully problem. Upon returning home, Bruce requests that Alfred stay, and Alfred agrees without a second thought. Alfred raises Bruce after the Waynes are murdered.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAlfred later helps Bruce raise Dick Grayson, Jason Todd, and Tim Drake, all of whom were adopted by Bruce Wayne and became his partner Robin. He also had close friendships with other members of the Bat-Clan including Barbara Gordon and Cassandra Cain. Alfred often acts as a father-figure to Bruce, and a grandfather to Dick, Jason, and Tim. He is also highly respected by those heroes who are aware of his existence, including Superman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern, and the original Teen Titans.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAlfred has also been romantically linked to Dr. Leslie Thompkins, though his relationship with her never came to anything, particularly after she apparently allowed Stephanie Brown to die from neglect. He also developed feelings for Tim Drake's stepmother, but again, nothing came of it.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nDuring the events of Knightquest, Alfred accompanies Wayne to England and becomes enraged when Wayne insists on endangering his own health while paraplegic. This was the culmination of several weeks of Wayne's self-destructive behavior, and when Wayne returns to Gotham City, Alfred remains in England, tendering his resignation. He spends some time vacationing in Antarctica and The Bahamas before returning to England. Dick Grayson tracks him down several months later and convinces him to return to Wayne Manor. In that story, it was revealed he had walked out of his own wedding years earlier.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nHis resourcefulness came to the fore in the No Man's Land storyline, especially in Legends of the Dark Knight #118. Batman is missing for weeks, leaving Alfred alone to watch his city for him. He uses his skills as an actor, storyteller, medic, and spy to survive and collect information on the recently destroyed society. Alfred even uses hand-to-hand combat in a rare one-panel fight sequence between him and a pair of slavers that ends with his rescue by Batman.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn Batman #677, agents of Batman's mysterious enemy the Black Glove attack and beat Alfred in front of Bruce and Jezebel Jet, severely injuring him. In the same issue, a reporter from The Gotham Gazette suggests to Commissioner Gordon that Alfred may be Bruce's biological father and that this may be a reason for the murder of Martha Wayne. Alfred later denies the entire story, agreeing with Bruce that it was a fabrication. In Batman and the Outsiders Special, Alfred is seen apologizing at the graves of Thomas and Martha Wayne at the loss of Bruce, commenting that he grieves as a parent, regarding Bruce as his son. Later, a secret panel in Alfred's room opens, the result of a fail-safe planted by Bruce in the event of his death. Bruce leaves his one final task and also gives him an emotional goodbye, telling Alfred he considered him as a father.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAlfred is left emotionally shattered, commenting more than once that, even if his biological fatherhood is a fabrication, in a deeper sense he actually was Bruce Wayne's father, having watched over him for years and feeling he failed him in the last moments.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAfter the event of Final Crisis, when Batman was apparently killed in action, Alfred finds himself with the task of raising Bruce's biological son Damian with Grayson. Batman: Battle for the Cowl sees Alfred allowing Damian Wayne to take on his first mission as Robin, giving Damian a Robin tunic and calling on Squire to assist the new Boy Wonder in finding Tim Drake, who went missing hunting down Jason Todd. Alfred also assists Grayson in his role as Gotham's new Dark Knight.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAfter discovering that the original Batman was actually lost in time after his battle with Darkseid, Alfred immediately seeks clues to his whereabouts. Eventually, Bruce finds his way to the present. After Batman successfully expands his mission globally with Batman Inc., Bruce assumes full responsibility as a father, and Alfred assists him in raising Damian.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nThe New 52\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn The New 52 (a reboot of the DC universe), it is revealed that Alfred's father Jarvis Pennyworth was the butler of the Wayne family before Alfred when Bruce was still a child. Jarvis was blackmailed by the Court of Owls to set a trap for the pregnant Martha Wayne. Despite declining, the Court managed to cause a car accident that caused the child to be born prematurely and eventually to have died. Jarvis attempted to resign from his services and write a letter to his son in which he describes the manor as a cursed place, and tells Alfred that he should not begin his service under the Wayne family. However, Jarvis was unable to send it as he was murdered that night.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nDuring Batman: Eternal, Alfred is reunited with his long-absent daughter, Julia Pennyworth, an agent of the Special Reconnaissance Regiment, when Batman finds her in Hong Kong and takes her back to Wayne Manor for medical treatment after she is stabbed with a samurai sword through the chest by a Chinese gang boss she was hunting. Although Julia is initially hostile to Alfred, feeling that he has wasted his life going from a soldier to tending to a fop like Bruce Wayne, after Alfred is attacked by Hush and infected with a fear toxin, she discovers the Batcave and takes on her father's role to coordinate the Bat-Family's efforts against their foes. Alfred is briefly transferred to Arkham before it is attacked as part of the conspiracy, but he manages to survive the explosion and trick Bane into helping him reach an emergency cave Batman had installed under Arkham, the cave's defences knocking Bane out and allowing Alfred to call for help.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nWhen Hush was briefly kept prisoner in the Batcave, he managed to break out of his cell and lock Alfred in it before sabotaging the Bat-Family's equipment via the Batcomputer as they fought various villains, including crashing the Batwing with Batman still in it. However, he was swiftly returned to captivity when Alfred escaped the cell and knocked Hush out, Alfred harshly informing Tommy that he was hardly going to be locked up in his own home.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nDuring the Batman: Endgame arc, the Joker broke into the Batcave, and during a confrontation with Alfred, cut off Alfred's hand. Julia confirms to Bruce later in the issue that Alfred survived the encounter and is in a stable condition. Following the death of Bruce Wayne, Julia says that with current medical technology, they can have Alfred's hand reattached without any complications. However Alfred refuses, stating that with Bruce dead, he no longer has need of it as he has no one left to serve.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nEven with the loss of Bruce as Batman, Alfred still assists the Bat-Family in the Batcave along with Julia. After Bruce is discovered to be alive but with no memory of who he is or his life as Batman, Alfred tells Bruce everything that had happened in his life up to the point of the creation of Batman, but accepts Bruce's request not to learn any more. Alfred did this so that after years of service to the people of Gotham and the world that Bruce had earned the reward of a life without pain and the burning to desire to be Batman, so that his life as Bruce Wayne can finally begin.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nHowever, when the new villain Mr Bloom launches a mass attack that apparently kills Jim Gordon- the new Batman- the amnesic Bruce convinces Alfred to subject him to a machine that will theoretically download all of his memories as Batman into his mind; Bruce's original plan was for this machine to be used to create a series of clones of himself that could be programmed to continue his mission, but although the process failed because the human mind could not handle Batman's trauma, Bruce comes through the process by having Alfred take him to the point of brain-death and then download his memories onto his blank brain.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nOther versions\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAll Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn Frank Miller and Jim Lee's All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder, Alfred is a tougher individual with a different backstory. Following Batman's assault on the corrupt Gotham City police, Alfred and Vicki Vale are caught in the devastating car wreckage Batman creates (not aware of their presence) and Vale is badly hurt. Alfred is seen, shirtless and muscled, applying a tourniquet and generally taking control of the situation. He is described as having been a medic in the Royal Air Force and as ex-British Secret Service.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nBatman: The Dark Knight Returns\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, an elderly Alfred still acts as Bruce's butler, mourning Bruce's diminished social contacts while continuing to loyally serve his master even after Bruce becomes Batman once again after a ten-year retirement. At the story's conclusion, having set Wayne Manor to self-destruct to protect Bruce Wayne's full secrets after his faked death during his fight with Superman, Alfred dies of a stroke, his last thoughts being to consider how utterly proper it is that he should die as Wayne Manor ceases to exist.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn the sequel, Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again, the Batcave computer has been programmed with an artificial intelligence named and apparently patterned after Alfred, to the point that it refers to Bruce as \\\"Sir\\\".\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nEarth One\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAlfred appears as a main character in Geoff Johns' and Gary Frank's Batman: Earth One. In this incarnation, Alfred was a member of the Royal Marines. Alfred met Thomas Wayne during a tour of duty in the Middle East and the two became good friends. During a battle, Alfred saved Thomas' life but lost his right leg in the process. It is also implied that both he and Thomas are keeping a traumatic secret. Discharged back to his home in London, Alfred received a gift from Thomas in the form of a very expensive prosthetic leg. He later traveled to Gotham City to visit his friend and found himself arriving on the night of a campaign party for Thomas' bid at the mayoral office. Afraid for his friend after hearing of the death threats on his life, Alfred tried to talk Thomas out of going to the movies with his wife and son, but Thomas refused to allow threats to keep him from enjoying his weekly movie night with Martha and Bruce.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nLater that night, Alfred was called to the police station. Thomas and Martha had been killed by a mugger outside the theatre and Bruce had been orphaned. To Alfred's shock, he discovered that Thomas and Martha had named him Bruce's legal guardian some time ago. Unsure of himself, Alfred still made it his mission to look out for Bruce as he grew up.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nWhen Bruce took on his costumed persona of Batman and began his war on crime, Alfred reluctantly took on the role of confidante and advisor, often telling Bruce to simply carry a gun instead of a belt full of untested gadgets. Alfred later saved Bruce's life by shooting Mayor Oswald Cobblepot.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nThough Alfred introduced himself to the eight-year-old Bruce as his butler, it is obvious he never serves as a manservant in the story otherwise as Bruce's guardian and mentor. However, he is recruited by Thomas as his family's head of security prior of Thomas and his wife's deaths. He is also a skilled martial artist, and trains Bruce the combat skills he would eventually utilize as Batman. He has a daughter living in Seoul, South Korea with her mother, where Alfred had previously worked at a security firm, implying Julia Remarque's existence in this continuity.Batman: Earth One\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nElseworlds\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\n* Alfred appears in the Elseworlds series Superman & Batman: Generations. He serves the Wayne family before dying in 1967, but his spirit remains around to give Bruce advice. In Generations 2, he makes his final appearance in 1975, when he convinces the ghost of Dick Grayson not to kill the Joker. He manages to convince Dick to pass over, but in the process his own soul crosses over, meaning he cannot come back. * In Batman: Dark Knight Dynasty, in a timeline where the Waynes were never killed, Alfred assists Bruce in investigating his parents' deaths when they apparently fall out of their penthouse (Revealed to have been done due to the influence of Vandal Savage's henchwoman the Scarecrone when the Waynes threatened his plan to acquire the meteor that gave him his powers). While studying available information on the meteor after Bruce determines its connection to events, Alfred discovers a record of the unusual energy reading it emits, but triggers a booby-trap that destroys Wayne Manor and kills him. Five centuries later, Bruce's descendant Brenda Wayne discovers a fragmented recording of Alfred and the energy reading that assists her in her own investigations into Savage's activities.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\n* Alfred plays a prominent role in the \\\"Vampire Batman\\\" trilogy where Batman is turned into a vampire to fight Dracula, forging Batman's weapons to use against the remaining members of Dracula's 'family' and subsequently working with Commissioner Gordon after Batman succumbs to his vampiric instincts and begins to kill his old enemies. At the conclusion of the trilogy, with Gordon being hunted by Two-Face and Killer Croc in the remains of the Batcave, Alfred sacrifices his life to allow Batman to drink his blood, giving his old master the strength to save Gordon and Gotham itself one last time before he allows himself to die to end the threat that he has become.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nEarth-3\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nDuring the \\\"Trinity War\\\" event of The New 52, it is revealed that the leader of the Secret Society is Alfred from Earth-3 who serves Owlman of the Crime Syndicate of America. Flashbacks reveal that Alfred helped Thomas Wayne Jr. kill his parents and brother when he was a child, Owlman reflecting that Alfred was the only member of his family that he could control.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nInjustice: Gods Among Us\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn the comic tie in to the video game, Alfred remained loyal to Bruce even when Bruce began the Insurgency and opposed Superman and had his secret identity exposed. When Superman invades the Batcave and breaks Batman's back, Alfred ingests the 5-U-93-R pill (which gives a person superhuman strength and durability) and subdues Superman, breaking his nose and beating him down. Alfred takes Bruce to the Tower of Fate, where Zatanna and Doctor Fate are hiding and will heal Bruce. For over seven months, Alfred oversees Bruce's slow recovery. When the Insurgency began their attack on Superman's Regime, Alfred provided a Kryptonite tipped bullet to Black Canary for her to face Superman.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn the following years, Alfred remained the caretaker of Wayne Manor despite Bruce's absence, and still maintained a close relationship with Damian Wayne despite Damian's decision to join Superman. He is visited by Superman in Year Five, the Kryptonian wanting to know the ever-elusive Batman's location. Alfred, unaware where Batman is and not willing to help nonetheless, ignores Superman. He is eventually killed by Victor Zsasz, whom Superman sent to get information on Batman's location. His death pushes Batman out of hiding to confront Zsasz and Damian wants revenge.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nTangent Comics\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAlfred makes a very brief appearance in the 1997 Tangent Comics One Shot Green Lantern in a story revolving around the Tangent versions of King Faraday and Roy Raymond. In this version Alfred Pennyworth is the head of a publishing empire that owned \\\"The House Of Mystery\\\".\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nTiny Titans\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAlfred appears in Tiny Titans, and often has to make Robin stand in the corner because he has misbehaved.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nName\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAlfred introduced himself as the son of a butler named Jarvis in one of his early appearances, and the convention being that British butlers are known by their surnames, it was unclear whether Jarvis was his father's first or last name, the latter case which would have made Alfred's name Alfred Jarvis. Whether by coincidence or not, the name \\\"Jarvis\\\" was later used for the Avengers' butler, Edwin Jarvis, a character with many similarities to Alfred.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAlfred's name was later given officially as Alfred Beagle. This name was subsequently given to an alternative version of the character from the world of Earth-Two, and Pennyworth became Alfred's accepted surname in the mainstream continuity. Alfred has also used the alias \\\"Thaddeus Crane\\\", which is derived from his middle names. His full name of Alfred Thaddeus Crane Pennyworth was depicted on his tombstone in Superman/Batman: Generations.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nThe Beagle surname was brought back into continuity (post-Crisis on Infinite Earths but pre-Infinite Crisis) as Alfred's original name as an actor and Cold War spy. He adopted the \\\"Pennyworth\\\" surname after his brief intelligence career, based on a comment from his handler that his life was not even worth a penny (in reference to a cyanide pill concealed within a fake penny).\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nGrant Morrison's run has referred to the Beagle surname as a possible stage name.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn the 2012 film The Dark Knight Rises, Bruce Wayne leaves the residue of his estate to Alfred, listing him in the will as Alfred J. Pennyworth.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nFamily\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\n* Jarvis: Alfred's father in both pre-Crisis and New 52 continuity.\\n* Mademoiselle Marie: A war heroine with whom Alfred (while working as an intelligence agent in France) has a daughter in pre-Crisis continuity.Detective Comics #501-502\\n* Julia Remarque: Alfred's daughter by Mademoiselle Marie.\\n* Wilfred Pennyworth: Alfred's brother, Wilfred is referenced in the late 1960s and early 1970s and is mentioned in the 1997 film Batman & Robin.\\n* Margaret Wilson née Pennyworth: Alfred and Wilfred Pennyworth's sister, in the 1997 film Batman & Robin.\\n* Daphne Pennyworth: Alfred Pennyworth's niece, daughter of Wilfred Pennyworth, Daphne briefly appeared in the late 1960s/early 1970s.\\n* Barbara Wilson: Alfred's niece, daughter of Margaret Wilson née Pennyworth in the 1997 film Batman & Robin.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nSkills, resources, and abilities\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nA highly intelligent and resourceful man, Alfred runs the day-to-day operations of Wayne Manor and maintains much of the equipment of the Batcave beneath it. A former actor, he can use his acting and disguise skills to help Batman in the field when necessary, and is even capable of impersonating Bruce Wayne on the telephone convincingly, as well as giving Bruce various lessons that help him maintain his covers. He has also provided first aid up to and including suturing wounds and removing bullets, as well as occasional tactical support. He is also able to perform arthroscopy and other advanced medical procedures, thus limiting, if not eliminating, the need for hospital medical treatment even in the face of grievous injuries, helping to maintain Batman's secret identity by ensuring that Bruce Wayne has no need to visit hospitals for wounds inflicted as Batman. Nevertheless, Batman still requires professional medical treatment when Bane breaks his back (Batman: Knightfall) and Hush's machinations result in his suffering a skull fracture (Batman: Hush). On these occasions, Alfred admits that his own skills are inadequate for such medical procedures.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nWhile not as skilled at martial arts as Bruce Wayne, Alfred is still nearly as resourceful. In one story in which he is kidnapped, he readily escapes and overcomes his captors without disturbing the cut of his suit. It was later mentioned that he had been kidnapped unsuccessfully 27 times (it should be noted, however, that these events take place in the Gotham Adventures comics, based on the animated adventures of Batman, and not within the standard DCU continuity). During Batman: The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul, Ubu, Ra's al Ghul's musclebound bodyguard, attempts to use Alfred as a hostage, only to be disabled by a well timed sucker punch from Alfred.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nPresumably due to his lack of superpowers, the advanced combat training Bruce's other associates have, and Alfred's age, Alfred is the only member of the \\\"Batman Family\\\" that Bruce does not mind using a firearm, in his case favoring a shotgun when dealing with direct attacks on his person.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nCurrent issues of the various Batman comics seem to indicate that Alfred is a pioneer in and has also mastered several fields of rose breeding (even creating his own, the \\\"Pennyworth Blue\\\"), computer programming, computer engineering, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, nanotechnology, and biotechnology as he singlehandedly builds, programs, and maintains much of Batman's next-generational technology such as the Batcomputer.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn other media\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nTelevision\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nLive-action\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\n* Alan Napier portrayed Alfred in the live-action TV series Batman starring Adam West and Burt Ward. However, his surname Pennyworth was never used. If Bruce Wayne was in occasional danger, Alfred would secretly wear the Batman costume. This emergency situation occurred in a few episodes of this series.\\n* Ian Abercrombie portrayed Alfred Pennyworth in the live-action TV series Birds of Prey.\\n* Sean Pertwee portrays a younger, more deadly, version of Alfred Pennyworth in the Batman prequel series Gotham. He is portrayed as former Royal Marines whom Bruce convinces to train him. As in Batman Begins, he is Bruce Wayne's legal guardian after the murder of Thomas and Martha Wayne; yet the adolescent Bruce asserts himself as Alfred's employer, creating a conflict of authorities. This version of Alfred is adept at hand-to-hand combat, proving highly dangerous in a fight. He is also show to be skilled with firearms and has a degree of familiarity with and understanding of the criminal underworld.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAnimation\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\n* Olan Soule voiced Alfred in the cartoon The Batman/Superman Hour. * Alfred Pennyworth appeared in the Challenge of the Super Friends, voiced by William Callaway. In the episode \\\"Wanted: The Superfriends\\\", he is among the male humans that get turned into a Bizarro. * Alfred Pennyworth appeared in The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians, voiced by Jack Angel. * Alfred Pennyworth appeared as recurring character in the DC animated universe, voiced by Clive Revill (in the first three produced episodes for Batman: The Animated Series before leaving due to a previous commitment) and by Efrem Zimbalist, Jr. (throughout the rest of Batman: The Animated Series as well as for the character's appearances in The New Batman Adventures, Superman: The Animated Series, Static Shock and the Justice League cartoon series). This version combines elements from pre-Crisis and post-Crisis continuities; Alfred has been serving the Wayne family since before Thomas's and Martha's death and helped his young charge assume the Batman identity, but was also revealed to be a former agent for the British Intelligence Agency MI-6. His character is also alluded occasionally in Batman Beyond. * Alfred Pennyworth appears in the animated TV series The Batman, voiced by Alastair Duncan.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn this incarnation, his grandfather served the Penguin's obnoxious family in England, but was mistreated and then fired. Also, Alfred is shown to be younger than other depictions. * Alfred Pennyworth is featured in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced by James Garrett. He appears in a non-speaking cameo in Batman's flashbacks in \\\"Invasion of the Secret Santas\\\", and appears again in a non-speaking cameo in \\\"Chill of the Night!\\\". In \\\"The Super-Batman of Planet X\\\", a robot likeness named Alpha-Red (voiced by James Arnold Taylor) appears and serves as the robotic butler of the Batman of Zur-En-Arrh. In \\\"The Knights of Tomorrow\\\", Alfred works on a book about the events depicted in the episode. In \\\"The Triumvirate of Terror\\\", when Lex Luthor breaks into the Batcave, Alfred briefly masquerades as Batman and fights Luthor to give Bruce enough time to change into his outfit and avoid Lex finding out his secret identity. * Alfred Pennyworth appears in the Young Justice episode \\\"Downtime\\\", voiced by Jeff Bennett. * Alfred Pennyworth appears as a main character in Beware the Batman, voiced by J. B. Blanc.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nIn the series, he is portrayed as a former agent of MI-6, along with being Bruce Wayne's butler and bodyguard. He is also godfather to Katana. Unlike earlier portrayals, he has a muscular physique and is a proficient hand-to-hand combatant. Alfred is also more involved in the story line, having connections to major villains Ra's al Ghul and Deathstroke. * Alfred Pennyworth appears in Lego Batman: Be-Leaguered, voiced by Nolan North.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nFilm\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nLive action\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\n* William Austin portrayed Alfred Pennyworth in the 1943 serial Batman. Austin's appearance influenced the change of Alfred's design from the original fat, clean shaven Alfred. * Eric Wilton portrayed Alfred Pennyworth in the 1949 serial Batman and Robin. * Alan Napier portrayed Alfred in the 1966 live-action film Batman, based on the 1960s TV series. * Michael Gough portrayed Alfred Pennyworth in the Tim Burton/Joel Schumacher Batman film series. In the fourth film Batman & Robin, he has a niece named Barbara Wilson who turns into Batgirl. Gough also portrayed Alfred in a 1989 Diet Coke commercial, in the BBC radio-drama presentation of the \\\"Knightfall\\\" story arc from the Batman comics, and in a series of OnStar commercials featuring Batman. In flashback scenes of Batman & Robin, a young Alfred is portrayed by Jon Simmons. * Michael Caine portrayed Alfred Pennyworth in the The Dark Knight Trilogy. ** In Batman Begins, he is Bruce Wayne's legal guardian after Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne are murdered by Joe Chill. When Bruce vanishes for seven years and is declared dead by Wayne Enterprises' CEO William Earle in order to claim his shares, this plan is thwarted because Bruce left everything to Alfred.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAfter Bruce returns from training in the League of Shadows, Alfred is told of his goal to become a symbol to frighten the criminals of Gotham City. Alfred helps Bruce arrange the order of the tools necessary for Bruce to become Batman, and encourages Bruce to feign a social life to deflect attention from the idea that he could be Batman. When the League of Shadows attack Wayne Manor, Alfred saves Bruce when trapped under a beam and rallies his surrogate son to resume his fight to save Gotham. In the aftermath, Alfred offers some suggestions about updating the Batcave. ** In The Dark Knight, Alfred and Bruce Wayne have moved to a downtown penthouse and the Batcave has been relocated to Gotham Harbor while Wayne Manor is being rebuilt. When Bruce travels to Hong Kong to capture a Mafia accountant, Alfred invents an alibi for Bruce. While reflecting on the Joker's reign of terror in Gotham, Alfred recalls a tale from his past career as a British intelligence agent about a thrill-seeking bandit in order to explain to Bruce that some men \\\"just want to watch the world burn\\\".\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nRachel Dawes gives Alfred the task of giving Bruce a letter \\\"when the time is right\\\". After Rachel's death, Alfred reads the letter and discovers that she was going to marry Harvey Dent. He later burns the letter, reflecting that, just as the people of Gotham would need to believe in Dent, Bruce needed to believe that Rachel loved him. ** In The Dark Knight Rises, Alfred has grown concerned as Bruce has not moved on from Rachel or Batman eight years later. Alfred reveals that during Bruce's absence, he frequently visited a restaurant in Florence with the fantasy that he would one day see Bruce there, settled down and happy. Alfred reluctantly assists Bruce in finding out information about the mercenary Bane. Following Batman's first encounter with Bane, Alfred fears that Bruce will get himself killed, and threatens to leave in order to dissuade Bruce. Alfred then tells Bruce that Rachel wanted to marry Harvey Dent, and that he burned her letter to protect Bruce's feelings. Angry and hurt, Bruce orders Alfred to leave. Alfred returns after Batman apparently sacrifices himself to save Gotham, and attends Bruce's funeral with Commissioner James Gordon, Lucius Fox and Detective John Blake.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nOver Bruce's grave, Alfred tearfully apologizes to Thomas and Martha for having failed to protect their son. When Alfred returns to the Florentine restaurant, he looks across to see Bruce alive and dining with Selina Kyle. They exchange knowing smiles and Alfred leaves, happy that Bruce has begun moving on with his life. * Jeremy Irons portrays Alfred in the DC Extended Universe. ** In Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, While still loyal to Bruce, he subtly mourns his master's non-existent social life and attempts to act as a humanising influence, such as trying to discourage Bruce using a kryptonite sample salvaged by Lex Luthor against Superman. After Bruce accepts Superman as an ally, Alfred pilots the Batplane by remote while Bruce saves Martha Kent. ** Irons will be reprising his role in the upcoming film Justice League.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAnimation\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\n* Efrem Zimbalist, Jr. voiced Alfred Pennyworth in the animated films Batman: Mask of the Phantasm, Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero, and Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman. * Alastair Duncan voiced Alfred Pennyworth in the animated film The Batman vs. Dracula and Batman Unlimited: Animal Instincts. * David McCallum voiced Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: Gotham Knight, Son of Batman and Batman vs. Robin. * Alan Oppenheimer voiced Alfred Pennyworth in Superman/Batman: Public Enemies. * Jim Piddock voiced Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: Under the Red Hood. * Jeff Bennett reprises his role as Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: Year One. * Robin Atkin Downes voiced Alfred Pennyworth in Justice League: Doom. * Michael Jackson voiced Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Part 1 and 2. * Alfred Pennyworth makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Lego Batman: The Movie - DC Super Heroes Unite, an adaptation of the video game of the same name. * Martin Jarvis reprises his role as Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: Assault on Arkham. * James Garrett reprises his role as Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: Bad Blood. * Brian George voiced Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: The Killing Joke.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\n* Ralph Fiennes will be voicing Alfred in the upcoming animated movie The Lego Batman Movie.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nVideo games\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\n* An Easter egg in World of Warcraft: Wrath of the Lich King shows a character named Alfred Copperworth, a homage to Alfred Pennyworth, located in the Purple Parlor in the city of Dalaran (a copper is the lowest form of currency in the game, equivalent almost to a penny, and was the metal used to make the original U.S. penny).\\n* Alfred Pennyworth appears in the Batman Begins video game, voiced by Michael Caine.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nLego series\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\n* Alfred Pennyworth appears in LEGO Batman for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Nintendo DS and Wii as a playable character. \\n* Alfred Pennyworth appears in Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes, voiced by Steven Blum.\\n* Alfred Pennyworth appears as a playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Robin Atkin Downes. In one level, Batman ends up mind-controlled by Brainiac's ship causing Robin and Alfred to follow him through the Batcave. When playable, the tray that Alfred is carrying can enable him to cross through fiery areas.\\n** Downes would later return to voice the character in Lego Dimensions.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nArkham series\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nAlfred Pennyworth is a supporting character in the Batman: Arkham franchise where he is voiced by Martin Jarvis. * Alfred Pennyworth's biography can be unlocked in Batman: Arkham Asylum. The player must scan a plaque describing one of Bruce Wayne's donations to the Arkham Medical Center. * He is referenced consistently in Batman: Arkham City, while the character does not make an actual appearance, he remains in constant radio contact with the players as the game's storyline progresses, and his bio appears. * In Batman: Arkham Origins, The character makes his first in-game appearance in the series, as the prequel shows his different mentality towards Bruce Wayne's adventures as Batman. Throughout the game, there are several instances where he disapproves of the techniques which Batman uses. Batman seems to hold Alfred at a distance, often shown taking advantage of his butler and shunning any attempts of warmth. When hired assassins target Batman, Alfred pleads with him to abandon his vigilante persona, but his words fall on deaf ears. Bane knows that Batman and Bruce Wayne are one and the same.\",\n \"Alfred Pennyworth\\n\\nHe breaks into the Batcave and beats Alfred close to death before Batman can get to him (having taken a detour to defeat Firefly). Arriving in time to see Alfred die, Batman is able to save him by electric shocks from Electrocutioner's gauntlets which helped to restart Alfred's heart. The event leaves Batman so shaken he considers giving up on saving the city. With his understanding of Batman renewed, Alfred convinces him to keep fighting. After this, he continues to help Batman as he travels to Blackgate Prison to stop the chaos. This time, Batman shows gratitude towards Alfred. In the \\\"Cold, Cold Heart\\\" DLC, Alfred is present with Bruce Wayne at a party at Wayne Manor commemorating Ferris Boyle until Mr. Freeze crashes the party with Penguin's gang to capture Boyle. Upon Bruce becoming Batman, he was able to rescue Alfred and the other hostages. * In Batman: Arkham Knight, He contacts Batman throughout the game again through a holographic projector giving Batman valuable information. In the ending where Batman's secret identity is revealed, he and Alfred are supposedly killed in a large explosion at Wayne Manor, though it is possible they faked their deaths.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2079,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_25"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What is Hypnophobia the fear of?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Sleep"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["active sleep","sleep","snoozing","waking up","sleeping place","sleeps","good sleep in bedroom","slumber","sleep pattern","sleep demand","sleep stage","human sleep","sleep human","sleep stages","💤","slept","sleep patterns","aſleep","stages of sleep","schlaf","neuro homeostatic recuperation","sleeping","asleep","sleep requirement","nocturnal post absorptive catabolism"],"string":"[\n \"active sleep\",\n \"sleep\",\n \"snoozing\",\n \"waking up\",\n \"sleeping place\",\n \"sleeps\",\n \"good sleep in bedroom\",\n \"slumber\",\n \"sleep pattern\",\n \"sleep demand\",\n \"sleep stage\",\n \"human sleep\",\n \"sleep human\",\n \"sleep stages\",\n \"💤\",\n \"slept\",\n \"sleep patterns\",\n \"aſleep\",\n \"stages of sleep\",\n \"schlaf\",\n \"neuro homeostatic recuperation\",\n \"sleeping\",\n \"asleep\",\n \"sleep requirement\",\n \"nocturnal post absorptive catabolism\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Hypnophobia\n\nHypnophobia, also termed clinophobia or somniphobia, is the often irrational and excessive fear of sleep. It may result from a feeling of control loss, or from repeating nightmares or anxiety over the loss of time that could be spent accomplishing tasks or maximizing leisure time instead of sleeping. The prefix hypno- originates from the Greek word ύπνος hypnos, which means sleep.[http://www.yourdictionary.com/hypno-prefix hypno- - Definition of hypno]","Hypnophobia\n\nBasic symptoms","Hypnophobia\n\nHypnophobia is typically thought to have numerous symptoms which affect the body. These symptoms can affect the patient both physically and mentally. Many feel anxiety when talking about the subject of sleep or even thinking about it. Although hypnophobia is a relatively common form of anxiety disorder it can be difficult to treat.[http://www.ivy-rose.co.uk/References/glossary_entry824.htm Hypnophobia : Phobia : Fears and Phobias (Health Glossary Category)]\n*Rapid breathing\n*Shortness of breath\n*Confusion\n*Sweating\n*Feelings of panic, dread, and terror\n*Sleepiness\n*Dry mouth\n*Drowsiness\n*Trembling\n*Irregular heartbeat\n*Nausea","Hypnophobia\n\nThe symptoms may differ for different patients and may experience them in their own way. There are numerous prescription drugs for hypnophobia, but the side effects and withdrawal symptoms can be severe. The prescribed drugs do not cure this illness but only temporarily suppress the symptom.","Hypnophobia\n\nDiagnosis","Hypnophobia\n\nThe causes of hypnophobia are not quite understood. Numerous patients who report having this phobia claim the source to be recurring nightmares. Hypnophobia might even reflect an underlying depressive disorder or anxiety disorder as well.[http://insomnia.ygoy.com/2009/11/11/what-is-somniphobia/ What is Somniphobia?] It can also be caused by a traumatic experience (e.g. a car accident, house fire, or natural disaster). Patients may also become hypnophobic after sleeping through a traumatic event; for example, a patient may have fallen asleep while smoking and woken up on fire.","Hypnophobia\n\nTreatment","Hypnophobia\n\nSimilar to all phobias, anxiety seems to be the driving force behind almost all fears. The key to treating hypnophobia is to reduce anxiety, or to eliminate it completely. Other ways, such as meditation or yoga, may help in the treatment process. If a patient is experiencing hypnophobia due to the lack of security while they are sleeping, it is recommended that they sleep next to, or near, someone in order to have confidence that nothing will happen to them while they are sleeping.","Hypnophobia\n\nCognitive therapy is a widely accepted form of treatment for most anxiety disorders. It is also thought to be particularly effective in combating disorders where the patient doesn't actually fear a situation but, rather, fears what could result from being in said situation. The ultimate goal of cognitive therapy is to modify distorted thoughts or misconceptions associated with whatever is being feared; the theory is that modifying these thoughts will decrease anxiety and avoidance of certain situations.[http://depression.about.com/od/psychotherapy/a/cognitive.htm Cognitive Therapy - What Is Cognitive Therapy?]"],"string":"[\n \"Hypnophobia\\n\\nHypnophobia, also termed clinophobia or somniphobia, is the often irrational and excessive fear of sleep. It may result from a feeling of control loss, or from repeating nightmares or anxiety over the loss of time that could be spent accomplishing tasks or maximizing leisure time instead of sleeping. The prefix hypno- originates from the Greek word ύπνος hypnos, which means sleep.[http://www.yourdictionary.com/hypno-prefix hypno- - Definition of hypno]\",\n \"Hypnophobia\\n\\nBasic symptoms\",\n \"Hypnophobia\\n\\nHypnophobia is typically thought to have numerous symptoms which affect the body. These symptoms can affect the patient both physically and mentally. Many feel anxiety when talking about the subject of sleep or even thinking about it. Although hypnophobia is a relatively common form of anxiety disorder it can be difficult to treat.[http://www.ivy-rose.co.uk/References/glossary_entry824.htm Hypnophobia : Phobia : Fears and Phobias (Health Glossary Category)]\\n*Rapid breathing\\n*Shortness of breath\\n*Confusion\\n*Sweating\\n*Feelings of panic, dread, and terror\\n*Sleepiness\\n*Dry mouth\\n*Drowsiness\\n*Trembling\\n*Irregular heartbeat\\n*Nausea\",\n \"Hypnophobia\\n\\nThe symptoms may differ for different patients and may experience them in their own way. There are numerous prescription drugs for hypnophobia, but the side effects and withdrawal symptoms can be severe. The prescribed drugs do not cure this illness but only temporarily suppress the symptom.\",\n \"Hypnophobia\\n\\nDiagnosis\",\n \"Hypnophobia\\n\\nThe causes of hypnophobia are not quite understood. Numerous patients who report having this phobia claim the source to be recurring nightmares. Hypnophobia might even reflect an underlying depressive disorder or anxiety disorder as well.[http://insomnia.ygoy.com/2009/11/11/what-is-somniphobia/ What is Somniphobia?] It can also be caused by a traumatic experience (e.g. a car accident, house fire, or natural disaster). Patients may also become hypnophobic after sleeping through a traumatic event; for example, a patient may have fallen asleep while smoking and woken up on fire.\",\n \"Hypnophobia\\n\\nTreatment\",\n \"Hypnophobia\\n\\nSimilar to all phobias, anxiety seems to be the driving force behind almost all fears. The key to treating hypnophobia is to reduce anxiety, or to eliminate it completely. Other ways, such as meditation or yoga, may help in the treatment process. If a patient is experiencing hypnophobia due to the lack of security while they are sleeping, it is recommended that they sleep next to, or near, someone in order to have confidence that nothing will happen to them while they are sleeping.\",\n \"Hypnophobia\\n\\nCognitive therapy is a widely accepted form of treatment for most anxiety disorders. It is also thought to be particularly effective in combating disorders where the patient doesn't actually fear a situation but, rather, fears what could result from being in said situation. The ultimate goal of cognitive therapy is to modify distorted thoughts or misconceptions associated with whatever is being feared; the theory is that modifying these thoughts will decrease anxiety and avoidance of certain situations.[http://depression.about.com/od/psychotherapy/a/cognitive.htm Cognitive Therapy - What Is Cognitive Therapy?]\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2080,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_26"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What famous person has the real name of Eldrick Woods?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Tiger Woods"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["tiger woods","woods tiger","eldrick t 22tiger 22 woods","jaimee grubbs","eldrick","tont","eldrick tont woods","cablinasian","tiger woods mistress","tigerwoods com","tiger wood","cablin asian","tigre woods","eldrick 22tiger 22 woods","eldrick woods","how i play golf","jamie jungers","t woods","cheetah woods","al ruwaya","mindy lawton","eldrick tont 22tiger 22 woods"],"string":"[\n \"tiger woods\",\n \"woods tiger\",\n \"eldrick t 22tiger 22 woods\",\n \"jaimee grubbs\",\n \"eldrick\",\n \"tont\",\n \"eldrick tont woods\",\n \"cablinasian\",\n \"tiger woods mistress\",\n \"tigerwoods com\",\n \"tiger wood\",\n \"cablin asian\",\n \"tigre woods\",\n \"eldrick 22tiger 22 woods\",\n \"eldrick woods\",\n \"how i play golf\",\n \"jamie jungers\",\n \"t woods\",\n \"cheetah woods\",\n \"al ruwaya\",\n \"mindy lawton\",\n \"eldrick tont 22tiger 22 woods\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Tiger Woods\n\nEldrick Tont \"Tiger\" Woods (born December 30, 1975) is an American professional golfer who is among the most successful golfers of all time. He has been one of the highest-paid athletes in the world for several years.","Tiger Woods\n\nFollowing an outstanding amateur and two-year college golf career, Woods turned professional at age 20 in late summer 1996. By April 1997 he had already won his first major, the 1997 Masters, in a record-breaking performance, winning the tournament by 12 strokes and pocketing $486,000. He first reached the number one position in the world rankings in June 1997. Through the 2000s, Woods was the dominant force in golf, spending 264 weeks from August 1999 to September 2004 and 281 weeks from June 2005 to October 2010 as World Number One.","Tiger Woods\n\nFrom December 2009 to early April 2010, Woods took leave from professional golf to focus on his marriage after he admitted infidelity, but he and his wife Elin Nordegren eventually divorced. His many extramarital indiscretions were revealed by several different women, through many worldwide media sources. This was followed by a loss of golf form, and his ranking gradually fell to a low of No. 58 in November 2011. He ended a career-high winless streak of 107 weeks when he captured the Chevron World Challenge in December 2011. After winning the Arnold Palmer Invitational on March 25, 2013, he ascended to the No.1 ranking once again, holding the top spot until May 2014. Woods had back surgery in April 2014 and September 2015 and has struggled since to regain his dominant form. By March 29, 2015, Woods had fallen to #104, outside of the top 100 for the first time since the week prior to his first Tour title win in 1996. In May 2016, Woods dropped out of the world top 500 for the first time in his professional career.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods has broken numerous golf records. He has been World Number One for the most consecutive weeks and for the greatest total number of weeks of any golfer. He has been awarded PGA Player of the Year a record eleven times, the Byron Nelson Award for lowest adjusted scoring average a record eight times, and has the record of leading the money list in ten different seasons. He has won 14 professional major golf championships, the second-highest of any player (Jack Nicklaus leads with 18), and 79 PGA Tour events, second all time behind Sam Snead, who had 82 wins. He has more career major wins and career PGA Tour wins than any other active golfer. He is the youngest player to achieve the career Grand Slam, and the youngest and fastest to win 50 tournaments on tour. Additionally, Woods is only the second golfer, after Nicklaus, to have achieved a career Grand Slam three times. Woods has won 18 World Golf Championships, and won at least one of those events in each of the first 11 years after they began in 1999.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods and Rory McIlroy are the only golfers to win both The Silver Medal and The Gold Medal at The Open Championship.","Tiger Woods\n\nBackground and family","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods was born in Cypress, California, to Earl (1932–2006) and Kultida (Tida) Woods (born 1944). He is the only child of their marriage; however, he does have two half-brothers, Earl Jr. (born 1955) and Kevin (born 1957), and a half-sister, Royce (born 1958) from the 18-year marriage of Earl Woods and his first wife, Barbara Woods Gray.","Tiger Woods\n\nKultida (née Punsawad), originally from Thailand (where Earl had met her on a tour of duty in 1968), is of mixed Thai, Chinese, and Dutch ancestry, making her an Asian American. Earl, a retired lieutenant colonel and Vietnam War veteran, was of mostly African American and traces of European descent. Earl's grandmother was \"the prettiest blonde you ever saw\" and Earl's mother Maude Carter was of light skin. Some suggest possible Native American and Chinese ancestry. Tiger refers to his ethnic make-up as \"Cablinasian\" (a syllabic abbreviation he coined from Caucasian, Black, American Indian, and Asian).","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods' first name, Eldrick, was coined by his mother because it began with \"E\" (for Earl) and ended with \"K\" (for Kultida). His middle name Tont is a traditional Thai name. He was nicknamed Tiger in honor of his father's friend Col. Vuong Dang Phong, who had also been known as Tiger.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods has a niece, Cheyenne Woods, who played for Wake Forest University's golf team and turned professional in 2012, making her pro debut in the LPGA Championship.","Tiger Woods\n\nEarly life and amateur golf career","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods grew up in Orange County, California. He was a child prodigy, introduced to golf before the age of two, by his athletic father Earl, a single-figure handicap amateur golfer who had been one of the earliest African-American college baseball players at Kansas State University. In 1978, Tiger putted against comedian Bob Hope in a television appearance on The Mike Douglas Show. At age three, he shot a 48 over nine holes over the Cypress Navy course, and at age five, he appeared in Golf Digest and on ABC's That's Incredible. Before turning seven, Tiger won the Under Age 10 section of the Drive, Pitch, and Putt competition, held at the Navy Golf Course in Cypress, California. In 1984 at the age of eight, he won the 9–10 boys' event, the youngest age group available, at the Junior World Golf Championships. He first broke 80 at age eight. He went on to win the Junior World Championships six times, including four consecutive wins from 1988 to 1991.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods' father Earl wrote that Tiger first defeated him at the age of 11 years, with Earl trying his best. Earl lost to Tiger every time from then on. Woods first broke 70 on a regulation golf course at age 12.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods' first major national junior tournament was the 1989 Big I, when he was 13 years old. Woods was paired with pro John Daly, then relatively unknown, in the final round; the event's format placed a professional with each group of juniors who had qualified. Daly birdied three of the last four holes to beat Woods by only one stroke. As a young teenager, Woods first met Jack Nicklaus in Los Angeles at the Bel-Air Country Club, when Nicklaus was performing a clinic for the club's members. Woods was part of the show, and impressed Nicklaus and the crowd with his skills and potential. Earl Woods had researched in detail the career accomplishments of Nicklaus, and had set his young son the goals of breaking those records.","Tiger Woods\n\nWhile attending Western High School in Anaheim at the age of 15, Woods became the youngest-ever U.S. Junior Amateur champion (a record which stood until it was broken by Jim Liu in 2010). He was named 1991's Southern California Amateur Player of the Year (for the second consecutive year) and Golf Digest Junior Amateur Player of the Year. In 1992, he defended his title at the U.S. Junior Amateur Championship, becoming the first multiple winner; competed in his first PGA Tour event, the Nissan Los Angeles Open (he missed the 36-hole cut); and was named Golf Digest Amateur Player of the Year, Golf World Player of the Year, and Golfweek National Amateur of the Year.","Tiger Woods\n\nThe following year, Woods won his third consecutive U.S. Junior Amateur Championship; he remains the event's only three-time winner. In 1994, at the TPC at Sawgrass in Florida, he became the youngest-ever winner of the U.S. Amateur Championship, a record he held until 2008 when it was broken by Danny Lee. He was a member of the American team at the 1994 Eisenhower Trophy World Amateur Golf Team Championships (winning), and the 1995 Walker Cup (losing).","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods graduated from Western High School in 1994 at age 18, and was voted \"Most Likely to Succeed\" among the graduating class. He had starred for the high school's golf team under coach Don Crosby.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods overcame difficulties with stuttering as a boy. This was not known until he wrote a letter to a boy who contemplated suicide. Woods wrote, \"I know what it's like to be different and to sometimes not fit in. I also stuttered as a child and I would talk to my dog and he would sit there and listen until he fell asleep. I also took a class for two years to help me, and I finally learned to stop.\"","Tiger Woods\n\nCollege golf career","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods was recruited very heavily by college golf powers, and chose Stanford University, the 1994 NCAA Division I champions. He enrolled at Stanford in the fall of 1994 under a golf scholarship, winning his first collegiate event, the 40th Annual William H. Tucker Invitational, that September. He selected a major in economics, and was nicknamed \"Urkel\" by college teammate Notah Begay III. In 1995, he successfully defended his U.S. Amateur title at the Newport Country Club in Rhode Island and was voted Pac-10 Player of the Year, NCAA First Team All-American, and Stanford's Male Freshman of the Year (an award that encompasses all sports).","Tiger Woods\n\nAt age 19, Woods participated in his first PGA Tour major, the 1995 Masters Tournament, and tied for 41st as the only amateur to make the cut. At age 20 in 1996, he became the first golfer to win three consecutive U.S. Amateur titles and won the NCAA individual golf championship. In winning the Silver Medal as leading amateur at The Open Championship, he tied the record for an amateur aggregate score of 281. He left college after two years and turned professional. In 1996, Woods moved out of California, stating in 2013 that it was due to the state's tax rate.","Tiger Woods\n\nProfessional career","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods became a professional golfer in August 1996, and immediately signed deals with Nike, Inc. and Titleist that ranked as the most lucrative endorsement contracts in golf history at that time. Woods was named Sports Illustrateds 1996 Sportsman of the Year and PGA Tour Rookie of the Year. In April 1997, he won his first major, the Masters, becoming the tournament's youngest-ever winner. Two months later, he set the record for the fastest-ever ascent to No. 1 in the Official World Golf Rankings. After a lackluster 1998, Woods finished the 1999 season with eight wins, including the PGA Championship, a feat not achieved since 1974.","Tiger Woods\n\nIn 2000, Woods achieved six consecutive wins, the longest winning streak since Ben Hogan did it in 1948. One of these was the 2000 U.S. Open, where he broke or tied nine tournament records in what Sports Illustrated called \"the greatest performance in golf history,\" in which Woods won the tournament by a 15-stroke margin and earned a check for $800,000. At age 24, he became the youngest golfer to achieve the Career Grand Slam. At the end of 2000, Woods had won nine of the twenty PGA Tour events he entered and had broken the record for lowest scoring average in tour history. He was named the Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year, the only athlete to be honored twice, and was ranked by Golf Digest magazine as the twelfth-best golfer of all time.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods' victory in the 2001 Masters Tournament made him the first player to hold all four major professional golf titles at the same time, although not in the same calendar year. Following a stellar 2001 and 2002 in which Woods continued to dominate the tour, Woods' career hit a \"slump\". He did not win a major in 2003 or 2004. In September 2004, Vijay Singh overtook Woods in the Official World Golf Rankings, ending Woods' record streak of 264 weeks at #1.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods rebounded in 2005, winning six official PGA Tour money events and reclaiming the top spot in July after swapping it back and forth with Singh over the first half of the year.","Tiger Woods\n\nIn 2006, Woods began dominantly, winning his first two PGA tournaments but failing to capture his fifth Masters championship in April. Following the death of his father in May, Woods took a nine-week hiatus from the tour and appeared rusty upon his return at the U.S. Open, missing the cut at Winged Foot. However, he quickly returned to form and ended the year by winning six consecutive tour events. At the season's close, with 54 wins and 12 majors wins, Woods had broken the tour records for both total wins and total majors wins over eleven seasons.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods continued to excel in 2007 and the first part of 2008. In April 2008, he underwent knee surgery and missed the next two months on the tour. Woods returned for the 2008 U.S. Open, where he struggled the first day but ultimately claimed a dramatic victory over Rocco Mediate, after which Mediate said, \"This guy does things that are just not normal by any stretch of the imagination,\" and Kenny Perry added, \"He beat everybody on one leg.\" Two days later, Woods announced that he would miss the remainder of the season due to further knee surgery, and that his knee was more severely damaged than previously revealed, prompting even greater praise for his U.S. Open performance. Woods called it \"my greatest ever championship.\" In Woods' absence, TV ratings for the remainder of the season suffered a huge decline from 2007.","Tiger Woods\n\nUpon Woods' much-anticipated return in 2009, he performed well, including a spectacular performance at the 2009 Presidents Cup, but failed to win a major, the first year since 2004 that he had not done so. After his marital infidelities came to light and received massive media coverage at the end of 2009 (see further details below), Woods announced in December that he would be taking an indefinite break from competitive golf. In February 2010, he delivered a televised apology for his behavior. During this period, several companies ended their endorsement deals with Woods.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods returned to competition in April at the 2010 Masters Tournament, where he finished in a tie for fourth place. He followed the Masters with poor showings at the Quail Hollow Championship and the Players Championship, where he withdrew in the fourth round citing injury. Shortly afterward, Hank Haney, Woods' coach since 2003, resigned the position; he was replaced in August by Sean Foley. The rest of the season went badly for Woods, who failed to win a single event for the first time since turning professional, while nevertheless finishing the season ranked No. 2 in the world.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods' performance continued to suffer in 2011, taking its toll on his ranking. After falling to No. 7 in March, he rebounded to No. 5 with a strong showing at the 2011 Masters Tournament, where he tied for fourth place. Due to leg injuries incurred at the Masters, he missed several summer events; in July he fired his longtime caddy Steve Williams, replacing him temporarily with friend Bryon Bell. After returning to tournament play in August, Woods continued to falter, and his ranking gradually fell to a low of #58. He rose to No. 50 in mid-November after a third-place finish at the Emirates Australian Open, and broke his winless streak with a victory at December's Chevron World Challenge.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods began his 2012 season with two tournaments (the Abu Dhabi HSBC Golf Championship and the AT&T Pebble Beach National Pro-Am) where he started off well, but struggled on the final rounds. Following the WGC-Accenture Match Play Championship, where he was knocked out in the second round by missing a 5-foot putt, Woods revised his putting technique and tied for second at the Honda Classic, with the lowest final round score in his PGA Tour career. After a short time off due to another leg injury, Woods won the Arnold Palmer Invitational, his first win on the PGA Tour since the BMW Championship in September 2009. Following several dismal performances, Woods notched his 73rd PGA Tour win at the Memorial Tournament in June, tying Jack Nicklaus in second place for most PGA Tour victories; a month later, Woods surpassed Nicklaus with a win at the AT&T National, to trail only Sam Snead, who had 82 PGA wins.","Tiger Woods\n\n2013 would bring a return of Woods' dominating play. He won the Farmers Insurance Open in January 2013 by four shots for his 75th PGA Tour win. It was the seventh time he had won the event. In March, he won the WGC-Cadillac Championship, also for the seventh time, giving him his 17th WGC title and first since 2009. Two weeks later, he won the Arnold Palmer Invitational, winning the event for a record-tying 8th time. The win moved him back to the top of the world rankings. To commemorate that achievement, Nike was quick to launch an ad with the tagline \"winning takes care of everything\".","Tiger Woods\n\nOn April 13, 2013, Woods was up for disqualification from the 2013 Masters Tournament over claims he took an illegal drop after his third shot on the par-5 15th hole bounced off of the pin and into the water. After further review, Woods was assessed a two-stroke penalty for the drop and not disqualified. He finished T4 in the event. Woods won The Players Championship in May 2013, his second career win at the event, notching his fourth win of the 2013 season. It was the quickest he had ever gotten to four wins in any season in his professional career.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods had a poor showing at the 2013 U.S Open as a result of an elbow injury sustained at The Players Championship. In finishing at +13, he recorded his worst score ever as a professional and finished 12 strokes behind winner Justin Rose. After a prolonged break because of the injury, during which he missed the Greenbrier Classic and his own AT&T National, he returned at the Open Championship at Muirfield. Despite being in contention all week and beginning the final round only two stokes behind Lee Westwood, he struggled with the speed of the greens and could only manage a 3-over-par 74 which left him tied for 6th place, five strokes behind eventual winner Phil Mickelson. Two weeks later, Woods returned to form at the WGC-Bridgestone Invitational, recording his 5th win of the season and 8th win at the event in its 15-year history. His second round 61 matched his record score on the PGA Tour and could easily have been a 59 were it not for some short missed birdie putts on the closing holes. This gave him a seven stroke lead which he held on to for the rest of the tournament.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods would never contend at the PGA Championship at Oak Hill Country Club and would come short of winning a major for the 5th full season, only contending in two of the four majors in 2013.","Tiger Woods\n\nAfter a slow start to 2014, Woods injured himself during the Honda Classic and was unable to finish, withdrawing after 13 holes of the final round citing back pain. He subsequently competed in the WGC-Cadillac Championship but was visibly in pain during much of the last round. He was forced to skip the Arnold Palmer Invitational at the end of March 2014 and, on April 1, announced that he would miss the Masters Tournament for the first time since 1994 after undergoing a microdiscectomy. Woods returned at the Quicken Loans National in June, however he stated that his expectations for the week were low. He would struggle with nearly every aspect of his game and miss the cut. He next played at The Open Championship, contested at Hoylake, where Woods had won eight years prior. Woods fired a brilliant 69 in the first round to put himself in contention, but shot 77 on Friday and would eventually finish 69th. Despite his back pain, he played at the 2014 PGA Championship where he failed to make the cut. On August 25, 2014, Woods and his swing coach Sean Foley parted ways.","Tiger Woods\n\nIn the four years under Foley, he won eight times but no majors. He had previously won eight majors with Harmon and six with Haney. Woods said there is currently no timetable to find a replacement swing coach.","Tiger Woods\n\nOn February 5, 2015, Woods withdrew from the Farmers Insurance Open after another back injury. Woods stated on his website that it was unrelated to his previous surgery and was taking a break from golf until his back healed. He returned for the 2015 Masters Tournament, finishing in a tie for 17th. In the final round, Woods injured his wrist after his club hit a tree root. He later stated that a bone popped out of his wrist, but he adjusted it back into place and finished the round. Woods then missed the cut at the 2015 U.S. Open and Open Championship, the first time ever Woods missed the cut at consecutive majors, finishing near the bottom of the leaderboard both times. He finished tied for 18th at the Quicken Loans National on August 2. In late August 2015, Woods played quite well at the Wyndham Championship finishing the tournament at 13-under, only four strokes behind the winner, and tied for 10th place. Woods offered only a brief comment on the speculation that he was still recovering from back surgery, saying it was \"just my hip\" but offering no specifics.","Tiger Woods\n\nIn late March 2016, Woods announced that he would miss the Masters Tournament while recovering from a back surgery (microdiscectomy) that took place on September 16, 2015. (He had also missed the 2014 Masters due to a back problem.) \"I'm absolutely making progress, and I'm really happy with how far I've come,\" he explained in a statement. \"But I still have no timetable to return to competitive golf.\" However, he did attend the Masters Champions Dinner on April 5, 2016. For the first time in his career he missed all 4 majors due to his back.","Tiger Woods\n\nHonors","Tiger Woods\n\nOn August 20, 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced that Woods would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame. He was inducted December 5, 2007 at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts in Sacramento.","Tiger Woods\n\nHe has been named \"Athlete of the Decade\" by the Associated Press in December 2009. \nHe has been named Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year a record-tying four times, and is the only person to be named Sports Illustrateds Sportsman of the Year more than once.","Tiger Woods\n\nSince his record-breaking win at the 1997 Masters Tournament, golf's increased popularity is commonly attributed to Woods' presence. He is credited by some sources for dramatically increasing prize money in golf, generating interest in new PGA tournament audiences, and for drawing the largest TV ratings in golf history.","Tiger Woods\n\nEndorsements","Tiger Woods\n\nDuring the first decade of his professional career, Woods was the world's most marketable athlete. Shortly after his 21st birthday in 1996, he began signing endorsement deals with numerous companies, including General Motors, Titleist, General Mills, American Express, Accenture, and Nike, Inc. In 2000, he signed a 5-year, $105 million contract extension with Nike. It was the largest endorsing deal ever signed by an athlete at that time. Woods' endorsement has been credited with playing a significant role in taking the Nike Golf brand from a \"start-up\" golf company earlier in the past decade, to becoming the leading golf apparel company in the world, and a major player in the equipment and golf ball market. Nike Golf is one of the fastest growing brands in the sport, with an estimated $600 million in sales. Woods has been described as the \"ultimate endorser\" for Nike Golf, frequently seen wearing Nike gear during tournaments, and even in advertisements for other products. Woods receives a percentage from the sales of Nike Golf apparel, footwear, golf equipment, golf balls, and has a building named after him at Nike's headquarters campus in Beaverton, Oregon.","Tiger Woods\n\nIn 2002, Woods was involved in every aspect of the launch of Buick's Rendezvous SUV. A company spokesman stated that Buick was happy with the value of Woods' endorsement, pointing out that more than 130,000 Rendezvous vehicles were sold in 2002 and 2003. \"That exceeded our forecasts,\" he was quoted as saying, \"It has to be in recognition of Tiger.\" In February 2004, Buick renewed Woods' endorsement contract for another five years, in a deal reportedly worth $40 million.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods collaborated closely with TAG Heuer to develop the world's first professional golf watch, released in April 2005. The lightweight, titanium-construction watch, designed to be worn while playing the game, incorporates numerous innovative design features to accommodate golf play. It is capable of absorbing up to 5,000 Gs of shock, far in excess of the forces generated by a normal golf swing. In 2006, the TAG Heuer Professional Golf Watch won the prestigious iF product design award in the Leisure/Lifestyle category.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods also endorses the Tiger Woods PGA Tour series of video games; he has done so since 1999. In 2006, he signed a six-year contract with Electronic Arts, the series' publisher.","Tiger Woods\n\nIn February 2007, along with Roger Federer and Thierry Henry, Woods became an ambassador for the \"Gillette Champions\" marketing campaign. Gillette did not disclose financial terms, though an expert estimated the deal could total between $10 million and $20 million.","Tiger Woods\n\nIn October 2007, Gatorade announced that Woods would have his own brand of sports drink starting in March 2008. \"Gatorade Tiger\" was his first U.S. deal with a beverage company and his first licensing agreement. Although no figures were officially disclosed, Golfweek magazine reported that it was for five years and could pay him as much as $100 million. The company decided in early fall 2009 to discontinue the drink due to weak sales.","Tiger Woods\n\nIn July 2011, Woods appeared on a 15-second Japanese television commercial, endorsing a heat back rub by Kowa Co., the Vantelin Kowa rub. Details of the deal, which was made in late 2010, were not disclosed.","Tiger Woods\n\nIn October 2012, it was announced that Woods had signed an exclusive endorsement deal with Fuse Science, Inc, a sports nutrition firm.","Tiger Woods\n\nA case was initiated against Bruce Matthews (the owner of Gotta Have It Golf, Inc.) and others in 1997 by Woods and fellow golfer Arnold Palmer in the effort to stop the unauthorized sale of their images and alleged signatures in the memorabilia market. Matthews and associated parties counterclaimed that Woods and his company, ETW Corporation, committed several acts including breach of contract, breach of implied duty of good faith, and violations of Florida's Deceptive and Unfair Trade Practices Act. Palmer was also named in the counter-suit, accused of violating the same licensing agreement in conjunction with his company Arnold Palmer Enterprises.","Tiger Woods\n\nOn March 12, 2014, a Florida jury found in favor of Gotta Have It on its breach of contract and other related claims, rejected ETW's counterclaims, and awarded Gotta Have It $668,346 in damages. The award may end up exceeding $1 million once interest has been factored in, though the ruling may be appealed.","Tiger Woods\n\nAccumulated wealth","Tiger Woods\n\nAccording to Golf Digest, Woods made $769,440,709 from 1996 to 2007, and the magazine predicted that by 2010, Woods would pass one billion dollars in earnings. In 2009, Forbes confirmed that Woods was indeed the world's first athlete to earn over a billion dollars in his career (before taxes), after accounting for the $10 million bonus Woods received for the FedEx Cup title. The same year, Forbes estimated his net worth to be $600 million, making him the second richest \"African American\" behind only Oprah Winfrey. In 2015, Woods ranked ninth in Forbes' list of world's highest-paid athletes, being the top among \"Asian Americans\" or the fourth among \"African Americans\".","Tiger Woods\n\nTiger-proofing","Tiger Woods\n\nEarly in Woods' career, a small number of golf experts expressed concern about his impact on the competitiveness of the game and the public appeal of professional golf. Sportswriter Bill Lyon of Knight-Ridder asked in a column, \"Isn't Tiger Woods actually bad for golf?\" (though Lyon ultimately concluded that he was not). At first, some pundits feared that Woods would drive the spirit of competition out of the game of golf by making existing courses obsolete and relegating opponents to simply competing for second place each week.","Tiger Woods\n\nA related effect was measured by economist Jennifer Brown of the University of California, Berkeley who found that other golfers played worse when competing against Woods than when he was not in the tournament. The scores of highly skilled (exempt) golfers are nearly one stroke higher when playing against Woods. This effect was larger when he was on winning streaks and disappeared during his well-publicized slump in 2003–04. Brown explains the results by noting that competitors of similar skill can hope to win by increasing their level of effort, but that, when facing a \"superstar\" competitor, extra exertion does not significantly raise one's level of winning while increasing risk of injury or exhaustion, leading to reduced effort.","Tiger Woods\n\nMany courses in the PGA Tour rotation (including Major Championship sites like Augusta National) have added yardage to their tees in an effort to reduce the advantage of long hitters like Woods, a strategy that became known as \"Tiger-Proofing\". Woods said he welcomed the change, in that adding yardage to courses did not affect his ability to win.","Tiger Woods\n\nCareer achievements","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods has won 79 official PGA Tour events, including 14 majors. He is 14–1 when going into the final round of a major with at least a share of the lead. He has been heralded as \"the greatest closer in history\" by multiple golf experts. He owns the lowest career scoring average and the most career earnings of any player in PGA Tour history.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods victory at the 2013 Players Championship also marked a win in his 300th PGA Tour start. He also won golf tournaments in his 100th (in 2000) and 200th (in 2006) tour starts.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods has spent the most consecutive and cumulative weeks atop the world rankings. He is one of five players (along with Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Gary Player, and Jack Nicklaus) to have won all four professional major championships in his career, known as the Career Grand Slam, and was the youngest to do so. Woods is the only player to have won all four professional major championships in a row, accomplishing the feat in the 2000–2001 seasons.","Tiger Woods\n\n*PGA Tour wins (79)\n*European Tour wins (40)\n*Japan Golf Tour wins (2)\n*Asian Tour wins (1)\n*PGA Tour of Australasia wins (1)\n*Other professional wins (16) \n*Amateur wins (21)","Tiger Woods\n\nMajor championships","Tiger Woods\n\nWins (14)","Tiger Woods\n\n1 Defeated May in three-hole playoff by 1 stroke: Woods (3-4-512), May (4-4-5\n13) \n2 Defeated DiMarco with birdie on first extra hole\n3 Defeated Mediate with a par on 1st sudden death hole after 18-hole playoff was tied at even par","Tiger Woods\n\nResults timeline","Tiger Woods\n\nLA \n Low amateur\nDNP = did not play\nCUT = missed the half-way cut\nWD = withdrew \n\"T\" indicates a tie for a place\nGreen background for wins. Yellow background for top-10.","Tiger Woods\n\nSummary","Tiger Woods\n\n*Most consecutive cuts made – 39 (1996 U.S. Open – 2006 Masters)\n*Longest streak of top-10s – 8 (1999 U.S. Open – 2001 Masters)","Tiger Woods\n\nWorld Golf Championships","Tiger Woods\n\nWins (18)","Tiger Woods\n\n1 Won on the first hole of a sudden-death playoff\n2 Won on the seventh hole of a sudden-death playoff\n3 Won on the second hole of a sudden-death playoff\n4 Won on the fourth hole of a sudden-death playoff","Tiger Woods\n\nResults timeline","Tiger Woods\n\n1 Canceled following the September 11 attacks.\nDNP = did not play\nQF, R16, R32, R64 = Round in which player lost in match play\nWD = withdrew \nNT = No tournament\n\"T\" = tied\nGreen background for wins. Yellow background for top-10.\nNote that the HSBC Champions did not become a WGC event until 2009.","Tiger Woods\n\nPGA Tour career summary","Tiger Woods\n\n* As of the 2015 season.","Tiger Woods\n\nPlaying style","Tiger Woods\n\nWhen Woods first joined the professional tour in 1996, his long drives had a large impact on the world of golf. However, when he did not upgrade his equipment in the following years (insisting upon the use of True Temper Dynamic Gold steel-shafted clubs and smaller steel clubheads that promoted accuracy over distance), many opponents caught up to him. Phil Mickelson even made a joke in 2003 about Woods using \"inferior equipment\", which did not sit well with Nike, Titleist or Woods. During 2004, Woods finally upgraded his driver technology to a larger clubhead and graphite shaft, which, coupled with his clubhead speed, made him one of the Tour's lengthiest players off the tee once again.","Tiger Woods\n\nDespite his power advantage, Woods has always focused on developing an excellent all-around game. Although in recent years he has typically been near the bottom of the Tour rankings in driving accuracy, his iron play is generally accurate, his recovery and bunker play is very strong, and his putting (especially under pressure) is possibly his greatest asset. He is largely responsible for a shift to higher standards of athleticism amongst professional golfers, and is known for putting in more hours of practice than most.","Tiger Woods\n\nFrom mid-1993, while he was still an amateur, until 2004, Woods worked almost exclusively with leading swing coach Butch Harmon. From mid-1997, Harmon and Woods fashioned a major redevelopment of Woods' full swing, achieving greater consistency, better distance control, and better kinesiology. The changes began to pay off in 1999. From March 2004 to 2010, Woods was coached by Hank Haney, who worked on flattening his swing plane. Woods continued to win tournaments with Haney, but his driving accuracy dropped significantly. Haney resigned in May 2010 and was replaced by Sean Foley.","Tiger Woods\n\nMike \"Fluff\" Cowan served as Woods' caddy from the start of his professional career until Tiger fired him in March 1999. He was replaced by Steve Williams, who became a close friend of Woods and is often credited with helping him with key shots and putts. In June 2011, Woods fired Williams and replaced him with friend Bryon Bell on an interim basis. Joe LaCava, a former caddy of both Fred Couples and Dustin Johnson, was hired by Woods shortly after, and has remained Woods' caddie since then.","Tiger Woods\n\nEquipment","Tiger Woods\n\nWGC-Bridgestone Invitational: \n* Driver: Nike VRS Covert 2.0 (9.5-degree; Mitsubishi Diamana White Board 73X shaft)\n* Fairway Woods: Nike VR_S Covert 15° 3-wood and Nike VR_S Covert 19° 5-wood with Mitsubishi Diamana Blueboard 103x shaft\n* Irons: Nike VR Pro Blades (2-PW) (Tiger will put his 5-wood or 2-iron in the bag depending upon the course setup and conditions). All irons are 1-degree upright, have D4 swingweight, standard size Tour Velvet grips and True Temper Dynamic Gold X-100 shafts.\n* Wedges: Nike VR Pro (56 and 60-degree; True Temper Dynamic Gold S400 shafts)\n* Putter: Nike Method 001\n* Ball: Nike ONE Tour D (with \"Tiger\" imprint)\n* Golf Glove: Nike Dri-FIT Tour glove\n* Golf Shoes: Nike TW '14\n* Driver club cover: Frank, a plush tiger head club cover created by his mother. Frank has appeared in several commercials.","Tiger Woods\n\nOther ventures","Tiger Woods\n\nTiger Woods Foundation","Tiger Woods\n\nThe Tiger Woods Foundation was established in 1996 by Woods and his father Earl, with the primary goal of promoting golf among inner-city children. The foundation has conducted junior golf clinics across the country, and sponsors the Tiger Woods Foundation National Junior Golf Team in the Junior World Golf Championships. As of December 2010, TWF employed approximately 55 people.","Tiger Woods\n\nThe foundation operates the Tiger Woods Learning Center, a $50 million, 35,000-square-foot facility in Anaheim, California, providing college-access programs for underserved youth. The TWLC opened in 2006 and features seven classrooms, extensive multi-media facilities and an outdoor golf teaching area. The center has since expanded to four additional campuses: two in Washington, D.C.; one in Philadelphia; and one in Stuart, Florida.","Tiger Woods\n\nThe foundation benefits from the annual Chevron World Challenge and AT&T National golf tournaments hosted by Woods. In October 2011, the foundation hosted the first Tiger Woods Invitational at Pebble Beach. Other annual fundraisers have included the concert events Block Party, last held in 2009 in Anaheim, and Tiger Jam, last held in 2011 in Las Vegas after a one-year hiatus.","Tiger Woods\n\nTiger Woods Design","Tiger Woods\n\nIn November 2006, Woods announced his intention to begin designing golf courses around the world through a new company, Tiger Woods Design. A month later, he announced that the company's first course would be in Dubai as part of a 25.3 million-square-foot development, The Tiger Woods Dubai. The Al Ruwaya Golf Course was initially expected to finish construction in 2009. As of February 2010, only seven holes had been completed; in April 2011, The New York Times reported that the project had been shelved permanently. In 2013, the partnership between Tiger Woods Design and Dubai Holding was dissolved.","Tiger Woods\n\nTiger Woods Design has taken on two other courses, neither of which has materialized. In August 2007, Woods announced The Cliffs at High Carolina, a private course in the Blue Ridge Mountains near Asheville, North Carolina. After a groundbreaking in November 2008, the project suffered cash flow problems and suspended construction. A third course, in Punta Brava, Mexico, was announced in October 2008, but incurred delays due to issues with permits and an environmental impact study. Construction on the Punta Brava course has not yet begun.","Tiger Woods\n\nThe problems encountered by these projects have been credited to factors including overly optimistic estimates of their value; declines throughout the global economy, particularly the U.S. crash in home prices; and decreased appeal of Woods following his 2009 infidelity scandal.","Tiger Woods\n\nWritings","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods wrote a golf instruction column for Golf Digest magazine from 1997 to February 2011. In 2001 he wrote a best-selling golf instruction book, How I Play Golf, which had the largest print run of any golf book for its first edition, 1.5 million copies.","Tiger Woods\n\nPersonal life","Tiger Woods\n\nMarriage and children","Tiger Woods\n\nIn November 2003, Woods became engaged to Elin Nordegren, a Swedish former model and daughter of former minister of migration Barbro Holmberg and radio journalist Thomas Nordegren. They were introduced during The Open Championship in 2001 by Swedish golfer Jesper Parnevik, who had employed her as an au pair. They married on October 5, 2004, at the Sandy Lane resort in Barbados, and lived at Isleworth, a community in Windermere, a suburb of Orlando, Florida. In 2006, they purchased a $39-million estate in Jupiter Island, Florida, and began constructing a 10,000-square-foot home; Woods moved there in 2010 following the couple's divorce, which was finalized August 23, 2010.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods' and Nordegren's first child, a daughter named Sam Alexis Woods, was born in 2007. Woods chose the name because his own father had always called him Sam. Their son, Charlie Axel Woods, was born in 2009.","Tiger Woods\n\nInfidelity scandal and fallout","Tiger Woods\n\nOn November 25, 2009, The National Enquirer published a story claiming that Woods had an extramarital affair with New York City nightclub manager Rachel Uchitel, a claim she denied. Two days later, around 2:30 a.m. on November 27, Woods left home in his Cadillac Escalade SUV and, while still on his street, collided with a fire hydrant, a tree, and several hedges. He was treated for minor facial lacerations and received a ticket for careless driving. Following intense media speculation about the accident, Woods released a statement on his website taking sole responsibility for the accident, calling it a \"private matter\" and crediting his wife for helping him from the car. On November 30, Woods announced that he would not be appearing at his own charity golf tournament, the Chevron World Challenge, nor any other tournaments in 2009, due to his injuries.","Tiger Woods\n\nOn December 2, following Us Weeklys prior day reporting of a purported mistress and subsequent release of a voicemail message allegedly left by Woods for the woman, Woods released a further statement; there, he admitted \"transgressions\" and apologized to \"all of those who have supported [him] over the years\", while reiterating his and his family's right to privacy. Over the next few days, more than a dozen women claimed in various media outlets to have had affairs with Woods. On December 11, he released a third statement admitting to infidelity and apologizing again, as well as announcing that he would be taking \"an indefinite break from professional golf.\"","Tiger Woods\n\nIn the days and months following Woods' admission of infidelity, several companies re-evaluated their relationships with him. Accenture, AT&T, Gatorade and General Motors completely ended their sponsorship deals, while Gillette suspended advertising featuring Woods. TAG Heuer dropped Woods from advertising in December 2009 and officially ended their deal when his contract expired in August 2011. The magazine Golf Digest suspended Woods' monthly column beginning with the February 2010 issue. In contrast, Nike continued to support Woods, as did Electronic Arts, which was working with Woods on the game Tiger Woods PGA Tour Online. A December 2009 study estimated the shareholder loss caused by Woods' affairs to be between $5 billion and $12 billion.","Tiger Woods\n\nOn February 19, 2010, Woods gave a televised statement in which he said he had been in a 45-day therapy program since the end of December. He again apologized for his actions. \"I thought I could get away with whatever I wanted to,\" he said. \"I felt that I had worked hard my entire life and deserved to enjoy all the temptations around me. I felt I was entitled. Thanks to money and fame, I didn't have to go far to find them. I was wrong. I was foolish.\" He said he did not know yet when he would be returning to golf. He announced a few weeks later on March 16 that he would be returning at the 2010 Masters Tournament on April 8.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods and Nordegren divorced on August 23, 2010.","Tiger Woods\n\nOther","Tiger Woods\n\nFrom childhood, Woods was raised as a Buddhist, and he actively practiced this faith from childhood until well into his adult professional golf career. In a 2000 article, Woods was quoted as saying he \"believes in Buddhism... Not every aspect, but most of it.\" He has attributed his deviations and infidelity to his losing track of Buddhism. He said, \"Buddhism teaches me to stop following every impulse and to learn restraint. Obviously I lost track of what I was taught.\"","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods is registered to vote as an independent. In January 2009, Woods delivered a speech commemorating the military at the We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial. In April 2009, Woods visited the White House while in the Washington, D.C., area promoting the golf tournament he hosts, the AT&T National.","Tiger Woods\n\nWoods underwent laser eye surgery in 1999. Before this surgery, Woods' eyesight was minus 11. He considered the surgery a big help in his career and a good alternative to the glasses and contact lenses. He immediately started winning tour events after the surgery. He received money from TLC Laser Eye Centers to endorse them. In 2007, he had a second laser eye surgery when his vision began to deteriorate again.","Tiger Woods\n\nOn March 18, 2013, Woods announced that he and skier Lindsey Vonn were dating. They split up in May 2015."],"string":"[\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nEldrick Tont \\\"Tiger\\\" Woods (born December 30, 1975) is an American professional golfer who is among the most successful golfers of all time. He has been one of the highest-paid athletes in the world for several years.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nFollowing an outstanding amateur and two-year college golf career, Woods turned professional at age 20 in late summer 1996. By April 1997 he had already won his first major, the 1997 Masters, in a record-breaking performance, winning the tournament by 12 strokes and pocketing $486,000. He first reached the number one position in the world rankings in June 1997. Through the 2000s, Woods was the dominant force in golf, spending 264 weeks from August 1999 to September 2004 and 281 weeks from June 2005 to October 2010 as World Number One.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nFrom December 2009 to early April 2010, Woods took leave from professional golf to focus on his marriage after he admitted infidelity, but he and his wife Elin Nordegren eventually divorced. His many extramarital indiscretions were revealed by several different women, through many worldwide media sources. This was followed by a loss of golf form, and his ranking gradually fell to a low of No. 58 in November 2011. He ended a career-high winless streak of 107 weeks when he captured the Chevron World Challenge in December 2011. After winning the Arnold Palmer Invitational on March 25, 2013, he ascended to the No.1 ranking once again, holding the top spot until May 2014. Woods had back surgery in April 2014 and September 2015 and has struggled since to regain his dominant form. By March 29, 2015, Woods had fallen to #104, outside of the top 100 for the first time since the week prior to his first Tour title win in 1996. In May 2016, Woods dropped out of the world top 500 for the first time in his professional career.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods has broken numerous golf records. He has been World Number One for the most consecutive weeks and for the greatest total number of weeks of any golfer. He has been awarded PGA Player of the Year a record eleven times, the Byron Nelson Award for lowest adjusted scoring average a record eight times, and has the record of leading the money list in ten different seasons. He has won 14 professional major golf championships, the second-highest of any player (Jack Nicklaus leads with 18), and 79 PGA Tour events, second all time behind Sam Snead, who had 82 wins. He has more career major wins and career PGA Tour wins than any other active golfer. He is the youngest player to achieve the career Grand Slam, and the youngest and fastest to win 50 tournaments on tour. Additionally, Woods is only the second golfer, after Nicklaus, to have achieved a career Grand Slam three times. Woods has won 18 World Golf Championships, and won at least one of those events in each of the first 11 years after they began in 1999.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods and Rory McIlroy are the only golfers to win both The Silver Medal and The Gold Medal at The Open Championship.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nBackground and family\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods was born in Cypress, California, to Earl (1932–2006) and Kultida (Tida) Woods (born 1944). He is the only child of their marriage; however, he does have two half-brothers, Earl Jr. (born 1955) and Kevin (born 1957), and a half-sister, Royce (born 1958) from the 18-year marriage of Earl Woods and his first wife, Barbara Woods Gray.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nKultida (née Punsawad), originally from Thailand (where Earl had met her on a tour of duty in 1968), is of mixed Thai, Chinese, and Dutch ancestry, making her an Asian American. Earl, a retired lieutenant colonel and Vietnam War veteran, was of mostly African American and traces of European descent. Earl's grandmother was \\\"the prettiest blonde you ever saw\\\" and Earl's mother Maude Carter was of light skin. Some suggest possible Native American and Chinese ancestry. Tiger refers to his ethnic make-up as \\\"Cablinasian\\\" (a syllabic abbreviation he coined from Caucasian, Black, American Indian, and Asian).\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods' first name, Eldrick, was coined by his mother because it began with \\\"E\\\" (for Earl) and ended with \\\"K\\\" (for Kultida). His middle name Tont is a traditional Thai name. He was nicknamed Tiger in honor of his father's friend Col. Vuong Dang Phong, who had also been known as Tiger.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods has a niece, Cheyenne Woods, who played for Wake Forest University's golf team and turned professional in 2012, making her pro debut in the LPGA Championship.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nEarly life and amateur golf career\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods grew up in Orange County, California. He was a child prodigy, introduced to golf before the age of two, by his athletic father Earl, a single-figure handicap amateur golfer who had been one of the earliest African-American college baseball players at Kansas State University. In 1978, Tiger putted against comedian Bob Hope in a television appearance on The Mike Douglas Show. At age three, he shot a 48 over nine holes over the Cypress Navy course, and at age five, he appeared in Golf Digest and on ABC's That's Incredible. Before turning seven, Tiger won the Under Age 10 section of the Drive, Pitch, and Putt competition, held at the Navy Golf Course in Cypress, California. In 1984 at the age of eight, he won the 9–10 boys' event, the youngest age group available, at the Junior World Golf Championships. He first broke 80 at age eight. He went on to win the Junior World Championships six times, including four consecutive wins from 1988 to 1991.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods' father Earl wrote that Tiger first defeated him at the age of 11 years, with Earl trying his best. Earl lost to Tiger every time from then on. Woods first broke 70 on a regulation golf course at age 12.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods' first major national junior tournament was the 1989 Big I, when he was 13 years old. Woods was paired with pro John Daly, then relatively unknown, in the final round; the event's format placed a professional with each group of juniors who had qualified. Daly birdied three of the last four holes to beat Woods by only one stroke. As a young teenager, Woods first met Jack Nicklaus in Los Angeles at the Bel-Air Country Club, when Nicklaus was performing a clinic for the club's members. Woods was part of the show, and impressed Nicklaus and the crowd with his skills and potential. Earl Woods had researched in detail the career accomplishments of Nicklaus, and had set his young son the goals of breaking those records.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWhile attending Western High School in Anaheim at the age of 15, Woods became the youngest-ever U.S. Junior Amateur champion (a record which stood until it was broken by Jim Liu in 2010). He was named 1991's Southern California Amateur Player of the Year (for the second consecutive year) and Golf Digest Junior Amateur Player of the Year. In 1992, he defended his title at the U.S. Junior Amateur Championship, becoming the first multiple winner; competed in his first PGA Tour event, the Nissan Los Angeles Open (he missed the 36-hole cut); and was named Golf Digest Amateur Player of the Year, Golf World Player of the Year, and Golfweek National Amateur of the Year.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nThe following year, Woods won his third consecutive U.S. Junior Amateur Championship; he remains the event's only three-time winner. In 1994, at the TPC at Sawgrass in Florida, he became the youngest-ever winner of the U.S. Amateur Championship, a record he held until 2008 when it was broken by Danny Lee. He was a member of the American team at the 1994 Eisenhower Trophy World Amateur Golf Team Championships (winning), and the 1995 Walker Cup (losing).\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods graduated from Western High School in 1994 at age 18, and was voted \\\"Most Likely to Succeed\\\" among the graduating class. He had starred for the high school's golf team under coach Don Crosby.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods overcame difficulties with stuttering as a boy. This was not known until he wrote a letter to a boy who contemplated suicide. Woods wrote, \\\"I know what it's like to be different and to sometimes not fit in. I also stuttered as a child and I would talk to my dog and he would sit there and listen until he fell asleep. I also took a class for two years to help me, and I finally learned to stop.\\\"\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nCollege golf career\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods was recruited very heavily by college golf powers, and chose Stanford University, the 1994 NCAA Division I champions. He enrolled at Stanford in the fall of 1994 under a golf scholarship, winning his first collegiate event, the 40th Annual William H. Tucker Invitational, that September. He selected a major in economics, and was nicknamed \\\"Urkel\\\" by college teammate Notah Begay III. In 1995, he successfully defended his U.S. Amateur title at the Newport Country Club in Rhode Island and was voted Pac-10 Player of the Year, NCAA First Team All-American, and Stanford's Male Freshman of the Year (an award that encompasses all sports).\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nAt age 19, Woods participated in his first PGA Tour major, the 1995 Masters Tournament, and tied for 41st as the only amateur to make the cut. At age 20 in 1996, he became the first golfer to win three consecutive U.S. Amateur titles and won the NCAA individual golf championship. In winning the Silver Medal as leading amateur at The Open Championship, he tied the record for an amateur aggregate score of 281. He left college after two years and turned professional. In 1996, Woods moved out of California, stating in 2013 that it was due to the state's tax rate.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nProfessional career\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods became a professional golfer in August 1996, and immediately signed deals with Nike, Inc. and Titleist that ranked as the most lucrative endorsement contracts in golf history at that time. Woods was named Sports Illustrateds 1996 Sportsman of the Year and PGA Tour Rookie of the Year. In April 1997, he won his first major, the Masters, becoming the tournament's youngest-ever winner. Two months later, he set the record for the fastest-ever ascent to No. 1 in the Official World Golf Rankings. After a lackluster 1998, Woods finished the 1999 season with eight wins, including the PGA Championship, a feat not achieved since 1974.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nIn 2000, Woods achieved six consecutive wins, the longest winning streak since Ben Hogan did it in 1948. One of these was the 2000 U.S. Open, where he broke or tied nine tournament records in what Sports Illustrated called \\\"the greatest performance in golf history,\\\" in which Woods won the tournament by a 15-stroke margin and earned a check for $800,000. At age 24, he became the youngest golfer to achieve the Career Grand Slam. At the end of 2000, Woods had won nine of the twenty PGA Tour events he entered and had broken the record for lowest scoring average in tour history. He was named the Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year, the only athlete to be honored twice, and was ranked by Golf Digest magazine as the twelfth-best golfer of all time.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods' victory in the 2001 Masters Tournament made him the first player to hold all four major professional golf titles at the same time, although not in the same calendar year. Following a stellar 2001 and 2002 in which Woods continued to dominate the tour, Woods' career hit a \\\"slump\\\". He did not win a major in 2003 or 2004. In September 2004, Vijay Singh overtook Woods in the Official World Golf Rankings, ending Woods' record streak of 264 weeks at #1.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods rebounded in 2005, winning six official PGA Tour money events and reclaiming the top spot in July after swapping it back and forth with Singh over the first half of the year.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nIn 2006, Woods began dominantly, winning his first two PGA tournaments but failing to capture his fifth Masters championship in April. Following the death of his father in May, Woods took a nine-week hiatus from the tour and appeared rusty upon his return at the U.S. Open, missing the cut at Winged Foot. However, he quickly returned to form and ended the year by winning six consecutive tour events. At the season's close, with 54 wins and 12 majors wins, Woods had broken the tour records for both total wins and total majors wins over eleven seasons.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods continued to excel in 2007 and the first part of 2008. In April 2008, he underwent knee surgery and missed the next two months on the tour. Woods returned for the 2008 U.S. Open, where he struggled the first day but ultimately claimed a dramatic victory over Rocco Mediate, after which Mediate said, \\\"This guy does things that are just not normal by any stretch of the imagination,\\\" and Kenny Perry added, \\\"He beat everybody on one leg.\\\" Two days later, Woods announced that he would miss the remainder of the season due to further knee surgery, and that his knee was more severely damaged than previously revealed, prompting even greater praise for his U.S. Open performance. Woods called it \\\"my greatest ever championship.\\\" In Woods' absence, TV ratings for the remainder of the season suffered a huge decline from 2007.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nUpon Woods' much-anticipated return in 2009, he performed well, including a spectacular performance at the 2009 Presidents Cup, but failed to win a major, the first year since 2004 that he had not done so. After his marital infidelities came to light and received massive media coverage at the end of 2009 (see further details below), Woods announced in December that he would be taking an indefinite break from competitive golf. In February 2010, he delivered a televised apology for his behavior. During this period, several companies ended their endorsement deals with Woods.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods returned to competition in April at the 2010 Masters Tournament, where he finished in a tie for fourth place. He followed the Masters with poor showings at the Quail Hollow Championship and the Players Championship, where he withdrew in the fourth round citing injury. Shortly afterward, Hank Haney, Woods' coach since 2003, resigned the position; he was replaced in August by Sean Foley. The rest of the season went badly for Woods, who failed to win a single event for the first time since turning professional, while nevertheless finishing the season ranked No. 2 in the world.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods' performance continued to suffer in 2011, taking its toll on his ranking. After falling to No. 7 in March, he rebounded to No. 5 with a strong showing at the 2011 Masters Tournament, where he tied for fourth place. Due to leg injuries incurred at the Masters, he missed several summer events; in July he fired his longtime caddy Steve Williams, replacing him temporarily with friend Bryon Bell. After returning to tournament play in August, Woods continued to falter, and his ranking gradually fell to a low of #58. He rose to No. 50 in mid-November after a third-place finish at the Emirates Australian Open, and broke his winless streak with a victory at December's Chevron World Challenge.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods began his 2012 season with two tournaments (the Abu Dhabi HSBC Golf Championship and the AT&T Pebble Beach National Pro-Am) where he started off well, but struggled on the final rounds. Following the WGC-Accenture Match Play Championship, where he was knocked out in the second round by missing a 5-foot putt, Woods revised his putting technique and tied for second at the Honda Classic, with the lowest final round score in his PGA Tour career. After a short time off due to another leg injury, Woods won the Arnold Palmer Invitational, his first win on the PGA Tour since the BMW Championship in September 2009. Following several dismal performances, Woods notched his 73rd PGA Tour win at the Memorial Tournament in June, tying Jack Nicklaus in second place for most PGA Tour victories; a month later, Woods surpassed Nicklaus with a win at the AT&T National, to trail only Sam Snead, who had 82 PGA wins.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\n2013 would bring a return of Woods' dominating play. He won the Farmers Insurance Open in January 2013 by four shots for his 75th PGA Tour win. It was the seventh time he had won the event. In March, he won the WGC-Cadillac Championship, also for the seventh time, giving him his 17th WGC title and first since 2009. Two weeks later, he won the Arnold Palmer Invitational, winning the event for a record-tying 8th time. The win moved him back to the top of the world rankings. To commemorate that achievement, Nike was quick to launch an ad with the tagline \\\"winning takes care of everything\\\".\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nOn April 13, 2013, Woods was up for disqualification from the 2013 Masters Tournament over claims he took an illegal drop after his third shot on the par-5 15th hole bounced off of the pin and into the water. After further review, Woods was assessed a two-stroke penalty for the drop and not disqualified. He finished T4 in the event. Woods won The Players Championship in May 2013, his second career win at the event, notching his fourth win of the 2013 season. It was the quickest he had ever gotten to four wins in any season in his professional career.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods had a poor showing at the 2013 U.S Open as a result of an elbow injury sustained at The Players Championship. In finishing at +13, he recorded his worst score ever as a professional and finished 12 strokes behind winner Justin Rose. After a prolonged break because of the injury, during which he missed the Greenbrier Classic and his own AT&T National, he returned at the Open Championship at Muirfield. Despite being in contention all week and beginning the final round only two stokes behind Lee Westwood, he struggled with the speed of the greens and could only manage a 3-over-par 74 which left him tied for 6th place, five strokes behind eventual winner Phil Mickelson. Two weeks later, Woods returned to form at the WGC-Bridgestone Invitational, recording his 5th win of the season and 8th win at the event in its 15-year history. His second round 61 matched his record score on the PGA Tour and could easily have been a 59 were it not for some short missed birdie putts on the closing holes. This gave him a seven stroke lead which he held on to for the rest of the tournament.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods would never contend at the PGA Championship at Oak Hill Country Club and would come short of winning a major for the 5th full season, only contending in two of the four majors in 2013.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nAfter a slow start to 2014, Woods injured himself during the Honda Classic and was unable to finish, withdrawing after 13 holes of the final round citing back pain. He subsequently competed in the WGC-Cadillac Championship but was visibly in pain during much of the last round. He was forced to skip the Arnold Palmer Invitational at the end of March 2014 and, on April 1, announced that he would miss the Masters Tournament for the first time since 1994 after undergoing a microdiscectomy. Woods returned at the Quicken Loans National in June, however he stated that his expectations for the week were low. He would struggle with nearly every aspect of his game and miss the cut. He next played at The Open Championship, contested at Hoylake, where Woods had won eight years prior. Woods fired a brilliant 69 in the first round to put himself in contention, but shot 77 on Friday and would eventually finish 69th. Despite his back pain, he played at the 2014 PGA Championship where he failed to make the cut. On August 25, 2014, Woods and his swing coach Sean Foley parted ways.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nIn the four years under Foley, he won eight times but no majors. He had previously won eight majors with Harmon and six with Haney. Woods said there is currently no timetable to find a replacement swing coach.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nOn February 5, 2015, Woods withdrew from the Farmers Insurance Open after another back injury. Woods stated on his website that it was unrelated to his previous surgery and was taking a break from golf until his back healed. He returned for the 2015 Masters Tournament, finishing in a tie for 17th. In the final round, Woods injured his wrist after his club hit a tree root. He later stated that a bone popped out of his wrist, but he adjusted it back into place and finished the round. Woods then missed the cut at the 2015 U.S. Open and Open Championship, the first time ever Woods missed the cut at consecutive majors, finishing near the bottom of the leaderboard both times. He finished tied for 18th at the Quicken Loans National on August 2. In late August 2015, Woods played quite well at the Wyndham Championship finishing the tournament at 13-under, only four strokes behind the winner, and tied for 10th place. Woods offered only a brief comment on the speculation that he was still recovering from back surgery, saying it was \\\"just my hip\\\" but offering no specifics.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nIn late March 2016, Woods announced that he would miss the Masters Tournament while recovering from a back surgery (microdiscectomy) that took place on September 16, 2015. (He had also missed the 2014 Masters due to a back problem.) \\\"I'm absolutely making progress, and I'm really happy with how far I've come,\\\" he explained in a statement. \\\"But I still have no timetable to return to competitive golf.\\\" However, he did attend the Masters Champions Dinner on April 5, 2016. For the first time in his career he missed all 4 majors due to his back.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nHonors\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nOn August 20, 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced that Woods would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame. He was inducted December 5, 2007 at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts in Sacramento.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nHe has been named \\\"Athlete of the Decade\\\" by the Associated Press in December 2009. \\nHe has been named Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year a record-tying four times, and is the only person to be named Sports Illustrateds Sportsman of the Year more than once.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nSince his record-breaking win at the 1997 Masters Tournament, golf's increased popularity is commonly attributed to Woods' presence. He is credited by some sources for dramatically increasing prize money in golf, generating interest in new PGA tournament audiences, and for drawing the largest TV ratings in golf history.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nEndorsements\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nDuring the first decade of his professional career, Woods was the world's most marketable athlete. Shortly after his 21st birthday in 1996, he began signing endorsement deals with numerous companies, including General Motors, Titleist, General Mills, American Express, Accenture, and Nike, Inc. In 2000, he signed a 5-year, $105 million contract extension with Nike. It was the largest endorsing deal ever signed by an athlete at that time. Woods' endorsement has been credited with playing a significant role in taking the Nike Golf brand from a \\\"start-up\\\" golf company earlier in the past decade, to becoming the leading golf apparel company in the world, and a major player in the equipment and golf ball market. Nike Golf is one of the fastest growing brands in the sport, with an estimated $600 million in sales. Woods has been described as the \\\"ultimate endorser\\\" for Nike Golf, frequently seen wearing Nike gear during tournaments, and even in advertisements for other products. Woods receives a percentage from the sales of Nike Golf apparel, footwear, golf equipment, golf balls, and has a building named after him at Nike's headquarters campus in Beaverton, Oregon.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nIn 2002, Woods was involved in every aspect of the launch of Buick's Rendezvous SUV. A company spokesman stated that Buick was happy with the value of Woods' endorsement, pointing out that more than 130,000 Rendezvous vehicles were sold in 2002 and 2003. \\\"That exceeded our forecasts,\\\" he was quoted as saying, \\\"It has to be in recognition of Tiger.\\\" In February 2004, Buick renewed Woods' endorsement contract for another five years, in a deal reportedly worth $40 million.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods collaborated closely with TAG Heuer to develop the world's first professional golf watch, released in April 2005. The lightweight, titanium-construction watch, designed to be worn while playing the game, incorporates numerous innovative design features to accommodate golf play. It is capable of absorbing up to 5,000 Gs of shock, far in excess of the forces generated by a normal golf swing. In 2006, the TAG Heuer Professional Golf Watch won the prestigious iF product design award in the Leisure/Lifestyle category.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods also endorses the Tiger Woods PGA Tour series of video games; he has done so since 1999. In 2006, he signed a six-year contract with Electronic Arts, the series' publisher.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nIn February 2007, along with Roger Federer and Thierry Henry, Woods became an ambassador for the \\\"Gillette Champions\\\" marketing campaign. Gillette did not disclose financial terms, though an expert estimated the deal could total between $10 million and $20 million.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nIn October 2007, Gatorade announced that Woods would have his own brand of sports drink starting in March 2008. \\\"Gatorade Tiger\\\" was his first U.S. deal with a beverage company and his first licensing agreement. Although no figures were officially disclosed, Golfweek magazine reported that it was for five years and could pay him as much as $100 million. The company decided in early fall 2009 to discontinue the drink due to weak sales.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nIn July 2011, Woods appeared on a 15-second Japanese television commercial, endorsing a heat back rub by Kowa Co., the Vantelin Kowa rub. Details of the deal, which was made in late 2010, were not disclosed.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nIn October 2012, it was announced that Woods had signed an exclusive endorsement deal with Fuse Science, Inc, a sports nutrition firm.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nA case was initiated against Bruce Matthews (the owner of Gotta Have It Golf, Inc.) and others in 1997 by Woods and fellow golfer Arnold Palmer in the effort to stop the unauthorized sale of their images and alleged signatures in the memorabilia market. Matthews and associated parties counterclaimed that Woods and his company, ETW Corporation, committed several acts including breach of contract, breach of implied duty of good faith, and violations of Florida's Deceptive and Unfair Trade Practices Act. Palmer was also named in the counter-suit, accused of violating the same licensing agreement in conjunction with his company Arnold Palmer Enterprises.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nOn March 12, 2014, a Florida jury found in favor of Gotta Have It on its breach of contract and other related claims, rejected ETW's counterclaims, and awarded Gotta Have It $668,346 in damages. The award may end up exceeding $1 million once interest has been factored in, though the ruling may be appealed.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nAccumulated wealth\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nAccording to Golf Digest, Woods made $769,440,709 from 1996 to 2007, and the magazine predicted that by 2010, Woods would pass one billion dollars in earnings. In 2009, Forbes confirmed that Woods was indeed the world's first athlete to earn over a billion dollars in his career (before taxes), after accounting for the $10 million bonus Woods received for the FedEx Cup title. The same year, Forbes estimated his net worth to be $600 million, making him the second richest \\\"African American\\\" behind only Oprah Winfrey. In 2015, Woods ranked ninth in Forbes' list of world's highest-paid athletes, being the top among \\\"Asian Americans\\\" or the fourth among \\\"African Americans\\\".\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nTiger-proofing\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nEarly in Woods' career, a small number of golf experts expressed concern about his impact on the competitiveness of the game and the public appeal of professional golf. Sportswriter Bill Lyon of Knight-Ridder asked in a column, \\\"Isn't Tiger Woods actually bad for golf?\\\" (though Lyon ultimately concluded that he was not). At first, some pundits feared that Woods would drive the spirit of competition out of the game of golf by making existing courses obsolete and relegating opponents to simply competing for second place each week.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nA related effect was measured by economist Jennifer Brown of the University of California, Berkeley who found that other golfers played worse when competing against Woods than when he was not in the tournament. The scores of highly skilled (exempt) golfers are nearly one stroke higher when playing against Woods. This effect was larger when he was on winning streaks and disappeared during his well-publicized slump in 2003–04. Brown explains the results by noting that competitors of similar skill can hope to win by increasing their level of effort, but that, when facing a \\\"superstar\\\" competitor, extra exertion does not significantly raise one's level of winning while increasing risk of injury or exhaustion, leading to reduced effort.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nMany courses in the PGA Tour rotation (including Major Championship sites like Augusta National) have added yardage to their tees in an effort to reduce the advantage of long hitters like Woods, a strategy that became known as \\\"Tiger-Proofing\\\". Woods said he welcomed the change, in that adding yardage to courses did not affect his ability to win.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nCareer achievements\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods has won 79 official PGA Tour events, including 14 majors. He is 14–1 when going into the final round of a major with at least a share of the lead. He has been heralded as \\\"the greatest closer in history\\\" by multiple golf experts. He owns the lowest career scoring average and the most career earnings of any player in PGA Tour history.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods victory at the 2013 Players Championship also marked a win in his 300th PGA Tour start. He also won golf tournaments in his 100th (in 2000) and 200th (in 2006) tour starts.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods has spent the most consecutive and cumulative weeks atop the world rankings. He is one of five players (along with Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Gary Player, and Jack Nicklaus) to have won all four professional major championships in his career, known as the Career Grand Slam, and was the youngest to do so. Woods is the only player to have won all four professional major championships in a row, accomplishing the feat in the 2000–2001 seasons.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\n*PGA Tour wins (79)\\n*European Tour wins (40)\\n*Japan Golf Tour wins (2)\\n*Asian Tour wins (1)\\n*PGA Tour of Australasia wins (1)\\n*Other professional wins (16) \\n*Amateur wins (21)\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nMajor championships\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWins (14)\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\n1 Defeated May in three-hole playoff by 1 stroke: Woods (3-4-512), May (4-4-5\\n13) \\n2 Defeated DiMarco with birdie on first extra hole\\n3 Defeated Mediate with a par on 1st sudden death hole after 18-hole playoff was tied at even par\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nResults timeline\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nLA \\n Low amateur\\nDNP = did not play\\nCUT = missed the half-way cut\\nWD = withdrew \\n\\\"T\\\" indicates a tie for a place\\nGreen background for wins. Yellow background for top-10.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nSummary\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\n*Most consecutive cuts made – 39 (1996 U.S. Open – 2006 Masters)\\n*Longest streak of top-10s – 8 (1999 U.S. Open – 2001 Masters)\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWorld Golf Championships\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWins (18)\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\n1 Won on the first hole of a sudden-death playoff\\n2 Won on the seventh hole of a sudden-death playoff\\n3 Won on the second hole of a sudden-death playoff\\n4 Won on the fourth hole of a sudden-death playoff\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nResults timeline\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\n1 Canceled following the September 11 attacks.\\nDNP = did not play\\nQF, R16, R32, R64 = Round in which player lost in match play\\nWD = withdrew \\nNT = No tournament\\n\\\"T\\\" = tied\\nGreen background for wins. Yellow background for top-10.\\nNote that the HSBC Champions did not become a WGC event until 2009.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nPGA Tour career summary\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\n* As of the 2015 season.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nPlaying style\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWhen Woods first joined the professional tour in 1996, his long drives had a large impact on the world of golf. However, when he did not upgrade his equipment in the following years (insisting upon the use of True Temper Dynamic Gold steel-shafted clubs and smaller steel clubheads that promoted accuracy over distance), many opponents caught up to him. Phil Mickelson even made a joke in 2003 about Woods using \\\"inferior equipment\\\", which did not sit well with Nike, Titleist or Woods. During 2004, Woods finally upgraded his driver technology to a larger clubhead and graphite shaft, which, coupled with his clubhead speed, made him one of the Tour's lengthiest players off the tee once again.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nDespite his power advantage, Woods has always focused on developing an excellent all-around game. Although in recent years he has typically been near the bottom of the Tour rankings in driving accuracy, his iron play is generally accurate, his recovery and bunker play is very strong, and his putting (especially under pressure) is possibly his greatest asset. He is largely responsible for a shift to higher standards of athleticism amongst professional golfers, and is known for putting in more hours of practice than most.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nFrom mid-1993, while he was still an amateur, until 2004, Woods worked almost exclusively with leading swing coach Butch Harmon. From mid-1997, Harmon and Woods fashioned a major redevelopment of Woods' full swing, achieving greater consistency, better distance control, and better kinesiology. The changes began to pay off in 1999. From March 2004 to 2010, Woods was coached by Hank Haney, who worked on flattening his swing plane. Woods continued to win tournaments with Haney, but his driving accuracy dropped significantly. Haney resigned in May 2010 and was replaced by Sean Foley.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nMike \\\"Fluff\\\" Cowan served as Woods' caddy from the start of his professional career until Tiger fired him in March 1999. He was replaced by Steve Williams, who became a close friend of Woods and is often credited with helping him with key shots and putts. In June 2011, Woods fired Williams and replaced him with friend Bryon Bell on an interim basis. Joe LaCava, a former caddy of both Fred Couples and Dustin Johnson, was hired by Woods shortly after, and has remained Woods' caddie since then.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nEquipment\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWGC-Bridgestone Invitational: \\n* Driver: Nike VRS Covert 2.0 (9.5-degree; Mitsubishi Diamana White Board 73X shaft)\\n* Fairway Woods: Nike VR_S Covert 15° 3-wood and Nike VR_S Covert 19° 5-wood with Mitsubishi Diamana Blueboard 103x shaft\\n* Irons: Nike VR Pro Blades (2-PW) (Tiger will put his 5-wood or 2-iron in the bag depending upon the course setup and conditions). All irons are 1-degree upright, have D4 swingweight, standard size Tour Velvet grips and True Temper Dynamic Gold X-100 shafts.\\n* Wedges: Nike VR Pro (56 and 60-degree; True Temper Dynamic Gold S400 shafts)\\n* Putter: Nike Method 001\\n* Ball: Nike ONE Tour D (with \\\"Tiger\\\" imprint)\\n* Golf Glove: Nike Dri-FIT Tour glove\\n* Golf Shoes: Nike TW '14\\n* Driver club cover: Frank, a plush tiger head club cover created by his mother. Frank has appeared in several commercials.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nOther ventures\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nTiger Woods Foundation\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nThe Tiger Woods Foundation was established in 1996 by Woods and his father Earl, with the primary goal of promoting golf among inner-city children. The foundation has conducted junior golf clinics across the country, and sponsors the Tiger Woods Foundation National Junior Golf Team in the Junior World Golf Championships. As of December 2010, TWF employed approximately 55 people.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nThe foundation operates the Tiger Woods Learning Center, a $50 million, 35,000-square-foot facility in Anaheim, California, providing college-access programs for underserved youth. The TWLC opened in 2006 and features seven classrooms, extensive multi-media facilities and an outdoor golf teaching area. The center has since expanded to four additional campuses: two in Washington, D.C.; one in Philadelphia; and one in Stuart, Florida.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nThe foundation benefits from the annual Chevron World Challenge and AT&T National golf tournaments hosted by Woods. In October 2011, the foundation hosted the first Tiger Woods Invitational at Pebble Beach. Other annual fundraisers have included the concert events Block Party, last held in 2009 in Anaheim, and Tiger Jam, last held in 2011 in Las Vegas after a one-year hiatus.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nTiger Woods Design\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nIn November 2006, Woods announced his intention to begin designing golf courses around the world through a new company, Tiger Woods Design. A month later, he announced that the company's first course would be in Dubai as part of a 25.3 million-square-foot development, The Tiger Woods Dubai. The Al Ruwaya Golf Course was initially expected to finish construction in 2009. As of February 2010, only seven holes had been completed; in April 2011, The New York Times reported that the project had been shelved permanently. In 2013, the partnership between Tiger Woods Design and Dubai Holding was dissolved.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nTiger Woods Design has taken on two other courses, neither of which has materialized. In August 2007, Woods announced The Cliffs at High Carolina, a private course in the Blue Ridge Mountains near Asheville, North Carolina. After a groundbreaking in November 2008, the project suffered cash flow problems and suspended construction. A third course, in Punta Brava, Mexico, was announced in October 2008, but incurred delays due to issues with permits and an environmental impact study. Construction on the Punta Brava course has not yet begun.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nThe problems encountered by these projects have been credited to factors including overly optimistic estimates of their value; declines throughout the global economy, particularly the U.S. crash in home prices; and decreased appeal of Woods following his 2009 infidelity scandal.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWritings\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods wrote a golf instruction column for Golf Digest magazine from 1997 to February 2011. In 2001 he wrote a best-selling golf instruction book, How I Play Golf, which had the largest print run of any golf book for its first edition, 1.5 million copies.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nPersonal life\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nMarriage and children\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nIn November 2003, Woods became engaged to Elin Nordegren, a Swedish former model and daughter of former minister of migration Barbro Holmberg and radio journalist Thomas Nordegren. They were introduced during The Open Championship in 2001 by Swedish golfer Jesper Parnevik, who had employed her as an au pair. They married on October 5, 2004, at the Sandy Lane resort in Barbados, and lived at Isleworth, a community in Windermere, a suburb of Orlando, Florida. In 2006, they purchased a $39-million estate in Jupiter Island, Florida, and began constructing a 10,000-square-foot home; Woods moved there in 2010 following the couple's divorce, which was finalized August 23, 2010.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods' and Nordegren's first child, a daughter named Sam Alexis Woods, was born in 2007. Woods chose the name because his own father had always called him Sam. Their son, Charlie Axel Woods, was born in 2009.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nInfidelity scandal and fallout\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nOn November 25, 2009, The National Enquirer published a story claiming that Woods had an extramarital affair with New York City nightclub manager Rachel Uchitel, a claim she denied. Two days later, around 2:30 a.m. on November 27, Woods left home in his Cadillac Escalade SUV and, while still on his street, collided with a fire hydrant, a tree, and several hedges. He was treated for minor facial lacerations and received a ticket for careless driving. Following intense media speculation about the accident, Woods released a statement on his website taking sole responsibility for the accident, calling it a \\\"private matter\\\" and crediting his wife for helping him from the car. On November 30, Woods announced that he would not be appearing at his own charity golf tournament, the Chevron World Challenge, nor any other tournaments in 2009, due to his injuries.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nOn December 2, following Us Weeklys prior day reporting of a purported mistress and subsequent release of a voicemail message allegedly left by Woods for the woman, Woods released a further statement; there, he admitted \\\"transgressions\\\" and apologized to \\\"all of those who have supported [him] over the years\\\", while reiterating his and his family's right to privacy. Over the next few days, more than a dozen women claimed in various media outlets to have had affairs with Woods. On December 11, he released a third statement admitting to infidelity and apologizing again, as well as announcing that he would be taking \\\"an indefinite break from professional golf.\\\"\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nIn the days and months following Woods' admission of infidelity, several companies re-evaluated their relationships with him. Accenture, AT&T, Gatorade and General Motors completely ended their sponsorship deals, while Gillette suspended advertising featuring Woods. TAG Heuer dropped Woods from advertising in December 2009 and officially ended their deal when his contract expired in August 2011. The magazine Golf Digest suspended Woods' monthly column beginning with the February 2010 issue. In contrast, Nike continued to support Woods, as did Electronic Arts, which was working with Woods on the game Tiger Woods PGA Tour Online. A December 2009 study estimated the shareholder loss caused by Woods' affairs to be between $5 billion and $12 billion.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nOn February 19, 2010, Woods gave a televised statement in which he said he had been in a 45-day therapy program since the end of December. He again apologized for his actions. \\\"I thought I could get away with whatever I wanted to,\\\" he said. \\\"I felt that I had worked hard my entire life and deserved to enjoy all the temptations around me. I felt I was entitled. Thanks to money and fame, I didn't have to go far to find them. I was wrong. I was foolish.\\\" He said he did not know yet when he would be returning to golf. He announced a few weeks later on March 16 that he would be returning at the 2010 Masters Tournament on April 8.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods and Nordegren divorced on August 23, 2010.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nOther\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nFrom childhood, Woods was raised as a Buddhist, and he actively practiced this faith from childhood until well into his adult professional golf career. In a 2000 article, Woods was quoted as saying he \\\"believes in Buddhism... Not every aspect, but most of it.\\\" He has attributed his deviations and infidelity to his losing track of Buddhism. He said, \\\"Buddhism teaches me to stop following every impulse and to learn restraint. Obviously I lost track of what I was taught.\\\"\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods is registered to vote as an independent. In January 2009, Woods delivered a speech commemorating the military at the We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial. In April 2009, Woods visited the White House while in the Washington, D.C., area promoting the golf tournament he hosts, the AT&T National.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nWoods underwent laser eye surgery in 1999. Before this surgery, Woods' eyesight was minus 11. He considered the surgery a big help in his career and a good alternative to the glasses and contact lenses. He immediately started winning tour events after the surgery. He received money from TLC Laser Eye Centers to endorse them. In 2007, he had a second laser eye surgery when his vision began to deteriorate again.\",\n \"Tiger Woods\\n\\nOn March 18, 2013, Woods announced that he and skier Lindsey Vonn were dating. They split up in May 2015.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2081,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_27"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What is Fred Flintstone's wife called?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Wilma"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["wilma","wilma disambiguation"],"string":"[\n \"wilma\",\n \"wilma disambiguation\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Fred Flintstone\n\nFrederick \"Fred\" Flintstone, also known as Fred W. Flintstone, or Frederick J. Flintstone is the protagonist of the animated sitcom The Flintstones, which aired during prime-time on ABC during the original series' run from 1960 to 1966. Fred is the husband of Wilma Flintstone and father of Pebbles Flintstone. His best friends are his next door neighbors, Barney and Betty Rubble, who have an adopted son named Bamm-Bamm.","Fred Flintstone\n\nFred lives in the fictional prehistoric town of Bedrock, a world where dinosaurs coexist with modernized cavepeople and the cavepeople enjoy \"primitive\" versions of modern conveniences such as telephones, automobiles, and washing machines. Fred's trademark yell is \"yabba dabba doo!\", a phrase that was originally his club's cheer and later adopted as part of the theme song from the third series on and used in the 1994 live-action Flintstones movie.","Fred Flintstone\n\nSince the original series' run, Fred has since appeared in various other cartoon spinoffs, live action adaptations, music videos, and commercials.","Fred Flintstone\n\nBiography","Fred Flintstone\n\nWhile the mid-1980s spin-off series The Flintstone Kids depicts Fred as a child, the series may be apocryphal due to its presenting Wilma as a childhood friend of Fred and Barney; the original series asserts that they first met as young adults. Still, the series' depictions that Fred is the only child of Ed and Edna Flintstone (a handyman and a homemaker, respectively) might be taken as canon.","Fred Flintstone\n\nAs young adults, Fred and Barney worked as bellhops at a resort. There, they meet and fall in love with Wilma and Betty, who were working there as cigarette girls. Wilma's mother, Pearl Slaghoople, also met her future son-in-law, and took an instant disliking toward Fred (and vice versa), starting a long-lasting rivalry between the two. An unspecified amount of time later, Fred married Wilma.","Fred Flintstone\n\nFred is a typical blue-collar worker, who works as a \"bronto crane operator\" at Slate Rock and Gravel Company (also known as Rockhead and Quarry Cave Construction Company in earlier episodes). Fred's job title in the second season episode \"Divided We Sail\" is \"geological engineer\".","Fred Flintstone\n\nDuring the original series' third season, Wilma gives birth to the couple's daughter, Pebbles. Years later, when Pebbles is a teenager, Fred and Barney join the Bedrock police force for a time as part-time police officers. Eventually, Fred becomes a grand dad to the adult Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm's twins, Chip and Roxy. Fred's family grew again in A Flintstone Family Christmas, when he and Wilma adopted an orphaned caveboy named Stony, and despite a rough start, Fred and his new son bonded well.","Fred Flintstone\n\nRelatives","Fred Flintstone\n\nThe Flintstone family's paternal side originally came from the prehistoric U.S. state of Arkanstone, where they had been engaged in a feud similar to the Hatfield-McCoy feud. The feud was originally started by an ancestor of Fred's making a joke about a Hatrock family portrait (\"I don't know what the artist got for doing that painting, but he should've gotten life!\"). In the fourth season episode \"Bedrock Hillbillies,\" the feud is ended when Fred helps rescue Pebbles and a Hatrock baby, only to start up again when Fred makes the same joke as his ancestor. The Hatrocks later appear in the follow-up fifth season episode \"The Hatrocks and the Gruesomes\", where they visit Bedrock. The last of the Arkanstone Flintstones was Fred's great-great-uncle Zeke Flintstone.","Fred Flintstone\n\nOther relatives of Fred include: Giggles Flintstone, a rich, eccentric practical joker whose jokes drive Fred into a mad rage; Uncle Tex Hardrock, Fred's rich Texan uncle; Tumbleweed and Mary Lou Jim, Fred's rich Texan cousins; Rockbottom \"Rocky\" Flintstone, Fred's grand dad, who was a veteran of Stone World War One; Stony Flintstone, Fred's grand dad and James Hardrock, Edna's father.","Fred Flintstone\n\nPersonality","Fred Flintstone\n\nFred's personality was based on that of Ralph Kramden of the 1950s television series The Honeymooners and Chester A. Riley from The Life of Riley, both of whom were originally portrayed on television by Jackie Gleason (Riley was originally portrayed on radio, film and later television episodes by William Bendix). Much like Ralph, Fred tends to be loud-mouthed, aggressive, and constantly scheming ways to improve his family's working class lot in life, often with unintended results. Also like Ralph, despite his harshness, he is friendly, and has a loving heart, who is very devoted to his family and cares a lot about his best friend and next door neighbor Barney Rubble. Fred loses his temper easily and is very impatient, but he seems free of malice and never holds a grudge. Although his loudness irritates the people around him, Fred proves friendly, often going out of his way to help others. Also, although Fred often annoys Wilma with his immaturity, he is known to go to great lengths to please his family and apologize when he goes too far.","Fred Flintstone\n\nFred's interests include bowling, playing pool, golf, poker and lounging around the house. Fred has won championships with his bowling skills; in one episode, he goes so far as to take ballet lessons in order to improve his game. The nickname of \"Twinkletoes\" stuck with him when Fred attended a local university and became eligible to play on their football team, and it became his call sign. Fred is also an excellent golfer. Fred is a member of the Loyal Order of Water Buffalos Lodge (named \"the Loyal Order of Dinosaurs\" in an early episode ). Fred also has a serious gambling problem; the mere mention of the word \"bet\" causes Fred to stammer \"bet\" over and over again (sounding like a clucking chicken) and go on gambling binges. Fred is also an avid driver. In the fifth season episode \"Indianrockolis 500,\" Fred entered the famed prehistoric auto race under the pseudonym \"Goggles Pisano\".","Fred Flintstone\n\nFred's catchphrase is \"Yabba-Dabba-Doo!\"; Alan Reed, voice actor who provided Fred's voice from 1960-1977, reportedly said that the inspiration for the phrase came from his mother, who used to say, \"A little dab'll do ya,\" probably borrowed from a Brylcreem commercial. When the script called for a simple 'Yahoo!' Alan either asked if he could alter the phrase or he ad-libbed. It inspired, in the 1970s a short-lived fruit drink called \"Yabba Dabba Dew\" and may or may not have also inspired George Jetson's similar sounding catchphrase, \"Hooba-dooba-dooba\" (or \"Hooba-Dooba\"). It does, however, become the subject of a song by Hoagy Carmichael that the singer-songwriter performs in an episode of The Flintstones Fred's ability to carry a tune was quite good in his younger years. One early episode sees Fred (with Barney, who is a skilled drummer) perform at a nightclub with his musician friend \"Hot Lips Hannigan\" where his singing caused teenage girls to swoon over him; on this occasion, he was nicknamed \"the Golden Smog\".","Fred Flintstone\n\nIn another first season episode, \"Girls' Night Out\", Fred recorded a demo record at a carnival of the song \"Listen to the Rocking Bird\", which ended up making him a teenage singing idol named \"Hi Fye.\" As the series progressed, however, his voice became worse and worse, eventually to the point that a temporary maid the Flintstones hired quit rather than having to hear Fred sing.","Fred Flintstone\n\nDue to his impulsive and short-tempered behavior and stubborn and naive nature, Fred seems to be accident-prone. Even his most innocent and mundane actions often cause widespread confusion.","Fred Flintstone\n\nAccording to the original series' third season episode \"The Birthday Party\" (originally aired April 5, 1963), Fred's birthday is February 2. Fred's address has varied through the series' run, with addresses given for the Flintstone residence including 345 Cave Stone Road, 1313 Cobblestone Way, Fred's address was cited as \"55 Cobblestone Rd\" in the 1961 episode \"The X-Ray Story\". and 222 Rocky Way.","Fred Flintstone\n\nAnimated Media","Fred Flintstone\n\n* The Flagstones (1959)\n* The Flintstones (1960-1966)\n* The Man Called Flintstone (1966)\n* The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show (1971)\n* The Flintstone Comedy Hour (1972)\n* A Flintstone Christmas (1977)\n* The Flintstones: Little Big League (1978)\n* The Flintstones Meet Rockula and Frankenstone (1979)\n* The New Fred and Barney Show (1979)\n* The Flintstones: Fred's Final Fling (1980)\n* The Flintstones' New Neighbors (1980)\n* The Flintstone Comedy Show (1980-1981)\n* The Flintstones: Jogging Fever (1981)\n* The Flintstones: Wind-Up Wilma (1981)\n* The Flintstone Funnies (1982-1984)\n* Yogi Bear's All Star Comedy Christmas Caper (1982)\n* The Flintstones' 25th Anniversary Celebration (1986)\n* The Flintstone Kids (1986-1988) (voiced by Julie McWhirter Dees and Scott Menville)\n* The Jetsons Meet the Flintstones (1987)\n* The Flintstone Kids' \"Just Say No\" Special (1988)\n* A Yabba Dabba Doo Celebration: 50 Years of Hanna-Barbera (1989)\n* I Yabba-Dabba Do!","Fred Flintstone\n\n(1993)\n* Hollyrock-a-Bye Baby (1993)\n* A Flintstone Family Christmas (1993)\n* The Flintstones (1994) (portrayed by John Goodman)\n* A Flintstones Christmas Carol (1994)\n* The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000) (portrayed by Mark Addy)\n* The Flintstones: On the Rocks (2001) (voiced by Jeff Bergman)\n* The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown! (2015)","Fred Flintstone\n\nPortrayal","Fred Flintstone\n\n* Alan Reed was the original voice artist of Fred (minus the original short pilot where he was voiced by Daws Butler) until Reed's death in 1977. Henry Corden, who had provided the singing voice for Reed (and Fred) in The Man Called Flintstone, took over until his retirement in 2000, although he continued to voice him in Post Pebbles commercials until his death in 2005. Corden voiced Fred's father and mother in The Flintstone Kids. James Arnold Taylor voiced Fred in commercials following Corden's death, up until 2011, as well as his guest appearance in The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy. Jeff Bergman started voicing Fred for Cartoon Network bumpers in 2000, and voiced him in The Flintstones: On the Rocks, his guest appearance in Johnny Bravo, some episodes of Family Guy, and more recently The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown!. *In The Flintstone Kids, young Fred was voiced by both Lennie Weinrib and Scott Menville at different points. *In the first live-action film, The Flintstones, Fred was played by John Goodman.","Fred Flintstone\n\nIn the prequel film, The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas, in which Fred is portrayed as younger than he was in the original, he was played by British actor Mark Addy.","Fred Flintstone\n\nIn other media","Fred Flintstone\n\nCommercials","Fred Flintstone\n\nDuring the first several seasons of The Flintstones series, Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble were pitchmen for Winston cigarettes, the show's sponsor at the time. In one Winston ad, Fred and Barney saw the men working hard at the quarry and decided to retire out of sight for a smoke break. After extolling the virtues of the Winston brand cigarette, Fred lit up his cigarette and delivered the catch phrase: \"Winston tastes good like a cigarette should\". Another similar ad for the cigarettes featured Wilma and Betty as well; the women were working hard mowing the lawn and beating dust out of a rug while Fred and Barney smoked behind the house. Vignettes also aired in which Fred lit Wilma's Winston cigarette, and the couple shared a smoke. By the original series' third season, Winston had been dropped as a sponsor in favor of Welch's.","The Flintstones\n\nThe Flintstones is the first animated primetime American television series. It was broadcast from September 30, 1960, to April 1, 1966 on ABC. The show, produced by Hanna-Barbera, fancifully depicted the lives of a working-class Stone Age man, his next-door neighbor/best friend, and their families.","The Flintstones\n\nThe show's continuing popularity rested heavily on its juxtaposition of modern everyday concerns in the Stone Age setting. The Flintstones was the most financially successful network animated franchise for three decades, until The Simpsons debuted. In 2013, TV Guide ranked The Flintstones the second Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time (after The Simpsons).","The Flintstones\n\nOverview","The Flintstones\n\nThe show is set in the Stone Age town of Bedrock. In this fantasy version of the past, dinosaurs and other long-extinct animals co-exist with cavemen, saber-toothed cats, and woolly mammoths. Like their mid-20th century counterparts, these cavemen listen to records, live in split-level homes, and eat at restaurants, yet their technology is made entirely from preindustrial materials and powered primarily through the use of animals. For example, the cars are made out of stone, wood, and animal skins, and powered by the passengers' feet.","The Flintstones\n\nAnimation historian Christopher P. Lehman considers that the series draws its humor in part from creative uses of anachronisms. The main one is the placing of a \"modern\", 20th-century society in prehistory. This society takes inspiration from the suburban sprawl developed in the first two decades of the postwar period. This society has modern home appliances, but they work by employing animals and birds. They have automobiles, but they hardly resemble the cars of the 20th century. These cars are large wooden structures and burn no fuel. They are powered by people who run while inside them. Finally, the stone houses of this society are cookie-cutter homes positioned into typical neighborhoods.","The Flintstones\n\nTechnology","The Flintstones\n\nAs a running gag, often the \"prehistoric\" analog to a modern machine uses an animal. For example, when a character takes photographs with an instant camera, inside the camera box, a bird carves the picture on a stone tablet with its beak. The animal powering such technology would frequently break the fourth wall, look directly into the camera at the audience and offer a mild complaint about his job. Other commonly seen gadgets in the series include a baby woolly mammoth used as a vacuum cleaner; an adult woolly mammoth acting as a shower by spraying water with its trunk; elevators raised and lowered by ropes around brontosauruses' necks; \"automatic\" windows powered by monkeys on the outside; birds acting as \"car horns\", sounded by the driver pulling on their tails or squeezing their bodies; an \"electric\" razor made from a clam shell, vibrating from a honey bee inside; a pelican as a washing machine, shown with a beakful of soapy water; and a woodpecker whose beak is used to play a gramophone record.","The Flintstones\n\nIn most cases, \"The Man of a Thousand Voices\", Mel Blanc, contributed the animals' gag lines, often lowering his voice one to two full octaves, far below the range he used to voice the character of Barney Rubble. In the case of the Flintstones' cuckoo clocks, which varied from mechanical toys to live birds announcing the time, when the hour approached 12:00, the bird inside the clock \"cuckooing\" usually just ran out of steam and gave up vocally, physically, or both.","The Flintstones\n\n\"Stone-age\" names","The Flintstones\n\nThe Stone Age setting allowed for gags and word plays involving rocks and minerals. For example, San Antonio becomes \"Sand-and-Stony-o\"; the country to the south of Bedrock's land is called \"Mexirock\" (Mexico). Travel to \"Hollyrock\", a parody of Hollywood, usually involves an \"airplane\" flight — the \"plane\", in this case, is often shown as a giant pterosaur, with the fuselage strapped to its back. Sun Valley becomes \"Stone Valley\" and is run by \"Conrad Hailstone\" (Conrad Hilton). The last names \"Flintstone\" and \"Rubble\", as well as other common Bedrock surnames such as \"Shale\" and \"Quartz\", are in line with these puns, as are the names of Bedrock's celebrities: \"Gina Loadabricks\" (Gina Lollobrigida), \"Gary Granite\" (Cary Grant), \"Stony Curtis\" (Tony Curtis), \"Ed Sullivanstone/Sulleystone\" (Ed Sullivan), \"Rock Pile/Quarry/Hudstone\" (Rock Hudson), \"Ann-Margrock\" (Ann-Margret), \"Jimmy Darrock\" (James Darren), \"Alvin Brickrock\" (Alfred Hitchcock), \"Daisy Kilgranite\" (Dorothy Kilgallen), \"Perry Masonry/Masonite\" (Perry Mason as played by Raymond Burr), \"Mick Jadestone and The Rolling Boulders\" (Mick Jagger and the Rolling Stones, called \"Mick Jagged and the Stones\" in live-action film The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas), \"Eppy Brianstone\" (Brian Epstein) and \"The Beau Brummelstones\" (The Beau Brummels).","The Flintstones\n\nOnce, while visiting one of Bedrock's houses of \"Haute Couture\" with Wilma, Betty even commented on the new \"Jackie Kennerock (Jackie Kennedy) look\". In some cases, the celebrity featured also provided the voice: \"Samantha\" and \"Darrin\" from Bewitched were voiced by Elizabeth Montgomery and Dick York. Examples from the above list include Ann-Margret, Curtis, Darren, and the Beau Brummels. Other celebrities, such as \"Ed Sulleystone\" and \"Alvin Brickrock\", were rendered by impersonators. Some of Bedrock's sports heroes include: football player \"Red Granite\" (Red Grange), wrestler \"Bronto Crushrock\" (Bronko Nagurski), golfer \"Arnold Palmrock\" (Arnold Palmer), boxers \"Floyd Patterstone\" (Floyd Patterson) and \"Sonny Listone\" (Sonny Liston), and baseball players \"Sandy Stoneaxe\" (Sandy Koufax), \"Lindy McShale\" (Lindy McDaniel), \"Roger Marble\" (Roger Maris), and \"Mickey Marble\" or \"Mickey Mantlepiece\" (Mickey Mantle). Ace reporter \"Daisy Kilgranite\" (Dorothy Kilgallen) was a friend of Wilma. Monster names include \"Count Rockula\" (Count Dracula), Rockzilla (Godzilla) and \"The Frankenstone Monster\" (Frankenstein's monster).","The Flintstones\n\nCharacters","The Flintstones\n\nThe Flintstones","The Flintstones\n\n*Fred Flintstone is the main character of the series. Fred is an accident-prone bronto-crane operator at the Slate Rock and Gravel Company and the head of the Flintstone household. He is quick to anger (usually over trivial matters), but is a very loving husband and father. He is also good at bowling and is a member of the fictional \"Loyal Order of Water Buffaloes\" (Lodge No. 26), a men-only club paralleling real-life fraternities such as the Loyal Order of Moose. *Wilma Flintstone is Fred's wife. She is more intelligent and level-headed than her husband, though she often has a habit of spending money (with Betty and her catchphrase being \"Da-da-da duh da-da CHARGE IT!!\"). She often is a foil to Fred's poor behavior. *Pebbles Flintstone is the Flintstones' infant daughter, who is born near the end of the third season. *Dino, a prosauropod dinosaur, is the Flintstones' pet that barks and generally acts like a dog. A running gag in the series involves Dino knocking down Fred out of excitement and licking him repeatedly. Though this irritates Fred a lot, he generally likes Dino very much.","The Flintstones\n\n*Baby Puss is the Flintstones' pet saber-toothed cat, which is rarely seen in the actual series, but is always seen throwing Fred out of the house during the end credits, causing Fred to pound repeatedly on the front door and yell \"Wilma!\"","The Flintstones\n\nThe Rubbles","The Flintstones\n\n*Barney Rubble is the secondary main character and Fred's best friend and next-door neighbor. His occupation is, for the most part of the series, unknown, though later series depict him working in the same quarry as Fred. He shares many of Fred's interests such as bowling and golf, and is also a member of the \"Loyal Order of Water Buffaloes\". Though Fred and Barney frequently get into feuds with one another (usually due to Fred's short temper), their deep fraternal bond remains evident. *Betty Rubble is Barney's wife and Wilma's best friend. Like Wilma, she, too, has a habit of spending money. *Bamm-Bamm Rubble is the Rubbles' abnormally strong adopted son, whom they adopt during the fourth season; his name comes from the only phrase he ever speaks as a baby: \"Bamm, Bamm!\" \n*Hoppy is the Rubbles' pet hopparoo (a kangaroo/dinosaur combination creature), which they adopt in the beginning of the fifth season. When he first arrives, Dino (and eventually Fred) mistakes him for a giant mouse and becomes frightened of him, but they eventually become best friends in a manner similar to that of their owners.","The Flintstones\n\nHe babysits the kids as he takes them around in his pouch, which also serves as a shopping cart for Betty. Fred Flintstone regards Hoppy as an overgrown and obnoxious nuisance until the fateful day that the Flintstones and the Rubbles go out together on a picnic. The families' lives are endangered during the picnic and Hoppy goes for help.","The Flintstones\n\nOther characters","The Flintstones\n\nOver 100 other characters appeared throughout the program. *Mr. Slate is Fred's hot-tempered boss at the stone quarry. Though he is friends with Fred and Barney and often joins them for events such as parties, he is often not impressed with Fred's antics at the quarry, and has fired him on many occasions, only to give him his job back at the end of the episode. A running gag is his ever-changing first name, which has been presented as Sylvester, Nate, Oscar, and George. On the episode \"The Long, Long, Long Weekend\", which originally aired on January 21, 1966, he is shown as being the founder of Slate Rock and Gravel Company. The company is still in business two million years later and is being run by his descendant George Slate the Eighty-Thousandth. *Arnold is the Flintstones' paper boy, whom Fred absolutely despises, because he often, unintentionally, throws the newspaper at Fred's face. A running gag has Fred being outsmarted by Arnold. His parents are mentioned, but almost never seen.","The Flintstones\n\nHis mother has never been seen on screen, but her name is Doris and she is a friend of Wilma and Betty's as evidenced in the episode \"The Little Stranger\", which originally aired on November 2, 1962. His father was shown on the episode \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\", which originally aired on April 27, 1962. His name, however, is unknown. *Joe Rockhead is a mutual friend of Fred and Barney. Usually, when Fred and Barney have some kind of falling out, Fred mentions doing something (such as going to a baseball game) with Joe. Joe was, at some point, chief of the Bedrock Volunteer Fire Department (as shown on the episode \"Arthur Quarry's Dance Class\", which originally aired on January 13, 1961). His appearance varied throughout the run of the series, but his appearance in the episode \"The Picnic\", which originally aired on December 15, 1961, was the one most commonly used. *Pearl Slaghoople is Wilma's hard-to-please mother, who is constantly disapproving of Fred and his behavior. Their disastrous first meeting was recounted in the episode \"Bachelor Daze\", which originally aired on March 5, 1964.","The Flintstones\n\nThey briefly reconciled in the episode \"Mother-in-Law's Visit\", which originally aired on February 1, 1963. That is, until, she found out that she became Fred's \"nice fat pigeon\" when he suckered her out of money he need to buy a baby crib for Pebbles. They reconciled again at the end of the TV movie I Yabba Dabba Do. *The Great Gazoo is an alien exiled to Earth that helps Fred and Barney, often against their will. He is actually from the future, and is quite dismayed when he realizes he has been sent back to \"the Stone Age\". He can only be seen by Fred, Barney, Pebbles, Bamm-Bamm, other small children, Dino, and Hoppy. Gazoo appeared in the final season only. *Uncle Tex Hardrock is Fred's maternal uncle and a member of the Texarock Rangers. He constantly holds Fred's future inheritance over his head. *Sam Slagheap is the Grand Poobah of the Water Buffalo Lodge.","The Flintstones\n\nVoice actors","The Flintstones\n\nFred Flintstone physically resembles both the voice actor who played him, Alan Reed, and Jackie Gleason, whose series The Honeymooners was said to be an inspiration for The Flintstones. The voice of Barney Rubble was provided by voice actor Mel Blanc, though five episodes during the second season (the first, second, fifth, sixth, and ninth) employed Hanna-Barbera regular Daws Butler while Blanc was incapacitated by a near-fatal car accident. Blanc was able to return to the series much sooner than expected, by virtue of a temporary recording studio for the entire cast set up at Blanc's bedside. Blanc's portrayal of Barney had changed considerably after the accident. In the earliest episodes, Blanc had used a much higher pitch to the point of portraying Barney as a smart-aleck. After his recovery from the accident, Blanc used a deeper voice, quite similar to the voice of the Abominable Snowman he performed in other cartoons, and was shown as somewhat dopier than before.","The Flintstones\n\nAdditional similarities with The Honeymooners included the fact that Reed based Fred's voice upon Gleason's interpretation of Ralph Kramden, while Blanc, after a season of using a nasal, high-pitched voice for Barney, eventually adopted a style of voice similar to that used by Art Carney in his portrayal of Ed Norton. The first time the Art Carney-like voice was used was for a few seconds in \"The Prowler\" (the third episode produced).","The Flintstones\n\nIn a 1986 Playboy interview, Jackie Gleason said Alan Reed had done voice-overs for Gleason in his early movies, and Gleason considered suing Hanna-Barbera for copying The Honeymooners, but decided to let it pass. According to Henry Corden, a voice actor and a friend of Gleason's, \"Jackie's lawyers told him he could probably have The Flintstones pulled right off the air. But they also told him, \"Do you want to be known as the guy who yanked Fred Flintstone off the air? The guy who took away a show so many kids love, and so many parents love, too?\"","The Flintstones\n\nHenry Corden took over the voice responsibilities of Fred after Reed's death in 1977 with A Flintstone Christmas. Corden had previously provided Fred's singing voice in The Man Called Flintstone and later on The Flintstones children's records. Since 2000, Jeff Bergman, James Arnold Taylor, and Scott Innes (performing Fred and Barney for Toshiba commercials) have performed the voice of Fred. Since Mel Blanc's death in 1989, Barney has been voiced by Jeff Bergman, Frank Welker, and Kevin Michael Richardson. Various additional character voices were created by Hal Smith, Allan Melvin, Janet Waldo, Daws Butler, and Howard Morris, among others.","The Flintstones\n\nVoice cast","The Flintstones\n\n* Fred Flintstone – Alan Reed (speaking voice only) \n* Wilma Flintstone/Pebbles Flintstone – Jean Vander Pyl\n* Barney Rubble – Mel Blanc; Daws Butler (season 2; episodes 1, 2, 5, 6, and 9 only)\n* Betty Rubble – Bea Benaderet (seasons 1–4); Gerry Johnson (seasons 5–6)\n* Bamm-Bamm Rubble/Hoppy/Arnold – Don Messick\n* Dino – Mel Blanc\n* Mr. Slate – John Stephenson\n* Mrs. Slaghoople – Verna Felton and Janet Waldo\n* The Great Gazoo – Harvey Korman","The Flintstones\n\nAdditional voice cast","The Flintstones\n\n* Howard Morris\n* Doug Young\n* Henry Corden","The Flintstones\n\nEpisodes","The Flintstones\n\nMusic","The Flintstones\n\nThe opening and closing credits theme during the first two seasons was called \"Rise and Shine\", a lively instrumental underscore accompanying Fred on his drive home from work. The tune resembled \"The Bugs Bunny Overture (This Is It!)\", the theme song of The Bugs Bunny Show, also airing on ABC at the time, and may have been the reason the theme was changed in the third season. Starting in season 3, episode 3 (\"Barney the Invisible\"), the opening and closing credits theme was the familiar vocal \"Meet the Flintstones\". This version was recorded with a 22-piece jazz band, and a five-voice singing group called the Skip Jacks. The melody is derived from part of the 'B' section of Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 17 Movement 2, composed in 1801/02. The \"Meet the Flintstones\" opening was later added to the first two seasons for syndication. The musical underscores were credited to Hoyt Curtin for the show's first five seasons; Ted Nichols took over in 1965 for the final season.","The Flintstones\n\nHistory and production","The Flintstones\n\nThe idea of The Flintstones started after Hanna-Barbera produced The Huckleberry Hound Show and The Quick Draw McGraw Show. Although these programs were successful, they did not have the same wide audience appeal as their previous theatrical cartoon series Tom and Jerry, which entertained both children and the adults who accompanied them. However, since children did not need their parents' supervision to watch television, Hanna-Barbera's output became labeled \"kids only\". Barbera and Hanna wanted to recapture the adult audience with an animated situation comedy.","The Flintstones\n\nBarbera and Hanna experimented with hillbillies (a hillbilly theme was later incorporated into two Flintstones episodes, \"The Bedrock Hillbillies\" and \"The Hatrocks and the Gruesomes\"), Romans (Hanna-Barbera eventually created The Roman Holidays), pilgrims, and Indians as the settings for the two families before deciding on the Stone Age. According to Barbera, they settled on that because \"you could take anything that was current, and convert it to stone-age\". Under the working title The Flagstones, the family originally consisted of Fred, Wilma, and their son, Fred, Jr. A brief demonstration film was also created to sell the idea of a \"modern stone age family\" to sponsors and the network. Animator Kenneth Muse, who worked on the Tom and Jerry cartoons, also worked on the early seasons of The Flintstones.","The Flintstones\n\nThe show imitated and spoofed The Honeymooners, although the early voice characterization for Barney was that of Lou Costello. William Hanna admitted that \"At that time, The Honeymooners was the most popular show on the air, and for my bill, it was the funniest show on the air. The characters, I thought, were terrific. Now, that influenced greatly what we did with The Flintstones ... The Honeymooners was there, and we used that as a kind of basis for the concept.\" However, Joseph Barbera disavowed these claims in a separate interview, stating that, \"I don't remember mentioning The Honeymooners when I sold the show. But if people want to compare The Flintstones to The Honeymooners, then great. It's a total compliment. The Honeymooners was one of the greatest shows ever written.\" Jackie Gleason, creator of The Honeymooners, considered suing Hanna-Barbera Productions, but decided that he did not want to be known as \"the guy who yanked Fred Flintstone off the air\". Another influence was noted during Hanna-Barbera's tenure at MGM, where they were in a friendly competition with fellow cartoon director Tex Avery. In 1955, Avery directed a cartoon entitled \"The First Bad Man\" (narrated by cowboy legend Tex Ritter).","The Flintstones\n\nThe cartoon concerned the rowdy antics of a bank robber in stone-age Dallas. Many of the visual jokes antedated by many years similar ones used by Hanna-Barbera in the Flintstones series. Many students of American animation point to this cartoon as a progenitive seed of the Flintstones.","The Flintstones\n\nThe concept was also predated by the Stone Age Cartoons series of 12 animated cartoons released from January 1940 to September 1940 by Fleischer Studios. These cartoons show stone age people doing modern things with primitive means. One example is Granite Hotel including characters such as a newsboy, telephone operator, hotel clerk, and a spoof of Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy.","The Flintstones\n\nBarbera explained that selling the show to a network and sponsors was not an easy task.","The Flintstones\n\nWhen the series went into production, the working title The Flagstones was changed, possibly to avoid confusion with the Flagstons, characters in the comic strip Hi and Lois. After spending a brief period in development as The Gladstones (GLadstone being a Los Angeles telephone exchange at the time), Hanna-Barbera settled upon The Flintstones, and the idea of the Flintstones having a child from the start was discarded, with Fred and Wilma starting out as a childless couple. However, some early Flintstones merchandise, such as a 1961 Little Golden Book, included Fred Jr., before it was decided on his removal.","The Flintstones\n\nDespite the animation and fantasy setting, the series was initially aimed at adult audiences, which was reflected in the comedy writing, which, as noted, resembled the average primetime sitcoms of the era, with the usual family issues resolved with a laugh at the end of each episode, as well as the inclusion of a laugh track. Hanna and Barbera hired many writers from the world of live action, including two of Jackie Gleason's writers, Herbert Finn and Sydney Zelinka, as well as relative newcomer Joanna Lee while still using traditional animation story men such as Warren Foster and Michael Maltese.","The Flintstones\n\nThe Flintstones premiered on September 30, 1960, at 8:30 pm, and quickly became a hit. It was the first American animated show to depict two people of the opposite sex (Fred and Wilma; Barney and Betty) sleeping together in one bed, although Fred and Wilma are sometimes depicted as sleeping in separate beds. For comparison, the first live-action depiction of this in American TV history was in television's first-ever sitcom: 1947's Mary Kay and Johnny.","The Flintstones\n\nThe first two seasons were co-sponsored by Winston cigarettes and the characters appeared in several black-and-white television commercials for Winston (dictated by the custom, at that time, that the star(s) of a TV series often \"pitched\" their sponsor's product in an \"integrated commercial\" at the end of the episode).","The Flintstones\n\nDuring the third season, Hanna and Barbera decided that Fred and Wilma should have a baby. Originally, Hanna and Barbera intended for the Flintstone family to have a boy, the head of the marketing department convinced them to change it to a girl since \"girl dolls sell a lot better than boy dolls\". Although most Flintstones episodes were stand-alone storylines, Hanna-Barbera created a story arc surrounding the birth of Pebbles. Beginning with the episode \"The Surprise\", aired midway through the third season (January 25, 1963), in which Wilma reveals her pregnancy to Fred, the arc continued through the time leading up to Pebbles' birth in the episode \"Dress Rehearsal\" (February 22, 1963), and then continued with several episodes showing Fred and Wilma adjusting to the world of parenthood. Around this time, Winston pulled out their sponsorship and Welch's (grape juice and grape jellies) became the primary sponsor. The integrated commercials for Welch's products feature Pebbles asking for grape juice in her toddler dialect, and Fred explaining to Pebbles Welch's unique process for making the jelly, compared to the competition.","The Flintstones\n\nWelch's also produced a line of grape jelly packaged in jars which were reusable as drinking glasses, with painted scenes featuring the Flintstones and characters from the show. In Australia, the Nine Network ran a \"Name the Flintstones' baby\" competition during the 'pregnancy' episodes – few Australian viewers were expected to have a U.S. connection giving them information about past Flintstone episodes.","The Flintstones\n\nAnother arc occurred in the fourth season, in which the Rubbles, depressed over being unable to have children of their own (making The Flintstones the first animated series in history to address the issue of infertility, though subtly), adopt Bamm-Bamm. The 100th episode made (but the 90th to air), \"Little Bamm-Bamm Rubble\" (October 3, 1963), established how Bamm-Bamm was adopted. Nine episodes were produced before it but aired afterwards, which explains why Bamm-Bamm was not seen again until episode 101, \"Daddies Anonymous\" (Bamm-Bamm was in a teaser on episode 98, \"Kleptomaniac Pebbles\"). Another story arc, occurring in the final season, centered on Fred and Barney's dealings with the Great Gazoo (voiced by[Harvey Korman).","The Flintstones\n\nAfter Pebbles' birth, the tone and writing became more juvenile and ratings from the adult demographic began to decline. The last original episode was broadcast on April 1, 1966. By the time of its cancellation, The Flintstones had become the first primetime animated series to last more than two seasons. This record was not surpassed by another primetime animated television series until the seventh season of The Simpsons in 1995/1996.","The Flintstones\n\nThe first three seasons of The Flintstones aired Friday nights at 8:30 on ABC. Season four and part of season five aired Thursdays at 7:30. The rest of the series aired Fridays at 7:30.","The Flintstones\n\nIn the U.S., syndicated reruns of the series were offered to local stations until 1997, when E/I regulations and changing tastes in the industry led to the show's move to cable television. From the time of Ted Turner's purchase of Hanna-Barbera in 1992 until around 1999, TBS, TNT, and Cartoon Network aired the program. In 2000, the program moved to Boomerang, where it has aired ever since (since 2015, the show has been relegated to an overnight graveyard slot due to format changes at the channel).","The Flintstones\n\nReception","The Flintstones\n\nThe night after The Flintstones premiered, Variety called it \"A pen and ink disaster\". However, the negative reviews were short-lived and The Flintstones soon became one of the most popular and well-loved shows of all time. In 1961, The Flintstones became the first animated series to be nominated for an Outstanding Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award, but lost out to The Jack Benny Show. In January 2009, IGN named The Flintstones as the ninth-best in its \"Top 100 Animated TV Shows\".","The Flintstones\n\nNielsen ratings","The Flintstones\n\n* 1960–61: #18\n* 1961–62: #21\n* 1962–63: #30\n* 1963–64: #33 (19.7) \n* 1964–65: #60\n* 1965–66: #70","The Flintstones\n\nFilms and subsequent television series","The Flintstones\n\nFollowing the show's cancellation in 1966, a film based upon the series was created. The Man Called Flintstone was a musical spy caper that parodied James Bond and other secret agents. The movie was released to theaters on August 3, 1966, by Columbia Pictures. It was released on DVD in Canada in March 2005 and in United States in December 2008.","The Flintstones\n\nThe show was revived in the early 1970s with Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm having grown into teenagers, and several different series and made-for-TV movies (broadcast mainly on Saturday mornings, with a few shown in prime time); including a series depicting Fred and Barney as police officers, another depicting the characters as children, and yet others featuring Fred and Barney encountering Marvel Comics superhero The Thing and Al Capp's comic strip character The Shmoo – have appeared over the years. The original show also was adapted into a live-action film in 1994, and a prequel, The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas, which followed in 2000. Unlike its sister show The Jetsons (the two shows appeared in a made-for-TV crossover movie in 1987), the revival programs were not widely syndicated or rerun alongside the original series.","The Flintstones\n\nTelevision series","The Flintstones\n\n* The Flintstones (1960–66) (166 episodes) (six seasons)\n* The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show (1971–72) (one season)\n* The Flintstone Comedy Hour / The Flintstone Comedy Show (1972–74) (one season)\n* Scooby's All-Star Laff-A-Lympics (1977-79) (two seasons)\n* Fred Flintstone and Friends (1977–78) (compilation series)\n* The New Fred and Barney Show (1979) (one season)\n* Fred and Barney Meet The Thing (1979) (one season)\n* Fred and Barney Meet the Shmoo (1979–80) (one season)\n* The Flintstone Comedy Show (1980–82) (two seasons)\n* The Flintstone Funnies (1982–84) (one season)\n* The Flintstone Kids (1986–88) (two seasons)\n* Dino: What a Cartoon! – featuring \"Stay Out!\" (1995) and \"The Great Egg-Scape\" (1997)\n* Cave Kids: Pebbles & Bamm-Bamm (1996) (one season)","The Flintstones\n\nTheatrical animated feature","The Flintstones\n\n* The Man Called Flintstone (1966, released by Columbia Pictures)","The Flintstones\n\nTelevision specials","The Flintstones\n\n* A Flintstone Christmas (1977)\n* The Flintstones: Little Big League (1978)\n* The Flintstones Meet Rockula and Frankenstone (1979)\n* The Flintstones' New Neighbors (1980)\n* The Flintstones: Fred's Final Fling (1980)\n* The Flintstones: Wind-Up Wilma (1981)\n* The Flintstones: Jogging Fever (1981)\n* The Flintstones' 25th Anniversary Celebration (1986)\n* The Flintstone Kids' \"Just Say No\" Special (1988)\n* Hanna-Barbera's 50th: A Yabba Dabba Doo Celebration (1989)\n* A Flintstone Family Christmas (1993)","The Flintstones\n\nTelevision movies","The Flintstones\n\n* The Jetsons Meet the Flintstones (1987)\n* I Yabba-Dabba Do! (1993)\n* Hollyrock-a-Bye Baby (1993)\n* A Flintstones Christmas Carol (1994)\n* The Flintstones: On the Rocks (2001)","The Flintstones\n\nLive-action films","The Flintstones\n\n* The Flintstones (1994)\n* The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000)","The Flintstones\n\nDirect-to-video films","The Flintstones\n\n* The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown! (2015)","The Flintstones\n\nOther media","The Flintstones\n\nFor a list of DVDs, video games, comic books, and VHS releases, see List of The Flintstones media.","The Flintstones\n\nCancelled Seth MacFarlane reboot","The Flintstones\n\nIn 2011, it was announced the Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane would be reviving The Flintstones for the Fox network, with the first episode airing in 2013. After Fox Entertainment president Kevin Reilly read the pilot script and \"liked it but didn't love it\", MacFarlane chose to abandon work on the project rather than restarting it.","The Flintstones\n\nWWE film","The Flintstones\n\nIn May 2013, Warner Bros. Animation and WWE Studios announced a Flintstones animated film. The film was to involve a \"prehistoric WWE main event\" and feature the voices of The Undertaker, Vince McMahon, John Cena, and Rey Mysterio, and CM Punk. The film was released direct-to-video in early 2015.","The Flintstones\n\nGary Sanchez animated film","The Flintstones\n\nIn May 2014, Will Ferrell and Adam McKay will produce an animated Flintstones movie for Warner Bros. Animation.","The Flintstones\n\nTheme parks","The Flintstones\n\nTwo Flintstones-themed amusement parks exist in the United States: Bedrock City in Custer, South Dakota, and another in Valle, Arizona. Both have been in operation for decades. Bedrock City, also known as Flintstone Park, closed in August 2015.","The Flintstones\n\nAnother existed until the 1990s at Carowinds in Charlotte, North Carolina. In Canada, Flintstone Park in Kelowna, British Columbia, opened in 1968 and closed in 1998; it was notable for the \"Forty Foot Fred\" statue of Fred Flintstone which was a well known Kelowna landmark. Another Flintstones park was located in Bridal Falls, British Columbia, which closed in 1990. Calaway Park outside Calgary, Canada, also opened with a Flintstones theme and many of the buildings today have a caveman-like design, though the park does not license the characters. The Australia's Wonderland and Canada's Wonderland theme parks, both featured Flintstones characters in their Hanna-Barbera-themed children's sections from 1985 up until the mid-1990s. Kings Island near Cincinnati, Ohio, had a Hanna-Barbera land, in which many Hanna-Barbera characters were featured, including the Flintstones, in the 1980s and early 1990s.","The Flintstones\n\nLive theater","The Flintstones\n\nA stage production opened at Universal Studios Hollywood in 1994 (the year the live-action film was released), developed by Universal and Hanna-Barbera Productions. It opened at the Panasonic Theater replacing the Star Trek show. The story consists of Fred, Wilma, Barney, and Betty heading for \"Hollyrock\". The show ran until January 2, 1997.","The Flintstones\n\nIn popular culture","The Flintstones\n\nMiles Laboratories (now part of Bayer Corporation) and their One-A-Day vitamin brand was the alternate sponsor of the original Flintstones series during its first two seasons, and in the late 1960s, Miles introduced Flintstones Chewable Vitamins, fruit-flavored multivitamin tablets for children in the shape of the Flintstones characters, which are sold to this day.","The Flintstones\n\nThe Simpsons referenced The Flintstones in several episodes. In the episode \"Homer's Night Out\", Homer's local convenience store clerk, Apu, remarks \"You look familiar, sir. Are you on the television or something?\", to which Homer replies \"Sorry, buddy, you've got me confused with Fred Flintstone.\" During the couch gag of the opening credits of the episode \"Kamp Krusty\", the Simpson family arrive home to find the Flintstone family already sitting on their couch. The same couch gag was reused in syndicated episodes of \"The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show\", when The Simpsons overtook The Flintstones as the longest-running animated series. In \"Lady Bouvier's Lover\", Homer's boss, Mr. Burns, appears at the family's house and says \"Why, it's Fred Flintstone (referring to Homer) and his lovely wife, Wilma! (Marge) Oh, and this must be little Pebbles! (Maggie) Mind if I come in? I brought chocolates.\" Homer responds by saying \"Yabba-dabba-doo!\" During the opening of \"Marge vs. the Monorail\", Homer sings his own version of the Flintstones opening theme.","The Flintstones\n\nOn September 30, 2010, Google temporarily replaced the logo on their search page with a custom graphic celebrating the 50th anniversary of the first TV broadcast."],"string":"[\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nFrederick \\\"Fred\\\" Flintstone, also known as Fred W. Flintstone, or Frederick J. Flintstone is the protagonist of the animated sitcom The Flintstones, which aired during prime-time on ABC during the original series' run from 1960 to 1966. Fred is the husband of Wilma Flintstone and father of Pebbles Flintstone. His best friends are his next door neighbors, Barney and Betty Rubble, who have an adopted son named Bamm-Bamm.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nFred lives in the fictional prehistoric town of Bedrock, a world where dinosaurs coexist with modernized cavepeople and the cavepeople enjoy \\\"primitive\\\" versions of modern conveniences such as telephones, automobiles, and washing machines. Fred's trademark yell is \\\"yabba dabba doo!\\\", a phrase that was originally his club's cheer and later adopted as part of the theme song from the third series on and used in the 1994 live-action Flintstones movie.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nSince the original series' run, Fred has since appeared in various other cartoon spinoffs, live action adaptations, music videos, and commercials.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nBiography\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nWhile the mid-1980s spin-off series The Flintstone Kids depicts Fred as a child, the series may be apocryphal due to its presenting Wilma as a childhood friend of Fred and Barney; the original series asserts that they first met as young adults. Still, the series' depictions that Fred is the only child of Ed and Edna Flintstone (a handyman and a homemaker, respectively) might be taken as canon.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nAs young adults, Fred and Barney worked as bellhops at a resort. There, they meet and fall in love with Wilma and Betty, who were working there as cigarette girls. Wilma's mother, Pearl Slaghoople, also met her future son-in-law, and took an instant disliking toward Fred (and vice versa), starting a long-lasting rivalry between the two. An unspecified amount of time later, Fred married Wilma.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nFred is a typical blue-collar worker, who works as a \\\"bronto crane operator\\\" at Slate Rock and Gravel Company (also known as Rockhead and Quarry Cave Construction Company in earlier episodes). Fred's job title in the second season episode \\\"Divided We Sail\\\" is \\\"geological engineer\\\".\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nDuring the original series' third season, Wilma gives birth to the couple's daughter, Pebbles. Years later, when Pebbles is a teenager, Fred and Barney join the Bedrock police force for a time as part-time police officers. Eventually, Fred becomes a grand dad to the adult Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm's twins, Chip and Roxy. Fred's family grew again in A Flintstone Family Christmas, when he and Wilma adopted an orphaned caveboy named Stony, and despite a rough start, Fred and his new son bonded well.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nRelatives\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nThe Flintstone family's paternal side originally came from the prehistoric U.S. state of Arkanstone, where they had been engaged in a feud similar to the Hatfield-McCoy feud. The feud was originally started by an ancestor of Fred's making a joke about a Hatrock family portrait (\\\"I don't know what the artist got for doing that painting, but he should've gotten life!\\\"). In the fourth season episode \\\"Bedrock Hillbillies,\\\" the feud is ended when Fred helps rescue Pebbles and a Hatrock baby, only to start up again when Fred makes the same joke as his ancestor. The Hatrocks later appear in the follow-up fifth season episode \\\"The Hatrocks and the Gruesomes\\\", where they visit Bedrock. The last of the Arkanstone Flintstones was Fred's great-great-uncle Zeke Flintstone.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nOther relatives of Fred include: Giggles Flintstone, a rich, eccentric practical joker whose jokes drive Fred into a mad rage; Uncle Tex Hardrock, Fred's rich Texan uncle; Tumbleweed and Mary Lou Jim, Fred's rich Texan cousins; Rockbottom \\\"Rocky\\\" Flintstone, Fred's grand dad, who was a veteran of Stone World War One; Stony Flintstone, Fred's grand dad and James Hardrock, Edna's father.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nPersonality\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nFred's personality was based on that of Ralph Kramden of the 1950s television series The Honeymooners and Chester A. Riley from The Life of Riley, both of whom were originally portrayed on television by Jackie Gleason (Riley was originally portrayed on radio, film and later television episodes by William Bendix). Much like Ralph, Fred tends to be loud-mouthed, aggressive, and constantly scheming ways to improve his family's working class lot in life, often with unintended results. Also like Ralph, despite his harshness, he is friendly, and has a loving heart, who is very devoted to his family and cares a lot about his best friend and next door neighbor Barney Rubble. Fred loses his temper easily and is very impatient, but he seems free of malice and never holds a grudge. Although his loudness irritates the people around him, Fred proves friendly, often going out of his way to help others. Also, although Fred often annoys Wilma with his immaturity, he is known to go to great lengths to please his family and apologize when he goes too far.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nFred's interests include bowling, playing pool, golf, poker and lounging around the house. Fred has won championships with his bowling skills; in one episode, he goes so far as to take ballet lessons in order to improve his game. The nickname of \\\"Twinkletoes\\\" stuck with him when Fred attended a local university and became eligible to play on their football team, and it became his call sign. Fred is also an excellent golfer. Fred is a member of the Loyal Order of Water Buffalos Lodge (named \\\"the Loyal Order of Dinosaurs\\\" in an early episode ). Fred also has a serious gambling problem; the mere mention of the word \\\"bet\\\" causes Fred to stammer \\\"bet\\\" over and over again (sounding like a clucking chicken) and go on gambling binges. Fred is also an avid driver. In the fifth season episode \\\"Indianrockolis 500,\\\" Fred entered the famed prehistoric auto race under the pseudonym \\\"Goggles Pisano\\\".\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nFred's catchphrase is \\\"Yabba-Dabba-Doo!\\\"; Alan Reed, voice actor who provided Fred's voice from 1960-1977, reportedly said that the inspiration for the phrase came from his mother, who used to say, \\\"A little dab'll do ya,\\\" probably borrowed from a Brylcreem commercial. When the script called for a simple 'Yahoo!' Alan either asked if he could alter the phrase or he ad-libbed. It inspired, in the 1970s a short-lived fruit drink called \\\"Yabba Dabba Dew\\\" and may or may not have also inspired George Jetson's similar sounding catchphrase, \\\"Hooba-dooba-dooba\\\" (or \\\"Hooba-Dooba\\\"). It does, however, become the subject of a song by Hoagy Carmichael that the singer-songwriter performs in an episode of The Flintstones Fred's ability to carry a tune was quite good in his younger years. One early episode sees Fred (with Barney, who is a skilled drummer) perform at a nightclub with his musician friend \\\"Hot Lips Hannigan\\\" where his singing caused teenage girls to swoon over him; on this occasion, he was nicknamed \\\"the Golden Smog\\\".\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nIn another first season episode, \\\"Girls' Night Out\\\", Fred recorded a demo record at a carnival of the song \\\"Listen to the Rocking Bird\\\", which ended up making him a teenage singing idol named \\\"Hi Fye.\\\" As the series progressed, however, his voice became worse and worse, eventually to the point that a temporary maid the Flintstones hired quit rather than having to hear Fred sing.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nDue to his impulsive and short-tempered behavior and stubborn and naive nature, Fred seems to be accident-prone. Even his most innocent and mundane actions often cause widespread confusion.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nAccording to the original series' third season episode \\\"The Birthday Party\\\" (originally aired April 5, 1963), Fred's birthday is February 2. Fred's address has varied through the series' run, with addresses given for the Flintstone residence including 345 Cave Stone Road, 1313 Cobblestone Way, Fred's address was cited as \\\"55 Cobblestone Rd\\\" in the 1961 episode \\\"The X-Ray Story\\\". and 222 Rocky Way.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nAnimated Media\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\n* The Flagstones (1959)\\n* The Flintstones (1960-1966)\\n* The Man Called Flintstone (1966)\\n* The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show (1971)\\n* The Flintstone Comedy Hour (1972)\\n* A Flintstone Christmas (1977)\\n* The Flintstones: Little Big League (1978)\\n* The Flintstones Meet Rockula and Frankenstone (1979)\\n* The New Fred and Barney Show (1979)\\n* The Flintstones: Fred's Final Fling (1980)\\n* The Flintstones' New Neighbors (1980)\\n* The Flintstone Comedy Show (1980-1981)\\n* The Flintstones: Jogging Fever (1981)\\n* The Flintstones: Wind-Up Wilma (1981)\\n* The Flintstone Funnies (1982-1984)\\n* Yogi Bear's All Star Comedy Christmas Caper (1982)\\n* The Flintstones' 25th Anniversary Celebration (1986)\\n* The Flintstone Kids (1986-1988) (voiced by Julie McWhirter Dees and Scott Menville)\\n* The Jetsons Meet the Flintstones (1987)\\n* The Flintstone Kids' \\\"Just Say No\\\" Special (1988)\\n* A Yabba Dabba Doo Celebration: 50 Years of Hanna-Barbera (1989)\\n* I Yabba-Dabba Do!\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\n(1993)\\n* Hollyrock-a-Bye Baby (1993)\\n* A Flintstone Family Christmas (1993)\\n* The Flintstones (1994) (portrayed by John Goodman)\\n* A Flintstones Christmas Carol (1994)\\n* The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000) (portrayed by Mark Addy)\\n* The Flintstones: On the Rocks (2001) (voiced by Jeff Bergman)\\n* The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown! (2015)\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nPortrayal\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\n* Alan Reed was the original voice artist of Fred (minus the original short pilot where he was voiced by Daws Butler) until Reed's death in 1977. Henry Corden, who had provided the singing voice for Reed (and Fred) in The Man Called Flintstone, took over until his retirement in 2000, although he continued to voice him in Post Pebbles commercials until his death in 2005. Corden voiced Fred's father and mother in The Flintstone Kids. James Arnold Taylor voiced Fred in commercials following Corden's death, up until 2011, as well as his guest appearance in The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy. Jeff Bergman started voicing Fred for Cartoon Network bumpers in 2000, and voiced him in The Flintstones: On the Rocks, his guest appearance in Johnny Bravo, some episodes of Family Guy, and more recently The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown!. *In The Flintstone Kids, young Fred was voiced by both Lennie Weinrib and Scott Menville at different points. *In the first live-action film, The Flintstones, Fred was played by John Goodman.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nIn the prequel film, The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas, in which Fred is portrayed as younger than he was in the original, he was played by British actor Mark Addy.\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nIn other media\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nCommercials\",\n \"Fred Flintstone\\n\\nDuring the first several seasons of The Flintstones series, Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble were pitchmen for Winston cigarettes, the show's sponsor at the time. In one Winston ad, Fred and Barney saw the men working hard at the quarry and decided to retire out of sight for a smoke break. After extolling the virtues of the Winston brand cigarette, Fred lit up his cigarette and delivered the catch phrase: \\\"Winston tastes good like a cigarette should\\\". Another similar ad for the cigarettes featured Wilma and Betty as well; the women were working hard mowing the lawn and beating dust out of a rug while Fred and Barney smoked behind the house. Vignettes also aired in which Fred lit Wilma's Winston cigarette, and the couple shared a smoke. By the original series' third season, Winston had been dropped as a sponsor in favor of Welch's.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe Flintstones is the first animated primetime American television series. It was broadcast from September 30, 1960, to April 1, 1966 on ABC. The show, produced by Hanna-Barbera, fancifully depicted the lives of a working-class Stone Age man, his next-door neighbor/best friend, and their families.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe show's continuing popularity rested heavily on its juxtaposition of modern everyday concerns in the Stone Age setting. The Flintstones was the most financially successful network animated franchise for three decades, until The Simpsons debuted. In 2013, TV Guide ranked The Flintstones the second Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time (after The Simpsons).\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nOverview\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe show is set in the Stone Age town of Bedrock. In this fantasy version of the past, dinosaurs and other long-extinct animals co-exist with cavemen, saber-toothed cats, and woolly mammoths. Like their mid-20th century counterparts, these cavemen listen to records, live in split-level homes, and eat at restaurants, yet their technology is made entirely from preindustrial materials and powered primarily through the use of animals. For example, the cars are made out of stone, wood, and animal skins, and powered by the passengers' feet.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nAnimation historian Christopher P. Lehman considers that the series draws its humor in part from creative uses of anachronisms. The main one is the placing of a \\\"modern\\\", 20th-century society in prehistory. This society takes inspiration from the suburban sprawl developed in the first two decades of the postwar period. This society has modern home appliances, but they work by employing animals and birds. They have automobiles, but they hardly resemble the cars of the 20th century. These cars are large wooden structures and burn no fuel. They are powered by people who run while inside them. Finally, the stone houses of this society are cookie-cutter homes positioned into typical neighborhoods.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nTechnology\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nAs a running gag, often the \\\"prehistoric\\\" analog to a modern machine uses an animal. For example, when a character takes photographs with an instant camera, inside the camera box, a bird carves the picture on a stone tablet with its beak. The animal powering such technology would frequently break the fourth wall, look directly into the camera at the audience and offer a mild complaint about his job. Other commonly seen gadgets in the series include a baby woolly mammoth used as a vacuum cleaner; an adult woolly mammoth acting as a shower by spraying water with its trunk; elevators raised and lowered by ropes around brontosauruses' necks; \\\"automatic\\\" windows powered by monkeys on the outside; birds acting as \\\"car horns\\\", sounded by the driver pulling on their tails or squeezing their bodies; an \\\"electric\\\" razor made from a clam shell, vibrating from a honey bee inside; a pelican as a washing machine, shown with a beakful of soapy water; and a woodpecker whose beak is used to play a gramophone record.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nIn most cases, \\\"The Man of a Thousand Voices\\\", Mel Blanc, contributed the animals' gag lines, often lowering his voice one to two full octaves, far below the range he used to voice the character of Barney Rubble. In the case of the Flintstones' cuckoo clocks, which varied from mechanical toys to live birds announcing the time, when the hour approached 12:00, the bird inside the clock \\\"cuckooing\\\" usually just ran out of steam and gave up vocally, physically, or both.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n\\\"Stone-age\\\" names\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe Stone Age setting allowed for gags and word plays involving rocks and minerals. For example, San Antonio becomes \\\"Sand-and-Stony-o\\\"; the country to the south of Bedrock's land is called \\\"Mexirock\\\" (Mexico). Travel to \\\"Hollyrock\\\", a parody of Hollywood, usually involves an \\\"airplane\\\" flight — the \\\"plane\\\", in this case, is often shown as a giant pterosaur, with the fuselage strapped to its back. Sun Valley becomes \\\"Stone Valley\\\" and is run by \\\"Conrad Hailstone\\\" (Conrad Hilton). The last names \\\"Flintstone\\\" and \\\"Rubble\\\", as well as other common Bedrock surnames such as \\\"Shale\\\" and \\\"Quartz\\\", are in line with these puns, as are the names of Bedrock's celebrities: \\\"Gina Loadabricks\\\" (Gina Lollobrigida), \\\"Gary Granite\\\" (Cary Grant), \\\"Stony Curtis\\\" (Tony Curtis), \\\"Ed Sullivanstone/Sulleystone\\\" (Ed Sullivan), \\\"Rock Pile/Quarry/Hudstone\\\" (Rock Hudson), \\\"Ann-Margrock\\\" (Ann-Margret), \\\"Jimmy Darrock\\\" (James Darren), \\\"Alvin Brickrock\\\" (Alfred Hitchcock), \\\"Daisy Kilgranite\\\" (Dorothy Kilgallen), \\\"Perry Masonry/Masonite\\\" (Perry Mason as played by Raymond Burr), \\\"Mick Jadestone and The Rolling Boulders\\\" (Mick Jagger and the Rolling Stones, called \\\"Mick Jagged and the Stones\\\" in live-action film The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas), \\\"Eppy Brianstone\\\" (Brian Epstein) and \\\"The Beau Brummelstones\\\" (The Beau Brummels).\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nOnce, while visiting one of Bedrock's houses of \\\"Haute Couture\\\" with Wilma, Betty even commented on the new \\\"Jackie Kennerock (Jackie Kennedy) look\\\". In some cases, the celebrity featured also provided the voice: \\\"Samantha\\\" and \\\"Darrin\\\" from Bewitched were voiced by Elizabeth Montgomery and Dick York. Examples from the above list include Ann-Margret, Curtis, Darren, and the Beau Brummels. Other celebrities, such as \\\"Ed Sulleystone\\\" and \\\"Alvin Brickrock\\\", were rendered by impersonators. Some of Bedrock's sports heroes include: football player \\\"Red Granite\\\" (Red Grange), wrestler \\\"Bronto Crushrock\\\" (Bronko Nagurski), golfer \\\"Arnold Palmrock\\\" (Arnold Palmer), boxers \\\"Floyd Patterstone\\\" (Floyd Patterson) and \\\"Sonny Listone\\\" (Sonny Liston), and baseball players \\\"Sandy Stoneaxe\\\" (Sandy Koufax), \\\"Lindy McShale\\\" (Lindy McDaniel), \\\"Roger Marble\\\" (Roger Maris), and \\\"Mickey Marble\\\" or \\\"Mickey Mantlepiece\\\" (Mickey Mantle). Ace reporter \\\"Daisy Kilgranite\\\" (Dorothy Kilgallen) was a friend of Wilma. Monster names include \\\"Count Rockula\\\" (Count Dracula), Rockzilla (Godzilla) and \\\"The Frankenstone Monster\\\" (Frankenstein's monster).\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nCharacters\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe Flintstones\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n*Fred Flintstone is the main character of the series. Fred is an accident-prone bronto-crane operator at the Slate Rock and Gravel Company and the head of the Flintstone household. He is quick to anger (usually over trivial matters), but is a very loving husband and father. He is also good at bowling and is a member of the fictional \\\"Loyal Order of Water Buffaloes\\\" (Lodge No. 26), a men-only club paralleling real-life fraternities such as the Loyal Order of Moose. *Wilma Flintstone is Fred's wife. She is more intelligent and level-headed than her husband, though she often has a habit of spending money (with Betty and her catchphrase being \\\"Da-da-da duh da-da CHARGE IT!!\\\"). She often is a foil to Fred's poor behavior. *Pebbles Flintstone is the Flintstones' infant daughter, who is born near the end of the third season. *Dino, a prosauropod dinosaur, is the Flintstones' pet that barks and generally acts like a dog. A running gag in the series involves Dino knocking down Fred out of excitement and licking him repeatedly. Though this irritates Fred a lot, he generally likes Dino very much.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n*Baby Puss is the Flintstones' pet saber-toothed cat, which is rarely seen in the actual series, but is always seen throwing Fred out of the house during the end credits, causing Fred to pound repeatedly on the front door and yell \\\"Wilma!\\\"\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe Rubbles\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n*Barney Rubble is the secondary main character and Fred's best friend and next-door neighbor. His occupation is, for the most part of the series, unknown, though later series depict him working in the same quarry as Fred. He shares many of Fred's interests such as bowling and golf, and is also a member of the \\\"Loyal Order of Water Buffaloes\\\". Though Fred and Barney frequently get into feuds with one another (usually due to Fred's short temper), their deep fraternal bond remains evident. *Betty Rubble is Barney's wife and Wilma's best friend. Like Wilma, she, too, has a habit of spending money. *Bamm-Bamm Rubble is the Rubbles' abnormally strong adopted son, whom they adopt during the fourth season; his name comes from the only phrase he ever speaks as a baby: \\\"Bamm, Bamm!\\\" \\n*Hoppy is the Rubbles' pet hopparoo (a kangaroo/dinosaur combination creature), which they adopt in the beginning of the fifth season. When he first arrives, Dino (and eventually Fred) mistakes him for a giant mouse and becomes frightened of him, but they eventually become best friends in a manner similar to that of their owners.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nHe babysits the kids as he takes them around in his pouch, which also serves as a shopping cart for Betty. Fred Flintstone regards Hoppy as an overgrown and obnoxious nuisance until the fateful day that the Flintstones and the Rubbles go out together on a picnic. The families' lives are endangered during the picnic and Hoppy goes for help.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nOther characters\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nOver 100 other characters appeared throughout the program. *Mr. Slate is Fred's hot-tempered boss at the stone quarry. Though he is friends with Fred and Barney and often joins them for events such as parties, he is often not impressed with Fred's antics at the quarry, and has fired him on many occasions, only to give him his job back at the end of the episode. A running gag is his ever-changing first name, which has been presented as Sylvester, Nate, Oscar, and George. On the episode \\\"The Long, Long, Long Weekend\\\", which originally aired on January 21, 1966, he is shown as being the founder of Slate Rock and Gravel Company. The company is still in business two million years later and is being run by his descendant George Slate the Eighty-Thousandth. *Arnold is the Flintstones' paper boy, whom Fred absolutely despises, because he often, unintentionally, throws the newspaper at Fred's face. A running gag has Fred being outsmarted by Arnold. His parents are mentioned, but almost never seen.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nHis mother has never been seen on screen, but her name is Doris and she is a friend of Wilma and Betty's as evidenced in the episode \\\"The Little Stranger\\\", which originally aired on November 2, 1962. His father was shown on the episode \\\"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\\\", which originally aired on April 27, 1962. His name, however, is unknown. *Joe Rockhead is a mutual friend of Fred and Barney. Usually, when Fred and Barney have some kind of falling out, Fred mentions doing something (such as going to a baseball game) with Joe. Joe was, at some point, chief of the Bedrock Volunteer Fire Department (as shown on the episode \\\"Arthur Quarry's Dance Class\\\", which originally aired on January 13, 1961). His appearance varied throughout the run of the series, but his appearance in the episode \\\"The Picnic\\\", which originally aired on December 15, 1961, was the one most commonly used. *Pearl Slaghoople is Wilma's hard-to-please mother, who is constantly disapproving of Fred and his behavior. Their disastrous first meeting was recounted in the episode \\\"Bachelor Daze\\\", which originally aired on March 5, 1964.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThey briefly reconciled in the episode \\\"Mother-in-Law's Visit\\\", which originally aired on February 1, 1963. That is, until, she found out that she became Fred's \\\"nice fat pigeon\\\" when he suckered her out of money he need to buy a baby crib for Pebbles. They reconciled again at the end of the TV movie I Yabba Dabba Do. *The Great Gazoo is an alien exiled to Earth that helps Fred and Barney, often against their will. He is actually from the future, and is quite dismayed when he realizes he has been sent back to \\\"the Stone Age\\\". He can only be seen by Fred, Barney, Pebbles, Bamm-Bamm, other small children, Dino, and Hoppy. Gazoo appeared in the final season only. *Uncle Tex Hardrock is Fred's maternal uncle and a member of the Texarock Rangers. He constantly holds Fred's future inheritance over his head. *Sam Slagheap is the Grand Poobah of the Water Buffalo Lodge.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nVoice actors\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nFred Flintstone physically resembles both the voice actor who played him, Alan Reed, and Jackie Gleason, whose series The Honeymooners was said to be an inspiration for The Flintstones. The voice of Barney Rubble was provided by voice actor Mel Blanc, though five episodes during the second season (the first, second, fifth, sixth, and ninth) employed Hanna-Barbera regular Daws Butler while Blanc was incapacitated by a near-fatal car accident. Blanc was able to return to the series much sooner than expected, by virtue of a temporary recording studio for the entire cast set up at Blanc's bedside. Blanc's portrayal of Barney had changed considerably after the accident. In the earliest episodes, Blanc had used a much higher pitch to the point of portraying Barney as a smart-aleck. After his recovery from the accident, Blanc used a deeper voice, quite similar to the voice of the Abominable Snowman he performed in other cartoons, and was shown as somewhat dopier than before.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nAdditional similarities with The Honeymooners included the fact that Reed based Fred's voice upon Gleason's interpretation of Ralph Kramden, while Blanc, after a season of using a nasal, high-pitched voice for Barney, eventually adopted a style of voice similar to that used by Art Carney in his portrayal of Ed Norton. The first time the Art Carney-like voice was used was for a few seconds in \\\"The Prowler\\\" (the third episode produced).\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nIn a 1986 Playboy interview, Jackie Gleason said Alan Reed had done voice-overs for Gleason in his early movies, and Gleason considered suing Hanna-Barbera for copying The Honeymooners, but decided to let it pass. According to Henry Corden, a voice actor and a friend of Gleason's, \\\"Jackie's lawyers told him he could probably have The Flintstones pulled right off the air. But they also told him, \\\"Do you want to be known as the guy who yanked Fred Flintstone off the air? The guy who took away a show so many kids love, and so many parents love, too?\\\"\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nHenry Corden took over the voice responsibilities of Fred after Reed's death in 1977 with A Flintstone Christmas. Corden had previously provided Fred's singing voice in The Man Called Flintstone and later on The Flintstones children's records. Since 2000, Jeff Bergman, James Arnold Taylor, and Scott Innes (performing Fred and Barney for Toshiba commercials) have performed the voice of Fred. Since Mel Blanc's death in 1989, Barney has been voiced by Jeff Bergman, Frank Welker, and Kevin Michael Richardson. Various additional character voices were created by Hal Smith, Allan Melvin, Janet Waldo, Daws Butler, and Howard Morris, among others.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nVoice cast\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n* Fred Flintstone – Alan Reed (speaking voice only) \\n* Wilma Flintstone/Pebbles Flintstone – Jean Vander Pyl\\n* Barney Rubble – Mel Blanc; Daws Butler (season 2; episodes 1, 2, 5, 6, and 9 only)\\n* Betty Rubble – Bea Benaderet (seasons 1–4); Gerry Johnson (seasons 5–6)\\n* Bamm-Bamm Rubble/Hoppy/Arnold – Don Messick\\n* Dino – Mel Blanc\\n* Mr. Slate – John Stephenson\\n* Mrs. Slaghoople – Verna Felton and Janet Waldo\\n* The Great Gazoo – Harvey Korman\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nAdditional voice cast\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n* Howard Morris\\n* Doug Young\\n* Henry Corden\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nEpisodes\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe opening and closing credits theme during the first two seasons was called \\\"Rise and Shine\\\", a lively instrumental underscore accompanying Fred on his drive home from work. The tune resembled \\\"The Bugs Bunny Overture (This Is It!)\\\", the theme song of The Bugs Bunny Show, also airing on ABC at the time, and may have been the reason the theme was changed in the third season. Starting in season 3, episode 3 (\\\"Barney the Invisible\\\"), the opening and closing credits theme was the familiar vocal \\\"Meet the Flintstones\\\". This version was recorded with a 22-piece jazz band, and a five-voice singing group called the Skip Jacks. The melody is derived from part of the 'B' section of Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 17 Movement 2, composed in 1801/02. The \\\"Meet the Flintstones\\\" opening was later added to the first two seasons for syndication. The musical underscores were credited to Hoyt Curtin for the show's first five seasons; Ted Nichols took over in 1965 for the final season.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nHistory and production\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe idea of The Flintstones started after Hanna-Barbera produced The Huckleberry Hound Show and The Quick Draw McGraw Show. Although these programs were successful, they did not have the same wide audience appeal as their previous theatrical cartoon series Tom and Jerry, which entertained both children and the adults who accompanied them. However, since children did not need their parents' supervision to watch television, Hanna-Barbera's output became labeled \\\"kids only\\\". Barbera and Hanna wanted to recapture the adult audience with an animated situation comedy.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nBarbera and Hanna experimented with hillbillies (a hillbilly theme was later incorporated into two Flintstones episodes, \\\"The Bedrock Hillbillies\\\" and \\\"The Hatrocks and the Gruesomes\\\"), Romans (Hanna-Barbera eventually created The Roman Holidays), pilgrims, and Indians as the settings for the two families before deciding on the Stone Age. According to Barbera, they settled on that because \\\"you could take anything that was current, and convert it to stone-age\\\". Under the working title The Flagstones, the family originally consisted of Fred, Wilma, and their son, Fred, Jr. A brief demonstration film was also created to sell the idea of a \\\"modern stone age family\\\" to sponsors and the network. Animator Kenneth Muse, who worked on the Tom and Jerry cartoons, also worked on the early seasons of The Flintstones.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe show imitated and spoofed The Honeymooners, although the early voice characterization for Barney was that of Lou Costello. William Hanna admitted that \\\"At that time, The Honeymooners was the most popular show on the air, and for my bill, it was the funniest show on the air. The characters, I thought, were terrific. Now, that influenced greatly what we did with The Flintstones ... The Honeymooners was there, and we used that as a kind of basis for the concept.\\\" However, Joseph Barbera disavowed these claims in a separate interview, stating that, \\\"I don't remember mentioning The Honeymooners when I sold the show. But if people want to compare The Flintstones to The Honeymooners, then great. It's a total compliment. The Honeymooners was one of the greatest shows ever written.\\\" Jackie Gleason, creator of The Honeymooners, considered suing Hanna-Barbera Productions, but decided that he did not want to be known as \\\"the guy who yanked Fred Flintstone off the air\\\". Another influence was noted during Hanna-Barbera's tenure at MGM, where they were in a friendly competition with fellow cartoon director Tex Avery. In 1955, Avery directed a cartoon entitled \\\"The First Bad Man\\\" (narrated by cowboy legend Tex Ritter).\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe cartoon concerned the rowdy antics of a bank robber in stone-age Dallas. Many of the visual jokes antedated by many years similar ones used by Hanna-Barbera in the Flintstones series. Many students of American animation point to this cartoon as a progenitive seed of the Flintstones.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe concept was also predated by the Stone Age Cartoons series of 12 animated cartoons released from January 1940 to September 1940 by Fleischer Studios. These cartoons show stone age people doing modern things with primitive means. One example is Granite Hotel including characters such as a newsboy, telephone operator, hotel clerk, and a spoof of Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nBarbera explained that selling the show to a network and sponsors was not an easy task.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nWhen the series went into production, the working title The Flagstones was changed, possibly to avoid confusion with the Flagstons, characters in the comic strip Hi and Lois. After spending a brief period in development as The Gladstones (GLadstone being a Los Angeles telephone exchange at the time), Hanna-Barbera settled upon The Flintstones, and the idea of the Flintstones having a child from the start was discarded, with Fred and Wilma starting out as a childless couple. However, some early Flintstones merchandise, such as a 1961 Little Golden Book, included Fred Jr., before it was decided on his removal.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nDespite the animation and fantasy setting, the series was initially aimed at adult audiences, which was reflected in the comedy writing, which, as noted, resembled the average primetime sitcoms of the era, with the usual family issues resolved with a laugh at the end of each episode, as well as the inclusion of a laugh track. Hanna and Barbera hired many writers from the world of live action, including two of Jackie Gleason's writers, Herbert Finn and Sydney Zelinka, as well as relative newcomer Joanna Lee while still using traditional animation story men such as Warren Foster and Michael Maltese.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe Flintstones premiered on September 30, 1960, at 8:30 pm, and quickly became a hit. It was the first American animated show to depict two people of the opposite sex (Fred and Wilma; Barney and Betty) sleeping together in one bed, although Fred and Wilma are sometimes depicted as sleeping in separate beds. For comparison, the first live-action depiction of this in American TV history was in television's first-ever sitcom: 1947's Mary Kay and Johnny.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe first two seasons were co-sponsored by Winston cigarettes and the characters appeared in several black-and-white television commercials for Winston (dictated by the custom, at that time, that the star(s) of a TV series often \\\"pitched\\\" their sponsor's product in an \\\"integrated commercial\\\" at the end of the episode).\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nDuring the third season, Hanna and Barbera decided that Fred and Wilma should have a baby. Originally, Hanna and Barbera intended for the Flintstone family to have a boy, the head of the marketing department convinced them to change it to a girl since \\\"girl dolls sell a lot better than boy dolls\\\". Although most Flintstones episodes were stand-alone storylines, Hanna-Barbera created a story arc surrounding the birth of Pebbles. Beginning with the episode \\\"The Surprise\\\", aired midway through the third season (January 25, 1963), in which Wilma reveals her pregnancy to Fred, the arc continued through the time leading up to Pebbles' birth in the episode \\\"Dress Rehearsal\\\" (February 22, 1963), and then continued with several episodes showing Fred and Wilma adjusting to the world of parenthood. Around this time, Winston pulled out their sponsorship and Welch's (grape juice and grape jellies) became the primary sponsor. The integrated commercials for Welch's products feature Pebbles asking for grape juice in her toddler dialect, and Fred explaining to Pebbles Welch's unique process for making the jelly, compared to the competition.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nWelch's also produced a line of grape jelly packaged in jars which were reusable as drinking glasses, with painted scenes featuring the Flintstones and characters from the show. In Australia, the Nine Network ran a \\\"Name the Flintstones' baby\\\" competition during the 'pregnancy' episodes – few Australian viewers were expected to have a U.S. connection giving them information about past Flintstone episodes.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nAnother arc occurred in the fourth season, in which the Rubbles, depressed over being unable to have children of their own (making The Flintstones the first animated series in history to address the issue of infertility, though subtly), adopt Bamm-Bamm. The 100th episode made (but the 90th to air), \\\"Little Bamm-Bamm Rubble\\\" (October 3, 1963), established how Bamm-Bamm was adopted. Nine episodes were produced before it but aired afterwards, which explains why Bamm-Bamm was not seen again until episode 101, \\\"Daddies Anonymous\\\" (Bamm-Bamm was in a teaser on episode 98, \\\"Kleptomaniac Pebbles\\\"). Another story arc, occurring in the final season, centered on Fred and Barney's dealings with the Great Gazoo (voiced by[Harvey Korman).\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nAfter Pebbles' birth, the tone and writing became more juvenile and ratings from the adult demographic began to decline. The last original episode was broadcast on April 1, 1966. By the time of its cancellation, The Flintstones had become the first primetime animated series to last more than two seasons. This record was not surpassed by another primetime animated television series until the seventh season of The Simpsons in 1995/1996.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe first three seasons of The Flintstones aired Friday nights at 8:30 on ABC. Season four and part of season five aired Thursdays at 7:30. The rest of the series aired Fridays at 7:30.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nIn the U.S., syndicated reruns of the series were offered to local stations until 1997, when E/I regulations and changing tastes in the industry led to the show's move to cable television. From the time of Ted Turner's purchase of Hanna-Barbera in 1992 until around 1999, TBS, TNT, and Cartoon Network aired the program. In 2000, the program moved to Boomerang, where it has aired ever since (since 2015, the show has been relegated to an overnight graveyard slot due to format changes at the channel).\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nReception\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe night after The Flintstones premiered, Variety called it \\\"A pen and ink disaster\\\". However, the negative reviews were short-lived and The Flintstones soon became one of the most popular and well-loved shows of all time. In 1961, The Flintstones became the first animated series to be nominated for an Outstanding Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award, but lost out to The Jack Benny Show. In January 2009, IGN named The Flintstones as the ninth-best in its \\\"Top 100 Animated TV Shows\\\".\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nNielsen ratings\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n* 1960–61: #18\\n* 1961–62: #21\\n* 1962–63: #30\\n* 1963–64: #33 (19.7) \\n* 1964–65: #60\\n* 1965–66: #70\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nFilms and subsequent television series\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nFollowing the show's cancellation in 1966, a film based upon the series was created. The Man Called Flintstone was a musical spy caper that parodied James Bond and other secret agents. The movie was released to theaters on August 3, 1966, by Columbia Pictures. It was released on DVD in Canada in March 2005 and in United States in December 2008.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe show was revived in the early 1970s with Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm having grown into teenagers, and several different series and made-for-TV movies (broadcast mainly on Saturday mornings, with a few shown in prime time); including a series depicting Fred and Barney as police officers, another depicting the characters as children, and yet others featuring Fred and Barney encountering Marvel Comics superhero The Thing and Al Capp's comic strip character The Shmoo – have appeared over the years. The original show also was adapted into a live-action film in 1994, and a prequel, The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas, which followed in 2000. Unlike its sister show The Jetsons (the two shows appeared in a made-for-TV crossover movie in 1987), the revival programs were not widely syndicated or rerun alongside the original series.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nTelevision series\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n* The Flintstones (1960–66) (166 episodes) (six seasons)\\n* The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show (1971–72) (one season)\\n* The Flintstone Comedy Hour / The Flintstone Comedy Show (1972–74) (one season)\\n* Scooby's All-Star Laff-A-Lympics (1977-79) (two seasons)\\n* Fred Flintstone and Friends (1977–78) (compilation series)\\n* The New Fred and Barney Show (1979) (one season)\\n* Fred and Barney Meet The Thing (1979) (one season)\\n* Fred and Barney Meet the Shmoo (1979–80) (one season)\\n* The Flintstone Comedy Show (1980–82) (two seasons)\\n* The Flintstone Funnies (1982–84) (one season)\\n* The Flintstone Kids (1986–88) (two seasons)\\n* Dino: What a Cartoon! – featuring \\\"Stay Out!\\\" (1995) and \\\"The Great Egg-Scape\\\" (1997)\\n* Cave Kids: Pebbles & Bamm-Bamm (1996) (one season)\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nTheatrical animated feature\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n* The Man Called Flintstone (1966, released by Columbia Pictures)\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nTelevision specials\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n* A Flintstone Christmas (1977)\\n* The Flintstones: Little Big League (1978)\\n* The Flintstones Meet Rockula and Frankenstone (1979)\\n* The Flintstones' New Neighbors (1980)\\n* The Flintstones: Fred's Final Fling (1980)\\n* The Flintstones: Wind-Up Wilma (1981)\\n* The Flintstones: Jogging Fever (1981)\\n* The Flintstones' 25th Anniversary Celebration (1986)\\n* The Flintstone Kids' \\\"Just Say No\\\" Special (1988)\\n* Hanna-Barbera's 50th: A Yabba Dabba Doo Celebration (1989)\\n* A Flintstone Family Christmas (1993)\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nTelevision movies\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n* The Jetsons Meet the Flintstones (1987)\\n* I Yabba-Dabba Do! (1993)\\n* Hollyrock-a-Bye Baby (1993)\\n* A Flintstones Christmas Carol (1994)\\n* The Flintstones: On the Rocks (2001)\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nLive-action films\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n* The Flintstones (1994)\\n* The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000)\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nDirect-to-video films\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\n* The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown! (2015)\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nOther media\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nFor a list of DVDs, video games, comic books, and VHS releases, see List of The Flintstones media.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nCancelled Seth MacFarlane reboot\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nIn 2011, it was announced the Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane would be reviving The Flintstones for the Fox network, with the first episode airing in 2013. After Fox Entertainment president Kevin Reilly read the pilot script and \\\"liked it but didn't love it\\\", MacFarlane chose to abandon work on the project rather than restarting it.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nWWE film\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nIn May 2013, Warner Bros. Animation and WWE Studios announced a Flintstones animated film. The film was to involve a \\\"prehistoric WWE main event\\\" and feature the voices of The Undertaker, Vince McMahon, John Cena, and Rey Mysterio, and CM Punk. The film was released direct-to-video in early 2015.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nGary Sanchez animated film\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nIn May 2014, Will Ferrell and Adam McKay will produce an animated Flintstones movie for Warner Bros. Animation.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nTheme parks\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nTwo Flintstones-themed amusement parks exist in the United States: Bedrock City in Custer, South Dakota, and another in Valle, Arizona. Both have been in operation for decades. Bedrock City, also known as Flintstone Park, closed in August 2015.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nAnother existed until the 1990s at Carowinds in Charlotte, North Carolina. In Canada, Flintstone Park in Kelowna, British Columbia, opened in 1968 and closed in 1998; it was notable for the \\\"Forty Foot Fred\\\" statue of Fred Flintstone which was a well known Kelowna landmark. Another Flintstones park was located in Bridal Falls, British Columbia, which closed in 1990. Calaway Park outside Calgary, Canada, also opened with a Flintstones theme and many of the buildings today have a caveman-like design, though the park does not license the characters. The Australia's Wonderland and Canada's Wonderland theme parks, both featured Flintstones characters in their Hanna-Barbera-themed children's sections from 1985 up until the mid-1990s. Kings Island near Cincinnati, Ohio, had a Hanna-Barbera land, in which many Hanna-Barbera characters were featured, including the Flintstones, in the 1980s and early 1990s.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nLive theater\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nA stage production opened at Universal Studios Hollywood in 1994 (the year the live-action film was released), developed by Universal and Hanna-Barbera Productions. It opened at the Panasonic Theater replacing the Star Trek show. The story consists of Fred, Wilma, Barney, and Betty heading for \\\"Hollyrock\\\". The show ran until January 2, 1997.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nIn popular culture\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nMiles Laboratories (now part of Bayer Corporation) and their One-A-Day vitamin brand was the alternate sponsor of the original Flintstones series during its first two seasons, and in the late 1960s, Miles introduced Flintstones Chewable Vitamins, fruit-flavored multivitamin tablets for children in the shape of the Flintstones characters, which are sold to this day.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nThe Simpsons referenced The Flintstones in several episodes. In the episode \\\"Homer's Night Out\\\", Homer's local convenience store clerk, Apu, remarks \\\"You look familiar, sir. Are you on the television or something?\\\", to which Homer replies \\\"Sorry, buddy, you've got me confused with Fred Flintstone.\\\" During the couch gag of the opening credits of the episode \\\"Kamp Krusty\\\", the Simpson family arrive home to find the Flintstone family already sitting on their couch. The same couch gag was reused in syndicated episodes of \\\"The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show\\\", when The Simpsons overtook The Flintstones as the longest-running animated series. In \\\"Lady Bouvier's Lover\\\", Homer's boss, Mr. Burns, appears at the family's house and says \\\"Why, it's Fred Flintstone (referring to Homer) and his lovely wife, Wilma! (Marge) Oh, and this must be little Pebbles! (Maggie) Mind if I come in? I brought chocolates.\\\" Homer responds by saying \\\"Yabba-dabba-doo!\\\" During the opening of \\\"Marge vs. the Monorail\\\", Homer sings his own version of the Flintstones opening theme.\",\n \"The Flintstones\\n\\nOn September 30, 2010, Google temporarily replaced the logo on their search page with a custom graphic celebrating the 50th anniversary of the first TV broadcast.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2082,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_28"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What is the collective noun for a group of monkeys?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"A troop"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["one horned diablo","troop"],"string":"[\n \"one horned diablo\",\n \"troop\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["What is a group of monkeys called? - Research Maniacs\n\nWhat is a group of monkeys called?\nWhat is a group of monkeys called?\nCollective Noun for Monkeys\nThe collective noun for monkeys is the word you would use to describe a group of monkeys.\nWe have identified the following word(s) that you could call a group of monkeys:\nbarrel\ntroop\nwilderness\nUsed in a sentence, you could say \"Look at the barrel of monkeys\", where \"barrel\" is the collective noun that means group.\nAs you can see, you simply substitute the word \"group\" with one of the collective nouns on our list above when describing a group of monkeys.","Chain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's ...\n\nChain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's called a 'congress.' | PolitiFact Rhode Island\n\"What is the proper collective noun for a group of baboons? Believe it or not . . . a Congress!\"\n— Chain email on Saturday, December 10th, 2011 in a message via the Internet\nChain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's called a 'congress.'\nBy C. Eugene Emery Jr. on Monday, January 2nd, 2012 at 9:33 a.m. \"We are all familiar with a herd of cows, a flock of chickens, a school of fish and a gaggle of geese,\" the e-mail begins. \"However, less widely known is a pride of lions, a murder of crows (as well as their cousins the rooks and ravens), an exaltation of doves and, presumably because they look so wise, a parliament of owls. \"Now consider a group of baboons. They are the loudest, most dangerous, most obnoxious, most viciously aggressive and least intelligent of all primates. And what is the proper collective noun for a group of baboons? Believe it or not ... a Congress!","Chain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's ...\n\nI guess that pretty much explains the things that come out of Washington!\"\nWe at PolitiFact have learned from experience to be skeptical of anything we see in the contagion of e-mails we receive. But we wondered, since we're always skeptical of our own skepticism, could this just be a joke, or could this little tidbit be true? First stop: Dictionary.com . None of the definitions for congress referred to baboons, apes, monkeys or primates. A \"congress\" can be a meeting or session of any group, but the e-mail makes it clear that this is a specific term for a gathering of baboons. Merriam-Webster.com also produced negative results. So did the online version of the Oxford Dictionary and the 2,059-page Random House Unabridged Dictionary from 1973 in our newsroom. Two places where we did find it were sources in which virtually anybody could insert a definition on a whim: Wikipedia and UrbanDictionary.com . (In the Urban Dictionary, someone added the definition on Sept. 3, 2011, in response to the e-mail.)\nSo we turned to Orin Hargraves, a freelance lexicographer and president of the Dictionary Society of North America .","Chain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's ...\n\nThe names for collections of animals are called \"terms of venery,\" and Hargraves said the best reference source for them is the 1968 book \"An Exaltation of Larks\" by James Lipton, host of \"Inside the Actors Studio.\"\nThe first part of the book, which examines real terms, has no reference to baboons. Only in the section that includes whimsical terms that Lipton coined or uncovered is there any reference to the primates. \"A rumpus of baboons\" is listed right next to \"a buffoonery of orangutans.\" (One of our favorites: \"a prickle of porcupines.\")\nHargraves could find no evidence that congress is the correct term. \"Apparently someone just made it up,\" he said. \"It has the ring of truthiness and so people like it. They do behave like the caricature of the baboons, but I think real baboons probably behave a lot better.\"\nWe also turned to two anthropologists who really know baboons. Shirley Strum is at the University of California, San Diego, and director of the Uaso Ngiro Baboon Project in Nairobi,Kenya. Larissa Swedell is at Queens College of the City University of New York and studies the primates in Ethiopia and South Africa.","Chain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's ...\n\nBoth said the correct term for a group of baboons is a \"troop.\"\n\"I have never heard the term congress used for a group of baboons!\" Swedell said in an e-mail. \"I would prefer to be governed by baboons than the current Congress, however!!! They are more socially committed, abide by the golden rule and are generally nicer people,\" said Strum, also in an e-mail. Swedell disputed the e-mail’s description of baboons. \"Least intelligent? No way. … Among monkeys, baboons are pretty smart,\" she said, adding that chimpanzees are probably more dangerous. Baboons are \"socially sophisticated and incredibly smart\" and among primates, \"no species is as dangerous as humans,\" said Strum. \"Only baboons who have been spoiled by humans feeding them are dangerous and are never as aggressive as humans.\"\nFinally, we searched Google Books for \"congress of baboons\" and came up with just 10 books with the phrase. In contrast, \"troop of baboons\" produced 393 hits. Our ruling\nThe e-mail claiming that a group of baboons is known as a congress states the claim as fact and tickles our sense of irony at a time when the U.S. Congress' approval rating is about 16 percent or lower.","Chain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's ...\n\nBut the correct term is a \"troop.\"\nYou may be tempted to call the U.S. Congress a group of baboons, yet a group of baboons is not a congress. If someone presents this joke e-mail to you as the truth, tell them they need to step away from the smoke detector because they've got Pants On Fire !","What do you call a group of ...? - Oxford Dictionaries\n\nWhat do you call a group of ...? | Oxford Dictionaries\nHome Explore Language questions The English language What do you call a group of ...? What do you call a group of ...? Many of the following terms belong to 15th-century lists of 'proper terms', such as those in the Book of St Albans attributed to Dame Juliana Barnes (1486). Some are fanciful or humorous terms which probably never had any real currency, but have been taken up by antiquarian writers, notably Joseph Strutt in Sports and Pastimes of England (1801).","What do you call a group of ...? - Oxford Dictionaries\n\nPeople\na malapertness (= impertinence) of pedlars\na pity of prisoners\na glozing (= fawning) of taverners\nAnimals\na herd or pace of asses\na troop of baboons\na swarm or drift or hive or erst of bees\na flock or flight or pod of birds\na herd or gang or obstinacy of buffalo\na bellowing of bullfinches\na clowder or glaring of cats\na herd or drove of cattle\na brood or clutch or peep of chickens\na chattering or clattering of choughs\na rag or rake of colts\na covert of coots\na herd or mob of deer\na pack or kennel of dogs\na school of dolphins\na flight or dole or piteousness of doves\na raft or bunch or paddling of ducks on water\na safe of ducks on land\na fling of dunlins\na herd or parade of elephants\na gang or herd of elk\na busyness of ferrets\na charm or chirm of finches\na shoal or run of fish\na swarm or cloud of flies\na skulk of foxes\na gaggle of geese on land\na skein or team or wedge of geese in flight\na herd of giraffes\na flock or herd or trip of goats\na band of gorillas\na pack or covey of grouse\na down or mute or husk of hares\na cast of hawks\na bale or turn of turtles\na bunch or knob or raft of waterfowl\na school or pod or herd or gam of whales\na company or trip of wigeon\na sounder of wild boar\na destruction of wild cats\na team of wild ducks in flight\na bunch or trip or plump or knob (fewer than 30) of wildfowl\na drift of wild pigs\na pack or rout of wolves\na fall of woodcock\na herd of wrens\na zeal of zebras\nYou can read more about collective nouns on the Oxford Dictionaries blog .","What do you call a group of ...? - Oxford Dictionaries\n\nHere you will find more details about the history of collective nouns and their origins.","What do you call a group of ...? - Oxford Dictionaries\n\nSee other FAQs about language .\nTake a look at some vocabulary questions ."],"string":"[\n \"What is a group of monkeys called? - Research Maniacs\\n\\nWhat is a group of monkeys called?\\nWhat is a group of monkeys called?\\nCollective Noun for Monkeys\\nThe collective noun for monkeys is the word you would use to describe a group of monkeys.\\nWe have identified the following word(s) that you could call a group of monkeys:\\nbarrel\\ntroop\\nwilderness\\nUsed in a sentence, you could say \\\"Look at the barrel of monkeys\\\", where \\\"barrel\\\" is the collective noun that means group.\\nAs you can see, you simply substitute the word \\\"group\\\" with one of the collective nouns on our list above when describing a group of monkeys.\",\n \"Chain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's ...\\n\\nChain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's called a 'congress.' | PolitiFact Rhode Island\\n\\\"What is the proper collective noun for a group of baboons? Believe it or not . . . a Congress!\\\"\\n— Chain email on Saturday, December 10th, 2011 in a message via the Internet\\nChain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's called a 'congress.'\\nBy C. Eugene Emery Jr. on Monday, January 2nd, 2012 at 9:33 a.m. \\\"We are all familiar with a herd of cows, a flock of chickens, a school of fish and a gaggle of geese,\\\" the e-mail begins. \\\"However, less widely known is a pride of lions, a murder of crows (as well as their cousins the rooks and ravens), an exaltation of doves and, presumably because they look so wise, a parliament of owls. \\\"Now consider a group of baboons. They are the loudest, most dangerous, most obnoxious, most viciously aggressive and least intelligent of all primates. And what is the proper collective noun for a group of baboons? Believe it or not ... a Congress!\",\n \"Chain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's ...\\n\\nI guess that pretty much explains the things that come out of Washington!\\\"\\nWe at PolitiFact have learned from experience to be skeptical of anything we see in the contagion of e-mails we receive. But we wondered, since we're always skeptical of our own skepticism, could this just be a joke, or could this little tidbit be true? First stop: Dictionary.com . None of the definitions for congress referred to baboons, apes, monkeys or primates. A \\\"congress\\\" can be a meeting or session of any group, but the e-mail makes it clear that this is a specific term for a gathering of baboons. Merriam-Webster.com also produced negative results. So did the online version of the Oxford Dictionary and the 2,059-page Random House Unabridged Dictionary from 1973 in our newsroom. Two places where we did find it were sources in which virtually anybody could insert a definition on a whim: Wikipedia and UrbanDictionary.com . (In the Urban Dictionary, someone added the definition on Sept. 3, 2011, in response to the e-mail.)\\nSo we turned to Orin Hargraves, a freelance lexicographer and president of the Dictionary Society of North America .\",\n \"Chain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's ...\\n\\nThe names for collections of animals are called \\\"terms of venery,\\\" and Hargraves said the best reference source for them is the 1968 book \\\"An Exaltation of Larks\\\" by James Lipton, host of \\\"Inside the Actors Studio.\\\"\\nThe first part of the book, which examines real terms, has no reference to baboons. Only in the section that includes whimsical terms that Lipton coined or uncovered is there any reference to the primates. \\\"A rumpus of baboons\\\" is listed right next to \\\"a buffoonery of orangutans.\\\" (One of our favorites: \\\"a prickle of porcupines.\\\")\\nHargraves could find no evidence that congress is the correct term. \\\"Apparently someone just made it up,\\\" he said. \\\"It has the ring of truthiness and so people like it. They do behave like the caricature of the baboons, but I think real baboons probably behave a lot better.\\\"\\nWe also turned to two anthropologists who really know baboons. Shirley Strum is at the University of California, San Diego, and director of the Uaso Ngiro Baboon Project in Nairobi,Kenya. Larissa Swedell is at Queens College of the City University of New York and studies the primates in Ethiopia and South Africa.\",\n \"Chain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's ...\\n\\nBoth said the correct term for a group of baboons is a \\\"troop.\\\"\\n\\\"I have never heard the term congress used for a group of baboons!\\\" Swedell said in an e-mail. \\\"I would prefer to be governed by baboons than the current Congress, however!!! They are more socially committed, abide by the golden rule and are generally nicer people,\\\" said Strum, also in an e-mail. Swedell disputed the e-mail’s description of baboons. \\\"Least intelligent? No way. … Among monkeys, baboons are pretty smart,\\\" she said, adding that chimpanzees are probably more dangerous. Baboons are \\\"socially sophisticated and incredibly smart\\\" and among primates, \\\"no species is as dangerous as humans,\\\" said Strum. \\\"Only baboons who have been spoiled by humans feeding them are dangerous and are never as aggressive as humans.\\\"\\nFinally, we searched Google Books for \\\"congress of baboons\\\" and came up with just 10 books with the phrase. In contrast, \\\"troop of baboons\\\" produced 393 hits. Our ruling\\nThe e-mail claiming that a group of baboons is known as a congress states the claim as fact and tickles our sense of irony at a time when the U.S. Congress' approval rating is about 16 percent or lower.\",\n \"Chain e-mail claims that when baboons congregate, it's ...\\n\\nBut the correct term is a \\\"troop.\\\"\\nYou may be tempted to call the U.S. Congress a group of baboons, yet a group of baboons is not a congress. If someone presents this joke e-mail to you as the truth, tell them they need to step away from the smoke detector because they've got Pants On Fire !\",\n \"What do you call a group of ...? - Oxford Dictionaries\\n\\nWhat do you call a group of ...? | Oxford Dictionaries\\nHome Explore Language questions The English language What do you call a group of ...? What do you call a group of ...? Many of the following terms belong to 15th-century lists of 'proper terms', such as those in the Book of St Albans attributed to Dame Juliana Barnes (1486). Some are fanciful or humorous terms which probably never had any real currency, but have been taken up by antiquarian writers, notably Joseph Strutt in Sports and Pastimes of England (1801).\",\n \"What do you call a group of ...? - Oxford Dictionaries\\n\\nPeople\\na malapertness (= impertinence) of pedlars\\na pity of prisoners\\na glozing (= fawning) of taverners\\nAnimals\\na herd or pace of asses\\na troop of baboons\\na swarm or drift or hive or erst of bees\\na flock or flight or pod of birds\\na herd or gang or obstinacy of buffalo\\na bellowing of bullfinches\\na clowder or glaring of cats\\na herd or drove of cattle\\na brood or clutch or peep of chickens\\na chattering or clattering of choughs\\na rag or rake of colts\\na covert of coots\\na herd or mob of deer\\na pack or kennel of dogs\\na school of dolphins\\na flight or dole or piteousness of doves\\na raft or bunch or paddling of ducks on water\\na safe of ducks on land\\na fling of dunlins\\na herd or parade of elephants\\na gang or herd of elk\\na busyness of ferrets\\na charm or chirm of finches\\na shoal or run of fish\\na swarm or cloud of flies\\na skulk of foxes\\na gaggle of geese on land\\na skein or team or wedge of geese in flight\\na herd of giraffes\\na flock or herd or trip of goats\\na band of gorillas\\na pack or covey of grouse\\na down or mute or husk of hares\\na cast of hawks\\na bale or turn of turtles\\na bunch or knob or raft of waterfowl\\na school or pod or herd or gam of whales\\na company or trip of wigeon\\na sounder of wild boar\\na destruction of wild cats\\na team of wild ducks in flight\\na bunch or trip or plump or knob (fewer than 30) of wildfowl\\na drift of wild pigs\\na pack or rout of wolves\\na fall of woodcock\\na herd of wrens\\na zeal of zebras\\nYou can read more about collective nouns on the Oxford Dictionaries blog .\",\n \"What do you call a group of ...? - Oxford Dictionaries\\n\\nHere you will find more details about the history of collective nouns and their origins.\",\n \"What do you call a group of ...? - Oxford Dictionaries\\n\\nSee other FAQs about language .\\nTake a look at some vocabulary questions .\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2083,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_29"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which film about Vietnam won the best picture at the 1978 Oscars?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"The Deer Hunter"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["deer hunter","die durch die hoelle gehen","deerhunter","die durch die holle gehen","die durch die hölle gehen"],"string":"[\n \"deer hunter\",\n \"die durch die hoelle gehen\",\n \"deerhunter\",\n \"die durch die holle gehen\",\n \"die durch die hölle gehen\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Vietnam War\n\nThe Vietnam War (), also known as the Second Indochina War, and known in Vietnam as Resistance War Against America () or simply the American War, was a Cold War-era proxy war that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War (1946–54) and was fought between North Vietnam—supported by the Soviet Union, China and other communist allies—and the government of South Vietnam—supported by the United States, Philippines and other anti-communist allies. The Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front, or NLF), a South Vietnamese communist common front aided by the North, fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region. The People's Army of Vietnam, also known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing large units to battle.","Vietnam War\n\nAs the war continued, the part of the Viet Cong in the fighting decreased as the role of the NVA grew. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes. In the course of the war, the U.S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nThe U.S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a Communist takeover of South Vietnam. This was part of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam. They viewed the conflict as a colonial war, fought initially against forces from France and then the U.S., and later against South Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nBeginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina. The Military Assistance Advisory Group, Indochina (with an authorized strength of 128 men) was set up in September 1950 with a mission to oversee the use and distribution of US military equipment by the French and their allies. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. U.S. involvement escalated further following the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident, in which a U.S. destroyer clashed with North Vietnamese fast attack craft, which was followed by the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave the U.S. president authorization to increase U.S. military presence. Regular U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965. Operations crossed international borders: bordering areas of Laos and Cambodia were heavily bombed by U.S. forces as American involvement in the war peaked in 1968, the same year that the communist side launched the Tet Offensive. The Tet Offensive failed in its goal of overthrowing the South Vietnamese government, but became the turning point in the war, as it persuaded a large segment of the U.S.","Vietnam War\n\npopulation that its government's claims of progress toward winning the war were illusory despite many years of massive U.S. military aid to South Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nGradual withdrawal of U.S. ground forces began as part of \"Vietnamization\", which aimed to end American involvement in the war while transferring the task of fighting the Communists to the South Vietnamese themselves. Despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U.S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture. The war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations.","Vietnam War\n\nDirect U.S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973. The capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities (see Vietnam War casualties). Estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 800,000 to 3.1 million. Some 200,000–300,000 Cambodians, . 20,000–200,000 Laotians, , which estimates 200,000 by 1973. and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict, with a further 1,626 missing in action.","Vietnam War\n\nNames for the war","Vietnam War\n\nVarious names have been applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English. It has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict.","Vietnam War\n\nAs there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this particular conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is generally known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ (Resistance War Against America). It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam (The Vietnam War).","Vietnam War\n\nThe primary military organizations involved in the war were, on one side, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and the U.S. military, and, on the other side, the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) (more commonly called the North Vietnamese Army, or NVA, in English-language sources), and the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, more commonly known as the Viet Cong in English language sources), a South Vietnamese communist guerrilla force.","Vietnam War\n\nBackground to 1949","Vietnam War\n\nFrance began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the next seven decades. In spite of military resistance, most notably by the Cần Vương of Phan Đình Phùng, by 1888 the area of the current-day nations of Cambodia and Vietnam was made into the colony of French Indochina (Laos was later added to the colony).. Various Vietnamese opposition movements to French rule existed during this period, such as the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng who staged the failed Yên Bái mutiny in 1930, but none were ultimately as successful as the Viet Minh common front, which was founded in 1941, controlled by the Indochinese Communist Party, and funded by the U.S. and the Chinese Nationalist Party in its fight against Imperial Japanese occupation..","Vietnam War\n\nIn 1940, during World War II, the French were defeated by the Germans. The French State (commonly known as Vichy France) was established as a client state of Nazi Germany. The French colonial authorities, in French Indochina, sided with the Vichy regime. In September 1940, Japan invaded Indochina. Following the cessation of fighting and the beginning of the Imperial Japanese occupation, the French colonial authorities collaborated with the Japanese. The French continued to run affairs in Indochina, but ultimate power resided in the hands of the Imperial Japanese.","Vietnam War\n\nThe Viet Minh was founded as a league for independence from France, but also opposed Japanese occupation in 1945 for the same reason. The U.S. and Chinese Nationalist Party supported them in the fight against the Imperial Japanese. However, they did not have enough power to fight actual battles at first. Viet Minh leader Ho Chi Minh was suspected of being a communist and jailed for a year by the Chinese Nationalist Party.","Vietnam War\n\nDouble occupation by France and Japan continued until the German forces were expelled from France and the French Indochina colonial authorities started holding secret talks with the Free French. Fearing that they could no longer trust the French authorities, the Imperial Japanese military interned the French authorities and troops on 9 March 1945. and created the puppet Empire of Vietnam state, under Bảo Đại instead.","Vietnam War\n\nDuring 1944–1945, a deep famine struck northern Vietnam due to a combination of bad weather and French/Japanese exploitation (French Indochina had to supply grains to Japan). Between 400,000 and 2 million people died of starvation (out of a population of 10 million in the affected area).. Exploiting the administrative gap that the internment of the French had created, the Viet Minh in March 1945 urged the population to ransack rice warehouses and refuse to pay their taxes.. Between 75 and 100 warehouses were consequently raided.. This rebellion against the effects of the famine and the authorities that were partially responsible for it bolstered the Viet Minh's popularity and they recruited many members during this period.","Vietnam War\n\nOn 22 August 1945, following the Imperial Japanese surrender, OSS agents Archimedes Patti and Carleton B. Swift Jr. arrived in Hanoi on a mercy mission to liberate allied POWs and were accompanied by Jean Sainteny, a French government official. The Japanese forces informally surrendered (the official surrender took place on 2 September 1945 in Tokyo Bay) but being the only force capable of maintaining law and order the Imperial Japanese military remained in power while keeping French colonial troops and Sainteny detained..","Vietnam War\n\nDuring August the Imperial Japanese forces remained inactive as the Viet Minh and other nationalist groups took over public buildings and weapons, which began the August Revolution. OSS officers met repeatedly with Ho Chi Minh and other Viet Minh officers during this period and on 2 September 1945 Ho Chi Minh declared the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam before a crowd of 500,000 in Hanoi. In an overture to the Americans, he began his speech by paraphrasing the United States Declaration of Independence: \"All men are created equal. The Creator has given us certain inviolable Rights: the right to Life, the right to be Free, and the right to achieve Happiness.\"","Vietnam War\n\nThe Viet Minh took power in Vietnam in the August Revolution. The Viet Minh, downplaying their Communist agenda and stressing nationalism enjoyed large popular support (Vietnamese independence being popular at the time), although Arthur J. Dommen cautions against a \"romanticized view\" of their success: \"The Viet Minh use of terror was systematic….the party had drawn up a list of those to be liquidated without delay.\" After their defeat in the war, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) gave weapons to the Vietnamese, and kept Vichy French officials and military officers imprisoned for a month after the surrender. The Viet Minh had recruited more than 600 Imperial Japanese soldiers and given them roles to train or command Vietnamese soldiers.","Vietnam War\n\nHowever, the major allied victors of World War II, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union, all agreed the area belonged to the French. As the French did not have the means to immediately retake Vietnam, the major powers came to an agreement that British troops would occupy the south while Nationalist Chinese forces would move in from the north. Nationalist Chinese troops entered the country to disarm Imperial Japanese troops north of the 16th parallel on 14 September 1945. When the British landed in the south, they rearmed the interned French forces as well as parts of the surrendered Imperial Japanese forces to aid them in retaking southern Vietnam, as they did not have enough troops to do this themselves.","Vietnam War\n\nOn the urging of the Soviet Union, Ho Chi Minh initially attempted to negotiate with the French, who were slowly re-establishing their control across the area. In January 1946, the Viet Minh won elections across central and northern Vietnam.. On 6 March 1946, Ho signed an agreement allowing French forces to replace Nationalist Chinese forces, in exchange for French recognition of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as a \"free\" republic within the French Union, with the specifics of such recognition to be determined by future negotiation. The French landed in Hanoi by March 1946 and in November of that year they ousted the Viet Minh from the city. British forces departed on 26 March 1946, leaving Vietnam in the hands of the French. Soon thereafter, the Viet Minh began a guerrilla war against the French Union forces, beginning the First Indochina War.","Vietnam War\n\nThe war spread to Laos and Cambodia, where communists organized the Pathet Lao and the Khmer Serei, both of which were modeled on the Viet Minh.. Globally, the Cold War began in earnest, which meant that the rapprochement that existed between the Western powers and the Soviet Union during World War II disintegrated. The Viet Minh fight was hampered by a lack of weapons; this situation changed by 1949 when the Chinese Communists had largely won the Chinese Civil War and were free to provide arms to their Vietnamese allies.","Vietnam War\n\nExit of the French, 1950–54","Vietnam War\n\nIn January 1950, the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union recognized the Viet Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam, based in Hanoi, as the legitimate government of Vietnam. The following month the United States and Great Britain recognized the French-backed State of Vietnam in Saigon, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, as the legitimate Vietnamese government.. The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 convinced many Washington policymakers that the war in Indochina was an example of communist expansionism directed by the Soviet Union.","Vietnam War\n\nMilitary advisors from the People's Republic of China (PRC) began assisting the Viet Minh in July 1950. PRC weapons, expertise, and laborers transformed the Viet Minh from a guerrilla force into a regular army. In September 1950, the United States created a Military Assistance and Advisory Group (MAAG) to screen French requests for aid, advise on strategy, and train Vietnamese soldiers.. By 1954, the United States had supplied 300,000 small arms and spent US$1 billion in support of the French military effort, shouldering 80 percent of the cost of the war.","Vietnam War\n\nThere were also talks between the French and Americans in which the possible use of three tactical nuclear weapons was considered, though reports of how seriously this was considered and by whom are even now vague and contradictory. One version of the plan for the proposed Operation Vulture envisioned sending 60 B-29s from U.S. bases in the region, supported by as many as 150 fighters launched from U.S. Seventh Fleet carriers, to bomb Viet Minh commander Võ Nguyên Giáp's positions. The plan included an option to use up to three atomic weapons on the Viet Minh positions. Admiral Arthur W. Radford, Chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, gave this nuclear option his backing. U.S. B-29s, B-36s, and B-47s could have executed a nuclear strike, as could carrier aircraft from the Seventh Fleet.[http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2004/August%202004/0804dien.aspx Dien Bien Phu], Air Force Magazine 87:8, August 2004.","Vietnam War\n\nU.S. carriers sailed to the Gulf of Tonkin, and reconnaissance flights over Dien Bien Phu were conducted during the negotiations. According to U.S. Vice-President Richard Nixon, the plan involved the Joint Chiefs of Staff drawing up plans to use three small tactical nuclear weapons in support of the French. Nixon, a so-called \"hawk\" on Vietnam, suggested that the United States might have to \"put American boys in\". U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower made American participation contingent on British support, but they were opposed to such a venture. In the end, convinced that the political risks outweighed the possible benefits, Eisenhower decided against the intervention. Eisenhower was a five-star general. He was wary of getting the United States involved in a land war in Asia.","Vietnam War\n\nThe Viet Minh received crucial support from the Soviet Union and PRC. PRC support in the Border Campaign of 1950 allowed supplies to come from the PRC into Vietnam. Throughout the conflict, U.S. intelligence estimates remained skeptical of French chances of success.","Vietnam War\n\nThe Battle of Dien Bien Phu marked the end of French involvement in Indochina. Giap's Viet Minh forces handed the French a stunning military defeat, and on 7 May 1954, the French Union garrison surrendered. At the Geneva Conference, the French negotiated a ceasefire agreement with the Viet Minh, and independence was granted to Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nTransition period","Vietnam War\n\nVietnam was temporarily partitioned at the 17th parallel, and under the terms of the Geneva Accords, civilians were to be given the opportunity to move freely between the two provisional states for a 300-day period. Elections throughout the country were to be held in 1956 to establish a unified government. Around one million northerners, mainly minority Catholics, fled south, fearing persecution by the communists following an American propaganda campaign using slogans such as \"The Virgin Mary is heading south\",. and aided by a U.S.-funded $93 million relocation program, which included the use of the Seventh Fleet to ferry refugees. As many as two million more would have left had they not been stopped by the Viet Minh.. The northern, mainly Catholic refugees were meant to give the later Ngô Đình Diệm regime a strong anti-communist constituency.. Diệm later went on to staff his administration's key posts mostly with northern and central Catholics.","Vietnam War\n\nIn addition to the Catholics flowing south, up to 130,000 \"Revolutionary Regroupees\" went to the north for \"regroupment\", expecting to return to the south within two years. The Viet Minh left roughly 5,000 to 10,000 cadres in the south as a \"politico-military substructure within the object of its irredentism.\" The last French soldiers were to leave Vietnam in April 1956. The PRC completed its withdrawal from North Vietnam at around the same time. Around 52,000 Vietnamese civilians moved from south to north.","Vietnam War\n\nBetween 1953 and 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted various agrarian reforms, including \"rent reduction\" and \"land reform\", which resulted in significant political oppression. During the land reform, testimony from North Vietnamese witnesses suggested a ratio of one execution for every 160 village residents, which extrapolated nationwide would indicate nearly 100,000 executions. Because the campaign was concentrated mainly in the Red River Delta area, a lower estimate of 50,000 executions became widely accepted by scholars at the time. However, declassified documents from the Vietnamese and Hungarian archives indicate that the number of executions was much lower than reported at the time, although likely greater than 13,500. In 1956, leaders in Hanoi admitted to \"excesses\" in implementing this program and restored a large amount of the land to the original owners..","Vietnam War\n\nThe south, meanwhile, constituted the State of Vietnam, with Bảo Đại as Emperor and Ngô Đình Diệm (appointed in July 1954) as his prime minister. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Viet Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of \"local commissions\". The United States countered with what became known as the \"American Plan\", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. The United States said, \"With respect to the statement made by the representative of the State of Vietnam, the United States reiterates its traditional position that peoples are entitled to determine their own future and that it will not join in any arrangement which would hinder this\".","Vietnam War\n\nU.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower wrote in 1954, \"I have never talked or corresponded with a person knowledgeable in Indochinese affairs who did not agree that had elections been held as of the time of the fighting, possibly eighty percent of the population would have voted for the Communist Ho Chi Minh as their leader rather than Chief of State Bảo Đại. Indeed, the lack of leadership and drive on the part of Bảo Đại was a factor in the feeling prevalent among Vietnamese that they had nothing to fight for.\" According to the Pentagon Papers, however, from 1954 to 1956 \"Ngô Đình Diệm really did accomplish miracles\" in South Vietnam: \"It is almost certain that by 1956 the proportion which might have voted for Ho—in a free election against Diệm—would have been much smaller than eighty percent.\" In 1957, independent observers from India, Poland, and Canada representing the International Control Commission (ICC) stated that fair, unbiased elections were not possible, with the ICC reporting that neither South nor North Vietnam had honored the armistice agreement","Vietnam War\n\nFrom April to June 1955, Diệm eliminated any political opposition in the south by launching military operations against two religious groups: the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo of Ba Cụt. The campaign also focused on the Bình Xuyên organized crime group which was allied with members of the communist party secret police and had some military elements. As broad-based opposition to his harsh tactics mounted, Diệm increasingly sought to blame the communists.","Vietnam War\n\nIn a referendum on the future of the State of Vietnam on 23 October 1955, Diệm rigged the poll supervised by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu and was credited with 98.2 percent of the vote, including 133% in Saigon. His American advisors had recommended a more modest winning margin of \"60 to 70 percent.\" Diệm, however, viewed the election as a test of authority.. Three days later, he declared South Vietnam to be an independent state under the name Republic of Vietnam (ROV), with himself as president. Likewise, Ho Chi Minh and other communist officials always won at least 99% of the vote in North Vietnamese \"elections\".","Vietnam War\n\nThe domino theory, which argued that if one country fell to communism, then all of the surrounding countries would follow, was first proposed as policy by the Eisenhower administration.. John F. Kennedy, then a U.S. Senator, said in a speech to the American Friends of Vietnam: \"Burma, Thailand, India, Japan, the Philippines and obviously Laos and Cambodia are among those whose security would be threatened if the Red Tide of Communism overflowed into Vietnam.\"","Vietnam War\n\nDiệm era, 1955–63","Vietnam War\n\nRule","Vietnam War\n\nA devout Roman Catholic, Diệm was fervently anti-communist, nationalist, and socially conservative. Historian Luu Doan Huynh notes that \"Diệm represented narrow and extremist nationalism coupled with autocracy and nepotism.\". The majority of Vietnamese people were Buddhist, and were alarmed by actions such as Diệm's dedication of the country to the Virgin Mary.","Vietnam War\n\nBeginning in the summer of 1955, Diệm launched the \"Denounce the Communists\" campaign, during which communists and other anti-government elements were arrested, imprisoned, tortured, or executed. He instituted the death penalty against any activity deemed communist in August 1956. According to Gabriel Kolko about 12,000 suspected opponents of Diệm were killed between 1955 and 1957 and by the end of 1958 an estimated 40,000 political prisoners had been jailed. However, Guenter Lewy argues that such figures were exaggerated and that there were never more than 35,000 prisoners of all kinds in the whole country..","Vietnam War\n\nIn May 1957, Diệm undertook a ten-day state visit to the United States. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diệm's honor in New York City. Although Diệm was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diệm had been selected because there were no better alternatives..","Vietnam War\n\nFormer Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara wrote in Argument Without End (1999) that the new American patrons of the Republic of Vietnam (ROV) were almost completely ignorant of Vietnamese culture. They knew little of the language or long history of the country. There was a tendency to assign American motives to Vietnamese actions, though Diệm warned that it was an illusion to believe that blindly copying Western methods would solve Vietnamese problems.","Vietnam War\n\nInsurgency in the South, 1954–60","Vietnam War\n\nBetween 1954 and 1957 there was large-scale but disorganized dissidence in the countryside which the Diệm government succeeded in quelling. In early 1957 South Vietnam had its first peace in over a decade. However, by mid-1957 through 1959 incidents of violence increased but the government \"did not construe it as a campaign, considering the disorders too diffuse to warrant committing major GVN [Government of Vietnam] resources.\" By early 1959 however, Diệm considered it an organized campaign and implemented Law 10/59, which made political violence punishable by death and property confiscation. There had been some division among former Viet Minh whose main goal was to hold the elections promised in the Geneva Accords, leading to \"wildcat\" activities separate from the other communists and anti-GVN activists.","Vietnam War\n\nIn December 1960, the National Liberation Front (NLF, a.k.a. the Viet Cong) was formally created with the intent of uniting all anti-GVN activists, including non-communists. According to the Pentagon Papers, the Viet Cong \"placed heavy emphasis on the withdrawal of American advisors and influence, on land reform and liberalization of the GVN, on coalition government and the neutralization of Vietnam.\" Often the leaders of the organization were kept secret.","Vietnam War\n\nThe reason for the continued survival of the NLF was the class relations in the countryside. The vast majority of the population lived in villages in the countryside where the key issue was land reform. The Viet Minh had reduced rents and debts; and had leased communal lands, mostly to the poorer peasants. Diem brought the landlords back to the villages. People who were farming land they held for years now had to return it to landlords and pay years of back rent. This rent collection was enforced by the South Vietnamese army. The divisions within villages reproduced those that had existed against the French: \"75 percent support for the NLF, 20 percent trying to remain neutral and 5 percent firmly pro-government,\"","Vietnam War\n\nNorth Vietnamese involvement","Vietnam War\n\nSources disagree on whether North Vietnam played a direct role in aiding and organizing South Vietnamese rebels prior to 1960. Kahin and Lewis assert:","Vietnam War\n\nSimilarly, historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. states that \"it was not until September, 1960 that the Communist Party of North Vietnam bestowed its formal blessing and called for the liberation of the south from American imperialism\".","Vietnam War\n\nBy contrast, the author of War Comes to Long An Jeffrey Race interviewed communist defectors in 1967 and 1968 who found such denials \"very amusing\", and who \"commented humorously that the Party had apparently been more successful than was expected in concealing its role.\" James Olson and Randy Roberts assert that North Vietnam authorized a low-level insurgency in December 1956. To counter the accusation that North Vietnam was violating the Geneva Accord, the independence of the Viet Cong was stressed in communist propaganda.","Vietnam War\n\nIn March 1956, southern communist leader Lê Duẩn presented a plan to revive the insurgency entitled \"The Road to the South\" to the other members of the Politburo in Hanoi, but as both China and the Soviets opposed confrontation at this time, Lê Duẩn's plan was rejected. However the North Vietnamese leadership approved tentative measures to revive the southern insurgency in December 1956..This decision was made at the 11th Plenary Session of the Lao Dong Central Committee. Communist forces were under a single command structure set up in 1958. The North Vietnamese Communist Party approved a \"people's war\" on the South at a session in January 1959 and in May, Group 559 was established to maintain and upgrade the Ho Chi Minh trail, at this time a six-month mountain trek through Laos. About 500 of the \"regroupees\" of 1954 were sent south on the trail during its first year of operation. The first arms delivery via the trail was completed in August 1959..","Vietnam War\n\nNorth Vietnam invaded Laos in 1959, and used 30,000 men to build invasion routes through Laos and Cambodia by 1961. About 40,000 communist soldiers infiltrated into the south from 1961–63. North Vietnam sent 10,000 troops of the North Vietnamese Army to attack the south in 1964, and this figure increased to 100,000 in 1965.","Vietnam War\n\nKennedy's escalation, 1961–63","Vietnam War\n\nIn the 1960 U.S. presidential election, Senator John F. Kennedy defeated incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon. Although Eisenhower warned Kennedy about Laos and Vietnam, Europe and Latin America \"loomed larger than Asia on his sights.\". In his inaugural address, Kennedy made the ambitious pledge to \"pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and success of liberty.\" In June 1961, he bitterly disagreed with Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev when they met in Vienna to discuss key U.S.–Soviet issues. Only 16 months later, the U.S.–Soviet issues included the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 16–28, 1962) played out on television worldwide and was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war, and the U.S. raised the readiness level of Strategic Air Command(SAC) forces to DEFCON 2.","Vietnam War\n\nThe Kennedy administration remained essentially committed to the Cold War foreign policy inherited from the Truman and Eisenhower administrations. In 1961, the U.S. had 50,000 troops based in Korea, and Kennedy faced a three-part crisis – the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the construction of the Berlin Wall, and a negotiated settlement between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement. These crises made Kennedy believe that another failure on the part of the United States to gain control and stop communist expansion would fatally damage U.S. credibility with its allies and his own reputation. Kennedy was thus determined to \"draw a line in the sand\" and prevent a communist victory in Vietnam. He told James Reston of The New York Times immediately after his Vienna meeting with Khrushchev, \"Now we have a problem making our power credible and Vietnam looks like the place.\"","Vietnam War\n\nIn May 1961, U.S. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson visited Saigon and enthusiastically declared Diệm the \"Winston Churchill of Asia.\". Asked why he had made the comment, Johnson replied, \"Diệm's the only boy we got out there.\" Johnson assured Diệm of more aid in molding a fighting force that could resist the communists.","Vietnam War\n\nKennedy's policy toward South Vietnam rested on the assumption that Diệm and his forces had to ultimately defeat the guerrillas on their own. He was against the deployment of American combat troops and observed that \"to introduce U.S. forces in large numbers there today, while it might have an initially favorable military impact, would almost certainly lead to adverse political and, in the long run, adverse military consequences.\" \nThe quality of the South Vietnamese military, however, remained poor. Poor leadership, corruption, and political promotions all played a part in weakening the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN). The frequency of guerrilla attacks rose as the insurgency gathered steam. While Hanoi's support for the Viet Cong played a role, South Vietnamese governmental incompetence was at the core of the crisis..","Vietnam War\n\nOne major issue Kennedy raised was whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the United States. Although Kennedy stressed long-range missile parity with the Soviets, he was also interested in using special forces for counterinsurgency warfare in Third World countries threatened by communist insurgencies. Although they were originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional Soviet invasion of Europe, Kennedy believed that the guerrilla tactics employed by special forces such as the Green Berets would be effective in a \"brush fire\" war in Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nKennedy advisors Maxwell Taylor and Walt Rostow recommended that U.S. troops be sent to South Vietnam disguised as flood relief workers. Kennedy rejected the idea but increased military assistance yet again. In April 1962, John Kenneth Galbraith warned Kennedy of the \"danger we shall replace the French as a colonial force in the area and bleed as the French did.\" By November 1963, there were 16,000 American military personnel in South Vietnam, up from Eisenhower's 900 advisors.","Vietnam War\n\nThe Strategic Hamlet Program was initiated in late 1961. This joint U.S.-South Vietnamese program attempted to resettle the rural population into fortified camps. It was implemented in early 1962 and involved some forced relocation, village internment, and segregation of rural South Vietnamese into new communities where the peasantry would be isolated from Communist insurgents. It was hoped these new communities would provide security for the peasants and strengthen the tie between them and the central government. However, by November 1963 the program had waned, and it officially ended in 1964.","Vietnam War\n\nOn 23 July 1962, fourteen nations, including China, South Vietnam, the Soviet Union, North Vietnam and the United States, signed an agreement promising to respect the neutrality of Laos.[http://www.answers.com/topic/international-agreement-on-the-neutrality-of-laos-35k International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos].","Vietnam War\n\nOusting and assassination of Ngô Đình Diệm","Vietnam War\n\nThe inept performance of the South Vietnamese army was exemplified by failed actions such as the Battle of Ap Bac on 2 January 1963, in which a small band of Viet Cong won a battle against a much larger and better-equipped South Vietnamese force, many of whose officers seemed reluctant even to engage in combat.","Vietnam War\n\nThe Army of the Republic of Vietnam forces were led in that battle by Diệm's most trusted general, Huỳnh Văn Cao, commander of the IV Corps. Cao was a Catholic who had been promoted due to religion and fidelity rather than skill, and his main job was to preserve his forces to stave off coups; he had earlier vomited during a communist attack. Some policymakers in Washington began to conclude that Diệm was incapable of defeating the communists and might even make a deal with Ho Chi Minh. He seemed concerned only with fending off coups, and had become more paranoid after attempts in 1960 and 1962, which he partly attributed to U.S. encouragement. As Robert F. Kennedy noted, \"Diệm wouldn't make even the slightest concessions. He was difficult to reason with…\"","Vietnam War\n\nAs historian James Gibson summed up the situation:","Vietnam War\n\nDiscontent with Diệm's policies exploded following the Huế Phật Đản shootings of nine majority Buddhists who were protesting against the ban on the Buddhist flag on Vesak, the Buddha's birthday. This resulted in mass protests against discriminatory policies that gave privileges to the Catholic Church and its adherents. Diệm's elder brother Ngô Đình Thục was the Archbishop of Huế and aggressively blurred the separation between church and state. Thuc's anniversary celebrations shortly before Vesak had been bankrolled by the government, and Vatican flags were displayed prominently. There had also been reports of Buddhist pagodas being demolished by Catholic paramilitaries throughout Diệm's rule. Diệm refused to make concessions to the Buddhist majority or take responsibility for the deaths. On 21 August 1963, the ARVN Special Forces of Colonel Lê Quang Tung, loyal to Diệm's younger brother Ngô Đình Nhu, raided pagodas across Vietnam, causing widespread damage and destruction and leaving a death toll estimated to range into the hundreds.","Vietnam War\n\nU.S. officials began discussing the possibility of a regime change during the middle of 1963. The United States Department of State was generally in favor of encouraging a coup, while the Defense Department favored Diệm. Chief among the proposed changes was the removal of Diệm's younger brother Nhu, who controlled the secret police and special forces and was seen as the man behind the Buddhist repression and more generally the architect of the Ngô family's rule. This proposal was conveyed to the U.S. embassy in Saigon in Cable 243.","Vietnam War\n\nThe Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was in contact with generals planning to remove Diệm. They were told that the United States would not oppose such a move nor punish the generals by cutting off aid. President Diệm was overthrown and executed, along with his brother, on 2 November 1963. When he was informed, Maxwell Taylor remembered that Kennedy \"rushed from the room with a look of shock and dismay on his face.\". He had not anticipated Diệm's murder. The U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam, Henry Cabot Lodge, invited the coup leaders to the embassy and congratulated them. Ambassador Lodge informed Kennedy that \"the prospects now are for a shorter war\".. Kennedy wrote Lodge a letter congratulating him for \"a fine job.\"","Vietnam War\n\nFollowing the coup, chaos ensued. Hanoi took advantage of the situation and increased its support for the guerrillas. South Vietnam entered a period of extreme political instability, as one military government toppled another in quick succession. Increasingly, each new regime was viewed by the communists as a puppet of the Americans; whatever the failings of Diệm, his credentials as a nationalist (as Robert McNamara later reflected) had been impeccable..","Vietnam War\n\nU.S military advisors were embedded at every level of the South Vietnamese armed forces. They were however criticized for ignoring the political nature of the insurgency.. The Kennedy administration sought to refocus U.S. efforts on pacification and \"winning over the hearts and minds\" of the population. The military leadership in Washington, however, was hostile to any role for U.S. advisors other than conventional troop training. General Paul Harkins, the commander of U.S. forces in South Vietnam, confidently predicted victory by Christmas 1963.. The CIA was less optimistic, however, warning that \"the Viet Cong by and large retain de facto control of much of the countryside and have steadily increased the overall intensity of the effort\".","Vietnam War\n\nParamilitary officers from the CIA's Special Activities Division trained and led Hmong tribesmen in Laos and into Vietnam. The indigenous forces numbered in the tens of thousands and they conducted direct action missions, led by paramilitary officers, against the Communist Pathet Lao forces and their North Vietnamese supporters. The CIA also ran the Phoenix Program and participated in Military Assistance Command, Vietnam – Studies and Observations Group (MAC-V SOG), which was originally named the Special Operations Group, but was changed for cover purposes.","Vietnam War\n\nJohnson's escalation, 1963–69","Vietnam War\n\nAt the time Lyndon B. Johnson took over the presidency after the death of Kennedy, he had not been heavily involved with policy toward Vietnam, Presidential aide Jack Valenti recalls, \"Vietnam at the time was no bigger than a man's fist on the horizon. We hardly discussed it because it was not worth discussing.\".Johnson viewed many members that he inherited from Kennedy's cabinet with distrust because he had never penetrated their circle during Kennedy's presidency; to Johnson's mind, those like W. Averell Harriman and Dean Acheson spoke a different language.","Vietnam War\n\nUpon becoming president, however, Johnson immediately had to focus on Vietnam: on 24 November 1963, he said, \"the battle against communism [...] must be joined [...] with strength and determination.\".Before a small group, including Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., the new president also said, \"We should stop playing cops and robbers [a reference to Diệm's failed leadership] and get back to… winning the war… tell the generals in Saigon that Lyndon Johnson intends to stand by our word…[to] win the contest against the externally directed and supported Communist conspiracy.\" The pledge came at a time when the situation in South Vietnam was deteriorating, especially in places like the Mekong Delta, because of the recent coup against Diệm.: \"At a place called Hoa Phu, for example, the strategic hamlet built during the previous summer now looked like it had been hit by a hurricane. […] Speaking through an interpreter, a local guard explained to me that a handful of Viet Cong agents had entered the hamlet one night and told the peasants to tear it down and return to their native villages. The peasants complied without question.\"","Vietnam War\n\nThe military revolutionary council, meeting in lieu of a strong South Vietnamese leader, was made up of 12 members headed by General Dương Văn Minh—whom Stanley Karnow, a journalist on the ground, later recalled as \"a model of lethargy.\". Lodge, frustrated by the end of the year, cabled home about Minh: \"Will he be strong enough to get on top of things?\" His regime was overthrown in January 1964 by General Nguyễn Khánh.. However, there was persistent instability in the military as several coups—not all successful—occurred in a short period of time.","Vietnam War\n\nOn 2 August 1964, the , on an intelligence mission along North Vietnam's coast, allegedly fired upon and damaged several torpedo boats that had been stalking it in the Gulf of Tonkin.. A second attack was reported two days later on the and Maddox in the same area. The circumstances of the attack were murky. Lyndon Johnson commented to Undersecretary of State George Ball that \"those sailors out there may have been shooting at flying fish.\"","Vietnam War\n\nThe second attack led to retaliatory air strikes, prompted Congress to approve the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on 7 August 1964, signed by Johnson, and gave the president power to conduct military operations in Southeast Asia without declaring war. Although Congressmen at the time denied that this was a full-scale war declaration, the Tonkin Resolution allowed the president unilateral power to launch a full-scale war if the president deemed it necessary. In the same month, Johnson pledged that he was not \"… committing American boys to fighting a war that I think ought to be fought by the boys of Asia to help protect their own land.\".","Vietnam War\n\nAn undated NSA publication declassified in 2005, however, revealed that there was no attack on 4 August. It had already been called into question long before this. \"Gulf of Tonkin incident\", writes Louise Gerdes, \"is an oft-cited example of the way in which Johnson misled the American people to gain support for his foreign policy in Vietnam.\" George C. Herring argues, however, that McNamara and the Pentagon \"did not knowingly lie about the alleged attacks, but they were obviously in a mood to retaliate and they seem to have selected from the evidence available to them those parts that confirmed what they wanted to believe.\".","Vietnam War\n\n\"From a strength of approximately 5,000 at the start of 1959 the Viet Cong's ranks grew to about 100,000 at the end of 1964…Between 1961 and 1964 the Army's strength rose from about 850,000 to nearly a million men.\" The numbers for U.S. troops deployed to Vietnam during the same period were quite different; 2,000 in 1961, rising rapidly to 16,500 in 1964. By early 1965, 7,559 South Vietnamese hamlets had been destroyed by the Viet Cong.","Vietnam War\n\nThe National Security Council recommended a three-stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam. On 2 March 1965, following an attack on a U.S. Marine barracks at Pleiku, Operation Flaming Dart (initiated when Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin was on a state visit to North Vietnam), Operation Rolling Thunder and Operation Arc Light commenced. The bombing campaign, which ultimately lasted three years, was intended to force North Vietnam to cease its support for the Viet Cong by threatening to destroy North Vietnam's air defenses and industrial infrastructure. As well, it was aimed at bolstering the morale of the South Vietnamese.Earl L. Tilford, Setup: What the Air Force did in Vietnam and Why. Maxwell Air Force Base AL: Air University Press, 1991, p. 89. Between March 1965 and November 1968, \"Rolling Thunder\" deluged the north with a million tons of missiles, rockets and bombs..","Vietnam War\n\nBombing was not restricted to North Vietnam. Other aerial campaigns, such as Operation Commando Hunt, targeted different parts of the Viet Cong and NVA infrastructure. These included the Ho Chi Minh trail supply route, which ran through Laos and Cambodia. The objective of stopping North Vietnam and the Viet Cong was never reached. As one officer noted, \"This is a political war and it calls for discriminate killing. The best weapon… would be a knife… The worst is an airplane.\". The Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force Curtis LeMay, however, had long advocated saturation bombing in Vietnam and wrote of the communists that \"we're going to bomb them back into the Stone Age\".","Vietnam War\n\nEscalation and ground war","Vietnam War\n\nAfter several attacks upon them, it was decided that U.S. Air Force bases needed more protection as the South Vietnamese military seemed incapable of providing security. On 8 March 1965, 3,500 U.S. Marines were dispatched to South Vietnam. This marked the beginning of the American ground war. U.S. public opinion overwhelmingly supported the deployment.","Vietnam War\n\nIn a statement similar to that made to the French almost two decades earlier, Ho Chi Minh warned that if the Americans \"want to make war for twenty years then we shall make war for twenty years. If they want to make peace, we shall make peace and invite them to afternoon tea.\" As former First Deputy Foreign Minister Tran Quang Co has noted, the primary goal of the war was to reunify Vietnam and secure its independence. Some have argued that the policy of North Vietnam was not to topple other non-communist governments in South East Asia.. However, the Pentagon Papers warned of \"a dangerous period of Vietnamese expansionism….Laos and Cambodia would have been easy pickings for such a Vietnam….Thailand, Malaya, Singapore, and even Indonesia, could have been next.\"","Vietnam War\n\nThe Marines' initial assignment was defensive. The first deployment of 3,500 in March 1965 was increased to nearly 200,000 by December.. The U.S. military had long been schooled in offensive warfare. Regardless of political policies, U.S. commanders were institutionally and psychologically unsuited to a defensive mission. In December 1964, ARVN forces had suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Bình Giã, in a battle that both sides viewed as a watershed. Previously, communist forces had utilized hit-and-run guerrilla tactics. However, at Binh Gia, they had defeated a strong ARVN force in a conventional battle. Tellingly, South Vietnamese forces were again defeated in June 1965 at the Battle of Đồng Xoài.","Vietnam War\n\nDesertion rates were increasing, and morale plummeted. General William Westmoreland informed Admiral U. S. Grant Sharp Jr., commander of U.S. Pacific forces, that the situation was critical. He said, \"I am convinced that U.S. troops with their energy, mobility, and firepower can successfully take the fight to the NLF [National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam a.k.a. the Viet Cong].\" With this recommendation, Westmoreland was advocating an aggressive departure from America's defensive posture and the sidelining of the South Vietnamese. By ignoring ARVN units, the U.S. commitment became open-ended.. Westmoreland outlined a three-point plan to win the war:\n* Phase 1. Commitment of U.S. (and other free world) forces necessary to halt the losing trend by the end of 1965.\n* Phase 2. U.S. and allied forces mount major offensive actions to seize the initiative to destroy guerrilla and organized enemy forces. This phase would end when the enemy had been worn down, thrown on the defensive, and driven back from major populated areas.\n* Phase 3. If the enemy persisted, a period of twelve to eighteen months following Phase 2 would be required for the final destruction of enemy forces remaining in remote base areas.","Vietnam War\n\nThe plan was approved by Johnson and marked a profound departure from the previous administration's insistence that the government of South Vietnam was responsible for defeating the guerrillas. Westmoreland predicted victory by the end of 1967. Johnson did not, however, communicate this change in strategy to the media. Instead he emphasized continuity. The change in U.S. policy depended on matching the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong in a contest of attrition and morale. The opponents were locked in a cycle of escalation.. The idea that the government of South Vietnam could manage its own affairs was shelved.","Vietnam War\n\nThe one-year tour of duty of American soldiers deprived units of experienced leadership. As one observer noted \"we were not in Vietnam for 10 years, but for one year 10 times.\" As a result, training programs were shortened.","Vietnam War\n\nSouth Vietnam was inundated with manufactured goods. As Stanley Karnow writes, \"the main PX [Post Exchange], located in the Saigon suburb of Cholon, was only slightly smaller than the New York Bloomingdale's…\". The American buildup transformed the economy and had a profound effect on South Vietnamese society. A huge surge in corruption was witnessed.","Vietnam War\n\nWashington encouraged its SEATO allies to contribute troops. Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Thailand, and the Philippines. all agreed to send troops. Major allies, however, notably NATO nations Canada and the United Kingdom, declined Washington's troop requests. The U.S. and its allies mounted complex operations, such as operations Masher, Attleboro, Cedar Falls, and Junction City. However, the communist insurgents remained elusive and demonstrated great tactical flexibility.","Vietnam War\n\nMeanwhile, the political situation in South Vietnam began to stabilize with the coming to power of prime minister Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and figurehead Chief of State, General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, in mid-1965 at the head of a military junta. This ended a series of coups that had happened more than once a year. In 1967, Thieu became president with Ky as his deputy, after rigged elections. Although they were nominally a civilian government, Ky was supposed to maintain real power through a behind-the-scenes military body. However, Thieu outmaneuvered and sidelined Ky by filling the ranks with generals from his faction. Thieu was also accused of murdering Ky loyalists through contrived military accidents. Thieu, mistrustful and indecisive, remained president until 1975, having won a one-candidate election in 1971..","Vietnam War\n\nThe Johnson administration employed a \"policy of minimum candor\". in its dealings with the media. Military information officers sought to manage media coverage by emphasizing stories that portrayed progress in the war. Over time, this policy damaged the public trust in official pronouncements. As the media's coverage of the war and that of the Pentagon diverged, a so-called credibility gap developed.","Vietnam War\n\nTet Offensive","Vietnam War\n\nIn late 1967 the Communists lured American forces into the hinterlands at Đắk Tô and at the Marine Khe Sanh combat base in Quảng Trị Province where the United States was more than willing to fight because it could unleash its massive firepower unimpeded by civilians. However, on 31 January 1968, the NVA and the Viet Cong broke the truce that traditionally accompanied the Tết (Lunar New Year) holiday by launching the largest battle of the war, the Tet Offensive, in the hope of sparking a national uprising. Over 100 cities were attacked by over 85,000 enemy troops including assaults on General Westmoreland's headquarters and the U.S. Embassy in Saigon..","Vietnam War\n\nAlthough the U.S. and South Vietnamese forces were initially shocked by the scale of the urban offensive, they responded quickly and effectively, decimating the ranks of the Viet Cong. In the former capital city of Huế, the combined NVA and Viet Cong troops captured the Imperial Citadel and much of the city and massacred over 3,000 unarmed Huế civilians. In the following Battle of Huế American forces employed massive firepower that left 80 percent of the city in ruins. Further north, at Quảng Trị City, members of the 1st Cavalry Division and 1st ARVN Infantry Division killed more than 900 NVA and Vietcong troops in and around the city. In Saigon, 1,000 NLF (Viet Cong) fighters fought off 11,000 U.S. and ARVN troops for three weeks.","Vietnam War\n\nAcross South Vietnam, 1,100 Americans and other allied troops, 2,100 ARVN, 14,000 civilians, and 32,000 NVA and Viet Cong lay dead.","Vietnam War\n\nBut the Tet Offensive had another, unintended consequence. General Westmoreland had become the public face of the war. He had been named Time magazine's 1965's Man of the Year and eventually was featured on the magazine's cover three times. Time described him as \"the sinewy personification of the American fighting man… (who) directed the historic buildup, drew up the battle plans, and infused the… men under him with his own idealistic view of U.S. aims and responsibilities.\" Six weeks after the Tet Offensive began, \"public approval of his overall performance dropped from 48 percent to 36 percent–and, more dramatically, endorsement for his handling of the war fell from 40 percent to 26 percent.\"","Vietnam War\n\nA few months earlier, in November 1967, Westmoreland had spearheaded a public relations drive for the Johnson administration to bolster flagging public support. In a speech before the National Press Club he had said a point in the war had been reached \"where the end comes into view.\" Thus, the public was shocked and confused when Westmoreland's predictions were trumped by Tet. The American media, which had until then been largely supportive of U.S. efforts, turned on the Johnson administration for what had become an increasing credibility gap.","Vietnam War\n\nAlthough the Tet Offensive was a significant victory for allied forces, in terms of casualties and control of territory, it was a sound defeat when evaluated from the point of view of strategic consequences: it became a turning point in America's involvement in the Vietnam War because it had a profound impact on domestic support for the conflict. Despite the military failure for the Communist forces, the Tet Offensive became a political victory for them and ended the career of president Lyndon B. Johnson, who declined to run for re-election as his approval rating slumped from 48 to 36 percent. As James Witz noted, Tet \"contradicted the claims of progress… made by the Johnson administration and the military.\" The offensive constituted an intelligence failure on the scale of Pearl Harbor. Journalist Peter Arnett, in a disputed article, quoted an officer he refused to identify, saying of Bến Tre (laid to rubble by U.S. attacks) that \"it became necessary to destroy the village in order to save it\".","Vietnam War\n\nWalter Cronkite said in an editorial, \"To say that we are closer to victory today is to believe, in the face of the evidence, the optimists who have been wrong in the past. To suggest we are on the edge of defeat is to yield to unreasonable pessimism. To say that we are mired in stalemate seems the only realistic, yet unsatisfactory, conclusion.\" Following Cronkite's editorial report, President Lyndon Johnson is reported to have said, \"If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost Middle America.\"","Vietnam War\n\nWestmoreland became Chief of Staff of the Army in March 1968, just as all resistance was finally subdued. The move was technically a promotion. However, his position had become untenable because of the offensive and because his request for 200,000 additional troops had been leaked to the media. Westmoreland was succeeded by his deputy Creighton Abrams, a commander less inclined to public media pronouncements.","Vietnam War\n\nOn 10 May 1968, despite low expectations, peace talks began between the United States and North Vietnam in Paris. Negotiations stagnated for five months, until Johnson gave orders to halt the bombing of North Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nAs historian Robert Dallek writes, \"Lyndon Johnson's escalation of the war in Vietnam divided Americans into warring camps… cost 30,000 American lives by the time he left office, (and) destroyed Johnson's presidency…\" His refusal to send more U.S. troops to Vietnam was seen as Johnson's admission that the war was lost. It can be seen that the refusal was a tacit admission that the war could not be won by escalation, at least not at a cost acceptable to the American people. As Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara noted, \"the dangerous illusion of victory by the United States was therefore dead.\".","Vietnam War\n\nVietnam was a major political issue during the United States presidential election in 1968. The election was won by Republican party candidate Richard Nixon.","Vietnam War\n\nVietnamization, 1969–72","Vietnam War\n\nNixon Doctrine / Vietnamization","Vietnam War\n\nU.S. President Richard Nixon began troop withdrawals in 1969. His plan, called the Nixon Doctrine, was to build up the ARVN, so that they could take over the defense of South Vietnam. The policy became known as \"Vietnamization\".","Vietnam War\n\nNixon said in 1970 in an announcement, \"I am tonight announcing plans for the withdrawal of an additional 150,000 American troops to be completed during the spring of next year. This will bring a total reduction of 265,500 men in our armed forces in Vietnam below the level that existed when we took office 15 months ago.\"","Vietnam War\n\nOn 10 October 1969, Nixon ordered a squadron of 18 B-52s loaded with nuclear weapons to race to the border of Soviet airspace to convince the Soviet Union, in accord with the madman theory, that he was capable of anything to end the Vietnam War.","Vietnam War\n\nNixon also pursued negotiations. Theater commander Creighton Abrams shifted to smaller operations, aimed at communist logistics, with better use of firepower and more cooperation with the ARVN. Nixon also began to pursue détente with the Soviet Union and rapprochement with China. This policy helped to decrease global tensions. Détente led to nuclear arms reduction on the part of both superpowers. But Nixon was disappointed that China and the Soviet Union continued to supply the North Vietnamese with aid. In September 1969, Ho Chi Minh died at age seventy-nine.","Vietnam War\n\nThe anti-war movement was gaining strength in the United States. Nixon appealed to the \"silent majority\" of Americans who he said supported the war without showing it in public. But revelations of the My Lai Massacre, in which a U.S. Army platoon raped and killed civilians, and the 1969 \"Green Beret Affair\" where eight Special Forces soldiers, including the 5th Special Forces Group Commander, were arrested for the murder of a suspected double agent provoked national and international outrage.","Vietnam War\n\nBeginning in 1970, American troops were withdrawn from border areas where most of the fighting took place, and instead redeployed along the coast and interior, which is one reason why casualties in 1970 were less than half of 1969's totals.","Vietnam War\n\nCambodia and Laos","Vietnam War\n\nPrince Norodom Sihanouk had proclaimed Cambodia neutral since 1955, but the communists used Cambodian soil as a base and Sihanouk tolerated their presence, because he wished to avoid being drawn into a wider regional conflict. Under pressure from Washington, however, he changed this policy in 1969. The Vietnamese communists were no longer welcome. President Nixon took the opportunity to launch a massive bombing campaign, called Operation Menu, against communist sanctuaries along the Cambodia/Vietnam border. Only five high-ranking Congressional officials were informed of Operation Menu.","Vietnam War\n\nIn 1970, Prince Sihanouk was deposed by his pro-American prime minister Lon Nol. North Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1970 at the request of Khmer Rouge deputy leader Nuon Chea. U.S. and ARVN forces launched an invasion into Cambodia to attack NVA and Viet Cong bases.","Vietnam War\n\nThis invasion sparked nationwide U.S. protests as Nixon had promised to deescalate the American involvement. Four students were killed by National Guardsmen at Kent State University during a protest in Ohio, which provoked further public outrage in the United States. The reaction to the incident by the Nixon administration was seen as callous and indifferent, providing additional impetus for the anti-war movement. The U.S. Air Force continued to heavily bomb Cambodia in support of the Cambodian government as part of Operation Freedom Deal.","Vietnam War\n\nIn 1971 the Pentagon Papers were leaked to The New York Times. The top-secret history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, commissioned by the Department of Defense, detailed a long series of public deceptions on the part of the U.S. government. The Supreme Court ruled that its publication was legal.","Vietnam War\n\nThe ARVN launched Operation Lam Son 719 in February 1971, aimed at cutting the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos. The ostensibly neutral Laos had long been the scene of a civil war, pitting the Laotian government backed by the US against the Pathet Lao and its North Vietnamese allies. After meeting resistance, ARVN forces retreated in a confused rout. They fled along roads littered with their own dead. When they exhausted fuel supplies, soldiers abandoned their vehicles and attempted to barge their way on to American helicopters sent to evacuate the wounded. Many ARVN soldiers clung to helicopter skids in a desperate attempt to save themselves. U.S. aircraft had to destroy abandoned equipment, including tanks, to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Half of the ARVN troops involved in the operation were either captured or killed. The operation was a fiasco and represented a clear failure of Vietnamization. As Karnow noted \"the blunders were monumental… The (South Vietnamese) government's top officers had been tutored by the Americans for ten or fifteen years, many at training schools in the United States, yet they had learned little.\"","Vietnam War\n\nIn 1971 Australia and New Zealand withdrew their soldiers. The U.S. troop count was further reduced to 196,700, with a deadline to remove another 45,000 troops by February 1972. As peace protests spread across the United States, disillusionment and ill-discipline grew in the ranks including increased drug use, \"fragging\" (the act of murdering the commander of a fighting unit) and desertions.","Vietnam War\n\nVietnamization was again tested by the Easter Offensive of 1972, a massive conventional NVA invasion of South Vietnam. The NVA and Viet Cong quickly overran the northern provinces and in coordination with other forces attacked from Cambodia, threatening to cut the country in half. U.S. troop withdrawals continued. American airpower responded, beginning Operation Linebacker, and the offensive was halted. However, it became clear that without American airpower South Vietnam could not survive. The last remaining American ground troops were withdrawn by the end of March 1973; U.S. naval and air forces remained in the Gulf of Tonkin, as well as Thailand and Guam.","Vietnam War\n\n1972 election and Paris Peace Accords","Vietnam War\n\nThe war was the central issue of the 1972 U.S. presidential election. Nixon's opponent, George McGovern, campaigned on a platform of withdrawal from Vietnam. Nixon's National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger, continued secret negotiations with North Vietnam's Lê Đức Thọ. In October 1972, they reached an agreement.","Vietnam War\n\nHowever, South Vietnamese president Thieu demanded massive changes to the peace accord. When North Vietnam went public with the agreement's details, the Nixon administration claimed that the North was attempting to embarrass the president. The negotiations became deadlocked. Hanoi demanded new changes.","Vietnam War\n\nTo show his support for South Vietnam and force Hanoi back to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered Operation Linebacker II, a massive bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong 18–29 December 1972. The offensive destroyed much of the remaining economic and industrial capacity of North Vietnam. Simultaneously Nixon pressured Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement, threatening to conclude a bilateral peace deal and cut off American aid.","Vietnam War\n\nOn 15 January 1973, Nixon announced the suspension of offensive action against North Vietnam. The Paris Peace Accords on \"Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam\" were signed on 27 January 1973, officially ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. A cease-fire was declared across North and South Vietnam. U.S. prisoners of war were released. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for national elections in the North and South. The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces. \"This article\", noted Peter Church, \"proved… to be the only one of the Paris Agreements which was fully carried out.\"","Vietnam War\n\nOpposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War: 1962–1973","Vietnam War\n\nDuring the course of the Vietnam War a large segment of the American population came to be opposed to U.S. involvement in South Vietnam. Public opinion steadily turned against the war following 1967 and by 1970 only a third of Americans believed that the U.S. had not made a mistake by sending troops to fight in Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nNearly a third of the American population were strongly against the war. It is possible to specify certain groups who led the anti-war movement and the reasons why. Many young people protested because they were the ones being drafted while others were against the war because the anti-war movement grew increasingly popular among the counterculture and drug culture in American society and its music.","Vietnam War\n\nSome advocates within the peace movement advocated a unilateral withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam. One reason given for the withdrawal is that it would contribute to a lessening of tensions in the region and thus less human bloodshed. Early opposition to U.S. involvement in Vietnam drew its inspiration from the Geneva Conference of 1954. American support of Diệm in refusing elections was seen as thwarting the very democracy that America claimed to be supporting. John F. Kennedy, while Senator, opposed involvement in Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nOpposition to the Vietnam War tended to unite groups opposed to U.S. anti-communism and imperialism and, for those involved with the New Left such as the Catholic Worker Movement. Others, such as Stephen Spiro opposed the war based on the theory of Just War. Some wanted to show solidarity with the people of Vietnam, such as Norman Morrison emulating the actions of Thích Quảng Đức. In a key televised debate from 15 May 1965, Eric Severeid reporting for CBS conducted a debate between McGeorge Bundy and Hans Morgenthau dealing with an acute summary of the main war concerns of the U.S. as seen at that time stating them as: \"(1) What are the justifications for the American presence in Vietnam – why are we there? (2) What is the fundamental nature of this war? Is it aggression from North Vietnam or is it basically, a civil war between the peoples of South Vietnam? (3) What are the implications of this Vietnam struggle in terms of Communist China's power and aims and future actions? And (4) What are the alternatives to our present policy in Vietnam?\"","Vietnam War\n\nHigh-profile opposition to the Vietnam War turned to street protests in an effort to turn U.S. political opinion. On 15 October 1969, the Vietnam Moratorium attracted millions of Americans. Riots broke out at the 1968 Democratic National Convention during protests against the war. After news reports of American military abuses such as the 1968 My Lai Massacre, brought new attention and support to the anti-war movement, some veterans joined Vietnam Veterans Against the War. The fatal shooting of four students at Kent State University in 1970 led to nationwide university protests. Anti-war protests ended with the final withdrawal of troops after the Paris Peace Accords were signed in 1973. South Vietnam was left to defend itself alone when the fighting resumed. Many South Vietnamese subsequently fled to the United States.","Vietnam War\n\nExit of the Americans: 1973–75","Vietnam War\n\nThe United States began drastically reducing their troop support in South Vietnam during the final years of Vietnamization. Many U.S. troops were removed from the region, and on 5 March 1971, the United States returned the 5th Special Forces Group, which was the first American unit deployed to South Vietnam, to its former base in Fort Bragg, North Carolina.","Vietnam War\n\nUnder the Paris Peace Accords, between North Vietnamese Foreign Minister Lê Đức Thọ and U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, and reluctantly signed by South Vietnamese president Thiệu, U.S. military forces withdrew from South Vietnam and prisoners were exchanged. North Vietnam was allowed to continue supplying communist troops in the South, but only to the extent of replacing expended materiel. Later that year the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Kissinger and Thọ, but the Vietnamese negotiator declined it saying that a true peace did not yet exist.","Vietnam War\n\nThe communist leaders had expected that the ceasefire terms would favor their side. But Saigon, bolstered by a surge of U.S. aid received just before the ceasefire went into effect, began to roll back the Viet Cong. The communists responded with a new strategy hammered out in a series of meetings in Hanoi in March 1973, according to the memoirs of Trần Văn Trà..","Vietnam War\n\nAs the Viet Cong's top commander, Tra participated in several of these meetings. With U.S. bombings suspended, work on the Ho Chi Minh trail and other logistical structures could proceed unimpeded. Logistics would be upgraded until the North was in a position to launch a massive invasion of the South, projected for the 1975–76 dry season. Tra calculated that this date would be Hanoi's last opportunity to strike before Saigon's army could be fully trained.","Vietnam War\n\nIn the November 1972 Election, Democratic nominee George McGovern lost 49 of 50 states to the incumbent President Richard Nixon. On 15 March 1973, President Nixon implied that the United States would intervene militarily if the communist side violated the ceasefire. Public and congressional reaction to Nixon's trial balloon was unfavorable and in April Nixon appointed Graham Martin as U.S. ambassador to Vietnam. Martin was a second stringer compared to previous U.S. ambassadors and his appointment was an early signal that Washington had given up on Vietnam. During his confirmation hearings in June 1973, Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger stated that he would recommend resumption of U.S. bombing in North Vietnam if North Vietnam launched a major offensive against South Vietnam. On 4 June 1973, the U.S. Senate passed the Case–Church Amendment to prohibit such intervention..","Vietnam War\n\nThe oil price shock of October 1973 following the Yom Kippur War in Egypt caused significant damage to the South Vietnamese economy. The Viet Cong resumed offensive operations when the dry season began and by January 1974 it had recaptured the territory it lost during the previous dry season. After two clashes that left 55 South Vietnamese soldiers dead, President Thieu announced on 4 January that the war had restarted and that the Paris Peace Accord was no longer in effect. There had been over 25,000 South Vietnamese casualties during the ceasefire period.","Vietnam War\n\nGerald Ford took over as U.S. president on 9 August 1974 after President Nixon resigned due to the Watergate scandal. At this time, Congress cut financial aid to South Vietnam from $1 billion a year to $700 million. The U.S. midterm elections in 1974 brought in a new Congress dominated by Democrats who were even more determined to confront the president on the war. Congress immediately voted in restrictions on funding and military activities to be phased in through 1975 and to culminate in a total cutoff of funding in 1976.","Vietnam War\n\nThe success of the 1973–74 dry season offensive inspired Trà to return to Hanoi in October 1974 and plead for a larger offensive in the next dry season. This time, Trà could travel on a drivable highway with regular fueling stops, a vast change from the days when the Ho Chi Minh trail was a dangerous mountain trek.. Giáp, the North Vietnamese defense minister, was reluctant to approve Trà's plan. A larger offensive might provoke a U.S. reaction and interfere with the big push planned for 1976. Trà appealed over Giáp's head to first secretary Lê Duẩn, who approved of the operation.","Vietnam War\n\nTrà's plan called for a limited offensive from Cambodia into Phước Long Province. The strike was designed to solve local logistical problems, gauge the reaction of South Vietnamese forces, and determine whether U.S. would return to the fray.","Vietnam War\n\nOn 13 December 1974, North Vietnamese forces attacked Route 14 in Phước Long Province. Phuoc Binh, the provincial capital, fell on 6 January 1975. Ford desperately asked Congress for funds to assist and re-supply the South before it was overrun. Congress refused. The fall of Phuoc Binh and the lack of an American response left the South Vietnamese elite demoralized.","Vietnam War\n\nThe speed of this success led the Politburo to reassess its strategy. It was decided that operations in the Central Highlands would be turned over to General Văn Tiến Dũng and that Pleiku should be seized, if possible. Before he left for the South, Dũng was addressed by Lê Duẩn: \"Never have we had military and political conditions so perfect or a strategic advantage as great as we have now.\"","Vietnam War\n\nAt the start of 1975, the South Vietnamese had three times as much artillery and twice the number of tanks and armored cars as the opposition. They also had 1,400 aircraft and a two-to-one numerical superiority in combat troops over their Communist enemies. However, the rising oil prices meant that much of this could not be used. They faced a well-organized, highly determined and well-funded North Vietnam. Much of the North's material and financial support came from the communist bloc. Within South Vietnam, there was increasing chaos. The departure of the American military had compromised an economy dependent on U.S. financial support and the presence of a large number of U.S. troops. South Vietnam suffered from the global recession that followed the Arab oil embargo.","Vietnam War\n\nCampaign 275","Vietnam War\n\nOn 10 March 1975, General Dung launched Campaign 275, a limited offensive into the Central Highlands, supported by tanks and heavy artillery. The target was Buôn Ma Thuột, in Đắk Lắk Province. If the town could be taken, the provincial capital of Pleiku and the road to the coast would be exposed for a planned campaign in 1976. The ARVN proved incapable of resisting the onslaught, and its forces collapsed on 11 March. Once again, Hanoi was surprised by the speed of their success. Dung now urged the Politburo to allow him to seize Pleiku immediately and then turn his attention to Kon Tum. He argued that with two months of good weather remaining until the onset of the monsoon, it would be irresponsible to not take advantage of the situation.","Vietnam War\n\nPresident Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, a former general, was fearful that his forces would be cut off in the north by the attacking communists; Thieu ordered a retreat. The president declared this to be a \"lighten the top and keep the bottom\" strategy. But in what appeared to be a repeat of Operation Lam Son 719, the withdrawal soon turned into a bloody rout. While the bulk of ARVN forces attempted to flee, isolated units fought desperately. ARVN General Phu abandoned Pleiku and Kon Tum and retreated toward the coast, in what became known as the \"column of tears\".","Vietnam War\n\nAs the ARVN tried to disengage from the enemy, refugees mixed in with the line of retreat. The poor condition of roads and bridges, damaged by years of conflict and neglect, slowed Phu's column. As the North Vietnamese forces approached, panic set in. Often abandoned by the officers, the soldiers and civilians were shelled incessantly. The retreat degenerated into a desperate scramble for the coast. By 1 April the \"column of tears\" was all but annihilated.","Vietnam War\n\nOn 20 March, Thieu reversed himself and ordered Huế, Vietnam's third-largest city, be held at all costs, and then changed his policy several times. Thieu's contradictory orders confused and demoralized his officer corps. As the North Vietnamese launched their attack, panic set in, and ARVN resistance withered. On 22 March, the NVA opened the siege of Huế. Civilians flooded the airport and the docks hoping for any mode of escape. Some even swam out to sea to reach boats and barges anchored offshore. In the confusion, routed ARVN soldiers fired on civilians to make way for their retreat.","Vietnam War\n\nOn 25 March, after a three-day battle, Huế fell. As resistance in Huế collapsed, North Vietnamese rockets rained down on Da Nang and its airport. By 28 March 35,000 VPA troops were poised to attack the suburbs. By 30 March 100,000 leaderless ARVN troops surrendered as the NVA marched victoriously through Da Nang. With the fall of the city, the defense of the Central Highlands and Northern provinces came to an end.","Vietnam War\n\nFinal North Vietnamese offensive","Vietnam War\n\nWith the northern half of the country under their control, the Politburo ordered General Dung to launch the final offensive against Saigon. The operational plan for the Ho Chi Minh Campaign called for the capture of Saigon before 1 May. Hanoi wished to avoid the coming monsoon and prevent any redeployment of ARVN forces defending the capital. Northern forces, their morale boosted by their recent victories, rolled on, taking Nha Trang, Cam Ranh, and Da Lat.","Vietnam War\n\nOn 7 April, three North Vietnamese divisions attacked Xuân Lộc, 40 miles (64 km) east of Saigon. The North Vietnamese met fierce resistance at Xuân Lộc from the ARVN 18th Division, who were outnumbered six to one. For two bloody weeks, severe fighting raged as the ARVN defenders made a last stand to try to block the North Vietnamese advance. By 21 April, however, the exhausted garrison were ordered to withdraw towards Saigon.","Vietnam War\n\nAn embittered and tearful president Thieu resigned on the same day, declaring that the United States had betrayed South Vietnam. In a scathing attack, he suggested U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had tricked him into signing the Paris peace agreement two years ago, promising military aid that failed to materialize. Having transferred power to Trần Văn Hương, he left for Taiwan on 25 April. At the same time, North Vietnamese tanks had reached Biên Hòa and turned toward Saigon, brushing aside isolated ARVN units along the way.","Vietnam War\n\nBy the end of April, the ARVN had collapsed on all fronts except in the Mekong Delta. Thousands of refugees streamed southward, ahead of the main communist onslaught. On 27 April 100,000 North Vietnamese troops encircled Saigon. The city was defended by about 30,000 ARVN troops. To hasten a collapse and foment panic, the NVA shelled the airport and forced its closure. With the air exit closed, large numbers of civilians found that they had no way out.","Vietnam War\n\nFall of Saigon","Vietnam War\n\nChaos, unrest, and panic broke out as hysterical South Vietnamese officials and civilians scrambled to leave Saigon. Martial law was declared. American helicopters began evacuating South Vietnamese, U.S., and foreign nationals from various parts of the city and from the U.S. embassy compound. Operation Frequent Wind had been delayed until the last possible moment, because of U.S. Ambassador Graham Martin's belief that Saigon could be held and that a political settlement could be reached.","Vietnam War\n\nSchlesinger announced early in the morning of 29 April 1975 the evacuation from Saigon by helicopter of the last U.S. diplomatic, military, and civilian personnel. Frequent Wind was arguably the largest helicopter evacuation in history. It began on 29 April, in an atmosphere of desperation, as hysterical crowds of Vietnamese vied for limited space. Martin pleaded with Washington to dispatch $700 million in emergency aid to bolster the regime and help it mobilize fresh military reserves. But American public opinion had soured on this conflict.","Vietnam War\n\nIn the United States, South Vietnam was perceived as doomed. President Gerald Ford had given a televised speech on 23 April, declaring an end to the Vietnam War and all U.S. aid. Frequent Wind continued around the clock, as North Vietnamese tanks breached defenses on the outskirts of Saigon. In the early morning hours of 30 April, the last U.S. Marines evacuated the embassy by helicopter, as civilians swamped the perimeter and poured into the grounds. Many of them had been employed by the Americans and were left to their fate.","Vietnam War\n\nOn 30 April 1975, NVA troops entered the city of Saigon and quickly overcame all resistance, capturing key buildings and installations. A tank from the 324th Division crashed through the gates of the Independence Palace at 11:30 am local time and the Viet Cong flag was raised above it. President Dương Văn Minh, who had succeeded Huong two days earlier, surrendered.","Vietnam War\n\nOther countries' involvement","Vietnam War\n\nPro-Hanoi","Vietnam War\n\nPeople's Republic of China","Vietnam War\n\nIn 1950, the People's Republic of China extended diplomatic recognition to the Viet Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam and sent weapons, as well as military advisers led by Luo Guibo to assist the Viet Minh in its war with the French. The first draft of the 1954 Geneva Accords was negotiated by French prime minister Pierre Mendès France and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai who, fearing U.S. intervention, urged the Viet Minh to accept a partition at the 17th parallel.","Vietnam War\n\nChina's support for North Vietnam included both financial aid and the deployment of hundreds of thousands of military personnel in support roles. In the summer of 1962, Mao Zedong agreed to supply Hanoi with 90,000 rifles and guns free of charge. Starting in 1965, China sent anti-aircraft units and engineering battalions to North Vietnam to repair the damage caused by American bombing, man anti-aircraft batteries, rebuild roads and railroads, transport supplies, and perform other engineering works. This freed North Vietnamese army units for combat in the South. China sent 320,000 troops and annual arms shipments worth $180 million. The Chinese military claims to have caused 38% of American air losses in the war. China claimed that its military and economic aid to North Vietnam and the Viet Cong totaled $20 billion (approx. $143 billion adjusted for inflation in 2015) during the Vietnam War. Included in that aid were donations of 5 million tons of food to North Vietnam (equivalent to NV food production in a single year), accounting for 10-15% of the North Vietnamese food supply by the 1970s.","Vietnam War\n\nSino-Soviet relations soured after the Soviets invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In October, the Chinese demanded North Vietnam cut relations with Moscow, but Hanoi refused. The Chinese began to withdraw in November 1968 in preparation for a clash with the Soviets, which occurred at Zhenbao Island in March 1969. The Chinese also began financing the Khmer Rouge as a counterweight to the Vietnamese communists at this time.","Vietnam War\n\nChina \"armed and trained\" the Khmer Rouge during the civil war and continued to aid them for years afterward. \nThe Khmer Rouge launched ferocious raids into Vietnam in 1975–1978. When Vietnam responded with an invasion that toppled the Khmer Rouge, China launched a brief, punitive invasion of Vietnam in 1979.","Vietnam War\n\nSoviet Union","Vietnam War\n\nSoviet ships in the South China Sea gave vital early warnings to Viet Cong forces in South Vietnam. The Soviet intelligence ships would pick up American B-52 bombers flying from Okinawa and Guam. Their airspeed and direction would be noted and then relayed to COSVN, North Vietnam's southern headquarters. Using airspeed and direction, COSVN analysts would calculate the bombing target and tell any assets to move \"perpendicularly to the attack trajectory.\" These advance warning gave them time to move out of the way of the bombers, and, while the bombing runs caused extensive damage, because of the early warnings from 1968 to 1970 they did not kill a single military or civilian leader in the headquarters complexes.","Vietnam War\n\nThe Soviet Union supplied North Vietnam with medical supplies, arms, tanks, planes, helicopters, artillery, anti-aircraft missiles and other military equipment. Soviet crews fired Soviet-made surface-to-air missiles at U.S. F-4 Phantoms, which were shot down over Thanh Hóa in 1965. Over a dozen Soviet citizens lost their lives in this conflict. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russian officials acknowledged that the Soviet Union had stationed up to 3,000 troops in Vietnam during the war.","Vietnam War\n\nSome Russian sources give more specific numbers: Between 1953 and 1991, the hardware donated by the Soviet Union included 2,000 tanks, 1,700 APCs, 7,000 artillery guns, over 5,000 anti-aircraft guns, 158 surface-to-air missile launchers, 120 helicopters. During the war, the Soviets sent North Vietnam annual arms shipments worth $450 million. From July 1965 to the end of 1974, fighting in Vietnam was observed by some 6,500 officers and generals, as well as more than 4,500 soldiers and sergeants of the Soviet Armed Forces. In addition, Soviet military schools and academies began training Vietnamese soldiers – in all more than 10,000 military personnel.","Vietnam War\n\nNorth Korea","Vietnam War\n\nAs a result of a decision of the Korean Workers' Party in October 1966, in early 1967 North Korea sent a fighter squadron to North Vietnam to back up the North Vietnamese 921st and 923rd fighter squadrons defending Hanoi. They stayed through 1968, and 200 pilots were reported to have served.","Vietnam War\n\nIn addition, at least two anti-aircraft artillery regiments were sent as well. North Korea also sent weapons, ammunition and two million sets of uniforms to their comrades in North Vietnam. Kim Il-sung is reported to have told his pilots to \"fight in the war as if the Vietnamese sky were their own\".","Vietnam War\n\nCuba","Vietnam War\n\nThe contribution to North Vietnam by the Republic of Cuba, under Fidel Castro have been recognized several times by representatives of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Fidel Castro has mentioned in his discourses the Batallón Girón (Giron Battalion) as comprising the Cuban contingent that served as military advisors during the war. In this battalion, alongside the Cubans, fought Nguyễn Thị Định, founding member of the Viet Cong, who later became the first female Major General in the North Vietnamese Army. There are numerous allegations by former U.S. prisoners of war that Cuban military personnel were present at North Vietnamese prison facilities during the war and that they participated in torture activities, in what is known as the \"Cuba Program\". Witnesses to this include Senator John McCain, 2008 U.S. Presidential candidate and former Vietnam prisoner of war, according to his 1999 book Faith of My Fathers. Benjamin Gilman, a Vietnam War POW/MIA issue advocate, claim evidence that Cuba's military and non-military involvement may have run into the \"thousands\" of personnel. Fidel Castro visited in person Quảng Trị province, held by North Vietnam after the Easter Offensive to show his support for the Viet Cong.","Vietnam War\n\nPro-Saigon","Vietnam War\n\nSouth Korea","Vietnam War\n\nOn the anti-communist side, South Korea (a.k.a. the Republic of Korea, ROK) had the second-largest contingent of foreign troops in South Vietnam after the United States. In November 1961, Park Chung-hee proposed South Korean participation in the war to John F. Kennedy, but Kennedy disagreed. On 1 May 1964 Lyndon Johnson requested South Korean participation. The first South Korean troops began arriving in 1964 and large combat formations began arriving a year later. The ROK Marine Corps dispatched their 2nd Marine Brigade while the ROK Army sent the Capital Division and later the 9th Infantry Division. In August 1966 after the arrival of the 9th Division the Koreans established a corps command, the Republic of Korea Forces Vietnam Field Command, near I Field Force, Vietnam at Nha Trang. The South Koreans soon developed a reputation for effectiveness, reportedly conducting counterinsurgency operations so well that American commanders felt that the South Korean area of responsibility was the safest.","Vietnam War\n\nApproximately 320,000 South Korean soldiers were sent to Vietnam, each serving a one-year tour of duty. Maximum troop levels peaked at 50,000 in 1968, however all were withdrawn by 1973. About 5,099 South Koreans were killed and 10,962 wounded during the war. South Korea claimed to have killed 41,000 Viet Cong fighters. The United States paid South Korean soldiers 236 million dollars for their efforts in Vietnam, and South Korean GNP increased five-fold during the war.","Vietnam War\n\nAustralia and New Zealand","Vietnam War\n\nAustralia and New Zealand, close allies of the United States and members of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the ANZUS military co-operation treaty, sent ground troops to Vietnam. Both nations had gained experience in counterinsurgency and jungle warfare during the Malayan Emergency and World War II. Their governments subscribed to the Domino theory. Australia began by sending advisors to Vietnam in 1962, and combat troops were committed in 1965.Dennis et al 2008, pp. 555–558. New Zealand began by sending a detachment of engineers and an artillery battery, and then started sending special forces and regular infantry which were attached to Australian formations. Australia's peak commitment was 7,672 combat troops and New Zealand's 552. More than 60,000 Australian personnel were involved during the course of the war, of which 521 were killed and more than 3,000 wounded. Approximately 3,500 New Zealanders served in Vietnam, with 37 killed and 187 wounded. Most Australians and New Zealanders served in the 1st Australian Task Force in Phước Tuy Province.","Vietnam War\n\nPhilippines","Vietnam War\n\nSome 10,450 Filipino troops were dispatched to South Vietnam. They were primarily engaged in medical and other civilian pacification projects. These forces operated under the designation PHLCAG-V or Philippine Civic Action Group-Vietnam. More noteworthy was the fact that the naval base in Subic Bay was used for the U.S. Seventh Fleet from 1964 till the end of the war in 1975. The Navy base in Subic bay and the Air force base at Clark achieved maximum functionality during the war and supported an estimated 80,000 locals in allied tertiary businesses from shoe making to prostitution.","Vietnam War\n\nThailand","Vietnam War\n\nThai Army formations, including the \"Queen's Cobra\" battalion, saw action in South Vietnam between 1965 and 1971. Thai forces saw much more action in the covert war in Laos between 1964 and 1972, though Thai regular formations there were heavily outnumbered by the irregular \"volunteers\" of the CIA-sponsored Police Aerial Reconnaissance Units or PARU, who carried out reconnaissance activities on the western side of the Ho Chi Minh trail.","Vietnam War\n\nRepublic of China (Taiwan)","Vietnam War\n\nSince November 1967, the Taiwanese government secretly operated a cargo transport detachment to assist the United States and South Vietnam. Taiwan also provided military training units for the South Vietnamese diving units, later known as the Lien Doi Nguoi Nhai (LDMN) or \"Frogman unit\" in English. In addition to the diving trainers there were several hundred military personnel. Military commandos from Taiwan were captured by communist forces three times trying to infiltrate North Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nCanada and the ICC","Vietnam War\n\nCanada, India and Poland constituted the International Control Commission, which was supposed to monitor the 1954 ceasefire agreement. Officially, Canada did not have partisan involvement in the Vietnam War and diplomatically it was \"non-belligerent\". Victor Levant suggested otherwise in his book Quiet Complicity: Canadian Involvement in the Vietnam War (1986). The Vietnam War entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia asserts plainly that Canada's record on the truce commissions was a pro-Saigon partisan one.","Vietnam War\n\nUnited Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (FULRO)","Vietnam War\n\nThe ethnic minority peoples of south Vietnam like the Christian Montagnards (Degar), Hindu and Muslim Cham and the Buddhist Khmer Krom banded together in the United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (French: Front Uni de Lutte des Races Opprimées, acronym: FULRO) to fight against the Vietnamese for autonomy or independence. FULRO fought against both the anti-Communist South Vietnamese and the Communist Viet Cong, and then FURLO proceeded to fight against the united Communist Socialist Republic of Vietnam after the fall of South Vietnam. FULRO was supported by China, the United States, Cambodia, and some French citizens.","Vietnam War\n\nDuring the war, the South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem began a program to settle ethnic Vietnamese Kinh on Montagnard lands in the Central Highlands region. This provoked a backlash from the Montagnards. The Cambodians under both the pro-China King Sihanouk and the pro-American Lon Nol supported their fellow co-ethnic Khmer Krom in south Vietnam, following an anti- ethnic Vietnamese policy.","Vietnam War\n\nFULRO was formed from the amalgation of the Cham organization \"Champa Liberation Front\" (Front de Liberation du Champa FLC) led by the Cham Muslim officer Les Kosem who served in the Royal Cambodian Army, the Khmer Krom organization \"Liberation Front of Kampuchea Krom\" (Front de Liberation du Kampuchea Krom FLKK) led by Chau Dara, a former monk, and the Montagnard organizations \"Central Highlands Liberation Front\" (Front de Liberation des Hauts Plateaux FLHP) led by Y Bham Enuol and BAJARAKA.","Vietnam War\n\nAfter overthrowing pro-China Sihanouk, Cambodian leader Lon Nol, despite being anti-Communist and ostensibly in the \"pro-American\" camp, continued to back FULRO against all Vietnamese, both anti-communist South Vietnam and the Communist Viet Cong. Lon Nol planned a slaughter of all Vietnamese in Cambodia and a restoration of South Vietnam to a revived Champa state.","Vietnam War\n\nVietnamese were slaughtered and dumped in the Mekong River at the hands of Lon Nol's anti-Communist forces. The Khmer Rouge later imitated Lon Nol's actions.","Vietnam War\n\nThe leaders of FULRO were executed by the Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot when he took power in Cambodia but FULRO insurgents proceeded to fight against the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia and it was not until 1992 that they finally surrendered to the United Nations in Cambodia.","Vietnam War\n\nWar crimes","Vietnam War\n\nA large number of war crimes took place during the Vietnam War. War crimes were committed by both sides during the conflict and included rape, massacres of civilians, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, the widespread use of torture and the murder of prisoners of war. Additional common crimes included theft, arson, and the destruction of property not warranted by military necessity.","Vietnam War\n\nAllied war crimes","Vietnam War\n\nWar crimes committed by US forces","Vietnam War\n\nIn 1968, the Vietnam War Crimes Working Group (VWCWG) was established by the Pentagon task force set up in the wake of the My Lai Massacre, to attempt to ascertain the veracity of emerging claims of war crimes by U.S. armed forces in Vietnam, during the Vietnam War period.","Vietnam War\n\nThe investigation compiled over 9,000 pages of investigative files, sworn statements by witnesses and status reports for top military officers, indicating that 320 incidents had factual basis. The substantiated cases included 7 massacres between 1967 and 1971 in which at least 137 civilians were killed; seventy eight further attacks targeting non-combatants resulting in at least 57 deaths, 56 wounded and 15 sexually assaulted; one hundred and forty-one cases of US soldiers torturing civilian detainees or prisoners of war with fists, sticks, bats, water or electric shock. Over 800 alleged atrocities were investigated but only 23 soldiers were ever convicted on charges and most served sentences of less than a year. A Los Angeles Times report on the archived files concluded that the war crimes were not confined to a few rogue units, having been uncovered in every army division that was active in Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nIn 2003 a series of investigative reports by the Toledo Blade uncovered a large number of unreported American war crimes particularly from the Tiger Force unit. Some of the most violent war criminals included men such as Sam Ybarra and Sergeant Roy E. \"the Bummer\" Bumgarner, a soldier who served with the 1st Cavalry Division and later the 173d Airborne Brigade.","Vietnam War\n\nIn 1971 the later U.S. presidential candidate, John Kerry, testified before the U.S. Senate and stated that over 150 U.S. veterans testified during the Winter Soldier Investigation and described war crimes committed in Southeast Asia.","Vietnam War\n\nAccording to political scientist R.J. Rummel, U.S. troops murdered about 6,000 Vietnamese civilians during the war. Nick Turse, in his 2013 book, Kill Anything that Moves, argues for a much higher total. He says that a relentless drive toward higher body counts, a widespread use of free-fire zones, rules of engagement where civilians who ran from soldiers or helicopters could be viewed as Viet Cong, and a widespread disdain for Vietnamese civilians led to massive civilian casualties and endemic war crimes inflicted by U.S. troops.. One example cited by Turse is Operation Speedy Express, an operation by the 9th Infantry Division, which was described by John Paul Vann as, in effect, \"many My Lais\". A report by Newsweek magazine suggested that 5,000 innocent civilians may have been killed by U.S. soldiers in this single operation. In more detail:","Vietnam War\n\nWar Crimes committed by South Vietnamese forces","Vietnam War\n\nIn terms of atrocities by the South Vietnamese, during the Diem era (1954-1963) R.J. Rummell estimated that 16,000 to 167,000 South Vietnamese civilians were killed; for 1964 to 1975, Rummel estimated a total of 42,000 to 128,000 killed. Thus, the total for 1954 to 1975 is from 57,000 to 284,000 deaths caused by South Vietnam, excluding NLF/North Vietnamese forces killed by the South Vietnamese armed forces.","Vietnam War\n\nWar crimes committed by South Korean forces","Vietnam War\n\nSouth Korean forces were also culpable of war crimes as well. One of the massacres was the Tây Vinh Massacre where ROK Capital Division of the South Korean Army killed 1,200 unarmed citizens between 12 February 1966 and 17 March 1966 in Bình An village, today Tây Vinh village, Tây Sơn District of Bình Định Province in South Vietnam. Another example was the Gò Dài massacre where ROK Capital Division of the South Korean Army killed 380 civilians on 26 February 1966 in Gò Dài hamlet, in Bình An commune, Tây Sơn District (today Tây Vinh District) of Bình Định Province in South Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nNorth Vietnamese, Viet Cong, and Khmer Rouge war crimes","Vietnam War\n\nAccording to Guenter Lewy, Viet Cong insurgents assassinated at least 37,000 civilians in South Vietnam and routinely employed terror.. Ami Pedahzur has written that \"the overall volume and lethality of Viet Cong terrorism rivals or exceeds all but a handful of terrorist campaigns waged over the last third of the twentieth century\". Notable Viet Cong atrocities include the massacre of over 3,000 unarmed civilians at Huế during the Tet Offensive and the incineration of hundreds of civilians at the Đắk Sơn massacre with flamethrowers. Up to 155,000 refugees fleeing the final North Vietnamese Spring Offensive were killed or abducted on the road to Tuy Hòa in 1975. According to Rummel, North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops murdered between 106,000 and 227,000 civilians in South Vietnam. North Vietnam was also known for its inhumane and abusive treatment of American POWs, most notably in Hỏa Lò Prison (aka the Hanoi Hilton), where severe torture was employed to extract \"confessions\"..","Vietnam War\n\nViet Cong insurgents reportedly sliced off the genitals of village chiefs and sewed them inside their bloody mouths, cut off the tongues of helpless victims, rammed bamboo lances through one ear and out the other, slashed open the wombs of pregnant women, machine gunned children, hacked men and women to pieces with machetes, and cut off the fingers of small children who dared to get an education. According to a U.S. Senate report, squads were assigned monthly assassination quotas. Peer De Silva, former head of the Saigon department of the CIA, wrote that from as early as 1963, Viet Cong units were using disembowelment and other methods of mutilation for psychological warfare.","Vietnam War\n\nIn the Cambodian Civil War, Khmer Rouge insurgents reportedly committed atrocities during the war. These include the murder of civilians and POWs by slowly sawing off their heads a little more each day, the destruction of Buddhist wats and the killing of monks, attacks on refugee camps involving the deliberate murder of babies and bomb threats against foreign aid workers, the abduction and assassination of journalists, and the shelling of Phnom Penh for more than a year. Journalist accounts stated that the Khmer Rouge shelling \"tortured the capital almost continuously\", inflicting \"random death and mutilation\" on 2 million trapped civilians.","Vietnam War\n\nThe Khmer Rouge forcibly evacuated the entire city after taking it, in what has been described as a death march: François Ponchaud wrote: \"I shall never forget one cripple who had neither hands nor feet, writhing along the ground like a severed worm, or a weeping father carrying his ten-year old daughter wrapped in a sheet tied around his neck like a sling, or the man with his foot dangling at the end of a leg to which it was attached by nothing but skin\"; John Swain recalled that the Khmer Rouge were \"tipping out patients from the hospitals like garbage into the streets….In five years of war, this is the greatest caravan of human misery I have seen.\"","Vietnam War\n\nWomen in the Vietnam War","Vietnam War\n\nAmerican nurses","Vietnam War\n\nDuring the Vietnam War, American women served on active duty doing a variety of jobs. Early in 1963, the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) launched Operation Nightingale, an intensive effort to recruit nurses to serve in Vietnam. Most nurses who volunteered to serve in Vietnam came from predominantly working or middle-class families with histories of military service. The majority of these women were white Catholics and Protestants. Because the need for medical aid was great, many nurses underwent a concentrated four-month training program before being deployed to Vietnam in the ANC. Due to the shortage of staff, nurses usually worked twelve-hour shifts, six days per week and often suffered from exhaustion. First Lieutenant Sharon Lane was the only female military nurse to be killed by enemy gunfire during the war, on 8 June 1969.","Vietnam War\n\nAt the start of the Vietnam War, it was commonly thought that American women had no place in the military. Their traditional place had been in the domestic sphere, but with the war came opportunity for the expansion of gender roles. In Vietnam, women held a variety of jobs which included operating complex data processing equipment and serving as stenographers. Although a small number of women were assigned to combat zones, they were never allowed directly in the field of battle. The women who served in the military were solely volunteers. They faced a plethora of challenges, one of which was the relatively small number of female soldiers. Living in a male-dominated environment created tensions between the sexes. While this high male to female ratio was often uncomfortable for women, many men reported that having women in the field with them boosted their morale. Although this was not the women's purpose, it was one positive result of their service. By 1973, approximately 7,500 women had served in Vietnam in the Southeast Asian theater. In that same year, the military lifted the prohibition on women entering the armed forces.","Vietnam War\n\nAmerican women serving in Vietnam were subject to societal stereotypes. Many Americans either considered females serving in Vietnam masculine for living under the army discipline, or judged them to be women of questionable moral character who enlisted for the sole purpose of seducing men. To address this problem, the ANC released advertisements portraying women in the ANC as \"proper, professional and well protected.\" (26) This effort to highlight the positive aspects of a nursing career reflected the ideas of second-wave feminism that occurred during the 1960s–1970s in the United States. Although female military nurses lived in a heavily male environment, very few cases of sexual harassment were ever reported.","Vietnam War\n\nVietnamese women","Vietnam War\n\nUnlike the American women who went to Vietnam, North Vietnamese women were enlisted and fought in the combat zone as well as providing manual labor to keep the Ho Chi Minh trail open and cook for the soldiers. They also worked in the rice fields in North Vietnam and Viet Cong-held farming areas in South Vietnam's Mekong Delta region to provide food for their families and the war effort. Women were enlisted in both the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and the Viet Cong guerrilla insurgent force in South Vietnam. Some women also served for the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong intelligence services.","Vietnam War\n\nIn South Vietnam, many women voluntarily served in the ARVN's Women's Armed Force Corps (WAFC) and various other Women's corps in the military. Some, like in the WAFC, fought in combat with other soldiers. Others served as nurses and doctors in the battlefield and in military hospitals, or served in South Vietnam or America's intelligence agencies. During Diệm's presidency, Madame Nhu was the commander of the WAFC.","Vietnam War\n\nThe war saw more than one million rural people migrate or flee the fighting in the South Vietnamese countryside to the cities, especially Saigon. Among the internal refugees were many young women who became the ubiquitous \"bargirls\" of wartime South Vietnam \"hawking her wares – be that cigarettes, liquor, or herself\" to American and allied soldiers. American bases were ringed by bars and brothels.","Vietnam War\n\n8,040 Vietnamese women came to the United States as war brides between 1964 and 1975. Many mixed-blood Amerasian children were left behind when their American fathers returned to the United States after their tour of duty in South Vietnam. 26,000 of them were permitted to immigrate to the United States in the 1980s and 1990s.","Vietnam War\n\nBlack servicemen in Vietnam","Vietnam War\n\nThe experience of African American military personnel during the Vietnam War has received significant attention. For example, the website \"African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War\" compiles examples of such coverage, as does the print and broadcast work of journalist Wallace Terry.","Vietnam War\n\nThe epigraph of Terry's book Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans (1984), includes the following quote: \"I have an intuitive feeling that the Negro serviceman have a better understanding than whites of what the war is about.\" – General William C. Westmoreland, U.S. Army, Saigon, 1967. That book's introduction includes observations about the impact of the war on the black community in general and on black servicemen specifically. Points he makes on the latter topic include: the higher proportion of combat casualties in Vietnam among African American servicemen than among American soldiers of other races, the shift toward and different attitudes of black military careerists versus black draftees, the discrimination encountered by black servicemen \"on the battlefield in decorations, promotion and duty assignments\" as well as their having to endure \"the racial insults, cross-burnings and Confederate flags of their white comrades\" – and the experiences faced by black soldiers stateside, during the war and after America's withdrawal. Upon the war's completion, black casualties made up 12.5% of US combat deaths, approximately equal to percentage of draft-eligible black men, though still slightly higher than the 10% who served in the military.","Vietnam War\n\nWeapons","Vietnam War\n\nThe communist forces were principally armed with Chinese and Soviet weaponry though some guerrilla units were equipped with Western infantry weapons either captured from French stocks during the First Indochina war or from ARVN units or bought on the black market. The ubiquitous Soviet AK-47 assault rifle was often regarded as the best rifle of the war, due to its ability to continue to function even in adverse, muddy conditions. Other weapons used by the Viet Cong included the World War II-era PPSh-41 submachine gun (both Soviet and Chinese versions), the SKS carbine, the DShK heavy machine gun and the RPG-2/B-40 grenade launcher.","Vietnam War\n\nWhile the Viet Cong had both amphibious tanks (such as the PT-76) and light tanks (such as the Type 62), they also used bicycles to transport munitions. The US' heavily armored, 90 mm M48A3 Patton tank saw extensive action during the Vietnam War and over 600 were deployed with US Forces. They played an important role in infantry support.","Vietnam War\n\nThe US service rifle was initially the M14 (though some units were still using the WWII-era M1 Garand for a lack of M14s). Found to be unsuitable for jungle warfare, the M14 was replaced by M16 which was more accurate and lighter than the AK-47. For a period, the gun suffered from a jamming flaw known as \"failure to extract\", which means that a spent cartridge case remained lodged in the action after a round is fired. According to a congressional report, the jamming was caused primarily by a change in gunpowder which was done without adequate testing and reflected a decision for which the safety of soldiers was a secondary consideration. That issue was solved in early 1968 with the issuance of the M16A1 that featured a chrome plated chamber among several other features. End-user satisfaction with the M16 was high except during this episode, but the M16 still has a reputation as a gun that jams easily.","Vietnam War\n\nThe M60 machine gun GPMG (General Purpose Machine Gun) was the main machine gun of the US army at the time and many of them were put on helicopters, to provide suppressive fire when landing in hostile regions. The MAC-10 machine pistol was supplied to many special forces troops in the midpoint of the war. It also armed many CIA agents in the field.","Vietnam War\n\nTwo aircraft which were prominent in the war were the AC-130 \"Spectre\" Gunship and the UH-1 \"Huey\" gunship. The AC-130 was a heavily armed ground-attack aircraft variant of the C-130 Hercules transport plane; it was used to provide close air support, air interdiction and force protection. The AC-130H \"Spectre\" was armed with two 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannons, one Bofors 40mm autocannon, and one 105 mm M102 howitzer. The Huey is a military helicopter powered by a single, turboshaft engine, with a two-bladed main rotor and tail rotor. Approximately 7,000 UH-1 aircraft saw service in Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nThe Claymore M18A1, an anti-personnel mine, was widely used during the war. Unlike a conventional land mine, the Claymore is command-detonated and directional, meaning it is fired by remote-control and shoots a pattern of 700 one-eighth-inch steel balls into the kill zone like a shotgun.","Vietnam War\n\nThe aircraft ordnance used during the war included precision-guided munition, cluster bombs, and napalm, a thickening/gelling agent generally mixed with petroleum or a similar fuel for use in an incendiary device, initially against buildings and later primarily as an anti-personnel weapon that sticks to skin and can burn down to the bone.","Vietnam War\n\nRadio communications","Vietnam War\n\nThe Vietnam War was the first conflict where U.S. forces had secure voice communication equipment available at the tactical level. The National Security Agency ran a crash program to provide U.S. forces with a family of security equipment code named NESTOR, fielding 17,000 units initially. Eventually 30,000 units were produced. However limitations of the units, including poor voice quality, reduced range, annoying time delays and logistical support issues led to only one unit in ten being used.[http://www.governmentattic.org/18docs/Hist_US_COMSEC_Boak_NSA_1973u.pdf A History of U.S. Communications Security; the David G. Boak Lectures,] National Security Agency (NSA), Volumes I, 1973, Volumes II 1981, partially released 2008, additional portions declassified October 14, 2015 While many in the U.S. military believed that the Viet Cong and NVA would not be able to exploit insecure communications, interrogation of captured communication intelligence units showed they were able to understand the jargon and codes used in realtime and were often able to warn their side of impending U.S. actions.","Vietnam War\n\nAftermath","Vietnam War\n\nEvents in Southeast Asia","Vietnam War\n\nOn 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Despite speculation that the victorious North Vietnamese would, in President Nixon's words, \"massacre the civilians there [South Vietnam] by the millions,\" there is a widespread consensus that no mass executions in fact took place. However, over the decade following the end of the war, an estimated 1 million South Vietnamese were sent to reeducation camps, with approximately 165,000 prisoners dying. In addition, 200,000 to 400,000 Vietnamese boat people died at sea, according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.","Vietnam War\n\nPhnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia, fell to the communist Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975. Under the leadership of Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge would eventually kill 1–3 million Cambodians in the Killing Fields, out of a population of around 8 million.Heuveline, Patrick (2001). \"The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia.\" In Forced Migration and Mortality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Heuveline suggests that a range of 1.17–3.42 million people were killed. At least 1,386,734 victims of execution have been counted in mass graves, while demographic analysis suggests that the policies of the regime caused between 1.7 and 2.5 million excess deaths altogether (including disease and starvation). After repeated border clashes in 1978, Vietnam invaded Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) and ousted the Khmer Rouge, who were being supported by China, in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. In response, China invaded Vietnam in 1979. The two countries fought a brief border war, known as the Sino-Vietnamese War. From 1978 to 1979, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat as refugees or were expelled. The devastating impact of Khmer Rouge rule contributed to a 1979 famine in Cambodia, during which an additional 300,000 Cambodians perished.","Vietnam War\n\nThe Pathet Lao overthrew the monarchy of Laos in December 1975, establishing the Lao People's Democratic Republic under the leadership of a member of the royal family, Souphanouvong. The change in regime was \"quite peaceful, a sort of Asiatic 'velvet revolution'\"—although 30,000 former officials were sent to reeducation camps, often enduring harsh conditions for several years. The conflict between Hmong rebels and the Pathet Lao continued in isolated pockets.","Vietnam War\n\nOver 3 million people left Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia in the Indochina refugee crisis. Most Asian countries were unwilling to accept these refugees, many of whom fled by boat and were known as boat people. Between 1975 and 1998, an estimated 1.2 million refugees from Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries resettled in the United States, while Canada, Australia, and France resettled over 500,000. China accepted 250,000 people. Of all the countries of Indochina, Laos experienced the largest refugee flight in proportional terms, as 300,000 people out of a total population of 3 million crossed the border into Thailand. Included among their ranks were \"about 90 percent\" of Laos's \"intellectuals, technicians, and officials.\" In 1988, Vietnam suffered a famine that afflicted millions. Vietnam played a role in Asia similar to Cuba's in Latin America: it supported local revolutionary groups and was a headquarters for Soviet-style communism. Unexploded ordnance, mostly from U.S. bombing, continue to detonate and kill people today. The Vietnamese government claims that ordnance has killed some 42,000 people since the war officially ended. In 2012 alone, unexploded bombs and other ordnance claimed 500 casualties in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, according to activists and government databases.","Vietnam War\n\nAgent Orange and similar chemical substances used by the U.S. have also caused a considerable number of deaths and injuries over the years, including the US Air Force crew that handled them. On 9 August 2012, the United States and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part of Danang International Airport, marking the first time Washington has been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nEffect on the United States","Vietnam War\n\nIn the post-war era, Americans struggled to absorb the lessons of the military intervention. As General Maxwell Taylor, one of the principal architects of the war, noted, \"First, we didn't know ourselves. We thought that we were going into another Korean War, but this was a different country. Secondly, we didn't know our South Vietnamese allies… And we knew less about North Vietnam. Who was Ho Chi Minh? Nobody really knew. So, until we know the enemy and know our allies and know ourselves, we'd better keep out of this kind of dirty business. It's very dangerous.\". President Ronald Reagan coined the term \"Vietnam Syndrome\" to describe the reluctance of the American public and politicians to support further international interventions after Vietnam.","Vietnam War\n\nSome have suggested that \"the responsibility for the ultimate failure of this policy [America's withdrawal from Vietnam] lies not with the men who fought, but with those in Congress…\" Alternatively, the official history of the United States Army noted that \"tactics have often seemed to exist apart from larger issues, strategies, and objectives. Yet in Vietnam the Army experienced tactical success and strategic failure… The…Vietnam War…legacy may be the lesson that unique historical, political, cultural, and social factors always impinge on the military…Success rests not only on military progress but on correctly analyzing the nature of the particular conflict, understanding the enemy's strategy, and assessing the strengths and weaknesses of allies. A new humility and a new sophistication may form the best parts of a complex heritage left to the Army by the long, bitter war in Vietnam.\"","Vietnam War\n\nU.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger wrote in a secret memo to President Gerald Ford that \"in terms of military tactics, we cannot help draw the conclusion that our armed forces are not suited to this kind of war. Even the Special Forces who had been designed for it could not prevail.\" Even Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded that \"the achievement of a military victory by U.S. forces in Vietnam was indeed a dangerous illusion.\".","Vietnam War\n\nDoubts surfaced as to the effectiveness of large-scale, sustained bombing. As Army Chief of Staff Harold Keith Johnson noted, \"if anything came out of Vietnam, it was that air power couldn't do the job.\" Even General William Westmoreland admitted that the bombing had been ineffective. As he remarked, \"I still doubt that the North Vietnamese would have relented.\"","Vietnam War\n\nThe inability to bring Hanoi to the bargaining table by bombing also illustrated another U.S. miscalculation. The North's leadership was composed of hardened communists who had been fighting for thirty years. They had defeated the French, and their tenacity as both nationalists and communists was formidable. Ho Chi Minh is quoted as saying, \"You can kill ten of my men for every one I kill of yours…But even at these odds you will lose and I will win.\".","Vietnam War\n\nThe Vietnam War called into question the U.S. Army doctrine. Marine Corps General Victor H. Krulak heavily criticised Westmoreland's attrition strategy, calling it \"wasteful of American lives… with small likelihood of a successful outcome.\" In addition, doubts surfaced about the ability of the military to train foreign forces.","Vietnam War\n\nBetween 1965 and 1975, the United States spent $111 billion on the war ($686 billion in FY2008 dollars). This resulted in a large federal budget deficit.","Vietnam War\n\nMore than 3 million Americans served in the Vietnam War, some 1.5 million of whom actually saw combat in Vietnam. James E. Westheider wrote that \"At the height of American involvement in 1968, for example, there were 543,000 American military personnel in Vietnam, but only 80,000 were considered combat troops.\". Conscription in the United States had been controlled by the president since World War II, but ended in 1973.","Vietnam War\n\nBy war's end, 58,220 American soldiers had been killed, more than 150,000 had been wounded, and at least 21,000 had been permanently disabled. The average age of the U.S. troops killed in Vietnam was 23.11 years. According to Dale Kueter, \"Of those killed in combat, 86.3 percent were white, 12.5 percent were black and the remainder from other races.\" Approximately 830,000 Vietnam veterans suffered some degree of posttraumatic stress disorder. An estimated 125,000 Americans left for Canada to avoid the Vietnam draft, and approximately 50,000 American servicemen deserted. In 1977, United States president Jimmy Carter granted a full and unconditional pardon to all Vietnam-era draft dodgers. The Vietnam War POW/MIA issue, concerning the fate of U.S. service personnel listed as missing in action, persisted for many years after the war's conclusion. The costs of the war loom large in American popular consciousness; a 1990 poll showed that the public incorrectly believed that more Americans lost their lives in Vietnam than in World War II.","Vietnam War\n\nAs of 2013, the U.S. government is paying Vietnam veterans and their families or survivors more than 22 billion dollars a year in war-related claims.","Vietnam War\n\nImpact on the U.S. military","Vietnam War\n\nAs the Vietnam War continued inconclusively and became more unpopular with the American public, morale declined and disciplinary problems grew among American enlisted men and junior, non-career officers. Drug use, racial tensions, and the growing incidence of fragging—attempting to kill unpopular officers and non-commissioned officers with grenades or other weapons—created severe problems for the U.S. military and impacted its capability of undertaking combat operations. By 1971, a U.S. Army colonel writing in the Armed Forces Journal declared: \"By every conceivable indicator, our army that now remains in Vietnam is in a state approaching collapse, with individual units avoiding or having refused combat, murdering their officers and non commissioned officers, drug-ridden, and dispirited where not near mutinous....The morale, discipline, and battleworthiness of the U.S. Armed Forces are, with a few salient exceptions, lower and worse than at any time in this century and possibly in the history of the United States.\" Between 1969 and 1971 the US Army recorded more than 700 attacks by troops on their own officers. Eighty-three officers were killed and almost 650 were injured.","Vietnam War\n\nRon Milam has questioned the severity of the \"breakdown\" of the U.S. armed forces, especially among combat troops, as reflecting the opinions of \"angry colonels\" who deplored the erosion of traditional military values during the Vietnam War. Although acknowledging serious problems, he questions the alleged \"near mutinous\" conduct of junior officers and enlisted men in combat. Investigating one combat refusal incident, a journalist declared, \"A certain sense of independence, a reluctance to behave according to the military's insistence on obedience, like pawns or puppets...The grunts [infantrymen] were determined to survive...they insisted of having something to say about the making of decisions that determined whether they might live or die.\"","Vietnam War\n\nThe morale and discipline problems and resistance to conscription (the draft) were important factors leading to the creation of an all-volunteer military force by the United States and the termination of conscription. The last conscript was inducted into the army in 1973. The all-volunteer military moderated some of the coercive methods of discipline previously used to maintain order in military ranks.","Vietnam War\n\nEffects of U.S. chemical defoliation","Vietnam War\n\nOne of the most controversial aspects of the U.S. military effort in Southeast Asia was the widespread use of chemical defoliants between 1961 and 1971. They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide their weapons and encampments under the foliage. These chemicals continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain.","Vietnam War\n\nEarly in the American military effort, it was decided that since the enemy were hiding their activities under triple-canopy jungle, a useful first step might be to defoliate certain areas. This was especially true of growth surrounding bases (both large and small) in what became known as Operation Ranch Hand. Corporations like Dow Chemical Company and Monsanto were given the task of developing herbicides for this purpose. American officials also pointed out that the British had previously used 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D (virtually identical to America's use in Vietnam) on a large scale throughout the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s in order to destroy bushes, crops, and trees in effort to deny communist insurgents the concealment they needed to ambush passing convoys. Indeed, Secretary of State Dean Rusk told President John F. Kennedy on 24 November 1961, that \"[t]he use of defoliant does not violate any rule of international law concerning the conduct of chemical warfare and is an accepted tactic of war. Precedent has been established by the British during the emergency in Malaya in their use of aircraft for destroying crops by chemical spraying.\"","Vietnam War\n\nThe defoliants, which were distributed in drums marked with color-coded bands, included the \"Rainbow Herbicides\"—Agent Pink, Agent Green, Agent Purple, Agent Blue, Agent White, and, most famously, Agent Orange, which included dioxin as a by-product of its manufacture. About 11-12 million gallons (41.6-45.4 million L) of Agent Orange were sprayed over southern Vietnam between 1961 and 1971. A prime area of Ranch Hand operations was in the Mekong Delta, where the U.S. Navy patrol boats were vulnerable to attack from the undergrowth at the water's edge.","Vietnam War\n\nIn 1961 and 1962, the Kennedy administration authorized the use of chemicals to destroy rice crops. Between 1961 and 1967, the U.S. Air Force sprayed 20 million U.S. gallons (75,700,000 L) of concentrated herbicides over 6 million acres (24,000 km2) of crops and trees, affecting an estimated 13% of South Vietnam's land. In 1965, 42% of all herbicide was sprayed over food crops. Another purpose of herbicide use was to drive civilian populations into RVN-controlled areas.","Vietnam War\n\nVietnamese victims affected by Agent Orange attempted a class action lawsuit against Dow Chemical and other US chemical manufacturers, but District Court Judge Jack B. Weinstein dismissed their case..In his 234-page judgment, Weinstein observed: \"Despite the fact that Congress and the President were fully advised of a substantial belief that the herbicide spraying in Vietnam was a violation of international law, they acted on their view that it was not a violation at the time.\" They appealed, but the dismissal was cemented in February 2008 by the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. As of 2006, the Vietnamese government estimates that there are over 4,000,000 victims of dioxin poisoning in Vietnam, although the United States government denies any conclusive scientific links between Agent Orange and the Vietnamese victims of dioxin poisoning. In some areas of southern Vietnam, dioxin levels remain at over 100 times the accepted international standard.","Vietnam War\n\nThe U.S. Veterans Administration has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, Diabetes mellitus type 2, B-cell lymphomas, soft-tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange.","Vietnam War\n\nCasualties","Vietnam War\n\nEstimates of the number of casualties vary, with one source suggesting up to 3.8 million violent war deaths in Vietnam for the period 1955 to 2002. 195,000–430,000 South Vietnamese civilians died in the war. Extrapolating from a 1969 US intelligence report, Guenter Lewy estimated 65,000 North Vietnamese civilians died in the war. Estimates of civilian deaths caused by American bombing of North Vietnam in Operation Rolling Thunder range from 52,000 to 182,000. The military forces of South Vietnam suffered an estimated 254,256 killed between 1960 and 1974 and additional deaths from 1954–1959 and in 1975. The official US Department of Defense figure was 950,765 communist forces killed in Vietnam from 1965 to 1974. Defense Department officials believed that these body count figures need to be deflated by 30 percent. In addition, Guenter Lewy assumes that one-third of the reported \"enemy\" killed may have been civilians, concluding that the actual number of deaths of communist military forces was probably closer to 444,000. A detailed demographic study calculated 791,000–1,141,000 war-related deaths for all of Vietnam. Between 240,000Sliwinski estimates 240,000 wartime deaths, of which 40,000 were caused by U.S. bombing. (). He characterizes other estimates ranging from 600,000–700,000 as \"the most extreme evaluations\" (p. 42).","Vietnam War\n\nand 300,000 Cambodians died during the war. About 60,000 Laotians also died, and 58,300 U.S. military personnel were killed, of which 1,596 are still listed as missing .","Vietnam War\n\nPopular culture","Vietnam War\n\nThe Vietnam War has been featured extensively in television, film, video games, and literature in the participant countries. In American popular culture, the \"Crazy Vietnam Veteran\", who was suffering from Posttraumatic stress disorder, became a common stock character after the war.","Vietnam War\n\nOne of the first major films based on the Vietnam War was John Wayne's pro-war film, The Green Berets (1968). Further cinematic representations were released during the 1970s and 1980s, including Michael Cimino's The Deer Hunter (1978), Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now (1979), Oliver Stone's Platoon (1986) – based on his service in the U.S. Military during the Vietnam War, Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket (1987), Hamburger Hill (1987), and Casualties of War (1989). Later films would include We Were Soldiers (2002) and Rescue Dawn (2007).","Vietnam War\n\nThe war also influenced a generation of musicians and songwriters in Vietnam and the United States, both anti-war and pro/anti-communist. The band Country Joe and the Fish recorded \"I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-To-Die Rag\" / The \"Fish\" Cheer in 1965, and it became one of the most influential anti-Vietnam protest anthems. Many songwriters and musicians supported the anti-war movement, including Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, Peggy Seeger, Ewan MacColl, Barbara Dane, The Critics Group, Phil Ochs, John Lennon, Nina Simone, Neil Young, Tom Paxton, Jimmy Cliff and Arlo Guthrie."],"string":"[\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Vietnam War (), also known as the Second Indochina War, and known in Vietnam as Resistance War Against America () or simply the American War, was a Cold War-era proxy war that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War (1946–54) and was fought between North Vietnam—supported by the Soviet Union, China and other communist allies—and the government of South Vietnam—supported by the United States, Philippines and other anti-communist allies. The Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front, or NLF), a South Vietnamese communist common front aided by the North, fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region. The People's Army of Vietnam, also known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing large units to battle.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAs the war continued, the part of the Viet Cong in the fighting decreased as the role of the NVA grew. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes. In the course of the war, the U.S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe U.S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a Communist takeover of South Vietnam. This was part of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam. They viewed the conflict as a colonial war, fought initially against forces from France and then the U.S., and later against South Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBeginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina. The Military Assistance Advisory Group, Indochina (with an authorized strength of 128 men) was set up in September 1950 with a mission to oversee the use and distribution of US military equipment by the French and their allies. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. U.S. involvement escalated further following the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident, in which a U.S. destroyer clashed with North Vietnamese fast attack craft, which was followed by the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave the U.S. president authorization to increase U.S. military presence. Regular U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965. Operations crossed international borders: bordering areas of Laos and Cambodia were heavily bombed by U.S. forces as American involvement in the war peaked in 1968, the same year that the communist side launched the Tet Offensive. The Tet Offensive failed in its goal of overthrowing the South Vietnamese government, but became the turning point in the war, as it persuaded a large segment of the U.S.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\npopulation that its government's claims of progress toward winning the war were illusory despite many years of massive U.S. military aid to South Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nGradual withdrawal of U.S. ground forces began as part of \\\"Vietnamization\\\", which aimed to end American involvement in the war while transferring the task of fighting the Communists to the South Vietnamese themselves. Despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U.S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture. The war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nDirect U.S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973. The capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities (see Vietnam War casualties). Estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 800,000 to 3.1 million. Some 200,000–300,000 Cambodians, . 20,000–200,000 Laotians, , which estimates 200,000 by 1973. and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict, with a further 1,626 missing in action.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nNames for the war\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nVarious names have been applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English. It has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAs there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this particular conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is generally known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ (Resistance War Against America). It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam (The Vietnam War).\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe primary military organizations involved in the war were, on one side, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and the U.S. military, and, on the other side, the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) (more commonly called the North Vietnamese Army, or NVA, in English-language sources), and the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, more commonly known as the Viet Cong in English language sources), a South Vietnamese communist guerrilla force.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBackground to 1949\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nFrance began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the next seven decades. In spite of military resistance, most notably by the Cần Vương of Phan Đình Phùng, by 1888 the area of the current-day nations of Cambodia and Vietnam was made into the colony of French Indochina (Laos was later added to the colony).. Various Vietnamese opposition movements to French rule existed during this period, such as the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng who staged the failed Yên Bái mutiny in 1930, but none were ultimately as successful as the Viet Minh common front, which was founded in 1941, controlled by the Indochinese Communist Party, and funded by the U.S. and the Chinese Nationalist Party in its fight against Imperial Japanese occupation..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn 1940, during World War II, the French were defeated by the Germans. The French State (commonly known as Vichy France) was established as a client state of Nazi Germany. The French colonial authorities, in French Indochina, sided with the Vichy regime. In September 1940, Japan invaded Indochina. Following the cessation of fighting and the beginning of the Imperial Japanese occupation, the French colonial authorities collaborated with the Japanese. The French continued to run affairs in Indochina, but ultimate power resided in the hands of the Imperial Japanese.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Viet Minh was founded as a league for independence from France, but also opposed Japanese occupation in 1945 for the same reason. The U.S. and Chinese Nationalist Party supported them in the fight against the Imperial Japanese. However, they did not have enough power to fight actual battles at first. Viet Minh leader Ho Chi Minh was suspected of being a communist and jailed for a year by the Chinese Nationalist Party.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nDouble occupation by France and Japan continued until the German forces were expelled from France and the French Indochina colonial authorities started holding secret talks with the Free French. Fearing that they could no longer trust the French authorities, the Imperial Japanese military interned the French authorities and troops on 9 March 1945. and created the puppet Empire of Vietnam state, under Bảo Đại instead.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nDuring 1944–1945, a deep famine struck northern Vietnam due to a combination of bad weather and French/Japanese exploitation (French Indochina had to supply grains to Japan). Between 400,000 and 2 million people died of starvation (out of a population of 10 million in the affected area).. Exploiting the administrative gap that the internment of the French had created, the Viet Minh in March 1945 urged the population to ransack rice warehouses and refuse to pay their taxes.. Between 75 and 100 warehouses were consequently raided.. This rebellion against the effects of the famine and the authorities that were partially responsible for it bolstered the Viet Minh's popularity and they recruited many members during this period.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 22 August 1945, following the Imperial Japanese surrender, OSS agents Archimedes Patti and Carleton B. Swift Jr. arrived in Hanoi on a mercy mission to liberate allied POWs and were accompanied by Jean Sainteny, a French government official. The Japanese forces informally surrendered (the official surrender took place on 2 September 1945 in Tokyo Bay) but being the only force capable of maintaining law and order the Imperial Japanese military remained in power while keeping French colonial troops and Sainteny detained..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nDuring August the Imperial Japanese forces remained inactive as the Viet Minh and other nationalist groups took over public buildings and weapons, which began the August Revolution. OSS officers met repeatedly with Ho Chi Minh and other Viet Minh officers during this period and on 2 September 1945 Ho Chi Minh declared the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam before a crowd of 500,000 in Hanoi. In an overture to the Americans, he began his speech by paraphrasing the United States Declaration of Independence: \\\"All men are created equal. The Creator has given us certain inviolable Rights: the right to Life, the right to be Free, and the right to achieve Happiness.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Viet Minh took power in Vietnam in the August Revolution. The Viet Minh, downplaying their Communist agenda and stressing nationalism enjoyed large popular support (Vietnamese independence being popular at the time), although Arthur J. Dommen cautions against a \\\"romanticized view\\\" of their success: \\\"The Viet Minh use of terror was systematic….the party had drawn up a list of those to be liquidated without delay.\\\" After their defeat in the war, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) gave weapons to the Vietnamese, and kept Vichy French officials and military officers imprisoned for a month after the surrender. The Viet Minh had recruited more than 600 Imperial Japanese soldiers and given them roles to train or command Vietnamese soldiers.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nHowever, the major allied victors of World War II, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union, all agreed the area belonged to the French. As the French did not have the means to immediately retake Vietnam, the major powers came to an agreement that British troops would occupy the south while Nationalist Chinese forces would move in from the north. Nationalist Chinese troops entered the country to disarm Imperial Japanese troops north of the 16th parallel on 14 September 1945. When the British landed in the south, they rearmed the interned French forces as well as parts of the surrendered Imperial Japanese forces to aid them in retaking southern Vietnam, as they did not have enough troops to do this themselves.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn the urging of the Soviet Union, Ho Chi Minh initially attempted to negotiate with the French, who were slowly re-establishing their control across the area. In January 1946, the Viet Minh won elections across central and northern Vietnam.. On 6 March 1946, Ho signed an agreement allowing French forces to replace Nationalist Chinese forces, in exchange for French recognition of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as a \\\"free\\\" republic within the French Union, with the specifics of such recognition to be determined by future negotiation. The French landed in Hanoi by March 1946 and in November of that year they ousted the Viet Minh from the city. British forces departed on 26 March 1946, leaving Vietnam in the hands of the French. Soon thereafter, the Viet Minh began a guerrilla war against the French Union forces, beginning the First Indochina War.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe war spread to Laos and Cambodia, where communists organized the Pathet Lao and the Khmer Serei, both of which were modeled on the Viet Minh.. Globally, the Cold War began in earnest, which meant that the rapprochement that existed between the Western powers and the Soviet Union during World War II disintegrated. The Viet Minh fight was hampered by a lack of weapons; this situation changed by 1949 when the Chinese Communists had largely won the Chinese Civil War and were free to provide arms to their Vietnamese allies.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nExit of the French, 1950–54\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn January 1950, the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union recognized the Viet Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam, based in Hanoi, as the legitimate government of Vietnam. The following month the United States and Great Britain recognized the French-backed State of Vietnam in Saigon, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, as the legitimate Vietnamese government.. The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 convinced many Washington policymakers that the war in Indochina was an example of communist expansionism directed by the Soviet Union.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nMilitary advisors from the People's Republic of China (PRC) began assisting the Viet Minh in July 1950. PRC weapons, expertise, and laborers transformed the Viet Minh from a guerrilla force into a regular army. In September 1950, the United States created a Military Assistance and Advisory Group (MAAG) to screen French requests for aid, advise on strategy, and train Vietnamese soldiers.. By 1954, the United States had supplied 300,000 small arms and spent US$1 billion in support of the French military effort, shouldering 80 percent of the cost of the war.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThere were also talks between the French and Americans in which the possible use of three tactical nuclear weapons was considered, though reports of how seriously this was considered and by whom are even now vague and contradictory. One version of the plan for the proposed Operation Vulture envisioned sending 60 B-29s from U.S. bases in the region, supported by as many as 150 fighters launched from U.S. Seventh Fleet carriers, to bomb Viet Minh commander Võ Nguyên Giáp's positions. The plan included an option to use up to three atomic weapons on the Viet Minh positions. Admiral Arthur W. Radford, Chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, gave this nuclear option his backing. U.S. B-29s, B-36s, and B-47s could have executed a nuclear strike, as could carrier aircraft from the Seventh Fleet.[http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2004/August%202004/0804dien.aspx Dien Bien Phu], Air Force Magazine 87:8, August 2004.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nU.S. carriers sailed to the Gulf of Tonkin, and reconnaissance flights over Dien Bien Phu were conducted during the negotiations. According to U.S. Vice-President Richard Nixon, the plan involved the Joint Chiefs of Staff drawing up plans to use three small tactical nuclear weapons in support of the French. Nixon, a so-called \\\"hawk\\\" on Vietnam, suggested that the United States might have to \\\"put American boys in\\\". U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower made American participation contingent on British support, but they were opposed to such a venture. In the end, convinced that the political risks outweighed the possible benefits, Eisenhower decided against the intervention. Eisenhower was a five-star general. He was wary of getting the United States involved in a land war in Asia.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Viet Minh received crucial support from the Soviet Union and PRC. PRC support in the Border Campaign of 1950 allowed supplies to come from the PRC into Vietnam. Throughout the conflict, U.S. intelligence estimates remained skeptical of French chances of success.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Battle of Dien Bien Phu marked the end of French involvement in Indochina. Giap's Viet Minh forces handed the French a stunning military defeat, and on 7 May 1954, the French Union garrison surrendered. At the Geneva Conference, the French negotiated a ceasefire agreement with the Viet Minh, and independence was granted to Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nTransition period\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nVietnam was temporarily partitioned at the 17th parallel, and under the terms of the Geneva Accords, civilians were to be given the opportunity to move freely between the two provisional states for a 300-day period. Elections throughout the country were to be held in 1956 to establish a unified government. Around one million northerners, mainly minority Catholics, fled south, fearing persecution by the communists following an American propaganda campaign using slogans such as \\\"The Virgin Mary is heading south\\\",. and aided by a U.S.-funded $93 million relocation program, which included the use of the Seventh Fleet to ferry refugees. As many as two million more would have left had they not been stopped by the Viet Minh.. The northern, mainly Catholic refugees were meant to give the later Ngô Đình Diệm regime a strong anti-communist constituency.. Diệm later went on to staff his administration's key posts mostly with northern and central Catholics.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn addition to the Catholics flowing south, up to 130,000 \\\"Revolutionary Regroupees\\\" went to the north for \\\"regroupment\\\", expecting to return to the south within two years. The Viet Minh left roughly 5,000 to 10,000 cadres in the south as a \\\"politico-military substructure within the object of its irredentism.\\\" The last French soldiers were to leave Vietnam in April 1956. The PRC completed its withdrawal from North Vietnam at around the same time. Around 52,000 Vietnamese civilians moved from south to north.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBetween 1953 and 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted various agrarian reforms, including \\\"rent reduction\\\" and \\\"land reform\\\", which resulted in significant political oppression. During the land reform, testimony from North Vietnamese witnesses suggested a ratio of one execution for every 160 village residents, which extrapolated nationwide would indicate nearly 100,000 executions. Because the campaign was concentrated mainly in the Red River Delta area, a lower estimate of 50,000 executions became widely accepted by scholars at the time. However, declassified documents from the Vietnamese and Hungarian archives indicate that the number of executions was much lower than reported at the time, although likely greater than 13,500. In 1956, leaders in Hanoi admitted to \\\"excesses\\\" in implementing this program and restored a large amount of the land to the original owners..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe south, meanwhile, constituted the State of Vietnam, with Bảo Đại as Emperor and Ngô Đình Diệm (appointed in July 1954) as his prime minister. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Viet Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of \\\"local commissions\\\". The United States countered with what became known as the \\\"American Plan\\\", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. The United States said, \\\"With respect to the statement made by the representative of the State of Vietnam, the United States reiterates its traditional position that peoples are entitled to determine their own future and that it will not join in any arrangement which would hinder this\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nU.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower wrote in 1954, \\\"I have never talked or corresponded with a person knowledgeable in Indochinese affairs who did not agree that had elections been held as of the time of the fighting, possibly eighty percent of the population would have voted for the Communist Ho Chi Minh as their leader rather than Chief of State Bảo Đại. Indeed, the lack of leadership and drive on the part of Bảo Đại was a factor in the feeling prevalent among Vietnamese that they had nothing to fight for.\\\" According to the Pentagon Papers, however, from 1954 to 1956 \\\"Ngô Đình Diệm really did accomplish miracles\\\" in South Vietnam: \\\"It is almost certain that by 1956 the proportion which might have voted for Ho—in a free election against Diệm—would have been much smaller than eighty percent.\\\" In 1957, independent observers from India, Poland, and Canada representing the International Control Commission (ICC) stated that fair, unbiased elections were not possible, with the ICC reporting that neither South nor North Vietnam had honored the armistice agreement\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nFrom April to June 1955, Diệm eliminated any political opposition in the south by launching military operations against two religious groups: the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo of Ba Cụt. The campaign also focused on the Bình Xuyên organized crime group which was allied with members of the communist party secret police and had some military elements. As broad-based opposition to his harsh tactics mounted, Diệm increasingly sought to blame the communists.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn a referendum on the future of the State of Vietnam on 23 October 1955, Diệm rigged the poll supervised by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu and was credited with 98.2 percent of the vote, including 133% in Saigon. His American advisors had recommended a more modest winning margin of \\\"60 to 70 percent.\\\" Diệm, however, viewed the election as a test of authority.. Three days later, he declared South Vietnam to be an independent state under the name Republic of Vietnam (ROV), with himself as president. Likewise, Ho Chi Minh and other communist officials always won at least 99% of the vote in North Vietnamese \\\"elections\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe domino theory, which argued that if one country fell to communism, then all of the surrounding countries would follow, was first proposed as policy by the Eisenhower administration.. John F. Kennedy, then a U.S. Senator, said in a speech to the American Friends of Vietnam: \\\"Burma, Thailand, India, Japan, the Philippines and obviously Laos and Cambodia are among those whose security would be threatened if the Red Tide of Communism overflowed into Vietnam.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nDiệm era, 1955–63\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nRule\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nA devout Roman Catholic, Diệm was fervently anti-communist, nationalist, and socially conservative. Historian Luu Doan Huynh notes that \\\"Diệm represented narrow and extremist nationalism coupled with autocracy and nepotism.\\\". The majority of Vietnamese people were Buddhist, and were alarmed by actions such as Diệm's dedication of the country to the Virgin Mary.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBeginning in the summer of 1955, Diệm launched the \\\"Denounce the Communists\\\" campaign, during which communists and other anti-government elements were arrested, imprisoned, tortured, or executed. He instituted the death penalty against any activity deemed communist in August 1956. According to Gabriel Kolko about 12,000 suspected opponents of Diệm were killed between 1955 and 1957 and by the end of 1958 an estimated 40,000 political prisoners had been jailed. However, Guenter Lewy argues that such figures were exaggerated and that there were never more than 35,000 prisoners of all kinds in the whole country..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn May 1957, Diệm undertook a ten-day state visit to the United States. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diệm's honor in New York City. Although Diệm was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diệm had been selected because there were no better alternatives..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nFormer Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara wrote in Argument Without End (1999) that the new American patrons of the Republic of Vietnam (ROV) were almost completely ignorant of Vietnamese culture. They knew little of the language or long history of the country. There was a tendency to assign American motives to Vietnamese actions, though Diệm warned that it was an illusion to believe that blindly copying Western methods would solve Vietnamese problems.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nInsurgency in the South, 1954–60\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBetween 1954 and 1957 there was large-scale but disorganized dissidence in the countryside which the Diệm government succeeded in quelling. In early 1957 South Vietnam had its first peace in over a decade. However, by mid-1957 through 1959 incidents of violence increased but the government \\\"did not construe it as a campaign, considering the disorders too diffuse to warrant committing major GVN [Government of Vietnam] resources.\\\" By early 1959 however, Diệm considered it an organized campaign and implemented Law 10/59, which made political violence punishable by death and property confiscation. There had been some division among former Viet Minh whose main goal was to hold the elections promised in the Geneva Accords, leading to \\\"wildcat\\\" activities separate from the other communists and anti-GVN activists.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn December 1960, the National Liberation Front (NLF, a.k.a. the Viet Cong) was formally created with the intent of uniting all anti-GVN activists, including non-communists. According to the Pentagon Papers, the Viet Cong \\\"placed heavy emphasis on the withdrawal of American advisors and influence, on land reform and liberalization of the GVN, on coalition government and the neutralization of Vietnam.\\\" Often the leaders of the organization were kept secret.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe reason for the continued survival of the NLF was the class relations in the countryside. The vast majority of the population lived in villages in the countryside where the key issue was land reform. The Viet Minh had reduced rents and debts; and had leased communal lands, mostly to the poorer peasants. Diem brought the landlords back to the villages. People who were farming land they held for years now had to return it to landlords and pay years of back rent. This rent collection was enforced by the South Vietnamese army. The divisions within villages reproduced those that had existed against the French: \\\"75 percent support for the NLF, 20 percent trying to remain neutral and 5 percent firmly pro-government,\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nNorth Vietnamese involvement\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSources disagree on whether North Vietnam played a direct role in aiding and organizing South Vietnamese rebels prior to 1960. Kahin and Lewis assert:\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSimilarly, historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. states that \\\"it was not until September, 1960 that the Communist Party of North Vietnam bestowed its formal blessing and called for the liberation of the south from American imperialism\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBy contrast, the author of War Comes to Long An Jeffrey Race interviewed communist defectors in 1967 and 1968 who found such denials \\\"very amusing\\\", and who \\\"commented humorously that the Party had apparently been more successful than was expected in concealing its role.\\\" James Olson and Randy Roberts assert that North Vietnam authorized a low-level insurgency in December 1956. To counter the accusation that North Vietnam was violating the Geneva Accord, the independence of the Viet Cong was stressed in communist propaganda.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn March 1956, southern communist leader Lê Duẩn presented a plan to revive the insurgency entitled \\\"The Road to the South\\\" to the other members of the Politburo in Hanoi, but as both China and the Soviets opposed confrontation at this time, Lê Duẩn's plan was rejected. However the North Vietnamese leadership approved tentative measures to revive the southern insurgency in December 1956..This decision was made at the 11th Plenary Session of the Lao Dong Central Committee. Communist forces were under a single command structure set up in 1958. The North Vietnamese Communist Party approved a \\\"people's war\\\" on the South at a session in January 1959 and in May, Group 559 was established to maintain and upgrade the Ho Chi Minh trail, at this time a six-month mountain trek through Laos. About 500 of the \\\"regroupees\\\" of 1954 were sent south on the trail during its first year of operation. The first arms delivery via the trail was completed in August 1959..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nNorth Vietnam invaded Laos in 1959, and used 30,000 men to build invasion routes through Laos and Cambodia by 1961. About 40,000 communist soldiers infiltrated into the south from 1961–63. North Vietnam sent 10,000 troops of the North Vietnamese Army to attack the south in 1964, and this figure increased to 100,000 in 1965.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nKennedy's escalation, 1961–63\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn the 1960 U.S. presidential election, Senator John F. Kennedy defeated incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon. Although Eisenhower warned Kennedy about Laos and Vietnam, Europe and Latin America \\\"loomed larger than Asia on his sights.\\\". In his inaugural address, Kennedy made the ambitious pledge to \\\"pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and success of liberty.\\\" In June 1961, he bitterly disagreed with Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev when they met in Vienna to discuss key U.S.–Soviet issues. Only 16 months later, the U.S.–Soviet issues included the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 16–28, 1962) played out on television worldwide and was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war, and the U.S. raised the readiness level of Strategic Air Command(SAC) forces to DEFCON 2.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Kennedy administration remained essentially committed to the Cold War foreign policy inherited from the Truman and Eisenhower administrations. In 1961, the U.S. had 50,000 troops based in Korea, and Kennedy faced a three-part crisis – the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the construction of the Berlin Wall, and a negotiated settlement between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement. These crises made Kennedy believe that another failure on the part of the United States to gain control and stop communist expansion would fatally damage U.S. credibility with its allies and his own reputation. Kennedy was thus determined to \\\"draw a line in the sand\\\" and prevent a communist victory in Vietnam. He told James Reston of The New York Times immediately after his Vienna meeting with Khrushchev, \\\"Now we have a problem making our power credible and Vietnam looks like the place.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn May 1961, U.S. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson visited Saigon and enthusiastically declared Diệm the \\\"Winston Churchill of Asia.\\\". Asked why he had made the comment, Johnson replied, \\\"Diệm's the only boy we got out there.\\\" Johnson assured Diệm of more aid in molding a fighting force that could resist the communists.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nKennedy's policy toward South Vietnam rested on the assumption that Diệm and his forces had to ultimately defeat the guerrillas on their own. He was against the deployment of American combat troops and observed that \\\"to introduce U.S. forces in large numbers there today, while it might have an initially favorable military impact, would almost certainly lead to adverse political and, in the long run, adverse military consequences.\\\" \\nThe quality of the South Vietnamese military, however, remained poor. Poor leadership, corruption, and political promotions all played a part in weakening the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN). The frequency of guerrilla attacks rose as the insurgency gathered steam. While Hanoi's support for the Viet Cong played a role, South Vietnamese governmental incompetence was at the core of the crisis..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOne major issue Kennedy raised was whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the United States. Although Kennedy stressed long-range missile parity with the Soviets, he was also interested in using special forces for counterinsurgency warfare in Third World countries threatened by communist insurgencies. Although they were originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional Soviet invasion of Europe, Kennedy believed that the guerrilla tactics employed by special forces such as the Green Berets would be effective in a \\\"brush fire\\\" war in Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nKennedy advisors Maxwell Taylor and Walt Rostow recommended that U.S. troops be sent to South Vietnam disguised as flood relief workers. Kennedy rejected the idea but increased military assistance yet again. In April 1962, John Kenneth Galbraith warned Kennedy of the \\\"danger we shall replace the French as a colonial force in the area and bleed as the French did.\\\" By November 1963, there were 16,000 American military personnel in South Vietnam, up from Eisenhower's 900 advisors.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Strategic Hamlet Program was initiated in late 1961. This joint U.S.-South Vietnamese program attempted to resettle the rural population into fortified camps. It was implemented in early 1962 and involved some forced relocation, village internment, and segregation of rural South Vietnamese into new communities where the peasantry would be isolated from Communist insurgents. It was hoped these new communities would provide security for the peasants and strengthen the tie between them and the central government. However, by November 1963 the program had waned, and it officially ended in 1964.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 23 July 1962, fourteen nations, including China, South Vietnam, the Soviet Union, North Vietnam and the United States, signed an agreement promising to respect the neutrality of Laos.[http://www.answers.com/topic/international-agreement-on-the-neutrality-of-laos-35k International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos].\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOusting and assassination of Ngô Đình Diệm\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe inept performance of the South Vietnamese army was exemplified by failed actions such as the Battle of Ap Bac on 2 January 1963, in which a small band of Viet Cong won a battle against a much larger and better-equipped South Vietnamese force, many of whose officers seemed reluctant even to engage in combat.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Army of the Republic of Vietnam forces were led in that battle by Diệm's most trusted general, Huỳnh Văn Cao, commander of the IV Corps. Cao was a Catholic who had been promoted due to religion and fidelity rather than skill, and his main job was to preserve his forces to stave off coups; he had earlier vomited during a communist attack. Some policymakers in Washington began to conclude that Diệm was incapable of defeating the communists and might even make a deal with Ho Chi Minh. He seemed concerned only with fending off coups, and had become more paranoid after attempts in 1960 and 1962, which he partly attributed to U.S. encouragement. As Robert F. Kennedy noted, \\\"Diệm wouldn't make even the slightest concessions. He was difficult to reason with…\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAs historian James Gibson summed up the situation:\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nDiscontent with Diệm's policies exploded following the Huế Phật Đản shootings of nine majority Buddhists who were protesting against the ban on the Buddhist flag on Vesak, the Buddha's birthday. This resulted in mass protests against discriminatory policies that gave privileges to the Catholic Church and its adherents. Diệm's elder brother Ngô Đình Thục was the Archbishop of Huế and aggressively blurred the separation between church and state. Thuc's anniversary celebrations shortly before Vesak had been bankrolled by the government, and Vatican flags were displayed prominently. There had also been reports of Buddhist pagodas being demolished by Catholic paramilitaries throughout Diệm's rule. Diệm refused to make concessions to the Buddhist majority or take responsibility for the deaths. On 21 August 1963, the ARVN Special Forces of Colonel Lê Quang Tung, loyal to Diệm's younger brother Ngô Đình Nhu, raided pagodas across Vietnam, causing widespread damage and destruction and leaving a death toll estimated to range into the hundreds.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nU.S. officials began discussing the possibility of a regime change during the middle of 1963. The United States Department of State was generally in favor of encouraging a coup, while the Defense Department favored Diệm. Chief among the proposed changes was the removal of Diệm's younger brother Nhu, who controlled the secret police and special forces and was seen as the man behind the Buddhist repression and more generally the architect of the Ngô family's rule. This proposal was conveyed to the U.S. embassy in Saigon in Cable 243.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was in contact with generals planning to remove Diệm. They were told that the United States would not oppose such a move nor punish the generals by cutting off aid. President Diệm was overthrown and executed, along with his brother, on 2 November 1963. When he was informed, Maxwell Taylor remembered that Kennedy \\\"rushed from the room with a look of shock and dismay on his face.\\\". He had not anticipated Diệm's murder. The U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam, Henry Cabot Lodge, invited the coup leaders to the embassy and congratulated them. Ambassador Lodge informed Kennedy that \\\"the prospects now are for a shorter war\\\".. Kennedy wrote Lodge a letter congratulating him for \\\"a fine job.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nFollowing the coup, chaos ensued. Hanoi took advantage of the situation and increased its support for the guerrillas. South Vietnam entered a period of extreme political instability, as one military government toppled another in quick succession. Increasingly, each new regime was viewed by the communists as a puppet of the Americans; whatever the failings of Diệm, his credentials as a nationalist (as Robert McNamara later reflected) had been impeccable..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nU.S military advisors were embedded at every level of the South Vietnamese armed forces. They were however criticized for ignoring the political nature of the insurgency.. The Kennedy administration sought to refocus U.S. efforts on pacification and \\\"winning over the hearts and minds\\\" of the population. The military leadership in Washington, however, was hostile to any role for U.S. advisors other than conventional troop training. General Paul Harkins, the commander of U.S. forces in South Vietnam, confidently predicted victory by Christmas 1963.. The CIA was less optimistic, however, warning that \\\"the Viet Cong by and large retain de facto control of much of the countryside and have steadily increased the overall intensity of the effort\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nParamilitary officers from the CIA's Special Activities Division trained and led Hmong tribesmen in Laos and into Vietnam. The indigenous forces numbered in the tens of thousands and they conducted direct action missions, led by paramilitary officers, against the Communist Pathet Lao forces and their North Vietnamese supporters. The CIA also ran the Phoenix Program and participated in Military Assistance Command, Vietnam – Studies and Observations Group (MAC-V SOG), which was originally named the Special Operations Group, but was changed for cover purposes.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nJohnson's escalation, 1963–69\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAt the time Lyndon B. Johnson took over the presidency after the death of Kennedy, he had not been heavily involved with policy toward Vietnam, Presidential aide Jack Valenti recalls, \\\"Vietnam at the time was no bigger than a man's fist on the horizon. We hardly discussed it because it was not worth discussing.\\\".Johnson viewed many members that he inherited from Kennedy's cabinet with distrust because he had never penetrated their circle during Kennedy's presidency; to Johnson's mind, those like W. Averell Harriman and Dean Acheson spoke a different language.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nUpon becoming president, however, Johnson immediately had to focus on Vietnam: on 24 November 1963, he said, \\\"the battle against communism [...] must be joined [...] with strength and determination.\\\".Before a small group, including Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., the new president also said, \\\"We should stop playing cops and robbers [a reference to Diệm's failed leadership] and get back to… winning the war… tell the generals in Saigon that Lyndon Johnson intends to stand by our word…[to] win the contest against the externally directed and supported Communist conspiracy.\\\" The pledge came at a time when the situation in South Vietnam was deteriorating, especially in places like the Mekong Delta, because of the recent coup against Diệm.: \\\"At a place called Hoa Phu, for example, the strategic hamlet built during the previous summer now looked like it had been hit by a hurricane. […] Speaking through an interpreter, a local guard explained to me that a handful of Viet Cong agents had entered the hamlet one night and told the peasants to tear it down and return to their native villages. The peasants complied without question.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe military revolutionary council, meeting in lieu of a strong South Vietnamese leader, was made up of 12 members headed by General Dương Văn Minh—whom Stanley Karnow, a journalist on the ground, later recalled as \\\"a model of lethargy.\\\". Lodge, frustrated by the end of the year, cabled home about Minh: \\\"Will he be strong enough to get on top of things?\\\" His regime was overthrown in January 1964 by General Nguyễn Khánh.. However, there was persistent instability in the military as several coups—not all successful—occurred in a short period of time.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 2 August 1964, the , on an intelligence mission along North Vietnam's coast, allegedly fired upon and damaged several torpedo boats that had been stalking it in the Gulf of Tonkin.. A second attack was reported two days later on the and Maddox in the same area. The circumstances of the attack were murky. Lyndon Johnson commented to Undersecretary of State George Ball that \\\"those sailors out there may have been shooting at flying fish.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe second attack led to retaliatory air strikes, prompted Congress to approve the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on 7 August 1964, signed by Johnson, and gave the president power to conduct military operations in Southeast Asia without declaring war. Although Congressmen at the time denied that this was a full-scale war declaration, the Tonkin Resolution allowed the president unilateral power to launch a full-scale war if the president deemed it necessary. In the same month, Johnson pledged that he was not \\\"… committing American boys to fighting a war that I think ought to be fought by the boys of Asia to help protect their own land.\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAn undated NSA publication declassified in 2005, however, revealed that there was no attack on 4 August. It had already been called into question long before this. \\\"Gulf of Tonkin incident\\\", writes Louise Gerdes, \\\"is an oft-cited example of the way in which Johnson misled the American people to gain support for his foreign policy in Vietnam.\\\" George C. Herring argues, however, that McNamara and the Pentagon \\\"did not knowingly lie about the alleged attacks, but they were obviously in a mood to retaliate and they seem to have selected from the evidence available to them those parts that confirmed what they wanted to believe.\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\n\\\"From a strength of approximately 5,000 at the start of 1959 the Viet Cong's ranks grew to about 100,000 at the end of 1964…Between 1961 and 1964 the Army's strength rose from about 850,000 to nearly a million men.\\\" The numbers for U.S. troops deployed to Vietnam during the same period were quite different; 2,000 in 1961, rising rapidly to 16,500 in 1964. By early 1965, 7,559 South Vietnamese hamlets had been destroyed by the Viet Cong.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe National Security Council recommended a three-stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam. On 2 March 1965, following an attack on a U.S. Marine barracks at Pleiku, Operation Flaming Dart (initiated when Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin was on a state visit to North Vietnam), Operation Rolling Thunder and Operation Arc Light commenced. The bombing campaign, which ultimately lasted three years, was intended to force North Vietnam to cease its support for the Viet Cong by threatening to destroy North Vietnam's air defenses and industrial infrastructure. As well, it was aimed at bolstering the morale of the South Vietnamese.Earl L. Tilford, Setup: What the Air Force did in Vietnam and Why. Maxwell Air Force Base AL: Air University Press, 1991, p. 89. Between March 1965 and November 1968, \\\"Rolling Thunder\\\" deluged the north with a million tons of missiles, rockets and bombs..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBombing was not restricted to North Vietnam. Other aerial campaigns, such as Operation Commando Hunt, targeted different parts of the Viet Cong and NVA infrastructure. These included the Ho Chi Minh trail supply route, which ran through Laos and Cambodia. The objective of stopping North Vietnam and the Viet Cong was never reached. As one officer noted, \\\"This is a political war and it calls for discriminate killing. The best weapon… would be a knife… The worst is an airplane.\\\". The Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force Curtis LeMay, however, had long advocated saturation bombing in Vietnam and wrote of the communists that \\\"we're going to bomb them back into the Stone Age\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nEscalation and ground war\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAfter several attacks upon them, it was decided that U.S. Air Force bases needed more protection as the South Vietnamese military seemed incapable of providing security. On 8 March 1965, 3,500 U.S. Marines were dispatched to South Vietnam. This marked the beginning of the American ground war. U.S. public opinion overwhelmingly supported the deployment.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn a statement similar to that made to the French almost two decades earlier, Ho Chi Minh warned that if the Americans \\\"want to make war for twenty years then we shall make war for twenty years. If they want to make peace, we shall make peace and invite them to afternoon tea.\\\" As former First Deputy Foreign Minister Tran Quang Co has noted, the primary goal of the war was to reunify Vietnam and secure its independence. Some have argued that the policy of North Vietnam was not to topple other non-communist governments in South East Asia.. However, the Pentagon Papers warned of \\\"a dangerous period of Vietnamese expansionism….Laos and Cambodia would have been easy pickings for such a Vietnam….Thailand, Malaya, Singapore, and even Indonesia, could have been next.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Marines' initial assignment was defensive. The first deployment of 3,500 in March 1965 was increased to nearly 200,000 by December.. The U.S. military had long been schooled in offensive warfare. Regardless of political policies, U.S. commanders were institutionally and psychologically unsuited to a defensive mission. In December 1964, ARVN forces had suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Bình Giã, in a battle that both sides viewed as a watershed. Previously, communist forces had utilized hit-and-run guerrilla tactics. However, at Binh Gia, they had defeated a strong ARVN force in a conventional battle. Tellingly, South Vietnamese forces were again defeated in June 1965 at the Battle of Đồng Xoài.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nDesertion rates were increasing, and morale plummeted. General William Westmoreland informed Admiral U. S. Grant Sharp Jr., commander of U.S. Pacific forces, that the situation was critical. He said, \\\"I am convinced that U.S. troops with their energy, mobility, and firepower can successfully take the fight to the NLF [National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam a.k.a. the Viet Cong].\\\" With this recommendation, Westmoreland was advocating an aggressive departure from America's defensive posture and the sidelining of the South Vietnamese. By ignoring ARVN units, the U.S. commitment became open-ended.. Westmoreland outlined a three-point plan to win the war:\\n* Phase 1. Commitment of U.S. (and other free world) forces necessary to halt the losing trend by the end of 1965.\\n* Phase 2. U.S. and allied forces mount major offensive actions to seize the initiative to destroy guerrilla and organized enemy forces. This phase would end when the enemy had been worn down, thrown on the defensive, and driven back from major populated areas.\\n* Phase 3. If the enemy persisted, a period of twelve to eighteen months following Phase 2 would be required for the final destruction of enemy forces remaining in remote base areas.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe plan was approved by Johnson and marked a profound departure from the previous administration's insistence that the government of South Vietnam was responsible for defeating the guerrillas. Westmoreland predicted victory by the end of 1967. Johnson did not, however, communicate this change in strategy to the media. Instead he emphasized continuity. The change in U.S. policy depended on matching the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong in a contest of attrition and morale. The opponents were locked in a cycle of escalation.. The idea that the government of South Vietnam could manage its own affairs was shelved.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe one-year tour of duty of American soldiers deprived units of experienced leadership. As one observer noted \\\"we were not in Vietnam for 10 years, but for one year 10 times.\\\" As a result, training programs were shortened.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSouth Vietnam was inundated with manufactured goods. As Stanley Karnow writes, \\\"the main PX [Post Exchange], located in the Saigon suburb of Cholon, was only slightly smaller than the New York Bloomingdale's…\\\". The American buildup transformed the economy and had a profound effect on South Vietnamese society. A huge surge in corruption was witnessed.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nWashington encouraged its SEATO allies to contribute troops. Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Thailand, and the Philippines. all agreed to send troops. Major allies, however, notably NATO nations Canada and the United Kingdom, declined Washington's troop requests. The U.S. and its allies mounted complex operations, such as operations Masher, Attleboro, Cedar Falls, and Junction City. However, the communist insurgents remained elusive and demonstrated great tactical flexibility.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nMeanwhile, the political situation in South Vietnam began to stabilize with the coming to power of prime minister Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and figurehead Chief of State, General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, in mid-1965 at the head of a military junta. This ended a series of coups that had happened more than once a year. In 1967, Thieu became president with Ky as his deputy, after rigged elections. Although they were nominally a civilian government, Ky was supposed to maintain real power through a behind-the-scenes military body. However, Thieu outmaneuvered and sidelined Ky by filling the ranks with generals from his faction. Thieu was also accused of murdering Ky loyalists through contrived military accidents. Thieu, mistrustful and indecisive, remained president until 1975, having won a one-candidate election in 1971..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Johnson administration employed a \\\"policy of minimum candor\\\". in its dealings with the media. Military information officers sought to manage media coverage by emphasizing stories that portrayed progress in the war. Over time, this policy damaged the public trust in official pronouncements. As the media's coverage of the war and that of the Pentagon diverged, a so-called credibility gap developed.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nTet Offensive\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn late 1967 the Communists lured American forces into the hinterlands at Đắk Tô and at the Marine Khe Sanh combat base in Quảng Trị Province where the United States was more than willing to fight because it could unleash its massive firepower unimpeded by civilians. However, on 31 January 1968, the NVA and the Viet Cong broke the truce that traditionally accompanied the Tết (Lunar New Year) holiday by launching the largest battle of the war, the Tet Offensive, in the hope of sparking a national uprising. Over 100 cities were attacked by over 85,000 enemy troops including assaults on General Westmoreland's headquarters and the U.S. Embassy in Saigon..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAlthough the U.S. and South Vietnamese forces were initially shocked by the scale of the urban offensive, they responded quickly and effectively, decimating the ranks of the Viet Cong. In the former capital city of Huế, the combined NVA and Viet Cong troops captured the Imperial Citadel and much of the city and massacred over 3,000 unarmed Huế civilians. In the following Battle of Huế American forces employed massive firepower that left 80 percent of the city in ruins. Further north, at Quảng Trị City, members of the 1st Cavalry Division and 1st ARVN Infantry Division killed more than 900 NVA and Vietcong troops in and around the city. In Saigon, 1,000 NLF (Viet Cong) fighters fought off 11,000 U.S. and ARVN troops for three weeks.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAcross South Vietnam, 1,100 Americans and other allied troops, 2,100 ARVN, 14,000 civilians, and 32,000 NVA and Viet Cong lay dead.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBut the Tet Offensive had another, unintended consequence. General Westmoreland had become the public face of the war. He had been named Time magazine's 1965's Man of the Year and eventually was featured on the magazine's cover three times. Time described him as \\\"the sinewy personification of the American fighting man… (who) directed the historic buildup, drew up the battle plans, and infused the… men under him with his own idealistic view of U.S. aims and responsibilities.\\\" Six weeks after the Tet Offensive began, \\\"public approval of his overall performance dropped from 48 percent to 36 percent–and, more dramatically, endorsement for his handling of the war fell from 40 percent to 26 percent.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nA few months earlier, in November 1967, Westmoreland had spearheaded a public relations drive for the Johnson administration to bolster flagging public support. In a speech before the National Press Club he had said a point in the war had been reached \\\"where the end comes into view.\\\" Thus, the public was shocked and confused when Westmoreland's predictions were trumped by Tet. The American media, which had until then been largely supportive of U.S. efforts, turned on the Johnson administration for what had become an increasing credibility gap.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAlthough the Tet Offensive was a significant victory for allied forces, in terms of casualties and control of territory, it was a sound defeat when evaluated from the point of view of strategic consequences: it became a turning point in America's involvement in the Vietnam War because it had a profound impact on domestic support for the conflict. Despite the military failure for the Communist forces, the Tet Offensive became a political victory for them and ended the career of president Lyndon B. Johnson, who declined to run for re-election as his approval rating slumped from 48 to 36 percent. As James Witz noted, Tet \\\"contradicted the claims of progress… made by the Johnson administration and the military.\\\" The offensive constituted an intelligence failure on the scale of Pearl Harbor. Journalist Peter Arnett, in a disputed article, quoted an officer he refused to identify, saying of Bến Tre (laid to rubble by U.S. attacks) that \\\"it became necessary to destroy the village in order to save it\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nWalter Cronkite said in an editorial, \\\"To say that we are closer to victory today is to believe, in the face of the evidence, the optimists who have been wrong in the past. To suggest we are on the edge of defeat is to yield to unreasonable pessimism. To say that we are mired in stalemate seems the only realistic, yet unsatisfactory, conclusion.\\\" Following Cronkite's editorial report, President Lyndon Johnson is reported to have said, \\\"If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost Middle America.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nWestmoreland became Chief of Staff of the Army in March 1968, just as all resistance was finally subdued. The move was technically a promotion. However, his position had become untenable because of the offensive and because his request for 200,000 additional troops had been leaked to the media. Westmoreland was succeeded by his deputy Creighton Abrams, a commander less inclined to public media pronouncements.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 10 May 1968, despite low expectations, peace talks began between the United States and North Vietnam in Paris. Negotiations stagnated for five months, until Johnson gave orders to halt the bombing of North Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAs historian Robert Dallek writes, \\\"Lyndon Johnson's escalation of the war in Vietnam divided Americans into warring camps… cost 30,000 American lives by the time he left office, (and) destroyed Johnson's presidency…\\\" His refusal to send more U.S. troops to Vietnam was seen as Johnson's admission that the war was lost. It can be seen that the refusal was a tacit admission that the war could not be won by escalation, at least not at a cost acceptable to the American people. As Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara noted, \\\"the dangerous illusion of victory by the United States was therefore dead.\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nVietnam was a major political issue during the United States presidential election in 1968. The election was won by Republican party candidate Richard Nixon.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nVietnamization, 1969–72\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nNixon Doctrine / Vietnamization\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nU.S. President Richard Nixon began troop withdrawals in 1969. His plan, called the Nixon Doctrine, was to build up the ARVN, so that they could take over the defense of South Vietnam. The policy became known as \\\"Vietnamization\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nNixon said in 1970 in an announcement, \\\"I am tonight announcing plans for the withdrawal of an additional 150,000 American troops to be completed during the spring of next year. This will bring a total reduction of 265,500 men in our armed forces in Vietnam below the level that existed when we took office 15 months ago.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 10 October 1969, Nixon ordered a squadron of 18 B-52s loaded with nuclear weapons to race to the border of Soviet airspace to convince the Soviet Union, in accord with the madman theory, that he was capable of anything to end the Vietnam War.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nNixon also pursued negotiations. Theater commander Creighton Abrams shifted to smaller operations, aimed at communist logistics, with better use of firepower and more cooperation with the ARVN. Nixon also began to pursue détente with the Soviet Union and rapprochement with China. This policy helped to decrease global tensions. Détente led to nuclear arms reduction on the part of both superpowers. But Nixon was disappointed that China and the Soviet Union continued to supply the North Vietnamese with aid. In September 1969, Ho Chi Minh died at age seventy-nine.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe anti-war movement was gaining strength in the United States. Nixon appealed to the \\\"silent majority\\\" of Americans who he said supported the war without showing it in public. But revelations of the My Lai Massacre, in which a U.S. Army platoon raped and killed civilians, and the 1969 \\\"Green Beret Affair\\\" where eight Special Forces soldiers, including the 5th Special Forces Group Commander, were arrested for the murder of a suspected double agent provoked national and international outrage.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBeginning in 1970, American troops were withdrawn from border areas where most of the fighting took place, and instead redeployed along the coast and interior, which is one reason why casualties in 1970 were less than half of 1969's totals.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nCambodia and Laos\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nPrince Norodom Sihanouk had proclaimed Cambodia neutral since 1955, but the communists used Cambodian soil as a base and Sihanouk tolerated their presence, because he wished to avoid being drawn into a wider regional conflict. Under pressure from Washington, however, he changed this policy in 1969. The Vietnamese communists were no longer welcome. President Nixon took the opportunity to launch a massive bombing campaign, called Operation Menu, against communist sanctuaries along the Cambodia/Vietnam border. Only five high-ranking Congressional officials were informed of Operation Menu.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn 1970, Prince Sihanouk was deposed by his pro-American prime minister Lon Nol. North Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1970 at the request of Khmer Rouge deputy leader Nuon Chea. U.S. and ARVN forces launched an invasion into Cambodia to attack NVA and Viet Cong bases.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThis invasion sparked nationwide U.S. protests as Nixon had promised to deescalate the American involvement. Four students were killed by National Guardsmen at Kent State University during a protest in Ohio, which provoked further public outrage in the United States. The reaction to the incident by the Nixon administration was seen as callous and indifferent, providing additional impetus for the anti-war movement. The U.S. Air Force continued to heavily bomb Cambodia in support of the Cambodian government as part of Operation Freedom Deal.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn 1971 the Pentagon Papers were leaked to The New York Times. The top-secret history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, commissioned by the Department of Defense, detailed a long series of public deceptions on the part of the U.S. government. The Supreme Court ruled that its publication was legal.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe ARVN launched Operation Lam Son 719 in February 1971, aimed at cutting the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos. The ostensibly neutral Laos had long been the scene of a civil war, pitting the Laotian government backed by the US against the Pathet Lao and its North Vietnamese allies. After meeting resistance, ARVN forces retreated in a confused rout. They fled along roads littered with their own dead. When they exhausted fuel supplies, soldiers abandoned their vehicles and attempted to barge their way on to American helicopters sent to evacuate the wounded. Many ARVN soldiers clung to helicopter skids in a desperate attempt to save themselves. U.S. aircraft had to destroy abandoned equipment, including tanks, to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Half of the ARVN troops involved in the operation were either captured or killed. The operation was a fiasco and represented a clear failure of Vietnamization. As Karnow noted \\\"the blunders were monumental… The (South Vietnamese) government's top officers had been tutored by the Americans for ten or fifteen years, many at training schools in the United States, yet they had learned little.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn 1971 Australia and New Zealand withdrew their soldiers. The U.S. troop count was further reduced to 196,700, with a deadline to remove another 45,000 troops by February 1972. As peace protests spread across the United States, disillusionment and ill-discipline grew in the ranks including increased drug use, \\\"fragging\\\" (the act of murdering the commander of a fighting unit) and desertions.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nVietnamization was again tested by the Easter Offensive of 1972, a massive conventional NVA invasion of South Vietnam. The NVA and Viet Cong quickly overran the northern provinces and in coordination with other forces attacked from Cambodia, threatening to cut the country in half. U.S. troop withdrawals continued. American airpower responded, beginning Operation Linebacker, and the offensive was halted. However, it became clear that without American airpower South Vietnam could not survive. The last remaining American ground troops were withdrawn by the end of March 1973; U.S. naval and air forces remained in the Gulf of Tonkin, as well as Thailand and Guam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\n1972 election and Paris Peace Accords\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe war was the central issue of the 1972 U.S. presidential election. Nixon's opponent, George McGovern, campaigned on a platform of withdrawal from Vietnam. Nixon's National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger, continued secret negotiations with North Vietnam's Lê Đức Thọ. In October 1972, they reached an agreement.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nHowever, South Vietnamese president Thieu demanded massive changes to the peace accord. When North Vietnam went public with the agreement's details, the Nixon administration claimed that the North was attempting to embarrass the president. The negotiations became deadlocked. Hanoi demanded new changes.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nTo show his support for South Vietnam and force Hanoi back to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered Operation Linebacker II, a massive bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong 18–29 December 1972. The offensive destroyed much of the remaining economic and industrial capacity of North Vietnam. Simultaneously Nixon pressured Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement, threatening to conclude a bilateral peace deal and cut off American aid.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 15 January 1973, Nixon announced the suspension of offensive action against North Vietnam. The Paris Peace Accords on \\\"Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam\\\" were signed on 27 January 1973, officially ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. A cease-fire was declared across North and South Vietnam. U.S. prisoners of war were released. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for national elections in the North and South. The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces. \\\"This article\\\", noted Peter Church, \\\"proved… to be the only one of the Paris Agreements which was fully carried out.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOpposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War: 1962–1973\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nDuring the course of the Vietnam War a large segment of the American population came to be opposed to U.S. involvement in South Vietnam. Public opinion steadily turned against the war following 1967 and by 1970 only a third of Americans believed that the U.S. had not made a mistake by sending troops to fight in Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nNearly a third of the American population were strongly against the war. It is possible to specify certain groups who led the anti-war movement and the reasons why. Many young people protested because they were the ones being drafted while others were against the war because the anti-war movement grew increasingly popular among the counterculture and drug culture in American society and its music.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSome advocates within the peace movement advocated a unilateral withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam. One reason given for the withdrawal is that it would contribute to a lessening of tensions in the region and thus less human bloodshed. Early opposition to U.S. involvement in Vietnam drew its inspiration from the Geneva Conference of 1954. American support of Diệm in refusing elections was seen as thwarting the very democracy that America claimed to be supporting. John F. Kennedy, while Senator, opposed involvement in Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOpposition to the Vietnam War tended to unite groups opposed to U.S. anti-communism and imperialism and, for those involved with the New Left such as the Catholic Worker Movement. Others, such as Stephen Spiro opposed the war based on the theory of Just War. Some wanted to show solidarity with the people of Vietnam, such as Norman Morrison emulating the actions of Thích Quảng Đức. In a key televised debate from 15 May 1965, Eric Severeid reporting for CBS conducted a debate between McGeorge Bundy and Hans Morgenthau dealing with an acute summary of the main war concerns of the U.S. as seen at that time stating them as: \\\"(1) What are the justifications for the American presence in Vietnam – why are we there? (2) What is the fundamental nature of this war? Is it aggression from North Vietnam or is it basically, a civil war between the peoples of South Vietnam? (3) What are the implications of this Vietnam struggle in terms of Communist China's power and aims and future actions? And (4) What are the alternatives to our present policy in Vietnam?\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nHigh-profile opposition to the Vietnam War turned to street protests in an effort to turn U.S. political opinion. On 15 October 1969, the Vietnam Moratorium attracted millions of Americans. Riots broke out at the 1968 Democratic National Convention during protests against the war. After news reports of American military abuses such as the 1968 My Lai Massacre, brought new attention and support to the anti-war movement, some veterans joined Vietnam Veterans Against the War. The fatal shooting of four students at Kent State University in 1970 led to nationwide university protests. Anti-war protests ended with the final withdrawal of troops after the Paris Peace Accords were signed in 1973. South Vietnam was left to defend itself alone when the fighting resumed. Many South Vietnamese subsequently fled to the United States.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nExit of the Americans: 1973–75\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe United States began drastically reducing their troop support in South Vietnam during the final years of Vietnamization. Many U.S. troops were removed from the region, and on 5 March 1971, the United States returned the 5th Special Forces Group, which was the first American unit deployed to South Vietnam, to its former base in Fort Bragg, North Carolina.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nUnder the Paris Peace Accords, between North Vietnamese Foreign Minister Lê Đức Thọ and U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, and reluctantly signed by South Vietnamese president Thiệu, U.S. military forces withdrew from South Vietnam and prisoners were exchanged. North Vietnam was allowed to continue supplying communist troops in the South, but only to the extent of replacing expended materiel. Later that year the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Kissinger and Thọ, but the Vietnamese negotiator declined it saying that a true peace did not yet exist.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe communist leaders had expected that the ceasefire terms would favor their side. But Saigon, bolstered by a surge of U.S. aid received just before the ceasefire went into effect, began to roll back the Viet Cong. The communists responded with a new strategy hammered out in a series of meetings in Hanoi in March 1973, according to the memoirs of Trần Văn Trà..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAs the Viet Cong's top commander, Tra participated in several of these meetings. With U.S. bombings suspended, work on the Ho Chi Minh trail and other logistical structures could proceed unimpeded. Logistics would be upgraded until the North was in a position to launch a massive invasion of the South, projected for the 1975–76 dry season. Tra calculated that this date would be Hanoi's last opportunity to strike before Saigon's army could be fully trained.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn the November 1972 Election, Democratic nominee George McGovern lost 49 of 50 states to the incumbent President Richard Nixon. On 15 March 1973, President Nixon implied that the United States would intervene militarily if the communist side violated the ceasefire. Public and congressional reaction to Nixon's trial balloon was unfavorable and in April Nixon appointed Graham Martin as U.S. ambassador to Vietnam. Martin was a second stringer compared to previous U.S. ambassadors and his appointment was an early signal that Washington had given up on Vietnam. During his confirmation hearings in June 1973, Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger stated that he would recommend resumption of U.S. bombing in North Vietnam if North Vietnam launched a major offensive against South Vietnam. On 4 June 1973, the U.S. Senate passed the Case–Church Amendment to prohibit such intervention..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe oil price shock of October 1973 following the Yom Kippur War in Egypt caused significant damage to the South Vietnamese economy. The Viet Cong resumed offensive operations when the dry season began and by January 1974 it had recaptured the territory it lost during the previous dry season. After two clashes that left 55 South Vietnamese soldiers dead, President Thieu announced on 4 January that the war had restarted and that the Paris Peace Accord was no longer in effect. There had been over 25,000 South Vietnamese casualties during the ceasefire period.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nGerald Ford took over as U.S. president on 9 August 1974 after President Nixon resigned due to the Watergate scandal. At this time, Congress cut financial aid to South Vietnam from $1 billion a year to $700 million. The U.S. midterm elections in 1974 brought in a new Congress dominated by Democrats who were even more determined to confront the president on the war. Congress immediately voted in restrictions on funding and military activities to be phased in through 1975 and to culminate in a total cutoff of funding in 1976.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe success of the 1973–74 dry season offensive inspired Trà to return to Hanoi in October 1974 and plead for a larger offensive in the next dry season. This time, Trà could travel on a drivable highway with regular fueling stops, a vast change from the days when the Ho Chi Minh trail was a dangerous mountain trek.. Giáp, the North Vietnamese defense minister, was reluctant to approve Trà's plan. A larger offensive might provoke a U.S. reaction and interfere with the big push planned for 1976. Trà appealed over Giáp's head to first secretary Lê Duẩn, who approved of the operation.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nTrà's plan called for a limited offensive from Cambodia into Phước Long Province. The strike was designed to solve local logistical problems, gauge the reaction of South Vietnamese forces, and determine whether U.S. would return to the fray.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 13 December 1974, North Vietnamese forces attacked Route 14 in Phước Long Province. Phuoc Binh, the provincial capital, fell on 6 January 1975. Ford desperately asked Congress for funds to assist and re-supply the South before it was overrun. Congress refused. The fall of Phuoc Binh and the lack of an American response left the South Vietnamese elite demoralized.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe speed of this success led the Politburo to reassess its strategy. It was decided that operations in the Central Highlands would be turned over to General Văn Tiến Dũng and that Pleiku should be seized, if possible. Before he left for the South, Dũng was addressed by Lê Duẩn: \\\"Never have we had military and political conditions so perfect or a strategic advantage as great as we have now.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAt the start of 1975, the South Vietnamese had three times as much artillery and twice the number of tanks and armored cars as the opposition. They also had 1,400 aircraft and a two-to-one numerical superiority in combat troops over their Communist enemies. However, the rising oil prices meant that much of this could not be used. They faced a well-organized, highly determined and well-funded North Vietnam. Much of the North's material and financial support came from the communist bloc. Within South Vietnam, there was increasing chaos. The departure of the American military had compromised an economy dependent on U.S. financial support and the presence of a large number of U.S. troops. South Vietnam suffered from the global recession that followed the Arab oil embargo.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nCampaign 275\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 10 March 1975, General Dung launched Campaign 275, a limited offensive into the Central Highlands, supported by tanks and heavy artillery. The target was Buôn Ma Thuột, in Đắk Lắk Province. If the town could be taken, the provincial capital of Pleiku and the road to the coast would be exposed for a planned campaign in 1976. The ARVN proved incapable of resisting the onslaught, and its forces collapsed on 11 March. Once again, Hanoi was surprised by the speed of their success. Dung now urged the Politburo to allow him to seize Pleiku immediately and then turn his attention to Kon Tum. He argued that with two months of good weather remaining until the onset of the monsoon, it would be irresponsible to not take advantage of the situation.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nPresident Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, a former general, was fearful that his forces would be cut off in the north by the attacking communists; Thieu ordered a retreat. The president declared this to be a \\\"lighten the top and keep the bottom\\\" strategy. But in what appeared to be a repeat of Operation Lam Son 719, the withdrawal soon turned into a bloody rout. While the bulk of ARVN forces attempted to flee, isolated units fought desperately. ARVN General Phu abandoned Pleiku and Kon Tum and retreated toward the coast, in what became known as the \\\"column of tears\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAs the ARVN tried to disengage from the enemy, refugees mixed in with the line of retreat. The poor condition of roads and bridges, damaged by years of conflict and neglect, slowed Phu's column. As the North Vietnamese forces approached, panic set in. Often abandoned by the officers, the soldiers and civilians were shelled incessantly. The retreat degenerated into a desperate scramble for the coast. By 1 April the \\\"column of tears\\\" was all but annihilated.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 20 March, Thieu reversed himself and ordered Huế, Vietnam's third-largest city, be held at all costs, and then changed his policy several times. Thieu's contradictory orders confused and demoralized his officer corps. As the North Vietnamese launched their attack, panic set in, and ARVN resistance withered. On 22 March, the NVA opened the siege of Huế. Civilians flooded the airport and the docks hoping for any mode of escape. Some even swam out to sea to reach boats and barges anchored offshore. In the confusion, routed ARVN soldiers fired on civilians to make way for their retreat.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 25 March, after a three-day battle, Huế fell. As resistance in Huế collapsed, North Vietnamese rockets rained down on Da Nang and its airport. By 28 March 35,000 VPA troops were poised to attack the suburbs. By 30 March 100,000 leaderless ARVN troops surrendered as the NVA marched victoriously through Da Nang. With the fall of the city, the defense of the Central Highlands and Northern provinces came to an end.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nFinal North Vietnamese offensive\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nWith the northern half of the country under their control, the Politburo ordered General Dung to launch the final offensive against Saigon. The operational plan for the Ho Chi Minh Campaign called for the capture of Saigon before 1 May. Hanoi wished to avoid the coming monsoon and prevent any redeployment of ARVN forces defending the capital. Northern forces, their morale boosted by their recent victories, rolled on, taking Nha Trang, Cam Ranh, and Da Lat.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 7 April, three North Vietnamese divisions attacked Xuân Lộc, 40 miles (64 km) east of Saigon. The North Vietnamese met fierce resistance at Xuân Lộc from the ARVN 18th Division, who were outnumbered six to one. For two bloody weeks, severe fighting raged as the ARVN defenders made a last stand to try to block the North Vietnamese advance. By 21 April, however, the exhausted garrison were ordered to withdraw towards Saigon.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAn embittered and tearful president Thieu resigned on the same day, declaring that the United States had betrayed South Vietnam. In a scathing attack, he suggested U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had tricked him into signing the Paris peace agreement two years ago, promising military aid that failed to materialize. Having transferred power to Trần Văn Hương, he left for Taiwan on 25 April. At the same time, North Vietnamese tanks had reached Biên Hòa and turned toward Saigon, brushing aside isolated ARVN units along the way.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBy the end of April, the ARVN had collapsed on all fronts except in the Mekong Delta. Thousands of refugees streamed southward, ahead of the main communist onslaught. On 27 April 100,000 North Vietnamese troops encircled Saigon. The city was defended by about 30,000 ARVN troops. To hasten a collapse and foment panic, the NVA shelled the airport and forced its closure. With the air exit closed, large numbers of civilians found that they had no way out.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nFall of Saigon\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nChaos, unrest, and panic broke out as hysterical South Vietnamese officials and civilians scrambled to leave Saigon. Martial law was declared. American helicopters began evacuating South Vietnamese, U.S., and foreign nationals from various parts of the city and from the U.S. embassy compound. Operation Frequent Wind had been delayed until the last possible moment, because of U.S. Ambassador Graham Martin's belief that Saigon could be held and that a political settlement could be reached.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSchlesinger announced early in the morning of 29 April 1975 the evacuation from Saigon by helicopter of the last U.S. diplomatic, military, and civilian personnel. Frequent Wind was arguably the largest helicopter evacuation in history. It began on 29 April, in an atmosphere of desperation, as hysterical crowds of Vietnamese vied for limited space. Martin pleaded with Washington to dispatch $700 million in emergency aid to bolster the regime and help it mobilize fresh military reserves. But American public opinion had soured on this conflict.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn the United States, South Vietnam was perceived as doomed. President Gerald Ford had given a televised speech on 23 April, declaring an end to the Vietnam War and all U.S. aid. Frequent Wind continued around the clock, as North Vietnamese tanks breached defenses on the outskirts of Saigon. In the early morning hours of 30 April, the last U.S. Marines evacuated the embassy by helicopter, as civilians swamped the perimeter and poured into the grounds. Many of them had been employed by the Americans and were left to their fate.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 30 April 1975, NVA troops entered the city of Saigon and quickly overcame all resistance, capturing key buildings and installations. A tank from the 324th Division crashed through the gates of the Independence Palace at 11:30 am local time and the Viet Cong flag was raised above it. President Dương Văn Minh, who had succeeded Huong two days earlier, surrendered.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOther countries' involvement\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nPro-Hanoi\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nPeople's Republic of China\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn 1950, the People's Republic of China extended diplomatic recognition to the Viet Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam and sent weapons, as well as military advisers led by Luo Guibo to assist the Viet Minh in its war with the French. The first draft of the 1954 Geneva Accords was negotiated by French prime minister Pierre Mendès France and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai who, fearing U.S. intervention, urged the Viet Minh to accept a partition at the 17th parallel.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nChina's support for North Vietnam included both financial aid and the deployment of hundreds of thousands of military personnel in support roles. In the summer of 1962, Mao Zedong agreed to supply Hanoi with 90,000 rifles and guns free of charge. Starting in 1965, China sent anti-aircraft units and engineering battalions to North Vietnam to repair the damage caused by American bombing, man anti-aircraft batteries, rebuild roads and railroads, transport supplies, and perform other engineering works. This freed North Vietnamese army units for combat in the South. China sent 320,000 troops and annual arms shipments worth $180 million. The Chinese military claims to have caused 38% of American air losses in the war. China claimed that its military and economic aid to North Vietnam and the Viet Cong totaled $20 billion (approx. $143 billion adjusted for inflation in 2015) during the Vietnam War. Included in that aid were donations of 5 million tons of food to North Vietnam (equivalent to NV food production in a single year), accounting for 10-15% of the North Vietnamese food supply by the 1970s.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSino-Soviet relations soured after the Soviets invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In October, the Chinese demanded North Vietnam cut relations with Moscow, but Hanoi refused. The Chinese began to withdraw in November 1968 in preparation for a clash with the Soviets, which occurred at Zhenbao Island in March 1969. The Chinese also began financing the Khmer Rouge as a counterweight to the Vietnamese communists at this time.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nChina \\\"armed and trained\\\" the Khmer Rouge during the civil war and continued to aid them for years afterward. \\nThe Khmer Rouge launched ferocious raids into Vietnam in 1975–1978. When Vietnam responded with an invasion that toppled the Khmer Rouge, China launched a brief, punitive invasion of Vietnam in 1979.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSoviet Union\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSoviet ships in the South China Sea gave vital early warnings to Viet Cong forces in South Vietnam. The Soviet intelligence ships would pick up American B-52 bombers flying from Okinawa and Guam. Their airspeed and direction would be noted and then relayed to COSVN, North Vietnam's southern headquarters. Using airspeed and direction, COSVN analysts would calculate the bombing target and tell any assets to move \\\"perpendicularly to the attack trajectory.\\\" These advance warning gave them time to move out of the way of the bombers, and, while the bombing runs caused extensive damage, because of the early warnings from 1968 to 1970 they did not kill a single military or civilian leader in the headquarters complexes.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Soviet Union supplied North Vietnam with medical supplies, arms, tanks, planes, helicopters, artillery, anti-aircraft missiles and other military equipment. Soviet crews fired Soviet-made surface-to-air missiles at U.S. F-4 Phantoms, which were shot down over Thanh Hóa in 1965. Over a dozen Soviet citizens lost their lives in this conflict. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russian officials acknowledged that the Soviet Union had stationed up to 3,000 troops in Vietnam during the war.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSome Russian sources give more specific numbers: Between 1953 and 1991, the hardware donated by the Soviet Union included 2,000 tanks, 1,700 APCs, 7,000 artillery guns, over 5,000 anti-aircraft guns, 158 surface-to-air missile launchers, 120 helicopters. During the war, the Soviets sent North Vietnam annual arms shipments worth $450 million. From July 1965 to the end of 1974, fighting in Vietnam was observed by some 6,500 officers and generals, as well as more than 4,500 soldiers and sergeants of the Soviet Armed Forces. In addition, Soviet military schools and academies began training Vietnamese soldiers – in all more than 10,000 military personnel.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nNorth Korea\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAs a result of a decision of the Korean Workers' Party in October 1966, in early 1967 North Korea sent a fighter squadron to North Vietnam to back up the North Vietnamese 921st and 923rd fighter squadrons defending Hanoi. They stayed through 1968, and 200 pilots were reported to have served.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn addition, at least two anti-aircraft artillery regiments were sent as well. North Korea also sent weapons, ammunition and two million sets of uniforms to their comrades in North Vietnam. Kim Il-sung is reported to have told his pilots to \\\"fight in the war as if the Vietnamese sky were their own\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nCuba\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe contribution to North Vietnam by the Republic of Cuba, under Fidel Castro have been recognized several times by representatives of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Fidel Castro has mentioned in his discourses the Batallón Girón (Giron Battalion) as comprising the Cuban contingent that served as military advisors during the war. In this battalion, alongside the Cubans, fought Nguyễn Thị Định, founding member of the Viet Cong, who later became the first female Major General in the North Vietnamese Army. There are numerous allegations by former U.S. prisoners of war that Cuban military personnel were present at North Vietnamese prison facilities during the war and that they participated in torture activities, in what is known as the \\\"Cuba Program\\\". Witnesses to this include Senator John McCain, 2008 U.S. Presidential candidate and former Vietnam prisoner of war, according to his 1999 book Faith of My Fathers. Benjamin Gilman, a Vietnam War POW/MIA issue advocate, claim evidence that Cuba's military and non-military involvement may have run into the \\\"thousands\\\" of personnel. Fidel Castro visited in person Quảng Trị province, held by North Vietnam after the Easter Offensive to show his support for the Viet Cong.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nPro-Saigon\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSouth Korea\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn the anti-communist side, South Korea (a.k.a. the Republic of Korea, ROK) had the second-largest contingent of foreign troops in South Vietnam after the United States. In November 1961, Park Chung-hee proposed South Korean participation in the war to John F. Kennedy, but Kennedy disagreed. On 1 May 1964 Lyndon Johnson requested South Korean participation. The first South Korean troops began arriving in 1964 and large combat formations began arriving a year later. The ROK Marine Corps dispatched their 2nd Marine Brigade while the ROK Army sent the Capital Division and later the 9th Infantry Division. In August 1966 after the arrival of the 9th Division the Koreans established a corps command, the Republic of Korea Forces Vietnam Field Command, near I Field Force, Vietnam at Nha Trang. The South Koreans soon developed a reputation for effectiveness, reportedly conducting counterinsurgency operations so well that American commanders felt that the South Korean area of responsibility was the safest.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nApproximately 320,000 South Korean soldiers were sent to Vietnam, each serving a one-year tour of duty. Maximum troop levels peaked at 50,000 in 1968, however all were withdrawn by 1973. About 5,099 South Koreans were killed and 10,962 wounded during the war. South Korea claimed to have killed 41,000 Viet Cong fighters. The United States paid South Korean soldiers 236 million dollars for their efforts in Vietnam, and South Korean GNP increased five-fold during the war.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAustralia and New Zealand\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAustralia and New Zealand, close allies of the United States and members of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the ANZUS military co-operation treaty, sent ground troops to Vietnam. Both nations had gained experience in counterinsurgency and jungle warfare during the Malayan Emergency and World War II. Their governments subscribed to the Domino theory. Australia began by sending advisors to Vietnam in 1962, and combat troops were committed in 1965.Dennis et al 2008, pp. 555–558. New Zealand began by sending a detachment of engineers and an artillery battery, and then started sending special forces and regular infantry which were attached to Australian formations. Australia's peak commitment was 7,672 combat troops and New Zealand's 552. More than 60,000 Australian personnel were involved during the course of the war, of which 521 were killed and more than 3,000 wounded. Approximately 3,500 New Zealanders served in Vietnam, with 37 killed and 187 wounded. Most Australians and New Zealanders served in the 1st Australian Task Force in Phước Tuy Province.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nPhilippines\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSome 10,450 Filipino troops were dispatched to South Vietnam. They were primarily engaged in medical and other civilian pacification projects. These forces operated under the designation PHLCAG-V or Philippine Civic Action Group-Vietnam. More noteworthy was the fact that the naval base in Subic Bay was used for the U.S. Seventh Fleet from 1964 till the end of the war in 1975. The Navy base in Subic bay and the Air force base at Clark achieved maximum functionality during the war and supported an estimated 80,000 locals in allied tertiary businesses from shoe making to prostitution.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThailand\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThai Army formations, including the \\\"Queen's Cobra\\\" battalion, saw action in South Vietnam between 1965 and 1971. Thai forces saw much more action in the covert war in Laos between 1964 and 1972, though Thai regular formations there were heavily outnumbered by the irregular \\\"volunteers\\\" of the CIA-sponsored Police Aerial Reconnaissance Units or PARU, who carried out reconnaissance activities on the western side of the Ho Chi Minh trail.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nRepublic of China (Taiwan)\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSince November 1967, the Taiwanese government secretly operated a cargo transport detachment to assist the United States and South Vietnam. Taiwan also provided military training units for the South Vietnamese diving units, later known as the Lien Doi Nguoi Nhai (LDMN) or \\\"Frogman unit\\\" in English. In addition to the diving trainers there were several hundred military personnel. Military commandos from Taiwan were captured by communist forces three times trying to infiltrate North Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nCanada and the ICC\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nCanada, India and Poland constituted the International Control Commission, which was supposed to monitor the 1954 ceasefire agreement. Officially, Canada did not have partisan involvement in the Vietnam War and diplomatically it was \\\"non-belligerent\\\". Victor Levant suggested otherwise in his book Quiet Complicity: Canadian Involvement in the Vietnam War (1986). The Vietnam War entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia asserts plainly that Canada's record on the truce commissions was a pro-Saigon partisan one.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nUnited Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (FULRO)\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe ethnic minority peoples of south Vietnam like the Christian Montagnards (Degar), Hindu and Muslim Cham and the Buddhist Khmer Krom banded together in the United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (French: Front Uni de Lutte des Races Opprimées, acronym: FULRO) to fight against the Vietnamese for autonomy or independence. FULRO fought against both the anti-Communist South Vietnamese and the Communist Viet Cong, and then FURLO proceeded to fight against the united Communist Socialist Republic of Vietnam after the fall of South Vietnam. FULRO was supported by China, the United States, Cambodia, and some French citizens.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nDuring the war, the South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem began a program to settle ethnic Vietnamese Kinh on Montagnard lands in the Central Highlands region. This provoked a backlash from the Montagnards. The Cambodians under both the pro-China King Sihanouk and the pro-American Lon Nol supported their fellow co-ethnic Khmer Krom in south Vietnam, following an anti- ethnic Vietnamese policy.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nFULRO was formed from the amalgation of the Cham organization \\\"Champa Liberation Front\\\" (Front de Liberation du Champa FLC) led by the Cham Muslim officer Les Kosem who served in the Royal Cambodian Army, the Khmer Krom organization \\\"Liberation Front of Kampuchea Krom\\\" (Front de Liberation du Kampuchea Krom FLKK) led by Chau Dara, a former monk, and the Montagnard organizations \\\"Central Highlands Liberation Front\\\" (Front de Liberation des Hauts Plateaux FLHP) led by Y Bham Enuol and BAJARAKA.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAfter overthrowing pro-China Sihanouk, Cambodian leader Lon Nol, despite being anti-Communist and ostensibly in the \\\"pro-American\\\" camp, continued to back FULRO against all Vietnamese, both anti-communist South Vietnam and the Communist Viet Cong. Lon Nol planned a slaughter of all Vietnamese in Cambodia and a restoration of South Vietnam to a revived Champa state.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nVietnamese were slaughtered and dumped in the Mekong River at the hands of Lon Nol's anti-Communist forces. The Khmer Rouge later imitated Lon Nol's actions.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe leaders of FULRO were executed by the Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot when he took power in Cambodia but FULRO insurgents proceeded to fight against the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia and it was not until 1992 that they finally surrendered to the United Nations in Cambodia.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nWar crimes\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nA large number of war crimes took place during the Vietnam War. War crimes were committed by both sides during the conflict and included rape, massacres of civilians, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, the widespread use of torture and the murder of prisoners of war. Additional common crimes included theft, arson, and the destruction of property not warranted by military necessity.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAllied war crimes\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nWar crimes committed by US forces\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn 1968, the Vietnam War Crimes Working Group (VWCWG) was established by the Pentagon task force set up in the wake of the My Lai Massacre, to attempt to ascertain the veracity of emerging claims of war crimes by U.S. armed forces in Vietnam, during the Vietnam War period.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe investigation compiled over 9,000 pages of investigative files, sworn statements by witnesses and status reports for top military officers, indicating that 320 incidents had factual basis. The substantiated cases included 7 massacres between 1967 and 1971 in which at least 137 civilians were killed; seventy eight further attacks targeting non-combatants resulting in at least 57 deaths, 56 wounded and 15 sexually assaulted; one hundred and forty-one cases of US soldiers torturing civilian detainees or prisoners of war with fists, sticks, bats, water or electric shock. Over 800 alleged atrocities were investigated but only 23 soldiers were ever convicted on charges and most served sentences of less than a year. A Los Angeles Times report on the archived files concluded that the war crimes were not confined to a few rogue units, having been uncovered in every army division that was active in Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn 2003 a series of investigative reports by the Toledo Blade uncovered a large number of unreported American war crimes particularly from the Tiger Force unit. Some of the most violent war criminals included men such as Sam Ybarra and Sergeant Roy E. \\\"the Bummer\\\" Bumgarner, a soldier who served with the 1st Cavalry Division and later the 173d Airborne Brigade.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn 1971 the later U.S. presidential candidate, John Kerry, testified before the U.S. Senate and stated that over 150 U.S. veterans testified during the Winter Soldier Investigation and described war crimes committed in Southeast Asia.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAccording to political scientist R.J. Rummel, U.S. troops murdered about 6,000 Vietnamese civilians during the war. Nick Turse, in his 2013 book, Kill Anything that Moves, argues for a much higher total. He says that a relentless drive toward higher body counts, a widespread use of free-fire zones, rules of engagement where civilians who ran from soldiers or helicopters could be viewed as Viet Cong, and a widespread disdain for Vietnamese civilians led to massive civilian casualties and endemic war crimes inflicted by U.S. troops.. One example cited by Turse is Operation Speedy Express, an operation by the 9th Infantry Division, which was described by John Paul Vann as, in effect, \\\"many My Lais\\\". A report by Newsweek magazine suggested that 5,000 innocent civilians may have been killed by U.S. soldiers in this single operation. In more detail:\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nWar Crimes committed by South Vietnamese forces\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn terms of atrocities by the South Vietnamese, during the Diem era (1954-1963) R.J. Rummell estimated that 16,000 to 167,000 South Vietnamese civilians were killed; for 1964 to 1975, Rummel estimated a total of 42,000 to 128,000 killed. Thus, the total for 1954 to 1975 is from 57,000 to 284,000 deaths caused by South Vietnam, excluding NLF/North Vietnamese forces killed by the South Vietnamese armed forces.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nWar crimes committed by South Korean forces\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSouth Korean forces were also culpable of war crimes as well. One of the massacres was the Tây Vinh Massacre where ROK Capital Division of the South Korean Army killed 1,200 unarmed citizens between 12 February 1966 and 17 March 1966 in Bình An village, today Tây Vinh village, Tây Sơn District of Bình Định Province in South Vietnam. Another example was the Gò Dài massacre where ROK Capital Division of the South Korean Army killed 380 civilians on 26 February 1966 in Gò Dài hamlet, in Bình An commune, Tây Sơn District (today Tây Vinh District) of Bình Định Province in South Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nNorth Vietnamese, Viet Cong, and Khmer Rouge war crimes\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAccording to Guenter Lewy, Viet Cong insurgents assassinated at least 37,000 civilians in South Vietnam and routinely employed terror.. Ami Pedahzur has written that \\\"the overall volume and lethality of Viet Cong terrorism rivals or exceeds all but a handful of terrorist campaigns waged over the last third of the twentieth century\\\". Notable Viet Cong atrocities include the massacre of over 3,000 unarmed civilians at Huế during the Tet Offensive and the incineration of hundreds of civilians at the Đắk Sơn massacre with flamethrowers. Up to 155,000 refugees fleeing the final North Vietnamese Spring Offensive were killed or abducted on the road to Tuy Hòa in 1975. According to Rummel, North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops murdered between 106,000 and 227,000 civilians in South Vietnam. North Vietnam was also known for its inhumane and abusive treatment of American POWs, most notably in Hỏa Lò Prison (aka the Hanoi Hilton), where severe torture was employed to extract \\\"confessions\\\"..\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nViet Cong insurgents reportedly sliced off the genitals of village chiefs and sewed them inside their bloody mouths, cut off the tongues of helpless victims, rammed bamboo lances through one ear and out the other, slashed open the wombs of pregnant women, machine gunned children, hacked men and women to pieces with machetes, and cut off the fingers of small children who dared to get an education. According to a U.S. Senate report, squads were assigned monthly assassination quotas. Peer De Silva, former head of the Saigon department of the CIA, wrote that from as early as 1963, Viet Cong units were using disembowelment and other methods of mutilation for psychological warfare.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn the Cambodian Civil War, Khmer Rouge insurgents reportedly committed atrocities during the war. These include the murder of civilians and POWs by slowly sawing off their heads a little more each day, the destruction of Buddhist wats and the killing of monks, attacks on refugee camps involving the deliberate murder of babies and bomb threats against foreign aid workers, the abduction and assassination of journalists, and the shelling of Phnom Penh for more than a year. Journalist accounts stated that the Khmer Rouge shelling \\\"tortured the capital almost continuously\\\", inflicting \\\"random death and mutilation\\\" on 2 million trapped civilians.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Khmer Rouge forcibly evacuated the entire city after taking it, in what has been described as a death march: François Ponchaud wrote: \\\"I shall never forget one cripple who had neither hands nor feet, writhing along the ground like a severed worm, or a weeping father carrying his ten-year old daughter wrapped in a sheet tied around his neck like a sling, or the man with his foot dangling at the end of a leg to which it was attached by nothing but skin\\\"; John Swain recalled that the Khmer Rouge were \\\"tipping out patients from the hospitals like garbage into the streets….In five years of war, this is the greatest caravan of human misery I have seen.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nWomen in the Vietnam War\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAmerican nurses\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nDuring the Vietnam War, American women served on active duty doing a variety of jobs. Early in 1963, the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) launched Operation Nightingale, an intensive effort to recruit nurses to serve in Vietnam. Most nurses who volunteered to serve in Vietnam came from predominantly working or middle-class families with histories of military service. The majority of these women were white Catholics and Protestants. Because the need for medical aid was great, many nurses underwent a concentrated four-month training program before being deployed to Vietnam in the ANC. Due to the shortage of staff, nurses usually worked twelve-hour shifts, six days per week and often suffered from exhaustion. First Lieutenant Sharon Lane was the only female military nurse to be killed by enemy gunfire during the war, on 8 June 1969.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAt the start of the Vietnam War, it was commonly thought that American women had no place in the military. Their traditional place had been in the domestic sphere, but with the war came opportunity for the expansion of gender roles. In Vietnam, women held a variety of jobs which included operating complex data processing equipment and serving as stenographers. Although a small number of women were assigned to combat zones, they were never allowed directly in the field of battle. The women who served in the military were solely volunteers. They faced a plethora of challenges, one of which was the relatively small number of female soldiers. Living in a male-dominated environment created tensions between the sexes. While this high male to female ratio was often uncomfortable for women, many men reported that having women in the field with them boosted their morale. Although this was not the women's purpose, it was one positive result of their service. By 1973, approximately 7,500 women had served in Vietnam in the Southeast Asian theater. In that same year, the military lifted the prohibition on women entering the armed forces.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAmerican women serving in Vietnam were subject to societal stereotypes. Many Americans either considered females serving in Vietnam masculine for living under the army discipline, or judged them to be women of questionable moral character who enlisted for the sole purpose of seducing men. To address this problem, the ANC released advertisements portraying women in the ANC as \\\"proper, professional and well protected.\\\" (26) This effort to highlight the positive aspects of a nursing career reflected the ideas of second-wave feminism that occurred during the 1960s–1970s in the United States. Although female military nurses lived in a heavily male environment, very few cases of sexual harassment were ever reported.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nVietnamese women\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nUnlike the American women who went to Vietnam, North Vietnamese women were enlisted and fought in the combat zone as well as providing manual labor to keep the Ho Chi Minh trail open and cook for the soldiers. They also worked in the rice fields in North Vietnam and Viet Cong-held farming areas in South Vietnam's Mekong Delta region to provide food for their families and the war effort. Women were enlisted in both the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and the Viet Cong guerrilla insurgent force in South Vietnam. Some women also served for the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong intelligence services.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn South Vietnam, many women voluntarily served in the ARVN's Women's Armed Force Corps (WAFC) and various other Women's corps in the military. Some, like in the WAFC, fought in combat with other soldiers. Others served as nurses and doctors in the battlefield and in military hospitals, or served in South Vietnam or America's intelligence agencies. During Diệm's presidency, Madame Nhu was the commander of the WAFC.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe war saw more than one million rural people migrate or flee the fighting in the South Vietnamese countryside to the cities, especially Saigon. Among the internal refugees were many young women who became the ubiquitous \\\"bargirls\\\" of wartime South Vietnam \\\"hawking her wares – be that cigarettes, liquor, or herself\\\" to American and allied soldiers. American bases were ringed by bars and brothels.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\n8,040 Vietnamese women came to the United States as war brides between 1964 and 1975. Many mixed-blood Amerasian children were left behind when their American fathers returned to the United States after their tour of duty in South Vietnam. 26,000 of them were permitted to immigrate to the United States in the 1980s and 1990s.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBlack servicemen in Vietnam\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe experience of African American military personnel during the Vietnam War has received significant attention. For example, the website \\\"African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War\\\" compiles examples of such coverage, as does the print and broadcast work of journalist Wallace Terry.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe epigraph of Terry's book Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans (1984), includes the following quote: \\\"I have an intuitive feeling that the Negro serviceman have a better understanding than whites of what the war is about.\\\" – General William C. Westmoreland, U.S. Army, Saigon, 1967. That book's introduction includes observations about the impact of the war on the black community in general and on black servicemen specifically. Points he makes on the latter topic include: the higher proportion of combat casualties in Vietnam among African American servicemen than among American soldiers of other races, the shift toward and different attitudes of black military careerists versus black draftees, the discrimination encountered by black servicemen \\\"on the battlefield in decorations, promotion and duty assignments\\\" as well as their having to endure \\\"the racial insults, cross-burnings and Confederate flags of their white comrades\\\" – and the experiences faced by black soldiers stateside, during the war and after America's withdrawal. Upon the war's completion, black casualties made up 12.5% of US combat deaths, approximately equal to percentage of draft-eligible black men, though still slightly higher than the 10% who served in the military.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nWeapons\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe communist forces were principally armed with Chinese and Soviet weaponry though some guerrilla units were equipped with Western infantry weapons either captured from French stocks during the First Indochina war or from ARVN units or bought on the black market. The ubiquitous Soviet AK-47 assault rifle was often regarded as the best rifle of the war, due to its ability to continue to function even in adverse, muddy conditions. Other weapons used by the Viet Cong included the World War II-era PPSh-41 submachine gun (both Soviet and Chinese versions), the SKS carbine, the DShK heavy machine gun and the RPG-2/B-40 grenade launcher.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nWhile the Viet Cong had both amphibious tanks (such as the PT-76) and light tanks (such as the Type 62), they also used bicycles to transport munitions. The US' heavily armored, 90 mm M48A3 Patton tank saw extensive action during the Vietnam War and over 600 were deployed with US Forces. They played an important role in infantry support.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe US service rifle was initially the M14 (though some units were still using the WWII-era M1 Garand for a lack of M14s). Found to be unsuitable for jungle warfare, the M14 was replaced by M16 which was more accurate and lighter than the AK-47. For a period, the gun suffered from a jamming flaw known as \\\"failure to extract\\\", which means that a spent cartridge case remained lodged in the action after a round is fired. According to a congressional report, the jamming was caused primarily by a change in gunpowder which was done without adequate testing and reflected a decision for which the safety of soldiers was a secondary consideration. That issue was solved in early 1968 with the issuance of the M16A1 that featured a chrome plated chamber among several other features. End-user satisfaction with the M16 was high except during this episode, but the M16 still has a reputation as a gun that jams easily.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe M60 machine gun GPMG (General Purpose Machine Gun) was the main machine gun of the US army at the time and many of them were put on helicopters, to provide suppressive fire when landing in hostile regions. The MAC-10 machine pistol was supplied to many special forces troops in the midpoint of the war. It also armed many CIA agents in the field.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nTwo aircraft which were prominent in the war were the AC-130 \\\"Spectre\\\" Gunship and the UH-1 \\\"Huey\\\" gunship. The AC-130 was a heavily armed ground-attack aircraft variant of the C-130 Hercules transport plane; it was used to provide close air support, air interdiction and force protection. The AC-130H \\\"Spectre\\\" was armed with two 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannons, one Bofors 40mm autocannon, and one 105 mm M102 howitzer. The Huey is a military helicopter powered by a single, turboshaft engine, with a two-bladed main rotor and tail rotor. Approximately 7,000 UH-1 aircraft saw service in Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Claymore M18A1, an anti-personnel mine, was widely used during the war. Unlike a conventional land mine, the Claymore is command-detonated and directional, meaning it is fired by remote-control and shoots a pattern of 700 one-eighth-inch steel balls into the kill zone like a shotgun.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe aircraft ordnance used during the war included precision-guided munition, cluster bombs, and napalm, a thickening/gelling agent generally mixed with petroleum or a similar fuel for use in an incendiary device, initially against buildings and later primarily as an anti-personnel weapon that sticks to skin and can burn down to the bone.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nRadio communications\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Vietnam War was the first conflict where U.S. forces had secure voice communication equipment available at the tactical level. The National Security Agency ran a crash program to provide U.S. forces with a family of security equipment code named NESTOR, fielding 17,000 units initially. Eventually 30,000 units were produced. However limitations of the units, including poor voice quality, reduced range, annoying time delays and logistical support issues led to only one unit in ten being used.[http://www.governmentattic.org/18docs/Hist_US_COMSEC_Boak_NSA_1973u.pdf A History of U.S. Communications Security; the David G. Boak Lectures,] National Security Agency (NSA), Volumes I, 1973, Volumes II 1981, partially released 2008, additional portions declassified October 14, 2015 While many in the U.S. military believed that the Viet Cong and NVA would not be able to exploit insecure communications, interrogation of captured communication intelligence units showed they were able to understand the jargon and codes used in realtime and were often able to warn their side of impending U.S. actions.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAftermath\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nEvents in Southeast Asia\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOn 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Despite speculation that the victorious North Vietnamese would, in President Nixon's words, \\\"massacre the civilians there [South Vietnam] by the millions,\\\" there is a widespread consensus that no mass executions in fact took place. However, over the decade following the end of the war, an estimated 1 million South Vietnamese were sent to reeducation camps, with approximately 165,000 prisoners dying. In addition, 200,000 to 400,000 Vietnamese boat people died at sea, according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nPhnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia, fell to the communist Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975. Under the leadership of Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge would eventually kill 1–3 million Cambodians in the Killing Fields, out of a population of around 8 million.Heuveline, Patrick (2001). \\\"The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia.\\\" In Forced Migration and Mortality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Heuveline suggests that a range of 1.17–3.42 million people were killed. At least 1,386,734 victims of execution have been counted in mass graves, while demographic analysis suggests that the policies of the regime caused between 1.7 and 2.5 million excess deaths altogether (including disease and starvation). After repeated border clashes in 1978, Vietnam invaded Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) and ousted the Khmer Rouge, who were being supported by China, in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. In response, China invaded Vietnam in 1979. The two countries fought a brief border war, known as the Sino-Vietnamese War. From 1978 to 1979, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat as refugees or were expelled. The devastating impact of Khmer Rouge rule contributed to a 1979 famine in Cambodia, during which an additional 300,000 Cambodians perished.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Pathet Lao overthrew the monarchy of Laos in December 1975, establishing the Lao People's Democratic Republic under the leadership of a member of the royal family, Souphanouvong. The change in regime was \\\"quite peaceful, a sort of Asiatic 'velvet revolution'\\\"—although 30,000 former officials were sent to reeducation camps, often enduring harsh conditions for several years. The conflict between Hmong rebels and the Pathet Lao continued in isolated pockets.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOver 3 million people left Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia in the Indochina refugee crisis. Most Asian countries were unwilling to accept these refugees, many of whom fled by boat and were known as boat people. Between 1975 and 1998, an estimated 1.2 million refugees from Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries resettled in the United States, while Canada, Australia, and France resettled over 500,000. China accepted 250,000 people. Of all the countries of Indochina, Laos experienced the largest refugee flight in proportional terms, as 300,000 people out of a total population of 3 million crossed the border into Thailand. Included among their ranks were \\\"about 90 percent\\\" of Laos's \\\"intellectuals, technicians, and officials.\\\" In 1988, Vietnam suffered a famine that afflicted millions. Vietnam played a role in Asia similar to Cuba's in Latin America: it supported local revolutionary groups and was a headquarters for Soviet-style communism. Unexploded ordnance, mostly from U.S. bombing, continue to detonate and kill people today. The Vietnamese government claims that ordnance has killed some 42,000 people since the war officially ended. In 2012 alone, unexploded bombs and other ordnance claimed 500 casualties in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, according to activists and government databases.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAgent Orange and similar chemical substances used by the U.S. have also caused a considerable number of deaths and injuries over the years, including the US Air Force crew that handled them. On 9 August 2012, the United States and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part of Danang International Airport, marking the first time Washington has been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nEffect on the United States\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn the post-war era, Americans struggled to absorb the lessons of the military intervention. As General Maxwell Taylor, one of the principal architects of the war, noted, \\\"First, we didn't know ourselves. We thought that we were going into another Korean War, but this was a different country. Secondly, we didn't know our South Vietnamese allies… And we knew less about North Vietnam. Who was Ho Chi Minh? Nobody really knew. So, until we know the enemy and know our allies and know ourselves, we'd better keep out of this kind of dirty business. It's very dangerous.\\\". President Ronald Reagan coined the term \\\"Vietnam Syndrome\\\" to describe the reluctance of the American public and politicians to support further international interventions after Vietnam.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nSome have suggested that \\\"the responsibility for the ultimate failure of this policy [America's withdrawal from Vietnam] lies not with the men who fought, but with those in Congress…\\\" Alternatively, the official history of the United States Army noted that \\\"tactics have often seemed to exist apart from larger issues, strategies, and objectives. Yet in Vietnam the Army experienced tactical success and strategic failure… The…Vietnam War…legacy may be the lesson that unique historical, political, cultural, and social factors always impinge on the military…Success rests not only on military progress but on correctly analyzing the nature of the particular conflict, understanding the enemy's strategy, and assessing the strengths and weaknesses of allies. A new humility and a new sophistication may form the best parts of a complex heritage left to the Army by the long, bitter war in Vietnam.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nU.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger wrote in a secret memo to President Gerald Ford that \\\"in terms of military tactics, we cannot help draw the conclusion that our armed forces are not suited to this kind of war. Even the Special Forces who had been designed for it could not prevail.\\\" Even Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded that \\\"the achievement of a military victory by U.S. forces in Vietnam was indeed a dangerous illusion.\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nDoubts surfaced as to the effectiveness of large-scale, sustained bombing. As Army Chief of Staff Harold Keith Johnson noted, \\\"if anything came out of Vietnam, it was that air power couldn't do the job.\\\" Even General William Westmoreland admitted that the bombing had been ineffective. As he remarked, \\\"I still doubt that the North Vietnamese would have relented.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe inability to bring Hanoi to the bargaining table by bombing also illustrated another U.S. miscalculation. The North's leadership was composed of hardened communists who had been fighting for thirty years. They had defeated the French, and their tenacity as both nationalists and communists was formidable. Ho Chi Minh is quoted as saying, \\\"You can kill ten of my men for every one I kill of yours…But even at these odds you will lose and I will win.\\\".\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Vietnam War called into question the U.S. Army doctrine. Marine Corps General Victor H. Krulak heavily criticised Westmoreland's attrition strategy, calling it \\\"wasteful of American lives… with small likelihood of a successful outcome.\\\" In addition, doubts surfaced about the ability of the military to train foreign forces.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBetween 1965 and 1975, the United States spent $111 billion on the war ($686 billion in FY2008 dollars). This resulted in a large federal budget deficit.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nMore than 3 million Americans served in the Vietnam War, some 1.5 million of whom actually saw combat in Vietnam. James E. Westheider wrote that \\\"At the height of American involvement in 1968, for example, there were 543,000 American military personnel in Vietnam, but only 80,000 were considered combat troops.\\\". Conscription in the United States had been controlled by the president since World War II, but ended in 1973.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nBy war's end, 58,220 American soldiers had been killed, more than 150,000 had been wounded, and at least 21,000 had been permanently disabled. The average age of the U.S. troops killed in Vietnam was 23.11 years. According to Dale Kueter, \\\"Of those killed in combat, 86.3 percent were white, 12.5 percent were black and the remainder from other races.\\\" Approximately 830,000 Vietnam veterans suffered some degree of posttraumatic stress disorder. An estimated 125,000 Americans left for Canada to avoid the Vietnam draft, and approximately 50,000 American servicemen deserted. In 1977, United States president Jimmy Carter granted a full and unconditional pardon to all Vietnam-era draft dodgers. The Vietnam War POW/MIA issue, concerning the fate of U.S. service personnel listed as missing in action, persisted for many years after the war's conclusion. The costs of the war loom large in American popular consciousness; a 1990 poll showed that the public incorrectly believed that more Americans lost their lives in Vietnam than in World War II.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAs of 2013, the U.S. government is paying Vietnam veterans and their families or survivors more than 22 billion dollars a year in war-related claims.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nImpact on the U.S. military\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nAs the Vietnam War continued inconclusively and became more unpopular with the American public, morale declined and disciplinary problems grew among American enlisted men and junior, non-career officers. Drug use, racial tensions, and the growing incidence of fragging—attempting to kill unpopular officers and non-commissioned officers with grenades or other weapons—created severe problems for the U.S. military and impacted its capability of undertaking combat operations. By 1971, a U.S. Army colonel writing in the Armed Forces Journal declared: \\\"By every conceivable indicator, our army that now remains in Vietnam is in a state approaching collapse, with individual units avoiding or having refused combat, murdering their officers and non commissioned officers, drug-ridden, and dispirited where not near mutinous....The morale, discipline, and battleworthiness of the U.S. Armed Forces are, with a few salient exceptions, lower and worse than at any time in this century and possibly in the history of the United States.\\\" Between 1969 and 1971 the US Army recorded more than 700 attacks by troops on their own officers. Eighty-three officers were killed and almost 650 were injured.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nRon Milam has questioned the severity of the \\\"breakdown\\\" of the U.S. armed forces, especially among combat troops, as reflecting the opinions of \\\"angry colonels\\\" who deplored the erosion of traditional military values during the Vietnam War. Although acknowledging serious problems, he questions the alleged \\\"near mutinous\\\" conduct of junior officers and enlisted men in combat. Investigating one combat refusal incident, a journalist declared, \\\"A certain sense of independence, a reluctance to behave according to the military's insistence on obedience, like pawns or puppets...The grunts [infantrymen] were determined to survive...they insisted of having something to say about the making of decisions that determined whether they might live or die.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe morale and discipline problems and resistance to conscription (the draft) were important factors leading to the creation of an all-volunteer military force by the United States and the termination of conscription. The last conscript was inducted into the army in 1973. The all-volunteer military moderated some of the coercive methods of discipline previously used to maintain order in military ranks.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nEffects of U.S. chemical defoliation\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOne of the most controversial aspects of the U.S. military effort in Southeast Asia was the widespread use of chemical defoliants between 1961 and 1971. They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide their weapons and encampments under the foliage. These chemicals continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nEarly in the American military effort, it was decided that since the enemy were hiding their activities under triple-canopy jungle, a useful first step might be to defoliate certain areas. This was especially true of growth surrounding bases (both large and small) in what became known as Operation Ranch Hand. Corporations like Dow Chemical Company and Monsanto were given the task of developing herbicides for this purpose. American officials also pointed out that the British had previously used 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D (virtually identical to America's use in Vietnam) on a large scale throughout the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s in order to destroy bushes, crops, and trees in effort to deny communist insurgents the concealment they needed to ambush passing convoys. Indeed, Secretary of State Dean Rusk told President John F. Kennedy on 24 November 1961, that \\\"[t]he use of defoliant does not violate any rule of international law concerning the conduct of chemical warfare and is an accepted tactic of war. Precedent has been established by the British during the emergency in Malaya in their use of aircraft for destroying crops by chemical spraying.\\\"\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe defoliants, which were distributed in drums marked with color-coded bands, included the \\\"Rainbow Herbicides\\\"—Agent Pink, Agent Green, Agent Purple, Agent Blue, Agent White, and, most famously, Agent Orange, which included dioxin as a by-product of its manufacture. About 11-12 million gallons (41.6-45.4 million L) of Agent Orange were sprayed over southern Vietnam between 1961 and 1971. A prime area of Ranch Hand operations was in the Mekong Delta, where the U.S. Navy patrol boats were vulnerable to attack from the undergrowth at the water's edge.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nIn 1961 and 1962, the Kennedy administration authorized the use of chemicals to destroy rice crops. Between 1961 and 1967, the U.S. Air Force sprayed 20 million U.S. gallons (75,700,000 L) of concentrated herbicides over 6 million acres (24,000 km2) of crops and trees, affecting an estimated 13% of South Vietnam's land. In 1965, 42% of all herbicide was sprayed over food crops. Another purpose of herbicide use was to drive civilian populations into RVN-controlled areas.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nVietnamese victims affected by Agent Orange attempted a class action lawsuit against Dow Chemical and other US chemical manufacturers, but District Court Judge Jack B. Weinstein dismissed their case..In his 234-page judgment, Weinstein observed: \\\"Despite the fact that Congress and the President were fully advised of a substantial belief that the herbicide spraying in Vietnam was a violation of international law, they acted on their view that it was not a violation at the time.\\\" They appealed, but the dismissal was cemented in February 2008 by the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. As of 2006, the Vietnamese government estimates that there are over 4,000,000 victims of dioxin poisoning in Vietnam, although the United States government denies any conclusive scientific links between Agent Orange and the Vietnamese victims of dioxin poisoning. In some areas of southern Vietnam, dioxin levels remain at over 100 times the accepted international standard.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe U.S. Veterans Administration has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, Diabetes mellitus type 2, B-cell lymphomas, soft-tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nCasualties\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nEstimates of the number of casualties vary, with one source suggesting up to 3.8 million violent war deaths in Vietnam for the period 1955 to 2002. 195,000–430,000 South Vietnamese civilians died in the war. Extrapolating from a 1969 US intelligence report, Guenter Lewy estimated 65,000 North Vietnamese civilians died in the war. Estimates of civilian deaths caused by American bombing of North Vietnam in Operation Rolling Thunder range from 52,000 to 182,000. The military forces of South Vietnam suffered an estimated 254,256 killed between 1960 and 1974 and additional deaths from 1954–1959 and in 1975. The official US Department of Defense figure was 950,765 communist forces killed in Vietnam from 1965 to 1974. Defense Department officials believed that these body count figures need to be deflated by 30 percent. In addition, Guenter Lewy assumes that one-third of the reported \\\"enemy\\\" killed may have been civilians, concluding that the actual number of deaths of communist military forces was probably closer to 444,000. A detailed demographic study calculated 791,000–1,141,000 war-related deaths for all of Vietnam. Between 240,000Sliwinski estimates 240,000 wartime deaths, of which 40,000 were caused by U.S. bombing. (). He characterizes other estimates ranging from 600,000–700,000 as \\\"the most extreme evaluations\\\" (p. 42).\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nand 300,000 Cambodians died during the war. About 60,000 Laotians also died, and 58,300 U.S. military personnel were killed, of which 1,596 are still listed as missing .\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nPopular culture\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe Vietnam War has been featured extensively in television, film, video games, and literature in the participant countries. In American popular culture, the \\\"Crazy Vietnam Veteran\\\", who was suffering from Posttraumatic stress disorder, became a common stock character after the war.\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nOne of the first major films based on the Vietnam War was John Wayne's pro-war film, The Green Berets (1968). Further cinematic representations were released during the 1970s and 1980s, including Michael Cimino's The Deer Hunter (1978), Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now (1979), Oliver Stone's Platoon (1986) – based on his service in the U.S. Military during the Vietnam War, Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket (1987), Hamburger Hill (1987), and Casualties of War (1989). Later films would include We Were Soldiers (2002) and Rescue Dawn (2007).\",\n \"Vietnam War\\n\\nThe war also influenced a generation of musicians and songwriters in Vietnam and the United States, both anti-war and pro/anti-communist. The band Country Joe and the Fish recorded \\\"I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-To-Die Rag\\\" / The \\\"Fish\\\" Cheer in 1965, and it became one of the most influential anti-Vietnam protest anthems. Many songwriters and musicians supported the anti-war movement, including Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, Peggy Seeger, Ewan MacColl, Barbara Dane, The Critics Group, Phil Ochs, John Lennon, Nina Simone, Neil Young, Tom Paxton, Jimmy Cliff and Arlo Guthrie.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2084,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_30"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What became the tallest building in the world when it opened in 1931?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"The Empire State Building"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["350 fifth avenue","empty state building","empire state building run up","elvita adams","emperor state building","evelyn mchale","empire state building","empire state bldg"],"string":"[\n \"350 fifth avenue\",\n \"empty state building\",\n \"empire state building run up\",\n \"elvita adams\",\n \"emperor state building\",\n \"evelyn mchale\",\n \"empire state building\",\n \"empire state bldg\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nNew York City, the most populous city in the United States, is home to 6,154 completed high-rises, 112 of which are 600 ft or taller. The tallest building in New York is One World Trade Center, which rises 1776 ft. The 104-story skyscraper also stands as the tallest building in the United States, the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, and the sixth-tallest building in the world. The second tallest building in the city is 432 Park Avenue, standing at 1396 ft, and the third tallest is the 102-story Empire State Building in Midtown Manhattan, which was finished in 1931 and rises to 1250 ft, increased to 1454 ft by its antenna. It also is the fifth-tallest building in the United States and the 25th-tallest building in the world.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nThe Empire State Building stood as the tallest building in the world from its completion until 1972, when the 110-story North Tower of the original World Trade Center was completed. At 1368 ft, The World Trade Center briefly held the title as the world's tallest building until the completion of the 108-story Sears Tower (now known as the Willis Tower) in Chicago in 1974. The World Trade Center towers were destroyed by terrorist attacks in 2001, and the Empire State Building regained the title of tallest building in the City. It remained the tallest until April 2012, when the construction on One World Trade Center surpassed it. The fourth-tallest building in New York is the Bank of America Tower, which rises to 1200 ft, including its spire. Tied for fifth-tallest are the 1046 ft Chrysler Building, which was the world's tallest building from 1930 until 1931, and the New York Times Building, which was completed in 2007.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nNew York City skyscrapers are concentrated in Midtown and Lower Manhattan, although other neighborhoods of Manhattan and the boroughs of Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx also have a few high-rises. , the entire city has 241 buildings that rise at least 500 ft in height, including those under construction, more than any other city in the United States.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nSince 2003, New York City has seen the completion of that rise at least 600 ft in height, including One World Trade Center, which became the tallest building in the country when completed. 20 more are under construction. One World Trade Center is part of the redevelopment of the World Trade Center, which also includes the 975 ft 4 World Trade Center, 7 World Trade Center and the two under-construction buildings: the 1350 ft 2 World Trade Center and the 1171 ft 3 World Trade Center.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nOverall, , there were buildings under construction or proposed for construction in New York City.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nHistory","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nThe history of skyscrapers in New York City began with the completion of the World Building in 1890; the structure rose to 348 ft. Though not the city's first high-rise, it was the first building to surpass the 284 ft spire of Trinity Church. The World Building, which stood as the tallest in the city until 1899, was demolished in 1955 to allow for the construction of an expanded entrance to the Brooklyn Bridge.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nNew York has played a prominent role in the development of the skyscraper; since 1890, eleven structures in the city having held the title of world's tallest building. New York City went through a very early high-rise construction boom that lasted from the early 1910s through the early 1930s, during which 16 of the city's 82 tallest buildings were built—including the Woolworth Building, the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building, the Chrysler Building and the Empire State Building, each of which was the tallest in the world at the time of its completion, the latter remaining so for forty years.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nA second skyscraper boom began in the early 1960s. Since then, the city has seen the completion of nearly 70 structures rising at least 600 ft high, including the twin towers of the World Trade Center. One World Trade Center, also known as the North Tower, was the tallest building in the world from 1972 until 1973 and the tallest building in New York City until 2001. The North Tower, as well as the other six buildings in the World Trade Center complex, were destroyed in the September 11 attacks of 2001. One World Trade Center began construction in 2006 as the lead building of the new World Trade Center complex; upon its topping out in May 2013, the 1776 ft skyscraper surpassed the Willis Tower to become the tallest building in the United States.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nTallest buildings","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nThis list ranks completed and topped out New York City skyscrapers that stand at least 600 ft tall, based on standard height measurement. This includes spires and architectural details but does not include antenna masts. An equal sign (=) following a rank indicates the same height between two or more buildings. An asterisk (*) indicates that the building is still under construction, but has been topped out. The \"Year\" column indicates the year in which a building was completed.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nTallest buildings by pinnacle height","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nThis lists ranks buildings in New York City based on pinnacle height measurement, which includes antenna masts. Standard architectural height measurement, which excludes non-architectural antennas in building height, is included for comparative purposes. An equal sign (=) following a rank indicates the same height between two or more buildings. The \"Year\" column indicates the year in which a building was completed.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nTallest buildings in each borough","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nThis lists the tallest building in each borough of New York City based on standard height measurement. The \"Year\" column indicates the year in which a building was completed.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nTallest under construction or proposed","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nUnder construction","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nThis lists buildings that are currently under construction in New York City and are expected to rise to a height of at least 600 ft. Buildings under construction that have already been topped out are also included, as are those whose construction has been suspended. For buildings whose heights have not yet been released by their developers, this table uses a floor count of 50 stories as the cutoff.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\n* Table entries with dashes (—) indicate that information regarding expected building heights or dates of completion has not yet been released.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nProposed","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nThis table lists buildings that are proposed for construction in New York City and are expected to rise at least 600 ft in height. For buildings whose heights have not yet been released by their developers, this table uses a floor count of 50 stories as the cutoff.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\n* Table entries with dashes (—) indicate that information regarding building heights or dates of completion has not yet been released.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nTallest destroyed","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nThis table lists buildings in New York City that were destroyed or demolished and at one time stood at least 500 ft in height.","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nTimeline of tallest buildings","List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nThis lists buildings that once held the title of tallest building in New York City. Both Trinity Church and the Empire State Building have held the title twice, the latter following the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11 attacks. The Empire State Building was surpassed by One World Trade Center in 2012.","May 1931\n\nThe following events occurred in May 1931:","May 1931\n\nMay 1, 1931 (Friday)","May 1931\n\n*The Empire State Building, the tallest building in the world, opened in New York City. At 11:30 a.m., President Hoover pressed a button in the White House that turned on the lights of all 102 stories. \n*The comedy film The Millionaire starring George Arliss was released. \n*Born: Maya Belenkaya, figure skater, in Leningrad, USSR","May 1931\n\nMay 2, 1931 (Saturday)","May 1931\n\n*A mock air raid was conducted over Toulon, France. Although the military maneuvers were called off after two hours due to bad weather, it sufficiently demonstrated to military experts that the important naval base would have been reduced to ruins by a fleet of 150 bombers had the attack been real. \n*Died: George Fisher Baker, 91, American banker and philanthropist","May 1931\n\nMay 3, 1931 (Sunday)","May 1931\n\n*In elections in Schaumburg-Lippe, the Social Democrats remained the largest party with 44.6% of the vote, but the Nazi Party came in second with 26.9%. \n*Club Français defeated SO Montpellier 3-0 in the Coupe de France Final.\n*Born: Aldo Rossi, architect and designer, in Milan, Italy (d. 2007)","May 1931\n\nMay 4, 1931 (Monday)","May 1931\n\n*Mustafa Kemal was re-elected President of Turkey by the National Assembly. \n*The United States Treasury estimated its budget deficit for 1930-31 at about $903 million. \n*The Jewish Party, a splinter faction of the Union of Romanian Jews, was founded in Romania.\n*Born: Richard Williams, jazz trumpeter, in Galveston, Texas (d. 1985)","May 1931\n\nMay 5, 1931 (Tuesday)","May 1931\n\n*Battle of Evarts: Three deputies and a miner were killed in a gun battle in Harlan County, Kentucky. It was one in a series of violent coal mining-related incidents in the region known as the Harlan County War.","May 1931\n\nMay 6, 1931 (Wednesday)","May 1931\n\n*The Paris Colonial Exposition opened.\n*The Soviet Union and Lithuania renewed their non-aggression pact of 1926. \n*Born: Willie Mays, baseball player, in Westfield, Alabama","May 1931\n\nMay 7, 1931 (Thursday)","May 1931\n\n*325 National Guardsmen were dispatched to Harlan County, Kentucky, under orders to \"protect those who behave themselves and take charge of those who do not.\" \n*Born: Teresa Brewer, pop singer, in Toledo, Ohio (d. 2007); Siddika Kabir, nutritionist, cookbook author and cooking show television host, in Dhaka, British India (d. 2012)","May 1931\n\nMay 8, 1931 (Friday)","May 1931\n\n*In the Weimar Republic of Germany, prosecution of Adolf Hitler by Hans Litten for complicity in manslaughter committed by members of the Sturmabteilung at the Tanzpalast Eden (\"Eden Dance Palace\") in Berlin in 1930 was dismissed. \n*The Spanish provisional government decreed that religious instruction was no longer compulsory in schools.","May 1931\n\nMay 9, 1931 (Saturday)","May 1931\n\n*Mate won the Preakness Stakes. \n*A huge building exposition, one of the largest ever held at 32 acres in size, opened in Berlin. \n*Died: Albert A. Michelson, 78, American physicist and Nobel laureate","May 1931\n\nMay 10, 1931 (Sunday)","May 1931\n\n*Rioting broke out between monarchists and republicans in Madrid. \n*Hermann Göring met with Benito Mussolini in Rome. \n*Born: Ichirō Nagai, anime voice actor, in Ikeda, Osaka, Japan (d. 2014)","May 1931\n\nMay 11, 1931 (Monday)","May 1931\n\n*The Creditanstalt Bank in Vienna failed, leading to a national currency crisis as investors began pulling their funds from Austrian banks and moving them to other countries. \n*Four Roman Catholic convents were burned during the night by anticlerical rioters in Madrid. \n*The Fritz Lang-directed film M premiered in Berlin.","May 1931\n\nMay 12, 1931 (Tuesday)","May 1931\n\n*The Civil Guard was called into Madrid to stop the burning of convents.","May 1931\n\nMay 13, 1931 (Wednesday)","May 1931\n\n*Paul Doumer was elected President of France by parliament. \n*The International Olympic Committee officially awarded the 1936 Summer Olympics to Berlin.\n*Born: Jim Jones, cult leader, in Randolph County, Indiana (d. 1978); Jiří Petr, agroscientist and university professor, in Hradec Králové, Czecheslovakia (d. 2014)","May 1931\n\nMay 14, 1931 (Thursday)","May 1931\n\n*The Bank of England's lending rate was cut to 2.5%, its lowest rate in 22 years.\n*In Bologna, the conductor Arturo Toscanini was assaulted by a Fascist youth for refusing to play Giovinezza at the beginning of a concert devoted to the 75th birthday of Giuseppe Martucci. Toscanini escaped into a car and returned to his hotel; the concert was postponed. \n*Born: Alvin Lucier, composer, in Nashua, New Hampshire\n*Died: David Belasco, 77, American Broadway impresario, theater owner and playwright","May 1931\n\nMay 15, 1931 (Friday)","May 1931\n\n*Pope Pius XI issued the encyclical Quadragesimo anno.\n*Mahatma Gandhi announced he would attend the second Round Table Conference on Indian independence in London. \n*Born: Joseph A. Califano, Jr., Chairman of the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, in Brooklyn, New York; Ken Venturi, golfer, in San Francisco, California (d. 2013)","May 1931\n\nMay 16, 1931 (Saturday)","May 1931\n\n*Twenty Grand won the Kentucky Derby. \n*Albert Einstein delivered a lecture at Rhodes House in Oxford, at which the blackboard was saved. \n*Born: Jack Dodson, actor, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (d. 1994); Natwar Singh, politician, in Jaghina, Bharatpur, British India","May 1931\n\nMay 17, 1931 (Sunday)","May 1931\n\n*The Nazi Party won Landtag elections in Oldenburg with 37.2% of the vote. It was the first time the Nazis became the largest party in a Landtag. \n*Born: Marshall Applewhite, cult leader, in Spur, Texas (d. 1997)\n*Died: Timothy Cole, 78 or 79, American wood engraver","May 1931\n\nMay 18, 1931 (Monday)","May 1931\n\n*The United States Supreme Court decided Stromberg v. California, overturning a California court decision convicting a 19-year-old communist of breaking a state law against displaying a red flag. \n*The U.S. Supreme Court decided Burnet v. Logan.\n*Born: Don Martin, cartoonist, in Paterson, New Jersey (d. 2000); Robert Morse, actor and singer, in Newton, Massachusetts","May 1931\n\nMay 19, 1931 (Tuesday)","May 1931\n\n*The German cruiser was launched at Kiel. It accidentally slid into the water ahead of schedule before President Hindenburg had a chance to smash a bottle of champagne against its prow. \n*Joseph Stalin announced the second five-year plan for the Soviet economy.\n*Born: Éric Tappy, Swiss operatic tenor, in Switzerland\n*Died: Ralph Barton, 39, American caricaturist (suicide)","May 1931\n\nMay 20, 1931 (Wednesday)","May 1931\n\n*A report by International Labour Office Director General Albert Thomas was publicized, estimating that 20 million people were out of work around the world, double the numbers of one year ago. \n*Fascist authorities confiscated the passport of Arturo Toscanini and essentially placed him under house arrest. \n*Born: Ken Boyer, baseball player, in Liberty, Missouri (d. 1982)","May 1931\n\nMay 21, 1931 (Thursday)","May 1931\n\n*Peder Kolstad became Prime Minister of Norway.\n*The horror-fantasy radio series The Witch's Tale first aired on New York's WOR. \n*Died: Charlie Poole, 39, American country musician (heart attack)","May 1931\n\nMay 22, 1931 (Friday)","May 1931\n\n*The Spanish provisional government granted equal freedom to all religions.","May 1931\n\nMay 23, 1931 (Saturday)","May 1931\n\n*Commemorating the fortieth anniversary of the encyclical Rerum novarum, Pope Pius XI published a lengthy message in L'Osservatore Romano calling the modern business world cruel and corrupting of the working class. \n*The University of Oxford awarded Albert Einstein an honorary doctorate. \n*The Whipsnade Zoo opened in Bedfordshire, England.\n*Born: Barbara Barrie, actress, in Chicago, Illinois; Patience Cleveland, actress, in New York City\n*Died: Aldred Scott Warthin, 64, American pathologist","May 1931\n\nMay 24, 1931 (Sunday)","May 1931\n\n*In São Paulo, composer Heitor Villa-Lobos presented the first of his Civic Exhortations, performed by 12,000 voices.\n*The Alfa Romeo works team pairing of Giuseppe Campari and Tazio Nuvolari won the Italian Grand Prix.\n*The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) introduced the first completely air-conditioned passenger train, the Columbian, running between Washington and New York. \n*Born: Clint Ballard, Jr., songwriter, in El Paso, Texas (d. 2008); Ricky Romero, professional wrestler, in San Bernardino, California (d. 2006)","May 1931\n\nMay 25, 1931 (Monday)","May 1931\n\n*The The Royal British Legion voted to refer to November 11 as \"Remembrance Day\" rather than \"Armistice Day\". \n*Born: Georgy Grechko, cosmonaut, in Leningrad, USSR","May 1931\n\nMay 26, 1931 (Tuesday)","May 1931\n\n*Serge Koussevitzky sent a telegram to the management of La Scala in Milan, explaining he would postpone his scheduled June performance there until the Italian government apologized to Arturo Toscanini over the events at Bologna.","May 1931\n\nMay 27, 1931 (Wednesday)","May 1931\n\n*In Augsburg, Germany, Professor Auguste Piccard and physicist Paul Kipfer took off in an airtight ball attached to a hydrogen balloon in an attempt to be the first to reach the Earth's stratosphere. They attained an altitude of 15,606 m (51,200 ft) and then landed in the Austrian Alps after more than eighteen hours in the air. \n*Between 2,000 and 3,000 Japanese railway workers went on strike in protest against proposed salary reductions.","May 1931\n\nMay 28, 1931 (Thursday)","May 1931\n\n*Three were killed in fighting between communists and Nazis in Hagen. \n*Born: Carroll Baker, actress, in Johnstown, Pennsylvania; Eric Von Schmidt, folk and blues musician, in Bridgeport, Connecticut (d. 2007); Peter Westergaard, composer and music theorist, in Champaign, Illinois; Gordon Willis, cinematographer, in Astoria, New York (d. 2014)","May 1931\n\nMay 29, 1931 (Friday)","May 1931\n\n*Texas Guinan and her ensemble of entertainers were refused entry into France for failing to get a work permit before departing New York. \"Hell! What have I done to be treated like this?\" Guinan fumed. \"I entertained at the front during the war on a permit signed by President Wilson. Why ain't I good enough to come here and sing now?\" \n*Died: Michele Schirru, 31, Italian-born American anarchist (executed by firing squad for plotting to assassinate Mussolini)","May 1931\n\nMay 30, 1931 (Saturday)","May 1931\n\n*Fascist Italy suspended the Azione Cattolica.\n*Louis Schneider won the Indianapolis 500.\n*William \"Red\" Hill went over Niagara Falls in a barrel for the third time. After going over, the barrel was stuck in a whirlpool for almost three hours until it floated free and Hill could be rescued by his son, William Jr. \n*Born: John O'Brien, priest, in Kilrush, Ireland (d. 2008)","May 1931\n\nMay 31, 1931 (Sunday)","May 1931\n\n*150,000 Stahlhelm hailed Crown Prince Wilhelm during their twelfth annual convention in Breslau. \n*Born: John Robert Schrieffer, physicist and Nobel laureate, in Oak Park, Illinois; Shirley Verrett, mezzo-soprano, in New Orleans, Louisiana (d. 2010)","Empire State Building\n\nThe Empire State Building is a 102-storyDepending on the source, the floor count of the Empire State Building is variously cited as 102 or 103. The sources cited here all state 102. See here for a detailed explanation. skyscraper located in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, on Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets. It has a roof height of 1,250 feet (381 m), and with its antenna spire included, it stands a total of 1454 ft high. Its name is derived from the nickname for New York, the Empire State. It stood as the world's tallest building for nearly 40 years, from its completion in early 1931 until the topping out of the original World Trade Center's North Tower in late 1970. Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building was again the tallest building in New York, until One World Trade Center reached a greater height in April 2012. The Empire State Building is currently the fifth-tallest completed skyscraper in the United States and the 29th-tallest in the world. It is also the fifth-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas. When measured by pinnacle height, it is the fourth-tallest building in the United States.","Empire State Building\n\nThe Empire State Building is an American cultural icon. It is designed in the distinctive Art Deco style and has been named as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The building and its street floor interior are designated landmarks of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, and confirmed by the New York City Board of Estimate. It was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. In 2007, it was ranked number one on the AIA's List of America's Favorite Architecture.","Empire State Building\n\nThe building is owned by the Empire State Realty Trust, of which Anthony Malkin serves as Chairman, CEO and President. In 2010, the Empire State Building underwent a $550 million renovation, with $120 million spent to transform the building into a more energy efficient and eco-friendly structure. The Empire State Building is the tallest Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)-certified building in the United States, having received a gold LEED rating in September 2011.","Empire State Building\n\nHistory","Empire State Building\n\nThe site of the Empire State Building was first developed as the John Thompson Farm in the late 18th century. At the time, a stream ran across the site, emptying into Sunfish Pond, located a block away. Beginning in the late 19th century, the block was occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, frequented by The Four Hundred, the social elite of New York.","Empire State Building\n\nThe limestone for the Empire State Building came from the Empire Mill in Sanders, Indiana which is an unincorporated town adjacent to Bloomington, Indiana. The Empire Mill Land office is near State Road 37 and Old State Road 37 just south of Bloomington. The Bloomington, Bedford, and Oolitic area is known locally as the limestone capital of the world.","Empire State Building\n\nDesign and construction","Empire State Building\n\nThe Empire State Building was designed by William F. Lamb from the architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, which produced the building drawings in just two weeks, using its earlier designs for the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and the Carew Tower in Cincinnati, Ohio (designed by the architectural firm W. W. Ahlschlager & Associates) as a basis. Every year the staff of the Empire State Building sends a Father's Day card to the staff at the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem to pay homage to its role as predecessor to the Empire State Building. The building was designed from the top down. The general contractors were The Starrett Brothers and Eken, and the project was financed primarily by John J. Raskob and Pierre S. du Pont. The construction company was chaired by Alfred E. Smith, a former Governor of New York and James Farley's General Builders Supply Corporation supplied the building materials. John W. Bowser was project construction superintendent.","Empire State Building\n\nExcavation of the site began on January 22, 1930, and construction on the building itself started on March 17—St. Patrick's Day—per Al Smith's influence as Empire State, Inc. president. The project involved 3,400 workers, mostly immigrants from Europe, along with hundreds of Mohawk iron workers, many from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. According to official accounts, five workers died during the construction. Governor Smith's grandchildren cut the ribbon on May 1, 1931. Lewis Wickes Hine's photography of the construction provides not only invaluable documentation of the construction, but also a glimpse into common day life of workers in that era.","Empire State Building\n\nThe construction was part of an intense competition in New York for the title of \"world's tallest building\". Two other projects fighting for the title, 40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building, were still under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. Each held the title for less than a year, as the Empire State Building surpassed them upon its completion, on April 11, 1931, 12 days ahead of schedule, just 410 days after construction commenced. The building was officially opened on May 1, 1931 in dramatic fashion, when United States President Herbert Hoover turned on the building's lights with the push of a button from Washington, D.C. Ironically, the first use of tower lights atop the Empire State Building, the following year, was for the purpose of signaling the victory of Franklin D. Roosevelt over Hoover in the presidential election of November 1932.","Empire State Building\n\nOpening","Empire State Building\n\nThe building's opening coincided with the Great Depression in the United States, and as a result much of its office space was initially unrented. The building's vacancy was exacerbated by its poor location on 34th Street, which placed it relatively far from public transportation, as Grand Central Terminal and Penn Station, built decades beforehand, are several blocks away, as is the more recently built Port Authority Bus Terminal. Other more successful skyscrapers, such as the Chrysler Building, did not have this problem. In its first year of operation, the observation deck took in approximately 2 million dollars, as much money as its owners made in rent that year. The lack of renters led New Yorkers to deride the building as the \"Empty State Building\". The building only became profitable in 1950. The 1951 sale of the Empire State Building to Roger L. Stevens and his business partners was brokered by the prominent upper Manhattan real-estate firm Charles F. Noyes & Company for a record $51 million. At the time, that was the highest price paid for a single structure in real-estate history.","Empire State Building\n\nIncidents","Empire State Building\n\n1945 plane crash","Empire State Building\n\nAt 9:40 am on Saturday, July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber, piloted in thick fog by Lieutenant Colonel William Franklin Smith, Jr., crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors, where the offices of the National Catholic Welfare Council were located. One engine shot through the side opposite the impact and flew as far as the next block, where it landed on the roof of a nearby building, starting a fire that destroyed a penthouse. The other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft. The resulting fire was extinguished in 40 minutes. Fourteen people were killed in the incident. Elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver survived a plunge of 75 stories inside an elevator, which still stands as the Guinness World Record for the longest survived elevator fall recorded. Despite the damage and loss of life, the building was open for business on many floors on the following Monday. The crash helped spur the passage of the long-pending Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, as well as the insertion of retroactive provisions into the law, allowing people to sue the government for the incident.","Empire State Building\n\nA year later, another aircraft narrowly missed striking the building.","Empire State Building\n\nSuicide attempts","Empire State Building\n\nOver the years, more than 30 people have attempted suicide, most successfully, by jumping from the upper parts of the building. The first suicide occurred even before its completion, by a worker who had been laid off. The fence around the observatory terrace was put up in 1947 after five people tried to jump during a three-week span.","Empire State Building\n\nOn May 1, 1947, 23-year-old Evelyn McHale leapt to her death from the 86th floor observation deck and landed on a limousine parked at the curb. Photography student Robert Wiles took a photo of McHale's oddly intact corpse a few minutes after her death. The police found a suicide note among possessions she left on the observation deck: \"He is much better off without me ... I wouldn’t make a good wife for anybody\". The photo ran in the edition of May 12, 1947 of Life magazine, and is often referred to as \"The Most Beautiful Suicide\". It was later used by visual artist Andy Warhol in one of his prints entitled Suicide (Fallen Body).","Empire State Building\n\nIn December 1943, ex-United States Navy gunner's mate William Lloyd Rambo jumped to his death, landing amidst Christmas shoppers on the street below.","Empire State Building\n\nOnly one person has jumped from the upper observatory: on November 3, 1932, Frederick Eckert, of Astoria, ran past a guard in the enclosed 102nd floor gallery and jumped a gate leading to an outdoor catwalk intended for dirigible passengers. Eckert's body landed on the roof of the 86th floor observation promenade.","Empire State Building\n\nTwo people have survived jumps, in both cases by not managing to fall more than a floor: On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto a ledge on the 85th floor by a gust of wind and left with a broken hip. On April 25, 2013, a man, who is presumed to have jumped, fell from the 86th floor observation deck but landed alive on an 85th floor ledge – where security guards managed to bring him inside; he suffered only minor injuries.","Empire State Building\n\nShootings","Empire State Building\n\nTwo major shooting incidents have occurred at or in front of the Empire State Building.","Empire State Building\n\nOn February 23, 1997, at about 5 p.m. EST, a gunman shot seven people on the 86th floor observation deck. Abu Kamal, a 69-year-old Palestinian teacher, killed one person and wounded six others, supposedly in response to events happening in Palestine and Israel, before committing suicide.","Empire State Building\n\nOn August 24, 2012 at about 9 a.m. EDT, on the sidewalk at the Fifth Avenue side of the building, a gunman shot and killed a former co-worker from a workplace that had laid him off in 2011. When two police officers confronted the gunman, 58-year-old Jeffrey T. Johnson, he aimed his firearm at them. They responded by firing 16 shots at Johnson, killing him but also wounding nine bystanders, most of whom were hit by fragments, although three took direct hits from bullets.","Empire State Building\n\nArchitecture","Empire State Building\n\nInterior","Empire State Building\n\nThe Empire State Building rises to 1250 ft at the 102nd floor, and including the 203 ft pinnacle, its full height reaches 1453 ft. The building has 85 stories of commercial and office space representing 2158000 sqft of rentable space. It has an indoor and outdoor observation deck on the 86th floor. The remaining 16 stories represent the Art Deco tower, which is capped by a 102nd-floor observatory. Atop the tower is the 203 ft pinnacle, much of which is covered by broadcast antennas, with a lightning rod at the very top.","Empire State Building\n\nThe Empire State Building was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It has 6,500 windows and 73 elevators, and there are 1,860 steps from street level to the 102nd floor. It has a total floor area of 2768591 sqft; the base of the Empire State Building is about 2 acre. The building houses 1,000 businesses and has its own ZIP code, 10118. As of 2007, approximately 21,000 employees work in the building each day, making the Empire State Building the second-largest single office complex in America, after the Pentagon. The building was completed in one year and 45 days. Its original 64 elevators are located in a central core; today, the Empire State Building has 73 elevators in all, including service elevators. It takes less than one minute by elevator to get to the 80th floor, which contains a gift shop and an exhibit detailing the building's construction. From there, visitors can take another elevator or climb the stairs to the 86th floor, where an outdoor observation deck is located. The building has 70 mi of pipe, 2500000 ft of electrical wire, and about 9,000 faucets.","Empire State Building\n\nIt is heated by low-pressure steam; despite its height, the building only requires between 2 and of steam pressure for heating. It weighs approximately 370000 ST. The exterior of the building is clad in Indiana limestone panels.","Empire State Building\n\nThe Empire State Building cost $40,948,900 to build (equivalent to $ in ). Long-term forecasting of the life cycle of the structure was implemented at the design phase to ensure that the building's future intended uses were not restricted by the requirements of previous generations. This is particularly evident in the over-design of the building's electrical system.","Empire State Building\n\nThe building's art deco design is typical of pre–World War II architecture in New York. The modernistic stainless steel canopies of the entrances on 33rd and 34th Streets lead to two story-high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel and glass-enclosed bridges at the second-floor level. The elevator core contains 67 elevators.","Empire State Building\n\nThe lobby is three stories high and features an aluminum relief of the skyscraper without the antenna, which was not added to the spire until 1952. The north corridor contained eight illuminated panels, created by Roy Sparkia and Renée Nemorov in 1963 in time for the 1964 World's Fair, which depicts the building as the Eighth Wonder of the World, alongside the traditional seven. These panels were eventually moved near a ticketing line for the observation deck.","Empire State Building\n\nUntil the 1960s, the ceilings in the lobby had a shiny art deco mural inspired by both the sky and the Machine Age, until it was covered with ceiling tiles and fluorescent lighting. Because the original murals, designed by an artist named Leif Neandross, were damaged, reproductions were installed. Over 50 artists and workers used 15,000 square feet of aluminum and 1,300 square feet of 23-carat gold leaf to re-create the mural. Renovations to the lobby alluded to original plans for the building; replacing the clock over the information desk in the Fifth Avenue lobby with an anemometer, as well as installing two chandeliers originally intended to be part of the building when it first opened. In 2000, the building's owners installed a series of paintings by the New York artist Kysa Johnson in the concourse level. In January 2014 the artist filed suit in federal court in New York under the Visual Artists Rights Act, alleging the negligent destruction of the paintings and damage to her reputation as an artist.","Empire State Building\n\nThe building's lobbies and common areas received a $550 million renovation in 2009, which included new air conditioning, waterproofing, and renovating the observation deck; moving the gift shop to the 80th floor. Of this, $120 million was spent in an effort to transform the building into a more energy efficient and eco-friendly structure. For example, the 6,500 windows were remanufactured onsite into superwindows which block heat but pass light. Air conditioning operating costs on hot days were reduced and this saved $17 million of the project's capital cost immediately, partly funding other retrofitting. Receiving a gold Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating in September 2011, the Empire State Building is the tallest LEED certified building in the United States.","Empire State Building\n\nFeatures","Empire State Building\n\nAbove the 102nd floor","Empire State Building\n\nOn the 102nd floor of the Empire State Building there is a door with stairs ascending to the 103rd floor. This was built as a disembarkation floor for airships tethered to the building's spire, and has a circular balcony outside. It is now a hot spot for celebrities, and an access point to reach the spire for maintenance. The room now contains electrical equipment. Above the 103rd floor, there is a set of stairs and a ladder to reach the spire for maintenance work.","Empire State Building\n\nThe building's Art Deco spire was designed to be a mooring mast and depot for dirigibles.","Empire State Building\n\nAn elevator between the 86th and 102nd floors would carry passengers after they checked in on the 86th floor. The idea proved impractical and dangerous, due to the powerful updrafts caused by the building itself, as well as the lack of mooring lines tying the other end of the craft to the ground. The building's design was expanded to include the mooring mast as part of a competition for the world's tallest building.","Empire State Building\n\nA large broadcast tower was added atop the spire in the early 1950s, to support the transmission antennas of several television and FM stations. Until then, NBC had exclusive rights to the site, and – beginning in 1931 – built various, smaller antennas for their television transmissions.","Empire State Building\n\nBroadcast stations","Empire State Building\n\nNew York City is the largest media market in the United States. Since the September 11 attacks, nearly all of the city's commercial broadcast stations (both television and FM radio) have transmitted from the top of the Empire State Building, although a few FM stations are located at the nearby Condé Nast Building. Most New York City AM stations broadcast from sites across the Hudson River in New Jersey or from other surrounding areas.","Empire State Building\n\nBroadcasting began at the Empire State Building on December 22, 1931, when RCA began transmitting experimental television broadcasts from a small antenna erected atop the spire. They leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there, and—in 1934—RCA was joined by Edwin Howard Armstrong in a cooperative venture to test his FM system from the building's antenna. When Armstrong and RCA fell out in 1935 and his FM equipment was removed, the 85th floor became the home of RCA's New York television operations, first as experimental station W2XBS channel 1, which eventually became (on July 1, 1941) commercial station WNBT, channel 1 (now WNBC-TV channel 4). NBC's FM station (WEAF-FM, now WQHT) began transmitting from the antenna in 1940. NBC retained exclusive use of the top of the building until 1950, when the FCC ordered the exclusive deal broken, based on consumer complaints that a common location was necessary for the (now) seven New York-area television stations (five licensed to New York City, NY, one licensed to Newark, NJ, and one licensed to Secaucus, NJ) to transmit from so that receiving antennas would not have to be constantly adjusted. Construction on a giant tower began.","Empire State Building\n\nOther television broadcasters then joined RCA at the building, on the 83rd, 82nd, and 81st floors, frequently bringing sister FM stations along for the ride. Multiple transmissions of TV and FM began from the new tower in 1951. In 1965, a separate set of FM antennas was constructed ringing the 103rd floor observation area to act as a master antenna. When the World Trade Center was being constructed, it caused serious reception problems for the television stations, most of which then moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed. This made it possible to renovate the antenna structure and the transmitter facilities for the benefit of the FM stations remaining there, which were soon joined by other FMs and UHF TVs moving in from elsewhere in the metropolitan area. The destruction of the World Trade Center necessitated a great deal of shuffling of antennas and transmitter rooms to accommodate the stations moving back uptown.","Empire State Building\n\nAs of 2012, the Empire State Building is home to the following stations:\n* Television broadcasting: WCBS-2, WNBC-4, WNYW-5, WABC-7, WWOR-9 Secaucus, WPIX-11, WNET-13 Newark, WNYE-25, WPXN-31, WXTV-41 Paterson, WNJU-47 Linden and WFUT-68 Newark\n* FM broadcasting: WBMP-92.3, WPAT-93.1 Paterson, WNYC-93.9, WPLJ-95.5, WXNY-96.3, WQHT-97.1, WSKQ-97.9, WEPN-98.7, WBAI-99.5, WHTZ-100.3 Newark, WCBS-101.1, WFAN-101.9, WNEW-FM-102.7, WKTU-103.5 Lake Success, WAXQ-104.3, WWPR-105.1, WQXR-105.9 Newark, WLTW-106.7 and WBLS-107.5","Empire State Building\n\nObservation decks","Empire State Building\n\nThe Empire State Building has one of the most popular outdoor observatories in the world, having been visited by over 110 million people. The 86th-floor observation deck offers impressive 360-degree views of the city. There is a second observation deck on the 102nd floor that is open to the public. It was closed in 1999, but reopened in November 2005. It is completely enclosed and much smaller than the first one; it may be closed on high-traffic days. Tourists may pay to visit the observation deck on the 86th floor and an additional amount for the 102nd floor. The lines to enter the observation decks, according to Concierge.com, are \"as legendary as the building itself:\" there are five of them: the sidewalk line, the lobby elevator line, the ticket purchase line, the second elevator line, and the line to get off the elevator and onto the observation deck. For an extra fee tourists can skip to the front of the line. The Empire State Building makes more money from tickets sales for its observation decks than it does from renting office space.","Empire State Building\n\nThe skyscraper's observation deck plays host to several cinematic, television, and literary classics including, An Affair To Remember, On the Town, Love Affair and Sleepless in Seattle. In the Latin American literary classic, Giannina Braschi's Empire of Dreams the observation deck is the site of a pastoral revolution; shepherds take over the City of New York. The deck was also the site of a publicity-stunt Martian invasion in an episode of I Love Lucy (\"Lucy Is Envious\", season 3, episode 25).","Empire State Building\n\nNew York Skyride","Empire State Building\n\nThe Empire State Building also has a motion simulator attraction located on the 2nd floor. Opened in 1994 as a complement to the observation deck, the New York Sky ride (or NY Sky ride) is a simulated aerial tour over the city. The cinematic presentation lasts approximately 25 minutes. As of May 2013, tickets are Adults $57, Children $42, Seniors $49.","Empire State Building\n\nSince its opening, the ride has gone through two incarnations. The original version, which ran from 1994 until around 2002, featured James Doohan, Star Trek's Scotty, as the airplane's pilot, who humorously tried to keep the flight under control during a storm, with the tour taking an unexpected route through the subway, Coney Island, and FAO Schwartz, among other places. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, however, the ride was closed, and an updated version debuted in mid-2002 with actor Kevin Bacon as the pilot. The new version of the narration attempted to make the attraction more educational, and included some minor post-9/11 patriotic undertones with retrospective footage of the World Trade Center. The new flight also goes haywire, but this segment is much shorter than in the original.","Empire State Building\n\nLights","Empire State Building\n\nIn 1964, floodlights were added to illuminate the top of the building at night. Since 1976 the spire has been lit in colors chosen to match seasonal and other events, such as St. Patrick's Day, Christmas, Independence Day and Bastille Day. After the eightieth birthday and subsequent death of Frank Sinatra, for example, the building was bathed in blue light to represent the singer's nickname \"Ol' Blue Eyes\". After the death of actress Fay Wray (King Kong) in late 2004, the building stood in complete darkness for 15 minutes.","Empire State Building\n\nThe floodlights bathed the building in red, white, and blue for several months after the destruction of the World Trade Center, then reverted to the standard schedule. On June 4, 2002, the Empire State Building donned purple and gold (the royal colors of Elizabeth II), in thanks for the United Kingdom playing the Star Spangled Banner during the Changing of the Guard at Buckingham Palace on September 12, 2001 (a show of support after the September 11 attacks). This would also be shown after the Westminster Dog Show. Traditionally, in addition to the standard schedule, the building will be lit in the colors of New York's sports teams on the nights they have home games (orange, blue and white for the New York Knicks, red, white and blue for the New York Rangers, and so on). The first weekend in June finds the building bathed in green light for the Belmont Stakes held in nearby Belmont Park. The building is illuminated in tennis-ball yellow during the US Open tennis tournament in late August and early September.","Empire State Building\n\nIt was twice lit in scarlet to support nearby Rutgers University: once for a football game against the University of Louisville on November 9, 2006, and again on April 3, 2007 when the women's basketball team played in the national championship game. On January 13, 2012, the building was lit in red, orange, and yellow to honor the 60th anniversary of NBC's The Today Show making it the first time the building was illuminated to honor a television program. From June 1 to 3, 2012, the building was lit in blue and white, the colors of the Israeli flag, in honor of the 49th annual Celebrate Israel Parade.","Empire State Building\n\nDuring 2012, the building's metal halide lamps and floodlights were replaced with LED fixtures, increasing the available colors from nine to over 16 million. The computer-controlled system allows the building to be illuminated in ways that were unable to be done previously with plastic gels. For instance, on November 6, 2012, CNN used the top of the Empire State Building as a scoreboard for the 2012 United States presidential election. When incumbent president Barack Obama had reached the 270 electoral votes necessary to win re-election, the lights turned blue. Had Republican challenger Mitt Romney won, the building would have been lit red. Also, on November 26, 2012, the building had its first ever synchronized light show, using music from recording artist Alicia Keys. Those wishing to hear the music could tune to certain radio stations in the New York area. A video of the performance was posted online the next day. In 2013 the lights were changed to Financial Times pink.","Empire State Building\n\nIn the run-up week to Super Bowl XLVIII held at MetLife Stadium on February 2, 2014, the building was lit in a contest sponsored by the National Football League's wireless partner, Verizon Wireless to determine both the winner and fan support for the two teams via their team colors in the game through the #WhosGonnaWin Twitter hashtag, either the \"action green\" and navy blue of the Seattle Seahawks or orange and blue of the Denver Broncos, along with a light show during the game's halftime.","Empire State Building\n\nHeight records and comparisons","Empire State Building\n\nThe Empire State Building remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for 23 years before it was surpassed by the Griffin Television Tower Oklahoma (KWTV Mast) in 1954. It was also the tallest free-standing structure in the world for 36 years before it was surpassed by the Ostankino Tower in 1967.","Empire State Building\n\nThe longest world record held by the Empire State Building was for the tallest skyscraper (to structural height), which it held for 42 years until it was surpassed by the North Tower of the World Trade Center in 1972. An early-1970s proposal to dismantle the spire and replace it with an additional 11 floors, which would have brought the building's height to 1,494 feet (455 m) and made it once again the world's tallest at the time, was considered but ultimately rejected.","Empire State Building\n\nWith the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11 attacks, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, and the second-tallest building in the Americas, surpassed only by the Willis Tower in Chicago. It is currently the fifth-tallest, surpassed by the Willis Tower, the Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago), 432 Park Avenue and the new One World Trade Center. One World Trade Center surpassed the roof height of the Empire State Building on April 30, 2012, and became the tallest building in New York City—on the way toward becoming the tallest building in the Americas at a planned 1,776 feet (541 m).","Empire State Building\n\nThe Empire State Building is currently the fifth-tallest completed skyscraper in the United States, after the One World Trade Center, 432 Park Avenue in New York City, the Willis Tower and Trump International Hotel and Tower, both in Chicago. It is also the 25th-tallest in the world, the tallest now is Burj Khalifa, located in Dubai. It is also the fifth-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas.","Empire State Building\n\nOn clear days, the building can be seen from much of the New York Metropolitan Area, and as far away as New Haven, Connecticut and Morristown, New Jersey.","Empire State Building\n\nNeighboring Midtown Manhattan landmarks","Empire State Building\n\nThe Empire State Building anchors an area of Midtown which features other major Manhattan landmarks as well, including Macy's Herald Square, Koreatown, Penn Station, Madison Square Garden, and the Flower District. Together, these sites contribute to a significant volume of commuter and tourist pedestrian traffic traversing the southern portion of Midtown Manhattan.","Empire State Building\n\nIn popular culture","Empire State Building\n\nFilm","Empire State Building\n\n* Perhaps the most famous popular culture representation of the building is in King Kong (1933), in which the title character, a giant ape, climbs to the top to escape his captors but falls to his death after being attacked by airplanes. In 1983, for the film's fiftieth anniversary, a huge 90 ft tall inflatable Kong was placed on the building mast above the observation deck by artist Robert Vicino. In 2005, Peter Jackson's remake of King Kong was released, set in 1930s New York City, including a final showdown between Kong and biplanes atop a greatly detailed Empire State Building. (The 1976 remake of King Kong was set in a contemporary New York City and held its climactic scene on the towers of the World Trade Center.)\n* Love Affair (1939) involves a couple who plan to meet atop the Empire State Building, a rendezvous that is prevented by an automobile accident. The film was remade in 1957 (as An Affair to Remember) and in 1994 (again as Love Affair). Sleepless in Seattle (1993), a romantic comedy partially inspired by An Affair to Remember, climaxes with scenes in the Empire State Building's lobby and observatory.","Empire State Building\n\n* In the Looney Tunes cartoon \"Much Ado About Nutting\", a squirrel has so much difficulty opening a coconut he carries it to the Empire State Building's observation deck and tosses it over the edge. While the street is damaged by the impact, the coconut remains intact. * In the 1946 Looney Tunes cartoon Baseball Bugs, Bugs Bunny is pitching in the Polo Grounds against the Gashouse Gorillas. In the bottom of the ninth, with two outs and Bugs protecting a one run lead, the opposition hits the ball out of the park for an apparent game-winning two-run homer. Bugs pursues the ball through New York City. The chase culminates at the \"Umpire State Building\". Bugs ascends to the top of the building by elevator and catches the ball for the third out, winning the game. * In the Tom and Jerry cartoon \"Mouse in Manhattan\", Jerry walks by and views the Empire State Building, along with other landmarks, including the Statue of Atlas at Rockefeller Center and Grand Central Terminal. * Andy Warhol's 1964 silent film Empire is one continuous, eight-hour black-and-white shot of the Empire State Building at night.","Empire State Building\n\nIn 2004, the National Film Registry deemed its cultural significance worthy of preservation in the Library of Congress. * In Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief (2010), Mount Olympus is located over the Empire State Building, and there is a special elevator in the building to the \"600th floor\", which is supposed to be Olympus, just like in the book series. * The building is chosen as Ground Zero for the target of a nuclear bomb that is dropped on New York in Fail-Safe (1964). * Both Zero Mostel and Gene Wilder go to the Observation Deck of the building in the original Mel Brooks film The Producers. * In The Time Machine (2002), the Empire State Building is still standing in the year 2030, but dwarfed by several larger skyscrapers around it. It is not visible in later scenes set in a post-apocalyptic New York. * In Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow (2004), the top of the building serves its original purpose of being a docking station for dirigibles, and the Hindenburg III docks at it on its maiden voyage.","Empire State Building\n\n* The building starred in Enchanted (2007) which Giselle tried to rescue Robert from Queen Narissa in her dragon form. * Many films have opened with the Empire State Building, such as West Side Story (1961), Step Up 3D and The Other Guys (both 2010). * The building has been destroyed in some disaster films, such as Independence Day (1996) and Knowing (2009). * In The Divide (2011), the building is destroyed by a nuclear bomb detonated on New York. It was heavily featured on posters promoting the film. * In Superman II (1980), Ursa (Sarah Douglas) uses a flagpole to knock Superman (Christopher Reeve) into the tower of the Chrysler Building. He ducks with Non (Jack O'Halloran) taking the blast. However, scenes showing the tower falling and being flown back to the top by Superman are of the Empire State Building. * In The 5th Wave, the building happens to survive a massive tsunami that hits Manhattan during an alien invasion. * Many other films that feature the Empire State Building are listed on the building's own website.","Empire State Building\n\nTelevision","Empire State Building\n\n* In the 1965 four-part Underdog cartoon serial \"The Phoney Booths\" (episodes 49-52), Underdog falls under the mental control of mad scientist Simon Bar Sinister. Simon orders Underdog to use his super powers to bring him valuable objects - including the Empire State Building, which Underdog lifts whole to bring it to Simon. In the end, circumstances release Underdog from Simon’s control. He defeats the evil scientist and puts back the Empire State Building. * The Empire State Building featured in the 1966 Doctor Who serial The Chase, in which the TARDIS lands on the roof of the building; The Doctor and his companions leave quite quickly, however, because The Daleks are close behind them. A Dalek is also seen on the roof of the building while it interrogates a human. In 2007, Doctor Who episodes \"Daleks in Manhattan\" and \"Evolution of the Daleks\" also featured the building, which the Daleks are constructing to use as a lightning conductor. Russell T Davies said in an article that \"in his mind\", the Daleks remembered the building from their last visit.","Empire State Building\n\n* In the science fiction drama series Fringe, the observation deck of the Empire State Building serves its primary purpose as a docking station for zeppelins in the parallel universe shown in the second season episode Peter. * The Discovery Channel show MythBusters tested the urban myth which claims that if one drops a penny off the top of the Empire State Building, it could kill someone or put a crater in the pavement. The outcome was that, by the time the penny hits the ground, it is going roughly 65 mph (terminal velocity for an object of its mass and shape), which is not fast enough to inflict lethal injury or put a crater into the pavement. The urban legend is a joke in the 2003 musical Avenue Q, where a character waiting atop the building for a rendezvous tosses a penny over the side—only to hit her rival. * In Gerry Anderson's popular puppet series Thunderbirds, the episode Terror in New York City, the Empire State Building is being moved to a new location as the site around it is set for redevelopment.","Empire State Building\n\nHowever, something goes wrong and the building collapses, trapping a reporter and his cameraman underneath the rubble. Their rescue is the focus of the rest of the episode. * The music video of the song \"Everything is Everything\" (by singer Lauryn Hill) prominently features the Empire State Building as the center of a city (record) turntable. * In the episode \"First Time in New York\" of the television series How I Met Your Mother (originally aired on January 8, 2007), the gang takes Robin's sister Katie to the Empire State Building. On the first day, they only got to the lobby, but they eventually went to the top the next day.","Empire State Building\n\nLiterature","Empire State Building\n\n* H.G. Wells' 1933 science fiction novel The Shape of Things to Come, written in the form of a history book published in the far future, includes the following passage: \"Up to quite recently Lower New York has been the most old-fashioned city in the world, unique in its gloomy antiquity. The last of the ancient skyscrapers, the Empire State Building, is even now under demolition in C.E. 2106!\". * David Macaulay's 1980 illustrated book Unbuilding depicts the Empire State Building being purchased by a Middle Eastern billionaire and disassembled piece by piece, to be transported to Saudi Arabia and rebuilt there. The mooring mast is rebuilt in New York, while the remainder of the building is lost at sea. * Giannina Braschi's Empire of Dreams, a Latin American poetry epic published in 1988, featured a pastoral revolution on the top floor of the Empire State Building, where shepherds danced and sang songs of revolution. * The Empire State Building is featured prominently as both a setting and integral plot device throughout much of Michael Chabon's 2000 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay.","Empire State Building\n\n* In his \"biography\", Doc Savage: His Apocalyptic Life, Philip Jose Farmer theorizes that the skyscraper in which Doc Savage lived and where he met with his comrades, had his laboratories, etc., was the Empire State Building. Since the 86th Floor (mentioned in the Savage stories as his floor) was the Observatory, one may presume that Doc \"actually\" lived on another floor. * In the series, \"Percy Jackson & the Olympians\", Rick Riordan shows the Empire State Building as the headquarters of the Olympian Gods, where the Greek Gods live and also hold their meetings. * In the 1961 children's novel James and the Giant Peach by Roald Dahl, the giant peach is dropped onto the lightning rod of the Empire State Building at the end. This novel was later adapted in a film under the same name in 1996, which features the same part where the peach falls on to the Building's antenna. * In the sci-fi/alternate history series of novels Wild Cards, the 86th floor is the location of New York's premier chic restaurant, Aces High, a very popular hangout for the superpowered aces.","Empire State Building\n\nOther","Empire State Building\n\n* A scale model built from 12,000 LEGO bricks over 250 hours is featured along with other notable buildings in the LEGO Architecture: Towering Ambition exhibition at the National Building Museum in Washington, D.C. \n*The Empire State Building Run-Up is a foot race from ground level to the 86th-floor observation deck that has been held annually since 1978. Its participants are referred to both as runners and as climbers, and are often tower running enthusiasts. The race covers a vertical distance of 1,050 feet (320 m) and takes in 1,576 steps. The record time is 9 minutes and 33 seconds, achieved by Australian professional cyclist Paul Crake in 2003, at a climbing rate of 6593 ft per hour.","Empire State Building\n\nNotable tenants","Empire State Building\n\nCurrent","Empire State Building\n\n* Air China, Suite 6905 \n* Boy Scouts of America, Greater New York Councils, Suite 430 \n* Coty \n* Croatian National Tourist Board, Suite 4003 \n* Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation \n* Filipino Reporter, Suite 1007 \n* Human Rights Foundation, Suite 4515 \n* Human Rights Watch, 34th Floor \n* Kaplan International Center, 63rd Floor \n* Li & Fung \n* LinkedIn","Empire State Building\n\n*Media General\n* Noven Pharmaceuticals \n* People's Daily \n* Polish Cultural Institute, Suite 4621 \n* Qatar Airways, Suite 7630 \n* Turkish Airlines \n* World Monuments Fund, Suite 2412","Empire State Building\n\nFormer\n* The King's College (now located at 56 Broadway) \n* China National Tourist Office (now located at 370 Lexington Avenue) \n* National Film Board of Canada (now located at 1123 Broadway) \n* Nathaniel Branden Institute \n* Schenley","Empire State Building\n\nGallery","Empire State Building\n\nFile:Empire State Building (from Washington Square Park) 2.JPG|As seen from Washington Square Park\nFile:Empire State from ground.jpg|As seen from ground level on 35th Street\nFile:EmpireStateBldg2011.JPG|As seen from Broadway and 21st Street\nFile:Empirestatebuildingsunset.jpg|As seen from the distance at sunset\nFile:New York City Empire State 2010.jpg|View from Weehawken, New Jersey\nFile:USA-NYC-Empire State0.JPG|Street-level side view, 2013\nFile:USA-NYC-Empire State1.JPG|Griffin sculptures over front entrance, 2013","Empire State Building\n\nFile:Empire State Building up.jpg|Looking up from the observation deck\nFile:Looking down from Empire State Building.jpg|Looking down\nFile:EmpireStateBuildingtotimessquare.JPG|Looking toward Times Square","Empire State Building\n\nFile:Empire State Building Lobby Mural.jpg|Mural of the building, located in the lobby\nFile:ESB Elevators.JPG|Art deco elevators in the lobby","Empire State Building\n\nFile:Souvenirempirestate.JPG|Building souvenir","Empire State Building\n\nFile:EmpireStateNight.jpg|Lit in red and green lights for Christmas, as seen from the GE Building\nFile:Empire State Building mit Weihnachtsbeleuchtung.JPG|With Christmas lights\nFile:Empire State Building yellow.jpg|Lit in yellow to promote The Simpsons Movie home video release\nFile:Empire State Building 1 Oct 2009.jpg|Lit in yellow and red during the 60th anniversary of the PRC\nFile:Empire State Building Blue Obama Election.JPG|Lit in blue after Barack Obama was declared winner of the 2012 United States Presidential Election (in the US, red commonly represents Republicans, blue for Democrats)"],"string":"[\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nNew York City, the most populous city in the United States, is home to 6,154 completed high-rises, 112 of which are 600 ft or taller. The tallest building in New York is One World Trade Center, which rises 1776 ft. The 104-story skyscraper also stands as the tallest building in the United States, the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, and the sixth-tallest building in the world. The second tallest building in the city is 432 Park Avenue, standing at 1396 ft, and the third tallest is the 102-story Empire State Building in Midtown Manhattan, which was finished in 1931 and rises to 1250 ft, increased to 1454 ft by its antenna. It also is the fifth-tallest building in the United States and the 25th-tallest building in the world.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nThe Empire State Building stood as the tallest building in the world from its completion until 1972, when the 110-story North Tower of the original World Trade Center was completed. At 1368 ft, The World Trade Center briefly held the title as the world's tallest building until the completion of the 108-story Sears Tower (now known as the Willis Tower) in Chicago in 1974. The World Trade Center towers were destroyed by terrorist attacks in 2001, and the Empire State Building regained the title of tallest building in the City. It remained the tallest until April 2012, when the construction on One World Trade Center surpassed it. The fourth-tallest building in New York is the Bank of America Tower, which rises to 1200 ft, including its spire. Tied for fifth-tallest are the 1046 ft Chrysler Building, which was the world's tallest building from 1930 until 1931, and the New York Times Building, which was completed in 2007.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nNew York City skyscrapers are concentrated in Midtown and Lower Manhattan, although other neighborhoods of Manhattan and the boroughs of Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx also have a few high-rises. , the entire city has 241 buildings that rise at least 500 ft in height, including those under construction, more than any other city in the United States.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nSince 2003, New York City has seen the completion of that rise at least 600 ft in height, including One World Trade Center, which became the tallest building in the country when completed. 20 more are under construction. One World Trade Center is part of the redevelopment of the World Trade Center, which also includes the 975 ft 4 World Trade Center, 7 World Trade Center and the two under-construction buildings: the 1350 ft 2 World Trade Center and the 1171 ft 3 World Trade Center.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nOverall, , there were buildings under construction or proposed for construction in New York City.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nThe history of skyscrapers in New York City began with the completion of the World Building in 1890; the structure rose to 348 ft. Though not the city's first high-rise, it was the first building to surpass the 284 ft spire of Trinity Church. The World Building, which stood as the tallest in the city until 1899, was demolished in 1955 to allow for the construction of an expanded entrance to the Brooklyn Bridge.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nNew York has played a prominent role in the development of the skyscraper; since 1890, eleven structures in the city having held the title of world's tallest building. New York City went through a very early high-rise construction boom that lasted from the early 1910s through the early 1930s, during which 16 of the city's 82 tallest buildings were built—including the Woolworth Building, the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building, the Chrysler Building and the Empire State Building, each of which was the tallest in the world at the time of its completion, the latter remaining so for forty years.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nA second skyscraper boom began in the early 1960s. Since then, the city has seen the completion of nearly 70 structures rising at least 600 ft high, including the twin towers of the World Trade Center. One World Trade Center, also known as the North Tower, was the tallest building in the world from 1972 until 1973 and the tallest building in New York City until 2001. The North Tower, as well as the other six buildings in the World Trade Center complex, were destroyed in the September 11 attacks of 2001. One World Trade Center began construction in 2006 as the lead building of the new World Trade Center complex; upon its topping out in May 2013, the 1776 ft skyscraper surpassed the Willis Tower to become the tallest building in the United States.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nTallest buildings\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nThis list ranks completed and topped out New York City skyscrapers that stand at least 600 ft tall, based on standard height measurement. This includes spires and architectural details but does not include antenna masts. An equal sign (=) following a rank indicates the same height between two or more buildings. An asterisk (*) indicates that the building is still under construction, but has been topped out. The \\\"Year\\\" column indicates the year in which a building was completed.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nTallest buildings by pinnacle height\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nThis lists ranks buildings in New York City based on pinnacle height measurement, which includes antenna masts. Standard architectural height measurement, which excludes non-architectural antennas in building height, is included for comparative purposes. An equal sign (=) following a rank indicates the same height between two or more buildings. The \\\"Year\\\" column indicates the year in which a building was completed.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nTallest buildings in each borough\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nThis lists the tallest building in each borough of New York City based on standard height measurement. The \\\"Year\\\" column indicates the year in which a building was completed.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nTallest under construction or proposed\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nUnder construction\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nThis lists buildings that are currently under construction in New York City and are expected to rise to a height of at least 600 ft. Buildings under construction that have already been topped out are also included, as are those whose construction has been suspended. For buildings whose heights have not yet been released by their developers, this table uses a floor count of 50 stories as the cutoff.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\n* Table entries with dashes (—) indicate that information regarding expected building heights or dates of completion has not yet been released.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nProposed\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nThis table lists buildings that are proposed for construction in New York City and are expected to rise at least 600 ft in height. For buildings whose heights have not yet been released by their developers, this table uses a floor count of 50 stories as the cutoff.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\n* Table entries with dashes (—) indicate that information regarding building heights or dates of completion has not yet been released.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nTallest destroyed\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nThis table lists buildings in New York City that were destroyed or demolished and at one time stood at least 500 ft in height.\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nTimeline of tallest buildings\",\n \"List of tallest buildings in New York City\\n\\nThis lists buildings that once held the title of tallest building in New York City. Both Trinity Church and the Empire State Building have held the title twice, the latter following the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11 attacks. The Empire State Building was surpassed by One World Trade Center in 2012.\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nThe following events occurred in May 1931:\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 1, 1931 (Friday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*The Empire State Building, the tallest building in the world, opened in New York City. At 11:30 a.m., President Hoover pressed a button in the White House that turned on the lights of all 102 stories. \\n*The comedy film The Millionaire starring George Arliss was released. \\n*Born: Maya Belenkaya, figure skater, in Leningrad, USSR\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 2, 1931 (Saturday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*A mock air raid was conducted over Toulon, France. Although the military maneuvers were called off after two hours due to bad weather, it sufficiently demonstrated to military experts that the important naval base would have been reduced to ruins by a fleet of 150 bombers had the attack been real. \\n*Died: George Fisher Baker, 91, American banker and philanthropist\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 3, 1931 (Sunday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*In elections in Schaumburg-Lippe, the Social Democrats remained the largest party with 44.6% of the vote, but the Nazi Party came in second with 26.9%. \\n*Club Français defeated SO Montpellier 3-0 in the Coupe de France Final.\\n*Born: Aldo Rossi, architect and designer, in Milan, Italy (d. 2007)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 4, 1931 (Monday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Mustafa Kemal was re-elected President of Turkey by the National Assembly. \\n*The United States Treasury estimated its budget deficit for 1930-31 at about $903 million. \\n*The Jewish Party, a splinter faction of the Union of Romanian Jews, was founded in Romania.\\n*Born: Richard Williams, jazz trumpeter, in Galveston, Texas (d. 1985)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 5, 1931 (Tuesday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Battle of Evarts: Three deputies and a miner were killed in a gun battle in Harlan County, Kentucky. It was one in a series of violent coal mining-related incidents in the region known as the Harlan County War.\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 6, 1931 (Wednesday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*The Paris Colonial Exposition opened.\\n*The Soviet Union and Lithuania renewed their non-aggression pact of 1926. \\n*Born: Willie Mays, baseball player, in Westfield, Alabama\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 7, 1931 (Thursday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*325 National Guardsmen were dispatched to Harlan County, Kentucky, under orders to \\\"protect those who behave themselves and take charge of those who do not.\\\" \\n*Born: Teresa Brewer, pop singer, in Toledo, Ohio (d. 2007); Siddika Kabir, nutritionist, cookbook author and cooking show television host, in Dhaka, British India (d. 2012)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 8, 1931 (Friday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*In the Weimar Republic of Germany, prosecution of Adolf Hitler by Hans Litten for complicity in manslaughter committed by members of the Sturmabteilung at the Tanzpalast Eden (\\\"Eden Dance Palace\\\") in Berlin in 1930 was dismissed. \\n*The Spanish provisional government decreed that religious instruction was no longer compulsory in schools.\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 9, 1931 (Saturday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Mate won the Preakness Stakes. \\n*A huge building exposition, one of the largest ever held at 32 acres in size, opened in Berlin. \\n*Died: Albert A. Michelson, 78, American physicist and Nobel laureate\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 10, 1931 (Sunday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Rioting broke out between monarchists and republicans in Madrid. \\n*Hermann Göring met with Benito Mussolini in Rome. \\n*Born: Ichirō Nagai, anime voice actor, in Ikeda, Osaka, Japan (d. 2014)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 11, 1931 (Monday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*The Creditanstalt Bank in Vienna failed, leading to a national currency crisis as investors began pulling their funds from Austrian banks and moving them to other countries. \\n*Four Roman Catholic convents were burned during the night by anticlerical rioters in Madrid. \\n*The Fritz Lang-directed film M premiered in Berlin.\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 12, 1931 (Tuesday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*The Civil Guard was called into Madrid to stop the burning of convents.\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 13, 1931 (Wednesday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Paul Doumer was elected President of France by parliament. \\n*The International Olympic Committee officially awarded the 1936 Summer Olympics to Berlin.\\n*Born: Jim Jones, cult leader, in Randolph County, Indiana (d. 1978); Jiří Petr, agroscientist and university professor, in Hradec Králové, Czecheslovakia (d. 2014)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 14, 1931 (Thursday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*The Bank of England's lending rate was cut to 2.5%, its lowest rate in 22 years.\\n*In Bologna, the conductor Arturo Toscanini was assaulted by a Fascist youth for refusing to play Giovinezza at the beginning of a concert devoted to the 75th birthday of Giuseppe Martucci. Toscanini escaped into a car and returned to his hotel; the concert was postponed. \\n*Born: Alvin Lucier, composer, in Nashua, New Hampshire\\n*Died: David Belasco, 77, American Broadway impresario, theater owner and playwright\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 15, 1931 (Friday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Pope Pius XI issued the encyclical Quadragesimo anno.\\n*Mahatma Gandhi announced he would attend the second Round Table Conference on Indian independence in London. \\n*Born: Joseph A. Califano, Jr., Chairman of the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, in Brooklyn, New York; Ken Venturi, golfer, in San Francisco, California (d. 2013)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 16, 1931 (Saturday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Twenty Grand won the Kentucky Derby. \\n*Albert Einstein delivered a lecture at Rhodes House in Oxford, at which the blackboard was saved. \\n*Born: Jack Dodson, actor, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (d. 1994); Natwar Singh, politician, in Jaghina, Bharatpur, British India\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 17, 1931 (Sunday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*The Nazi Party won Landtag elections in Oldenburg with 37.2% of the vote. It was the first time the Nazis became the largest party in a Landtag. \\n*Born: Marshall Applewhite, cult leader, in Spur, Texas (d. 1997)\\n*Died: Timothy Cole, 78 or 79, American wood engraver\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 18, 1931 (Monday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*The United States Supreme Court decided Stromberg v. California, overturning a California court decision convicting a 19-year-old communist of breaking a state law against displaying a red flag. \\n*The U.S. Supreme Court decided Burnet v. Logan.\\n*Born: Don Martin, cartoonist, in Paterson, New Jersey (d. 2000); Robert Morse, actor and singer, in Newton, Massachusetts\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 19, 1931 (Tuesday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*The German cruiser was launched at Kiel. It accidentally slid into the water ahead of schedule before President Hindenburg had a chance to smash a bottle of champagne against its prow. \\n*Joseph Stalin announced the second five-year plan for the Soviet economy.\\n*Born: Éric Tappy, Swiss operatic tenor, in Switzerland\\n*Died: Ralph Barton, 39, American caricaturist (suicide)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 20, 1931 (Wednesday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*A report by International Labour Office Director General Albert Thomas was publicized, estimating that 20 million people were out of work around the world, double the numbers of one year ago. \\n*Fascist authorities confiscated the passport of Arturo Toscanini and essentially placed him under house arrest. \\n*Born: Ken Boyer, baseball player, in Liberty, Missouri (d. 1982)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 21, 1931 (Thursday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Peder Kolstad became Prime Minister of Norway.\\n*The horror-fantasy radio series The Witch's Tale first aired on New York's WOR. \\n*Died: Charlie Poole, 39, American country musician (heart attack)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 22, 1931 (Friday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*The Spanish provisional government granted equal freedom to all religions.\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 23, 1931 (Saturday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Commemorating the fortieth anniversary of the encyclical Rerum novarum, Pope Pius XI published a lengthy message in L'Osservatore Romano calling the modern business world cruel and corrupting of the working class. \\n*The University of Oxford awarded Albert Einstein an honorary doctorate. \\n*The Whipsnade Zoo opened in Bedfordshire, England.\\n*Born: Barbara Barrie, actress, in Chicago, Illinois; Patience Cleveland, actress, in New York City\\n*Died: Aldred Scott Warthin, 64, American pathologist\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 24, 1931 (Sunday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*In São Paulo, composer Heitor Villa-Lobos presented the first of his Civic Exhortations, performed by 12,000 voices.\\n*The Alfa Romeo works team pairing of Giuseppe Campari and Tazio Nuvolari won the Italian Grand Prix.\\n*The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) introduced the first completely air-conditioned passenger train, the Columbian, running between Washington and New York. \\n*Born: Clint Ballard, Jr., songwriter, in El Paso, Texas (d. 2008); Ricky Romero, professional wrestler, in San Bernardino, California (d. 2006)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 25, 1931 (Monday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*The The Royal British Legion voted to refer to November 11 as \\\"Remembrance Day\\\" rather than \\\"Armistice Day\\\". \\n*Born: Georgy Grechko, cosmonaut, in Leningrad, USSR\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 26, 1931 (Tuesday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Serge Koussevitzky sent a telegram to the management of La Scala in Milan, explaining he would postpone his scheduled June performance there until the Italian government apologized to Arturo Toscanini over the events at Bologna.\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 27, 1931 (Wednesday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*In Augsburg, Germany, Professor Auguste Piccard and physicist Paul Kipfer took off in an airtight ball attached to a hydrogen balloon in an attempt to be the first to reach the Earth's stratosphere. They attained an altitude of 15,606 m (51,200 ft) and then landed in the Austrian Alps after more than eighteen hours in the air. \\n*Between 2,000 and 3,000 Japanese railway workers went on strike in protest against proposed salary reductions.\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 28, 1931 (Thursday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Three were killed in fighting between communists and Nazis in Hagen. \\n*Born: Carroll Baker, actress, in Johnstown, Pennsylvania; Eric Von Schmidt, folk and blues musician, in Bridgeport, Connecticut (d. 2007); Peter Westergaard, composer and music theorist, in Champaign, Illinois; Gordon Willis, cinematographer, in Astoria, New York (d. 2014)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 29, 1931 (Friday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Texas Guinan and her ensemble of entertainers were refused entry into France for failing to get a work permit before departing New York. \\\"Hell! What have I done to be treated like this?\\\" Guinan fumed. \\\"I entertained at the front during the war on a permit signed by President Wilson. Why ain't I good enough to come here and sing now?\\\" \\n*Died: Michele Schirru, 31, Italian-born American anarchist (executed by firing squad for plotting to assassinate Mussolini)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 30, 1931 (Saturday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*Fascist Italy suspended the Azione Cattolica.\\n*Louis Schneider won the Indianapolis 500.\\n*William \\\"Red\\\" Hill went over Niagara Falls in a barrel for the third time. After going over, the barrel was stuck in a whirlpool for almost three hours until it floated free and Hill could be rescued by his son, William Jr. \\n*Born: John O'Brien, priest, in Kilrush, Ireland (d. 2008)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\nMay 31, 1931 (Sunday)\",\n \"May 1931\\n\\n*150,000 Stahlhelm hailed Crown Prince Wilhelm during their twelfth annual convention in Breslau. \\n*Born: John Robert Schrieffer, physicist and Nobel laureate, in Oak Park, Illinois; Shirley Verrett, mezzo-soprano, in New Orleans, Louisiana (d. 2010)\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe Empire State Building is a 102-storyDepending on the source, the floor count of the Empire State Building is variously cited as 102 or 103. The sources cited here all state 102. See here for a detailed explanation. skyscraper located in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, on Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets. It has a roof height of 1,250 feet (381 m), and with its antenna spire included, it stands a total of 1454 ft high. Its name is derived from the nickname for New York, the Empire State. It stood as the world's tallest building for nearly 40 years, from its completion in early 1931 until the topping out of the original World Trade Center's North Tower in late 1970. Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building was again the tallest building in New York, until One World Trade Center reached a greater height in April 2012. The Empire State Building is currently the fifth-tallest completed skyscraper in the United States and the 29th-tallest in the world. It is also the fifth-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas. When measured by pinnacle height, it is the fourth-tallest building in the United States.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe Empire State Building is an American cultural icon. It is designed in the distinctive Art Deco style and has been named as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The building and its street floor interior are designated landmarks of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, and confirmed by the New York City Board of Estimate. It was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. In 2007, it was ranked number one on the AIA's List of America's Favorite Architecture.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe building is owned by the Empire State Realty Trust, of which Anthony Malkin serves as Chairman, CEO and President. In 2010, the Empire State Building underwent a $550 million renovation, with $120 million spent to transform the building into a more energy efficient and eco-friendly structure. The Empire State Building is the tallest Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)-certified building in the United States, having received a gold LEED rating in September 2011.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe site of the Empire State Building was first developed as the John Thompson Farm in the late 18th century. At the time, a stream ran across the site, emptying into Sunfish Pond, located a block away. Beginning in the late 19th century, the block was occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, frequented by The Four Hundred, the social elite of New York.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe limestone for the Empire State Building came from the Empire Mill in Sanders, Indiana which is an unincorporated town adjacent to Bloomington, Indiana. The Empire Mill Land office is near State Road 37 and Old State Road 37 just south of Bloomington. The Bloomington, Bedford, and Oolitic area is known locally as the limestone capital of the world.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nDesign and construction\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe Empire State Building was designed by William F. Lamb from the architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, which produced the building drawings in just two weeks, using its earlier designs for the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and the Carew Tower in Cincinnati, Ohio (designed by the architectural firm W. W. Ahlschlager & Associates) as a basis. Every year the staff of the Empire State Building sends a Father's Day card to the staff at the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem to pay homage to its role as predecessor to the Empire State Building. The building was designed from the top down. The general contractors were The Starrett Brothers and Eken, and the project was financed primarily by John J. Raskob and Pierre S. du Pont. The construction company was chaired by Alfred E. Smith, a former Governor of New York and James Farley's General Builders Supply Corporation supplied the building materials. John W. Bowser was project construction superintendent.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nExcavation of the site began on January 22, 1930, and construction on the building itself started on March 17—St. Patrick's Day—per Al Smith's influence as Empire State, Inc. president. The project involved 3,400 workers, mostly immigrants from Europe, along with hundreds of Mohawk iron workers, many from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. According to official accounts, five workers died during the construction. Governor Smith's grandchildren cut the ribbon on May 1, 1931. Lewis Wickes Hine's photography of the construction provides not only invaluable documentation of the construction, but also a glimpse into common day life of workers in that era.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe construction was part of an intense competition in New York for the title of \\\"world's tallest building\\\". Two other projects fighting for the title, 40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building, were still under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. Each held the title for less than a year, as the Empire State Building surpassed them upon its completion, on April 11, 1931, 12 days ahead of schedule, just 410 days after construction commenced. The building was officially opened on May 1, 1931 in dramatic fashion, when United States President Herbert Hoover turned on the building's lights with the push of a button from Washington, D.C. Ironically, the first use of tower lights atop the Empire State Building, the following year, was for the purpose of signaling the victory of Franklin D. Roosevelt over Hoover in the presidential election of November 1932.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nOpening\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe building's opening coincided with the Great Depression in the United States, and as a result much of its office space was initially unrented. The building's vacancy was exacerbated by its poor location on 34th Street, which placed it relatively far from public transportation, as Grand Central Terminal and Penn Station, built decades beforehand, are several blocks away, as is the more recently built Port Authority Bus Terminal. Other more successful skyscrapers, such as the Chrysler Building, did not have this problem. In its first year of operation, the observation deck took in approximately 2 million dollars, as much money as its owners made in rent that year. The lack of renters led New Yorkers to deride the building as the \\\"Empty State Building\\\". The building only became profitable in 1950. The 1951 sale of the Empire State Building to Roger L. Stevens and his business partners was brokered by the prominent upper Manhattan real-estate firm Charles F. Noyes & Company for a record $51 million. At the time, that was the highest price paid for a single structure in real-estate history.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nIncidents\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\n1945 plane crash\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nAt 9:40 am on Saturday, July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber, piloted in thick fog by Lieutenant Colonel William Franklin Smith, Jr., crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors, where the offices of the National Catholic Welfare Council were located. One engine shot through the side opposite the impact and flew as far as the next block, where it landed on the roof of a nearby building, starting a fire that destroyed a penthouse. The other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft. The resulting fire was extinguished in 40 minutes. Fourteen people were killed in the incident. Elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver survived a plunge of 75 stories inside an elevator, which still stands as the Guinness World Record for the longest survived elevator fall recorded. Despite the damage and loss of life, the building was open for business on many floors on the following Monday. The crash helped spur the passage of the long-pending Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, as well as the insertion of retroactive provisions into the law, allowing people to sue the government for the incident.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nA year later, another aircraft narrowly missed striking the building.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nSuicide attempts\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nOver the years, more than 30 people have attempted suicide, most successfully, by jumping from the upper parts of the building. The first suicide occurred even before its completion, by a worker who had been laid off. The fence around the observatory terrace was put up in 1947 after five people tried to jump during a three-week span.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nOn May 1, 1947, 23-year-old Evelyn McHale leapt to her death from the 86th floor observation deck and landed on a limousine parked at the curb. Photography student Robert Wiles took a photo of McHale's oddly intact corpse a few minutes after her death. The police found a suicide note among possessions she left on the observation deck: \\\"He is much better off without me ... I wouldn’t make a good wife for anybody\\\". The photo ran in the edition of May 12, 1947 of Life magazine, and is often referred to as \\\"The Most Beautiful Suicide\\\". It was later used by visual artist Andy Warhol in one of his prints entitled Suicide (Fallen Body).\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nIn December 1943, ex-United States Navy gunner's mate William Lloyd Rambo jumped to his death, landing amidst Christmas shoppers on the street below.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nOnly one person has jumped from the upper observatory: on November 3, 1932, Frederick Eckert, of Astoria, ran past a guard in the enclosed 102nd floor gallery and jumped a gate leading to an outdoor catwalk intended for dirigible passengers. Eckert's body landed on the roof of the 86th floor observation promenade.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nTwo people have survived jumps, in both cases by not managing to fall more than a floor: On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto a ledge on the 85th floor by a gust of wind and left with a broken hip. On April 25, 2013, a man, who is presumed to have jumped, fell from the 86th floor observation deck but landed alive on an 85th floor ledge – where security guards managed to bring him inside; he suffered only minor injuries.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nShootings\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nTwo major shooting incidents have occurred at or in front of the Empire State Building.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nOn February 23, 1997, at about 5 p.m. EST, a gunman shot seven people on the 86th floor observation deck. Abu Kamal, a 69-year-old Palestinian teacher, killed one person and wounded six others, supposedly in response to events happening in Palestine and Israel, before committing suicide.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nOn August 24, 2012 at about 9 a.m. EDT, on the sidewalk at the Fifth Avenue side of the building, a gunman shot and killed a former co-worker from a workplace that had laid him off in 2011. When two police officers confronted the gunman, 58-year-old Jeffrey T. Johnson, he aimed his firearm at them. They responded by firing 16 shots at Johnson, killing him but also wounding nine bystanders, most of whom were hit by fragments, although three took direct hits from bullets.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nArchitecture\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nInterior\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe Empire State Building rises to 1250 ft at the 102nd floor, and including the 203 ft pinnacle, its full height reaches 1453 ft. The building has 85 stories of commercial and office space representing 2158000 sqft of rentable space. It has an indoor and outdoor observation deck on the 86th floor. The remaining 16 stories represent the Art Deco tower, which is capped by a 102nd-floor observatory. Atop the tower is the 203 ft pinnacle, much of which is covered by broadcast antennas, with a lightning rod at the very top.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe Empire State Building was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It has 6,500 windows and 73 elevators, and there are 1,860 steps from street level to the 102nd floor. It has a total floor area of 2768591 sqft; the base of the Empire State Building is about 2 acre. The building houses 1,000 businesses and has its own ZIP code, 10118. As of 2007, approximately 21,000 employees work in the building each day, making the Empire State Building the second-largest single office complex in America, after the Pentagon. The building was completed in one year and 45 days. Its original 64 elevators are located in a central core; today, the Empire State Building has 73 elevators in all, including service elevators. It takes less than one minute by elevator to get to the 80th floor, which contains a gift shop and an exhibit detailing the building's construction. From there, visitors can take another elevator or climb the stairs to the 86th floor, where an outdoor observation deck is located. The building has 70 mi of pipe, 2500000 ft of electrical wire, and about 9,000 faucets.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nIt is heated by low-pressure steam; despite its height, the building only requires between 2 and of steam pressure for heating. It weighs approximately 370000 ST. The exterior of the building is clad in Indiana limestone panels.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe Empire State Building cost $40,948,900 to build (equivalent to $ in ). Long-term forecasting of the life cycle of the structure was implemented at the design phase to ensure that the building's future intended uses were not restricted by the requirements of previous generations. This is particularly evident in the over-design of the building's electrical system.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe building's art deco design is typical of pre–World War II architecture in New York. The modernistic stainless steel canopies of the entrances on 33rd and 34th Streets lead to two story-high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel and glass-enclosed bridges at the second-floor level. The elevator core contains 67 elevators.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe lobby is three stories high and features an aluminum relief of the skyscraper without the antenna, which was not added to the spire until 1952. The north corridor contained eight illuminated panels, created by Roy Sparkia and Renée Nemorov in 1963 in time for the 1964 World's Fair, which depicts the building as the Eighth Wonder of the World, alongside the traditional seven. These panels were eventually moved near a ticketing line for the observation deck.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nUntil the 1960s, the ceilings in the lobby had a shiny art deco mural inspired by both the sky and the Machine Age, until it was covered with ceiling tiles and fluorescent lighting. Because the original murals, designed by an artist named Leif Neandross, were damaged, reproductions were installed. Over 50 artists and workers used 15,000 square feet of aluminum and 1,300 square feet of 23-carat gold leaf to re-create the mural. Renovations to the lobby alluded to original plans for the building; replacing the clock over the information desk in the Fifth Avenue lobby with an anemometer, as well as installing two chandeliers originally intended to be part of the building when it first opened. In 2000, the building's owners installed a series of paintings by the New York artist Kysa Johnson in the concourse level. In January 2014 the artist filed suit in federal court in New York under the Visual Artists Rights Act, alleging the negligent destruction of the paintings and damage to her reputation as an artist.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe building's lobbies and common areas received a $550 million renovation in 2009, which included new air conditioning, waterproofing, and renovating the observation deck; moving the gift shop to the 80th floor. Of this, $120 million was spent in an effort to transform the building into a more energy efficient and eco-friendly structure. For example, the 6,500 windows were remanufactured onsite into superwindows which block heat but pass light. Air conditioning operating costs on hot days were reduced and this saved $17 million of the project's capital cost immediately, partly funding other retrofitting. Receiving a gold Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating in September 2011, the Empire State Building is the tallest LEED certified building in the United States.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nFeatures\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nAbove the 102nd floor\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nOn the 102nd floor of the Empire State Building there is a door with stairs ascending to the 103rd floor. This was built as a disembarkation floor for airships tethered to the building's spire, and has a circular balcony outside. It is now a hot spot for celebrities, and an access point to reach the spire for maintenance. The room now contains electrical equipment. Above the 103rd floor, there is a set of stairs and a ladder to reach the spire for maintenance work.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe building's Art Deco spire was designed to be a mooring mast and depot for dirigibles.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nAn elevator between the 86th and 102nd floors would carry passengers after they checked in on the 86th floor. The idea proved impractical and dangerous, due to the powerful updrafts caused by the building itself, as well as the lack of mooring lines tying the other end of the craft to the ground. The building's design was expanded to include the mooring mast as part of a competition for the world's tallest building.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nA large broadcast tower was added atop the spire in the early 1950s, to support the transmission antennas of several television and FM stations. Until then, NBC had exclusive rights to the site, and – beginning in 1931 – built various, smaller antennas for their television transmissions.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nBroadcast stations\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nNew York City is the largest media market in the United States. Since the September 11 attacks, nearly all of the city's commercial broadcast stations (both television and FM radio) have transmitted from the top of the Empire State Building, although a few FM stations are located at the nearby Condé Nast Building. Most New York City AM stations broadcast from sites across the Hudson River in New Jersey or from other surrounding areas.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nBroadcasting began at the Empire State Building on December 22, 1931, when RCA began transmitting experimental television broadcasts from a small antenna erected atop the spire. They leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there, and—in 1934—RCA was joined by Edwin Howard Armstrong in a cooperative venture to test his FM system from the building's antenna. When Armstrong and RCA fell out in 1935 and his FM equipment was removed, the 85th floor became the home of RCA's New York television operations, first as experimental station W2XBS channel 1, which eventually became (on July 1, 1941) commercial station WNBT, channel 1 (now WNBC-TV channel 4). NBC's FM station (WEAF-FM, now WQHT) began transmitting from the antenna in 1940. NBC retained exclusive use of the top of the building until 1950, when the FCC ordered the exclusive deal broken, based on consumer complaints that a common location was necessary for the (now) seven New York-area television stations (five licensed to New York City, NY, one licensed to Newark, NJ, and one licensed to Secaucus, NJ) to transmit from so that receiving antennas would not have to be constantly adjusted. Construction on a giant tower began.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nOther television broadcasters then joined RCA at the building, on the 83rd, 82nd, and 81st floors, frequently bringing sister FM stations along for the ride. Multiple transmissions of TV and FM began from the new tower in 1951. In 1965, a separate set of FM antennas was constructed ringing the 103rd floor observation area to act as a master antenna. When the World Trade Center was being constructed, it caused serious reception problems for the television stations, most of which then moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed. This made it possible to renovate the antenna structure and the transmitter facilities for the benefit of the FM stations remaining there, which were soon joined by other FMs and UHF TVs moving in from elsewhere in the metropolitan area. The destruction of the World Trade Center necessitated a great deal of shuffling of antennas and transmitter rooms to accommodate the stations moving back uptown.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nAs of 2012, the Empire State Building is home to the following stations:\\n* Television broadcasting: WCBS-2, WNBC-4, WNYW-5, WABC-7, WWOR-9 Secaucus, WPIX-11, WNET-13 Newark, WNYE-25, WPXN-31, WXTV-41 Paterson, WNJU-47 Linden and WFUT-68 Newark\\n* FM broadcasting: WBMP-92.3, WPAT-93.1 Paterson, WNYC-93.9, WPLJ-95.5, WXNY-96.3, WQHT-97.1, WSKQ-97.9, WEPN-98.7, WBAI-99.5, WHTZ-100.3 Newark, WCBS-101.1, WFAN-101.9, WNEW-FM-102.7, WKTU-103.5 Lake Success, WAXQ-104.3, WWPR-105.1, WQXR-105.9 Newark, WLTW-106.7 and WBLS-107.5\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nObservation decks\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe Empire State Building has one of the most popular outdoor observatories in the world, having been visited by over 110 million people. The 86th-floor observation deck offers impressive 360-degree views of the city. There is a second observation deck on the 102nd floor that is open to the public. It was closed in 1999, but reopened in November 2005. It is completely enclosed and much smaller than the first one; it may be closed on high-traffic days. Tourists may pay to visit the observation deck on the 86th floor and an additional amount for the 102nd floor. The lines to enter the observation decks, according to Concierge.com, are \\\"as legendary as the building itself:\\\" there are five of them: the sidewalk line, the lobby elevator line, the ticket purchase line, the second elevator line, and the line to get off the elevator and onto the observation deck. For an extra fee tourists can skip to the front of the line. The Empire State Building makes more money from tickets sales for its observation decks than it does from renting office space.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe skyscraper's observation deck plays host to several cinematic, television, and literary classics including, An Affair To Remember, On the Town, Love Affair and Sleepless in Seattle. In the Latin American literary classic, Giannina Braschi's Empire of Dreams the observation deck is the site of a pastoral revolution; shepherds take over the City of New York. The deck was also the site of a publicity-stunt Martian invasion in an episode of I Love Lucy (\\\"Lucy Is Envious\\\", season 3, episode 25).\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nNew York Skyride\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe Empire State Building also has a motion simulator attraction located on the 2nd floor. Opened in 1994 as a complement to the observation deck, the New York Sky ride (or NY Sky ride) is a simulated aerial tour over the city. The cinematic presentation lasts approximately 25 minutes. As of May 2013, tickets are Adults $57, Children $42, Seniors $49.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nSince its opening, the ride has gone through two incarnations. The original version, which ran from 1994 until around 2002, featured James Doohan, Star Trek's Scotty, as the airplane's pilot, who humorously tried to keep the flight under control during a storm, with the tour taking an unexpected route through the subway, Coney Island, and FAO Schwartz, among other places. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, however, the ride was closed, and an updated version debuted in mid-2002 with actor Kevin Bacon as the pilot. The new version of the narration attempted to make the attraction more educational, and included some minor post-9/11 patriotic undertones with retrospective footage of the World Trade Center. The new flight also goes haywire, but this segment is much shorter than in the original.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nLights\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nIn 1964, floodlights were added to illuminate the top of the building at night. Since 1976 the spire has been lit in colors chosen to match seasonal and other events, such as St. Patrick's Day, Christmas, Independence Day and Bastille Day. After the eightieth birthday and subsequent death of Frank Sinatra, for example, the building was bathed in blue light to represent the singer's nickname \\\"Ol' Blue Eyes\\\". After the death of actress Fay Wray (King Kong) in late 2004, the building stood in complete darkness for 15 minutes.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe floodlights bathed the building in red, white, and blue for several months after the destruction of the World Trade Center, then reverted to the standard schedule. On June 4, 2002, the Empire State Building donned purple and gold (the royal colors of Elizabeth II), in thanks for the United Kingdom playing the Star Spangled Banner during the Changing of the Guard at Buckingham Palace on September 12, 2001 (a show of support after the September 11 attacks). This would also be shown after the Westminster Dog Show. Traditionally, in addition to the standard schedule, the building will be lit in the colors of New York's sports teams on the nights they have home games (orange, blue and white for the New York Knicks, red, white and blue for the New York Rangers, and so on). The first weekend in June finds the building bathed in green light for the Belmont Stakes held in nearby Belmont Park. The building is illuminated in tennis-ball yellow during the US Open tennis tournament in late August and early September.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nIt was twice lit in scarlet to support nearby Rutgers University: once for a football game against the University of Louisville on November 9, 2006, and again on April 3, 2007 when the women's basketball team played in the national championship game. On January 13, 2012, the building was lit in red, orange, and yellow to honor the 60th anniversary of NBC's The Today Show making it the first time the building was illuminated to honor a television program. From June 1 to 3, 2012, the building was lit in blue and white, the colors of the Israeli flag, in honor of the 49th annual Celebrate Israel Parade.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nDuring 2012, the building's metal halide lamps and floodlights were replaced with LED fixtures, increasing the available colors from nine to over 16 million. The computer-controlled system allows the building to be illuminated in ways that were unable to be done previously with plastic gels. For instance, on November 6, 2012, CNN used the top of the Empire State Building as a scoreboard for the 2012 United States presidential election. When incumbent president Barack Obama had reached the 270 electoral votes necessary to win re-election, the lights turned blue. Had Republican challenger Mitt Romney won, the building would have been lit red. Also, on November 26, 2012, the building had its first ever synchronized light show, using music from recording artist Alicia Keys. Those wishing to hear the music could tune to certain radio stations in the New York area. A video of the performance was posted online the next day. In 2013 the lights were changed to Financial Times pink.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nIn the run-up week to Super Bowl XLVIII held at MetLife Stadium on February 2, 2014, the building was lit in a contest sponsored by the National Football League's wireless partner, Verizon Wireless to determine both the winner and fan support for the two teams via their team colors in the game through the #WhosGonnaWin Twitter hashtag, either the \\\"action green\\\" and navy blue of the Seattle Seahawks or orange and blue of the Denver Broncos, along with a light show during the game's halftime.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nHeight records and comparisons\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe Empire State Building remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for 23 years before it was surpassed by the Griffin Television Tower Oklahoma (KWTV Mast) in 1954. It was also the tallest free-standing structure in the world for 36 years before it was surpassed by the Ostankino Tower in 1967.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe longest world record held by the Empire State Building was for the tallest skyscraper (to structural height), which it held for 42 years until it was surpassed by the North Tower of the World Trade Center in 1972. An early-1970s proposal to dismantle the spire and replace it with an additional 11 floors, which would have brought the building's height to 1,494 feet (455 m) and made it once again the world's tallest at the time, was considered but ultimately rejected.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nWith the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11 attacks, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, and the second-tallest building in the Americas, surpassed only by the Willis Tower in Chicago. It is currently the fifth-tallest, surpassed by the Willis Tower, the Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago), 432 Park Avenue and the new One World Trade Center. One World Trade Center surpassed the roof height of the Empire State Building on April 30, 2012, and became the tallest building in New York City—on the way toward becoming the tallest building in the Americas at a planned 1,776 feet (541 m).\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe Empire State Building is currently the fifth-tallest completed skyscraper in the United States, after the One World Trade Center, 432 Park Avenue in New York City, the Willis Tower and Trump International Hotel and Tower, both in Chicago. It is also the 25th-tallest in the world, the tallest now is Burj Khalifa, located in Dubai. It is also the fifth-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nOn clear days, the building can be seen from much of the New York Metropolitan Area, and as far away as New Haven, Connecticut and Morristown, New Jersey.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nNeighboring Midtown Manhattan landmarks\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nThe Empire State Building anchors an area of Midtown which features other major Manhattan landmarks as well, including Macy's Herald Square, Koreatown, Penn Station, Madison Square Garden, and the Flower District. Together, these sites contribute to a significant volume of commuter and tourist pedestrian traffic traversing the southern portion of Midtown Manhattan.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nIn popular culture\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nFilm\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\n* Perhaps the most famous popular culture representation of the building is in King Kong (1933), in which the title character, a giant ape, climbs to the top to escape his captors but falls to his death after being attacked by airplanes. In 1983, for the film's fiftieth anniversary, a huge 90 ft tall inflatable Kong was placed on the building mast above the observation deck by artist Robert Vicino. In 2005, Peter Jackson's remake of King Kong was released, set in 1930s New York City, including a final showdown between Kong and biplanes atop a greatly detailed Empire State Building. (The 1976 remake of King Kong was set in a contemporary New York City and held its climactic scene on the towers of the World Trade Center.)\\n* Love Affair (1939) involves a couple who plan to meet atop the Empire State Building, a rendezvous that is prevented by an automobile accident. The film was remade in 1957 (as An Affair to Remember) and in 1994 (again as Love Affair). Sleepless in Seattle (1993), a romantic comedy partially inspired by An Affair to Remember, climaxes with scenes in the Empire State Building's lobby and observatory.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\n* In the Looney Tunes cartoon \\\"Much Ado About Nutting\\\", a squirrel has so much difficulty opening a coconut he carries it to the Empire State Building's observation deck and tosses it over the edge. While the street is damaged by the impact, the coconut remains intact. * In the 1946 Looney Tunes cartoon Baseball Bugs, Bugs Bunny is pitching in the Polo Grounds against the Gashouse Gorillas. In the bottom of the ninth, with two outs and Bugs protecting a one run lead, the opposition hits the ball out of the park for an apparent game-winning two-run homer. Bugs pursues the ball through New York City. The chase culminates at the \\\"Umpire State Building\\\". Bugs ascends to the top of the building by elevator and catches the ball for the third out, winning the game. * In the Tom and Jerry cartoon \\\"Mouse in Manhattan\\\", Jerry walks by and views the Empire State Building, along with other landmarks, including the Statue of Atlas at Rockefeller Center and Grand Central Terminal. * Andy Warhol's 1964 silent film Empire is one continuous, eight-hour black-and-white shot of the Empire State Building at night.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nIn 2004, the National Film Registry deemed its cultural significance worthy of preservation in the Library of Congress. * In Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief (2010), Mount Olympus is located over the Empire State Building, and there is a special elevator in the building to the \\\"600th floor\\\", which is supposed to be Olympus, just like in the book series. * The building is chosen as Ground Zero for the target of a nuclear bomb that is dropped on New York in Fail-Safe (1964). * Both Zero Mostel and Gene Wilder go to the Observation Deck of the building in the original Mel Brooks film The Producers. * In The Time Machine (2002), the Empire State Building is still standing in the year 2030, but dwarfed by several larger skyscrapers around it. It is not visible in later scenes set in a post-apocalyptic New York. * In Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow (2004), the top of the building serves its original purpose of being a docking station for dirigibles, and the Hindenburg III docks at it on its maiden voyage.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\n* The building starred in Enchanted (2007) which Giselle tried to rescue Robert from Queen Narissa in her dragon form. * Many films have opened with the Empire State Building, such as West Side Story (1961), Step Up 3D and The Other Guys (both 2010). * The building has been destroyed in some disaster films, such as Independence Day (1996) and Knowing (2009). * In The Divide (2011), the building is destroyed by a nuclear bomb detonated on New York. It was heavily featured on posters promoting the film. * In Superman II (1980), Ursa (Sarah Douglas) uses a flagpole to knock Superman (Christopher Reeve) into the tower of the Chrysler Building. He ducks with Non (Jack O'Halloran) taking the blast. However, scenes showing the tower falling and being flown back to the top by Superman are of the Empire State Building. * In The 5th Wave, the building happens to survive a massive tsunami that hits Manhattan during an alien invasion. * Many other films that feature the Empire State Building are listed on the building's own website.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nTelevision\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\n* In the 1965 four-part Underdog cartoon serial \\\"The Phoney Booths\\\" (episodes 49-52), Underdog falls under the mental control of mad scientist Simon Bar Sinister. Simon orders Underdog to use his super powers to bring him valuable objects - including the Empire State Building, which Underdog lifts whole to bring it to Simon. In the end, circumstances release Underdog from Simon’s control. He defeats the evil scientist and puts back the Empire State Building. * The Empire State Building featured in the 1966 Doctor Who serial The Chase, in which the TARDIS lands on the roof of the building; The Doctor and his companions leave quite quickly, however, because The Daleks are close behind them. A Dalek is also seen on the roof of the building while it interrogates a human. In 2007, Doctor Who episodes \\\"Daleks in Manhattan\\\" and \\\"Evolution of the Daleks\\\" also featured the building, which the Daleks are constructing to use as a lightning conductor. Russell T Davies said in an article that \\\"in his mind\\\", the Daleks remembered the building from their last visit.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\n* In the science fiction drama series Fringe, the observation deck of the Empire State Building serves its primary purpose as a docking station for zeppelins in the parallel universe shown in the second season episode Peter. * The Discovery Channel show MythBusters tested the urban myth which claims that if one drops a penny off the top of the Empire State Building, it could kill someone or put a crater in the pavement. The outcome was that, by the time the penny hits the ground, it is going roughly 65 mph (terminal velocity for an object of its mass and shape), which is not fast enough to inflict lethal injury or put a crater into the pavement. The urban legend is a joke in the 2003 musical Avenue Q, where a character waiting atop the building for a rendezvous tosses a penny over the side—only to hit her rival. * In Gerry Anderson's popular puppet series Thunderbirds, the episode Terror in New York City, the Empire State Building is being moved to a new location as the site around it is set for redevelopment.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nHowever, something goes wrong and the building collapses, trapping a reporter and his cameraman underneath the rubble. Their rescue is the focus of the rest of the episode. * The music video of the song \\\"Everything is Everything\\\" (by singer Lauryn Hill) prominently features the Empire State Building as the center of a city (record) turntable. * In the episode \\\"First Time in New York\\\" of the television series How I Met Your Mother (originally aired on January 8, 2007), the gang takes Robin's sister Katie to the Empire State Building. On the first day, they only got to the lobby, but they eventually went to the top the next day.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nLiterature\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\n* H.G. Wells' 1933 science fiction novel The Shape of Things to Come, written in the form of a history book published in the far future, includes the following passage: \\\"Up to quite recently Lower New York has been the most old-fashioned city in the world, unique in its gloomy antiquity. The last of the ancient skyscrapers, the Empire State Building, is even now under demolition in C.E. 2106!\\\". * David Macaulay's 1980 illustrated book Unbuilding depicts the Empire State Building being purchased by a Middle Eastern billionaire and disassembled piece by piece, to be transported to Saudi Arabia and rebuilt there. The mooring mast is rebuilt in New York, while the remainder of the building is lost at sea. * Giannina Braschi's Empire of Dreams, a Latin American poetry epic published in 1988, featured a pastoral revolution on the top floor of the Empire State Building, where shepherds danced and sang songs of revolution. * The Empire State Building is featured prominently as both a setting and integral plot device throughout much of Michael Chabon's 2000 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\n* In his \\\"biography\\\", Doc Savage: His Apocalyptic Life, Philip Jose Farmer theorizes that the skyscraper in which Doc Savage lived and where he met with his comrades, had his laboratories, etc., was the Empire State Building. Since the 86th Floor (mentioned in the Savage stories as his floor) was the Observatory, one may presume that Doc \\\"actually\\\" lived on another floor. * In the series, \\\"Percy Jackson & the Olympians\\\", Rick Riordan shows the Empire State Building as the headquarters of the Olympian Gods, where the Greek Gods live and also hold their meetings. * In the 1961 children's novel James and the Giant Peach by Roald Dahl, the giant peach is dropped onto the lightning rod of the Empire State Building at the end. This novel was later adapted in a film under the same name in 1996, which features the same part where the peach falls on to the Building's antenna. * In the sci-fi/alternate history series of novels Wild Cards, the 86th floor is the location of New York's premier chic restaurant, Aces High, a very popular hangout for the superpowered aces.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nOther\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\n* A scale model built from 12,000 LEGO bricks over 250 hours is featured along with other notable buildings in the LEGO Architecture: Towering Ambition exhibition at the National Building Museum in Washington, D.C. \\n*The Empire State Building Run-Up is a foot race from ground level to the 86th-floor observation deck that has been held annually since 1978. Its participants are referred to both as runners and as climbers, and are often tower running enthusiasts. The race covers a vertical distance of 1,050 feet (320 m) and takes in 1,576 steps. The record time is 9 minutes and 33 seconds, achieved by Australian professional cyclist Paul Crake in 2003, at a climbing rate of 6593 ft per hour.\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nNotable tenants\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nCurrent\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\n* Air China, Suite 6905 \\n* Boy Scouts of America, Greater New York Councils, Suite 430 \\n* Coty \\n* Croatian National Tourist Board, Suite 4003 \\n* Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation \\n* Filipino Reporter, Suite 1007 \\n* Human Rights Foundation, Suite 4515 \\n* Human Rights Watch, 34th Floor \\n* Kaplan International Center, 63rd Floor \\n* Li & Fung \\n* LinkedIn\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\n*Media General\\n* Noven Pharmaceuticals \\n* People's Daily \\n* Polish Cultural Institute, Suite 4621 \\n* Qatar Airways, Suite 7630 \\n* Turkish Airlines \\n* World Monuments Fund, Suite 2412\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nFormer\\n* The King's College (now located at 56 Broadway) \\n* China National Tourist Office (now located at 370 Lexington Avenue) \\n* National Film Board of Canada (now located at 1123 Broadway) \\n* Nathaniel Branden Institute \\n* Schenley\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nGallery\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nFile:Empire State Building (from Washington Square Park) 2.JPG|As seen from Washington Square Park\\nFile:Empire State from ground.jpg|As seen from ground level on 35th Street\\nFile:EmpireStateBldg2011.JPG|As seen from Broadway and 21st Street\\nFile:Empirestatebuildingsunset.jpg|As seen from the distance at sunset\\nFile:New York City Empire State 2010.jpg|View from Weehawken, New Jersey\\nFile:USA-NYC-Empire State0.JPG|Street-level side view, 2013\\nFile:USA-NYC-Empire State1.JPG|Griffin sculptures over front entrance, 2013\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nFile:Empire State Building up.jpg|Looking up from the observation deck\\nFile:Looking down from Empire State Building.jpg|Looking down\\nFile:EmpireStateBuildingtotimessquare.JPG|Looking toward Times Square\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nFile:Empire State Building Lobby Mural.jpg|Mural of the building, located in the lobby\\nFile:ESB Elevators.JPG|Art deco elevators in the lobby\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nFile:Souvenirempirestate.JPG|Building souvenir\",\n \"Empire State Building\\n\\nFile:EmpireStateNight.jpg|Lit in red and green lights for Christmas, as seen from the GE Building\\nFile:Empire State Building mit Weihnachtsbeleuchtung.JPG|With Christmas lights\\nFile:Empire State Building yellow.jpg|Lit in yellow to promote The Simpsons Movie home video release\\nFile:Empire State Building 1 Oct 2009.jpg|Lit in yellow and red during the 60th anniversary of the PRC\\nFile:Empire State Building Blue Obama Election.JPG|Lit in blue after Barack Obama was declared winner of the 2012 United States Presidential Election (in the US, red commonly represents Republicans, blue for Democrats)\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2085,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_32"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In what year did Percy L. Spencer invent the microwave?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"1947"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["one thousand nine hundred and forty seven"],"string":"[\n \"one thousand nine hundred and forty seven\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Percy Spencer\n\nPercy Lebaron Spencer (July 19, 1894 – September 8, 1969) was an American physicist and inventor. He became known as the inventor of the microwave oven.","Percy Spencer\n\nEarly life","Percy Spencer\n\nSpencer was born in Howland, Maine. Eighteen months later, Spencer's father died, and his mother soon left him in the care of his aunt and uncle. His uncle then died when Spencer was just seven years old. Spencer subsequently left grammar school to earn money to support himself and his aunt. From the ages of twelve to sixteen, he worked from sunrise to sunset at a spool mill. At the latter age, he discovered that a local paper mill was soon to begin using electricity, a concept little known in his rural home region, and he accordingly began learning as much as possible about the phenomenon. Therefore, when he applied to work at the mill, he was one of three people hired to install electricity in the plant, despite never having received any formal training in electrical engineering or even finishing grammar school. At the age of 18, Spencer decided to join the U.S. Navy. He had become interested in wireless communications after learning about the wireless operators aboard the Titanic when it sank.","Percy Spencer\n\nWhile with the navy, he made himself an expert on radio technology: \"I just got hold of a lot of textbooks and taught myself while I was standing watch at night.\" He also subsequently taught himself trigonometry, calculus, chemistry, physics, and metallurgy, among other subjects.","Percy Spencer\n\nCareer","Percy Spencer\n\nBy 1939, Spencer became one of the world’s leading experts in radar tube design. Spencer was worked at Raytheon, a contractor for the U.S. Department of Defense, as the chief of the power tube division. Largely due to his reputation and expertise, Spencer managed to help Raytheon win a government contract to develop and produce combat radar equipment for M.I.T.’s Radiation Laboratory. This was of huge importance to the Allies and became the military’s second highest priority project during WWII, behind the Manhattan Project. At that time, magnetrons were used to generate the microwave radio signals that are the core mechanism of radar, and they were being made at the rate of 17 per day at Raytheon. While working there, Spencer developed a more efficient way to manufacture them, by punching out and soldering together magnetron parts, rather than using machined parts. It also saw Spencer’s staff rise from 15 employees to 5,000 over the course of the next few years. His improvements were among those that increased magnetron production to 2,600 per day. For his work, he was awarded the Distinguished Public Service Award by the U.S. Navy.","Percy Spencer\n\nOne day while building magnetrons, Spencer was standing in front of an active radar set when he noticed the candy bar he had in his pocket had melted. Spencer was not the first to notice this phenomenon, but he was the first to investigate it. He decided to experiment using food, including popcorn kernels, which became the world’s first microwaved popcorn. In another experiment, an egg was placed in a tea kettle, and the magnetron was placed directly above it. The result was the egg exploding in the face of one of his co-workers, who was looking in the kettle to observe. Spencer then created the first true microwave oven by attaching a high density electromagnetic field generator to an enclosed metal box. The magnetron emitted microwaves into the metal box blocking any escape, allowing for controlled and safe experimentation. He then placed various food items in the box, while observing effects and monitoring temperatures.","Percy Spencer\n\nRaytheon filed a patent on October 8, 1945 for a microwave cooking oven, eventually named the Radarange. In 1947, the first commercially produced microwave oven was about 6 feet tall, weighed about 750 lbs, and cost between $2,000 and $3,000. In 1967 the first relatively affordable ($495) and reasonably sized (counter-top) microwave oven was available for sale.","Percy Spencer\n\nSpencer became Senior Vice President and a Senior Member of the Board of Directors at Raytheon. He received 300 patents during his career, and a building at the Raytheon Missile Defense Center in Woburn, Massachusetts is named in his honor. Other awards and achievements Spencer achieved, besides the Distinguished Public Service Award, included a membership of the Institute of Radio Engineers, Fellowship in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and an honorary Doctor of Science from the University of Massachusetts, despite having no formal education.","Percy Spencer\n\nFor his invention, Spencer received no royalties, but he was paid a one-time $2.00 gratuity from Raytheon, the same token payment the company made to all inventors on its payroll at that time for company patents.","Percy Spencer\n\nPersonal life","Percy Spencer\n\nSpencer and his wife, Louise, had three children: John, James, and George. He counted Vannevar Bush, Omar Bradley, William Redington Hewlett and David Packard as friends. Later, he was married to Lillian Ottenheimer on November 18, 1960.","Percy Spencer\n\nLegacy","Percy Spencer\n\nRaytheon Integrated Defense Systems, which deals extensively in radar systems, has named a building after Spencer in the Woburn, Massachusetts facility. An early Radarange model sits in the lobby, across from the dining center."],"string":"[\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nPercy Lebaron Spencer (July 19, 1894 – September 8, 1969) was an American physicist and inventor. He became known as the inventor of the microwave oven.\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nSpencer was born in Howland, Maine. Eighteen months later, Spencer's father died, and his mother soon left him in the care of his aunt and uncle. His uncle then died when Spencer was just seven years old. Spencer subsequently left grammar school to earn money to support himself and his aunt. From the ages of twelve to sixteen, he worked from sunrise to sunset at a spool mill. At the latter age, he discovered that a local paper mill was soon to begin using electricity, a concept little known in his rural home region, and he accordingly began learning as much as possible about the phenomenon. Therefore, when he applied to work at the mill, he was one of three people hired to install electricity in the plant, despite never having received any formal training in electrical engineering or even finishing grammar school. At the age of 18, Spencer decided to join the U.S. Navy. He had become interested in wireless communications after learning about the wireless operators aboard the Titanic when it sank.\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nWhile with the navy, he made himself an expert on radio technology: \\\"I just got hold of a lot of textbooks and taught myself while I was standing watch at night.\\\" He also subsequently taught himself trigonometry, calculus, chemistry, physics, and metallurgy, among other subjects.\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nCareer\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nBy 1939, Spencer became one of the world’s leading experts in radar tube design. Spencer was worked at Raytheon, a contractor for the U.S. Department of Defense, as the chief of the power tube division. Largely due to his reputation and expertise, Spencer managed to help Raytheon win a government contract to develop and produce combat radar equipment for M.I.T.’s Radiation Laboratory. This was of huge importance to the Allies and became the military’s second highest priority project during WWII, behind the Manhattan Project. At that time, magnetrons were used to generate the microwave radio signals that are the core mechanism of radar, and they were being made at the rate of 17 per day at Raytheon. While working there, Spencer developed a more efficient way to manufacture them, by punching out and soldering together magnetron parts, rather than using machined parts. It also saw Spencer’s staff rise from 15 employees to 5,000 over the course of the next few years. His improvements were among those that increased magnetron production to 2,600 per day. For his work, he was awarded the Distinguished Public Service Award by the U.S. Navy.\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nOne day while building magnetrons, Spencer was standing in front of an active radar set when he noticed the candy bar he had in his pocket had melted. Spencer was not the first to notice this phenomenon, but he was the first to investigate it. He decided to experiment using food, including popcorn kernels, which became the world’s first microwaved popcorn. In another experiment, an egg was placed in a tea kettle, and the magnetron was placed directly above it. The result was the egg exploding in the face of one of his co-workers, who was looking in the kettle to observe. Spencer then created the first true microwave oven by attaching a high density electromagnetic field generator to an enclosed metal box. The magnetron emitted microwaves into the metal box blocking any escape, allowing for controlled and safe experimentation. He then placed various food items in the box, while observing effects and monitoring temperatures.\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nRaytheon filed a patent on October 8, 1945 for a microwave cooking oven, eventually named the Radarange. In 1947, the first commercially produced microwave oven was about 6 feet tall, weighed about 750 lbs, and cost between $2,000 and $3,000. In 1967 the first relatively affordable ($495) and reasonably sized (counter-top) microwave oven was available for sale.\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nSpencer became Senior Vice President and a Senior Member of the Board of Directors at Raytheon. He received 300 patents during his career, and a building at the Raytheon Missile Defense Center in Woburn, Massachusetts is named in his honor. Other awards and achievements Spencer achieved, besides the Distinguished Public Service Award, included a membership of the Institute of Radio Engineers, Fellowship in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and an honorary Doctor of Science from the University of Massachusetts, despite having no formal education.\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nFor his invention, Spencer received no royalties, but he was paid a one-time $2.00 gratuity from Raytheon, the same token payment the company made to all inventors on its payroll at that time for company patents.\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nPersonal life\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nSpencer and his wife, Louise, had three children: John, James, and George. He counted Vannevar Bush, Omar Bradley, William Redington Hewlett and David Packard as friends. Later, he was married to Lillian Ottenheimer on November 18, 1960.\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"Percy Spencer\\n\\nRaytheon Integrated Defense Systems, which deals extensively in radar systems, has named a building after Spencer in the Woburn, Massachusetts facility. An early Radarange model sits in the lobby, across from the dining center.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2086,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_33"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which famous character was created by Michael Bond in a series of books for children?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Paddington Bear"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["paddington bear","paddington brown","darkest peru","32 windsor gardens","bear called paddington"],"string":"[\n \"paddington bear\",\n \"paddington brown\",\n \"darkest peru\",\n \"32 windsor gardens\",\n \"bear called paddington\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Michael Bond\n\nThomas Michael Bond, CBE (born 13 January 1926) is an English author, best known for his Paddington Bear series of books. Bond was awarded a CBE in the Queen's Birthday Honours 2015.","Michael Bond\n\nEarly life","Michael Bond\n\nBond was born in Newbury and raised in Reading, Berkshire, where his visits to Reading Station to watch the Cornish Riviera Express go steaming through started a love of trains. His father was a manager for the post office. He was educated at Presentation College, a school in Reading, Berkshire. His time there was unhappy. He told UK newspaper The Guardian in November 2014 that his parents had chosen the school “for the simple reason my mother liked the colour of the blazers. She didn’t make many mistakes in life but that was one of them”. Consequently, he left education aged fourteen, despite his parents’ wishes for him to go to university. World War II was under way and he went to work in a solicitor's office for a year and then as an engineer's assistant for the BBC.","Michael Bond\n\nIn February 1943, Michael Bond survived an air raid in Reading. The building in which he was working collapsed under him, killing 41 people and injuring many more. Shortly afterwards he volunteered for aircrew service in the Royal Air Force as a 17-year-old but he was discharged after suffering from acute air sickness.[http://biography.jrank.org/pages/1131/Bond-Thomas-Michael-1926.html Michael Bond at jrank]. Retrieved 2 November 2014 He then served in the Middlesex Regiment of the British Army until 1947.","Michael Bond\n\nAuthor","Michael Bond\n\nBond began writing in 1945 whilst stationed with the army in Cairo and sold his first short story to the magazine London Opinion. He was paid seven guineas, and thought he \"wouldn't mind being a writer\". In 1958, after producing a number of plays and short stories and while working as a BBC television cameraman (where he worked on Blue Peter for a time), his first book, A Bear Called Paddington, was published. This was the start of Bond's series of books recounting tales of a bear from \"Darkest Peru\", whose Aunt Lucy sends him to the United Kingdom, carrying a jar of marmalade; the Brown family found the bear at Paddington Station, and adopted him, naming the bear after the railway station. By 1967, Bond was able to give up his BBC job to work full-time as a writer.","Michael Bond\n\nPaddington's adventures have sold over 35 million books, have been published in nearly twenty countries, in over forty languages, and have inspired pop bands, race horses, plays, hot air balloons, a movie and television series. Bond stated in December 2007 that he did not plan to continue the adventures of Paddington Bear in further volumes. However, in April 2014 it was reported a new book, titled Love From Paddington, would be published that autumn. In a film, Paddington (2014), based on the books, Bond has a credited cameo as the Kindly Gentleman.","Michael Bond\n\nBond has also written another series of children's books, the adventures of a guinea pig named Olga da Polga, named after the Bond family's pet, as well as the animated BBC television series The Herbs (1968). Bond also writes culinary mystery stories for adults featuring Monsieur Pamplemousse and his faithful bloodhound, Pommes Frites.","Michael Bond\n\nHonours","Michael Bond\n\nIn 1997, Bond was awarded the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to children's literature. On 6 July 2007 the University of Reading awarded him an Honorary Doctor of Letters.","Michael Bond\n\nPersonal life","Michael Bond\n\nBond is married, has two adult children and lives in London, not far from Paddington Station, the place that inspired many of his books.","Michael Bond\n\nBibliography","Michael Bond\n\nPaddington Bear series","Michael Bond\n\n*1958 A Bear Called Paddington (ISBN 0-618-15071-4)\n*1959 More About Paddington\n*1960 Paddington Helps Out\n*1961 Paddington Abroad\n*1962 Paddington at Large\n*1964 Paddington Marches On\n*1966 Paddington at Work\n*1968 Paddington Goes to Town\n*1970 Paddington Takes the Air \n*1972 Paddington's Garden\n*1973 Paddington's Blue Peter Story Book (sometimes titled as Paddington Takes to TV)\n*1974 Paddington on Top\n*1975 Paddington at the Tower\n*1979 Paddington Takes the Test\n*1980 Paddington on Screen\n*1984 Paddington at the Zoo\n*1986 Paddington at the Palace\n*1987 Paddington's Busy Day\n*2002 Paddington in the Garden\n*2003 Paddington and the Grand Tour\n*2008 Paddington Rules the Waves\n*2008 Paddington Here and Now \n*2011 Paddington at the Tower\n*2012 Paddington Races Ahead\n*2012 Paddington Goes for Gold\n*2014 Love From Paddington","Michael Bond\n\nOlga da Polga series","Michael Bond\n\nChapter Books\n*1971 The Tales of Olga da Polga\n*1973 Olga Meets Her Match\n*1976 Olga Carries On\n*1982 Olga Takes Charge\n*1987 The Complete Adventures of Olga Da Polga (omnibus)\n*1993 The Adventures of Olga Da Polga (omnibus)\n*2001 Olga Moves House\n*2002 Olga Follows Her Nose\n*2002 The Best of Olga Da Polga (omnibus)\nPicture Books\n*1975 Olga Counts Her Blessings\n*1975 Olga Makes a Friend\n*1975 Olga Makes a Wish\n*1975 Olga Makes Her Mark\n*1975 Olga Takes a Bite\n*1975 Olga's New Home\n*1975 Olga's Second House\n*1975 Olga's Special Day\n*1983 The First Big Olga da Polga Book (omnibus)\n*1983 The Second Big Olga da Polga Book (omnibus)","Michael Bond\n\nMonsieur Pamplemousse series","Michael Bond\n\n*1983 Monsieur Pamplemousse\n*1985 Monsieur Pamplemousse and the Secret Mission\n*1986 Monsieur Pamplemousse on the Spot\n*1987 Monsieur Pamplemousse Takes the Cure\n*1989 Monsieur Pamplemousse Aloft\n*1990 Monsieur Pamplemousse Investigates\n*1991 Monsieur Pamplemousse Rests His Case\n*1992 Monsieur Pamplemousse Stands Firm\n*1992 Monsieur Pamplemousse on Location\n*1993 Monsieur Pamplemousse Takes the Train\n*1998 Monsieur Pamplemousse Omnibus Volume One\n*1998 Monsieur Pamplemousse Omnibus Volume Two\n*1999 Monsieur Pamplemousse Afloat\n*1999 Monsieur Pamplemousse Omnibus Volume Three\n*2000 Monsieur Pamplemousse on Probation\n*2002 Monsieur Pamplemousse on Vacation\n*2003 Monsieur Pamplemousse Hits the Headlines\n*2006 Monsieur Pamplemousse and the Militant Midwives\n*2007 Monsieur Pamplemousse and the French Solution\n*2010 Monsieur Pamplemousse and the Carbon Footprint (release date 12 April 2010)\n*2014 Monsieur Pamplemousse and the Tangled Web (release date unconfirmed)","Michael Bond\n\nOther","Michael Bond\n\n*1966 Here Comes Thursday\n*1968 Thursday Rides Again\n*1969 Thursday Ahoy!\n*1971 Thursday in Paris\n*1971 Michael Bond's Book of Bears (Editor)\n*1972 The Day the Animals Went on Strike\n*1975 Windmill\n*1975 How to Make Flying Things (nonfiction)\n*1975 Mr. Cram's Magic Bubbles\n*1980 Picnic on the River\n*1980 J. D. Polson and the Liberty Head Dime\n*1981 J. D. Polson and the Dillogate Affair\n*1983 The Caravan Puppets\n*1986 (With Paul Parnes) Oliver the Greedy Elephant\n*1987 (And photographer) The Pleasures of Paris (guidebook)\n*1988 A Mouse Called Thursday (omnibus)\n*1992 A Day by the Sea\n*1992 Something Nasty in the Kitchen\n*1996 Bears and Forebears: A Life So Far (autobiography)"],"string":"[\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nThomas Michael Bond, CBE (born 13 January 1926) is an English author, best known for his Paddington Bear series of books. Bond was awarded a CBE in the Queen's Birthday Honours 2015.\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nBond was born in Newbury and raised in Reading, Berkshire, where his visits to Reading Station to watch the Cornish Riviera Express go steaming through started a love of trains. His father was a manager for the post office. He was educated at Presentation College, a school in Reading, Berkshire. His time there was unhappy. He told UK newspaper The Guardian in November 2014 that his parents had chosen the school “for the simple reason my mother liked the colour of the blazers. She didn’t make many mistakes in life but that was one of them”. Consequently, he left education aged fourteen, despite his parents’ wishes for him to go to university. World War II was under way and he went to work in a solicitor's office for a year and then as an engineer's assistant for the BBC.\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nIn February 1943, Michael Bond survived an air raid in Reading. The building in which he was working collapsed under him, killing 41 people and injuring many more. Shortly afterwards he volunteered for aircrew service in the Royal Air Force as a 17-year-old but he was discharged after suffering from acute air sickness.[http://biography.jrank.org/pages/1131/Bond-Thomas-Michael-1926.html Michael Bond at jrank]. Retrieved 2 November 2014 He then served in the Middlesex Regiment of the British Army until 1947.\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nAuthor\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nBond began writing in 1945 whilst stationed with the army in Cairo and sold his first short story to the magazine London Opinion. He was paid seven guineas, and thought he \\\"wouldn't mind being a writer\\\". In 1958, after producing a number of plays and short stories and while working as a BBC television cameraman (where he worked on Blue Peter for a time), his first book, A Bear Called Paddington, was published. This was the start of Bond's series of books recounting tales of a bear from \\\"Darkest Peru\\\", whose Aunt Lucy sends him to the United Kingdom, carrying a jar of marmalade; the Brown family found the bear at Paddington Station, and adopted him, naming the bear after the railway station. By 1967, Bond was able to give up his BBC job to work full-time as a writer.\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nPaddington's adventures have sold over 35 million books, have been published in nearly twenty countries, in over forty languages, and have inspired pop bands, race horses, plays, hot air balloons, a movie and television series. Bond stated in December 2007 that he did not plan to continue the adventures of Paddington Bear in further volumes. However, in April 2014 it was reported a new book, titled Love From Paddington, would be published that autumn. In a film, Paddington (2014), based on the books, Bond has a credited cameo as the Kindly Gentleman.\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nBond has also written another series of children's books, the adventures of a guinea pig named Olga da Polga, named after the Bond family's pet, as well as the animated BBC television series The Herbs (1968). Bond also writes culinary mystery stories for adults featuring Monsieur Pamplemousse and his faithful bloodhound, Pommes Frites.\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nHonours\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nIn 1997, Bond was awarded the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to children's literature. On 6 July 2007 the University of Reading awarded him an Honorary Doctor of Letters.\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nPersonal life\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nBond is married, has two adult children and lives in London, not far from Paddington Station, the place that inspired many of his books.\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nBibliography\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nPaddington Bear series\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\n*1958 A Bear Called Paddington (ISBN 0-618-15071-4)\\n*1959 More About Paddington\\n*1960 Paddington Helps Out\\n*1961 Paddington Abroad\\n*1962 Paddington at Large\\n*1964 Paddington Marches On\\n*1966 Paddington at Work\\n*1968 Paddington Goes to Town\\n*1970 Paddington Takes the Air \\n*1972 Paddington's Garden\\n*1973 Paddington's Blue Peter Story Book (sometimes titled as Paddington Takes to TV)\\n*1974 Paddington on Top\\n*1975 Paddington at the Tower\\n*1979 Paddington Takes the Test\\n*1980 Paddington on Screen\\n*1984 Paddington at the Zoo\\n*1986 Paddington at the Palace\\n*1987 Paddington's Busy Day\\n*2002 Paddington in the Garden\\n*2003 Paddington and the Grand Tour\\n*2008 Paddington Rules the Waves\\n*2008 Paddington Here and Now \\n*2011 Paddington at the Tower\\n*2012 Paddington Races Ahead\\n*2012 Paddington Goes for Gold\\n*2014 Love From Paddington\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nOlga da Polga series\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nChapter Books\\n*1971 The Tales of Olga da Polga\\n*1973 Olga Meets Her Match\\n*1976 Olga Carries On\\n*1982 Olga Takes Charge\\n*1987 The Complete Adventures of Olga Da Polga (omnibus)\\n*1993 The Adventures of Olga Da Polga (omnibus)\\n*2001 Olga Moves House\\n*2002 Olga Follows Her Nose\\n*2002 The Best of Olga Da Polga (omnibus)\\nPicture Books\\n*1975 Olga Counts Her Blessings\\n*1975 Olga Makes a Friend\\n*1975 Olga Makes a Wish\\n*1975 Olga Makes Her Mark\\n*1975 Olga Takes a Bite\\n*1975 Olga's New Home\\n*1975 Olga's Second House\\n*1975 Olga's Special Day\\n*1983 The First Big Olga da Polga Book (omnibus)\\n*1983 The Second Big Olga da Polga Book (omnibus)\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nMonsieur Pamplemousse series\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\n*1983 Monsieur Pamplemousse\\n*1985 Monsieur Pamplemousse and the Secret Mission\\n*1986 Monsieur Pamplemousse on the Spot\\n*1987 Monsieur Pamplemousse Takes the Cure\\n*1989 Monsieur Pamplemousse Aloft\\n*1990 Monsieur Pamplemousse Investigates\\n*1991 Monsieur Pamplemousse Rests His Case\\n*1992 Monsieur Pamplemousse Stands Firm\\n*1992 Monsieur Pamplemousse on Location\\n*1993 Monsieur Pamplemousse Takes the Train\\n*1998 Monsieur Pamplemousse Omnibus Volume One\\n*1998 Monsieur Pamplemousse Omnibus Volume Two\\n*1999 Monsieur Pamplemousse Afloat\\n*1999 Monsieur Pamplemousse Omnibus Volume Three\\n*2000 Monsieur Pamplemousse on Probation\\n*2002 Monsieur Pamplemousse on Vacation\\n*2003 Monsieur Pamplemousse Hits the Headlines\\n*2006 Monsieur Pamplemousse and the Militant Midwives\\n*2007 Monsieur Pamplemousse and the French Solution\\n*2010 Monsieur Pamplemousse and the Carbon Footprint (release date 12 April 2010)\\n*2014 Monsieur Pamplemousse and the Tangled Web (release date unconfirmed)\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\nOther\",\n \"Michael Bond\\n\\n*1966 Here Comes Thursday\\n*1968 Thursday Rides Again\\n*1969 Thursday Ahoy!\\n*1971 Thursday in Paris\\n*1971 Michael Bond's Book of Bears (Editor)\\n*1972 The Day the Animals Went on Strike\\n*1975 Windmill\\n*1975 How to Make Flying Things (nonfiction)\\n*1975 Mr. Cram's Magic Bubbles\\n*1980 Picnic on the River\\n*1980 J. D. Polson and the Liberty Head Dime\\n*1981 J. D. Polson and the Dillogate Affair\\n*1983 The Caravan Puppets\\n*1986 (With Paul Parnes) Oliver the Greedy Elephant\\n*1987 (And photographer) The Pleasures of Paris (guidebook)\\n*1988 A Mouse Called Thursday (omnibus)\\n*1992 A Day by the Sea\\n*1992 Something Nasty in the Kitchen\\n*1996 Bears and Forebears: A Life So Far (autobiography)\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2087,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_34"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which of the Bronte sisters wrote Wuthering Heights?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Emily"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["emily disambiguation","emily","emily song"],"string":"[\n \"emily disambiguation\",\n \"emily\",\n \"emily song\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Brontë family\n\nThe Brontës (, commonly ) were a nineteenth-century literary family associated with the village of Haworth in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. The sisters, Charlotte (1816–1855), Emily (1818–1848), and Anne (1820–1849), are well known as poets and novelists. Like many contemporary female writers, they originally published their poems and novels under male pseudonyms: Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Their stories immediately attracted attention, although not always the best, for their passion and originality. Charlotte's Jane Eyre was the first to know success, while Emily's Wuthering Heights, Anne's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall and other works were later to be accepted as masterpieces of literature.","Brontë family\n\nThe three sisters and their brother, Branwell, were very close and during childhood developed their imaginations first through oral storytelling and play set in an intricate imaginary world, and then through the collaborative writing of increasingly complex stories set therein.","Brontë family\n\nThe deaths of first their mother, and then of their two older sisters marked them profoundly and influenced their writing, as did the relative isolation in which they were raised.","Brontë family\n\nTheir home, the parsonage at Haworth in Yorkshire, now the Brontë Parsonage Museum, has become a place of pilgrimage for hundreds of thousands of visitors each year.","Brontë family\n\nOrigin of the name","Brontë family\n\nThe Brontë family can be traced to the Irish clan Ó Pronntaigh, which literally means \"son of Pronntach\". They were a family of hereditary scribes and literary men in Fermanagh. The version Ó Proinntigh, which was first given by Father Woulfe in his Sloinnte Gaedheal is Gall (Surnames of the Gael and the Foreigner) and reproduced without question by MacLysaght inter alia cannot be accepted as correct, as there were a number of well-known scribes with this name writing in Irish in the 17th and 18th centuries and all of them used the spelling Ó Pronntaigh. The name is derived from the word pronntach or bronntach, which is related to the word bronnadh, meaning giving or bestowal (pronn is given as an Ulster version of bronn in O'Reilly's Irish English Dictionary. ) Father Woulfe, the author of Sloinnte Gaedheal is Gall, suggested that it derives from proinnteach (a refectory of a monastery). Ó Pronntaigh was earlier anglicised as Prunty and sometimes Brunty.","Brontë family\n\nAt some point, the father of the sisters, Patrick Brontë (born Brunty), decided on the alternative spelling with the diaeresis over the terminal e to indicate that the name has two syllables. It is not known for certain what motivated him to do so, and multiple theories exist to account for the change. He may have wished to hide his humble origins. As a man of letters, he would have been familiar with classical Greek and may have chosen the name after the Greek βροντή (\"thunder\"). One view, put forward by the biographer C. K. Shorter in 1896, is that he adapted his name to associate himself with Admiral Horatio Nelson, who was also Duke of Bronte. Evidence for this may be found in his desire to associate himself with the Duke of Wellington in his form of dress.","Brontë family\n\nMembers of the Brontë family","Brontë family\n\nPatrick Brontë","Brontë family\n\nPatrick Brontë (17 March 1777 – 7 June 1861), was born in Loughbrickland, County Down, Ireland, of a family of farm workers of moderate means.[http://www.haworth-village.org.uk/brontes/patrick/patrick.asp Patrick Bronte biography, Haworth Village] His birth name was Patrick Prunty or Brunty. His mother Alice McClory, was of the Roman Catholic faith, whilst his father Hugh was a Protestant, and Patrick was brought up in his father's faith. He eventually became the Church of England perpetual curate of the parish of Haworth, and was also a poet, writer, and polemicist.","Brontë family\n\nAn Anglican priest of Irish extraction, he was born on St Patrick's Day, 17 March 1777. He was a bright young man and after being taught by the Rev. Thomas Tighe, he won a scholarship to St John's College, Cambridge, where he studied divinity and ancient and modern history. Attending Cambridge may have made him think his name was too Irish, and he changed its spelling to Brontë, perhaps in honour of Horatio Nelson who held the title of Duke of Bronte, whom Patrick admired. However, a more likely reason may have been that his brother was 'on the run' from the British for his involvement with the United Irishmen and he wanted to distance himself from the name Prunty. Having obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree, he was ordained on 10 August 1806. He is the author of Cottage Poems (1811), The Rural Minstrel (1814), numerous pamphlets and newspaper articles, and various rural poems.","Brontë family\n\nIn 1812, he met and married 29-year-old Maria Branwell and by 1820 had moved into the parsonage at Haworth where he took up the post of Perpetual curate (Haworth was an ancient chapelry in the large parish of Bradford, so he could not be rector or vicar.) They had six children. On the death of his wife in 1821, his sister in law, Elizabeth Branwell, came from Penzance, Cornwall to help him bring up the children. Open, intelligent, generous, and personally taking care of their education, he bought all the books and toys the children asked for and accorded them great freedom and unconditional love, but nevertheless embittered their lives due to his eccentric habits and peculiar theories of education.","Brontë family\n\nAfter several unlucky attempts to seek a new spouse, Patrick came to terms with widowhood at the age of 47, and spent his time visiting the sick and the poor, giving sermons, communion, and extreme unction, leaving the three sisters Emily, Charlotte, Anne, and their brother Branwell alone with their aunt and a maid, Tabitha Aykroyd (Tabby), who tirelessly recounted local legends in her Yorkshire dialect while preparing the meals. He survived his entire family, and six years after Charlotte's death he died in 1861 at the age of 84. At the end he was helped by his son-in-law, the Rev. Arthur Bell Nicholls.","Brontë family\n\nMaria, née Branwell","Brontë family\n\nPatrick's wife Maria Brontë, née Branwell, (15 April 1783 – 15 September 1821), originated from Penzance, Cornwall and came from a comfortably well off middle-class family. Her father had a flourishing tea and grocery store and had accumulated considerable wealth. \nMaria died at the age of 38 from uterine cancer. She married the same day as her younger sister Charlotte, in the church at Guiseley, after her fiancé had celebrated the union of two other couples. She was a literate and pious woman, known for her lively spirit, joyfulness and tenderness, and it was she who designed the samplers that are on display in the museum, and had them embroidered by her children. She left memories with her husband and with Charlotte, the oldest surviving sibling, of a very vivacious woman at the parsonage. The younger ones, particularly Emily and Anne, admitted to retaining only vague images of their mother, especially of her suffering in her sickbed.","Brontë family\n\nElizabeth Branwell","Brontë family\n\nElizabeth Branwell (2 December 1776 – 29 October 1842) arrived from Penzance in 1821, aged 45, after the death of Maria, her younger sister, to help Patrick look after the children, and was known as 'Aunt Branwell'. Elizabeth Branwell, who raised the children after the death of their mother, was a Methodist. It seems, nevertheless, that her denomination did not exert any influence on the children. It was Aunt Branwell who taught the children arithmetic, the alphabet, how to sew, embroidery and cross-stitching appropriate for ladies. Aunt Branwell also gave them books and subscribed to Fraser's Magazine, less interesting than Blackwood's, but, nevertheless, providing plenty of material for discussion. She was a generous person who dedicated her life to her nieces and nephew, neither marrying nor returning to visit her relations in Cornwall.\nShe died from bowel obstruction on October 1842, after a brief agony, comforted by her beloved nephew Branwell. In her last will, Aunt Branwell, left to her three nieces the considerable sum of £900, which allowed them to stop their previous, low paid jobs as governesses and teachers.","Brontë family\n\nThe children","Brontë family\n\nMaria, the eldest, was born in Clough House, High Town on 23 April 1814. She suffered hunger, cold, and privation at Cowan Bridge School. Charlotte describes her as very lively, very sensitive, and particularly advanced in her reading. She returned from school with an advanced case of tuberculosis, and died at Haworth at the age of eleven on 6 May 1825.","Brontë family\n\nElizabeth (1815–1825), the second child, joined her sister Maria at Cowan Bridge where she suffered the same fate. Elizabeth was less vivacious than her brother and her sisters, and apparently less advanced for her age. She died on 15 June 1825 within two weeks of returning home to her father.","Brontë family\n\nCharlotte, born in Thornton near Bradford, West Riding of Yorkshire on 21 April 1816, was a poet and novelist and is the author of Jane Eyre, her best known work, and three other novels. She died on 31 March 1855 just before reaching the age of 39.","Brontë family\n\nPatrick Branwell was born in Thornton on 26 June 1817. Known as Branwell, he was a painter, writer and casual worker. He became addicted to alcohol and laudanum and died at Haworth on 24 September 1848 at the age of 31.","Brontë family\n\nEmily Jane, born in Thornton, 30 July 1818, was a poet and novelist. She died in Haworth on 19 December 1848 at the age of 30. Wuthering Heights was her only novel.","Brontë family\n\nAnne, born in Thornton on 17 January 1820, was a poet and novelist who died at the age of 29. She wrote a largely autobiographical novel entitled Agnes Grey. Her second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848), was far more ambitious. She died on 28 May 1849 in Scarborough, North Riding of Yorkshire.","Brontë family\n\nEducation","Brontë family\n\nEarly education","Brontë family\n\nPatrick Brontë faced a challenge in arranging for the education of the girls of his family, which was barely middle class. They had no significant connections and he could not afford the fees for them to attend an established school for young ladies. One solution was the schools where the fees were reduced to a minimum – so called \"charity schools\" – with a mission to assist families such as those of the lower clergy. One cannot accuse Mr. Brontë of not having done everything possible to find a solution that he thought would be best for his daughters. As Barker comments, he had read in the Leeds Intelligencer of 6 November 1823 the reports of cases in the Court of Commons in Bowes, and he later read other cases decided on 24 November 1824 near Richmond, two towns in the county of Yorkshire, where pupils had been discovered gnawed by rats, and suffering from malnutrition to the extent that some of them had lost their sight. There was nothing to suggest that the Reverend Carus Wilson's Clergy Daughters' School would not provide a good education and good care for his daughters.","Brontë family\n\nThe school was not expensive, and its patrons (supporters who allowed the school to use their names) were all respected people, including the daughter of Hannah Moore, an author of recognised works and a close friend of the poet William Cowper, both proponents of a correct education for young girls; and the offspring of different prelates and even certain acquaintances of Patrick Brontë including William Wilberforce, young women whose fathers had also been educated at St John's College, Cambridge. Thus Brontë believed Wilson's school to have a number of the necessary guarantees.","Brontë family\n\nCowan Bridge School","Brontë family\n\nIn 1824, the four eldest girls (excluding Anne) entered the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge, which educated the children of less prosperous members of the clergy, which had been recommended to Mr Brontë. The following year, Maria and Elizabeth fell gravely ill and were removed from the school, but died shortly afterwards within a few weeks of each other on 6 May and 15 June 1825. Charlotte and Emily were also withdrawn from the school and returned to Haworth. The loss of their sisters was a trauma that showed in Charlotte's writing. In Jane Eyre, Cowan Bridge becomes Lowood, Maria is represented by the character of the young Helen Burns, the cruelty of the mistress Miss Andrews by that of Miss Scatcherd, and the tyranny of the headmaster, the Rev. Carus Wilson, by that of Mr Brocklehurst.","Brontë family\n\nTuberculosis, which afflicted Maria and Elizabeth in 1825, was the eventual cause of death of the surviving Brontës: Branwell in September 1848, Emily in December 1848, Anne eight months later in May 1849, and finally Charlotte in 1855.","Brontë family\n\nMiss Wooler's school","Brontë family\n\nIn 1831, 14-year-old Charlotte was enrolled at the school of Miss Wooler in Roe Head, Mirfield. Patrick could have sent his daughter to a less costly school in Keighley nearer home but Miss Wooler and her sisters had a good reputation and he remembered the building which he passed when strolling around the parishes of Kirklees, Dewsbury, and Hartshead-cum-Clifton where he was vicar. Margaret Wooler showed fondness towards the sisters and she accompanied Charlotte to the altar at her marriage. Patrick's choice of school was excellent – Charlotte was happy there and studied well. She made many lifelong friends, in particular Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor who later went to New Zealand before returning to England. Charlotte returned from Roe Head in June 1832, missing her friends, but happy to rejoin her family.","Brontë family\n\nThree years later, Miss Wooler offered her former pupil a position as her assistant. The family decided that Emily would accompany her to pursue studies that would otherwise have been unaffordable. Emily's fees were partly covered by Charlotte's salary. Emily was 17 and it was the first time she had left Haworth since leaving Cowan Bridge. On 29 July 1835, the sisters left for Roe Head. The same day, Branwell wrote a letter to the Royal Academy of Art in London, to present several of his drawings as part of his candidature as a probationary student.","Brontë family\n\nCharlotte taught, and wrote about her students without much sympathy. Emily did not settle and after three months she seemed to decline and had to be taken home to the parsonage. Anne took her place and stayed until Christmas 1837.","Brontë family\n\nCharlotte avoided boredom by following the development of Angria which she received in letters from her brother. During holidays at Haworth, she wrote long narratives while being reproached by her father who wanted her to become more involved in parish affairs. These were coming to a head over the imposition of the Church rates, a local tax levied on parishes where the majority of the population were dissenters. In the meantime, Miss Wooler moved to Heald's House, at Dewsbury Moor, where Charlotte complained about the humidity that made her unwell. Upon leaving the establishment in 1838 Miss Wooler presented her with a parting gift of The Vision of Don Roderick and Rokeby, a collection of poems by Walter Scott.","Brontë family\n\nLiterary evolution","Brontë family\n\nThe children became interested in writing from an early age, initially as a game which later matured into a passion. Although they all displayed a talent for narrative, it was the younger ones whose pastime it became to develop them. At the centre of the children's creativity were twelve wooden soldiers which Patrick Brontë gave to Branwell at the beginning of June 1826. These toy soldiers instantly fired their imaginations and they spoke of them as the Young Men, and gave them names. However, it was not until December 1827 that their ideas took written form, and the imaginary African kingdom of Glass Town came into existence, followed by the Empire of Angria. Emily and Anne created Gondal, an island continuent in the North Pacific, ruled by a woman, after the departure of Charlotte in 1831. In the beginning, these stories were written in little books, the size of a matchbox , and cursorily bound with thread. The pages were filled with close, minute writing, often in capital letters without punctuation and embellished with illustrations, detailed maps, schemes, landscapes, and plans of buildings, created by the children according to their specialisations.","Brontë family\n\nThe idea was that the books were of a size for the soldiers to read. The complexity of the stories matured as the children's imaginations developed, fed by reading the three weekly or monthly magazines to which their father had subscribed, or the newspapers that were bought daily from John Greenwood's local news and stationery store.","Brontë family\n\nLiterary and artistic influence","Brontë family\n\nThese fictional worlds were the product of fertile imagination fed by reading, discussion, and a passion for literature. Far from suffering from the negative influences that never left them and which were reflected in the works of their later, more mature years, the Brontë children absorbed them with open arms.","Brontë family\n\nThe press","Brontë family\n\nThe periodicals that Patrick Brontë read were a mine of information for his children. The Leeds Intelligencer and Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, conservative and well written, but better than the Quarterly Review that defended the same political ideas whilst addressing a less refined readership (the reason Mr. Brontë did not read it), were exploited in every detail. Blackwood's Magazine in particular, was not only the source of their knowledge of world affairs, but also provided material for the Brontës' early writing. For instance, an article in the June, 1826 number of Blackwood’s, provides commentary on new discoveries from the exploration of central Africa. The map included with the article highlights geographical features the Brontës reference in their tales: the Jibbel Kumera (the Mountains of the Moon), Ashantee, and the rivers Niger and Calabar. The author also advises the British to expand into Africa from Fernando Po, where, Christine Alexander notes, the Brontë children locate the Great Glass Town. Their knowledge of geography was completed by Goldsmith's Grammar of General Geography, which the Brontës owned and heavily annotated.","Brontë family\n\nLord Byron","Brontë family\n\nFrom 1833, Charlotte and Branwell's Angrian tales begin to feature Byronic heroes who have a strong sexual magnetism and passionate spirit, and demonstrate arrogance and even black-heartedness. Again, it is in an article in Blackwood's Magazine from August 1825 that they discover the poet for the first time; he had died the previous year. From this moment, the name Byron became synonymous with all the prohibitions and audacities as if it had stirred up the very essence of the rise of those forbidden things. Branwell's Charlotte Zamorna, one of the heroes of Verdopolis, tends towards increasingly ambiguous behaviour, and the same influence and evolution recur with the Brontës, especially in the characters of Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights, and Mr. Rochester in Jane Eyre, who display the traits of a Byronic hero. Numerous other works have left their mark on the Brontës—the Thousand and One Nights for example, which inspired jinn in which they became themselves in the centre of their kingdoms, while adding a touch of exoticism.","Brontë family\n\nJohn Martin","Brontë family\n\nThe children's imagination was also influenced by three prints of engravings in mezzotint by John Martin around 1820. Charlotte and Branwell made copies of the prints Belshazzar's Feast, Déluge, and Joshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still upon Gibeon (1816), which hung on the walls of the parsonage.","Brontë family\n\nMartin's fantastic architecture is reflected in the Glass Town and Angrian writings, where he appears himself among Branwell's characters and under the name of Edward de Lisle, the greatest painter and portraitist of Verdopolis, the capital of Glass Town. One of Sir Edward de Lisle's major works, Les Quatre Genii en Conseil, is inspired by Martin's illustration for John Milton's Paradise Lost. Together with Byron, John Martin seems to have been one of the artistic influences essential to the Brontës' universe.","Brontë family\n\nAnne's morals and realism","Brontë family\n\nThe influence revealed by Agnes Grey and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is much less clear. Anne's works are largely founded on her experience as a governess and on that of her brother's decline. Furthermore, they demonstrate her conviction, a legacy from her father, that books should provide moral education. \nThis sense of moral duty and the need to record it, are more evident in The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. The influence of the gothic novels of Ann Radcliffe, Horace Walpole, Gregory \"Monk\" Lewis and Charles Maturin is noticeable, and that of Walter Scott too, if only because the heroine, abandoned and left alone, resists not only by her almost supernatural talents, but mainly due to the power drawn from her temperament.","Brontë family\n\nJane Eyre, Agnes Grey, then The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Shirley, Villette and even The Professor present a linear structure concerning a character who advances through life after several trials and tribulations, to find a kind of happiness in love and virtue, recalling the works of religious inspiration of the 17th century such as John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress or his Grace abounding to the Chief of Sinners. In a more profane manner, the hero or heroine follows a picaresque itinerary such as in Miguel de Cervantes (1547–16), Daniel Defoe (1660–1731), Henry Fielding (1707–1764) and Tobias Smollett (1721–1771). This lively tradition continued into the 19th century with the rags to riches genre to which almost all the great Victorian romancers have contributed. The protagonist is thrown by fate into poverty and after many difficulties achieves a golden happiness.","Brontë family\n\nOften an artifice is employed to effect the passage from one state to another such as an unexpected inheritance, a miraculous gift, grand reunions, etc.See Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Great Expectations, just to mention Charles Dickens and in a sense, it is the route followed by Charlotte's and Anne's protagonists, even if the riches they win are more those of the heart than of the wallet. Apart from its Gothic elements, Wuthering Heights moves like a Greek tragedy and possesses its music, the cosmic dimensions of the epics of John Milton, and the power of the Shakespearian theatre. One can hear the echoes of King Lear as well as the completely different characters of Romeo and Juliet. The Brontës were also seduced by the writings of Walter Scott, and in 1834 Charlotte exclaimed, \"For fiction, read Walter Scott and only him – all novels after his are without value.\"","Brontë family\n\nGovernesses, and Charlotte's idea","Brontë family\n\nEarly teaching opportunities","Brontë family\n\nThrough their father's influence and their own intellectual curiosity, they were able to benefit from an education that placed them among knowledgeable people, but Mr Brontë's emoluments were modest. The only options open to the girls were either marriage or a choice between the professions of school mistress or governess. The Brontë sisters found positions in families educating often rebellious young children, or employment as school teachers. The possibility of becoming a paid companion to a rich and solitary woman might have been a fall-back role but one which would have bored any of the sisters intolerably. Janet Todd's Mary Wollstonecraft, a revolutionary life mentions the predicament, and none of the Brontë girls seems seriously to have considered a similar eventuality.","Brontë family\n\nOnly Emily never became a governess. Her sole professional experience would be an experiment in teaching during six months of intolerable exile in Miss Patchett's school at Law Hill (between Haworth and Halifax). In contrast, Charlotte had teaching positions at Miss Margaret Wooler's school, and in Brussels with the Hegers. She became governess to the Sidgwicks, the Stonegappes, and the Lotherdales where she worked for several months in 1839, then with Mrs White, at Upperhouse House, Rawdon, from March to September 1841. Anne became a governess and worked for Mrs Ingham, at Blake Hall, Mirfield from April to December 1839, then for Mrs Robinson at Thorp Green Hall, Little Ouseburn, near York, where she also obtained employment for her brother in an attempt to stabilise him; an attempt that proved futile.","Brontë family\n\nWorking as governesses","Brontë family\n\nThe family's finances did not flourish, and Aunt Branwell spent the money with caution. Emily had a visceral need of her home and the countryside that surrounded it, and to leave it would cause her to languish and wither.which had happened whenever she left Haworth for any length of time such as at Miss Wooler's school, or when teaching in Law Hill, and during her stay in Brussels. Charlotte and Anne, being more realistic, did not hesitate in finding work and from April 1839 to December 1841 the two sisters had several posts as governesses. Not staying long with each family, their employment would last for some months or a single season. However, Anne did stay with the Robinsons in Thorp Green where things went well, from May 1840 to June 1845.","Brontë family\n\nIn the meantime, Charlotte had an idea that would place all the advantages on her side. On advice from her father and friends, she thought that she and her sisters had the intellectual capacity to create a school for young girls in the parsonage where their Sunday School classes took place. It was agreed to offer the future pupils the opportunity of correctly learning modern languages and that preparation for this should be done abroad, which led to a further decision. Among the possibilities Paris and Lille were considered, but were rejected due to aversion to the French. Indeed, the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars had not been forgotten by the Tory spirited and deeply conservative girls. On the recommendation of a pastor based in Brussels, who wanted to be of help, Belgium was chosen, where they could also study German, and music. Aunt Branwell provided the funds for the Brussels project.","Brontë family\n\nSchool project and study trip to Brussels","Brontë family\n\nCharlotte's and Emily's journey to Brussels","Brontë family\n\nEmily and Charlotte arrived in Brussels in February 1842 accompanied by their father. Once there, they enrolled at Monsieur and Madame Heger's boarding school in the Rue d'Isabelle, for six months. Claire Heger was the second wife of Constantin, and it was she who founded and directed the school while Constantin had the responsibility for the higher French classes. According to Miss Wheelwright, a former pupil, he had the intellect of a genius. He was passionate about his auditorium, demanding many lectures, perspectives, and structured analyses. He was also a good-looking man with regular features, bushy hair, very black whiskers, and wore an excited expression while sounding forth on great authors about whom he invited his students to make a pastiche on general or philosophical themes.","Brontë family\n\nThe lessons, especially those of Constantin Heger, were very much appreciated by Charlotte, and the two sisters showed exceptional intelligence, although Emily hardly liked her teacher and was somewhat rebellious. Emily learned German and to play the piano with natural brilliance and very quickly the two sisters were writing literary and philosophical essays in an advanced level of French. After six months of study, Mme Heger suggested they stay at the boarding school free of charge, in return for giving some lessons. After much hesitation, the girls accepted. Neither of them felt particularly attached to their students, and only one, Mademoiselle de Bassompierre, then aged 16, later expressed any affection for her teacher, which in Emily's case appeared to be mutual, and made her a gift of a signed, detailed drawing of a storm ravaged pine tree.","Brontë family\n\nReturn and recall","Brontë family\n\nThe death of their aunt in October of the same year forced them to return once more to Haworth. Aunt Branwell had left all her worldly goods in equal shares to her nieces and to Eliza Kingston, a cousin in Penzance, which had the immediate effect of purging all their debts and providing a small reserve of funds. Nevertheless, they were asked to return to Brussels as they were regarded as being competent and were needed. They were each offered teaching posts in the boarding school, still English for Charlotte and music for Emily. However, Charlotte returned alone to Belgium in January 1843, while Emily remained critical of Monsieur Heger, in spite of the excellent opinion he held of her. He later stated that she 'had the spirit of a man', and would probably become a great traveller due to her being gifted with a superior faculty of reason that allowed her to deduce ancient knowledge of new spheres of knowledge, and her unbending willpower would have triumphed over all obstacles.","Brontë family\n\nCharlotte returns","Brontë family\n\nAlmost a year to the day, enamoured already for some time of Monsieur Heger, Charlotte resigned and returned to Haworth. Her life there had not been without suffering, and on one occasion she ventured into the cathedral and entered a confessional. She may have had intention of converting to Catholicism, but it would only have been for a short time.","Brontë family\n\nLife at Haworth had become more difficult during her absence. Mr. Brontë had lost his sight although his cataract had nevertheless been operated on with success in Manchester, and it was there in August 1846, when Charlotte arrived at his bedside that she began to write Jane Eyre. Meanwhile her brother Branwell fell into a rapid decline punctuated by dramas, drunkenness, and delirium. Due partly to Branwell's poor reputation, the school project failed and was abandoned.","Brontë family\n\nCharlotte wrote four long, very personal, and sometimes vague letters to Monsieur Héger that never received replies. The extent of Charlotte Brontë's feelings for Heger were not fully realised until 1913, when her letters to him were published for the first time. Heger had first shown them to Mrs. Gaskell when she visited him in 1856 while researching her biography The Life of Charlotte Brontë, but she concealed their true significance. These letters, referred to as the \"Heger Letters\", had been ripped up at some stage by Heger, but his wife had retrieved the pieces from the wastepaper bin and meticulously glued or sewn them back together. Paul Heger, Constantin's son, and his sisters gave these letters to the British Museum, and they were shortly thereafter printed in The Times newspaper.","Brontë family\n\nBrontë sisters' literary career","Brontë family\n\nFirst publication : Poems, by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell","Brontë family\n\nThe writing that had begun so early never left the family. Charlotte had ambition like her brother (though Branwell was kept at a distance from her project) and wrote to the poet laureate Robert Southey to submit several poems of his style; she received a hardly encouraging reply after several months. Southey, still illustrious although his star has somewhat waned, was one of the great figures of English Romanticism, with William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and shared the prejudice of the times: literature, or more particularly poetry (for women had been publishing fiction and enjoying critical, popular and economic success for over a century by this time), was considered a man's business, and not an appropriate occupation for ladies.","Brontë family\n\nHowever, Charlotte did not allow herself to be discouraged. Furthermore, coincidence came to her aid. One day in autumn 1845 while alone in the dining room she noticed a small notebook lying open on in the drawer of Emily's portable writing desk and of my sister Emily's handwriting. She read it and was dazzled by the beauty of the poems that she did not know. The discovery of this treasure was what she recalled five years later, and according to Juliet Barker, she erased the excitement that she had felt, more than surprise […], a deep conviction that these were not common effusions, nor at all like the poetry women generally write. I thought them condensed and terse, vigorous and genuine. To my ear, they had a peculiar music – wild, melancholy, and elevating. In the following paragraph Charlotte describes her sister's indignant reaction at her having ventured into such an intimate realm with impunity. It took Emily hours to calm down and days to be convinced to publish the poems.","Brontë family\n\nCharlotte envisaged a joint publication by the three sisters. Anne was easily won over to the project, and the work was shared, compared, and edited. Once the poems had been chosen, nineteen for Charlotte and twenty-one each for Anne and Emily, Charlotte went about searching for a publisher. She took advice from William and Robert Chambers of Edinburgh, directors of one of their favourite magazines, Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. It is thought, although no documents exist to support the claim, that they advised the girls to contact Aylott & Jones, a small publishing house at 8, Paternoster Row, London, who accepted but rather at the authors' own risk as they felt the commercial risk to the company was too great. The work thus appeared in 1846, published using the male pseudonyms of Currer (Charlotte), Ellis (Emily), and Acton (Anne) Bell. These were very uncommon forenames but the initials of each of the sisters were preserved and the patronym could have been inspired by that of the vicar of the parish, Arthur Bell Nicholls. It was in fact on 18 May 1845 that he took up his duties at Haworth, at the moment when the publication project was well advanced.","Brontë family\n\nThe book attracted hardly any attention. Only three copies were sold, of which one was purchased by Fredrick Enoch, a resident of Cornmarket, Warwick, who in admiration, wrote to the publisher to request an autograph – the only extant single document carrying the three author's signatures in their pseudonyms, and they continued creating their prose, each one producing a book a year later. The three girls always worked in secret, unceasingly discussing their writing for hours at the dinner table, after which their father would open the door at 9 p. m. with Don't stay up late, Girls!, then rewinding the clock and taking the stairs to his room upstairs.","Brontë family\n\nFame","Brontë family\n\n1847","Brontë family\n\nCharlotte's Jane Eyre, Emily's Wuthering Heights, and Anne's Agnes Grey, appeared in 1847 after many tribulations, again for reasons of finding a publisher. The packets containing the manuscripts often returned to the parsonage and Charlotte simply added a new address and did this at least a dozen times during the year. The first one was finally published by Smith, Elder & Co in London, of which the 23-year-old owner George Smith had been specialised until then in publishing scientific revues aided by his perspicacious reader, William Smith Williams and remained faithful to the family. Those of Emily and Anne were confided to Thomas Cautley Newby who intended to compile a three-decker, more economical for sale and for loan in the circulating libraries the two first volumes to include Wuthering Heights and the third one Agnes Grey.","Brontë family\n\nBoth the novels attracted critical acclaim, occasionally harsh about Wuthering Heights, praised for the originality of the subject and its narrative style, but viewed with suspect because of its outrageous violence and immorality – surely, the critics wrote, a work of a man with a depraved mind – fairly neutral about Agnes Grey, more flattering in spite of certain commentators denouncing it as an affront to morals and good mores, for Jane Eyre which soon became what would be called today a best-seller.","Brontë family\n\nJane Eyre and rising fame","Brontë family\n\nThe anonymous (Currer Bell) publication in 1847 of Jane Eyre, An Autobiography, established a dazzling reputation for Charlotte. In July 1848, Charlotte and Anne (Emily had refused to go along with them) travelled by train to London to prove to Smith, Elder & Co that each sister was indeed an independent author, for Thomas Cautley Newby, the publisher of Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey, had launched a rumour that the three novels were the work of one author, understood to be Ellis Bell (Emily). George Smith was extremely surprised to find two gawky, ill-dressed country girls paralysed with fear, who, to identify themselves, held out the letters addressed to Messrs. Acton, Currer and Ellis Bell. Taken by such surprise, he introduced them to his mother with all the dignity their talent merited, and invited them to the opera for a performance of Rossini's Barber of Seville.","Brontë family\n\nWuthering Heights","Brontë family\n\nEmily Brontë's Wuthering Heights was published in 1847 under the masculine pseudonym Ellis Bell, by Thomas Cautley Newby, in two companion volumes to that of Anne's (Acton Bell), Agnes Grey. Controversial from the start of its release, its originality, its subject, narrative style and troubled action raised intrigue. Certain critics condemned it, but sales were nevertheless considerable for a novel from an unknown author and which defied all conventions.","Brontë family\n\nIt is a work of black Romanticism, covering three generations isolated in the cold or the spring of the countryside with two opposing elements: the dignified manor of Thrushcross Grange and the rambling dilapidated pile of Wuthering Heights. The main characters, swept by tumults of the earth, the skies and the hearts, are strange and often possessed of unheard of violence and deprivations. The story is told in a scholarly fashion, with two narrators, the traveller and tenant Lockwood, and the housekeeper/governess, Nelly Dean, with two sections in the first person, one direct, one cloaked, which overlap each other with digressions and sub-plots that form, from apparently scattered fragments, a coherently locked unit.","Brontë family\n\n1848, Anne's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall — one of the first sustained feminist novels","Brontë family\n\nOne year before her death in May 1849, Anne published a second novel. Far more ambitious than her previous novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall was a great success and rapidly outsold Emily's Wuthering Heights. However, the critical reception was mixed — praise for the novel's \"power\" and \"effect\" and sharp criticism for being \"coarse\". Charlotte Brontë herself, Anne's sister, wrote to her publisher that it \"hardly seems to me desirable to choice of subject in that work is a mistake.\" After Anne's death, Charlotte prevented the novel's republication and thus condemned her sister to temporary oblivion.","Brontë family\n\nThe master theme is the alcoholism of a man who causes the downfall of his family. Helen Graham, the central character, gets married for love to Arthur Huntingdon, whom she soon discovers to be lecherous, violent, and alcoholic. She is forced to break with the conventions that keep her in the family home that has become hell, and to leave with her child to seek secret refuge in the old house of Wildfell Hall. When the alcohol causes her husband's ultimate decline, she returns to care for him in total abnegation until his death.","Brontë family\n\nToday, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is considered by most of the critics to be one of the first sustained feminist novels.","Brontë family\n\nCharlotte Brontë","Brontë family\n\nDenunciation of boarding schools (Jane Eyre)","Brontë family\n\nConditions at the school at Cowan Bridge, where Maria and Elizabeth may have contracted the tuberculosis from which they died, were probably no worse than those at many other schools of the time. (For example, several decades before the Brontë sisters' experience at Cowan Bridge, Jane Austen and her sister Cassandra contracted typhus at a similar boarding school, and Jane nearly died. The Austen sisters' education, like that of the Brontë sisters, was continued at home.) Nevertheless, Charlotte blamed Cowan Bridge for her sisters' deaths, especially its poor medical care – chiefly, repeated emetics and blood-lettings – and the negligence of the school's doctor – who was the director's brother-in-law. Charlotte's vivid memories of the privations at Cowan Bridge were poured into her depiction of Lowood School in Jane Eyre: the scanty and at times spoiled food, the lack of heating and adequate clothing, the periodic epidemics of illness such as low fever (probably typhus), the severity and arbitrariness of the punishments, and even the harshness of particular teachers (a Miss Andrews who taught at Cowan Bridge is thought to have been Charlotte's model for Miss Scatcherd in Jane Eyre).","Brontë family\n\nWhile Elizabeth Gaskell, a personal friend and the first biographer of Charlotte, confirmed that Cowan Bridge was Charlotte's model for Lowood and insisted that conditions there in Charlotte's day were egregious, more recent biographers have argued that the food, clothing, heating, medical care, discipline, etc. at Cowan Bridge were not considered sub-standard for religious schools of the time. One scholar has even commended Patrick Brontë for his perspicacity in removing all his daughters from the school, a few weeks before the deaths of Maria and Elizabeth.","Brontë family\n\nLiterary encounters","Brontë family\n\nFollowing the overwhelming success of Jane Eyre, Charlotte was pressured by George Smith, her publisher,with whom she was in love, to travel to London to meet her public. Despite the extreme timidity that paralysed her among strangers and made her almost incapable of expressing herself, Charlotte consented to be lionised, and in London was introduced to other great writers of the era, including Harriet Martineau and William Makepeace Thackeray, both of whom befriended her. Charlotte especially admired Thackeray, whose portrait, given to her by Smith, still hangs in the dining room at Haworth parsonage. On one occasion Thackeray apparently introduced Charlotte to his mother during a public gathering as Jane Eyre and when Charlotte called on him the next day, received an extended dressing-down, in which Smith had to intervene.","Brontë family\n\nDuring her trip to London in 1851 she visited the Great Exhibition and The Crystal Palace. In 1849 she published Shirley and in 1853 Villette.","Brontë family\n\nMarriage and death","Brontë family\n\nThe Brontë sisters were highly amused by the behaviour of the curates they met. Arthur Bell Nicholls (1818–1906) had been curate of Haworth for seven and a half years, when contrary to all expectations, and to the fury of Patrick Brontë, he proposed to Charlotte. Although impressed by his dignity and deep voice, as well as by his near complete emotional collapse when she rejected him, she found him rigid, conventional, and rather narrow-minded 'like all the curates' – as she wrote to Ellen Nussey. After she declined his proposal Nicholls, pursued by the anger of Patrick Brontë, left his functions for several months. However, little by little her feelings evolved and after slowly convincing her father, she finally married Nicholls on 29 June 1854.","Brontë family\n\nOn return from their honeymoon in Ireland where she had been introduced to Mr. Nicholls' aunt and cousins, her life completely changed. She adopted her new duties as a wife that took up most of her time, she wrote to her friends telling them that Nicholls was a good and attentive husband, but that she nevertheless felt a kind of holy terror at her new situation. In a letter to Ellen Nussey (Nell), in 1854 she wrote Indeed-indeed-Nell-it is a solemn and strange and perilous thing for a woman to become a wife.","Brontë family\n\nThe following year she died aged 38. The cause of death given at the time was tuberculosis, but it may have been complicated with typhoid fever (the water at Haworth being likely contaminated due to poor sanitation and the vast cemetery that surrounded the church and the parsonage) and her pregnancy that was in its early stage.","Brontë family\n\nThe first biography of Charlotte was written by Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell at the request of Patrick Brontë, and published in 1857, helping to create the myth of a family of condemned genius, living in a painful and romantic solitude. After having stayed at Haworth several times and having accommodated Charlotte in Plymouth Grove, Manchester, and become her friend and confidant, Mrs Gaskell had certainly had the advantage of knowing the family.","Brontë family\n\nNovels","Brontë family\n\n* Jane Eyre (1847) \n* Shirley (1849)\n* Villette (1853)\n* The Professor (1857)","Brontë family\n\nUnfinished fragments","Brontë family\n\nThese are outlines or unedited roughcasts which with the exception of Emma have been recently published.","Brontë family\n\n* Ashford, written between 1840 and 1841, where certain characters from Angria are transported to Yorkshire and are included in a realistic plot.\n* Willie Ellin, started after Shirley and Villette, and on which Charlotte worked relatively little in May and July 1853, is a story in three poorly linked parts in which the plot at this stage remains rather vague.\n* The Moores is an outline for two short chapters with two characters, the brothers Robert Moore, a dominator, and John Henry Moore, an intellectual fanatic.\n* Emma, already published in 1860 with an introduction from Thackeray. This brilliant fragment would doubtlessly have become a novel of similar scope to her previous ones. It later inspired the novel A Little Princess by Frances Hodgson Burnett. \n* The Green Dwarf published in 2003. This story was probably inspired by The Black Dwarf by Walter Scott of whose novels Charlotte was a fan. The novel is a fictional history about a war that breaks out between Verdopolis (the capital of the confederation of Glass Town) and Senegal.","Brontë family\n\nBranwell Brontë","Brontë family\n\nPatrick Branwell Brontë (1817–1848) was considered by his father and sisters to be a genius. On the other hand, the book by Daphne du Maurier (1986), The Infernal World of Branwell Brontë, contains numerous references to his addiction to alcohol and laudanum. He was an intelligent boy with many talents and interested in many subjects, especially literature. He was often the driving force in the Brontë siblings' construction of the imaginary worlds. He was artistic and encouraged by his father to pursue this.","Brontë family\n\nWhilst trying to make a name as an artist, he left for London but in several days used up in cafés of ill-repute the allowance provided by his father. His attempts to obtain low paid work failed, and very quickly he foundered in alcohol and laudanum and was unable to regain his stability.","Brontë family\n\nAnne Brontë obtained employment for him in January 1843, but nearly three years later he was dismissed. In September 1848, after several years of decline, he died from tuberculosis. On his death, his father tearfully repeated, \"My brilliant boy\", while the clearheaded and totally loyal Emily wrote that his condition had been \"hopeless\".","Brontë family\n\nBranwell is the author of Juvenilia, which he wrote as a child with his sister Charlotte, Glass Town, Angria, poems, pieces of prose and verse under the pseudonym of Northangerland,One of the key characters of Glass Town, Alexander Rogue, created by Branwell, finally became Earl of Northangerland. such as \"Real Rest\", published by the Halifax Guardian (8 November 1846) from several articles accepted by local newspapers and from an unfinished novel probably from around 1845 entitled And the Weary are at Rest.","Brontë family\n\nEmily Brontë","Brontë family\n\nEmily Brontë (1818–1848) has been called the \"Sphynx of Literature\", writing without the slightest desire for fame and only for her own satisfaction. She was obsessively timid outside the family circle to the point of turning her back on her partners in conversation without saying a word.","Brontë family\n\nWith a single novel, Wuthering Heights (1847), and poems of an elementary power, she reached the heights of literature. Almost unknown during her life, posterity classes her as \"top level\" in the literary canon The place of Wuthering Heights in the literary canon is assured : see the synopsis of Wuthering Heights in the Critical commentary de Heather Glen, p. 351. of English literature. Simone de Beauvoir, in The Second Sex (1949), wrote that—of all women who ever lived—only three female writers: Brontë, Virginia Woolf and \"sometimes\" Katherine Mansfield actually explored \"the given\".","Brontë family\n\nAbove all, Emily loved to wander about the wild landscape of the moors around Haworth. In September 1848 her health began to decline rapidly. Consumptive, but refusing all treatment, with the exception of a visit from a London doctor – because although it was already too late, her relatives insisted – she died in December on the sofa in the dining room. It is possible that she left an unfinished manuscript which Charlotte burned to avoid such controversy as followed the publication of Wuthering Heights. Several documents exist that allude to the possibility, although no proof corroborating this suggestion has ever been found.","Brontë family\n\nEmily Brontë's poems","Brontë family\n\nEmily's poems were probably written to be inserted in the saga of Gondal, with which she identified herself with several of the characters right into her adulthood. At the age of 28 she still acted out scenes from the little books with Anne while travelling on the train to York. \"Remembrance\" was one of the 21 of Emily's poems that were chosen for the 1846 joint publication before which, Emily had deleted all references to Gondal.","Brontë family\n\nAnne Brontë","Brontë family\n\nAnne wasn't as celebrated as her other two sisters. Her second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was prevented from being republished after Anne's death by her sister Charlotte. Charlotte wrote to her publisher that \"Wildfell Hall it hardly appears to me desirable to preserve. The choice of subject in that work is a mistake, it was too little consonant with the character, tastes and ideas of the gentle, retiring inexperienced writer.\" This prevention is considered to be the main reason for Anne's being less renowned than her sisters.","Brontë family\n\nAnne's health began to decline rapidly, like that of her brother and sister some months earlier. On 5 April 1849, she wrote to Ellen Nussey asking her to accompany her to Scarborough on the east coast. Anne hoped that the sea air would improve her health, as recommended by the doctor, and Charlotte finally agreed to go.","Brontë family\n\nOn the Sunday morning she felt weaker and asked if she could be taken back to Haworth. The doctor confirmed that she was near to death and Anne thanked him for his candour. \"Take courage, take courage\" she murmured to Charlotte. She died at 2 pm on Monday 18 May. She is buried in the cemetery of St Mary's of Scarborough. Her gravestone carried an error in her age in the inscription because she died at the age of 29 and not at 28. It was noticed by Charlotte during her only visit, and she had the intention of asking the mason to correct it. Ill health did not leave him time to effect the repair and the tombstone remained in the same state until replaced by the Brontë Society in April 2013.","Brontë family\n\nNorthern England at the time of the Brontës","Brontë family\n\nIn her 1857 biography The Life of Charlotte Brontë, Mrs Gaskell begins with two explanatory and descriptive chapters. The first one covers the wild countryside of the West Riding of Yorkshire, the little village of Haworth, the parsonage and the church surrounded by its vast cemetery perched on the top of a hill. The second chapter presents an overview of the social, sanitary, and economic conditions of the region. The following works up to the most recent: The Brontës by Juliet Barker (1994) : bound volume, 1995, :occupy a large place in these elements which in several ways have contributed to mould and create in them the extraordinary characters which they became.","Brontë family\n\nSocial, sanitary, and economic conditions in Haworth","Brontë family\n\nThe death toll within the Brontë family was not unusual and left little impression on the village population, who were confronted with death on a daily basis. When Patrick Brontë arrived, the parish suffered from unemployment. The men sought work in the quarries and local handicrafts. The only businesses were the pharmacy which supplied Branwell, and John Greenwood's stationery store in which the Brontës were the best customers.","Brontë family\n\nHaworth's population grew rapidly during the first half of the 18th century, from hardly 1,000 to 3,365 in 50 years. The village did not have a sewage system and the well water was contaminated by faecal matter and the decomposition of bodies in the cemetery on the hilltop. Life expectancy was less than 25 years and infant mortality was around 41% of children under six months of age. Most of the population lived from working the poorly fertile land of the moors and supplemented their incomes with work done at home, such as spinning and weaving wool from the sheep that were farmed on the moors. Conditions changed and the textile industry, already present since the end of the 17th century, grew in the mills on the banks of the River Worth, whose waters turned the wheels which consequently required fewer people to work them.","Brontë family\n\nFood was scarce, often little more than porridge, resulting in vitamin deficiencies. Public hygiene was non-existent and lavatories were basic. The facilities at the parsonage were no more than a plank across a hole in a hut at the rear, with a lower plank for the children. In her thirties, Charlotte was described as having a toothless jaw, by such persons as Mrs Gaskell, who stated in a letter dated 25 August 1850 to Catherine Winkworth : [...] large mouth and many teeth gone [...]. However, food was reasonable in the family. Well filled plates of porridge in the morning and piles of potatoes were peeled each day in the kitchen while Tabby told stories about her country or Emily revised her German grammar, and sometimes Mr Brontë would return home from his tours of the village with game donated by the parishioners.","Brontë family\n\nThe role of the women","Brontë family\n\nAccording to Robert Southey, poet laureate, in his response to Charlotte, ladies from a good background should be content with an education and a marriage embellished with some decorative talents. Mr Brontë also said to one of the characters in his The Maid of Kilarney, without one knowing whether it truly reflected a widespread opinion in order to support it or to condemn it: \"The education of female ought, most assuredly, to be competent, in order that she might enjoy herself, and be a fit companion for man. But, believe me, lovely, delicate and sprightly woman, is not formed by nature, to pore over the musty pages of Grecian and Roman literature, or to plod through the windings of Mathematical Problems, nor has Providence assigned for her sphere of action, either the cabinet or the field. Her forte is softness, tenderness and grace.\" In any case, it seemed to contradict his attitude towards his daughters whom he encouraged even if he was not completely aware of what they did with their time.","Brontë family\n\nThe Brontë sisters' place in literature","Brontë family\n\nDue to their forced or voluntary isolation, the Brontë sisters constituted a separate literary group which neither had predecessors nor successors. There is not a 'Brontë' line such as exists among authors of realist and naturalist novels, and in poetry, the romantic, and the symbolic.","Brontë family\n\nTheir influence certainly existed but it is difficult to define in its totality. Writers who followed them doubtlessly thought about them while they were creating their dark and tormented worlds such as Thomas Hardy in Jude the Obscure or Tess of the d'Urbervilles, or George Eliot with Adam Bede and The Mill on the Floss. There were also more conventional authors such as Matthew Arnold, who in a letter from 1853, says of Charlotte, that she only pretends to heartless: '[...] nothing but hunger, rebellion and rage'. In contrast, Mrs Humphry Ward, author of Robert Elsmere and morality novels, only finds didactic among the works of Charlotte, while she appreciates the happy blend of romance and realism in the works of Emily. There is however nothing that could constitute a literary vein.","Brontë family\n\nPilgrimages to Haworth from 1860","Brontë family\n\nBy 1860 Charlotte had been dead for five years, and the only people living at the parsonage were Mr. Brontë, his son-in-law, Arthur Bell Nicholls, and two servants. In 1857 Mrs. Gaskell's biography of Charlotte was published and though Mr. Brontë at its first reading approved of its commissioning, several months later he expressed doubts. The portrait of Nicholls, founded partly on the confidence of Ellen Nussey, seemed to him to be unjustified. Ellen Nussey, who hated Arthur, insists that his marital claims had perverted Charlotte's writing and she had to struggle against an interruption of her career. It is true that Arthur found Nussey to be too close to his wife, and he insisted that she should destroy her letters – although this never actually happened.","Brontë family\n\nMrs. Gaskell's book caused a sensation and was distributed nationwide. The polemic launched by Charlotte's father resulted in a squabble that only served to increase the family's fame.","Brontë family\n\nDuring Charlotte's lifetime friends and sponsors visited the parsonage, including Sir James and Lady Kay Shuttleworth, Ellen Nussey, Elizabeth Gaskell, John Store Smith, a young writer from Manchester, Bessie Parkes, who recounted her visit to Mrs. Gaskell, and Abraham Holroyd, poet, antiquarian, and historian. However, following the publication of the book and the pastor's public remonstrations, the parsonage became a place of pilgrimage for admirers wanting to see it with their own eyes. Charlotte's husband recalled that he had to protect his father-in-law, when on the short path to the church they had to push their way through the crowds of people wanting to reach out and touch the cape of the father of the Brontë girls. The hundreds of visitors became thousands, coming from all over Britain and even from across the Atlantic. Whenever he agreed to meet them, Patrick received them with utmost courtesy and recounted the story of his brilliant daughters, never omitting to express his displeasure at the opinions held about Charlotte's husband.","Brontë family\n\nThe flow of visitors has never abated. Indeed, the parsonage at Haworth is one of the most visited literary sites in the world.Publications by the Brontë Society inform that the site is classed as the second most visited in the world. During a visit in 1996, the information boards at the entrance claimed over two million visitors, doubtlessly exaggerated.","Brontë family\n\nThe Brontë Society","Brontë family\n\nThe Brontë Parsonage Museum is managed and maintained by the Brontë Society, which organises exhibitions and takes care of the cultural heritage represented by objects and documents which belonged to the family. The society has branches in Australia, Canada, France, Ireland, the Scandinavian countries, South Africa, and the USA.","Brontë family\n\nThe Brontë phenomenon","Brontë family\n\nIn 1904, Virginia Woolf visited Haworth and published an account in The Guardian on 21 December. She remarked on the symbiosis between the village and the Brontë sisters, the fact that utensils and clothes which would normally have disappeared before those who used them, have survived, enables one to better understand their singular presence. She also wrote: \"Haworth expresses the Brontës; the Brontës express Haworth; they fit like a snail to its shell\".","Brontë family\n\nBrontë descendants","Brontë family\n\nThe line of Patrick Brontë died out with his children, but Patrick's brother had notable descendants, including the discoverer of Golgi bodies, James Brontë Gatenby, and the medical director of the UN, Peter Brontë Gatenby.","Brontë family\n\nThe Brontës in popular culture","Brontë family\n\nCinema","Brontë family\n\n* In the American film Devotion (1946) by Curtis Bernhardt, which constitutes a biography of the Brontë sisters, Ida Lupino plays Emily Brontë and Olivia de Havilland plays Charlotte Brontë.\n* In the French film Week-end (1967) by Jean-Luc Godard, Emily Brontë appears in a scene where one of the protagonists asks for geographical information.\n* In the French film Les Sœurs Brontë (1979) by André Téchiné, Isabelle Adjani plays Emily Brontë, Marie-France Pisier plays Charlotte Brontë, Isabelle Huppert plays Anne, Patrick Magee plays Patrick Brontë, and Pascal Greggory plays Branwell Brontë.","Brontë family\n\nDance","Brontë family\n\n* Several 20th century choreographic works have been inspired by the lives and works of the Brontë sisters. \n* The title of Martha Graham's ballet, Death and Entrances (1943), is taken from a poem by Dylan Thomas.\n* Dancer Gillian Lynne presented a composition entitled The Brontës (1995).","Brontë family\n\nNatural phenomena","Brontë family\n\n* Charlottebrontë is the name of asteroid #39427, discovered by Palomar Observatory on 25 September 1973. The asteroids #39428 and #39429 (both discovered on 29 September 1973, at Palomar Observatory) are named Emilybrontë and Annebrontë respectively.\n* The 60 km-diameter impact crater Brontë on the surface of the planet Mercury is named in honour of the Brontë family.","Brontë family\n\nMusic","Brontë family\n\n* Wuthering Heights is presented as John Lennon's favourite book in \"The sky is everywhere\".\n* English singer-songwriter Kate Bush released a song titled \"Wuthering Heights\" in 1978 to critical success. Coincidentally, Bush shares the same birthday with Emily Brontë.","Brontë family\n\nOpera","Brontë family\n\n* Wuthering Heights has been the subject of at least three completed operas of the same name: Bernard Herrmann wrote his version between 1943 and 1951, and Carlisle Floyd's setting was premiered in 1958. Frédéric Chaslin also wrote an operatic version. Frederick Delius also started work on a Wuthering Heights opera but abandoned it early.","Brontë family\n\nStage productions","Brontë family\n\n* The play Brontë (2005), by Polly Teale, explores their lives as well as the characters they created.\n* The musical Schwestern im Geiste (2014; Sisters in Mind), by Peter Lund, is about the Brontës.","Brontë family\n\nTelevision","Brontë family\n\n* In the Family Guy episode \"New Kidney In Town,\" a cutaway gag shows Charlotte and Emily congratulating each other on their literary achievements, while Anne is shown as a crude simpleton (implying her literary contributions were negligible compared to her sisters)\n* In the episode \"Educating Doug\" of the American television series The King of Queens, Doug & Carrie enrol in a course on classic literature to improve their level of sophistication. They are assigned the book Jane Eyre where Doug struggles to get past even the second page. \n* In the episode of CBBC children's television show Horrible Histories entitled Staggering Storytellers, Charlotte (Jessica Ransom), Emily (Gemma Whelan), Anne (Natalie Walter) and Branwell (Thom Tuck) try to get their work published, forgetting all about the Bronte brother.","Wuthering Heights\n\nWuthering Heights is Emily Brontë's only novel. Written between October 1845 and June 1846, Wuthering Heights was published in 1847 under the pseudonym \"Ellis Bell\"; Brontë died the following year, aged 30. Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontë's Agnes Grey were accepted by publisher Thomas Newby before the success of their sister Charlotte's novel, Jane Eyre. After Emily's death, Charlotte edited the manuscript of Wuthering Heights, and arranged for the edited version to be published as a posthumous second edition in 1850.","Wuthering Heights\n\nAlthough Wuthering Heights is now widely regarded as a classic of English literature, contemporary reviews for the novel were deeply polarised; it was considered controversial because its depiction of mental and physical cruelty was unusually stark, and it challenged strict Victorian ideals of the day, including religious hypocrisy, morality, social classes and gender inequality. The English poet and painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti referred to it as \"A fiend of a book – an incredible monster [...] The action is laid in hell, – only it seems places and people have English names there.\"","Wuthering Heights\n\nIn the second half of the 19th century, Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre was considered the best of the Brontë sisters' works, but following later re-evaluation, critics began to argue that Wuthering Heights was superior. The book has inspired adaptations, including film, radio and television dramatisations, a musical by Bernard J. Taylor, a ballet, operas (by Bernard Herrmann, Carlisle Floyd, and Frédéric Chaslin), a role-playing game, and a 1978 song by Kate Bush.","Wuthering Heights\n\nPlot","Wuthering Heights\n\nOpening (Chapters 1 to 3)","Wuthering Heights\n\nIn 1801, Lockwood, a wealthy man from the South of England who is seeking peace and recuperation, rents Thrushcross Grange in Yorkshire. He visits his landlord, Heathcliff, who lives in a remote moorland farmhouse, Wuthering Heights. There Lockwood finds an odd assemblage: Heathcliff seems to be a gentleman, but his manners are uncouth; the reserved mistress of the house is in her mid-teens; and a young man seems to be a member of the family, yet dresses and speaks as if he is a servant.","Wuthering Heights\n\nSnowed in, Lockwood is grudgingly allowed to stay and is shown to a bedchamber where he notices books and graffiti left by a former inhabitant named Catherine. He falls asleep and has a nightmare in which he sees the ghostly Catherine trying to enter through the window. He cries out in fear, rousing Heathcliff, who rushes into the room. Lockwood is convinced that what he saw was real. Heathcliff, believing Lockwood to be right, examines the window and opens it, hoping to allow Catherine's spirit to enter. When nothing happens, Heathcliff shows Lockwood to his own bedroom and returns to keep watch at the window.","Wuthering Heights\n\nAt sunrise Heathcliff escorts Lockwood back to Thrushcross Grange. Lockwood asks the housekeeper, Nelly Dean, about the family at Wuthering Heights, and she tells him the tale.","Wuthering Heights\n\nHeathcliff's childhood (Chapters 4 to 17)","Wuthering Heights\n\nThirty years earlier, the owner of Wuthering Heights is Mr Earnshaw, who lives with his teenage son Hindley and his daughter Catherine. On a trip to Liverpool Earnshaw encounters a homeless boy, described as a \"dark-skinned gypsy in aspect\". He adopts the boy and names him Heathcliff. Hindley feels that Heathcliff has supplanted him in his father's affections and becomes bitterly jealous. Catherine and Heathcliff become friends, and spend hours each day playing on the moors. They grow close.","Wuthering Heights\n\nHindley is sent to college. Three years later Earnshaw dies and Hindley becomes the landowner; he is now master of Wuthering Heights. He returns to live there with his new wife, Frances. He allows Heathcliff to stay but only as a servant.","Wuthering Heights\n\nA few months after Hindley's return Heathcliff and Catherine walk to Thrushcross Grange to spy on the Lintons, who live there. After being discovered they try to run away but are caught. Catherine is injured by the Lintons' dog and taken into the house to recuperate, while Heathcliff is sent home. Catherine stays with the Lintons. The Linton's are landed gentry and Catherine is influenced by their fine appearance and genteel manners. When she returns to Wuthering Heights her appearance and manners are more ladylike, and she laughs at Heathcliff's unkempt appearance. The next day, knowing that the Lintons are to visit, Heathcliff tries to dress up, in an effort to impress Catherine, but he and Edgar Linton get into an argument and Hindley humiliates Heathcliff by locking him in the attic. Catherine tries to comfort Heathcliff, but he vows revenge on Hindley.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe following year Frances Earnshaw gives birth to a son, named Hareton, but she dies a few months later. Hindley descends into drunkenness. Two more years pass, and Catherine and Edgar Linton become friends, while she becomes more distant from Heathcliff. Edgar visits Catherine while Hindley is away and they declare themselves lovers soon afterwards.","Wuthering Heights\n\nCatherine confesses to Nelly that Edgar has proposed marriage and she has accepted, although her love for Edgar is not comparable to her love for Heathcliff, whom she cannot marry because of his low social status and lack of education. She hopes to use her position as Edgar's wife to raise Heathcliff's standing. Heathcliff overhears her say that it would \"degrade\" her to marry him (but not how much she loves him), and he runs away and disappears without a trace. Distraught over Heathcliff's departure, Catherine makes herself ill. Nelly and Edgar begin to pander to her every whim to prevent her from becoming ill again.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThree years pass. Edgar and Catherine marry, and go to live together at Thrushcross Grange where she enjoys being \"lady of the manor\". Six months later Heathcliff returns, now a wealthy gentleman. Catherine is delighted, but Edgar is not. Edgar's sister, Isabella, soon falls in love with Heathcliff, who despises her, but encourages the infatuation as a means of revenge. One day he embraces Isabella, leading to an argument with Edgar. Upset, Catherine locks herself in her room and begins to make herself ill again.","Wuthering Heights\n\nHeathcliff takes up residence at Wuthering Heights, and spends his time gambling with Hindley and teaching Hareton bad habits. Hindley dissipates his wealth and mortgages the farmhouse to Heathcliff to pay his debts. Heathcliff elopes with Isabella Linton. Two months later they return to Wuthering Heights. Heathcliff hears that Catherine is ill and, with Nelly's help, visits her secretly. However, Catherine is pregnant. The following day she gives birth to a daughter, Cathy, shortly before dying.","Wuthering Heights\n\nAfter Catherine's funeral Isabella leaves Heathcliff, takes refuge in the South of England and gives birth to a son, Linton. Hindley dies six months after Catherine, and Heathcliff thus finds himself master of Wuthering Heights.","Wuthering Heights\n\nHeathcliff's maturity (Chapters 18 to 31)","Wuthering Heights\n\nTwelve years pass. Catherine's daughter Cathy has become a beautiful, high-spirited girl. Edgar learns that his sister Isabella is dying, so he leaves to retrieve her son Linton in order to adopt and educate him. Cathy, who has rarely left home, takes advantage of her father's absence to venture further afield. She rides over the moors to Wuthering Heights and discovers that she has not one but two cousins: Hareton in addition to Linton. She also lets it be known that her father has gone to fetch Linton. When Edgar returns with Linton, a weak and sickly boy, Heathcliff insists that he live at Wuthering Heights.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThree years pass. Walking on the moors, Nelly and Cathy encounter Heathcliff, who takes them to Wuthering Heights to see Linton and Hareton. Heathcliff hopes that Linton and Cathy will marry, so that Linton will become the heir to Thrushcross Grange. Linton and Cathy begin a secret friendship, echoing the childhood friendship between their respective parents, Heathcliff and Catherine.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe following year Edgar becomes very ill, taking a turn for the worse while Nelly and Cathy are out on the moors, where Heathcliff and Linton trick them into entering Wuthering Heights. Heathcliff keeps them captive to enable the marriage of Cathy and Linton to take place. After five days Nelly is released and later, with Linton's help, Cathy escapes. She returns to the Grange to see her father shortly before he dies.","Wuthering Heights\n\nNow master of both Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange, Cathy's father-in-law, Heathcliff insists on her returning to live at Wuthering Heights. Soon after she arrives Linton dies. Hareton tries to be kind to Cathy, but she withdraws from the world.","Wuthering Heights\n\nAt this point Nelly's tale catches up to the present day (1801). Time passes and, after being ill for a period, Lockwood grows tired of the moors and informs Heathcliff that he will be leaving Thrushcross Grange.","Wuthering Heights\n\nEnding (Chapters 32 to 34)","Wuthering Heights\n\nEight months later Lockwood returns to the area by chance. Given that his tenancy at Thrushcross Grange is still valid, he decides to stay there again. He finds Nelly living at Wuthering Heights and enquires what has happened since he left. She explains that she moved to Wuthering Heights to replace the housekeeper, Zillah, who had left. Hareton had an accident and was confined to the farmhouse. During his convalescence, he and Cathy overcame their mutual antipathy and became close. While their friendship developed Heathcliff began to act strangely and had visions of Catherine. He stopped eating and after four days was found dead in Catherine's old room. He was buried next to Catherine.","Wuthering Heights\n\nLockwood learns that Hareton and Cathy plan to marry on New Year's Day. As he gets ready to leave, he passes the graves of Catherine, Edgar and Heathcliff, and pauses to contemplate the quiet of the moors.","Wuthering Heights\n\nCharacters","Wuthering Heights\n\n* Heathcliff: Found, presumably orphaned, on the streets of Liverpool and taken by Mr Earnshaw to Wuthering Heights, where he is reluctantly cared for by the family. He and Catherine grow close and their love is the central theme of the first volume. His revenge against the man she chooses to marry and its consequences are the central theme of the second volume. Heathcliff has been considered a Byronic hero, but critics have pointed out that he reinvents himself at various points, making his character hard to fit into any single type. Because of his ambiguous position in society and his lack of status, underlined by the fact that \"Heathcliff\" is both his given name and his surname, his character has been a favourite subject of Marxist criticism. * Catherine Earnshaw: First introduced to the reader after her death, through Lockwood's discovery of her diary and carvings. The description of her life is confined almost entirely to the first volume. She seems unsure whether she is, or wants to become, more like Heathcliff, or aspires to be more like Edgar.","Wuthering Heights\n\nSome critics have argued that her decision to marry Edgar Linton is allegorically a rejection of nature and a surrender to culture, a choice with fateful consequences for all the other characters. Literary critics have examined her character through many different lenses, including those of psychoanalytic theory and feminist theory. * Edgar Linton: Introduced as a child in the Linton family, he resides at Thrushcross Grange. Edgar's style and manners are in sharp contrast to those of Heathcliff, who instantly dislikes him, and of Catherine, who is drawn to him. Catherine marries him instead of Heathcliff because of his higher social status, with disastrous results. From the perspective of feminist theory, this exemplifies the problems inherent in a social structure in which women can gain prestige and financial security only through marriage. * Nelly Dean: The main narrator of the novel, Nelly is a servant to three generations of the Earnshaws and two of the Linton family. Humbly born, she regards herself nevertheless as Hindley's foster-sister (they are the same age and her mother is his nurse).","Wuthering Heights\n\nShe lives and works among the rough inhabitants of Wuthering Heights, but is well-read, and she also experiences the more genteel manners of Thrushcross Grange. She is referred to as Ellen, her given name, to show respect, and as Nelly among those close to her. Critics have discussed how far her actions as an apparent bystander affect the other characters and how much her narrative can be relied on. * Isabella Linton: Isabella is seen only in relation to other characters. She views Heathcliff romantically, despite Catherine's warnings, and becomes an unwitting participant in his plot for revenge against Edgar. Heathcliff marries her, but treats her abusively. Pregnant, she escapes to London and gives birth to a son, Linton. Because she suffers such abuse from her husband and ultimately escapes from it, some critics, particularly feminists, consider Isabella the true (conventional) \"tragic-romantic\" heroine of Wuthering Heights. * Hindley Earnshaw: Catherine's elder brother, Hindley despises Heathcliff immediately and bullies him throughout their childhood before his father sends him away to college. Hindley returns with his wife, Frances, after Mr Earnshaw dies. He is more mature, but his hatred of Heathcliff remains the same.","Wuthering Heights\n\nAfter Frances's death Hindley is caught in a downward spiral of destructive behaviour, and ruins the Earnshaw family by drinking and gambling to excess. Heathcliff beats up Hindley at one point when he attempts to kill him with a pistol. * Hareton Earnshaw: The son of Hindley and Frances, raised at first by Nelly but soon by Heathcliff. Nelly works to instill a sense of pride in the Earnshaw heritage (even though Hareton will not inherit Earnshaw property, because Hindley has mortgaged it to Heathcliff). Heathcliff, in contrast, teaches him vulgarities, as a way of avenging himself on Hindley. Hareton speaks with an accent similar to Joseph's, and occupies a position similar to a servant at Wuthering Heights, unaware how he has been done out of his inheritance. In appearance he reminds Heathcliff of his aunt, Catherine. * Cathy Linton: The daughter of Catherine Earnshaw and Edgar Linton, a spirited and strong-willed girl unaware of her parents' history. Edgar is very protective of her and as a result she is eager to discover what lies beyond the confines of the Grange.","Wuthering Heights\n\nAlthough one of the more sympathetic characters of the novel, she is also somewhat snobbish against Hareton and his lacking education. * Linton Heathcliff: The son of Heathcliff and Isabella. A weak child, his early years are spent with his mother in the south of England. He learns of his father's identity and existence only after his mother dies, when he is twelve. In his selfishness and capacity for cruelty he resembles Heathcliff, but he appears to lack his father's only redeeming feature: the capacity to love. He marries Cathy Linton because his father, who terrifies him, directs him to do so, and soon after dies from a wasting illness associated with tuberculosis and onanism. * Joseph: A servant at Wuthering Heights for 60 years who is a rigid, self-righteous Christian but lacks any trace of genuine kindness or humanity. He speaks a broad Yorkshire dialect and hates nearly everyone in the novel. * Mr Lockwood: The first narrator, he rents Thrushcross Grange to escape society, but in the end decides society is preferable. He narrates the book until Chapter 4, when the main narrator, Nelly, picks up the tale. * Frances: Hindley's ailing wife and mother of Hareton Earnshaw.","Wuthering Heights\n\nShe is described as somewhat silly and is obviously from humble family backgrounds. * Mr and Mrs Earnshaw: Catherine's and Hindley's father, Mr Earnshaw is the master of Wuthering Heights at the beginning of Nelly's story and is described as an irascible but loving and kind-hearted man. He has a strange obsession with his adopted son Heathcliff, which causes trouble in the family. In contrast, his wife mistrusts the child Heathcliff from their first encounter. * Mr and Mrs Linton: Edgar's and Isabella's parents, they educate their children in a well-behaved and sophisticated way. Mr Linton also serves as the magistrate of Gimmerton, like his son in later years. * Dr Kenneth: The longtime doctor of Gimmerton and a friend of Hindley's who is present at the cases of illness during the novel. Although not much of his character is known, he seems to be a rough but honest person. * Zillah: A servant to Heathcliff at Wuthering Heights during the period following Catherine's death. Although she is kind to Lockwood, she doesn't like or help Cathy at Wuthering Heights because of Cathy's arrogance and Heathcliff's instructions.","Wuthering Heights\n\n* Mr Green: Edgar's corruptible lawyer who should change his will and prevent Heathcliff from gaining Thrushcross Grange. But Green changes sides and helps Heathcliff to inherit Grange as his property.","Wuthering Heights\n\nRelationships map","Wuthering Heights\n\nKey:\n* black line: son or daughter of; if dotted it means adoption\n* red line: wedding; if double it means second wedding\n* pink line: Relationship\n* blue line: affection\n* green line: hate\n* light yellow area: plot-driving characters\n* violet area: external observers","Wuthering Heights\n\nTimeline","Wuthering Heights\n\nThemes","Wuthering Heights\n\nAuthor Joyce Carol Oates sees the novel as \"an assured demonstration of the finite and tragically self-consuming nature of 'passion'.\"[http://www.usfca.edu/jco/magnanimityofwutheringheights/ Oates, Joyce Carol. \"The Magnanimity of Wuthering Heights\", Critical Inquiry, 1983]","Wuthering Heights\n\nGothic novel","Wuthering Heights\n\nEllen Moers, in Literary Women, developed a feminist theory that connects women writers, including Emily Brontë, with the gothic fiction. Catherine Earnshaw has been identified by some critics, as a type of gothic demon, because she \"shape-shifts\" in order to marry Edgar Linton, by assuming a domesticity, which is contrary to her true nature. It has also been suggested that Catherine's relationship with Heathcliff conforms to the \"dynamics of the Gothic romance, in that the woman falls prey to the more or less demonic instincts of her lover, suffers from the violence of his feelings, and at the end is entangled by his thwarted passion.\"","Wuthering Heights\n\nPublication","Wuthering Heights\n\n1847 edition","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe original text, as published by Thomas Cautley Newby in 1847, is available online in two parts. The novel was first published together with Anne Brontë's Agnes Grey in a three-volume format: Wuthering Heights occupied the first two volumes, while Agnes Grey made up the third.","Wuthering Heights\n\n1850 edition","Wuthering Heights\n\nIn 1850, when a second edition of Wuthering Heights was due, Charlotte Brontë edited the original text, altering punctuation, correcting spelling errors and making Joseph's thick Yorkshire dialect less opaque. Writing to her publisher, W.S. Williams, she mentioned that \"It seems to me advisable to modify the orthography of the old servant Joseph's speeches; for though, as it stands, it exactly renders the Yorkshire dialect to a Yorkshire ear, yet I am sure Southerns must find it unintelligible; and thus one of the most graphic characters in the book is lost on them.\" An essay written by Irene Wiltshire on dialect and speech in the novel examines some of the changes Charlotte made.","Wuthering Heights\n\nInspiration for locations","Wuthering Heights\n\nThere are several theories about which real building or buildings (if any) may have inspired Wuthering Heights. One common candidate is Top Withens, a ruined farmhouse located in an isolated area near the Haworth Parsonage, although its structure does not match that of the farmhouse described in the novel. Top Withens was first suggested as the model by Ellen Nussey, a friend of Charlotte Brontë, to Edward Morison Wimperis, an artist who was commissioned to illustrate the Brontë sisters' novels in 1872.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe second possibility is High Sunderland Hall, near Halifax, now demolished. This Gothic edifice was located near Law Hill, where Emily worked briefly as a governess in 1838. While it was perhaps grander than Wuthering Heights, the hall had grotesque embellishments of griffins and misshapen nude males similar to those described by Lockwood in Chapter 1 of the novel.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe inspiration for Thrushcross Grange has long been traced to Ponden Hall, near Haworth, which is very small. Shibden Hall, near Halifax, is perhaps more likely. The Thrushcross Grange that Emily describes is rather unusual. It sits within an enormous park, as does Shibden Hall. By comparison, the park at Chatsworth (the home of the Duke of Devonshire) is over two miles (3.2 km) long but, as the house sits near the middle, it is no more than a mile and a half (2.4 km) from the lodge to the house. Considering that Edgar Linton apparently does not even have a title, this seems unlikely. There is no building close to Haworth that has a park anywhere near this size, but there are a few houses that might have inspired some elements. Shibden Hall has several features that match descriptions in the novel.","Wuthering Heights\n\nCritical response","Wuthering Heights\n\nEarly reviews (1847–1848)","Wuthering Heights\n\nEarly reviews of Wuthering Heights were mixed in their assessment. Whilst most critics at the time recognised the power and imagination of the novel, they were also baffled by the storyline and found the characters extremely forward and uninhibited.Emily Brontë saved sections of five reviews of the 1847 version of Wuthering Heights, of which four have been identified as having appeared in the January 1848 numbers of the Atlas, Douglas Jerrold's Weekly Newspaper, the Examiner, and the Britannia. The fifth has neither a date nor source. Published in 1847, at a time when the background of the author was deemed to have an important impact on the story itself, many critics were also intrigued by the authorship of the novels.Wuthering Heights was published alongside Agnes Grey under the pseudonyms \"Acton and Ellis Bell\" (Anne and Emily respectively). Wuthering Heights comprised the first two parts of the volume, and Agnes Grey the third: \"The third volume of the book is made up of a separate tale relating to the fortunes of a governess.\" (Britannia (1848)) Henry Chorley of the Athenæum said that it was a \"disagreeable story\" and that the \"Bells\" (Brontës) \"seem to affect painful and exceptional subjects\".","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe Atlas review called it a \"strange, inartistic story,\" but commented that every chapter seems to contain a \"sort of rugged power.\" Atlas summarised the novel by writing: \"We know nothing in the whole range of our fictitious literature which presents such shocking pictures of the worst forms of humanity. There is not in the entire dramatis persona, a single character which is not utterly hateful or thoroughly contemptible ... Even the female characters excite something of loathing and much of contempt. Beautiful and loveable in their childhood, they all, to use a vulgar expression, \"turn out badly\".\"","Wuthering Heights\n\nGraham's Lady Magazine wrote \"How a human being could have attempted such a book as the present without committing suicide before he had finished a dozen chapters, is a mystery. It is a compound of vulgar depravity and unnatural horrors.\"","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe American Whig Review wrote \"Respecting a book so original as this, and written with so much power of imagination, it is natural that there should be many opinions. Indeed, its power is so predominant that it is not easy after a hasty reading to analyze one's impressions so as to speak of its merits and demerits with confidence. We have been taken and carried through a new region, a melancholy waste, with here and there patches of beauty; have been brought in contact with fierce passions, with extremes of love and hate, and with sorrow that none but those who have suffered can understand. This has not been accomplished with ease, but with an ill-mannered contempt for the decencies of language, and in a style which might resemble that of a Yorkshire farmer who should have endeavored to eradicate his provincialism by taking lessons of a London footman. We have had many sad bruises and tumbles in our journey, yet it was interesting, and at length we are safely arrived at a happy conclusion.\"","Wuthering Heights\n\nDouglas Jerrold's Weekly Newspaper wrote \"Wuthering Heights is a strange sort of book,—baffling all regular criticism; yet, it is impossible to begin and not finish it; and quite as impossible to lay it aside afterwards and say nothing about. In Wuthering Heights the reader is shocked, disgusted, almost sickened by details of cruelty, inhumanity, and the most diabolical hate and vengeance, and anon come passages of powerful testimony to the supreme power of love – even over demons in the human form. The women in the book are of a strange fiendish-angelic nature, tantalising, and terrible, and the men are indescribable out of the book itself. Yet, towards the close of the story occurs the following pretty, soft picture, which comes like the rainbow after a storm ... We strongly recommend all our readers who love novelty to get this story, for we can promise them that they never have read anything like it before. It is very puzzling and very interesting, and if we had space we would willingly devote a little more time to the analysis of this remarkable story, but we must leave it to our readers to decide what sort of book it is.\"","Wuthering Heights\n\nNew Monthly Magazine wrote \"Wuthering Heights, by Ellis Bell, is a terrific story, associated with an equally fearful and repulsive spot ... Our novel reading experience does not enable us to refer to anything to be compared with the personages we are introduced to at this desolate spot – a perfect misanthropist's heaven.\"","Wuthering Heights\n\nTait's Edinburgh Magazine wrote \"This novel contains undoubtedly powerful writing, and yet it seems to be thrown away. Mr. Ellis Bell, before constructing the novel, should have known that forced marriages, under threats and in confinement are illegal, and parties instrumental thereto can be punished. And second, that wills made by young ladies' minors are invalid. The volumes are powerfully written records of wickedness and they have a moral – they show what Satan could do with the law of Entail.\"","Wuthering Heights\n\nExaminer wrote \"This is a strange book. It is not without evidences of considerable power: but, as a whole, it is wild, confused, disjointed, and improbable; and the people who make up the drama, which is tragic enough in its consequences, are savages ruder than those who lived before the days of Homer.\"","Wuthering Heights\n\nLiterary World wrote \"In the whole story not a single trait of character is elicited which can command our admiration, not one of the fine feelings of our nature seems to have formed a part in the composition of its principal actors. In spite of the disgusting coarsness of much of the dialogue, and the improbabilities of much of the plot, we are spellbound.\"","Wuthering Heights\n\nBritannia called it a \"strangely original\" book that depicts \"humanity in this wild state.\" Although mostly hostile, it notes that the book is \"illuminated by some gleams of sunshine towards the end which serve to cast a grateful light on the dreary path we have traveled.\"","Wuthering Heights\n\nReferences in culture","Wuthering Heights\n\nAdaptations","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe earliest known film adaptation of Wuthering Heights was filmed in England and directed by A. V. Bramble. It is unknown if any prints still exist. The most famous was 1939's Wuthering Heights, starring Laurence Olivier and Merle Oberon and directed by William Wyler. This acclaimed adaptation, like many others, eliminated the second generation's story (young Cathy, Linton and Hareton) and is rather inaccurate as a literature adaption. It won the 1939 New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Film and was nominated for the 1939 Academy Award for Best Picture.","Wuthering Heights\n\nIn 1967 the BBC produced a dramatisation starring Ian McShane and Angela Scoular.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe 1970 film with Timothy Dalton as Heathcliff is the first colour version of the novel, and gained acceptance over the years though it was initially poorly received. The character of Hindley is portrayed much more sympathetically, and his story-arc is altered. It also subtly suggests that Heathcliff may be Cathy's illegitimate half-brother.","Wuthering Heights\n\nIn 1978 the BBC produced a five part TV serialisation of the book starring Ken Hutchinson, Kay Adshead and John Duttine with music by Carl Davis; it is considered one of the most faithful adaptations of Emily Brontë's story.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThere is also a 1985 French film adaptation Hurlevent by Jacques Rivette.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe 1992 film Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights starring Ralph Fiennes and Juliette Binoche is notable for including the oft-omitted second generation story of the children of Cathy, Hindley and Heathcliff.","Wuthering Heights\n\nMore recent film or TV adaptations include ITV's 2009 two part drama series starring Tom Hardy, Charlotte Riley, Sarah Lancashire, and Andrew Lincoln, the 2011 film starring Kaya Scodelario and James Howson and directed by Andrea Arnold; and the forthcoming 2016/17 film, directed by Elisaveta Abrahall and starring Paul Eryk Atlas and Sha'ori Morris, in a version that includes both generations and is presently filming in the UK.","Wuthering Heights\n\nAdaptations which reset the story in a new setting include the 1954 adaptation retitled Abismos de Pasion directed by Spanish filmmaker Luis Buñuel set in Catholic Mexico, with Heathcliff and Cathy renamed Alejandro and Catalina. In Buñuel's version Heathcliff/Alejandro claims to have become rich by making a deal with Satan. The New York Times reviewed a re-release of this film as \"an almost magical example of how an artist of genius can take someone else's classic work and shape it to fit his own temperament without really violating it,\" noting that the film was thoroughly Spanish and Catholic in its tone while still highly faithful to Brontë. Yoshishige Yoshida's 1988 adaptation also has a transposed setting, this time in medieval Japan. In Yoshida's version, the Heathcliff character, Onimaru, is raised in a nearby community of priests who worship a local fire god. In 2003, MTV produced a poorly reviewed version set in a modern California high school.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe 1966 Indian film Dil Diya Dard Liya is based upon this novel. The film is directed by Abdul Rashid Kardar and Dilip Kumar. The film stars the thespian Dilip Kumar, Waheeda Rehman, Pran, Rehman, Shyama and Johnny Walker. The music is by the legendary composer Naushad. Although it did not fare as well as other movies of Dilip Kumar, it was well received by critics.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe novel has been popular in opera and theatre, including operas written by Bernard Herrmann, Carlisle Floyd, and Frédéric Chaslin (most cover only the first half of the book) and a musical by Bernard J. Taylor.","Wuthering Heights\n\nIn 2011, a graphic novel version was published by Classical Comics, and stays close to the original novel. It was adapted by Scottish writer Sean Michael Wilson and hand painted by comic book veteran artist John M Burns. This version received a nomination for the Stan Lee Excelsior Awards, voted by pupils from 170 schools in the United Kingdom.","Wuthering Heights\n\nWorks inspired","Wuthering Heights\n\nKate Bush's song \"Wuthering Heights\" is most likely the best-known creative work inspired by Brontë's story that is not properly an \"adaptation.\" Bush wrote and released the song when she was eighteen and chose it as the lead single in her debut album (despite the record company preferring another track as the lead single). It was primarily inspired by the Olivier–Oberon film version which deeply affected Bush in her teenage years. The song is sung from Catherine's point of view as she pleads at Heathcliff's window to be admitted. It uses quotations from Catherine, both in the chorus (\"Let me in! I'm so cold!\") and the verses, with Catherine's admitting she had \"bad dreams in the night.\" Critic Sheila Whiteley wrote that the ethereal quality of the vocal resonates with Cathy's dementia, and that Bush's high register has both \"childlike qualities in its purity of tone\" and an \"underlying eroticism in its sinuous erotic contours.\" Pat Benatar covered this song on her 1980 album Crimes of Passion, and so did Angra on their 1993 debut Angels Cry.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe 1976 album Wind and Wuthering, by British progressive rock band Genesis, alludes to the Brontë novel not only in the album's title but also in the titles of tracks 7 (\"Unquiet Slumbers for the Sleepers ...\") and 8 (\"... In That Quiet Earth\"), which are derived from the novel's closing sentence: \"I lingered round them, under that benign sky: watched the moths fluttering among the heath and harebells, listened to the soft wind breathing through the grass, and wondered how any one could ever imagine unquiet slumbers for the sleepers in that quiet earth.\"","Wuthering Heights\n\nWuthering Heights has also inspired a role-playing game. The game is distributed free on the Internet by French author Philippe Tromeur. The game is mentioned in the introduction for the 2007 Broadview Press edition of Wuthering Heights and in a footnote in the 2005 (Volume 33) issue of periodical Victorian literature and culture.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe song \"Cath\" by indie rock band Death Cab for Cutie was inspired by Wuthering Heights.","Wuthering Heights\n\nThe Hindi movie Dil Diya Dard Liya, directed by Abdur Rashid Kardar and Dilip Kumar, is inspired by Wuthering Heights.","Wuthering Heights\n\nNotes"],"string":"[\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe Brontës (, commonly ) were a nineteenth-century literary family associated with the village of Haworth in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. The sisters, Charlotte (1816–1855), Emily (1818–1848), and Anne (1820–1849), are well known as poets and novelists. Like many contemporary female writers, they originally published their poems and novels under male pseudonyms: Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Their stories immediately attracted attention, although not always the best, for their passion and originality. Charlotte's Jane Eyre was the first to know success, while Emily's Wuthering Heights, Anne's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall and other works were later to be accepted as masterpieces of literature.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe three sisters and their brother, Branwell, were very close and during childhood developed their imaginations first through oral storytelling and play set in an intricate imaginary world, and then through the collaborative writing of increasingly complex stories set therein.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe deaths of first their mother, and then of their two older sisters marked them profoundly and influenced their writing, as did the relative isolation in which they were raised.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nTheir home, the parsonage at Haworth in Yorkshire, now the Brontë Parsonage Museum, has become a place of pilgrimage for hundreds of thousands of visitors each year.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nOrigin of the name\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe Brontë family can be traced to the Irish clan Ó Pronntaigh, which literally means \\\"son of Pronntach\\\". They were a family of hereditary scribes and literary men in Fermanagh. The version Ó Proinntigh, which was first given by Father Woulfe in his Sloinnte Gaedheal is Gall (Surnames of the Gael and the Foreigner) and reproduced without question by MacLysaght inter alia cannot be accepted as correct, as there were a number of well-known scribes with this name writing in Irish in the 17th and 18th centuries and all of them used the spelling Ó Pronntaigh. The name is derived from the word pronntach or bronntach, which is related to the word bronnadh, meaning giving or bestowal (pronn is given as an Ulster version of bronn in O'Reilly's Irish English Dictionary. ) Father Woulfe, the author of Sloinnte Gaedheal is Gall, suggested that it derives from proinnteach (a refectory of a monastery). Ó Pronntaigh was earlier anglicised as Prunty and sometimes Brunty.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nAt some point, the father of the sisters, Patrick Brontë (born Brunty), decided on the alternative spelling with the diaeresis over the terminal e to indicate that the name has two syllables. It is not known for certain what motivated him to do so, and multiple theories exist to account for the change. He may have wished to hide his humble origins. As a man of letters, he would have been familiar with classical Greek and may have chosen the name after the Greek βροντή (\\\"thunder\\\"). One view, put forward by the biographer C. K. Shorter in 1896, is that he adapted his name to associate himself with Admiral Horatio Nelson, who was also Duke of Bronte. Evidence for this may be found in his desire to associate himself with the Duke of Wellington in his form of dress.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nMembers of the Brontë family\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nPatrick Brontë\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nPatrick Brontë (17 March 1777 – 7 June 1861), was born in Loughbrickland, County Down, Ireland, of a family of farm workers of moderate means.[http://www.haworth-village.org.uk/brontes/patrick/patrick.asp Patrick Bronte biography, Haworth Village] His birth name was Patrick Prunty or Brunty. His mother Alice McClory, was of the Roman Catholic faith, whilst his father Hugh was a Protestant, and Patrick was brought up in his father's faith. He eventually became the Church of England perpetual curate of the parish of Haworth, and was also a poet, writer, and polemicist.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nAn Anglican priest of Irish extraction, he was born on St Patrick's Day, 17 March 1777. He was a bright young man and after being taught by the Rev. Thomas Tighe, he won a scholarship to St John's College, Cambridge, where he studied divinity and ancient and modern history. Attending Cambridge may have made him think his name was too Irish, and he changed its spelling to Brontë, perhaps in honour of Horatio Nelson who held the title of Duke of Bronte, whom Patrick admired. However, a more likely reason may have been that his brother was 'on the run' from the British for his involvement with the United Irishmen and he wanted to distance himself from the name Prunty. Having obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree, he was ordained on 10 August 1806. He is the author of Cottage Poems (1811), The Rural Minstrel (1814), numerous pamphlets and newspaper articles, and various rural poems.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nIn 1812, he met and married 29-year-old Maria Branwell and by 1820 had moved into the parsonage at Haworth where he took up the post of Perpetual curate (Haworth was an ancient chapelry in the large parish of Bradford, so he could not be rector or vicar.) They had six children. On the death of his wife in 1821, his sister in law, Elizabeth Branwell, came from Penzance, Cornwall to help him bring up the children. Open, intelligent, generous, and personally taking care of their education, he bought all the books and toys the children asked for and accorded them great freedom and unconditional love, but nevertheless embittered their lives due to his eccentric habits and peculiar theories of education.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nAfter several unlucky attempts to seek a new spouse, Patrick came to terms with widowhood at the age of 47, and spent his time visiting the sick and the poor, giving sermons, communion, and extreme unction, leaving the three sisters Emily, Charlotte, Anne, and their brother Branwell alone with their aunt and a maid, Tabitha Aykroyd (Tabby), who tirelessly recounted local legends in her Yorkshire dialect while preparing the meals. He survived his entire family, and six years after Charlotte's death he died in 1861 at the age of 84. At the end he was helped by his son-in-law, the Rev. Arthur Bell Nicholls.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nMaria, née Branwell\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nPatrick's wife Maria Brontë, née Branwell, (15 April 1783 – 15 September 1821), originated from Penzance, Cornwall and came from a comfortably well off middle-class family. Her father had a flourishing tea and grocery store and had accumulated considerable wealth. \\nMaria died at the age of 38 from uterine cancer. She married the same day as her younger sister Charlotte, in the church at Guiseley, after her fiancé had celebrated the union of two other couples. She was a literate and pious woman, known for her lively spirit, joyfulness and tenderness, and it was she who designed the samplers that are on display in the museum, and had them embroidered by her children. She left memories with her husband and with Charlotte, the oldest surviving sibling, of a very vivacious woman at the parsonage. The younger ones, particularly Emily and Anne, admitted to retaining only vague images of their mother, especially of her suffering in her sickbed.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nElizabeth Branwell\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nElizabeth Branwell (2 December 1776 – 29 October 1842) arrived from Penzance in 1821, aged 45, after the death of Maria, her younger sister, to help Patrick look after the children, and was known as 'Aunt Branwell'. Elizabeth Branwell, who raised the children after the death of their mother, was a Methodist. It seems, nevertheless, that her denomination did not exert any influence on the children. It was Aunt Branwell who taught the children arithmetic, the alphabet, how to sew, embroidery and cross-stitching appropriate for ladies. Aunt Branwell also gave them books and subscribed to Fraser's Magazine, less interesting than Blackwood's, but, nevertheless, providing plenty of material for discussion. She was a generous person who dedicated her life to her nieces and nephew, neither marrying nor returning to visit her relations in Cornwall.\\nShe died from bowel obstruction on October 1842, after a brief agony, comforted by her beloved nephew Branwell. In her last will, Aunt Branwell, left to her three nieces the considerable sum of £900, which allowed them to stop their previous, low paid jobs as governesses and teachers.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe children\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nMaria, the eldest, was born in Clough House, High Town on 23 April 1814. She suffered hunger, cold, and privation at Cowan Bridge School. Charlotte describes her as very lively, very sensitive, and particularly advanced in her reading. She returned from school with an advanced case of tuberculosis, and died at Haworth at the age of eleven on 6 May 1825.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nElizabeth (1815–1825), the second child, joined her sister Maria at Cowan Bridge where she suffered the same fate. Elizabeth was less vivacious than her brother and her sisters, and apparently less advanced for her age. She died on 15 June 1825 within two weeks of returning home to her father.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nCharlotte, born in Thornton near Bradford, West Riding of Yorkshire on 21 April 1816, was a poet and novelist and is the author of Jane Eyre, her best known work, and three other novels. She died on 31 March 1855 just before reaching the age of 39.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nPatrick Branwell was born in Thornton on 26 June 1817. Known as Branwell, he was a painter, writer and casual worker. He became addicted to alcohol and laudanum and died at Haworth on 24 September 1848 at the age of 31.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nEmily Jane, born in Thornton, 30 July 1818, was a poet and novelist. She died in Haworth on 19 December 1848 at the age of 30. Wuthering Heights was her only novel.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nAnne, born in Thornton on 17 January 1820, was a poet and novelist who died at the age of 29. She wrote a largely autobiographical novel entitled Agnes Grey. Her second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848), was far more ambitious. She died on 28 May 1849 in Scarborough, North Riding of Yorkshire.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nEarly education\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nPatrick Brontë faced a challenge in arranging for the education of the girls of his family, which was barely middle class. They had no significant connections and he could not afford the fees for them to attend an established school for young ladies. One solution was the schools where the fees were reduced to a minimum – so called \\\"charity schools\\\" – with a mission to assist families such as those of the lower clergy. One cannot accuse Mr. Brontë of not having done everything possible to find a solution that he thought would be best for his daughters. As Barker comments, he had read in the Leeds Intelligencer of 6 November 1823 the reports of cases in the Court of Commons in Bowes, and he later read other cases decided on 24 November 1824 near Richmond, two towns in the county of Yorkshire, where pupils had been discovered gnawed by rats, and suffering from malnutrition to the extent that some of them had lost their sight. There was nothing to suggest that the Reverend Carus Wilson's Clergy Daughters' School would not provide a good education and good care for his daughters.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe school was not expensive, and its patrons (supporters who allowed the school to use their names) were all respected people, including the daughter of Hannah Moore, an author of recognised works and a close friend of the poet William Cowper, both proponents of a correct education for young girls; and the offspring of different prelates and even certain acquaintances of Patrick Brontë including William Wilberforce, young women whose fathers had also been educated at St John's College, Cambridge. Thus Brontë believed Wilson's school to have a number of the necessary guarantees.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nCowan Bridge School\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nIn 1824, the four eldest girls (excluding Anne) entered the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge, which educated the children of less prosperous members of the clergy, which had been recommended to Mr Brontë. The following year, Maria and Elizabeth fell gravely ill and were removed from the school, but died shortly afterwards within a few weeks of each other on 6 May and 15 June 1825. Charlotte and Emily were also withdrawn from the school and returned to Haworth. The loss of their sisters was a trauma that showed in Charlotte's writing. In Jane Eyre, Cowan Bridge becomes Lowood, Maria is represented by the character of the young Helen Burns, the cruelty of the mistress Miss Andrews by that of Miss Scatcherd, and the tyranny of the headmaster, the Rev. Carus Wilson, by that of Mr Brocklehurst.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nTuberculosis, which afflicted Maria and Elizabeth in 1825, was the eventual cause of death of the surviving Brontës: Branwell in September 1848, Emily in December 1848, Anne eight months later in May 1849, and finally Charlotte in 1855.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nMiss Wooler's school\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nIn 1831, 14-year-old Charlotte was enrolled at the school of Miss Wooler in Roe Head, Mirfield. Patrick could have sent his daughter to a less costly school in Keighley nearer home but Miss Wooler and her sisters had a good reputation and he remembered the building which he passed when strolling around the parishes of Kirklees, Dewsbury, and Hartshead-cum-Clifton where he was vicar. Margaret Wooler showed fondness towards the sisters and she accompanied Charlotte to the altar at her marriage. Patrick's choice of school was excellent – Charlotte was happy there and studied well. She made many lifelong friends, in particular Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor who later went to New Zealand before returning to England. Charlotte returned from Roe Head in June 1832, missing her friends, but happy to rejoin her family.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThree years later, Miss Wooler offered her former pupil a position as her assistant. The family decided that Emily would accompany her to pursue studies that would otherwise have been unaffordable. Emily's fees were partly covered by Charlotte's salary. Emily was 17 and it was the first time she had left Haworth since leaving Cowan Bridge. On 29 July 1835, the sisters left for Roe Head. The same day, Branwell wrote a letter to the Royal Academy of Art in London, to present several of his drawings as part of his candidature as a probationary student.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nCharlotte taught, and wrote about her students without much sympathy. Emily did not settle and after three months she seemed to decline and had to be taken home to the parsonage. Anne took her place and stayed until Christmas 1837.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nCharlotte avoided boredom by following the development of Angria which she received in letters from her brother. During holidays at Haworth, she wrote long narratives while being reproached by her father who wanted her to become more involved in parish affairs. These were coming to a head over the imposition of the Church rates, a local tax levied on parishes where the majority of the population were dissenters. In the meantime, Miss Wooler moved to Heald's House, at Dewsbury Moor, where Charlotte complained about the humidity that made her unwell. Upon leaving the establishment in 1838 Miss Wooler presented her with a parting gift of The Vision of Don Roderick and Rokeby, a collection of poems by Walter Scott.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nLiterary evolution\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe children became interested in writing from an early age, initially as a game which later matured into a passion. Although they all displayed a talent for narrative, it was the younger ones whose pastime it became to develop them. At the centre of the children's creativity were twelve wooden soldiers which Patrick Brontë gave to Branwell at the beginning of June 1826. These toy soldiers instantly fired their imaginations and they spoke of them as the Young Men, and gave them names. However, it was not until December 1827 that their ideas took written form, and the imaginary African kingdom of Glass Town came into existence, followed by the Empire of Angria. Emily and Anne created Gondal, an island continuent in the North Pacific, ruled by a woman, after the departure of Charlotte in 1831. In the beginning, these stories were written in little books, the size of a matchbox , and cursorily bound with thread. The pages were filled with close, minute writing, often in capital letters without punctuation and embellished with illustrations, detailed maps, schemes, landscapes, and plans of buildings, created by the children according to their specialisations.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe idea was that the books were of a size for the soldiers to read. The complexity of the stories matured as the children's imaginations developed, fed by reading the three weekly or monthly magazines to which their father had subscribed, or the newspapers that were bought daily from John Greenwood's local news and stationery store.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nLiterary and artistic influence\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThese fictional worlds were the product of fertile imagination fed by reading, discussion, and a passion for literature. Far from suffering from the negative influences that never left them and which were reflected in the works of their later, more mature years, the Brontë children absorbed them with open arms.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe press\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe periodicals that Patrick Brontë read were a mine of information for his children. The Leeds Intelligencer and Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, conservative and well written, but better than the Quarterly Review that defended the same political ideas whilst addressing a less refined readership (the reason Mr. Brontë did not read it), were exploited in every detail. Blackwood's Magazine in particular, was not only the source of their knowledge of world affairs, but also provided material for the Brontës' early writing. For instance, an article in the June, 1826 number of Blackwood’s, provides commentary on new discoveries from the exploration of central Africa. The map included with the article highlights geographical features the Brontës reference in their tales: the Jibbel Kumera (the Mountains of the Moon), Ashantee, and the rivers Niger and Calabar. The author also advises the British to expand into Africa from Fernando Po, where, Christine Alexander notes, the Brontë children locate the Great Glass Town. Their knowledge of geography was completed by Goldsmith's Grammar of General Geography, which the Brontës owned and heavily annotated.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nLord Byron\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nFrom 1833, Charlotte and Branwell's Angrian tales begin to feature Byronic heroes who have a strong sexual magnetism and passionate spirit, and demonstrate arrogance and even black-heartedness. Again, it is in an article in Blackwood's Magazine from August 1825 that they discover the poet for the first time; he had died the previous year. From this moment, the name Byron became synonymous with all the prohibitions and audacities as if it had stirred up the very essence of the rise of those forbidden things. Branwell's Charlotte Zamorna, one of the heroes of Verdopolis, tends towards increasingly ambiguous behaviour, and the same influence and evolution recur with the Brontës, especially in the characters of Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights, and Mr. Rochester in Jane Eyre, who display the traits of a Byronic hero. Numerous other works have left their mark on the Brontës—the Thousand and One Nights for example, which inspired jinn in which they became themselves in the centre of their kingdoms, while adding a touch of exoticism.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nJohn Martin\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe children's imagination was also influenced by three prints of engravings in mezzotint by John Martin around 1820. Charlotte and Branwell made copies of the prints Belshazzar's Feast, Déluge, and Joshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still upon Gibeon (1816), which hung on the walls of the parsonage.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nMartin's fantastic architecture is reflected in the Glass Town and Angrian writings, where he appears himself among Branwell's characters and under the name of Edward de Lisle, the greatest painter and portraitist of Verdopolis, the capital of Glass Town. One of Sir Edward de Lisle's major works, Les Quatre Genii en Conseil, is inspired by Martin's illustration for John Milton's Paradise Lost. Together with Byron, John Martin seems to have been one of the artistic influences essential to the Brontës' universe.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nAnne's morals and realism\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe influence revealed by Agnes Grey and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is much less clear. Anne's works are largely founded on her experience as a governess and on that of her brother's decline. Furthermore, they demonstrate her conviction, a legacy from her father, that books should provide moral education. \\nThis sense of moral duty and the need to record it, are more evident in The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. The influence of the gothic novels of Ann Radcliffe, Horace Walpole, Gregory \\\"Monk\\\" Lewis and Charles Maturin is noticeable, and that of Walter Scott too, if only because the heroine, abandoned and left alone, resists not only by her almost supernatural talents, but mainly due to the power drawn from her temperament.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nJane Eyre, Agnes Grey, then The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Shirley, Villette and even The Professor present a linear structure concerning a character who advances through life after several trials and tribulations, to find a kind of happiness in love and virtue, recalling the works of religious inspiration of the 17th century such as John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress or his Grace abounding to the Chief of Sinners. In a more profane manner, the hero or heroine follows a picaresque itinerary such as in Miguel de Cervantes (1547–16), Daniel Defoe (1660–1731), Henry Fielding (1707–1764) and Tobias Smollett (1721–1771). This lively tradition continued into the 19th century with the rags to riches genre to which almost all the great Victorian romancers have contributed. The protagonist is thrown by fate into poverty and after many difficulties achieves a golden happiness.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nOften an artifice is employed to effect the passage from one state to another such as an unexpected inheritance, a miraculous gift, grand reunions, etc.See Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Great Expectations, just to mention Charles Dickens and in a sense, it is the route followed by Charlotte's and Anne's protagonists, even if the riches they win are more those of the heart than of the wallet. Apart from its Gothic elements, Wuthering Heights moves like a Greek tragedy and possesses its music, the cosmic dimensions of the epics of John Milton, and the power of the Shakespearian theatre. One can hear the echoes of King Lear as well as the completely different characters of Romeo and Juliet. The Brontës were also seduced by the writings of Walter Scott, and in 1834 Charlotte exclaimed, \\\"For fiction, read Walter Scott and only him – all novels after his are without value.\\\"\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nGovernesses, and Charlotte's idea\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nEarly teaching opportunities\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThrough their father's influence and their own intellectual curiosity, they were able to benefit from an education that placed them among knowledgeable people, but Mr Brontë's emoluments were modest. The only options open to the girls were either marriage or a choice between the professions of school mistress or governess. The Brontë sisters found positions in families educating often rebellious young children, or employment as school teachers. The possibility of becoming a paid companion to a rich and solitary woman might have been a fall-back role but one which would have bored any of the sisters intolerably. Janet Todd's Mary Wollstonecraft, a revolutionary life mentions the predicament, and none of the Brontë girls seems seriously to have considered a similar eventuality.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nOnly Emily never became a governess. Her sole professional experience would be an experiment in teaching during six months of intolerable exile in Miss Patchett's school at Law Hill (between Haworth and Halifax). In contrast, Charlotte had teaching positions at Miss Margaret Wooler's school, and in Brussels with the Hegers. She became governess to the Sidgwicks, the Stonegappes, and the Lotherdales where she worked for several months in 1839, then with Mrs White, at Upperhouse House, Rawdon, from March to September 1841. Anne became a governess and worked for Mrs Ingham, at Blake Hall, Mirfield from April to December 1839, then for Mrs Robinson at Thorp Green Hall, Little Ouseburn, near York, where she also obtained employment for her brother in an attempt to stabilise him; an attempt that proved futile.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nWorking as governesses\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe family's finances did not flourish, and Aunt Branwell spent the money with caution. Emily had a visceral need of her home and the countryside that surrounded it, and to leave it would cause her to languish and wither.which had happened whenever she left Haworth for any length of time such as at Miss Wooler's school, or when teaching in Law Hill, and during her stay in Brussels. Charlotte and Anne, being more realistic, did not hesitate in finding work and from April 1839 to December 1841 the two sisters had several posts as governesses. Not staying long with each family, their employment would last for some months or a single season. However, Anne did stay with the Robinsons in Thorp Green where things went well, from May 1840 to June 1845.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nIn the meantime, Charlotte had an idea that would place all the advantages on her side. On advice from her father and friends, she thought that she and her sisters had the intellectual capacity to create a school for young girls in the parsonage where their Sunday School classes took place. It was agreed to offer the future pupils the opportunity of correctly learning modern languages and that preparation for this should be done abroad, which led to a further decision. Among the possibilities Paris and Lille were considered, but were rejected due to aversion to the French. Indeed, the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars had not been forgotten by the Tory spirited and deeply conservative girls. On the recommendation of a pastor based in Brussels, who wanted to be of help, Belgium was chosen, where they could also study German, and music. Aunt Branwell provided the funds for the Brussels project.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nSchool project and study trip to Brussels\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nCharlotte's and Emily's journey to Brussels\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nEmily and Charlotte arrived in Brussels in February 1842 accompanied by their father. Once there, they enrolled at Monsieur and Madame Heger's boarding school in the Rue d'Isabelle, for six months. Claire Heger was the second wife of Constantin, and it was she who founded and directed the school while Constantin had the responsibility for the higher French classes. According to Miss Wheelwright, a former pupil, he had the intellect of a genius. He was passionate about his auditorium, demanding many lectures, perspectives, and structured analyses. He was also a good-looking man with regular features, bushy hair, very black whiskers, and wore an excited expression while sounding forth on great authors about whom he invited his students to make a pastiche on general or philosophical themes.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe lessons, especially those of Constantin Heger, were very much appreciated by Charlotte, and the two sisters showed exceptional intelligence, although Emily hardly liked her teacher and was somewhat rebellious. Emily learned German and to play the piano with natural brilliance and very quickly the two sisters were writing literary and philosophical essays in an advanced level of French. After six months of study, Mme Heger suggested they stay at the boarding school free of charge, in return for giving some lessons. After much hesitation, the girls accepted. Neither of them felt particularly attached to their students, and only one, Mademoiselle de Bassompierre, then aged 16, later expressed any affection for her teacher, which in Emily's case appeared to be mutual, and made her a gift of a signed, detailed drawing of a storm ravaged pine tree.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nReturn and recall\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe death of their aunt in October of the same year forced them to return once more to Haworth. Aunt Branwell had left all her worldly goods in equal shares to her nieces and to Eliza Kingston, a cousin in Penzance, which had the immediate effect of purging all their debts and providing a small reserve of funds. Nevertheless, they were asked to return to Brussels as they were regarded as being competent and were needed. They were each offered teaching posts in the boarding school, still English for Charlotte and music for Emily. However, Charlotte returned alone to Belgium in January 1843, while Emily remained critical of Monsieur Heger, in spite of the excellent opinion he held of her. He later stated that she 'had the spirit of a man', and would probably become a great traveller due to her being gifted with a superior faculty of reason that allowed her to deduce ancient knowledge of new spheres of knowledge, and her unbending willpower would have triumphed over all obstacles.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nCharlotte returns\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nAlmost a year to the day, enamoured already for some time of Monsieur Heger, Charlotte resigned and returned to Haworth. Her life there had not been without suffering, and on one occasion she ventured into the cathedral and entered a confessional. She may have had intention of converting to Catholicism, but it would only have been for a short time.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nLife at Haworth had become more difficult during her absence. Mr. Brontë had lost his sight although his cataract had nevertheless been operated on with success in Manchester, and it was there in August 1846, when Charlotte arrived at his bedside that she began to write Jane Eyre. Meanwhile her brother Branwell fell into a rapid decline punctuated by dramas, drunkenness, and delirium. Due partly to Branwell's poor reputation, the school project failed and was abandoned.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nCharlotte wrote four long, very personal, and sometimes vague letters to Monsieur Héger that never received replies. The extent of Charlotte Brontë's feelings for Heger were not fully realised until 1913, when her letters to him were published for the first time. Heger had first shown them to Mrs. Gaskell when she visited him in 1856 while researching her biography The Life of Charlotte Brontë, but she concealed their true significance. These letters, referred to as the \\\"Heger Letters\\\", had been ripped up at some stage by Heger, but his wife had retrieved the pieces from the wastepaper bin and meticulously glued or sewn them back together. Paul Heger, Constantin's son, and his sisters gave these letters to the British Museum, and they were shortly thereafter printed in The Times newspaper.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nBrontë sisters' literary career\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nFirst publication : Poems, by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe writing that had begun so early never left the family. Charlotte had ambition like her brother (though Branwell was kept at a distance from her project) and wrote to the poet laureate Robert Southey to submit several poems of his style; she received a hardly encouraging reply after several months. Southey, still illustrious although his star has somewhat waned, was one of the great figures of English Romanticism, with William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and shared the prejudice of the times: literature, or more particularly poetry (for women had been publishing fiction and enjoying critical, popular and economic success for over a century by this time), was considered a man's business, and not an appropriate occupation for ladies.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nHowever, Charlotte did not allow herself to be discouraged. Furthermore, coincidence came to her aid. One day in autumn 1845 while alone in the dining room she noticed a small notebook lying open on in the drawer of Emily's portable writing desk and of my sister Emily's handwriting. She read it and was dazzled by the beauty of the poems that she did not know. The discovery of this treasure was what she recalled five years later, and according to Juliet Barker, she erased the excitement that she had felt, more than surprise […], a deep conviction that these were not common effusions, nor at all like the poetry women generally write. I thought them condensed and terse, vigorous and genuine. To my ear, they had a peculiar music – wild, melancholy, and elevating. In the following paragraph Charlotte describes her sister's indignant reaction at her having ventured into such an intimate realm with impunity. It took Emily hours to calm down and days to be convinced to publish the poems.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nCharlotte envisaged a joint publication by the three sisters. Anne was easily won over to the project, and the work was shared, compared, and edited. Once the poems had been chosen, nineteen for Charlotte and twenty-one each for Anne and Emily, Charlotte went about searching for a publisher. She took advice from William and Robert Chambers of Edinburgh, directors of one of their favourite magazines, Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. It is thought, although no documents exist to support the claim, that they advised the girls to contact Aylott & Jones, a small publishing house at 8, Paternoster Row, London, who accepted but rather at the authors' own risk as they felt the commercial risk to the company was too great. The work thus appeared in 1846, published using the male pseudonyms of Currer (Charlotte), Ellis (Emily), and Acton (Anne) Bell. These were very uncommon forenames but the initials of each of the sisters were preserved and the patronym could have been inspired by that of the vicar of the parish, Arthur Bell Nicholls. It was in fact on 18 May 1845 that he took up his duties at Haworth, at the moment when the publication project was well advanced.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe book attracted hardly any attention. Only three copies were sold, of which one was purchased by Fredrick Enoch, a resident of Cornmarket, Warwick, who in admiration, wrote to the publisher to request an autograph – the only extant single document carrying the three author's signatures in their pseudonyms, and they continued creating their prose, each one producing a book a year later. The three girls always worked in secret, unceasingly discussing their writing for hours at the dinner table, after which their father would open the door at 9 p. m. with Don't stay up late, Girls!, then rewinding the clock and taking the stairs to his room upstairs.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nFame\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\n1847\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nCharlotte's Jane Eyre, Emily's Wuthering Heights, and Anne's Agnes Grey, appeared in 1847 after many tribulations, again for reasons of finding a publisher. The packets containing the manuscripts often returned to the parsonage and Charlotte simply added a new address and did this at least a dozen times during the year. The first one was finally published by Smith, Elder & Co in London, of which the 23-year-old owner George Smith had been specialised until then in publishing scientific revues aided by his perspicacious reader, William Smith Williams and remained faithful to the family. Those of Emily and Anne were confided to Thomas Cautley Newby who intended to compile a three-decker, more economical for sale and for loan in the circulating libraries the two first volumes to include Wuthering Heights and the third one Agnes Grey.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nBoth the novels attracted critical acclaim, occasionally harsh about Wuthering Heights, praised for the originality of the subject and its narrative style, but viewed with suspect because of its outrageous violence and immorality – surely, the critics wrote, a work of a man with a depraved mind – fairly neutral about Agnes Grey, more flattering in spite of certain commentators denouncing it as an affront to morals and good mores, for Jane Eyre which soon became what would be called today a best-seller.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nJane Eyre and rising fame\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe anonymous (Currer Bell) publication in 1847 of Jane Eyre, An Autobiography, established a dazzling reputation for Charlotte. In July 1848, Charlotte and Anne (Emily had refused to go along with them) travelled by train to London to prove to Smith, Elder & Co that each sister was indeed an independent author, for Thomas Cautley Newby, the publisher of Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey, had launched a rumour that the three novels were the work of one author, understood to be Ellis Bell (Emily). George Smith was extremely surprised to find two gawky, ill-dressed country girls paralysed with fear, who, to identify themselves, held out the letters addressed to Messrs. Acton, Currer and Ellis Bell. Taken by such surprise, he introduced them to his mother with all the dignity their talent merited, and invited them to the opera for a performance of Rossini's Barber of Seville.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nWuthering Heights\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nEmily Brontë's Wuthering Heights was published in 1847 under the masculine pseudonym Ellis Bell, by Thomas Cautley Newby, in two companion volumes to that of Anne's (Acton Bell), Agnes Grey. Controversial from the start of its release, its originality, its subject, narrative style and troubled action raised intrigue. Certain critics condemned it, but sales were nevertheless considerable for a novel from an unknown author and which defied all conventions.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nIt is a work of black Romanticism, covering three generations isolated in the cold or the spring of the countryside with two opposing elements: the dignified manor of Thrushcross Grange and the rambling dilapidated pile of Wuthering Heights. The main characters, swept by tumults of the earth, the skies and the hearts, are strange and often possessed of unheard of violence and deprivations. The story is told in a scholarly fashion, with two narrators, the traveller and tenant Lockwood, and the housekeeper/governess, Nelly Dean, with two sections in the first person, one direct, one cloaked, which overlap each other with digressions and sub-plots that form, from apparently scattered fragments, a coherently locked unit.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\n1848, Anne's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall — one of the first sustained feminist novels\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nOne year before her death in May 1849, Anne published a second novel. Far more ambitious than her previous novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall was a great success and rapidly outsold Emily's Wuthering Heights. However, the critical reception was mixed — praise for the novel's \\\"power\\\" and \\\"effect\\\" and sharp criticism for being \\\"coarse\\\". Charlotte Brontë herself, Anne's sister, wrote to her publisher that it \\\"hardly seems to me desirable to choice of subject in that work is a mistake.\\\" After Anne's death, Charlotte prevented the novel's republication and thus condemned her sister to temporary oblivion.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe master theme is the alcoholism of a man who causes the downfall of his family. Helen Graham, the central character, gets married for love to Arthur Huntingdon, whom she soon discovers to be lecherous, violent, and alcoholic. She is forced to break with the conventions that keep her in the family home that has become hell, and to leave with her child to seek secret refuge in the old house of Wildfell Hall. When the alcohol causes her husband's ultimate decline, she returns to care for him in total abnegation until his death.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nToday, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is considered by most of the critics to be one of the first sustained feminist novels.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nCharlotte Brontë\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nDenunciation of boarding schools (Jane Eyre)\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nConditions at the school at Cowan Bridge, where Maria and Elizabeth may have contracted the tuberculosis from which they died, were probably no worse than those at many other schools of the time. (For example, several decades before the Brontë sisters' experience at Cowan Bridge, Jane Austen and her sister Cassandra contracted typhus at a similar boarding school, and Jane nearly died. The Austen sisters' education, like that of the Brontë sisters, was continued at home.) Nevertheless, Charlotte blamed Cowan Bridge for her sisters' deaths, especially its poor medical care – chiefly, repeated emetics and blood-lettings – and the negligence of the school's doctor – who was the director's brother-in-law. Charlotte's vivid memories of the privations at Cowan Bridge were poured into her depiction of Lowood School in Jane Eyre: the scanty and at times spoiled food, the lack of heating and adequate clothing, the periodic epidemics of illness such as low fever (probably typhus), the severity and arbitrariness of the punishments, and even the harshness of particular teachers (a Miss Andrews who taught at Cowan Bridge is thought to have been Charlotte's model for Miss Scatcherd in Jane Eyre).\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nWhile Elizabeth Gaskell, a personal friend and the first biographer of Charlotte, confirmed that Cowan Bridge was Charlotte's model for Lowood and insisted that conditions there in Charlotte's day were egregious, more recent biographers have argued that the food, clothing, heating, medical care, discipline, etc. at Cowan Bridge were not considered sub-standard for religious schools of the time. One scholar has even commended Patrick Brontë for his perspicacity in removing all his daughters from the school, a few weeks before the deaths of Maria and Elizabeth.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nLiterary encounters\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nFollowing the overwhelming success of Jane Eyre, Charlotte was pressured by George Smith, her publisher,with whom she was in love, to travel to London to meet her public. Despite the extreme timidity that paralysed her among strangers and made her almost incapable of expressing herself, Charlotte consented to be lionised, and in London was introduced to other great writers of the era, including Harriet Martineau and William Makepeace Thackeray, both of whom befriended her. Charlotte especially admired Thackeray, whose portrait, given to her by Smith, still hangs in the dining room at Haworth parsonage. On one occasion Thackeray apparently introduced Charlotte to his mother during a public gathering as Jane Eyre and when Charlotte called on him the next day, received an extended dressing-down, in which Smith had to intervene.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nDuring her trip to London in 1851 she visited the Great Exhibition and The Crystal Palace. In 1849 she published Shirley and in 1853 Villette.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nMarriage and death\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe Brontë sisters were highly amused by the behaviour of the curates they met. Arthur Bell Nicholls (1818–1906) had been curate of Haworth for seven and a half years, when contrary to all expectations, and to the fury of Patrick Brontë, he proposed to Charlotte. Although impressed by his dignity and deep voice, as well as by his near complete emotional collapse when she rejected him, she found him rigid, conventional, and rather narrow-minded 'like all the curates' – as she wrote to Ellen Nussey. After she declined his proposal Nicholls, pursued by the anger of Patrick Brontë, left his functions for several months. However, little by little her feelings evolved and after slowly convincing her father, she finally married Nicholls on 29 June 1854.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nOn return from their honeymoon in Ireland where she had been introduced to Mr. Nicholls' aunt and cousins, her life completely changed. She adopted her new duties as a wife that took up most of her time, she wrote to her friends telling them that Nicholls was a good and attentive husband, but that she nevertheless felt a kind of holy terror at her new situation. In a letter to Ellen Nussey (Nell), in 1854 she wrote Indeed-indeed-Nell-it is a solemn and strange and perilous thing for a woman to become a wife.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe following year she died aged 38. The cause of death given at the time was tuberculosis, but it may have been complicated with typhoid fever (the water at Haworth being likely contaminated due to poor sanitation and the vast cemetery that surrounded the church and the parsonage) and her pregnancy that was in its early stage.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe first biography of Charlotte was written by Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell at the request of Patrick Brontë, and published in 1857, helping to create the myth of a family of condemned genius, living in a painful and romantic solitude. After having stayed at Haworth several times and having accommodated Charlotte in Plymouth Grove, Manchester, and become her friend and confidant, Mrs Gaskell had certainly had the advantage of knowing the family.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nNovels\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\n* Jane Eyre (1847) \\n* Shirley (1849)\\n* Villette (1853)\\n* The Professor (1857)\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nUnfinished fragments\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThese are outlines or unedited roughcasts which with the exception of Emma have been recently published.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\n* Ashford, written between 1840 and 1841, where certain characters from Angria are transported to Yorkshire and are included in a realistic plot.\\n* Willie Ellin, started after Shirley and Villette, and on which Charlotte worked relatively little in May and July 1853, is a story in three poorly linked parts in which the plot at this stage remains rather vague.\\n* The Moores is an outline for two short chapters with two characters, the brothers Robert Moore, a dominator, and John Henry Moore, an intellectual fanatic.\\n* Emma, already published in 1860 with an introduction from Thackeray. This brilliant fragment would doubtlessly have become a novel of similar scope to her previous ones. It later inspired the novel A Little Princess by Frances Hodgson Burnett. \\n* The Green Dwarf published in 2003. This story was probably inspired by The Black Dwarf by Walter Scott of whose novels Charlotte was a fan. The novel is a fictional history about a war that breaks out between Verdopolis (the capital of the confederation of Glass Town) and Senegal.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nBranwell Brontë\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nPatrick Branwell Brontë (1817–1848) was considered by his father and sisters to be a genius. On the other hand, the book by Daphne du Maurier (1986), The Infernal World of Branwell Brontë, contains numerous references to his addiction to alcohol and laudanum. He was an intelligent boy with many talents and interested in many subjects, especially literature. He was often the driving force in the Brontë siblings' construction of the imaginary worlds. He was artistic and encouraged by his father to pursue this.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nWhilst trying to make a name as an artist, he left for London but in several days used up in cafés of ill-repute the allowance provided by his father. His attempts to obtain low paid work failed, and very quickly he foundered in alcohol and laudanum and was unable to regain his stability.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nAnne Brontë obtained employment for him in January 1843, but nearly three years later he was dismissed. In September 1848, after several years of decline, he died from tuberculosis. On his death, his father tearfully repeated, \\\"My brilliant boy\\\", while the clearheaded and totally loyal Emily wrote that his condition had been \\\"hopeless\\\".\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nBranwell is the author of Juvenilia, which he wrote as a child with his sister Charlotte, Glass Town, Angria, poems, pieces of prose and verse under the pseudonym of Northangerland,One of the key characters of Glass Town, Alexander Rogue, created by Branwell, finally became Earl of Northangerland. such as \\\"Real Rest\\\", published by the Halifax Guardian (8 November 1846) from several articles accepted by local newspapers and from an unfinished novel probably from around 1845 entitled And the Weary are at Rest.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nEmily Brontë\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nEmily Brontë (1818–1848) has been called the \\\"Sphynx of Literature\\\", writing without the slightest desire for fame and only for her own satisfaction. She was obsessively timid outside the family circle to the point of turning her back on her partners in conversation without saying a word.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nWith a single novel, Wuthering Heights (1847), and poems of an elementary power, she reached the heights of literature. Almost unknown during her life, posterity classes her as \\\"top level\\\" in the literary canon The place of Wuthering Heights in the literary canon is assured : see the synopsis of Wuthering Heights in the Critical commentary de Heather Glen, p. 351. of English literature. Simone de Beauvoir, in The Second Sex (1949), wrote that—of all women who ever lived—only three female writers: Brontë, Virginia Woolf and \\\"sometimes\\\" Katherine Mansfield actually explored \\\"the given\\\".\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nAbove all, Emily loved to wander about the wild landscape of the moors around Haworth. In September 1848 her health began to decline rapidly. Consumptive, but refusing all treatment, with the exception of a visit from a London doctor – because although it was already too late, her relatives insisted – she died in December on the sofa in the dining room. It is possible that she left an unfinished manuscript which Charlotte burned to avoid such controversy as followed the publication of Wuthering Heights. Several documents exist that allude to the possibility, although no proof corroborating this suggestion has ever been found.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nEmily Brontë's poems\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nEmily's poems were probably written to be inserted in the saga of Gondal, with which she identified herself with several of the characters right into her adulthood. At the age of 28 she still acted out scenes from the little books with Anne while travelling on the train to York. \\\"Remembrance\\\" was one of the 21 of Emily's poems that were chosen for the 1846 joint publication before which, Emily had deleted all references to Gondal.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nAnne Brontë\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nAnne wasn't as celebrated as her other two sisters. Her second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was prevented from being republished after Anne's death by her sister Charlotte. Charlotte wrote to her publisher that \\\"Wildfell Hall it hardly appears to me desirable to preserve. The choice of subject in that work is a mistake, it was too little consonant with the character, tastes and ideas of the gentle, retiring inexperienced writer.\\\" This prevention is considered to be the main reason for Anne's being less renowned than her sisters.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nAnne's health began to decline rapidly, like that of her brother and sister some months earlier. On 5 April 1849, she wrote to Ellen Nussey asking her to accompany her to Scarborough on the east coast. Anne hoped that the sea air would improve her health, as recommended by the doctor, and Charlotte finally agreed to go.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nOn the Sunday morning she felt weaker and asked if she could be taken back to Haworth. The doctor confirmed that she was near to death and Anne thanked him for his candour. \\\"Take courage, take courage\\\" she murmured to Charlotte. She died at 2 pm on Monday 18 May. She is buried in the cemetery of St Mary's of Scarborough. Her gravestone carried an error in her age in the inscription because she died at the age of 29 and not at 28. It was noticed by Charlotte during her only visit, and she had the intention of asking the mason to correct it. Ill health did not leave him time to effect the repair and the tombstone remained in the same state until replaced by the Brontë Society in April 2013.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nNorthern England at the time of the Brontës\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nIn her 1857 biography The Life of Charlotte Brontë, Mrs Gaskell begins with two explanatory and descriptive chapters. The first one covers the wild countryside of the West Riding of Yorkshire, the little village of Haworth, the parsonage and the church surrounded by its vast cemetery perched on the top of a hill. The second chapter presents an overview of the social, sanitary, and economic conditions of the region. The following works up to the most recent: The Brontës by Juliet Barker (1994) : bound volume, 1995, :occupy a large place in these elements which in several ways have contributed to mould and create in them the extraordinary characters which they became.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nSocial, sanitary, and economic conditions in Haworth\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe death toll within the Brontë family was not unusual and left little impression on the village population, who were confronted with death on a daily basis. When Patrick Brontë arrived, the parish suffered from unemployment. The men sought work in the quarries and local handicrafts. The only businesses were the pharmacy which supplied Branwell, and John Greenwood's stationery store in which the Brontës were the best customers.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nHaworth's population grew rapidly during the first half of the 18th century, from hardly 1,000 to 3,365 in 50 years. The village did not have a sewage system and the well water was contaminated by faecal matter and the decomposition of bodies in the cemetery on the hilltop. Life expectancy was less than 25 years and infant mortality was around 41% of children under six months of age. Most of the population lived from working the poorly fertile land of the moors and supplemented their incomes with work done at home, such as spinning and weaving wool from the sheep that were farmed on the moors. Conditions changed and the textile industry, already present since the end of the 17th century, grew in the mills on the banks of the River Worth, whose waters turned the wheels which consequently required fewer people to work them.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nFood was scarce, often little more than porridge, resulting in vitamin deficiencies. Public hygiene was non-existent and lavatories were basic. The facilities at the parsonage were no more than a plank across a hole in a hut at the rear, with a lower plank for the children. In her thirties, Charlotte was described as having a toothless jaw, by such persons as Mrs Gaskell, who stated in a letter dated 25 August 1850 to Catherine Winkworth : [...] large mouth and many teeth gone [...]. However, food was reasonable in the family. Well filled plates of porridge in the morning and piles of potatoes were peeled each day in the kitchen while Tabby told stories about her country or Emily revised her German grammar, and sometimes Mr Brontë would return home from his tours of the village with game donated by the parishioners.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe role of the women\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nAccording to Robert Southey, poet laureate, in his response to Charlotte, ladies from a good background should be content with an education and a marriage embellished with some decorative talents. Mr Brontë also said to one of the characters in his The Maid of Kilarney, without one knowing whether it truly reflected a widespread opinion in order to support it or to condemn it: \\\"The education of female ought, most assuredly, to be competent, in order that she might enjoy herself, and be a fit companion for man. But, believe me, lovely, delicate and sprightly woman, is not formed by nature, to pore over the musty pages of Grecian and Roman literature, or to plod through the windings of Mathematical Problems, nor has Providence assigned for her sphere of action, either the cabinet or the field. Her forte is softness, tenderness and grace.\\\" In any case, it seemed to contradict his attitude towards his daughters whom he encouraged even if he was not completely aware of what they did with their time.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe Brontë sisters' place in literature\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nDue to their forced or voluntary isolation, the Brontë sisters constituted a separate literary group which neither had predecessors nor successors. There is not a 'Brontë' line such as exists among authors of realist and naturalist novels, and in poetry, the romantic, and the symbolic.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nTheir influence certainly existed but it is difficult to define in its totality. Writers who followed them doubtlessly thought about them while they were creating their dark and tormented worlds such as Thomas Hardy in Jude the Obscure or Tess of the d'Urbervilles, or George Eliot with Adam Bede and The Mill on the Floss. There were also more conventional authors such as Matthew Arnold, who in a letter from 1853, says of Charlotte, that she only pretends to heartless: '[...] nothing but hunger, rebellion and rage'. In contrast, Mrs Humphry Ward, author of Robert Elsmere and morality novels, only finds didactic among the works of Charlotte, while she appreciates the happy blend of romance and realism in the works of Emily. There is however nothing that could constitute a literary vein.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nPilgrimages to Haworth from 1860\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nBy 1860 Charlotte had been dead for five years, and the only people living at the parsonage were Mr. Brontë, his son-in-law, Arthur Bell Nicholls, and two servants. In 1857 Mrs. Gaskell's biography of Charlotte was published and though Mr. Brontë at its first reading approved of its commissioning, several months later he expressed doubts. The portrait of Nicholls, founded partly on the confidence of Ellen Nussey, seemed to him to be unjustified. Ellen Nussey, who hated Arthur, insists that his marital claims had perverted Charlotte's writing and she had to struggle against an interruption of her career. It is true that Arthur found Nussey to be too close to his wife, and he insisted that she should destroy her letters – although this never actually happened.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nMrs. Gaskell's book caused a sensation and was distributed nationwide. The polemic launched by Charlotte's father resulted in a squabble that only served to increase the family's fame.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nDuring Charlotte's lifetime friends and sponsors visited the parsonage, including Sir James and Lady Kay Shuttleworth, Ellen Nussey, Elizabeth Gaskell, John Store Smith, a young writer from Manchester, Bessie Parkes, who recounted her visit to Mrs. Gaskell, and Abraham Holroyd, poet, antiquarian, and historian. However, following the publication of the book and the pastor's public remonstrations, the parsonage became a place of pilgrimage for admirers wanting to see it with their own eyes. Charlotte's husband recalled that he had to protect his father-in-law, when on the short path to the church they had to push their way through the crowds of people wanting to reach out and touch the cape of the father of the Brontë girls. The hundreds of visitors became thousands, coming from all over Britain and even from across the Atlantic. Whenever he agreed to meet them, Patrick received them with utmost courtesy and recounted the story of his brilliant daughters, never omitting to express his displeasure at the opinions held about Charlotte's husband.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe flow of visitors has never abated. Indeed, the parsonage at Haworth is one of the most visited literary sites in the world.Publications by the Brontë Society inform that the site is classed as the second most visited in the world. During a visit in 1996, the information boards at the entrance claimed over two million visitors, doubtlessly exaggerated.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe Brontë Society\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe Brontë Parsonage Museum is managed and maintained by the Brontë Society, which organises exhibitions and takes care of the cultural heritage represented by objects and documents which belonged to the family. The society has branches in Australia, Canada, France, Ireland, the Scandinavian countries, South Africa, and the USA.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe Brontë phenomenon\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nIn 1904, Virginia Woolf visited Haworth and published an account in The Guardian on 21 December. She remarked on the symbiosis between the village and the Brontë sisters, the fact that utensils and clothes which would normally have disappeared before those who used them, have survived, enables one to better understand their singular presence. She also wrote: \\\"Haworth expresses the Brontës; the Brontës express Haworth; they fit like a snail to its shell\\\".\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nBrontë descendants\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe line of Patrick Brontë died out with his children, but Patrick's brother had notable descendants, including the discoverer of Golgi bodies, James Brontë Gatenby, and the medical director of the UN, Peter Brontë Gatenby.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nThe Brontës in popular culture\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nCinema\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\n* In the American film Devotion (1946) by Curtis Bernhardt, which constitutes a biography of the Brontë sisters, Ida Lupino plays Emily Brontë and Olivia de Havilland plays Charlotte Brontë.\\n* In the French film Week-end (1967) by Jean-Luc Godard, Emily Brontë appears in a scene where one of the protagonists asks for geographical information.\\n* In the French film Les Sœurs Brontë (1979) by André Téchiné, Isabelle Adjani plays Emily Brontë, Marie-France Pisier plays Charlotte Brontë, Isabelle Huppert plays Anne, Patrick Magee plays Patrick Brontë, and Pascal Greggory plays Branwell Brontë.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nDance\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\n* Several 20th century choreographic works have been inspired by the lives and works of the Brontë sisters. \\n* The title of Martha Graham's ballet, Death and Entrances (1943), is taken from a poem by Dylan Thomas.\\n* Dancer Gillian Lynne presented a composition entitled The Brontës (1995).\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nNatural phenomena\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\n* Charlottebrontë is the name of asteroid #39427, discovered by Palomar Observatory on 25 September 1973. The asteroids #39428 and #39429 (both discovered on 29 September 1973, at Palomar Observatory) are named Emilybrontë and Annebrontë respectively.\\n* The 60 km-diameter impact crater Brontë on the surface of the planet Mercury is named in honour of the Brontë family.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\n* Wuthering Heights is presented as John Lennon's favourite book in \\\"The sky is everywhere\\\".\\n* English singer-songwriter Kate Bush released a song titled \\\"Wuthering Heights\\\" in 1978 to critical success. Coincidentally, Bush shares the same birthday with Emily Brontë.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nOpera\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\n* Wuthering Heights has been the subject of at least three completed operas of the same name: Bernard Herrmann wrote his version between 1943 and 1951, and Carlisle Floyd's setting was premiered in 1958. Frédéric Chaslin also wrote an operatic version. Frederick Delius also started work on a Wuthering Heights opera but abandoned it early.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nStage productions\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\n* The play Brontë (2005), by Polly Teale, explores their lives as well as the characters they created.\\n* The musical Schwestern im Geiste (2014; Sisters in Mind), by Peter Lund, is about the Brontës.\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\nTelevision\",\n \"Brontë family\\n\\n* In the Family Guy episode \\\"New Kidney In Town,\\\" a cutaway gag shows Charlotte and Emily congratulating each other on their literary achievements, while Anne is shown as a crude simpleton (implying her literary contributions were negligible compared to her sisters)\\n* In the episode \\\"Educating Doug\\\" of the American television series The King of Queens, Doug & Carrie enrol in a course on classic literature to improve their level of sophistication. They are assigned the book Jane Eyre where Doug struggles to get past even the second page. \\n* In the episode of CBBC children's television show Horrible Histories entitled Staggering Storytellers, Charlotte (Jessica Ransom), Emily (Gemma Whelan), Anne (Natalie Walter) and Branwell (Thom Tuck) try to get their work published, forgetting all about the Bronte brother.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nWuthering Heights is Emily Brontë's only novel. Written between October 1845 and June 1846, Wuthering Heights was published in 1847 under the pseudonym \\\"Ellis Bell\\\"; Brontë died the following year, aged 30. Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontë's Agnes Grey were accepted by publisher Thomas Newby before the success of their sister Charlotte's novel, Jane Eyre. After Emily's death, Charlotte edited the manuscript of Wuthering Heights, and arranged for the edited version to be published as a posthumous second edition in 1850.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nAlthough Wuthering Heights is now widely regarded as a classic of English literature, contemporary reviews for the novel were deeply polarised; it was considered controversial because its depiction of mental and physical cruelty was unusually stark, and it challenged strict Victorian ideals of the day, including religious hypocrisy, morality, social classes and gender inequality. The English poet and painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti referred to it as \\\"A fiend of a book – an incredible monster [...] The action is laid in hell, – only it seems places and people have English names there.\\\"\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nIn the second half of the 19th century, Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre was considered the best of the Brontë sisters' works, but following later re-evaluation, critics began to argue that Wuthering Heights was superior. The book has inspired adaptations, including film, radio and television dramatisations, a musical by Bernard J. Taylor, a ballet, operas (by Bernard Herrmann, Carlisle Floyd, and Frédéric Chaslin), a role-playing game, and a 1978 song by Kate Bush.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nPlot\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nOpening (Chapters 1 to 3)\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nIn 1801, Lockwood, a wealthy man from the South of England who is seeking peace and recuperation, rents Thrushcross Grange in Yorkshire. He visits his landlord, Heathcliff, who lives in a remote moorland farmhouse, Wuthering Heights. There Lockwood finds an odd assemblage: Heathcliff seems to be a gentleman, but his manners are uncouth; the reserved mistress of the house is in her mid-teens; and a young man seems to be a member of the family, yet dresses and speaks as if he is a servant.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nSnowed in, Lockwood is grudgingly allowed to stay and is shown to a bedchamber where he notices books and graffiti left by a former inhabitant named Catherine. He falls asleep and has a nightmare in which he sees the ghostly Catherine trying to enter through the window. He cries out in fear, rousing Heathcliff, who rushes into the room. Lockwood is convinced that what he saw was real. Heathcliff, believing Lockwood to be right, examines the window and opens it, hoping to allow Catherine's spirit to enter. When nothing happens, Heathcliff shows Lockwood to his own bedroom and returns to keep watch at the window.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nAt sunrise Heathcliff escorts Lockwood back to Thrushcross Grange. Lockwood asks the housekeeper, Nelly Dean, about the family at Wuthering Heights, and she tells him the tale.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nHeathcliff's childhood (Chapters 4 to 17)\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThirty years earlier, the owner of Wuthering Heights is Mr Earnshaw, who lives with his teenage son Hindley and his daughter Catherine. On a trip to Liverpool Earnshaw encounters a homeless boy, described as a \\\"dark-skinned gypsy in aspect\\\". He adopts the boy and names him Heathcliff. Hindley feels that Heathcliff has supplanted him in his father's affections and becomes bitterly jealous. Catherine and Heathcliff become friends, and spend hours each day playing on the moors. They grow close.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nHindley is sent to college. Three years later Earnshaw dies and Hindley becomes the landowner; he is now master of Wuthering Heights. He returns to live there with his new wife, Frances. He allows Heathcliff to stay but only as a servant.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nA few months after Hindley's return Heathcliff and Catherine walk to Thrushcross Grange to spy on the Lintons, who live there. After being discovered they try to run away but are caught. Catherine is injured by the Lintons' dog and taken into the house to recuperate, while Heathcliff is sent home. Catherine stays with the Lintons. The Linton's are landed gentry and Catherine is influenced by their fine appearance and genteel manners. When she returns to Wuthering Heights her appearance and manners are more ladylike, and she laughs at Heathcliff's unkempt appearance. The next day, knowing that the Lintons are to visit, Heathcliff tries to dress up, in an effort to impress Catherine, but he and Edgar Linton get into an argument and Hindley humiliates Heathcliff by locking him in the attic. Catherine tries to comfort Heathcliff, but he vows revenge on Hindley.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe following year Frances Earnshaw gives birth to a son, named Hareton, but she dies a few months later. Hindley descends into drunkenness. Two more years pass, and Catherine and Edgar Linton become friends, while she becomes more distant from Heathcliff. Edgar visits Catherine while Hindley is away and they declare themselves lovers soon afterwards.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nCatherine confesses to Nelly that Edgar has proposed marriage and she has accepted, although her love for Edgar is not comparable to her love for Heathcliff, whom she cannot marry because of his low social status and lack of education. She hopes to use her position as Edgar's wife to raise Heathcliff's standing. Heathcliff overhears her say that it would \\\"degrade\\\" her to marry him (but not how much she loves him), and he runs away and disappears without a trace. Distraught over Heathcliff's departure, Catherine makes herself ill. Nelly and Edgar begin to pander to her every whim to prevent her from becoming ill again.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThree years pass. Edgar and Catherine marry, and go to live together at Thrushcross Grange where she enjoys being \\\"lady of the manor\\\". Six months later Heathcliff returns, now a wealthy gentleman. Catherine is delighted, but Edgar is not. Edgar's sister, Isabella, soon falls in love with Heathcliff, who despises her, but encourages the infatuation as a means of revenge. One day he embraces Isabella, leading to an argument with Edgar. Upset, Catherine locks herself in her room and begins to make herself ill again.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nHeathcliff takes up residence at Wuthering Heights, and spends his time gambling with Hindley and teaching Hareton bad habits. Hindley dissipates his wealth and mortgages the farmhouse to Heathcliff to pay his debts. Heathcliff elopes with Isabella Linton. Two months later they return to Wuthering Heights. Heathcliff hears that Catherine is ill and, with Nelly's help, visits her secretly. However, Catherine is pregnant. The following day she gives birth to a daughter, Cathy, shortly before dying.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nAfter Catherine's funeral Isabella leaves Heathcliff, takes refuge in the South of England and gives birth to a son, Linton. Hindley dies six months after Catherine, and Heathcliff thus finds himself master of Wuthering Heights.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nHeathcliff's maturity (Chapters 18 to 31)\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nTwelve years pass. Catherine's daughter Cathy has become a beautiful, high-spirited girl. Edgar learns that his sister Isabella is dying, so he leaves to retrieve her son Linton in order to adopt and educate him. Cathy, who has rarely left home, takes advantage of her father's absence to venture further afield. She rides over the moors to Wuthering Heights and discovers that she has not one but two cousins: Hareton in addition to Linton. She also lets it be known that her father has gone to fetch Linton. When Edgar returns with Linton, a weak and sickly boy, Heathcliff insists that he live at Wuthering Heights.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThree years pass. Walking on the moors, Nelly and Cathy encounter Heathcliff, who takes them to Wuthering Heights to see Linton and Hareton. Heathcliff hopes that Linton and Cathy will marry, so that Linton will become the heir to Thrushcross Grange. Linton and Cathy begin a secret friendship, echoing the childhood friendship between their respective parents, Heathcliff and Catherine.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe following year Edgar becomes very ill, taking a turn for the worse while Nelly and Cathy are out on the moors, where Heathcliff and Linton trick them into entering Wuthering Heights. Heathcliff keeps them captive to enable the marriage of Cathy and Linton to take place. After five days Nelly is released and later, with Linton's help, Cathy escapes. She returns to the Grange to see her father shortly before he dies.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nNow master of both Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange, Cathy's father-in-law, Heathcliff insists on her returning to live at Wuthering Heights. Soon after she arrives Linton dies. Hareton tries to be kind to Cathy, but she withdraws from the world.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nAt this point Nelly's tale catches up to the present day (1801). Time passes and, after being ill for a period, Lockwood grows tired of the moors and informs Heathcliff that he will be leaving Thrushcross Grange.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nEnding (Chapters 32 to 34)\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nEight months later Lockwood returns to the area by chance. Given that his tenancy at Thrushcross Grange is still valid, he decides to stay there again. He finds Nelly living at Wuthering Heights and enquires what has happened since he left. She explains that she moved to Wuthering Heights to replace the housekeeper, Zillah, who had left. Hareton had an accident and was confined to the farmhouse. During his convalescence, he and Cathy overcame their mutual antipathy and became close. While their friendship developed Heathcliff began to act strangely and had visions of Catherine. He stopped eating and after four days was found dead in Catherine's old room. He was buried next to Catherine.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nLockwood learns that Hareton and Cathy plan to marry on New Year's Day. As he gets ready to leave, he passes the graves of Catherine, Edgar and Heathcliff, and pauses to contemplate the quiet of the moors.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nCharacters\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\n* Heathcliff: Found, presumably orphaned, on the streets of Liverpool and taken by Mr Earnshaw to Wuthering Heights, where he is reluctantly cared for by the family. He and Catherine grow close and their love is the central theme of the first volume. His revenge against the man she chooses to marry and its consequences are the central theme of the second volume. Heathcliff has been considered a Byronic hero, but critics have pointed out that he reinvents himself at various points, making his character hard to fit into any single type. Because of his ambiguous position in society and his lack of status, underlined by the fact that \\\"Heathcliff\\\" is both his given name and his surname, his character has been a favourite subject of Marxist criticism. * Catherine Earnshaw: First introduced to the reader after her death, through Lockwood's discovery of her diary and carvings. The description of her life is confined almost entirely to the first volume. She seems unsure whether she is, or wants to become, more like Heathcliff, or aspires to be more like Edgar.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nSome critics have argued that her decision to marry Edgar Linton is allegorically a rejection of nature and a surrender to culture, a choice with fateful consequences for all the other characters. Literary critics have examined her character through many different lenses, including those of psychoanalytic theory and feminist theory. * Edgar Linton: Introduced as a child in the Linton family, he resides at Thrushcross Grange. Edgar's style and manners are in sharp contrast to those of Heathcliff, who instantly dislikes him, and of Catherine, who is drawn to him. Catherine marries him instead of Heathcliff because of his higher social status, with disastrous results. From the perspective of feminist theory, this exemplifies the problems inherent in a social structure in which women can gain prestige and financial security only through marriage. * Nelly Dean: The main narrator of the novel, Nelly is a servant to three generations of the Earnshaws and two of the Linton family. Humbly born, she regards herself nevertheless as Hindley's foster-sister (they are the same age and her mother is his nurse).\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nShe lives and works among the rough inhabitants of Wuthering Heights, but is well-read, and she also experiences the more genteel manners of Thrushcross Grange. She is referred to as Ellen, her given name, to show respect, and as Nelly among those close to her. Critics have discussed how far her actions as an apparent bystander affect the other characters and how much her narrative can be relied on. * Isabella Linton: Isabella is seen only in relation to other characters. She views Heathcliff romantically, despite Catherine's warnings, and becomes an unwitting participant in his plot for revenge against Edgar. Heathcliff marries her, but treats her abusively. Pregnant, she escapes to London and gives birth to a son, Linton. Because she suffers such abuse from her husband and ultimately escapes from it, some critics, particularly feminists, consider Isabella the true (conventional) \\\"tragic-romantic\\\" heroine of Wuthering Heights. * Hindley Earnshaw: Catherine's elder brother, Hindley despises Heathcliff immediately and bullies him throughout their childhood before his father sends him away to college. Hindley returns with his wife, Frances, after Mr Earnshaw dies. He is more mature, but his hatred of Heathcliff remains the same.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nAfter Frances's death Hindley is caught in a downward spiral of destructive behaviour, and ruins the Earnshaw family by drinking and gambling to excess. Heathcliff beats up Hindley at one point when he attempts to kill him with a pistol. * Hareton Earnshaw: The son of Hindley and Frances, raised at first by Nelly but soon by Heathcliff. Nelly works to instill a sense of pride in the Earnshaw heritage (even though Hareton will not inherit Earnshaw property, because Hindley has mortgaged it to Heathcliff). Heathcliff, in contrast, teaches him vulgarities, as a way of avenging himself on Hindley. Hareton speaks with an accent similar to Joseph's, and occupies a position similar to a servant at Wuthering Heights, unaware how he has been done out of his inheritance. In appearance he reminds Heathcliff of his aunt, Catherine. * Cathy Linton: The daughter of Catherine Earnshaw and Edgar Linton, a spirited and strong-willed girl unaware of her parents' history. Edgar is very protective of her and as a result she is eager to discover what lies beyond the confines of the Grange.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nAlthough one of the more sympathetic characters of the novel, she is also somewhat snobbish against Hareton and his lacking education. * Linton Heathcliff: The son of Heathcliff and Isabella. A weak child, his early years are spent with his mother in the south of England. He learns of his father's identity and existence only after his mother dies, when he is twelve. In his selfishness and capacity for cruelty he resembles Heathcliff, but he appears to lack his father's only redeeming feature: the capacity to love. He marries Cathy Linton because his father, who terrifies him, directs him to do so, and soon after dies from a wasting illness associated with tuberculosis and onanism. * Joseph: A servant at Wuthering Heights for 60 years who is a rigid, self-righteous Christian but lacks any trace of genuine kindness or humanity. He speaks a broad Yorkshire dialect and hates nearly everyone in the novel. * Mr Lockwood: The first narrator, he rents Thrushcross Grange to escape society, but in the end decides society is preferable. He narrates the book until Chapter 4, when the main narrator, Nelly, picks up the tale. * Frances: Hindley's ailing wife and mother of Hareton Earnshaw.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nShe is described as somewhat silly and is obviously from humble family backgrounds. * Mr and Mrs Earnshaw: Catherine's and Hindley's father, Mr Earnshaw is the master of Wuthering Heights at the beginning of Nelly's story and is described as an irascible but loving and kind-hearted man. He has a strange obsession with his adopted son Heathcliff, which causes trouble in the family. In contrast, his wife mistrusts the child Heathcliff from their first encounter. * Mr and Mrs Linton: Edgar's and Isabella's parents, they educate their children in a well-behaved and sophisticated way. Mr Linton also serves as the magistrate of Gimmerton, like his son in later years. * Dr Kenneth: The longtime doctor of Gimmerton and a friend of Hindley's who is present at the cases of illness during the novel. Although not much of his character is known, he seems to be a rough but honest person. * Zillah: A servant to Heathcliff at Wuthering Heights during the period following Catherine's death. Although she is kind to Lockwood, she doesn't like or help Cathy at Wuthering Heights because of Cathy's arrogance and Heathcliff's instructions.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\n* Mr Green: Edgar's corruptible lawyer who should change his will and prevent Heathcliff from gaining Thrushcross Grange. But Green changes sides and helps Heathcliff to inherit Grange as his property.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nRelationships map\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nKey:\\n* black line: son or daughter of; if dotted it means adoption\\n* red line: wedding; if double it means second wedding\\n* pink line: Relationship\\n* blue line: affection\\n* green line: hate\\n* light yellow area: plot-driving characters\\n* violet area: external observers\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nTimeline\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThemes\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nAuthor Joyce Carol Oates sees the novel as \\\"an assured demonstration of the finite and tragically self-consuming nature of 'passion'.\\\"[http://www.usfca.edu/jco/magnanimityofwutheringheights/ Oates, Joyce Carol. \\\"The Magnanimity of Wuthering Heights\\\", Critical Inquiry, 1983]\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nGothic novel\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nEllen Moers, in Literary Women, developed a feminist theory that connects women writers, including Emily Brontë, with the gothic fiction. Catherine Earnshaw has been identified by some critics, as a type of gothic demon, because she \\\"shape-shifts\\\" in order to marry Edgar Linton, by assuming a domesticity, which is contrary to her true nature. It has also been suggested that Catherine's relationship with Heathcliff conforms to the \\\"dynamics of the Gothic romance, in that the woman falls prey to the more or less demonic instincts of her lover, suffers from the violence of his feelings, and at the end is entangled by his thwarted passion.\\\"\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nPublication\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\n1847 edition\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe original text, as published by Thomas Cautley Newby in 1847, is available online in two parts. The novel was first published together with Anne Brontë's Agnes Grey in a three-volume format: Wuthering Heights occupied the first two volumes, while Agnes Grey made up the third.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\n1850 edition\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nIn 1850, when a second edition of Wuthering Heights was due, Charlotte Brontë edited the original text, altering punctuation, correcting spelling errors and making Joseph's thick Yorkshire dialect less opaque. Writing to her publisher, W.S. Williams, she mentioned that \\\"It seems to me advisable to modify the orthography of the old servant Joseph's speeches; for though, as it stands, it exactly renders the Yorkshire dialect to a Yorkshire ear, yet I am sure Southerns must find it unintelligible; and thus one of the most graphic characters in the book is lost on them.\\\" An essay written by Irene Wiltshire on dialect and speech in the novel examines some of the changes Charlotte made.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nInspiration for locations\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThere are several theories about which real building or buildings (if any) may have inspired Wuthering Heights. One common candidate is Top Withens, a ruined farmhouse located in an isolated area near the Haworth Parsonage, although its structure does not match that of the farmhouse described in the novel. Top Withens was first suggested as the model by Ellen Nussey, a friend of Charlotte Brontë, to Edward Morison Wimperis, an artist who was commissioned to illustrate the Brontë sisters' novels in 1872.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe second possibility is High Sunderland Hall, near Halifax, now demolished. This Gothic edifice was located near Law Hill, where Emily worked briefly as a governess in 1838. While it was perhaps grander than Wuthering Heights, the hall had grotesque embellishments of griffins and misshapen nude males similar to those described by Lockwood in Chapter 1 of the novel.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe inspiration for Thrushcross Grange has long been traced to Ponden Hall, near Haworth, which is very small. Shibden Hall, near Halifax, is perhaps more likely. The Thrushcross Grange that Emily describes is rather unusual. It sits within an enormous park, as does Shibden Hall. By comparison, the park at Chatsworth (the home of the Duke of Devonshire) is over two miles (3.2 km) long but, as the house sits near the middle, it is no more than a mile and a half (2.4 km) from the lodge to the house. Considering that Edgar Linton apparently does not even have a title, this seems unlikely. There is no building close to Haworth that has a park anywhere near this size, but there are a few houses that might have inspired some elements. Shibden Hall has several features that match descriptions in the novel.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nCritical response\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nEarly reviews (1847–1848)\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nEarly reviews of Wuthering Heights were mixed in their assessment. Whilst most critics at the time recognised the power and imagination of the novel, they were also baffled by the storyline and found the characters extremely forward and uninhibited.Emily Brontë saved sections of five reviews of the 1847 version of Wuthering Heights, of which four have been identified as having appeared in the January 1848 numbers of the Atlas, Douglas Jerrold's Weekly Newspaper, the Examiner, and the Britannia. The fifth has neither a date nor source. Published in 1847, at a time when the background of the author was deemed to have an important impact on the story itself, many critics were also intrigued by the authorship of the novels.Wuthering Heights was published alongside Agnes Grey under the pseudonyms \\\"Acton and Ellis Bell\\\" (Anne and Emily respectively). Wuthering Heights comprised the first two parts of the volume, and Agnes Grey the third: \\\"The third volume of the book is made up of a separate tale relating to the fortunes of a governess.\\\" (Britannia (1848)) Henry Chorley of the Athenæum said that it was a \\\"disagreeable story\\\" and that the \\\"Bells\\\" (Brontës) \\\"seem to affect painful and exceptional subjects\\\".\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe Atlas review called it a \\\"strange, inartistic story,\\\" but commented that every chapter seems to contain a \\\"sort of rugged power.\\\" Atlas summarised the novel by writing: \\\"We know nothing in the whole range of our fictitious literature which presents such shocking pictures of the worst forms of humanity. There is not in the entire dramatis persona, a single character which is not utterly hateful or thoroughly contemptible ... Even the female characters excite something of loathing and much of contempt. Beautiful and loveable in their childhood, they all, to use a vulgar expression, \\\"turn out badly\\\".\\\"\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nGraham's Lady Magazine wrote \\\"How a human being could have attempted such a book as the present without committing suicide before he had finished a dozen chapters, is a mystery. It is a compound of vulgar depravity and unnatural horrors.\\\"\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe American Whig Review wrote \\\"Respecting a book so original as this, and written with so much power of imagination, it is natural that there should be many opinions. Indeed, its power is so predominant that it is not easy after a hasty reading to analyze one's impressions so as to speak of its merits and demerits with confidence. We have been taken and carried through a new region, a melancholy waste, with here and there patches of beauty; have been brought in contact with fierce passions, with extremes of love and hate, and with sorrow that none but those who have suffered can understand. This has not been accomplished with ease, but with an ill-mannered contempt for the decencies of language, and in a style which might resemble that of a Yorkshire farmer who should have endeavored to eradicate his provincialism by taking lessons of a London footman. We have had many sad bruises and tumbles in our journey, yet it was interesting, and at length we are safely arrived at a happy conclusion.\\\"\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nDouglas Jerrold's Weekly Newspaper wrote \\\"Wuthering Heights is a strange sort of book,—baffling all regular criticism; yet, it is impossible to begin and not finish it; and quite as impossible to lay it aside afterwards and say nothing about. In Wuthering Heights the reader is shocked, disgusted, almost sickened by details of cruelty, inhumanity, and the most diabolical hate and vengeance, and anon come passages of powerful testimony to the supreme power of love – even over demons in the human form. The women in the book are of a strange fiendish-angelic nature, tantalising, and terrible, and the men are indescribable out of the book itself. Yet, towards the close of the story occurs the following pretty, soft picture, which comes like the rainbow after a storm ... We strongly recommend all our readers who love novelty to get this story, for we can promise them that they never have read anything like it before. It is very puzzling and very interesting, and if we had space we would willingly devote a little more time to the analysis of this remarkable story, but we must leave it to our readers to decide what sort of book it is.\\\"\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nNew Monthly Magazine wrote \\\"Wuthering Heights, by Ellis Bell, is a terrific story, associated with an equally fearful and repulsive spot ... Our novel reading experience does not enable us to refer to anything to be compared with the personages we are introduced to at this desolate spot – a perfect misanthropist's heaven.\\\"\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nTait's Edinburgh Magazine wrote \\\"This novel contains undoubtedly powerful writing, and yet it seems to be thrown away. Mr. Ellis Bell, before constructing the novel, should have known that forced marriages, under threats and in confinement are illegal, and parties instrumental thereto can be punished. And second, that wills made by young ladies' minors are invalid. The volumes are powerfully written records of wickedness and they have a moral – they show what Satan could do with the law of Entail.\\\"\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nExaminer wrote \\\"This is a strange book. It is not without evidences of considerable power: but, as a whole, it is wild, confused, disjointed, and improbable; and the people who make up the drama, which is tragic enough in its consequences, are savages ruder than those who lived before the days of Homer.\\\"\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nLiterary World wrote \\\"In the whole story not a single trait of character is elicited which can command our admiration, not one of the fine feelings of our nature seems to have formed a part in the composition of its principal actors. In spite of the disgusting coarsness of much of the dialogue, and the improbabilities of much of the plot, we are spellbound.\\\"\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nBritannia called it a \\\"strangely original\\\" book that depicts \\\"humanity in this wild state.\\\" Although mostly hostile, it notes that the book is \\\"illuminated by some gleams of sunshine towards the end which serve to cast a grateful light on the dreary path we have traveled.\\\"\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nReferences in culture\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nAdaptations\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe earliest known film adaptation of Wuthering Heights was filmed in England and directed by A. V. Bramble. It is unknown if any prints still exist. The most famous was 1939's Wuthering Heights, starring Laurence Olivier and Merle Oberon and directed by William Wyler. This acclaimed adaptation, like many others, eliminated the second generation's story (young Cathy, Linton and Hareton) and is rather inaccurate as a literature adaption. It won the 1939 New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Film and was nominated for the 1939 Academy Award for Best Picture.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nIn 1967 the BBC produced a dramatisation starring Ian McShane and Angela Scoular.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe 1970 film with Timothy Dalton as Heathcliff is the first colour version of the novel, and gained acceptance over the years though it was initially poorly received. The character of Hindley is portrayed much more sympathetically, and his story-arc is altered. It also subtly suggests that Heathcliff may be Cathy's illegitimate half-brother.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nIn 1978 the BBC produced a five part TV serialisation of the book starring Ken Hutchinson, Kay Adshead and John Duttine with music by Carl Davis; it is considered one of the most faithful adaptations of Emily Brontë's story.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThere is also a 1985 French film adaptation Hurlevent by Jacques Rivette.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe 1992 film Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights starring Ralph Fiennes and Juliette Binoche is notable for including the oft-omitted second generation story of the children of Cathy, Hindley and Heathcliff.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nMore recent film or TV adaptations include ITV's 2009 two part drama series starring Tom Hardy, Charlotte Riley, Sarah Lancashire, and Andrew Lincoln, the 2011 film starring Kaya Scodelario and James Howson and directed by Andrea Arnold; and the forthcoming 2016/17 film, directed by Elisaveta Abrahall and starring Paul Eryk Atlas and Sha'ori Morris, in a version that includes both generations and is presently filming in the UK.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nAdaptations which reset the story in a new setting include the 1954 adaptation retitled Abismos de Pasion directed by Spanish filmmaker Luis Buñuel set in Catholic Mexico, with Heathcliff and Cathy renamed Alejandro and Catalina. In Buñuel's version Heathcliff/Alejandro claims to have become rich by making a deal with Satan. The New York Times reviewed a re-release of this film as \\\"an almost magical example of how an artist of genius can take someone else's classic work and shape it to fit his own temperament without really violating it,\\\" noting that the film was thoroughly Spanish and Catholic in its tone while still highly faithful to Brontë. Yoshishige Yoshida's 1988 adaptation also has a transposed setting, this time in medieval Japan. In Yoshida's version, the Heathcliff character, Onimaru, is raised in a nearby community of priests who worship a local fire god. In 2003, MTV produced a poorly reviewed version set in a modern California high school.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe 1966 Indian film Dil Diya Dard Liya is based upon this novel. The film is directed by Abdul Rashid Kardar and Dilip Kumar. The film stars the thespian Dilip Kumar, Waheeda Rehman, Pran, Rehman, Shyama and Johnny Walker. The music is by the legendary composer Naushad. Although it did not fare as well as other movies of Dilip Kumar, it was well received by critics.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe novel has been popular in opera and theatre, including operas written by Bernard Herrmann, Carlisle Floyd, and Frédéric Chaslin (most cover only the first half of the book) and a musical by Bernard J. Taylor.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nIn 2011, a graphic novel version was published by Classical Comics, and stays close to the original novel. It was adapted by Scottish writer Sean Michael Wilson and hand painted by comic book veteran artist John M Burns. This version received a nomination for the Stan Lee Excelsior Awards, voted by pupils from 170 schools in the United Kingdom.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nWorks inspired\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nKate Bush's song \\\"Wuthering Heights\\\" is most likely the best-known creative work inspired by Brontë's story that is not properly an \\\"adaptation.\\\" Bush wrote and released the song when she was eighteen and chose it as the lead single in her debut album (despite the record company preferring another track as the lead single). It was primarily inspired by the Olivier–Oberon film version which deeply affected Bush in her teenage years. The song is sung from Catherine's point of view as she pleads at Heathcliff's window to be admitted. It uses quotations from Catherine, both in the chorus (\\\"Let me in! I'm so cold!\\\") and the verses, with Catherine's admitting she had \\\"bad dreams in the night.\\\" Critic Sheila Whiteley wrote that the ethereal quality of the vocal resonates with Cathy's dementia, and that Bush's high register has both \\\"childlike qualities in its purity of tone\\\" and an \\\"underlying eroticism in its sinuous erotic contours.\\\" Pat Benatar covered this song on her 1980 album Crimes of Passion, and so did Angra on their 1993 debut Angels Cry.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe 1976 album Wind and Wuthering, by British progressive rock band Genesis, alludes to the Brontë novel not only in the album's title but also in the titles of tracks 7 (\\\"Unquiet Slumbers for the Sleepers ...\\\") and 8 (\\\"... In That Quiet Earth\\\"), which are derived from the novel's closing sentence: \\\"I lingered round them, under that benign sky: watched the moths fluttering among the heath and harebells, listened to the soft wind breathing through the grass, and wondered how any one could ever imagine unquiet slumbers for the sleepers in that quiet earth.\\\"\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nWuthering Heights has also inspired a role-playing game. The game is distributed free on the Internet by French author Philippe Tromeur. The game is mentioned in the introduction for the 2007 Broadview Press edition of Wuthering Heights and in a footnote in the 2005 (Volume 33) issue of periodical Victorian literature and culture.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe song \\\"Cath\\\" by indie rock band Death Cab for Cutie was inspired by Wuthering Heights.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nThe Hindi movie Dil Diya Dard Liya, directed by Abdur Rashid Kardar and Dilip Kumar, is inspired by Wuthering Heights.\",\n \"Wuthering Heights\\n\\nNotes\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2088,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_36"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Becky Sharp is the name of a character in which famous novel, which is also the title of a famous magazine?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Vanity Fair"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["vanity fair","vanity fair mini series","vanity fair disambiguation","vanity fair film"],"string":"[\n \"vanity fair\",\n \"vanity fair mini series\",\n \"vanity fair disambiguation\",\n \"vanity fair film\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Becky Sharp\n\nBecky Sharp is a 1935 American historical drama film directed by Rouben Mamoulian and starring Miriam Hopkins. Other supporting cast were Frances Dee, Cedric Hardwicke, Billie Burke, Alison Skipworth, Nigel Bruce, and Alan Mowbray.","Becky Sharp\n\nThe film is based on the play of the same name by Langdon Mitchell, which in turn is based on William Makepeace Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair. The play was made famous in the late 1890s by actress Minnie Maddern Fiske. The screenplay was written by Francis Edward Faragoh. The film was considered a landmark in cinema as the first film to use the newly developed three-strip Technicolor production, opening the way for a growing number of color films to be made in Britain and the United States in the years leading up to World War II.","Becky Sharp\n\nThe film recounts the tale of a lower-class girl who insinuates herself into an upper-class family, only to see her life and the lives of those around her destroyed.","Becky Sharp\n\nPlot","Becky Sharp\n\nBecky Sharp (Miriam Hopkins), a socially ambitious English young lady manages to survive during the years following Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo.","Becky Sharp\n\nIn her efforts to advance herself, she manages to link up with a number of gentlemen: the Marquis of Steyne (Cedric Hardwicke), Joseph Sedley (Nigel Bruce), Rawdon Crawley (Alan Mowbray), and George Osborne (G. P. Huntley Jr).","Becky Sharp\n\nShe rises to the top of British society and becomes the scourge of the social circle, offending the other ladies such as Lady Bareacres (Billie Burke). Sharp falls into the humiliation of singing for her meals in a beer hall. But she never stays down for long.","Becky Sharp\n\nCast","Becky Sharp\n\n* Miriam Hopkins as Becky Sharp\n* Frances Dee as Amelia Sedley\n* Cedric Hardwicke as Marquis of Steyne\n* Billie Burke as Lady Bareacres\n* Alison Skipworth as Miss Crawley\n* Nigel Bruce as Joseph Sedley\n* Alan Mowbray as Rawdon Crawley\n* G.P. Huntley as George Osborne","Becky Sharp\n\n* William Stack as Pitt Crawley\n* George Hassell as Sir Pitt Crawley\n* William Faversham as Duke of Wellington\n* Charles Richman as Gen. Tufto\n* Doris Lloyd as Duchess of Richmond\n* Colin Tapley as Captain William Dobbin\n* Leonard Mudie as Tarquin\n* Charles Coleman as Bowles","Becky Sharp\n\nCast notes\n*Pat Nixon – then Pat Ryan, later the wife of Richard Nixon and First Lady of the United States from 1969 to 1974 – worked as a movie extra at this time, and can be seen in a walk-on during the ball scene.","Becky Sharp\n\nProduction","Becky Sharp\n\nJohn Hay \"Jock\" Whitney and Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney formed Pioneer Pictures specifically to produce color films, and signed a contract to release Pioneer films through RKO Radio Pictures. After producing La Cucaracha, Becky Sharp, and Dancing Pirate (1936), the Whitneys and David O. Selznick formed Selznick International Pictures. Two Selznick International films, A Star Is Born and Nothing Sacred (both 1937), were produced by Selznick, copyrighted by Pioneer Pictures, and released through United Artists rather than RKO.","Becky Sharp\n\nLowell Sherman, the original director, had fallen ill while working on Night Life of the Gods before starting Becky Sharp, but had continued to work on the project; he finally died of double pneumonia four weeks into production on Sharp.","Becky Sharp\n\nAfter Sherman's death, Rouben Mamoulian was brought in to finish the film. Mamoulian would not use any of the footage shot by Sherman, deciding instead to reshoot the entire film.","Becky Sharp\n\nColor development","Becky Sharp\n\nBecky Sharp was the first feature film to use the three-strip Technicolor process, which created a separate film register for each of the three primary colors.","Becky Sharp\n\nEarlier live action films to use the new Technicolor process include the final musical number in the feature The Cat and the Fiddle released by MGM in February 1934, and in short sequences filmed for other movies made during 1934, including The House of Rothschild (Twentieth Century Pictures/United Artists) with George Arliss and Kid Millions (Samuel Goldwyn/United Artists) with Eddie Cantor. Warner Brothers released two Leon Errol shorts, Service With a Smile (July 28, 1934) and Good Morning, Eve! (September 22, 1934), and RKO Pictures released the short La Cucaracha (August 31, 1934).","Becky Sharp\n\nReception","Becky Sharp\n\nWriting for The Spectator, Graham Greene raved that \"colour is everything here\" and characterizing its use in the film as \"a triumph\". Although Greene complained that the Technicolor \"plays havoc with the women's faces\", leveled criticism at Hopkins for her \"indecisive acting\", and noted that he had found the film's climax in Bath to be \"absurd\" and \"silly\", he described these minor complains as \"ungrateful\" and his overall impression was that the film gave \"delight to the eye\".","Becky Sharp\n\nAwards and honors","Becky Sharp\n\nWins\n* Venice Film Festival: Best Color Film, Rouben Mamoulian; 1935.","Becky Sharp\n\nNominations\n* Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, Miriam Hopkins; 1935.\n* Venice Film Festival: Mussolini Cup, Rouben Mamoulian; 1935.","Becky Sharp\n\nPreservation status","Becky Sharp\n\nFor many years, the original three-color Technicolor version of the film was not available for viewing, though a 16 millimeter version was available. This version had been printed (poorly) on two-color Cinecolor stock which did not accurately reproduce the colors of the original film. The smaller film stock also resulted in a grainier, inferior image.","Becky Sharp\n\nIn the 1980s the UCLA Film and Television Archive restored the film, under the supervision of archivist Robert Gitt. Rouben Mamoulian appeared at the premiere of the restored print at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences theatre in Beverly Hills.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nWilliam Makepeace Thackeray (; 18 July 1811 – 24 December 1863) was an English novelist of the 19th century. He is famous for his satirical works, particularly Vanity Fair, a panoramic portrait of English society.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nBiography","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray, an only child, was born in Calcutta, British India, where his father, Richmond Thackeray (1 September 1781 – 13 September 1815), was secretary to the Board of Revenue in the British East India Company. His mother, Anne Becher (1792–1864), was the second daughter of Harriet Becher and John Harman Becher, who was also a secretary (writer) for the East India Company.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nRichmond died in 1815, which caused Anne to send her son to England in 1816, while she remained in British India. The ship on which he travelled made a short stopover at St. Helena, where the imprisoned Napoleon was pointed out to him. Once in England he was educated at schools in Southampton and Chiswick, and then at Charterhouse School, where he became a close friend of John Leech. Thackeray disliked Charterhouse, and parodied it in his fiction as \"Slaughterhouse\". Nevertheless, Thackeray was honoured in the Charterhouse Chapel with a monument after his death. Illness in his last year there, during which he reportedly grew to his full height of six foot three, postponed his matriculation at Trinity College, Cambridge, until February 1829. Never too keen on academic studies, Thackeray left Cambridge in 1830, but some of his earliest published writing appeared in two university periodicals, The Snob and The Gownsman.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray then travelled for some time on the continent, visiting Paris and Weimar, where he met Goethe. He returned to England and began to study law at the Middle Temple, but soon gave that up. On reaching the age of 21 he came into his inheritance from his father, but he squandered much of it on gambling and on funding two unsuccessful newspapers, The National Standard and The Constitutional, for which he had hoped to write. He also lost a good part of his fortune in the collapse of two Indian banks. Forced to consider a profession to support himself, he turned first to art, which he studied in Paris, but did not pursue it, except in later years as the illustrator of some of his own novels and other writings.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray's years of semi-idleness ended after he married, on 20 August 1836, Isabella Gethin Shawe (1816–1893), second daughter of Isabella Creagh Shawe and Matthew Shawe, a colonel who had died after distinguished service, primarily in India. The Thackerays had three children, all girls: Anne Isabella (1837–1919), Jane (who died at eight months old) and Harriet Marian (1840–1875), who married Sir Leslie Stephen, editor,\nbiographer and philosopher.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray now began \"writing for his life\", as he put it, turning to journalism in an effort to support his young family. He primarily worked for Fraser's Magazine, a sharp-witted and sharp-tongued conservative publication for which he produced art criticism, short fictional sketches, and two longer fictional works, Catherine and The Luck of Barry Lyndon. Between 1837 and 1840 he also reviewed books for The Times. He was also a regular contributor to The Morning Chronicle and The Foreign Quarterly Review. Later, through his connection to the illustrator John Leech, he began writing for the newly created magazine Punch, in which he published The Snob Papers, later collected as The Book of Snobs. This work popularised the modern meaning of the word \"snob\". Thackeray was a regular contributor to Punch between 1843 and 1854.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nTragedy struck in Thackeray's personal life as his wife, Isabella, succumbed to depression after the birth of their third child, in 1840. Finding that he could get no work done at home, he spent more and more time away until September 1840, when he realised how grave his wife's condition was. Struck by guilt, he set out with his wife to Ireland. During the crossing she threw herself from a water-closet into the sea, but she was pulled from the waters. They fled back home after a four-week battle with her mother. From November 1840 to February 1842 Isabella was in and out of professional care, as her condition waxed and waned.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nShe eventually deteriorated into a permanent state of detachment from reality. Thackeray desperately sought cures for her, but nothing worked, and she ended up in two different asylums in or near Paris until 1845, after which Thackeray took her back to England, where he installed her with a Mrs Bakewell at Camberwell. Isabella outlived her husband by 30 years, in the end being cared for by a family named Thompson in Leigh-on-Sea at Southend until her death in 1894. After his wife's illness Thackeray became a de facto widower, never establishing another permanent relationship. He did pursue other women, however, in particular Mrs Jane Brookfield and Sally Baxter. In 1851 Mr Brookfield barred Thackeray from further visits to or correspondence with Jane. Baxter, an American twenty years Thackeray's junior whom he met during a lecture tour in New York City in 1852, married another man in 1855.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nIn the early 1840s Thackeray had some success with two travel books, The Paris Sketch Book and The Irish Sketch Book, the latter marked by hostility to Irish Catholics. However, as the book appealed to British prejudices, Thackeray was given the job of being Punch’s Irish expert, often under the pseudonym Hibernis Hibernior. It was Thackeray, in other words, who was chiefly responsible for Punch's notoriously hostile and condescending depictions of the Irish during the Irish Famine (1845–51).","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray achieved more recognition with his Snob Papers (serialised 1846/7, published in book form in 1848), but the work that really established his fame was the novel Vanity Fair, which first appeared in serialised instalments beginning in January 1847. Even before Vanity Fair completed its serial run Thackeray had become a celebrity, sought after by the very lords and ladies whom he satirised. They hailed him as the equal of Dickens.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nHe remained \"at the top of the tree,\" as he put it, for the rest of his life, during which he produced several large novels, notably Pendennis, The Newcomes and The History of Henry Esmond, despite various illnesses, including a near-fatal one that struck him in 1849 in the middle of writing Pendennis. He twice visited the United States on lecture tours during this period. Thackeray also gave lectures in London on the English humorists of the eighteenth century, and on the first four Hanoverian monarchs. The latter series was published in book form as The Four Georges.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nIn Oxford he stood unsuccessfully as an independent for Parliament. He was narrowly beaten by Cardwell, who received 1,070 votes, as against 1,005 for Thackeray.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nIn 1860 Thackeray became editor of the newly established Cornhill Magazine, but he was never comfortable in the role, preferring to contribute to the magazine as the writer of a column called Roundabout Papers.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray's health worsened during the 1850s and he was plagued by a recurring stricture of the urethra that laid him up for days at a time. He also felt that he had lost much of his creative impetus. He worsened matters by excessive eating and drinking, and avoiding exercise, though he enjoyed horseback-riding (he kept a horse). He has been described as \"the greatest literary glutton who ever lived\". His main activity apart from writing was \"guttling and gorging\". He could not break his addiction to spicy peppers, further ruining his digestion. On 23 December 1863, after returning from dining out and before dressing for bed, he suffered a stroke. He was found dead in his bed the following morning. His death at the age of fifty-two was entirely unexpected, and shocked his family, his friends and the reading public. An estimated 7,000 people attended his funeral at Kensington Gardens. He was buried on 29 December at Kensal Green Cemetery, and a memorial bust sculpted by Marochetti can be found in Westminster Abbey.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nWorks","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray began as a satirist and parodist, writing works that displayed a sneaking fondness for roguish upstarts such as Becky Sharp in Vanity Fair, and the title characters of The Luck of Barry Lyndon and Catherine. In his earliest works, written under such pseudonyms as Charles James Yellowplush, Michael Angelo Titmarsh and George Savage Fitz-Boodle, he tended towards savagery in his attacks on high society, military prowess, the institution of marriage and hypocrisy.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nOne of his earliest works, \"Timbuctoo\" (1829), contains a burlesque upon the subject set for the Cambridge Chancellor's Medal for English Verse (the contest was won by Tennyson with \"Timbuctoo\"). Thackeray's writing career really began with a series of satirical sketches now usually known as The Yellowplush Papers, which appeared in Fraser's Magazine beginning in 1837. These were adapted for BBC Radio 4 in 2009, with Adam Buxton playing Charles Yellowplush.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nBetween May 1839 and February 1840 Fraser's published the work sometimes considered Thackeray's first novel, Catherine. Originally intended as a satire of the Newgate school of crime fiction, it ended up being more of a picaresque tale. He also began work, never finished, on the novel later published as A Shabby Genteel Story.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nIn The Luck of Barry Lyndon, a novel serialised in Fraser's in 1844, Thackeray explored the situation of an outsider trying to achieve status in high society, a theme he developed more successfully in Vanity Fair with the character of Becky Sharp, the artist's daughter who rises nearly to the heights by manipulating the other characters.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray is probably best known now for Vanity Fair. In contrast, his large novels from the period after Vanity Fair, which were once described by Henry James as examples of \"loose baggy monsters\", have largely faded from view, perhaps because they reflect a mellowing in Thackeray, who had become so successful with his satires on society that he seemed to lose his zest for attacking it. These later works include Pendennis, a Bildungsroman depicting the coming of age of Arthur Pendennis, an alter ego of Thackeray, who also features as the narrator of two later novels, The Newcomes and The Adventures of Philip. The Newcomes is noteworthy for its critical portrayal of the \"marriage market,\" while Philip is known for its semi-autobiographical depiction of Thackeray's early life, in which he partially regains some of his early satirical power.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nAlso notable among the later novels is The History of Henry Esmond, in which Thackeray tried to write a novel in the style of the eighteenth century, a period that held great appeal for him. Not only Esmond but also Barry Lyndon and Catherine are set in that period, as is the sequel to Esmond, The Virginians, which takes place in North America and includes George Washington as a character who nearly kills one of the protagonists in a duel.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nFamily","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nParents","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray's father, Richmond Thackeray, was born at South Mimms and went to India in 1798 at age sixteen as a writer (civil servant) with the East India Company. Richmond fathered a daughter, Sarah Redfield, in 1804 with Charlotte Sophia Rudd, his possibly Eurasian mistress, and both mother and daughter were named in his will. Such liaisons were common among gentlemen of the East India Company, and it formed no bar to his later courting and marrying William's mother.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray's mother, Anne Becher (born 1792), was \"one of the reigning beauties of the day\" and a daughter of John Harmon Becher, Collector of the South 24 Parganas district (d. Calcutta, 1800), of an old Bengal civilian family \"noted for the tenderness of its women\". Anne Becher, her sister Harriet and their widowed mother, also Harriet, had been sent back to India by her authoritarian guardian grandmother, Ann Becher, in 1809 on the Earl Howe. Anne's grandmother had told her that the man she loved, Henry Carmichael-Smyth, an ensign in the Bengal Engineers whom she met at an Assembly Ball in 1807 in Bath, had died, while he was told that Anne was no longer interested in him. Neither of these assertions was true. Though Carmichael-Smyth was from a distinguished Scottish military family, Anne's grandmother went to extreme lengths to prevent their marriage. Surviving family letters state that she wanted a better match for her granddaughter.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nAnne Becher and Richmond Thackeray were married in Calcutta on 13 October 1810. Their only child, William, was born on 18 July 1811. There is a fine miniature portrait of Anne Becher Thackeray and William Makepeace Thackeray, aged about two, done in Madras by George Chinnery c. 1813.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nAnne's family's deception was unexpectedly revealed in 1812, when Richmond Thackeray unwittingly invited the supposedly dead Carmichael-Smyth to dinner. Five years later, after Richmond had died of a fever on 13 September 1815, Anne married Henry Carmichael-Smyth, on 13 March 1817. The couple moved to England in 1820, after having sent William off to school there more than three years earlier. The separation from his mother had a traumatic effect on the young Thackeray, which he discussed in his essay \"On Letts's Diary\" in The Roundabout Papers.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nDescendants","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray is an ancestor of the British financier Ryan Williams, and is the great-great-great-grandfather of the British comedian Al Murray.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nReputation and legacy","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nDuring the Victorian era Thackeray was ranked second only to Charles Dickens, but he is now much less widely read and is known almost exclusively for Vanity Fair, which has become a fixture in university courses, and has been repeatedly adapted for the cinema and television.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nIn Thackeray's own day some commentators, such as Anthony Trollope, ranked his History of Henry Esmond as his greatest work, perhaps because it expressed Victorian values of duty and earnestness, as did some of his other later novels. It is perhaps for this reason that they have not survived as well as Vanity Fair, which satirises those values.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray saw himself as writing in the realistic tradition, and distinguished his work from the exaggerations and sentimentality of Dickens. Some later commentators have accepted this self-evaluation and seen him as a realist, but others note his inclination to use eighteenth-century narrative techniques, such as digressions and direct addresses to the reader, and argue that through them he frequently disrupts the illusion of reality. The school of Henry James, with its emphasis on maintaining that illusion, marked a break with Thackeray's techniques.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nIn 1887 the Royal Society of Arts unveiled a blue plaque to commemorate Thackeray at the house at 2 Palace Green, London, that had been built for him in the 1860s. It is now the location of the Israeli Embassy.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nThackeray's former home in Tunbridge Wells, Kent, is now a restaurant named after the author.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nList of works","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\n*The Yellowplush Papers (1837) – ISBN 0-8095-9676-8\n*Catherine (1839–40) – ISBN 1-4065-0055-0 (originally credited to \"Ikey Solomons, Esq. Junior\" )\n*A Shabby Genteel Story (1840) – ISBN 1-4101-0509-1\n*The Irish Sketchbook (1843) – ISBN 0-86299-754-2\n*The Luck of Barry Lyndon (1844), filmed as Barry Lyndon by Stanley Kubrick – ISBN 0-19-283628-5\n*Notes of a Journey from Cornhill to Grand Cairo (1846), under the name Mr M. A. Titmarsh. *Mrs. Perkins's Ball (1846), under the name M. A.","William Makepeace Thackeray\n\nTitmarsh\n*The Book of Snobs (1848), which popularised that term- ISBN 0-8095-9672-5\n*Vanity Fair (1848) – ISBN 0-14-062085-0\n*Pendennis (1848–1850) – ISBN 1-4043-8659-9\n*Rebecca and Rowena (1850), a parody sequel of Ivanhoe – ISBN 1-84391-018-7\n*The Paris Sketchbook (1840), featuring Roger Bontemps\n*Men's Wives (1852) – ISBN 978-1-77545-023-8\n*The History of Henry Esmond (1852) – ISBN 0-14-143916-5\n*The English Humorists of the Eighteenth Century (1853)\n*The Newcomes (1855) – ISBN 0-460-87495-0\n*The Rose and the Ring (1855) – ISBN 1-4043-2741-X\n*The Virginians (1857–1859) – ISBN 1-4142-3952-1\n*Four Georges (1860-1861) - ISBN 978-1410203007\n*The Adventures of Philip (1862) – ISBN 1-4101-0510-5\n*Roundabout Papers (1863)\n*Denis Duval (1864) – ISBN 1-4191-1561-8\n*The Orphan of Pimlico (1876)\n*Sketches and Travels in London\n*Stray Papers: Being Stories, Reviews, Verses, and Sketches (1821-1847)\n*Literary Essays\n*The English Humorists of the eighteenth century: a series of lectures (1867)\n*Lovel the Widower\n*Ballads\n*Christmas Books\n*Samuel Titmarsh\n*Miscellanies\n*Stories\n*Burlesques\n*Irish Sketchbook volume 2\n*Character Sketches\n*Critical Reviews\n*Second Funeral of Napoleon"],"string":"[\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nBecky Sharp is a 1935 American historical drama film directed by Rouben Mamoulian and starring Miriam Hopkins. Other supporting cast were Frances Dee, Cedric Hardwicke, Billie Burke, Alison Skipworth, Nigel Bruce, and Alan Mowbray.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nThe film is based on the play of the same name by Langdon Mitchell, which in turn is based on William Makepeace Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair. The play was made famous in the late 1890s by actress Minnie Maddern Fiske. The screenplay was written by Francis Edward Faragoh. The film was considered a landmark in cinema as the first film to use the newly developed three-strip Technicolor production, opening the way for a growing number of color films to be made in Britain and the United States in the years leading up to World War II.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nThe film recounts the tale of a lower-class girl who insinuates herself into an upper-class family, only to see her life and the lives of those around her destroyed.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nPlot\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nBecky Sharp (Miriam Hopkins), a socially ambitious English young lady manages to survive during the years following Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nIn her efforts to advance herself, she manages to link up with a number of gentlemen: the Marquis of Steyne (Cedric Hardwicke), Joseph Sedley (Nigel Bruce), Rawdon Crawley (Alan Mowbray), and George Osborne (G. P. Huntley Jr).\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nShe rises to the top of British society and becomes the scourge of the social circle, offending the other ladies such as Lady Bareacres (Billie Burke). Sharp falls into the humiliation of singing for her meals in a beer hall. But she never stays down for long.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nCast\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\n* Miriam Hopkins as Becky Sharp\\n* Frances Dee as Amelia Sedley\\n* Cedric Hardwicke as Marquis of Steyne\\n* Billie Burke as Lady Bareacres\\n* Alison Skipworth as Miss Crawley\\n* Nigel Bruce as Joseph Sedley\\n* Alan Mowbray as Rawdon Crawley\\n* G.P. Huntley as George Osborne\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\n* William Stack as Pitt Crawley\\n* George Hassell as Sir Pitt Crawley\\n* William Faversham as Duke of Wellington\\n* Charles Richman as Gen. Tufto\\n* Doris Lloyd as Duchess of Richmond\\n* Colin Tapley as Captain William Dobbin\\n* Leonard Mudie as Tarquin\\n* Charles Coleman as Bowles\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nCast notes\\n*Pat Nixon – then Pat Ryan, later the wife of Richard Nixon and First Lady of the United States from 1969 to 1974 – worked as a movie extra at this time, and can be seen in a walk-on during the ball scene.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nProduction\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nJohn Hay \\\"Jock\\\" Whitney and Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney formed Pioneer Pictures specifically to produce color films, and signed a contract to release Pioneer films through RKO Radio Pictures. After producing La Cucaracha, Becky Sharp, and Dancing Pirate (1936), the Whitneys and David O. Selznick formed Selznick International Pictures. Two Selznick International films, A Star Is Born and Nothing Sacred (both 1937), were produced by Selznick, copyrighted by Pioneer Pictures, and released through United Artists rather than RKO.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nLowell Sherman, the original director, had fallen ill while working on Night Life of the Gods before starting Becky Sharp, but had continued to work on the project; he finally died of double pneumonia four weeks into production on Sharp.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nAfter Sherman's death, Rouben Mamoulian was brought in to finish the film. Mamoulian would not use any of the footage shot by Sherman, deciding instead to reshoot the entire film.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nColor development\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nBecky Sharp was the first feature film to use the three-strip Technicolor process, which created a separate film register for each of the three primary colors.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nEarlier live action films to use the new Technicolor process include the final musical number in the feature The Cat and the Fiddle released by MGM in February 1934, and in short sequences filmed for other movies made during 1934, including The House of Rothschild (Twentieth Century Pictures/United Artists) with George Arliss and Kid Millions (Samuel Goldwyn/United Artists) with Eddie Cantor. Warner Brothers released two Leon Errol shorts, Service With a Smile (July 28, 1934) and Good Morning, Eve! (September 22, 1934), and RKO Pictures released the short La Cucaracha (August 31, 1934).\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nReception\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nWriting for The Spectator, Graham Greene raved that \\\"colour is everything here\\\" and characterizing its use in the film as \\\"a triumph\\\". Although Greene complained that the Technicolor \\\"plays havoc with the women's faces\\\", leveled criticism at Hopkins for her \\\"indecisive acting\\\", and noted that he had found the film's climax in Bath to be \\\"absurd\\\" and \\\"silly\\\", he described these minor complains as \\\"ungrateful\\\" and his overall impression was that the film gave \\\"delight to the eye\\\".\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nAwards and honors\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nWins\\n* Venice Film Festival: Best Color Film, Rouben Mamoulian; 1935.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nNominations\\n* Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, Miriam Hopkins; 1935.\\n* Venice Film Festival: Mussolini Cup, Rouben Mamoulian; 1935.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nPreservation status\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nFor many years, the original three-color Technicolor version of the film was not available for viewing, though a 16 millimeter version was available. This version had been printed (poorly) on two-color Cinecolor stock which did not accurately reproduce the colors of the original film. The smaller film stock also resulted in a grainier, inferior image.\",\n \"Becky Sharp\\n\\nIn the 1980s the UCLA Film and Television Archive restored the film, under the supervision of archivist Robert Gitt. Rouben Mamoulian appeared at the premiere of the restored print at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences theatre in Beverly Hills.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nWilliam Makepeace Thackeray (; 18 July 1811 – 24 December 1863) was an English novelist of the 19th century. He is famous for his satirical works, particularly Vanity Fair, a panoramic portrait of English society.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nBiography\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray, an only child, was born in Calcutta, British India, where his father, Richmond Thackeray (1 September 1781 – 13 September 1815), was secretary to the Board of Revenue in the British East India Company. His mother, Anne Becher (1792–1864), was the second daughter of Harriet Becher and John Harman Becher, who was also a secretary (writer) for the East India Company.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nRichmond died in 1815, which caused Anne to send her son to England in 1816, while she remained in British India. The ship on which he travelled made a short stopover at St. Helena, where the imprisoned Napoleon was pointed out to him. Once in England he was educated at schools in Southampton and Chiswick, and then at Charterhouse School, where he became a close friend of John Leech. Thackeray disliked Charterhouse, and parodied it in his fiction as \\\"Slaughterhouse\\\". Nevertheless, Thackeray was honoured in the Charterhouse Chapel with a monument after his death. Illness in his last year there, during which he reportedly grew to his full height of six foot three, postponed his matriculation at Trinity College, Cambridge, until February 1829. Never too keen on academic studies, Thackeray left Cambridge in 1830, but some of his earliest published writing appeared in two university periodicals, The Snob and The Gownsman.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray then travelled for some time on the continent, visiting Paris and Weimar, where he met Goethe. He returned to England and began to study law at the Middle Temple, but soon gave that up. On reaching the age of 21 he came into his inheritance from his father, but he squandered much of it on gambling and on funding two unsuccessful newspapers, The National Standard and The Constitutional, for which he had hoped to write. He also lost a good part of his fortune in the collapse of two Indian banks. Forced to consider a profession to support himself, he turned first to art, which he studied in Paris, but did not pursue it, except in later years as the illustrator of some of his own novels and other writings.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray's years of semi-idleness ended after he married, on 20 August 1836, Isabella Gethin Shawe (1816–1893), second daughter of Isabella Creagh Shawe and Matthew Shawe, a colonel who had died after distinguished service, primarily in India. The Thackerays had three children, all girls: Anne Isabella (1837–1919), Jane (who died at eight months old) and Harriet Marian (1840–1875), who married Sir Leslie Stephen, editor,\\nbiographer and philosopher.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray now began \\\"writing for his life\\\", as he put it, turning to journalism in an effort to support his young family. He primarily worked for Fraser's Magazine, a sharp-witted and sharp-tongued conservative publication for which he produced art criticism, short fictional sketches, and two longer fictional works, Catherine and The Luck of Barry Lyndon. Between 1837 and 1840 he also reviewed books for The Times. He was also a regular contributor to The Morning Chronicle and The Foreign Quarterly Review. Later, through his connection to the illustrator John Leech, he began writing for the newly created magazine Punch, in which he published The Snob Papers, later collected as The Book of Snobs. This work popularised the modern meaning of the word \\\"snob\\\". Thackeray was a regular contributor to Punch between 1843 and 1854.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nTragedy struck in Thackeray's personal life as his wife, Isabella, succumbed to depression after the birth of their third child, in 1840. Finding that he could get no work done at home, he spent more and more time away until September 1840, when he realised how grave his wife's condition was. Struck by guilt, he set out with his wife to Ireland. During the crossing she threw herself from a water-closet into the sea, but she was pulled from the waters. They fled back home after a four-week battle with her mother. From November 1840 to February 1842 Isabella was in and out of professional care, as her condition waxed and waned.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nShe eventually deteriorated into a permanent state of detachment from reality. Thackeray desperately sought cures for her, but nothing worked, and she ended up in two different asylums in or near Paris until 1845, after which Thackeray took her back to England, where he installed her with a Mrs Bakewell at Camberwell. Isabella outlived her husband by 30 years, in the end being cared for by a family named Thompson in Leigh-on-Sea at Southend until her death in 1894. After his wife's illness Thackeray became a de facto widower, never establishing another permanent relationship. He did pursue other women, however, in particular Mrs Jane Brookfield and Sally Baxter. In 1851 Mr Brookfield barred Thackeray from further visits to or correspondence with Jane. Baxter, an American twenty years Thackeray's junior whom he met during a lecture tour in New York City in 1852, married another man in 1855.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nIn the early 1840s Thackeray had some success with two travel books, The Paris Sketch Book and The Irish Sketch Book, the latter marked by hostility to Irish Catholics. However, as the book appealed to British prejudices, Thackeray was given the job of being Punch’s Irish expert, often under the pseudonym Hibernis Hibernior. It was Thackeray, in other words, who was chiefly responsible for Punch's notoriously hostile and condescending depictions of the Irish during the Irish Famine (1845–51).\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray achieved more recognition with his Snob Papers (serialised 1846/7, published in book form in 1848), but the work that really established his fame was the novel Vanity Fair, which first appeared in serialised instalments beginning in January 1847. Even before Vanity Fair completed its serial run Thackeray had become a celebrity, sought after by the very lords and ladies whom he satirised. They hailed him as the equal of Dickens.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nHe remained \\\"at the top of the tree,\\\" as he put it, for the rest of his life, during which he produced several large novels, notably Pendennis, The Newcomes and The History of Henry Esmond, despite various illnesses, including a near-fatal one that struck him in 1849 in the middle of writing Pendennis. He twice visited the United States on lecture tours during this period. Thackeray also gave lectures in London on the English humorists of the eighteenth century, and on the first four Hanoverian monarchs. The latter series was published in book form as The Four Georges.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nIn Oxford he stood unsuccessfully as an independent for Parliament. He was narrowly beaten by Cardwell, who received 1,070 votes, as against 1,005 for Thackeray.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nIn 1860 Thackeray became editor of the newly established Cornhill Magazine, but he was never comfortable in the role, preferring to contribute to the magazine as the writer of a column called Roundabout Papers.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray's health worsened during the 1850s and he was plagued by a recurring stricture of the urethra that laid him up for days at a time. He also felt that he had lost much of his creative impetus. He worsened matters by excessive eating and drinking, and avoiding exercise, though he enjoyed horseback-riding (he kept a horse). He has been described as \\\"the greatest literary glutton who ever lived\\\". His main activity apart from writing was \\\"guttling and gorging\\\". He could not break his addiction to spicy peppers, further ruining his digestion. On 23 December 1863, after returning from dining out and before dressing for bed, he suffered a stroke. He was found dead in his bed the following morning. His death at the age of fifty-two was entirely unexpected, and shocked his family, his friends and the reading public. An estimated 7,000 people attended his funeral at Kensington Gardens. He was buried on 29 December at Kensal Green Cemetery, and a memorial bust sculpted by Marochetti can be found in Westminster Abbey.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nWorks\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray began as a satirist and parodist, writing works that displayed a sneaking fondness for roguish upstarts such as Becky Sharp in Vanity Fair, and the title characters of The Luck of Barry Lyndon and Catherine. In his earliest works, written under such pseudonyms as Charles James Yellowplush, Michael Angelo Titmarsh and George Savage Fitz-Boodle, he tended towards savagery in his attacks on high society, military prowess, the institution of marriage and hypocrisy.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nOne of his earliest works, \\\"Timbuctoo\\\" (1829), contains a burlesque upon the subject set for the Cambridge Chancellor's Medal for English Verse (the contest was won by Tennyson with \\\"Timbuctoo\\\"). Thackeray's writing career really began with a series of satirical sketches now usually known as The Yellowplush Papers, which appeared in Fraser's Magazine beginning in 1837. These were adapted for BBC Radio 4 in 2009, with Adam Buxton playing Charles Yellowplush.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nBetween May 1839 and February 1840 Fraser's published the work sometimes considered Thackeray's first novel, Catherine. Originally intended as a satire of the Newgate school of crime fiction, it ended up being more of a picaresque tale. He also began work, never finished, on the novel later published as A Shabby Genteel Story.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nIn The Luck of Barry Lyndon, a novel serialised in Fraser's in 1844, Thackeray explored the situation of an outsider trying to achieve status in high society, a theme he developed more successfully in Vanity Fair with the character of Becky Sharp, the artist's daughter who rises nearly to the heights by manipulating the other characters.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray is probably best known now for Vanity Fair. In contrast, his large novels from the period after Vanity Fair, which were once described by Henry James as examples of \\\"loose baggy monsters\\\", have largely faded from view, perhaps because they reflect a mellowing in Thackeray, who had become so successful with his satires on society that he seemed to lose his zest for attacking it. These later works include Pendennis, a Bildungsroman depicting the coming of age of Arthur Pendennis, an alter ego of Thackeray, who also features as the narrator of two later novels, The Newcomes and The Adventures of Philip. The Newcomes is noteworthy for its critical portrayal of the \\\"marriage market,\\\" while Philip is known for its semi-autobiographical depiction of Thackeray's early life, in which he partially regains some of his early satirical power.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nAlso notable among the later novels is The History of Henry Esmond, in which Thackeray tried to write a novel in the style of the eighteenth century, a period that held great appeal for him. Not only Esmond but also Barry Lyndon and Catherine are set in that period, as is the sequel to Esmond, The Virginians, which takes place in North America and includes George Washington as a character who nearly kills one of the protagonists in a duel.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nFamily\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nParents\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray's father, Richmond Thackeray, was born at South Mimms and went to India in 1798 at age sixteen as a writer (civil servant) with the East India Company. Richmond fathered a daughter, Sarah Redfield, in 1804 with Charlotte Sophia Rudd, his possibly Eurasian mistress, and both mother and daughter were named in his will. Such liaisons were common among gentlemen of the East India Company, and it formed no bar to his later courting and marrying William's mother.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray's mother, Anne Becher (born 1792), was \\\"one of the reigning beauties of the day\\\" and a daughter of John Harmon Becher, Collector of the South 24 Parganas district (d. Calcutta, 1800), of an old Bengal civilian family \\\"noted for the tenderness of its women\\\". Anne Becher, her sister Harriet and their widowed mother, also Harriet, had been sent back to India by her authoritarian guardian grandmother, Ann Becher, in 1809 on the Earl Howe. Anne's grandmother had told her that the man she loved, Henry Carmichael-Smyth, an ensign in the Bengal Engineers whom she met at an Assembly Ball in 1807 in Bath, had died, while he was told that Anne was no longer interested in him. Neither of these assertions was true. Though Carmichael-Smyth was from a distinguished Scottish military family, Anne's grandmother went to extreme lengths to prevent their marriage. Surviving family letters state that she wanted a better match for her granddaughter.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nAnne Becher and Richmond Thackeray were married in Calcutta on 13 October 1810. Their only child, William, was born on 18 July 1811. There is a fine miniature portrait of Anne Becher Thackeray and William Makepeace Thackeray, aged about two, done in Madras by George Chinnery c. 1813.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nAnne's family's deception was unexpectedly revealed in 1812, when Richmond Thackeray unwittingly invited the supposedly dead Carmichael-Smyth to dinner. Five years later, after Richmond had died of a fever on 13 September 1815, Anne married Henry Carmichael-Smyth, on 13 March 1817. The couple moved to England in 1820, after having sent William off to school there more than three years earlier. The separation from his mother had a traumatic effect on the young Thackeray, which he discussed in his essay \\\"On Letts's Diary\\\" in The Roundabout Papers.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nDescendants\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray is an ancestor of the British financier Ryan Williams, and is the great-great-great-grandfather of the British comedian Al Murray.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nReputation and legacy\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nDuring the Victorian era Thackeray was ranked second only to Charles Dickens, but he is now much less widely read and is known almost exclusively for Vanity Fair, which has become a fixture in university courses, and has been repeatedly adapted for the cinema and television.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nIn Thackeray's own day some commentators, such as Anthony Trollope, ranked his History of Henry Esmond as his greatest work, perhaps because it expressed Victorian values of duty and earnestness, as did some of his other later novels. It is perhaps for this reason that they have not survived as well as Vanity Fair, which satirises those values.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray saw himself as writing in the realistic tradition, and distinguished his work from the exaggerations and sentimentality of Dickens. Some later commentators have accepted this self-evaluation and seen him as a realist, but others note his inclination to use eighteenth-century narrative techniques, such as digressions and direct addresses to the reader, and argue that through them he frequently disrupts the illusion of reality. The school of Henry James, with its emphasis on maintaining that illusion, marked a break with Thackeray's techniques.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nIn 1887 the Royal Society of Arts unveiled a blue plaque to commemorate Thackeray at the house at 2 Palace Green, London, that had been built for him in the 1860s. It is now the location of the Israeli Embassy.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nThackeray's former home in Tunbridge Wells, Kent, is now a restaurant named after the author.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nList of works\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\n*The Yellowplush Papers (1837) – ISBN 0-8095-9676-8\\n*Catherine (1839–40) – ISBN 1-4065-0055-0 (originally credited to \\\"Ikey Solomons, Esq. Junior\\\" )\\n*A Shabby Genteel Story (1840) – ISBN 1-4101-0509-1\\n*The Irish Sketchbook (1843) – ISBN 0-86299-754-2\\n*The Luck of Barry Lyndon (1844), filmed as Barry Lyndon by Stanley Kubrick – ISBN 0-19-283628-5\\n*Notes of a Journey from Cornhill to Grand Cairo (1846), under the name Mr M. A. Titmarsh. *Mrs. Perkins's Ball (1846), under the name M. A.\",\n \"William Makepeace Thackeray\\n\\nTitmarsh\\n*The Book of Snobs (1848), which popularised that term- ISBN 0-8095-9672-5\\n*Vanity Fair (1848) – ISBN 0-14-062085-0\\n*Pendennis (1848–1850) – ISBN 1-4043-8659-9\\n*Rebecca and Rowena (1850), a parody sequel of Ivanhoe – ISBN 1-84391-018-7\\n*The Paris Sketchbook (1840), featuring Roger Bontemps\\n*Men's Wives (1852) – ISBN 978-1-77545-023-8\\n*The History of Henry Esmond (1852) – ISBN 0-14-143916-5\\n*The English Humorists of the Eighteenth Century (1853)\\n*The Newcomes (1855) – ISBN 0-460-87495-0\\n*The Rose and the Ring (1855) – ISBN 1-4043-2741-X\\n*The Virginians (1857–1859) – ISBN 1-4142-3952-1\\n*Four Georges (1860-1861) - ISBN 978-1410203007\\n*The Adventures of Philip (1862) – ISBN 1-4101-0510-5\\n*Roundabout Papers (1863)\\n*Denis Duval (1864) – ISBN 1-4191-1561-8\\n*The Orphan of Pimlico (1876)\\n*Sketches and Travels in London\\n*Stray Papers: Being Stories, Reviews, Verses, and Sketches (1821-1847)\\n*Literary Essays\\n*The English Humorists of the eighteenth century: a series of lectures (1867)\\n*Lovel the Widower\\n*Ballads\\n*Christmas Books\\n*Samuel Titmarsh\\n*Miscellanies\\n*Stories\\n*Burlesques\\n*Irish Sketchbook volume 2\\n*Character Sketches\\n*Critical Reviews\\n*Second Funeral of Napoleon\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2089,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_37"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In George Orwell's Animal Farm what type of animal was Napoleon?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"A pig"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["pigs album","pig disambiguation","pig game","pig film","pig mammalia","pigs film","pigs","pigs disambiguation","pig"],"string":"[\n \"pigs album\",\n \"pig disambiguation\",\n \"pig game\",\n \"pig film\",\n \"pig mammalia\",\n \"pigs film\",\n \"pigs\",\n \"pigs disambiguation\",\n \"pig\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Animal Farm\n\nAnimal Farm is an allegorical and dystopian novella by George Orwell, first published in England on 17 August 1945. According to Orwell, the book reflects events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and then on into the Stalinist era of the Soviet Union. Orwell, a democratic socialist, was a critic of Joseph Stalin and hostile to Moscow-directed Stalinism, an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences during the Spanish Civil War. The Soviet Union, he believed, had become a brutal dictatorship, built upon a cult of personality and enforced by a reign of terror. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described Animal Farm as a satirical tale against Stalin (\"un conte satirique contre Staline\"), and in his essay \"Why I Write\" (1946), wrote that Animal Farm was the first book in which he tried, with full consciousness of what he was doing, \"to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole\".","Animal Farm\n\nThe original title was Animal Farm: A Fairy Story; U.S. publishers dropped the subtitle when it was published in 1946, and only one of the translations during Orwell's lifetime kept it. Other titular variations include subtitles like \"A Satire\" and \"A Contemporary Satire\". Orwell suggested the title Union des républiques socialistes animales for the French translation, which abbreviates to URSA, the Latin for \"bear\", a symbol of Russia, which also played on the French name of the Soviet Union, Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques.","Animal Farm\n\nOrwell wrote the book between November 1943 and February 1944, when the UK was in its wartime alliance with the Soviet Union and the British people and intelligentsia held Stalin in high esteem, a phenomenon Orwell hated. The manuscript was initially rejected by a number of British and American publishers, including one of Orwell's own, Victor Gollancz, which delayed its publication. It became a great commercial success when it did appear partly because international relations were transformed as the wartime alliance gave way to the Cold War.","Animal Farm\n\nTime magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996, and is also included in the Great Books of the Western World selection.","Animal Farm\n\nPlot summary","Animal Farm\n\nOld Major, the old boar on the Manor Farm, summons the animals on the farm together for a meeting, during which he refers to humans as \"enemies\" and teaches the animals a revolutionary song called Beasts of England. When Major dies, two young pigs, Snowball and Napoleon, assume command and consider it a duty to prepare for the Rebellion. The animals revolt and drive the drunken and irresponsible farmer Mr. Jones from the farm, renaming it \"Animal Farm\". They adopt Seven Commandments of Animalism, the most important of which is, \"All animals are equal.\"","Animal Farm\n\nSnowball teaches the animals to read and write, while Napoleon educates young puppies on the principles of Animalism. Food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their personal health.","Animal Farm\n\nSome time later, several men attack Animal Farm. Jones and his men are making an attempt to recapture the farm, aided by several other farmers who are terrified of similar animal revolts. Snowball, who has been studying the battles of Julius Caesar in anticipation of such a fight, orders the animals to retreat, then attacks the men and beats them back. Snowball's popularity soars and this event is proclaimed \"The Battle of the Cowshed\" and celebrated annually with the firing of a gun along with the anniversary of the Revolution.","Animal Farm\n\nNapoleon and Snowball struggle for preeminence. When Snowball announces his plans to build a windmill, Napoleon has his dogs chase Snowball away and declares himself leader of Animal Farm.","Animal Farm\n\nNapoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who will run the farm. Through a young pig named Squealer, Napoleon claims credit for the windmill idea. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer convince the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project. Once Snowball becomes a scapegoat, Napoleon begins to purge the farm with his dogs, killing animals he accuses of consorting with his old rival. When some animals recall the Battle of the Cowshed, Napoleon (who was nowhere to be found during the battle) frequently smears Snowball as a collaborator of Jones, while falsely representing himself as the hero of the battle. Beasts of England is replaced with an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man. The animals remain convinced that they are better off than they were under Mr. Jones.","Animal Farm\n\nMr Frederick, one of the neighbouring farmers, attacks the farm, using blasting powder to blow up the restored windmill. Though the animals win the battle, they do so at great cost, as many, including Boxer the workhorse, are wounded. Despite his injuries, Boxer continues working harder and harder, until he collapses while working on the windmill. Napoleon sends for a van to take Boxer to the veterinary surgeon, explaining that better care can be given there. Benjamin, the cynical donkey who \"could read as well as any pig\", notices that the van belongs to a knacker, and attempts a futile rescue. Squealer quickly assures the animals that the van had been purchased from the knacker by an animal hospital and the previous owner's signboard had not been repainted. In a subsequent report, Squealer reports sadly to the animals that Boxer died peacefully at the animal hospital; the pigs hold a festival one day after Boxer's death to further praise the glories of Animal Farm and have the animals work harder by taking on Boxer's ways. In unrelated news, Napoleon and his inner circle are simultaneously found to have acquired money to buy whisky for themselves.","Animal Farm\n\n(In 1940s England, one way for farms to get cash was to sell large animals to a knacker, who would kill the animal and boil its remains into animal glue.)","Animal Farm\n\nYears pass, and the windmill is rebuilt along with construction of another windmill, which makes the farm a good amount of income. However, the concepts which Snowball discussed, of animal stalls with running water and lighting are forgotten, with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals live simple lives. Besides Boxer, many of the animals who participated in the Revolution are dead, as well as Jones, who died in another part of England. The pigs start to resemble humans, as they walk upright, carry whips, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to a single phrase: \"All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others\". Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name \"The Manor Farm\". As the animals look from pigs to humans, they realise they can no longer distinguish between the two.","Animal Farm\n\nCharacters","Animal Farm\n\nPigs","Animal Farm\n\n*Old Major – An aged prize Middle White boar provides the inspiration that fuels the Rebellion in the book. He is an allegorical combination of Karl Marx, one of the creators of communism, and Lenin, the communist leader of the Russian Revolution and the early Soviet nation, in that he draws up the principles of the revolution. His skull being put on revered public display recalls Lenin, whose embalmed body was put on display. *Napoleon – \"A large, rather fierce-looking Berkshire boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way\". An allegory of Joseph Stalin, Napoleon is the main villain of Animal Farm. In the first French version of Animal Farm, Napoleon is called ', the French form of Caesar, although another translation has him as '. *Snowball – Napoleon's rival and original head of the farm after Jones' overthrow. He is mainly based on Leon Trotsky, but also combines elements from Lenin. *Squealer – A small, white, fat porker who serves as Napoleon's second-in-command and minister of propaganda, holding a position similar to that of Vyacheslav Molotov.","Animal Farm\n\n*Minimus – A poetic pig who writes the second and third national anthems of Animal Farm after the singing of \"Beasts of England\" is banned. *The piglets – Hinted to be the children of Napoleon and are the first generation of animals subjugated to his idea of animal inequality. *The young pigs – Four pigs who complain about Napoleon's takeover of the farm but are quickly silenced and later executed. Based on the Great Purge of Grigori Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolai Bukharin, and Alexei Rykov. *Pinkeye – A minor pig who is mentioned only once; he is the pig that tastes Napoleon's food to make sure it is not poisoned, in response to rumours about an assassination attempt on Napoleon.","Animal Farm\n\nHumans","Animal Farm\n\n*Mr Jones – The former owner of the farm, Jones is a very heavy drinker. The animals revolt against him after he drinks so much that he does not feed or take care of them. He is an allegory of Russian Tsar Nicholas II, who abdicated following the February Revolution of 1917 and was murdered, along with the rest of his family, by the Bolsheviks on 17 July 1918. *Mr Frederick – The tough owner of Pinchfield, a small but well-kept neighbouring farm, who briefly enters into an alliance with Napoleon. He is an allegory of Adolf Hitler, who enters into a neutrality pact with Joseph Stalin's USSR only to later break it by invading the Soviet Union. *Mr Pilkington – The easy-going but crafty and well-to-do owner of Foxwood, a large neighbouring farm overgrown with weeds. He is antithesis of Frederick, being wealthier and owning more land, but his farm is need of care as opposed to Frederick's smaller but more efficiently-run farm. Although on bad terms with Frederick, Pilkington is concerned about the animal revolution that deposed Jones, and worried a similar thing could happen to him, a concern shared by Frederick.","Animal Farm\n\n*Mr Whymper – A man hired by Napoleon to act as the liaison between Animal Farm and human society. At first he is used to acquire goods needed for the farm, such as dog biscuits and paraffin, but later he procures luxuries like alcohol for the pigs.","Animal Farm\n\nHorses and donkeys","Animal Farm\n\n*Boxer – A loyal, kind, dedicated, extremely strong, hard working, and respectable cart-horse, although quite naive and gullible. Boxer does a large share of the physical labor on the farm. He is shown to hold the belief that 'Napoleon is always right'. At one point, he had challenged Squealer's statement that Snowball was always against the welfare of the farm, earning him an attack from Napoleon's dogs. But Boxer's immense strength repels the attack, worrying the pigs that their authority can be challenged. Boxer has been compared to the Stakhanovite movement. He has been described as \"faithful and strong\"; he believes any problem can be solved if he works harder. However, when Boxer is injured, Napoleon sells him to a local knacker to buy himself whisky. *Mollie – A self-centered, self-indulgent and vain young white mare who quickly leaves for another farm after the revolution. She is only once mentioned again, in a manner similar to those who left Russia after the fall of the Tsar. *Clover - A gentle, caring female horse, who shows concern especially for Boxer, who often pushes himself too hard. Clover can read all the letters of the alphabet, but cannot \"put words together\".","Animal Farm\n\nShe seems to catch on to the sly tricks and schemes set up by Napoleon and Squealer. *Benjamin – A donkey, one of the oldest, wisest animals on the farm, and one of the few who can read properly. He is skeptical, temperamental and cynical: his most frequent remark is, \"Life will go on as it has always gone on—that is, badly.\" The academic Morris Dickstein has suggested there is \"a touch of Orwell himself in this creature's timeless skepticism\"Cambridge Companion to Orwell, p. 141 and indeed, friends called Orwell \"Donkey George\", \"after his grumbling donkey Benjamin, in Animal Farm.\"","Animal Farm\n\nOther animals","Animal Farm\n\n*Muriel – A wise old goat who is friends with all of the animals on the farm. She, like Benjamin and Snowball, is one of the few animals on the farm who can read. *The puppies – Offspring of Jessie and Bluebell, they were taken away at birth by Napoleon and reared by him to be his security force. *Moses – The raven, \"Mr. Jones's especial pet, was a spy and a tale-bearer, but he was also a clever talker.\" Initially following Mrs. Jones into exile, he reappears several years later and resumes his role of talking but not working. He regales Animal Farm's denizens with tales of a wondrous place beyond the clouds called \"Sugarcandy Mountain, that happy country where we poor animals shall rest forever from our labours!\" Orwell portrays established religion as \"the black raven of priestcraft—promising pie in the sky when you die, and faithfully serving whoever happens to be in power.\" Napoleon brings the raven back (Ch. IX), as Stalin brought back the Russian Orthodox Church.","Animal Farm\n\n*The sheep – They show limited understanding of the Animalism and the political atmosphere of the farm; yet nonetheless they blindly support Napoleon's ideals with vocal jingles during his speeches and meetings with Snowball. *The hens – The hens are promised at the start of the revolution that they will get to keep their eggs, which are stolen from them under Mr Jones. However their eggs are soon taken from them under the premise of buying goods from outside animal farm. The hens are among the first to rebel against Napoleon. *The cows – The cows are enticed into the revolution by promises that their milk will not be stolen, but can be used to raise their own calves. Their milk is stolen by the pigs, who learn to milk them. The milk is stirred into the pigs' mash every day, while the other animals are denied such luxuries.","Animal Farm\n\n*The cat – Never seen to carry out any work, the cat is absent for long periods and is forgiven; because her excuses are so convincing and she \"purred so affectionately that it was impossible not to believe in her good intentions.\" She has no interest in the politics of the farm, and the only time she is recorded as having participated in an election, she is found to have actually \"voted on both sides.\"","Animal Farm\n\nComposition and publication","Animal Farm\n\nOrigin","Animal Farm\n\nGeorge Orwell wrote the manuscript in 1943 and 1944 subsequent to his experiences during the Spanish Civil War, which he described in Homage to Catalonia (1938). In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of Animal Farm, he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him \"how easily totalitarian propaganda can control the opinion of enlightened people in democratic countries\". This motivated Orwell to expose and strongly condemn what he saw as the Stalinist corruption of the original socialist ideals.","Animal Farm\n\nImmediately prior to his writing, Orwell had quit the BBC. He was also upset about a booklet for propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out. The booklet included instructions on how to quell ideological fears of the Soviet Union, such as directions to claim that the Red Terror was a figment of Nazi imagination.","Animal Farm\n\nIn the preface, Orwell also described the source of the idea of setting the book on a farm:","Animal Farm\n\nEfforts to find a publisher","Animal Farm\n\nOrwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript published, largely due to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Four publishers refused; one had initially accepted the work but declined it after consulting the Ministry of Information. Eventually, Secker and Warburg published the first edition in 1945.","Animal Farm\n\nDuring the Second World War, it became clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch — including his regular publisher Gollancz. He also submitted the manuscript to Faber and Faber, where the poet T. S. Eliot (who was a director of the firm) rejected it; Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book's \"good writing\" and \"fundamental integrity\", but declared that they would only accept it for publication if they had some sympathy for the viewpoint \"which I take to be generally Trotskyite\". Eliot said he found the view \"not convincing\", and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm; he posited that someone might argue \"what was needed.. was not more communism but more public-spirited pigs\".","Animal Farm\n\nOrwell let André Deutsch, who was working for Nicholson & Watson in 1944, read the typescript, and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it; however, they did not, and \"lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in Animal Farm.\" In his London Letter on 17 April 1944 for Partisan Review, Orwell wrote that it was \"now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian printed. Anti-Russian books do appear, but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and always from a religious or frankly reactionary angle.\"","Animal Farm\n\nThe publisher Jonathan Cape, who had initially accepted Animal Farm, subsequently rejected the book after an official at the British Ministry of Information warned him off — although the civil servant who it is assumed gave the order was later found to be a Soviet spy. Writing to Leonard Moore, a partner in the literary agency of Christy & Moore, publisher Jonathan Cape explained that the decision had been taken on the advice of a senior official in the Ministry of Information. Such flagrant anti-Soviet bias was unacceptable, and the choice of pigs as the dominant class was thought to be especially offensive. It may reasonably be assumed that the 'important official' was a man named Peter Smollett, who was later unmasked as a Soviet agent. Orwell was suspicious of Smollett/Smolka, and he would be one of the names Orwell included in his list of Crypto-Communists and Fellow-Travellers sent to the Information Research Department in 1949.","Animal Farm\n\nBorn Hans Peter Smolka in Vienna in 1912, he came to Britain in 1933 as an NKVD agent with the codename 'Abo', became a naturalised British subject in 1938, changed his name, and after the outbreak of World War II joined the Ministry of Information where he organised pro-Soviet propaganda, working with Kim Philby in 1943-45. Smollett's family have rejected the accusation that he was a spy. The publisher wrote to Orwell, saying:","Animal Farm\n\nFrederic Warburg also faced pressures against publication, even from people in his own office and from his wife Pamela, who felt that it was not the moment for ingratitude towards Stalin and the heroic Red Army, which had played a major part in defeating Hitler. A Russian translation was printed in the paper Posev, and in giving permission for a Russian translation of Animal Farm, Orwell refused in advance all royalties. A translation in Ukrainian, which was produced in Germany, was confiscated in large part by the American wartime authorities and handed over to the Soviet repatriation commission.","Animal Farm\n\nIn October 1945, Orwell wrote to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist David Low might illustrate Animal Farm. Low had written a letter saying that he had had \"a good time with ANIMAL FARM - an excellent bit of satire - it would illustrate perfectly.\" Nothing came of this, and a trial issue produced by Secker & Warburg in 1956 illustrated by John Driver was abandoned, but the Folio Society published an edition in 1984 illustrated by Quentin Blake and an edition illustrated by the cartoonist Ralph Steadman was published by Secker & Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of Animal Farm.","Animal Farm\n\nPreface","Animal Farm\n\nOrwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British self-censorship and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally:","Animal Farm\n\nAlthough the first edition allowed space for the preface, it was not included, and as of June 2009 most editions of the book have not included it.","Animal Farm\n\nSecker and Warburg published the first edition of Animal Farm in 1945 without an introduction. However, the publisher had provided space for a preface in the author's proof composited from the manuscript. For reasons unknown, no preface was supplied, and the page numbers had to be renumbered at the last minute.","Animal Farm\n\nIn 1972, Ian Angus found the original typescript titled \"The Freedom of the Press\", and Bernard Crick published it, together with his own introduction, in The Times Literary Supplement on 15September 1972 as \"How the essay came to be written\". Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship by the press, specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government. The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of Animal Farm with another introduction by Crick, claiming to be the first edition with the preface. Other publishers were still declining to publish it.","Animal Farm\n\nCritical response","Animal Farm\n\nContemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American New Republic magazine, George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book, writing that it \"puzzled and saddened me. It seemed on the whole dull. The allegory turned out to be a creaking machine for saying in a clumsy way things that have been said better directly.\" Soule believed that the animals were not consistent enough with their real world inspirations, and said, \"It seems to me that the failure of this book (commercially it is already assured of tremendous success) arises from the fact that the satire deals not with something the author has experienced, but rather with stereotyped ideas about a country which he probably does not know very well\".","Animal Farm\n\nThe Guardian on 24 August 1945 called Animal Farm \"a delightfully humorous and caustic satire on the rule of the many by the few\". Tosco Fyvel, writing in Tribune on the same day, called the book \"a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age which may already be behind us.\" Julian Symons responded, on 7September, \"Should we not expect, in Tribune at least, acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State - Soviet Russia? It seems to me that a reviewer should have the courage to identify Napoleon with Stalin, and Snowball with Trotsky, and express an opinion favourable or unfavourable to the author, upon a political ground. In a hundred years time perhaps, Animal Farm may be simply a fairy story, today it is a political satire with a good deal of point.\"","Animal Farm\n\nAnimal Farm has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks.","Animal Farm\n\nAnalysis","Animal Farm\n\nAnimalism","Animal Farm\n\nThe pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas into \"a complete system of thought\", which they formally name Animalism, an allegoric reference to Communism. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with the humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading), which were explicitly prohibited by the Seven Commandments. Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an allusion to the Soviet government's revising of history in order to exercise control of the people's beliefs about themselves and their society.","Animal Farm\n\nThe original commandments are:\n# Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy.\n# Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend.\n# No animal shall wear clothes.\n# No animal shall sleep in a bed.\n# No animal shall drink alcohol.\n# No animal shall kill any other animal.\n# All animals are equal.","Animal Farm\n\nThese commandments are also distilled into the maxim \"Four legs good, two legs bad!\" which is primarily used by the sheep on the farm, often to disrupt discussions and disagreements between animals on the nature of Animalism.","Animal Farm\n\nLater, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves of accusations of law-breaking. The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded:","Animal Farm\n\nNo animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets.\nNo animal shall drink alcohol to excess.\nNo animal shall kill any other animal without cause.","Animal Farm\n\nEventually, these are replaced with the maxims, \"All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others\", and \"Four legs good, two legs better!\" as the pigs become more human. This is an ironic twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans and preventing animals from following the humans' evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political dogma can be turned into malleable propaganda.","Animal Farm\n\nSignificance and allegory","Animal Farm\n\nIn the Eastern Bloc, both Animal Farm and later Nineteen Eighty-Four were on the list of forbidden books until the end of communism in 1989, and were only available via clandestine Samizdat networks.","Animal Farm\n\nOrwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, \"virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory.\" Orwell himself wrote in 1946, \"Of course I intended it primarily as a satire on the Russian revolution..[and] that kind of revolution (violent conspiratorial revolution, led by unconsciously power hungry people) can only lead to a change of masters [-] revolutions only effect a radical improvement when the masses are alert.\" In a preface for a 1947 Ukrainian edition, he stated, \"... for the past ten years I have been convinced that the destruction of the Soviet myth was essential if we wanted a revival of the socialist movement. On my return from Spain [in 1937] I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages.\"","Animal Farm\n\nThe revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones is Orwell's analogy with the October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. The Battle of the Cowshed has been said to represent the allied invasion of Soviet Russia in 1918, and the defeat of the White Russians in the Russian Civil War. The pigs' rise to pre-eminence mirrors the rise of a Stalinist bureaucracy in the USSR, just as Napoleon's emergence as the farm's sole leader reflects Stalin's emergence. The pigs' appropriation of milk and apples for their own use, \"the turning point of the story\" as Orwell termed it in a letter to Dwight Macdonald,Orwell, George. A Life in Letters, Penguin ISBN 978-0-141-19263-5 p. 334 stands as an analogy for the crushing of the left-wing 1921 Kronstadt revolt against the Bolsheviks, and the difficult efforts of the animals to build the windmill suggest the various Five Year Plans. The puppies controlled by Napoleon parallel the nurture of the secret police in the Stalinist structure, and the pigs' treatment of the other animals on the farm recalls the internal terror faced by the populace in the 1930s.","Animal Farm\n\nIn chapter seven, when the animals confess their nonexistent crimes and are killed, Orwell directly alludes to the purges, confessions and show trials of the late 1930s. These contributed to Orwell's conviction that the Bolshevik revolution had been corrupted and the Soviet system become rotten.","Animal Farm\n\nPeter Edgerly Firchow and Peter Davison consider that the Battle of the Windmill represents the Great Patriotic War (World War II), especially the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Moscow. During the battle, Orwell first wrote, \"All the animals, including Napoleon\" took cover. Orwell had the publisher alter this to \"All the animals except Napoleon\" in recognition of Stalin's decision to remain in Moscow during the German advance. Orwell requested the change after he met Joseph Czapski in Paris in March 1945. Czapski, a survivor of the Katyn Massacre and an opponent of the Soviet regime, told Orwell, as Orwell wrote to Arthur Koestler, that it had been \"the character [and] greatness of Stalin\" that saved Russia from the German invasion.","Animal Farm\n\nOther connections that writers have suggested illustrate Orwell's telescoping of Russian history from 1917 to 1943 include the wave of rebelliousness that ran through the countryside after the Rebellion, which stands for the abortive revolutions in Hungary and in Germany (Ch IV); the conflict between Napoleon and Snowball (Ch V), paralleling \"the two rival and quasi-Messianic beliefs that seemed pitted against one another: Trotskyism, with its faith in the revolutionary vocation of the proletariat of the West; and Stalinism with its glorification of Russia's socialist destiny\"; Napoleon's dealings with Whymper and the Willingdon markets (Ch VI), paralleling the Treaty of Rapallo; and Frederick's forged bank notes, paralleling the Hitler-Stalin non-aggression pact of August 1939, after which Frederick attacks Animal Farm without warning and destroys the windmill.","Animal Farm\n\nThe book's close, with the pigs and men in a kind of rapprochement, reflected Orwell's view of the 1943 Teheran Conference that seemed to display the establishment of \"the best possible relations between the USSR and the West\"—but in reality were destined, as Orwell presciently predicted, to continue to unravel. The disagreement between the allies and the start of the Cold War is suggested when Napoleon and Pilkington, both suspicious, \"played an ace of spades simultaneously\".","Animal Farm\n\nSimilarly, the music in the novel, starting with Beasts of England and the later anthems, parallels The Internationale and its adoption and repudiation by the Soviet authorities as the Anthem of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s.","Animal Farm\n\nAdaptations","Animal Farm\n\nA BBC radio version, produced by Rayner Heppenstall, was broadcast in January 1947. Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square in London, with Hugh Gordon Porteous, amongst others. Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall that Porteous, \"who had not read the book, grasped what was happening after a few minutes.\" A further radio production, again using Orwell's own dramatisation of the book, was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC Radio 4. Tamsin Greig narrated and the cast included Nicky Henson as Napoleon, Toby Jones as the propagandist Squealer, and Ralph Ineson as Boxer.","Animal Farm\n\nAnimal Farm has been adapted to film twice. The 1954 Animal Farm film was an animated feature and the 1999 Animal Farm film was a TV live action version. Both differ from the novel, and have been accused of taking significant liberties, including sanitising some aspects. In the 1954 version, Napoleon is apparently overthrown in a second revolution. The 1999 film shows Napoleon's regime collapsing in on itself, with the farm having new human owners, reflecting the collapse of Soviet communism, appropriating the new political reality to the story. In 2012, a HFR-3D version of Animal Farm potentially directed by Andy Serkis was announced.","Animal Farm\n\nIn 1974 E. Howard Hunt revealed that he had been sent by the C.I.A.'s Psychological Warfare department to obtain the film rights from Orwell's widow, and that the resulting 1954 animation was funded by the agency.","Animal Farm\n\nA theatrical version, with music by Richard Peaslee and lyrics by Adrian Mitchell, was staged at the National Theatre London on 25 April 1984, directed by Peter Hall. It toured nine cities in 1985. A solo version, adapted and performed by Guy Masterson, premièred at the Traverse Theatre Edinburgh in January 1995 and has toured worldwide since.","Animal Farm\n\nPopular culture","Animal Farm\n\nMusic","Animal Farm\n\n* Pink Floyd's 1977 record album Animals was partially inspired by Animal Farm. It categorises people as pigs, dogs, or sheep. * R.E.M.'s song \"Disturbance at the Heron House\" is based on Animal Farm. *The Clash used an image from the 1954 animated movie Animal Farm on their 45-RPM single \"English Civil War\". *Canadian-based band Boxer the Horse takes its name from a character in the novel. *Dead prez based a song on their 2000 album Let's Get Free called \"Animal in Man\" based on the novella, putting emphasis on how the other animals should not trust the pigs during a revolution. *The lyrics of the song ″Arthur's Farm″ from the Half Man Half Biscuit album Back Again in the DHSS tell the story of Douglas Bader and Arthur Askey visiting Animal Farm. The song features the line \"Four legs good, but no legs best\" in apparent tribute to the two famous amputees. *Radiohead's song \"Optimistic\" contains a lyric mentioning Animal Farm. *The Boston Crusaders Drum and Bugle Corps 2014 show was titled Animal Farm, which was based on the novel. *American metalcore band, Ice Nine Kills' song, The Nature of the Beast\" is inspired by Animal Farm","Animal Farm\n\nTelevision","Animal Farm\n\n* In The Daleks' Master Plan, a 1966 episode of the long-running British science fiction show Doctor Who, a character references the modified seventh commandment of Animal Farm, saying: \"Though we are all equal partners with the Daleks on this great conquest, some of us are more equal than others.\" \n* In the seventh episode of the second season of the HBO series Oz was titled Animal Farm, in reference to the conniving and manipulation of the characters vying for control, similar to the characters of the novella. * In the third episode of the first season of the X-Men animated series, \"Enter Magneto,\" Beast is seen reading a copy of Animal Farm, and is mocked by the prison guards for \"reading a picture book\" and is asked if he \"sees any relatives in there\" because they assume he is an illiterate animal. * In the tenth episode of the second season of Johnny Bravo, \"Aunt Katie's Farm\", Johnny, while dressed in a pig costume, yells, \"Four feet good! Two feet bad!\". * The Lost episode \"Exposé\", in season three, involves flashbacks with Nikki and Paulo involving an argument with Kate about the handgun case. During this scene, Dr.","Animal Farm\n\nLeslie Arzt yells at Kate that \"The pigs are walking,\" a reference to Animal Farm where Napoleon and his generals begin to adapt human characteristics and change their oath from \"Four legs good, two legs bad\" to \"Four legs good, two legs better.\" \n*In the ninth episode of the fourth season of Sex and the City, \"Sex and the Country\", Carrie goes with her new boyfriend Aidan to his cottage, and informs her friends that it reminds her of Animal Farm, and would not be surprised to hear an outburst of \"four legs good, two legs bad!\"","Animal Farm\n\nEditions","Animal Farm\n\n* [http://lccn.loc.gov/46006290 LCCN 46006290] (hardcover, 1946, First American Edition)\n* ISBN 0-451-51679-6 (paperback, 1956, Signet Classic)\n* ISBN 0-582-02173-1 (paper text, 1989)\n* ISBN 0-15-107255-8 (hardcover, 1990)\n* ISBN 0-582-06010-9 (paper text, 1991)\n* ISBN 0-679-42039-8 (hardcover, 1993)\n* ISBN 0-606-00102-6 (prebound, 1996)\n* ISBN 0-15-100217-7 (hardcover, 1996, Anniversary Edition)\n* ISBN 0-452-27750-7 (paperback, 1996, Anniversary Edition)\n* ISBN 0-451-52634-1 (mass market paperback, 1996, Anniversary Edition)\n* ISBN 0-582-53008-3 (1996)\n* ISBN 1-56000-520-3 (cloth text, 1998, Large Type Edition)\n* ISBN 0-7910-4774-1 (hardcover, 1999)\n* ISBN 0-451-52536-1 (paperback, 1999)\n* ISBN 0-7641-0819-0 (paperback, 1999)\n* ISBN 0-8220-7009-X (e-book, 1999)\n* ISBN 0-7587-7843-0 (hardcover, 2002)\n* ISBN 0-15-101026-9 (hardcover, 2003, with Nineteen Eighty-Four)\n* ISBN 0-452-28424-4 (paperback, 2003, Centennial Edition)\n* ISBN 0-8488-0120-2 (hardcover)\n* ISBN 0-03-055434-9 (hardcover) Animal Farm with Connections\n* ISBN 0-395-79677-6 (hardcover) Animal Farm & Related Readings, 1997\n* ISBN 0-582-43447-5 (hardcover, 2007)\n* ISBN 0-14-103349-5 (paperback, 2007)\n* ISBN 978-0-141-39305-6 (paperback, 2013, puffin books edition)","Animal Farm\n\nOn 17 July 2009, Amazon.com withdrew certain Amazon Kindle titles, including Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell, from sale, refunded buyers, and remotely deleted items from purchasers' devices after discovering that the publisher lacked rights to publish the titles in question. Notes and annotations for the books made by users on their devices were also deleted. After the move prompted outcry and comparisons to Nineteen Eighty-Four itself, Amazon spokesman Drew Herdener stated that the company is \"[c]hanging our systems so that in the future we will not remove books from customers' devices in these circumstances.\""],"string":"[\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nAnimal Farm is an allegorical and dystopian novella by George Orwell, first published in England on 17 August 1945. According to Orwell, the book reflects events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and then on into the Stalinist era of the Soviet Union. Orwell, a democratic socialist, was a critic of Joseph Stalin and hostile to Moscow-directed Stalinism, an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences during the Spanish Civil War. The Soviet Union, he believed, had become a brutal dictatorship, built upon a cult of personality and enforced by a reign of terror. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described Animal Farm as a satirical tale against Stalin (\\\"un conte satirique contre Staline\\\"), and in his essay \\\"Why I Write\\\" (1946), wrote that Animal Farm was the first book in which he tried, with full consciousness of what he was doing, \\\"to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole\\\".\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nThe original title was Animal Farm: A Fairy Story; U.S. publishers dropped the subtitle when it was published in 1946, and only one of the translations during Orwell's lifetime kept it. Other titular variations include subtitles like \\\"A Satire\\\" and \\\"A Contemporary Satire\\\". Orwell suggested the title Union des républiques socialistes animales for the French translation, which abbreviates to URSA, the Latin for \\\"bear\\\", a symbol of Russia, which also played on the French name of the Soviet Union, Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nOrwell wrote the book between November 1943 and February 1944, when the UK was in its wartime alliance with the Soviet Union and the British people and intelligentsia held Stalin in high esteem, a phenomenon Orwell hated. The manuscript was initially rejected by a number of British and American publishers, including one of Orwell's own, Victor Gollancz, which delayed its publication. It became a great commercial success when it did appear partly because international relations were transformed as the wartime alliance gave way to the Cold War.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nTime magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996, and is also included in the Great Books of the Western World selection.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nPlot summary\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nOld Major, the old boar on the Manor Farm, summons the animals on the farm together for a meeting, during which he refers to humans as \\\"enemies\\\" and teaches the animals a revolutionary song called Beasts of England. When Major dies, two young pigs, Snowball and Napoleon, assume command and consider it a duty to prepare for the Rebellion. The animals revolt and drive the drunken and irresponsible farmer Mr. Jones from the farm, renaming it \\\"Animal Farm\\\". They adopt Seven Commandments of Animalism, the most important of which is, \\\"All animals are equal.\\\"\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nSnowball teaches the animals to read and write, while Napoleon educates young puppies on the principles of Animalism. Food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their personal health.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nSome time later, several men attack Animal Farm. Jones and his men are making an attempt to recapture the farm, aided by several other farmers who are terrified of similar animal revolts. Snowball, who has been studying the battles of Julius Caesar in anticipation of such a fight, orders the animals to retreat, then attacks the men and beats them back. Snowball's popularity soars and this event is proclaimed \\\"The Battle of the Cowshed\\\" and celebrated annually with the firing of a gun along with the anniversary of the Revolution.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nNapoleon and Snowball struggle for preeminence. When Snowball announces his plans to build a windmill, Napoleon has his dogs chase Snowball away and declares himself leader of Animal Farm.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nNapoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who will run the farm. Through a young pig named Squealer, Napoleon claims credit for the windmill idea. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer convince the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project. Once Snowball becomes a scapegoat, Napoleon begins to purge the farm with his dogs, killing animals he accuses of consorting with his old rival. When some animals recall the Battle of the Cowshed, Napoleon (who was nowhere to be found during the battle) frequently smears Snowball as a collaborator of Jones, while falsely representing himself as the hero of the battle. Beasts of England is replaced with an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man. The animals remain convinced that they are better off than they were under Mr. Jones.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nMr Frederick, one of the neighbouring farmers, attacks the farm, using blasting powder to blow up the restored windmill. Though the animals win the battle, they do so at great cost, as many, including Boxer the workhorse, are wounded. Despite his injuries, Boxer continues working harder and harder, until he collapses while working on the windmill. Napoleon sends for a van to take Boxer to the veterinary surgeon, explaining that better care can be given there. Benjamin, the cynical donkey who \\\"could read as well as any pig\\\", notices that the van belongs to a knacker, and attempts a futile rescue. Squealer quickly assures the animals that the van had been purchased from the knacker by an animal hospital and the previous owner's signboard had not been repainted. In a subsequent report, Squealer reports sadly to the animals that Boxer died peacefully at the animal hospital; the pigs hold a festival one day after Boxer's death to further praise the glories of Animal Farm and have the animals work harder by taking on Boxer's ways. In unrelated news, Napoleon and his inner circle are simultaneously found to have acquired money to buy whisky for themselves.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\n(In 1940s England, one way for farms to get cash was to sell large animals to a knacker, who would kill the animal and boil its remains into animal glue.)\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nYears pass, and the windmill is rebuilt along with construction of another windmill, which makes the farm a good amount of income. However, the concepts which Snowball discussed, of animal stalls with running water and lighting are forgotten, with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals live simple lives. Besides Boxer, many of the animals who participated in the Revolution are dead, as well as Jones, who died in another part of England. The pigs start to resemble humans, as they walk upright, carry whips, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to a single phrase: \\\"All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others\\\". Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name \\\"The Manor Farm\\\". As the animals look from pigs to humans, they realise they can no longer distinguish between the two.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nCharacters\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nPigs\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\n*Old Major – An aged prize Middle White boar provides the inspiration that fuels the Rebellion in the book. He is an allegorical combination of Karl Marx, one of the creators of communism, and Lenin, the communist leader of the Russian Revolution and the early Soviet nation, in that he draws up the principles of the revolution. His skull being put on revered public display recalls Lenin, whose embalmed body was put on display. *Napoleon – \\\"A large, rather fierce-looking Berkshire boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way\\\". An allegory of Joseph Stalin, Napoleon is the main villain of Animal Farm. In the first French version of Animal Farm, Napoleon is called ', the French form of Caesar, although another translation has him as '. *Snowball – Napoleon's rival and original head of the farm after Jones' overthrow. He is mainly based on Leon Trotsky, but also combines elements from Lenin. *Squealer – A small, white, fat porker who serves as Napoleon's second-in-command and minister of propaganda, holding a position similar to that of Vyacheslav Molotov.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\n*Minimus – A poetic pig who writes the second and third national anthems of Animal Farm after the singing of \\\"Beasts of England\\\" is banned. *The piglets – Hinted to be the children of Napoleon and are the first generation of animals subjugated to his idea of animal inequality. *The young pigs – Four pigs who complain about Napoleon's takeover of the farm but are quickly silenced and later executed. Based on the Great Purge of Grigori Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolai Bukharin, and Alexei Rykov. *Pinkeye – A minor pig who is mentioned only once; he is the pig that tastes Napoleon's food to make sure it is not poisoned, in response to rumours about an assassination attempt on Napoleon.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nHumans\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\n*Mr Jones – The former owner of the farm, Jones is a very heavy drinker. The animals revolt against him after he drinks so much that he does not feed or take care of them. He is an allegory of Russian Tsar Nicholas II, who abdicated following the February Revolution of 1917 and was murdered, along with the rest of his family, by the Bolsheviks on 17 July 1918. *Mr Frederick – The tough owner of Pinchfield, a small but well-kept neighbouring farm, who briefly enters into an alliance with Napoleon. He is an allegory of Adolf Hitler, who enters into a neutrality pact with Joseph Stalin's USSR only to later break it by invading the Soviet Union. *Mr Pilkington – The easy-going but crafty and well-to-do owner of Foxwood, a large neighbouring farm overgrown with weeds. He is antithesis of Frederick, being wealthier and owning more land, but his farm is need of care as opposed to Frederick's smaller but more efficiently-run farm. Although on bad terms with Frederick, Pilkington is concerned about the animal revolution that deposed Jones, and worried a similar thing could happen to him, a concern shared by Frederick.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\n*Mr Whymper – A man hired by Napoleon to act as the liaison between Animal Farm and human society. At first he is used to acquire goods needed for the farm, such as dog biscuits and paraffin, but later he procures luxuries like alcohol for the pigs.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nHorses and donkeys\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\n*Boxer – A loyal, kind, dedicated, extremely strong, hard working, and respectable cart-horse, although quite naive and gullible. Boxer does a large share of the physical labor on the farm. He is shown to hold the belief that 'Napoleon is always right'. At one point, he had challenged Squealer's statement that Snowball was always against the welfare of the farm, earning him an attack from Napoleon's dogs. But Boxer's immense strength repels the attack, worrying the pigs that their authority can be challenged. Boxer has been compared to the Stakhanovite movement. He has been described as \\\"faithful and strong\\\"; he believes any problem can be solved if he works harder. However, when Boxer is injured, Napoleon sells him to a local knacker to buy himself whisky. *Mollie – A self-centered, self-indulgent and vain young white mare who quickly leaves for another farm after the revolution. She is only once mentioned again, in a manner similar to those who left Russia after the fall of the Tsar. *Clover - A gentle, caring female horse, who shows concern especially for Boxer, who often pushes himself too hard. Clover can read all the letters of the alphabet, but cannot \\\"put words together\\\".\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nShe seems to catch on to the sly tricks and schemes set up by Napoleon and Squealer. *Benjamin – A donkey, one of the oldest, wisest animals on the farm, and one of the few who can read properly. He is skeptical, temperamental and cynical: his most frequent remark is, \\\"Life will go on as it has always gone on—that is, badly.\\\" The academic Morris Dickstein has suggested there is \\\"a touch of Orwell himself in this creature's timeless skepticism\\\"Cambridge Companion to Orwell, p. 141 and indeed, friends called Orwell \\\"Donkey George\\\", \\\"after his grumbling donkey Benjamin, in Animal Farm.\\\"\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nOther animals\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\n*Muriel – A wise old goat who is friends with all of the animals on the farm. She, like Benjamin and Snowball, is one of the few animals on the farm who can read. *The puppies – Offspring of Jessie and Bluebell, they were taken away at birth by Napoleon and reared by him to be his security force. *Moses – The raven, \\\"Mr. Jones's especial pet, was a spy and a tale-bearer, but he was also a clever talker.\\\" Initially following Mrs. Jones into exile, he reappears several years later and resumes his role of talking but not working. He regales Animal Farm's denizens with tales of a wondrous place beyond the clouds called \\\"Sugarcandy Mountain, that happy country where we poor animals shall rest forever from our labours!\\\" Orwell portrays established religion as \\\"the black raven of priestcraft—promising pie in the sky when you die, and faithfully serving whoever happens to be in power.\\\" Napoleon brings the raven back (Ch. IX), as Stalin brought back the Russian Orthodox Church.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\n*The sheep – They show limited understanding of the Animalism and the political atmosphere of the farm; yet nonetheless they blindly support Napoleon's ideals with vocal jingles during his speeches and meetings with Snowball. *The hens – The hens are promised at the start of the revolution that they will get to keep their eggs, which are stolen from them under Mr Jones. However their eggs are soon taken from them under the premise of buying goods from outside animal farm. The hens are among the first to rebel against Napoleon. *The cows – The cows are enticed into the revolution by promises that their milk will not be stolen, but can be used to raise their own calves. Their milk is stolen by the pigs, who learn to milk them. The milk is stirred into the pigs' mash every day, while the other animals are denied such luxuries.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\n*The cat – Never seen to carry out any work, the cat is absent for long periods and is forgiven; because her excuses are so convincing and she \\\"purred so affectionately that it was impossible not to believe in her good intentions.\\\" She has no interest in the politics of the farm, and the only time she is recorded as having participated in an election, she is found to have actually \\\"voted on both sides.\\\"\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nComposition and publication\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nOrigin\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nGeorge Orwell wrote the manuscript in 1943 and 1944 subsequent to his experiences during the Spanish Civil War, which he described in Homage to Catalonia (1938). In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of Animal Farm, he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him \\\"how easily totalitarian propaganda can control the opinion of enlightened people in democratic countries\\\". This motivated Orwell to expose and strongly condemn what he saw as the Stalinist corruption of the original socialist ideals.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nImmediately prior to his writing, Orwell had quit the BBC. He was also upset about a booklet for propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out. The booklet included instructions on how to quell ideological fears of the Soviet Union, such as directions to claim that the Red Terror was a figment of Nazi imagination.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nIn the preface, Orwell also described the source of the idea of setting the book on a farm:\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nEfforts to find a publisher\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nOrwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript published, largely due to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Four publishers refused; one had initially accepted the work but declined it after consulting the Ministry of Information. Eventually, Secker and Warburg published the first edition in 1945.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nDuring the Second World War, it became clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch — including his regular publisher Gollancz. He also submitted the manuscript to Faber and Faber, where the poet T. S. Eliot (who was a director of the firm) rejected it; Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book's \\\"good writing\\\" and \\\"fundamental integrity\\\", but declared that they would only accept it for publication if they had some sympathy for the viewpoint \\\"which I take to be generally Trotskyite\\\". Eliot said he found the view \\\"not convincing\\\", and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm; he posited that someone might argue \\\"what was needed.. was not more communism but more public-spirited pigs\\\".\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nOrwell let André Deutsch, who was working for Nicholson & Watson in 1944, read the typescript, and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it; however, they did not, and \\\"lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in Animal Farm.\\\" In his London Letter on 17 April 1944 for Partisan Review, Orwell wrote that it was \\\"now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian printed. Anti-Russian books do appear, but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and always from a religious or frankly reactionary angle.\\\"\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nThe publisher Jonathan Cape, who had initially accepted Animal Farm, subsequently rejected the book after an official at the British Ministry of Information warned him off — although the civil servant who it is assumed gave the order was later found to be a Soviet spy. Writing to Leonard Moore, a partner in the literary agency of Christy & Moore, publisher Jonathan Cape explained that the decision had been taken on the advice of a senior official in the Ministry of Information. Such flagrant anti-Soviet bias was unacceptable, and the choice of pigs as the dominant class was thought to be especially offensive. It may reasonably be assumed that the 'important official' was a man named Peter Smollett, who was later unmasked as a Soviet agent. Orwell was suspicious of Smollett/Smolka, and he would be one of the names Orwell included in his list of Crypto-Communists and Fellow-Travellers sent to the Information Research Department in 1949.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nBorn Hans Peter Smolka in Vienna in 1912, he came to Britain in 1933 as an NKVD agent with the codename 'Abo', became a naturalised British subject in 1938, changed his name, and after the outbreak of World War II joined the Ministry of Information where he organised pro-Soviet propaganda, working with Kim Philby in 1943-45. Smollett's family have rejected the accusation that he was a spy. The publisher wrote to Orwell, saying:\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nFrederic Warburg also faced pressures against publication, even from people in his own office and from his wife Pamela, who felt that it was not the moment for ingratitude towards Stalin and the heroic Red Army, which had played a major part in defeating Hitler. A Russian translation was printed in the paper Posev, and in giving permission for a Russian translation of Animal Farm, Orwell refused in advance all royalties. A translation in Ukrainian, which was produced in Germany, was confiscated in large part by the American wartime authorities and handed over to the Soviet repatriation commission.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nIn October 1945, Orwell wrote to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist David Low might illustrate Animal Farm. Low had written a letter saying that he had had \\\"a good time with ANIMAL FARM - an excellent bit of satire - it would illustrate perfectly.\\\" Nothing came of this, and a trial issue produced by Secker & Warburg in 1956 illustrated by John Driver was abandoned, but the Folio Society published an edition in 1984 illustrated by Quentin Blake and an edition illustrated by the cartoonist Ralph Steadman was published by Secker & Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of Animal Farm.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nPreface\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nOrwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British self-censorship and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally:\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nAlthough the first edition allowed space for the preface, it was not included, and as of June 2009 most editions of the book have not included it.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nSecker and Warburg published the first edition of Animal Farm in 1945 without an introduction. However, the publisher had provided space for a preface in the author's proof composited from the manuscript. For reasons unknown, no preface was supplied, and the page numbers had to be renumbered at the last minute.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nIn 1972, Ian Angus found the original typescript titled \\\"The Freedom of the Press\\\", and Bernard Crick published it, together with his own introduction, in The Times Literary Supplement on 15September 1972 as \\\"How the essay came to be written\\\". Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship by the press, specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government. The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of Animal Farm with another introduction by Crick, claiming to be the first edition with the preface. Other publishers were still declining to publish it.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nCritical response\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nContemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American New Republic magazine, George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book, writing that it \\\"puzzled and saddened me. It seemed on the whole dull. The allegory turned out to be a creaking machine for saying in a clumsy way things that have been said better directly.\\\" Soule believed that the animals were not consistent enough with their real world inspirations, and said, \\\"It seems to me that the failure of this book (commercially it is already assured of tremendous success) arises from the fact that the satire deals not with something the author has experienced, but rather with stereotyped ideas about a country which he probably does not know very well\\\".\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nThe Guardian on 24 August 1945 called Animal Farm \\\"a delightfully humorous and caustic satire on the rule of the many by the few\\\". Tosco Fyvel, writing in Tribune on the same day, called the book \\\"a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age which may already be behind us.\\\" Julian Symons responded, on 7September, \\\"Should we not expect, in Tribune at least, acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State - Soviet Russia? It seems to me that a reviewer should have the courage to identify Napoleon with Stalin, and Snowball with Trotsky, and express an opinion favourable or unfavourable to the author, upon a political ground. In a hundred years time perhaps, Animal Farm may be simply a fairy story, today it is a political satire with a good deal of point.\\\"\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nAnimal Farm has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nAnalysis\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nAnimalism\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nThe pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas into \\\"a complete system of thought\\\", which they formally name Animalism, an allegoric reference to Communism. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with the humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading), which were explicitly prohibited by the Seven Commandments. Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an allusion to the Soviet government's revising of history in order to exercise control of the people's beliefs about themselves and their society.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nThe original commandments are:\\n# Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy.\\n# Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend.\\n# No animal shall wear clothes.\\n# No animal shall sleep in a bed.\\n# No animal shall drink alcohol.\\n# No animal shall kill any other animal.\\n# All animals are equal.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nThese commandments are also distilled into the maxim \\\"Four legs good, two legs bad!\\\" which is primarily used by the sheep on the farm, often to disrupt discussions and disagreements between animals on the nature of Animalism.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nLater, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves of accusations of law-breaking. The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded:\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nNo animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets.\\nNo animal shall drink alcohol to excess.\\nNo animal shall kill any other animal without cause.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nEventually, these are replaced with the maxims, \\\"All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others\\\", and \\\"Four legs good, two legs better!\\\" as the pigs become more human. This is an ironic twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans and preventing animals from following the humans' evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political dogma can be turned into malleable propaganda.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nSignificance and allegory\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nIn the Eastern Bloc, both Animal Farm and later Nineteen Eighty-Four were on the list of forbidden books until the end of communism in 1989, and were only available via clandestine Samizdat networks.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nOrwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, \\\"virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory.\\\" Orwell himself wrote in 1946, \\\"Of course I intended it primarily as a satire on the Russian revolution..[and] that kind of revolution (violent conspiratorial revolution, led by unconsciously power hungry people) can only lead to a change of masters [-] revolutions only effect a radical improvement when the masses are alert.\\\" In a preface for a 1947 Ukrainian edition, he stated, \\\"... for the past ten years I have been convinced that the destruction of the Soviet myth was essential if we wanted a revival of the socialist movement. On my return from Spain [in 1937] I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages.\\\"\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nThe revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones is Orwell's analogy with the October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. The Battle of the Cowshed has been said to represent the allied invasion of Soviet Russia in 1918, and the defeat of the White Russians in the Russian Civil War. The pigs' rise to pre-eminence mirrors the rise of a Stalinist bureaucracy in the USSR, just as Napoleon's emergence as the farm's sole leader reflects Stalin's emergence. The pigs' appropriation of milk and apples for their own use, \\\"the turning point of the story\\\" as Orwell termed it in a letter to Dwight Macdonald,Orwell, George. A Life in Letters, Penguin ISBN 978-0-141-19263-5 p. 334 stands as an analogy for the crushing of the left-wing 1921 Kronstadt revolt against the Bolsheviks, and the difficult efforts of the animals to build the windmill suggest the various Five Year Plans. The puppies controlled by Napoleon parallel the nurture of the secret police in the Stalinist structure, and the pigs' treatment of the other animals on the farm recalls the internal terror faced by the populace in the 1930s.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nIn chapter seven, when the animals confess their nonexistent crimes and are killed, Orwell directly alludes to the purges, confessions and show trials of the late 1930s. These contributed to Orwell's conviction that the Bolshevik revolution had been corrupted and the Soviet system become rotten.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nPeter Edgerly Firchow and Peter Davison consider that the Battle of the Windmill represents the Great Patriotic War (World War II), especially the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Moscow. During the battle, Orwell first wrote, \\\"All the animals, including Napoleon\\\" took cover. Orwell had the publisher alter this to \\\"All the animals except Napoleon\\\" in recognition of Stalin's decision to remain in Moscow during the German advance. Orwell requested the change after he met Joseph Czapski in Paris in March 1945. Czapski, a survivor of the Katyn Massacre and an opponent of the Soviet regime, told Orwell, as Orwell wrote to Arthur Koestler, that it had been \\\"the character [and] greatness of Stalin\\\" that saved Russia from the German invasion.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nOther connections that writers have suggested illustrate Orwell's telescoping of Russian history from 1917 to 1943 include the wave of rebelliousness that ran through the countryside after the Rebellion, which stands for the abortive revolutions in Hungary and in Germany (Ch IV); the conflict between Napoleon and Snowball (Ch V), paralleling \\\"the two rival and quasi-Messianic beliefs that seemed pitted against one another: Trotskyism, with its faith in the revolutionary vocation of the proletariat of the West; and Stalinism with its glorification of Russia's socialist destiny\\\"; Napoleon's dealings with Whymper and the Willingdon markets (Ch VI), paralleling the Treaty of Rapallo; and Frederick's forged bank notes, paralleling the Hitler-Stalin non-aggression pact of August 1939, after which Frederick attacks Animal Farm without warning and destroys the windmill.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nThe book's close, with the pigs and men in a kind of rapprochement, reflected Orwell's view of the 1943 Teheran Conference that seemed to display the establishment of \\\"the best possible relations between the USSR and the West\\\"—but in reality were destined, as Orwell presciently predicted, to continue to unravel. The disagreement between the allies and the start of the Cold War is suggested when Napoleon and Pilkington, both suspicious, \\\"played an ace of spades simultaneously\\\".\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nSimilarly, the music in the novel, starting with Beasts of England and the later anthems, parallels The Internationale and its adoption and repudiation by the Soviet authorities as the Anthem of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nAdaptations\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nA BBC radio version, produced by Rayner Heppenstall, was broadcast in January 1947. Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square in London, with Hugh Gordon Porteous, amongst others. Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall that Porteous, \\\"who had not read the book, grasped what was happening after a few minutes.\\\" A further radio production, again using Orwell's own dramatisation of the book, was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC Radio 4. Tamsin Greig narrated and the cast included Nicky Henson as Napoleon, Toby Jones as the propagandist Squealer, and Ralph Ineson as Boxer.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nAnimal Farm has been adapted to film twice. The 1954 Animal Farm film was an animated feature and the 1999 Animal Farm film was a TV live action version. Both differ from the novel, and have been accused of taking significant liberties, including sanitising some aspects. In the 1954 version, Napoleon is apparently overthrown in a second revolution. The 1999 film shows Napoleon's regime collapsing in on itself, with the farm having new human owners, reflecting the collapse of Soviet communism, appropriating the new political reality to the story. In 2012, a HFR-3D version of Animal Farm potentially directed by Andy Serkis was announced.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nIn 1974 E. Howard Hunt revealed that he had been sent by the C.I.A.'s Psychological Warfare department to obtain the film rights from Orwell's widow, and that the resulting 1954 animation was funded by the agency.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nA theatrical version, with music by Richard Peaslee and lyrics by Adrian Mitchell, was staged at the National Theatre London on 25 April 1984, directed by Peter Hall. It toured nine cities in 1985. A solo version, adapted and performed by Guy Masterson, premièred at the Traverse Theatre Edinburgh in January 1995 and has toured worldwide since.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nPopular culture\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\n* Pink Floyd's 1977 record album Animals was partially inspired by Animal Farm. It categorises people as pigs, dogs, or sheep. * R.E.M.'s song \\\"Disturbance at the Heron House\\\" is based on Animal Farm. *The Clash used an image from the 1954 animated movie Animal Farm on their 45-RPM single \\\"English Civil War\\\". *Canadian-based band Boxer the Horse takes its name from a character in the novel. *Dead prez based a song on their 2000 album Let's Get Free called \\\"Animal in Man\\\" based on the novella, putting emphasis on how the other animals should not trust the pigs during a revolution. *The lyrics of the song ″Arthur's Farm″ from the Half Man Half Biscuit album Back Again in the DHSS tell the story of Douglas Bader and Arthur Askey visiting Animal Farm. The song features the line \\\"Four legs good, but no legs best\\\" in apparent tribute to the two famous amputees. *Radiohead's song \\\"Optimistic\\\" contains a lyric mentioning Animal Farm. *The Boston Crusaders Drum and Bugle Corps 2014 show was titled Animal Farm, which was based on the novel. *American metalcore band, Ice Nine Kills' song, The Nature of the Beast\\\" is inspired by Animal Farm\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nTelevision\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\n* In The Daleks' Master Plan, a 1966 episode of the long-running British science fiction show Doctor Who, a character references the modified seventh commandment of Animal Farm, saying: \\\"Though we are all equal partners with the Daleks on this great conquest, some of us are more equal than others.\\\" \\n* In the seventh episode of the second season of the HBO series Oz was titled Animal Farm, in reference to the conniving and manipulation of the characters vying for control, similar to the characters of the novella. * In the third episode of the first season of the X-Men animated series, \\\"Enter Magneto,\\\" Beast is seen reading a copy of Animal Farm, and is mocked by the prison guards for \\\"reading a picture book\\\" and is asked if he \\\"sees any relatives in there\\\" because they assume he is an illiterate animal. * In the tenth episode of the second season of Johnny Bravo, \\\"Aunt Katie's Farm\\\", Johnny, while dressed in a pig costume, yells, \\\"Four feet good! Two feet bad!\\\". * The Lost episode \\\"Exposé\\\", in season three, involves flashbacks with Nikki and Paulo involving an argument with Kate about the handgun case. During this scene, Dr.\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nLeslie Arzt yells at Kate that \\\"The pigs are walking,\\\" a reference to Animal Farm where Napoleon and his generals begin to adapt human characteristics and change their oath from \\\"Four legs good, two legs bad\\\" to \\\"Four legs good, two legs better.\\\" \\n*In the ninth episode of the fourth season of Sex and the City, \\\"Sex and the Country\\\", Carrie goes with her new boyfriend Aidan to his cottage, and informs her friends that it reminds her of Animal Farm, and would not be surprised to hear an outburst of \\\"four legs good, two legs bad!\\\"\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nEditions\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\n* [http://lccn.loc.gov/46006290 LCCN 46006290] (hardcover, 1946, First American Edition)\\n* ISBN 0-451-51679-6 (paperback, 1956, Signet Classic)\\n* ISBN 0-582-02173-1 (paper text, 1989)\\n* ISBN 0-15-107255-8 (hardcover, 1990)\\n* ISBN 0-582-06010-9 (paper text, 1991)\\n* ISBN 0-679-42039-8 (hardcover, 1993)\\n* ISBN 0-606-00102-6 (prebound, 1996)\\n* ISBN 0-15-100217-7 (hardcover, 1996, Anniversary Edition)\\n* ISBN 0-452-27750-7 (paperback, 1996, Anniversary Edition)\\n* ISBN 0-451-52634-1 (mass market paperback, 1996, Anniversary Edition)\\n* ISBN 0-582-53008-3 (1996)\\n* ISBN 1-56000-520-3 (cloth text, 1998, Large Type Edition)\\n* ISBN 0-7910-4774-1 (hardcover, 1999)\\n* ISBN 0-451-52536-1 (paperback, 1999)\\n* ISBN 0-7641-0819-0 (paperback, 1999)\\n* ISBN 0-8220-7009-X (e-book, 1999)\\n* ISBN 0-7587-7843-0 (hardcover, 2002)\\n* ISBN 0-15-101026-9 (hardcover, 2003, with Nineteen Eighty-Four)\\n* ISBN 0-452-28424-4 (paperback, 2003, Centennial Edition)\\n* ISBN 0-8488-0120-2 (hardcover)\\n* ISBN 0-03-055434-9 (hardcover) Animal Farm with Connections\\n* ISBN 0-395-79677-6 (hardcover) Animal Farm & Related Readings, 1997\\n* ISBN 0-582-43447-5 (hardcover, 2007)\\n* ISBN 0-14-103349-5 (paperback, 2007)\\n* ISBN 978-0-141-39305-6 (paperback, 2013, puffin books edition)\",\n \"Animal Farm\\n\\nOn 17 July 2009, Amazon.com withdrew certain Amazon Kindle titles, including Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell, from sale, refunded buyers, and remotely deleted items from purchasers' devices after discovering that the publisher lacked rights to publish the titles in question. Notes and annotations for the books made by users on their devices were also deleted. After the move prompted outcry and comparisons to Nineteen Eighty-Four itself, Amazon spokesman Drew Herdener stated that the company is \\\"[c]hanging our systems so that in the future we will not remove books from customers' devices in these circumstances.\\\"\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2090,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_38"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What rock did Graham Greene write about?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Brighton Rock"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["brighton rock disambiguation","brighton rock film","brighton rock"],"string":"[\n \"brighton rock disambiguation\",\n \"brighton rock film\",\n \"brighton rock\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Graham Greene\n\nHenry Graham Greene (2 October 1904 – 3 April 1991), better known by his pen name Graham Greene, was an English novelist and author regarded by some as one of the great writers of the 20th century. Combining literary acclaim with widespread popularity, Greene acquired a reputation early in his lifetime as a major writer, both of serious Catholic novels, and of thrillers (or \"entertainments\" as he termed them). He was shortlisted, in 1967, for the Nobel Prize for Literature. Through 67 years of writings, which included over 25 novels, he explored the ambivalent moral and political issues of the modern world, often through a Catholic perspective.","Graham Greene\n\nAlthough Greene objected strongly to being described as a Roman Catholic novelist, rather than as a novelist who happened to be Catholic, Catholic religious themes are at the root of much of his writing, especially the four major Catholic novels: Brighton Rock, The Power and the Glory, The Heart of the Matter, and The End of the Affair;[http://www.eclectica.org/v8n4/mcgowin_greene.html Graham Greene, The Major Novels: A Centenary] by Kevin McGowin, Eclectica Magazine which are regarded as \"the gold standard\" of the Catholic novel. Several works, such as The Confidential Agent, The Third Man, The Quiet American, Our Man in Havana, and The Human Factor, also show Greene's avid interest in the workings and intrigues of international politics and espionage.","Graham Greene\n\nGreene was born in Berkhamsted in Hertfordshire into a large, influential family that included the owners of the Greene King Brewery. He later boarded at Berkhamsted School in Hertfordshire, where his father taught and became headmaster. Unhappy at the school, he attempted suicide several times. He went up to Balliol College, Oxford to study history, where, while an undergraduate, he published his first work in 1925—a poorly received volume of poetry, Babbling April. After graduating, Greene worked first as a private tutor and then as a journalist – first on the Nottingham Journal and then as a sub-editor on The Times. He converted to Catholicism in 1926 after meeting his future wife, Vivien Dayrell-Browning. However, later in life took to calling himself a \"Catholic agnostic\", or even at times a \"Catholic atheist\". He published his first novel, The Man Within, in 1929; its favourable reception enabled him to work full-time as a novelist. He supplemented his novelist's income with freelance journalism, and book and film reviews. His 1937 film review of Wee Willie Winkie (for the British journal Night and Day), commented on the sexuality of the nine-year-old star, Shirley Temple.","Graham Greene\n\nThis provoked Twentieth Century Fox to sue, prompting Greene to live in Mexico until after the trial was over. While in Mexico, Greene developed the ideas for the novel considered his masterpiece, The Power and the Glory. Greene originally divided his fiction into two genres (which he described as \"entertainments\" and \"novels\"): thrillers—often with notable philosophic edges—such as The Ministry of Fear; and literary works—on which he thought his literary reputation would rest—such as The Power and the Glory.","Graham Greene\n\nGreene had a history of depression, which had a profound effect on his writing and personal life. In a letter to his wife, Vivien, he told her that he had \"a character profoundly antagonistic to ordinary domestic life,\" and that \"unfortunately, the disease is also one's material.\" William Golding described Greene as \"the ultimate chronicler of twentieth-century man's consciousness and anxiety.\" He died in 1991, at age 86, of leukaemia, and was buried in Corseaux cemetery.","Graham Greene\n\nEarly years (1904–1925)","Graham Greene\n\nHenry Graham Greene was born in 1904 in St. John’s House, a boarding house of Berkhamsted School, Hertfordshire, where his father was housemaster. He was the fourth of six children; his younger brother, Hugh, became Director-General of the BBC, and his elder brother, Raymond, an eminent physician and mountaineer.","Graham Greene\n\nHis parents, Charles Henry Greene and Marion Raymond Greene, were first cousins, both members of a large, influential family that included the owners of Greene King Brewery, bankers, and statesmen; his mother was cousin to Robert Louis Stevenson. \nCharles Greene was second master at Berkhamsted School, where the headmaster was Dr Thomas Fry, who was married to Charles' cousin. Another cousin was the right-wing pacifist Ben Greene, whose politics led to his internment during World War II.","Graham Greene\n\nIn his childhood, Greene spent his summers with his uncle, Sir William, at Harston House. In Greene's description of his childhood, he describes his learning to read there: \"It was at Harston I found quite suddenly I could read — the book was Dixon Brett, Detective. I didn't want anyone to know of my discovery, so I read only in secret, in a remote attic, but my mother must have spotted what I was at all the same, for she gave me Ballantyne's The Coral Island for the train journey home — always an interminable journey with the long wait between trains at Bletchley…\"","Graham Greene\n\nIn 1910 Charles Greene succeeded Dr Fry as headmaster of Berkhamsted. Graham also attended the school as a boarder. Bullied and profoundly depressed, he made several suicide attempts, including, as he wrote in his autobiography, by Russian roulette and by taking aspirin before going swimming in the school pool. In 1920, aged 16, in what was a radical step for the time, he was sent for psychoanalysis for six months in London, afterwards returning to school as a day student. School friends included Claud Cockburn the satirist, and Peter Quennell the historian.","Graham Greene\n\nIn 1922, Greene was for a short time a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain, and sought an invitation to the new Soviet Union, of which nothing came. In 1925, while he was an undergraduate at Balliol College, Oxford, his first work, a poorly received volume of poetry titled Babbling April, was published.","Graham Greene\n\nGreene suffered from periodic bouts of depression while at Oxford, and largely kept to himself. Of Greene's time at Oxford, his contemporary Evelyn Waugh noted that: \"Graham Greene looked down on us (and perhaps all undergraduates) as childish and ostentatious. He certainly shared in none of our revelry.\" He graduated in 1925 with a second-class degree in history.","Graham Greene\n\nWriting career","Graham Greene\n\nAfter leaving Oxford, Greene worked for a period of time as a private tutor and then turned to journalism – first on the Nottingham Journal, and then as a sub-editor on The Times. While he was working in Nottingham, he started corresponding with Vivien Dayrell-Browning, who had written to him to correct him on a point of Catholic doctrine. Greene was an agnostic at the time, but when he later began to think about marrying Vivien, it occurred to him that, as he puts it in A Sort of Life, he \"ought at least to learn the nature and limits of the beliefs she held.\" Greene was baptised on 26 February 1926 and they married on 15 October 1927 at St Mary's Church, Hampstead, North London.","Graham Greene\n\nGreene's first published novel was The Man Within (1929). Favourable reception emboldened him to quit his sub-editor job at The Times and work as a full-time novelist. The next two books, The Name of Action (1930) and Rumour at Nightfall (1932), were unsuccessful; and he later disowned them. His first true success was Stamboul Train (1932) which was taken on by the Book Society and adapted as the film Orient Express, in 1934.","Graham Greene\n\nHe supplemented his novelist's income with freelance journalism, book and film reviews for The Spectator, and co-editing the magazine Night and Day. Greene's 1937 film review of Wee Willie Winkie, for Night and Day – which said that the nine-year-old star, Shirley Temple, displayed \"a dubious coquetry\" which appealed to \"middle-aged men and clergymen\" – provoked Twentieth Century Fox successfully to sue for £3,500 plus costs, which resulted in the magazine folding, and Greene leaving the UK to live in Mexico until after the trial was over. While in Mexico, Greene developed the ideas for the novel often considered his masterpiece, The Power and the Glory.","Graham Greene\n\nAs his career lengthened, both Greene and his readers found the distinction between entertainments and novels increasingly problematic. The last book Greene termed an entertainment was Our Man in Havana in 1958.","Graham Greene\n\nGreene also wrote short stories and plays, which were well received, although he was always first and foremost a novelist. His first play, The Living Room, debuted in 1953.","Graham Greene\n\nMichael Korda a lifelong friend of Greene and later his editor at Simon & Schuster once observed Greene at work. Korda observed that Greene wrote in a small leather black notebook with a black fountain pen and would write approximately 500 words. Once he reached 500 he would put his pen away and be done for the day. Korda described this as Graham's daily penance—once he finished he put the notebook away for the rest of the day.","Graham Greene\n\nTravel and espionage","Graham Greene\n\nThroughout his life, Greene travelled far from England, to what he called the world's wild and remote places. The travels led to his being recruited into MI6 by his sister, Elisabeth, who worked for the agency. Accordingly, he was posted to Sierra Leone during the Second World War. Kim Philby, who would later be revealed as a Soviet agent, was Greene's supervisor and friend at MI6. Greene later wrote an introduction to Philby's 1968 memoir, My Silent War. As a novelist Greene wove the characters he met and the places where he lived into the fabric of his novels.","Graham Greene\n\nGreene first left Europe at 30 years of age in 1935 on a trip to Liberia that produced the travel book Journey Without Maps. His 1938 trip to Mexico to see the effects of the government's campaign of forced anti-Catholic secularisation was paid for by the publishing company Longman, thanks to his friendship with Tom Burns. That voyage produced two books, the factual The Lawless Roads (published as Another Mexico in the U.S.) and the novel The Power and the Glory. In 1953 the Holy Office informed Greene that The Power and the Glory was damaging to the reputation of the priesthood; but later, in a private audience with Greene, Pope Paul VI told him that, although parts of his novels would offend some Catholics, he should ignore the criticism.","Graham Greene\n\nGreene first travelled to Haiti in 1954, where The Comedians (1966) is set, which was then under the rule of dictator François Duvalier, known as \"Papa Doc\", frequently staying at the Hotel Oloffson in Port-au-Prince. And, in the late 1950s, as inspiration for his novel, A Burnt-Out Case (1960), Greene spent time travelling around Africa visiting a number of leper colonies in the Congo Basin and in what were then the British Cameroons.","Graham Greene\n\nIn 1957, just months after Fidel Castro had begun his revolutionary final assault on the Batista regime in Cuba, Greene played a small role in helping the revolutionaries, as a secret courier transporting warm clothing for Castro's rebels hiding in the hills during the Cuban winter. Greene was said to have a fascination with strong leaders, which may have accounted for his interest in Castro, whom he later met. After one visit Castro gave Greene a painting he had done, which hung in the living room of the French house where the author spent the last years of his life. Greene did later voice doubts about Castro's Cuba, telling a French interviewer in 1983, \"I admire him for his courage and his efficiency, but I question his authoritarianism,\" adding: \"All successful revolutions, however idealistic, probably betray themselves in time.\"","Graham Greene\n\nPersonal life","Graham Greene\n\nAfter meeting his future wife Vivien Dayrell-Browning, Greene was baptised into the Catholic faith on 26 February 1926, and they were married on 15 October 1927 at St Mary's Church, Hampstead, North London. The Greenes had two children, Lucy Caroline (born 1933) and Francis (born 1936).","Graham Greene\n\nIn his discussions with Father Trollope, the priest to whom he went for instruction in Catholicism, Greene argued with the cleric \"on the ground of dogmatic atheism\", as Greene's primary difficulty with religion was what he termed the \"if\" surrounding God's existence. He found, however, that \"after a few weeks of serious argument the 'if' was becoming less and less improbable\",Joseph Pearce. [http://www.catholicauthors.com/greene.html \"Graham Greene: Doubter Par Excellence\"], CatholicAuthors.com. Retrieved 7 January 2011. and Greene finally was converted and baptised after vigorous arguments initially with the priest in which he defended atheism, or at least the \"if\" of agnosticism. Late in life, however, Greene took to calling himself a \"Catholic agnostic\", or even at times a \"Catholic atheist\".","Graham Greene\n\nBeginning in 1946, Greene had an affair with Catherine Walston, the wife of Harry Walston, a wealthy farmer and future life peer. That relationship is generally thought to have informed the writing of The End of the Affair, published in 1951, when the affair came to an end. Greene had left his family in 1947, but in accordance with Catholic teaching, Vivien refused to grant him a divorce, and they remained married until Greene's death in 1991.","Graham Greene\n\nGreene had also had several other affairs and sexual encounters during their marriage, and in later years Vivien remarked, \"With hindsight, he was a person who should never have married.\" He had remained estranged from his wife and children, and remarked in his later years, \"I think my books are my children.\"","Graham Greene\n\nFinal years and death","Graham Greene\n\nAfter falling victim to a financial swindler, Greene chose to leave Britain in 1966, moving to Antibes, to be close to Yvonne Cloetta, whom he had known since 1959, a relationship that endured until his death. In 1973 he had an uncredited cameo appearance as an insurance company representative in François Truffaut's film Day for Night. In 1981 Greene was awarded the Jerusalem Prize, awarded to writers concerned with the freedom of the individual in society.","Graham Greene\n\nIn one of his final works, a pamphlet entitled J'Accuse – The Dark Side of Nice (1982), Greene wrote of a legal matter that had embroiled him and his extended family in Nice, and declared that organised crime flourished in Nice because the city's upper levels of civic government had protected judicial and police corruption. The accusation provoked a libel lawsuit that Greene lost; but he was vindicated after his death when, in 1994, the former mayor of Nice, Jacques Médecin, was imprisoned for corruption and associated crimes.","Graham Greene\n\nIn 1984, in celebration of his 80th birthday, the brewery Greene's great-grandfather had founded in 1799 made a special edition of its 'St. Edmunds' ale for him, with a special label in his honour. Commenting on turning 80, Greene said, \"The big advantage...is that at 80 you are more likely these days to beat out encountering your end in a nuclear war\", adding, \"the other side of the problem is that I really don't want to survive myself [which] has nothing to do with nukes, but with the body hanging around while the mind departs.\"","Graham Greene\n\nIn 1986 Greene was awarded Britain's Order of Merit. He lived the last years of his life in Vevey, on Lake Geneva in Switzerland, the same town Charlie Chaplin was living in at this time. He visited Chaplin often, and the two were good friends. His book Doctor Fischer of Geneva or the Bomb Party (1980) bases its themes on combined philosophic and geographic influences. He had ceased going to mass and confession in the 1950s, but in his final years began to receive the sacraments again from Father Leopoldo Durán, a Spanish priest, who became a friend. He died in 1991 at age 86 of leukaemia and was buried in Corseaux cemetery.","Graham Greene\n\nWriting style and themes","Graham Greene\n\nGreene originally divided his fiction into two genres: thrillers (mystery and suspense books), such as The Ministry of Fear, which he described as entertainments, often with notable philosophic edges; and literary works, such as The Power and the Glory, which he described as novels, on which he thought his literary reputation was to be based.","Graham Greene\n\nAs his career lengthened, both Greene and his readers found the distinction between entertainments and novels increasingly problematic. The last book Greene termed an entertainment was Our Man in Havana in 1958. When Travels with My Aunt was published eleven years later, many reviewers noted that Greene had designated it a novel, even though, as a work decidedly comic in tone, it appeared closer to his last two entertainments, Loser Takes All and Our Man in Havana, than to any of the novels. Greene, they speculated, seemed to have dropped the category of entertainment. This was soon confirmed. In the Collected Edition of Greene's works published in 22 volumes between 1970 and 1982, the distinction between novels and entertainments is no longer maintained. All are novels.","Graham Greene\n\nGreene was one of the most \"cinematic\" of twentieth-century writers; most of his novels and many of his plays and short stories have been adapted for film or television. The Internet Movie Database lists 66 titles between 1934 and 2010 based on Greene material. Some novels were filmed more than once, such as Brighton Rock in 1947 and 2011, The End of the Affair in 1955 and 1999, and The Quiet American in 1958 and 2002. The early thriller A Gun for Sale was filmed at least five times under different titles. Greene received an Academy Award nomination for the screenplay for the 1948 Carol Reed film The Fallen Idol, adapted from his own short story The Basement Room. He also wrote several original screenplays. In 1949, after writing the novella as \"raw material\", he wrote the screenplay for a classic film noir, The Third Man, also directed by Carol Reed, and featuring Orson Welles. In 1983 The Honorary Consul, published ten years earlier, was released as a film under its original title, starring Michael Caine and Richard Gere. Author and screenwriter Michael Korda contributed a foreword and introduction to this novel in a commemorative edition.","Graham Greene\n\nIn 2009 The Strand Magazine began to publish in serial form a newly discovered Greene novel titled The Empty Chair. The manuscript was written in longhand when Greene was 22 and newly converted to Catholicism.","Graham Greene\n\nGreene's literary style was described by Evelyn Waugh in Commonweal as \"not a specifically literary style at all. The words are functional, devoid of sensuous attraction, of ancestry, and of independent life\". Commenting on this lean, realistic prose and its readability, Richard Jones wrote in the Virginia Quarterly Review that \"nothing deflects Greene from the main business of holding the reader's attention.\" His novels often have religious themes at their centre. In his literary criticism he attacked the modernist writers Virginia Woolf and E. M. Forster for having lost the religious sense which, he argued, resulted in dull, superficial characters, who \"wandered about like cardboard symbols through a world that is paper-thin.\" Only in recovering the religious element, the awareness of the drama of the struggle in the soul that carries the permanent consequence of salvation or damnation, and of the ultimate metaphysical realities of good and evil, sin and divine grace, could the novel recover its dramatic power. Suffering and unhappiness are omnipresent in the world Greene depicts; and Catholicism is presented against a background of unvarying human evil, sin, and doubt. V. S.","Graham Greene\n\nPritchett praised Greene as the first English novelist since Henry James to present, and grapple with, the reality of evil. Greene concentrated on portraying the characters' internal lives – their mental, emotional, and spiritual depths. His stories are often set in poor, hot and dusty tropical places such as Mexico, West Africa, Vietnam, Cuba, Haiti, and Argentina, which led to the coining of the expression \"Greeneland\" to describe such settings.","Graham Greene\n\nThe novels often powerfully portray the Christian drama of the struggles within the individual soul from the Catholic perspective. Greene was criticised for certain tendencies in an unorthodox direction – in the world, sin is omnipresent to the degree that the vigilant struggle to avoid sinful conduct is doomed to failure, hence not central to holiness. Friend and fellow Catholic Evelyn Waugh attacked that as a revival of the Quietist heresy. This aspect of his work also was criticised by the theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar, as giving sin a mystique. Greene responded that constructing a vision of pure faith and goodness in the novel was beyond his talents. Praise of Greene from an orthodox Catholic point of view by Edward Short is in Crisis Magazine, and a mainstream Catholic critique is presented by Joseph Pearce.","Graham Greene\n\nCatholicism's prominence decreased in his later writings. According to Ernest Mandel in his Delightful Murder: a Social History of the Crime Story: \"Greene started out as a conservative agent of the British intelligence services, upholding such reactionary causes as the struggle of the Catholic Church against the Mexican revolution (The Power and the Glory, 1940), and arguing the necessary merciful function of religion in a context of human misery (Brighton Rock, 1938; The Heart of the Matter, 1948). The better he came to know the socio-political realities of the third world where he was operating, and the more directly he came to be confronted by the rising tide of revolution in those countries, the more his doubts regarding the imperialist cause grew, and the more his novels shifted away from any identification with the latter.\" The supernatural realities that haunted the earlier work declined and were replaced by a humanistic perspective, a change reflected in his public criticism of orthodox Catholic teaching.","Graham Greene\n\nIn his later years Greene was a strong critic of American imperialism, and sympathized with the Cuban leader Fidel Castro, whom he had met. Years before the Vietnam War, he prophetically attacked the idealistic but arrogant beliefs of The Quiet American, whose certainty in his own virtue kept him from seeing the disaster he inflicted on the Vietnamese. (For Greene's views on politics, see also Anthony Burgess' Politics in the Novels of Graham Greene.) In Ways of Escape, reflecting on his Mexican trip, he complained that Mexico's government was insufficiently left-wing compared with Cuba's. In Greene's opinion, \"Conservatism and Catholicism should be .... impossible bedfellows\".","Graham Greene\n\nIn 1949, when the New Statesman held a contest for parodies of Greene's writing style, he submitted an entry under the name \"N. Wilkinson\" and won second prize. His entry comprised the first two paragraphs of a novel, apparently set in Italy, The Stranger's Hand: An Entertainment. Greene's friend, Mario Soldati, a Piedmontese novelist and film director, believed it had the makings of a suspense film about Yugoslav spies in postwar Venice. Upon Soldati's prompting, Greene continued writing the story as the basis for a film script. Apparently he lost interest in the project, leaving it as a substantial fragment that was published posthumously in The Graham Greene Film Reader (1993) and No Man's Land (2005). A script for The Stranger's Hand was written by Guy Elmes on the basis of Greene's unfinished story, and filmed by Soldati in 1954. In 1965 Greene again entered a similar New Statesman competition pseudonymously, and won an honourable mention.","Graham Greene\n\nLegacy","Graham Greene\n\nGreene is regarded as a major 20th century novelist, and was described by John Irving, prior to Greene's death, as \"the most accomplished living novelist in the English language.\"Irving, John. The Imaginary Girlfriend. New York, Ballantine Books, 2002, p. 31. He had acquired a reputation by 1943 of being the \"leading English male novelist of his generation\", and at the time of his death in 1991 had a reputation as a writer of both deeply serious novels on the theme of Catholicism, and of \"suspense-filled stories of detection\". Acclaimed during his lifetime, he was shortlisted in 1967 for the Nobel Prize for Literature;\nGreene collected several literary awards for his novels, including the 1941 Hawthornden Prize for The Power and the Glory and the 1948 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for The Heart of the Matter. As an author, he received the 1968 Shakespeare Prize and the 1981 Jerusalem Prize, a biennial literary award given to writers whose works have dealt with themes of human freedom in society. In 1986, he was awarded Britain's Order of Merit.","Graham Greene\n\nThe Graham Greene International Festival is an annual four-day event of conference papers, informal talks, question and answer sessions, films, dramatised readings, music, creative writing workshops and social events. It is organised by the Graham Greene Birthplace Trust, and takes place in the writer's home town of Berkhamsted (about 35 miles northwest of London), on dates as close as possible to the anniversary of his birth (2 October). Its purpose is to promote interest in and study of the works of Graham Greene.","Graham Greene\n\nHe is the subject of the 2013 documentary film, Dangerous Edge: A Life of Graham Greene.","Graham Greene\n\nSelect works","Graham Greene\n\n* The Man Within (début – 1929)\n* Stamboul Train (1932) (also published as Orient Express in the U.S.)\n* It's a Battlefield (1934)\n* England Made Me (also published as The Shipwrecked) (1935)\n* A Gun for Sale (1936)\n* Journey Without Maps (1936)\n* Brighton Rock (1938)\n* The Lawless Roads (1939) (also published as Another Mexico in the U.S.)\n* The Confidential Agent (1939)\n* The Power and the Glory (1940)\n* The Ministry of Fear (1943)\n* The Heart of the Matter (1948)\n* The Third Man (1949), written after the screen play to the film The Third Man\n* The End of the Affair (1951)\n* Twenty-One Stories (1954) (short stories)\n* Loser Takes All (1955)\n* The Quiet American (1955)\n* The Potting Shed (1956)\n* Our Man in Havana (1958)\n* A Burnt-Out Case (1960)\n* The Comedians (1966)\n* Travels with My Aunt (1969)\n* The Honorary Consul (1973)\n* The Human Factor (1978)\n* Doctor Fischer of Geneva (1980)\n* Monsignor Quixote (1982)\n* The Tenth Man (1985)\n* The Last Word (1990) (short stories)"],"string":"[\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nHenry Graham Greene (2 October 1904 – 3 April 1991), better known by his pen name Graham Greene, was an English novelist and author regarded by some as one of the great writers of the 20th century. Combining literary acclaim with widespread popularity, Greene acquired a reputation early in his lifetime as a major writer, both of serious Catholic novels, and of thrillers (or \\\"entertainments\\\" as he termed them). He was shortlisted, in 1967, for the Nobel Prize for Literature. Through 67 years of writings, which included over 25 novels, he explored the ambivalent moral and political issues of the modern world, often through a Catholic perspective.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nAlthough Greene objected strongly to being described as a Roman Catholic novelist, rather than as a novelist who happened to be Catholic, Catholic religious themes are at the root of much of his writing, especially the four major Catholic novels: Brighton Rock, The Power and the Glory, The Heart of the Matter, and The End of the Affair;[http://www.eclectica.org/v8n4/mcgowin_greene.html Graham Greene, The Major Novels: A Centenary] by Kevin McGowin, Eclectica Magazine which are regarded as \\\"the gold standard\\\" of the Catholic novel. Several works, such as The Confidential Agent, The Third Man, The Quiet American, Our Man in Havana, and The Human Factor, also show Greene's avid interest in the workings and intrigues of international politics and espionage.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nGreene was born in Berkhamsted in Hertfordshire into a large, influential family that included the owners of the Greene King Brewery. He later boarded at Berkhamsted School in Hertfordshire, where his father taught and became headmaster. Unhappy at the school, he attempted suicide several times. He went up to Balliol College, Oxford to study history, where, while an undergraduate, he published his first work in 1925—a poorly received volume of poetry, Babbling April. After graduating, Greene worked first as a private tutor and then as a journalist – first on the Nottingham Journal and then as a sub-editor on The Times. He converted to Catholicism in 1926 after meeting his future wife, Vivien Dayrell-Browning. However, later in life took to calling himself a \\\"Catholic agnostic\\\", or even at times a \\\"Catholic atheist\\\". He published his first novel, The Man Within, in 1929; its favourable reception enabled him to work full-time as a novelist. He supplemented his novelist's income with freelance journalism, and book and film reviews. His 1937 film review of Wee Willie Winkie (for the British journal Night and Day), commented on the sexuality of the nine-year-old star, Shirley Temple.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nThis provoked Twentieth Century Fox to sue, prompting Greene to live in Mexico until after the trial was over. While in Mexico, Greene developed the ideas for the novel considered his masterpiece, The Power and the Glory. Greene originally divided his fiction into two genres (which he described as \\\"entertainments\\\" and \\\"novels\\\"): thrillers—often with notable philosophic edges—such as The Ministry of Fear; and literary works—on which he thought his literary reputation would rest—such as The Power and the Glory.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nGreene had a history of depression, which had a profound effect on his writing and personal life. In a letter to his wife, Vivien, he told her that he had \\\"a character profoundly antagonistic to ordinary domestic life,\\\" and that \\\"unfortunately, the disease is also one's material.\\\" William Golding described Greene as \\\"the ultimate chronicler of twentieth-century man's consciousness and anxiety.\\\" He died in 1991, at age 86, of leukaemia, and was buried in Corseaux cemetery.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nEarly years (1904–1925)\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nHenry Graham Greene was born in 1904 in St. John’s House, a boarding house of Berkhamsted School, Hertfordshire, where his father was housemaster. He was the fourth of six children; his younger brother, Hugh, became Director-General of the BBC, and his elder brother, Raymond, an eminent physician and mountaineer.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nHis parents, Charles Henry Greene and Marion Raymond Greene, were first cousins, both members of a large, influential family that included the owners of Greene King Brewery, bankers, and statesmen; his mother was cousin to Robert Louis Stevenson. \\nCharles Greene was second master at Berkhamsted School, where the headmaster was Dr Thomas Fry, who was married to Charles' cousin. Another cousin was the right-wing pacifist Ben Greene, whose politics led to his internment during World War II.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nIn his childhood, Greene spent his summers with his uncle, Sir William, at Harston House. In Greene's description of his childhood, he describes his learning to read there: \\\"It was at Harston I found quite suddenly I could read — the book was Dixon Brett, Detective. I didn't want anyone to know of my discovery, so I read only in secret, in a remote attic, but my mother must have spotted what I was at all the same, for she gave me Ballantyne's The Coral Island for the train journey home — always an interminable journey with the long wait between trains at Bletchley…\\\"\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nIn 1910 Charles Greene succeeded Dr Fry as headmaster of Berkhamsted. Graham also attended the school as a boarder. Bullied and profoundly depressed, he made several suicide attempts, including, as he wrote in his autobiography, by Russian roulette and by taking aspirin before going swimming in the school pool. In 1920, aged 16, in what was a radical step for the time, he was sent for psychoanalysis for six months in London, afterwards returning to school as a day student. School friends included Claud Cockburn the satirist, and Peter Quennell the historian.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nIn 1922, Greene was for a short time a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain, and sought an invitation to the new Soviet Union, of which nothing came. In 1925, while he was an undergraduate at Balliol College, Oxford, his first work, a poorly received volume of poetry titled Babbling April, was published.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nGreene suffered from periodic bouts of depression while at Oxford, and largely kept to himself. Of Greene's time at Oxford, his contemporary Evelyn Waugh noted that: \\\"Graham Greene looked down on us (and perhaps all undergraduates) as childish and ostentatious. He certainly shared in none of our revelry.\\\" He graduated in 1925 with a second-class degree in history.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nWriting career\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nAfter leaving Oxford, Greene worked for a period of time as a private tutor and then turned to journalism – first on the Nottingham Journal, and then as a sub-editor on The Times. While he was working in Nottingham, he started corresponding with Vivien Dayrell-Browning, who had written to him to correct him on a point of Catholic doctrine. Greene was an agnostic at the time, but when he later began to think about marrying Vivien, it occurred to him that, as he puts it in A Sort of Life, he \\\"ought at least to learn the nature and limits of the beliefs she held.\\\" Greene was baptised on 26 February 1926 and they married on 15 October 1927 at St Mary's Church, Hampstead, North London.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nGreene's first published novel was The Man Within (1929). Favourable reception emboldened him to quit his sub-editor job at The Times and work as a full-time novelist. The next two books, The Name of Action (1930) and Rumour at Nightfall (1932), were unsuccessful; and he later disowned them. His first true success was Stamboul Train (1932) which was taken on by the Book Society and adapted as the film Orient Express, in 1934.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nHe supplemented his novelist's income with freelance journalism, book and film reviews for The Spectator, and co-editing the magazine Night and Day. Greene's 1937 film review of Wee Willie Winkie, for Night and Day – which said that the nine-year-old star, Shirley Temple, displayed \\\"a dubious coquetry\\\" which appealed to \\\"middle-aged men and clergymen\\\" – provoked Twentieth Century Fox successfully to sue for £3,500 plus costs, which resulted in the magazine folding, and Greene leaving the UK to live in Mexico until after the trial was over. While in Mexico, Greene developed the ideas for the novel often considered his masterpiece, The Power and the Glory.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nAs his career lengthened, both Greene and his readers found the distinction between entertainments and novels increasingly problematic. The last book Greene termed an entertainment was Our Man in Havana in 1958.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nGreene also wrote short stories and plays, which were well received, although he was always first and foremost a novelist. His first play, The Living Room, debuted in 1953.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nMichael Korda a lifelong friend of Greene and later his editor at Simon & Schuster once observed Greene at work. Korda observed that Greene wrote in a small leather black notebook with a black fountain pen and would write approximately 500 words. Once he reached 500 he would put his pen away and be done for the day. Korda described this as Graham's daily penance—once he finished he put the notebook away for the rest of the day.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nTravel and espionage\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nThroughout his life, Greene travelled far from England, to what he called the world's wild and remote places. The travels led to his being recruited into MI6 by his sister, Elisabeth, who worked for the agency. Accordingly, he was posted to Sierra Leone during the Second World War. Kim Philby, who would later be revealed as a Soviet agent, was Greene's supervisor and friend at MI6. Greene later wrote an introduction to Philby's 1968 memoir, My Silent War. As a novelist Greene wove the characters he met and the places where he lived into the fabric of his novels.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nGreene first left Europe at 30 years of age in 1935 on a trip to Liberia that produced the travel book Journey Without Maps. His 1938 trip to Mexico to see the effects of the government's campaign of forced anti-Catholic secularisation was paid for by the publishing company Longman, thanks to his friendship with Tom Burns. That voyage produced two books, the factual The Lawless Roads (published as Another Mexico in the U.S.) and the novel The Power and the Glory. In 1953 the Holy Office informed Greene that The Power and the Glory was damaging to the reputation of the priesthood; but later, in a private audience with Greene, Pope Paul VI told him that, although parts of his novels would offend some Catholics, he should ignore the criticism.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nGreene first travelled to Haiti in 1954, where The Comedians (1966) is set, which was then under the rule of dictator François Duvalier, known as \\\"Papa Doc\\\", frequently staying at the Hotel Oloffson in Port-au-Prince. And, in the late 1950s, as inspiration for his novel, A Burnt-Out Case (1960), Greene spent time travelling around Africa visiting a number of leper colonies in the Congo Basin and in what were then the British Cameroons.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nIn 1957, just months after Fidel Castro had begun his revolutionary final assault on the Batista regime in Cuba, Greene played a small role in helping the revolutionaries, as a secret courier transporting warm clothing for Castro's rebels hiding in the hills during the Cuban winter. Greene was said to have a fascination with strong leaders, which may have accounted for his interest in Castro, whom he later met. After one visit Castro gave Greene a painting he had done, which hung in the living room of the French house where the author spent the last years of his life. Greene did later voice doubts about Castro's Cuba, telling a French interviewer in 1983, \\\"I admire him for his courage and his efficiency, but I question his authoritarianism,\\\" adding: \\\"All successful revolutions, however idealistic, probably betray themselves in time.\\\"\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nPersonal life\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nAfter meeting his future wife Vivien Dayrell-Browning, Greene was baptised into the Catholic faith on 26 February 1926, and they were married on 15 October 1927 at St Mary's Church, Hampstead, North London. The Greenes had two children, Lucy Caroline (born 1933) and Francis (born 1936).\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nIn his discussions with Father Trollope, the priest to whom he went for instruction in Catholicism, Greene argued with the cleric \\\"on the ground of dogmatic atheism\\\", as Greene's primary difficulty with religion was what he termed the \\\"if\\\" surrounding God's existence. He found, however, that \\\"after a few weeks of serious argument the 'if' was becoming less and less improbable\\\",Joseph Pearce. [http://www.catholicauthors.com/greene.html \\\"Graham Greene: Doubter Par Excellence\\\"], CatholicAuthors.com. Retrieved 7 January 2011. and Greene finally was converted and baptised after vigorous arguments initially with the priest in which he defended atheism, or at least the \\\"if\\\" of agnosticism. Late in life, however, Greene took to calling himself a \\\"Catholic agnostic\\\", or even at times a \\\"Catholic atheist\\\".\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nBeginning in 1946, Greene had an affair with Catherine Walston, the wife of Harry Walston, a wealthy farmer and future life peer. That relationship is generally thought to have informed the writing of The End of the Affair, published in 1951, when the affair came to an end. Greene had left his family in 1947, but in accordance with Catholic teaching, Vivien refused to grant him a divorce, and they remained married until Greene's death in 1991.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nGreene had also had several other affairs and sexual encounters during their marriage, and in later years Vivien remarked, \\\"With hindsight, he was a person who should never have married.\\\" He had remained estranged from his wife and children, and remarked in his later years, \\\"I think my books are my children.\\\"\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nFinal years and death\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nAfter falling victim to a financial swindler, Greene chose to leave Britain in 1966, moving to Antibes, to be close to Yvonne Cloetta, whom he had known since 1959, a relationship that endured until his death. In 1973 he had an uncredited cameo appearance as an insurance company representative in François Truffaut's film Day for Night. In 1981 Greene was awarded the Jerusalem Prize, awarded to writers concerned with the freedom of the individual in society.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nIn one of his final works, a pamphlet entitled J'Accuse – The Dark Side of Nice (1982), Greene wrote of a legal matter that had embroiled him and his extended family in Nice, and declared that organised crime flourished in Nice because the city's upper levels of civic government had protected judicial and police corruption. The accusation provoked a libel lawsuit that Greene lost; but he was vindicated after his death when, in 1994, the former mayor of Nice, Jacques Médecin, was imprisoned for corruption and associated crimes.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nIn 1984, in celebration of his 80th birthday, the brewery Greene's great-grandfather had founded in 1799 made a special edition of its 'St. Edmunds' ale for him, with a special label in his honour. Commenting on turning 80, Greene said, \\\"The big advantage...is that at 80 you are more likely these days to beat out encountering your end in a nuclear war\\\", adding, \\\"the other side of the problem is that I really don't want to survive myself [which] has nothing to do with nukes, but with the body hanging around while the mind departs.\\\"\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nIn 1986 Greene was awarded Britain's Order of Merit. He lived the last years of his life in Vevey, on Lake Geneva in Switzerland, the same town Charlie Chaplin was living in at this time. He visited Chaplin often, and the two were good friends. His book Doctor Fischer of Geneva or the Bomb Party (1980) bases its themes on combined philosophic and geographic influences. He had ceased going to mass and confession in the 1950s, but in his final years began to receive the sacraments again from Father Leopoldo Durán, a Spanish priest, who became a friend. He died in 1991 at age 86 of leukaemia and was buried in Corseaux cemetery.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nWriting style and themes\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nGreene originally divided his fiction into two genres: thrillers (mystery and suspense books), such as The Ministry of Fear, which he described as entertainments, often with notable philosophic edges; and literary works, such as The Power and the Glory, which he described as novels, on which he thought his literary reputation was to be based.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nAs his career lengthened, both Greene and his readers found the distinction between entertainments and novels increasingly problematic. The last book Greene termed an entertainment was Our Man in Havana in 1958. When Travels with My Aunt was published eleven years later, many reviewers noted that Greene had designated it a novel, even though, as a work decidedly comic in tone, it appeared closer to his last two entertainments, Loser Takes All and Our Man in Havana, than to any of the novels. Greene, they speculated, seemed to have dropped the category of entertainment. This was soon confirmed. In the Collected Edition of Greene's works published in 22 volumes between 1970 and 1982, the distinction between novels and entertainments is no longer maintained. All are novels.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nGreene was one of the most \\\"cinematic\\\" of twentieth-century writers; most of his novels and many of his plays and short stories have been adapted for film or television. The Internet Movie Database lists 66 titles between 1934 and 2010 based on Greene material. Some novels were filmed more than once, such as Brighton Rock in 1947 and 2011, The End of the Affair in 1955 and 1999, and The Quiet American in 1958 and 2002. The early thriller A Gun for Sale was filmed at least five times under different titles. Greene received an Academy Award nomination for the screenplay for the 1948 Carol Reed film The Fallen Idol, adapted from his own short story The Basement Room. He also wrote several original screenplays. In 1949, after writing the novella as \\\"raw material\\\", he wrote the screenplay for a classic film noir, The Third Man, also directed by Carol Reed, and featuring Orson Welles. In 1983 The Honorary Consul, published ten years earlier, was released as a film under its original title, starring Michael Caine and Richard Gere. Author and screenwriter Michael Korda contributed a foreword and introduction to this novel in a commemorative edition.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nIn 2009 The Strand Magazine began to publish in serial form a newly discovered Greene novel titled The Empty Chair. The manuscript was written in longhand when Greene was 22 and newly converted to Catholicism.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nGreene's literary style was described by Evelyn Waugh in Commonweal as \\\"not a specifically literary style at all. The words are functional, devoid of sensuous attraction, of ancestry, and of independent life\\\". Commenting on this lean, realistic prose and its readability, Richard Jones wrote in the Virginia Quarterly Review that \\\"nothing deflects Greene from the main business of holding the reader's attention.\\\" His novels often have religious themes at their centre. In his literary criticism he attacked the modernist writers Virginia Woolf and E. M. Forster for having lost the religious sense which, he argued, resulted in dull, superficial characters, who \\\"wandered about like cardboard symbols through a world that is paper-thin.\\\" Only in recovering the religious element, the awareness of the drama of the struggle in the soul that carries the permanent consequence of salvation or damnation, and of the ultimate metaphysical realities of good and evil, sin and divine grace, could the novel recover its dramatic power. Suffering and unhappiness are omnipresent in the world Greene depicts; and Catholicism is presented against a background of unvarying human evil, sin, and doubt. V. S.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nPritchett praised Greene as the first English novelist since Henry James to present, and grapple with, the reality of evil. Greene concentrated on portraying the characters' internal lives – their mental, emotional, and spiritual depths. His stories are often set in poor, hot and dusty tropical places such as Mexico, West Africa, Vietnam, Cuba, Haiti, and Argentina, which led to the coining of the expression \\\"Greeneland\\\" to describe such settings.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nThe novels often powerfully portray the Christian drama of the struggles within the individual soul from the Catholic perspective. Greene was criticised for certain tendencies in an unorthodox direction – in the world, sin is omnipresent to the degree that the vigilant struggle to avoid sinful conduct is doomed to failure, hence not central to holiness. Friend and fellow Catholic Evelyn Waugh attacked that as a revival of the Quietist heresy. This aspect of his work also was criticised by the theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar, as giving sin a mystique. Greene responded that constructing a vision of pure faith and goodness in the novel was beyond his talents. Praise of Greene from an orthodox Catholic point of view by Edward Short is in Crisis Magazine, and a mainstream Catholic critique is presented by Joseph Pearce.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nCatholicism's prominence decreased in his later writings. According to Ernest Mandel in his Delightful Murder: a Social History of the Crime Story: \\\"Greene started out as a conservative agent of the British intelligence services, upholding such reactionary causes as the struggle of the Catholic Church against the Mexican revolution (The Power and the Glory, 1940), and arguing the necessary merciful function of religion in a context of human misery (Brighton Rock, 1938; The Heart of the Matter, 1948). The better he came to know the socio-political realities of the third world where he was operating, and the more directly he came to be confronted by the rising tide of revolution in those countries, the more his doubts regarding the imperialist cause grew, and the more his novels shifted away from any identification with the latter.\\\" The supernatural realities that haunted the earlier work declined and were replaced by a humanistic perspective, a change reflected in his public criticism of orthodox Catholic teaching.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nIn his later years Greene was a strong critic of American imperialism, and sympathized with the Cuban leader Fidel Castro, whom he had met. Years before the Vietnam War, he prophetically attacked the idealistic but arrogant beliefs of The Quiet American, whose certainty in his own virtue kept him from seeing the disaster he inflicted on the Vietnamese. (For Greene's views on politics, see also Anthony Burgess' Politics in the Novels of Graham Greene.) In Ways of Escape, reflecting on his Mexican trip, he complained that Mexico's government was insufficiently left-wing compared with Cuba's. In Greene's opinion, \\\"Conservatism and Catholicism should be .... impossible bedfellows\\\".\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nIn 1949, when the New Statesman held a contest for parodies of Greene's writing style, he submitted an entry under the name \\\"N. Wilkinson\\\" and won second prize. His entry comprised the first two paragraphs of a novel, apparently set in Italy, The Stranger's Hand: An Entertainment. Greene's friend, Mario Soldati, a Piedmontese novelist and film director, believed it had the makings of a suspense film about Yugoslav spies in postwar Venice. Upon Soldati's prompting, Greene continued writing the story as the basis for a film script. Apparently he lost interest in the project, leaving it as a substantial fragment that was published posthumously in The Graham Greene Film Reader (1993) and No Man's Land (2005). A script for The Stranger's Hand was written by Guy Elmes on the basis of Greene's unfinished story, and filmed by Soldati in 1954. In 1965 Greene again entered a similar New Statesman competition pseudonymously, and won an honourable mention.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nGreene is regarded as a major 20th century novelist, and was described by John Irving, prior to Greene's death, as \\\"the most accomplished living novelist in the English language.\\\"Irving, John. The Imaginary Girlfriend. New York, Ballantine Books, 2002, p. 31. He had acquired a reputation by 1943 of being the \\\"leading English male novelist of his generation\\\", and at the time of his death in 1991 had a reputation as a writer of both deeply serious novels on the theme of Catholicism, and of \\\"suspense-filled stories of detection\\\". Acclaimed during his lifetime, he was shortlisted in 1967 for the Nobel Prize for Literature;\\nGreene collected several literary awards for his novels, including the 1941 Hawthornden Prize for The Power and the Glory and the 1948 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for The Heart of the Matter. As an author, he received the 1968 Shakespeare Prize and the 1981 Jerusalem Prize, a biennial literary award given to writers whose works have dealt with themes of human freedom in society. In 1986, he was awarded Britain's Order of Merit.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nThe Graham Greene International Festival is an annual four-day event of conference papers, informal talks, question and answer sessions, films, dramatised readings, music, creative writing workshops and social events. It is organised by the Graham Greene Birthplace Trust, and takes place in the writer's home town of Berkhamsted (about 35 miles northwest of London), on dates as close as possible to the anniversary of his birth (2 October). Its purpose is to promote interest in and study of the works of Graham Greene.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nHe is the subject of the 2013 documentary film, Dangerous Edge: A Life of Graham Greene.\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\nSelect works\",\n \"Graham Greene\\n\\n* The Man Within (début – 1929)\\n* Stamboul Train (1932) (also published as Orient Express in the U.S.)\\n* It's a Battlefield (1934)\\n* England Made Me (also published as The Shipwrecked) (1935)\\n* A Gun for Sale (1936)\\n* Journey Without Maps (1936)\\n* Brighton Rock (1938)\\n* The Lawless Roads (1939) (also published as Another Mexico in the U.S.)\\n* The Confidential Agent (1939)\\n* The Power and the Glory (1940)\\n* The Ministry of Fear (1943)\\n* The Heart of the Matter (1948)\\n* The Third Man (1949), written after the screen play to the film The Third Man\\n* The End of the Affair (1951)\\n* Twenty-One Stories (1954) (short stories)\\n* Loser Takes All (1955)\\n* The Quiet American (1955)\\n* The Potting Shed (1956)\\n* Our Man in Havana (1958)\\n* A Burnt-Out Case (1960)\\n* The Comedians (1966)\\n* Travels with My Aunt (1969)\\n* The Honorary Consul (1973)\\n* The Human Factor (1978)\\n* Doctor Fischer of Geneva (1980)\\n* Monsignor Quixote (1982)\\n* The Tenth Man (1985)\\n* The Last Word (1990) (short stories)\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2091,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_40"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"All children, except one, grow up is the opening line from which famous story?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Peter Pan"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["peter pan literature character","peter pan","peter pan literary character","peter pan character","peter pan fictional character","peter pan lierature character","peter pan person"],"string":"[\n \"peter pan literature character\",\n \"peter pan\",\n \"peter pan literary character\",\n \"peter pan character\",\n \"peter pan fictional character\",\n \"peter pan lierature character\",\n \"peter pan person\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Peter and Wendy\n\nPeter Pan; or, the Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up or Peter and Wendy is J. M. Barrie's most famous work, in the form of a 1904 play and a 1911 novel. Both versions tell the story of Peter Pan, a mischievous yet innocent little boy who can fly, and has many adventures on the island of Neverland that is inhabited by mermaids, fairies, Native Americans and pirates. Peter has many stories involving Wendy Darling and her two brothers, his fairy Tinker Bell, the Lost Boys, and the pirate Captain Hook. The play and novel were inspired by Barrie's friendship with the Llewelyn Davies family. Barrie continued to revise the play for years after its debut until publication of the play script in 1928.","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe play debuted in London on 27 December 1904 with Nina Boucicault, daughter of playwright Dion Boucicault, in the title role. A Broadway production was mounted in 1905 starring Maude Adams. It was later revived with such actresses as Marilyn Miller and Eva Le Gallienne. The play has since been adapted as a pantomime, stage musical, a television special, and several films, including a 1924 silent film, Disney's 1953 animated full-length feature film, and a 2003 live action production. The play is now rarely performed in its original form on stage in the United Kingdom, whereas pantomime adaptations are frequently staged around Christmas. In the U.S., the original version has also been supplanted in popularity by the 1954 musical version, which became popular on television.","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe novel was first published in 1911 by Hodder & Stoughton in the United Kingdom and Charles Scribner's Sons in the United States. The original book contains a frontispiece and 11 half-tone plates by artist F. D. Bedford (whose illustrations are still under copyright in the EU). The novel was first abridged by May Byron in 1915, with Barrie's permission, and published under the title Peter Pan and Wendy, the first time this form was used. This version was later illustrated by Mabel Lucie Attwell in 1921. In 1929, Barrie gave the copyright of the Peter Pan works to Great Ormond Street Hospital, a children's hospital in London.","Peter and Wendy\n\nBackground","Peter and Wendy\n\nBarrie created Peter Pan in stories he told to the sons of his friend Sylvia Llewelyn Davies, with whom he had forged a special relationship. Mrs. Llewelyn Davies's death from cancer came within a few years after the death of her husband. Barrie was named as co-guardian of the boys and unofficially adopted them.","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe character's name comes from two sources: Peter Llewelyn Davies, one of the boys, and Pan, the mischievous Greek god of the woodlands. Andrew Birkin has suggested that the inspiration for the character was Barrie's elder brother David, whose death in a skating accident at the age of fourteen deeply affected their mother. According to Birkin, the death was \"a catastrophe beyond belief, and one from which she never fully recovered. If Margaret Ogilvy [Barrie's mother as the heroine of his 1896 novel of that title] drew a measure of comfort from the notion that David, in dying a boy, would remain a boy for ever, Barrie drew inspiration.\"","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe Peter Pan character first appeared in print in the 1902 novel The Little White Bird, written for adults. The character was next used in the stage play Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up that premiered in London on 27 December 1904 and became an instant success.","Peter and Wendy\n\nIn 1906, the chapters of The Little White Bird which featured Peter Pan was published as the book Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens, with illustrations by Arthur Rackham.","Peter and Wendy\n\nBarrie then adapted the play into the 1911 novel Peter and Wendy (most often now published simply as Peter Pan).","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe original draft of the play was entitled simply Anon: A Play. Barrie's working titles for it included The Great White Father and Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Hated Mothers. Producer Charles Frohman disliked the title on the manuscript, in answer to which Barrie reportedly suggested The Boy Who Couldn't Grow Up; Frohman suggested changing it to Wouldn't and dropping The Great White Father as a title.","Peter and Wendy\n\nPlot summary","Peter and Wendy\n\nAlthough the character appeared previously in Barrie's book The Little White Bird, the play and its novelisation contain the story of Peter Pan mythos that is best known. The two versions differ in some details of the story, but have much in common. In both versions Peter makes night-time calls on the Darlings' house in Bloomsbury, listening in on Mrs. Mary Darling's bedtime stories by the open window. One night Peter is spotted and, while trying to escape, he loses his shadow. On returning to claim it, Peter wakes Mary's daughter, Wendy Darling. Wendy succeeds in re-attaching his shadow to him, and Peter learns that she knows lots of bedtime stories. He invites her to Neverland to be a mother to his gang, the Lost Boys, children who were lost in Kensington Gardens. Wendy agrees, and her brothers John and Michael go along.","Peter and Wendy\n\nTheir magical flight to Neverland is followed by many adventures. The children are blown out of the air by a cannon and Wendy is nearly killed by the Lost Boy Tootles. Peter and the Lost Boys build a little house for Wendy to live in while she recuperates (a structure that, to this day, is called a Wendy House.) Soon John and Michael adopt the ways of the Lost Boys.","Peter and Wendy\n\nPeter welcomes Wendy to his underground home, and she immediately assumes the role of mother figure. Peter takes the Darlings on several adventures, the first truly dangerous one occurring at Mermaids' Lagoon. At Mermaids' Lagoon, Peter and the Lost Boys save the princess Tiger Lily and become involved in a battle with the pirates, including the evil Captain Hook. Peter is wounded when Hook claws him. He believes he will die, stranded on a rock when the tide is rising, but he views death as \"an awfully big adventure\". Luckily, a bird allows him to use her nest as a boat, and Peter sails home.","Peter and Wendy\n\nBecause he has saved Tiger Lily, the Native Americans are devoted to him, guarding his home from the next imminent pirate attack. Meanwhile, Wendy begins to fall in love with Peter, at least as a child, and asks Peter what kind of feelings he has for her. Peter says that he is like her faithful son. One day while telling stories to the Lost Boys and her brothers, John and Michael, Wendy recalls her parents and then decides to take them back and return to England. Unfortunately, and unbeknownst to Peter, Wendy and the boys are captured by Captain Hook, who also tries to poison Peter's medicine while the boy is asleep. When Peter awakes, he learns from the fairy Tinker Bell that Wendy has been kidnapped – in an effort to please Wendy, he goes to drink his medicine. Tink does not have time to warn him of the poison, and instead drinks it herself, causing her near death. Tink tells him she could be saved if children believed in fairies. In one of the play's most famous moments, Peter turns to the audience watching the play and begs those who believe in fairies to clap their hands.","Peter and Wendy\n\nAt this there is usually an explosion of handclapping from the audience, and Tinker Bell is saved.","Peter and Wendy\n\nPeter heads to the ship. On the way, he encounters the ticking crocodile; Peter decides to copy the tick, so any animals will recognise it and leave him unharmed. He does not realise that he is still ticking as he boards the ship, where Hook cowers, mistaking him for the crocodile. While the pirates are searching for the croc, Peter sneaks into the cabin to steal the keys and frees the Lost Boys. When the pirates investigate a noise in the cabin, Peter defeats them. When he finally reveals himself, he and Hook fall to the climactic battle, which Peter easily wins. He kicks Hook into the jaws of the waiting crocodile, and Hook dies with the satisfaction that Peter had literally kicked him off the ship, which Hook considers \"bad form\". Then Peter takes control of the ship, and sails the seas back to London.","Peter and Wendy\n\nIn the end, Wendy decides that her place is at home, much to the joy of her heartsick mother. Wendy then brings all the boys but Peter back to London. Before Wendy and her brothers arrive at their house, Peter flies ahead, to try and bar the window so Wendy will think her mother has forgotten her. But when he learns of Mrs Darling's distress, he bitterly leaves the window open and flies away. Peter returns briefly, and he meets Mrs. Darling, who has agreed to adopt the Lost Boys. She offers to adopt Peter as well, but Peter refuses, afraid they will \"catch him and make him a man.\" It is hinted that Mary Darling knew Peter when she was a girl, because she is left slightly changed when Peter leaves.","Peter and Wendy\n\nPeter promises to return for Wendy every spring. The end of the play finds Wendy looking out through the window and saying into space, \"You won't forget to come for me, Peter? Please, please don't forget.\"","Peter and Wendy\n\nWhen Wendy Grew Up. An Afterthought","Peter and Wendy\n\nFour years after the premiere of the original production of Peter Pan, Barrie wrote an additional scene entitled When Wendy Grew Up. An Afterthought, later included in the final chapter of Peter and Wendy. In this scene, Peter returns for Wendy years later. But she is now grown up with a daughter of her own named Jane. It is also revealed Wendy married one of the Lost Boys, although this is not mentioned in the novel, and it is never revealed which one she did marry. When Peter learns that Wendy has \"betrayed\" him by growing up, he is heartbroken until Jane agrees to come to Neverland as Peter's new mother. In the novel's last few sentences, Barrie mentions that Jane has grown up as well and that Peter now takes her daughter Margaret to Neverland. Barrie says this cycle will go on forever as long as children are \"gay and innocent and heartless\".","Peter and Wendy\n\nAn Afterthought is only occasionally used in productions of the play, but it made a poignant conclusion to the musical production starring Mary Martin, and provided the premise for Disney's sequel to their animated adaptation of the story, Return to Never Land. This epilogue was filmed for the 2003 film but not included in the final version, though a rough cut of the sequence was included as an extra on the DVD of the film.","Peter and Wendy\n\nCharacters","Peter and Wendy\n\nPeter Pan","Peter and Wendy\n\nPeter Pan is one of the protagonists of the play and the novel. He is described in the novel as a young boy who still has all his first teeth; he wears clothes made of leaves (autumn leaves in the play, skeleton leaves in the novel) and plays the pipes. He is the only boy able to fly without the help of Tinker Bell's golden fairy dust. He is afraid of nothing except of mothers, fathers, and growing up. He cares about Wendy very much, but only sees her as a loving motherly figure, as opposed to a romantic and girlfriend/love interest. Barrie attributes this to \"the riddle of his very being\".","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe Darling Family","Peter and Wendy\n\nAccording to Barrie's description of the Darlings' house, the family lives in Bloomsbury, London.","Peter and Wendy\n\n*Wendy Darling – Wendy is the eldest child, their only daughter, and the protagonist of the novel. She loves the idea of homemaking and storytelling and wants to become a mother; her dreams consist of adventures in a little woodland house with her pet wolf. She bears a bit of (mutual) animosity toward Tiger Lily because of their similar affections toward Peter. She does not seem to feel the same way about Tinker Bell, but the fairy is constantly bad-mouthing her and even has attempted to have her killed. At the end of the novel, she has grown up and is married with a daughter (Jane) and a granddaughter (Margaret), although we are not told who her husband is. She is portrayed variously with blonde, brown, or black hair in different stories. While it is not clear whether or not she is in love with Peter, one can assume that she does have some feelings toward him. Wendy is often referred to as the \"mother\" of the Lost Boys and, while Peter also considers her to be his \"mother\", he takes on the \"father\" role, hinting that they play a married couple in their games.","Peter and Wendy\n\nSeveral writers have stated that Barrie was the first to use the name Wendy in a published work, and that the source of the name was Barrie's childhood friend, Margaret Henley, 4-year-old daughter of poet William Ernest Henley, who pronounced the word \"friend\" as \"Fwiendy\", adapted by Barrie as \"Wendy\" in writing the play. There is some evidence that the name Wendy may be related to the Welsh name Gwendolyn, and it is also used as a diminutive variant of the eastern European name \"Wanda\", but prior to its use in the Peter Pan stories, the name was not used as an independent first name.","Peter and Wendy\n\n*John Darling – John is the middle child. He gets along well with Wendy, but he often argues with Michael. He is fascinated with pirates, and he once thought of becoming \"Redhanded Jack\". He dreams of living in an inverted boat on the sands, where he has no friends and spends his time shooting flamingos. He looks up to Peter Pan, but at times they clash due to Peter's nature of showing off. He also looks up to his father and dreams of running his firm one day when he is grown up. The character of John was named after Jack Llewelyn Davies. *Michael Darling – Michael is the youngest child. He is approximately five years old, as he still wears the pinafores young Edwardian boys wear. He looks up to John and Wendy, dreaming of living in a wigwam where his friends visit at night. He was named after Michael Llewelyn Davies. *Mr. and Mrs. Darling – George and Mary Darling are the children's loving parents. Mr. Darling is a pompous, blustering clerk in the City but kind at heart. Mary Darling is described as an intelligent, romantic lady. It is hinted that she knew Peter Pan before her children were born. Mr.","Peter and Wendy\n\nDarling was named after the eldest Llewelyn Davies boy, George, and Mrs. Darling was named after Mary Ansell, Barrie's wife, although their personalities were based on Arthur and Sylvia Llewelyn Davies. In the stage version, the roles of Mr. Darling and Captain Hook are traditionally played by the same actor. *Nana – Nana is a Newfoundland dog who is employed as a nanny by the Darling family. Nana does not speak or do anything beyond the physical capabilities of a large dog, but acts with apparent understanding of her responsibilities. The character is played in stage productions by an actor in a dog costume. Barrie based the character of Nana on his dog [http://neverpedia.com/pan/Luath Luath], a Newfoundland. * Liza is the maidservant of the Darling family. She appears only in the first act, except in the 1954 musical in which she sees the Darling children fly off with Peter; when she tries stopping them, Michael sprinkles her with fairy dust and she ends up in Neverland. She returns with the children at the end. She is given two musical numbers in this adaptation.","Peter and Wendy\n\nLost Boys","Peter and Wendy\n\n*Tootles – Tootles is the humblest Lost Boy because he often misses out on their violent adventures. Although he is often stupid, he is always the first to defend Wendy. Ironically, he shoots her before meeting her for the first time because of Tinker Bell's trickery. He grows up to become a judge. *Nibs – Nibs is described as \"gay and debonair\", probably the bravest Lost Boy. He says the only thing he remembers about his mother is she always wanted a cheque-book; he says he would love to give her one...if he knew what a cheque-book was. He's also the oldest and best looking Lost Boy. *Slightly – Slightly is the most conceited because he believes he remembers the days before he was \"lost\". He is the only Lost Boy who \"knows\" his last name – he says his pinafore had the words \"Slightly Soiled\" written on the tag. He cuts whistles from the branches of trees, and dances to tunes he creates himself. Slightly is, apparently, a poor make-believer. He blows big breaths when he feels he is in trouble, and he eventually leads to Peter's almost-downfall. *Curly – Curly is the most troublesome Lost Boy.","Peter and Wendy\n\nIn Disney's version of the story, he became \"Cubby\". *The Twins – First and Second Twin know little about themselves – they are not allowed to, because Peter Pan does not know what Twins are (he thinks that twins are two parts of the same person, which, while not entirely correct, is right in the sense that the Twins finish each other's sentences (at least, in the movie adaptation).","Peter and Wendy\n\nInhabitants of Neverland","Peter and Wendy\n\n*Tiger Lily is the proud, beautiful princess of the Piccaninny Tribe. In the book, the Indians of Neverland were portrayed in a nature that is now regarded as stereotypical. Barrie portrayed them as primitive, warlike savages who spoke with guttural voice tones. She is apparently old enough to be married, but she refuses any suitors because she desires Peter over all. She is jealous of Wendy and Tinker Bell. Tiger Lily is nearly killed by Captain Hook when she is seen boarding the Jolly Roger with a knife in her mouth, but Peter saves her. *Tinker Bell is Peter Pan's fairy. She is described as a common fairy who mends pots and kettles and, though she is sometimes ill-behaved and vindictive, at other times she is helpful and kind to Peter (for whom she has romantic feelings). The extremes in her personality are explained by the fact that a fairy's size prevents her from holding more than one feeling at a time. In Barrie's book, by Peter's first annual return for Wendy, the boy has forgotten about Tinker Bell and suggests that she \"is no more\" for fairies do not live long.","Peter and Wendy\n\n*Captain James Hook is the vengeful pirate who lives to kill Peter Pan, not so much because Peter cut off his right hand, but because the boy is \"cocky\" and drives the genteel pirate to \"madness\". He is captain of the ship Jolly Roger. He attended Eton College before becoming a pirate and is obsessed with \"good form\". Hook meets his demise when a crocodile eats him. In the stage version, the same actor who plays Mr. Darling also plays this character. *Mr. Smee is an Irish nonconformist pirate. He is the boatswain of the Jolly Roger. Smee is one of only two pirates to survive Peter Pan's massacre. He then makes his living saying he was the only man James Hook ever feared. *Gentleman Starkey was once an usher at a public school. He is Captain Hook's first mate. Starkey is one of two pirates who escaped Peter Pan's massacre – he swims ashore and becomes baby-sitter to the Piccaninny Tribe. Peter Pan gives Starkey's hat to the Never Bird to use as a nest. * Fairies – In the novel Peter and Wendy, published in 1911, there are fairies on Neverland.","Peter and Wendy\n\nIn the part of the story where Peter Pan and the Lost Boys built a house for Wendy on Neverland, Peter Pan stays up late that night to guard her from the pirates, but then the story says: \"After a time he fell asleep, and some unsteady fairies had to climb over him on their way home from an orgy. Any of the other boys obstructing the fairy path at night they would have mischiefed, but they just tweaked Peter's nose and passed on.\" In the early 20th century, the word \"orgy\" generally referred to a large group of people consuming alcohol. *Mermaids who live in the waters near Neverland reside within the Mermaids' Lagoon. They are described as being very beautiful and mysterious creatures but equally just as vain and malevolent. Barrie states in the novel Peter and Wendy that the mermaids are only friendly to Peter, and that they will intentionally splash or even attempt to drown anyone else if they come close enough. It is especially dangerous for mortals to go to Mermaids' Lagoon at night, because that's when the mermaids sing hauntingly in the moonlight and utter strange wailing cries to attract potential victims.","Peter and Wendy\n\n*The Crocodile is Captain Hook's nemesis. During a sword fight, Peter cut off Hook's right hand and fed it to a crocodile which followed Hook ever since, hungering for more. The crocodile also swallowed a clock which ticking warns Hook of its presence. At the end of the story, Captain Hook falls into the crocodile's mouth and is swallowed whole.","Peter and Wendy\n\nMajor themes","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe play's subtitle \"The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up\" underscores the primary theme: the conflict between the innocence of childhood and the responsibility of adulthood. Peter has literally chosen not to make the transition from one to the other, and encourages the other children to do the same. However, the opening line of the novel, \"All children, except one, grow up\", and the conclusion of the story indicates that this wish is unrealistic, and there is an element of tragedy in the alternative.","Peter and Wendy\n\nBarrie was very perspicacious in noticing many aspects of children's mental development decades before they were studied by cognitive psychologists. In particular, Peter lacks the mental capacity for secondary mental representation and cannot recollect the past, anticipate the future, consider two things as once or see things from another person's point of view. He is therefore amnesic, inconsequential, impulsive and callous.","Peter and Wendy\n\nThere is a slight romantic aspect to the story, which is sometimes played down or omitted completely. Wendy's flirtatious desire to kiss Peter, his desire for a mother figure, his conflicting feelings for Wendy, Tiger Lily, and Tinker Bell (each representing different female archetypes), and the symbolism of his fight with Captain Hook (traditionally played by the same actor as Wendy's father), all could possibly hint at a Freudian interpretation (see oedipus complex). Most children's adaptations of the play, including the 1953 Disney film, omit any romantic themes between Wendy and Peter, but Barrie's 1904 original, his 1911 novelisation, the 1954 Mary Martin musical, the 1924 and 2003 feature films, all hint at the romantic elements.","Peter and Wendy\n\nStage productions","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe original stage production took place at the Duke of York's Theatre, London, on 27 December 1904. It starred Gerald du Maurier as Captain Hook and Mr Darling, and Nina Boucicault as Peter. Members of Peter's Band were Joan Burnett (Tootles), Christine Silver (Nibs), A. W. Baskcomb (Slightly), Alice DuBarry (Curly), Pauline Chase (1st twin), Phyllis Beadon (2nd twin). Besides du Maurier, the pirates were: George Shelton (Smee), Sidney Harcourt (Gentleman Starkey), Charles Trevor (Cookson), Frederick Annerley (Cecco), Hubert Willis (Mullins), James English (Jukes), John Kelt (Noodler). Philip Darwin played Great Big Little Panther, Miriam Nesbitt was Tiger Lily, and Ela Q. May played Liza, (credited ironically as \"Author of the Play\"). First Pirate was played by Gerald Malvern, Second Pirate by J. Grahame, Black Pirate by S. Spencer, Crocodile by A. Ganker & C. Lawton, and the Ostrich by G. Henson.","Peter and Wendy\n\nTinker Bell was represented on stage by a darting light \"created by a small mirror held in the hand off-stage and reflecting a little circle of light from a powerful lamp\" and her voice was \"a collar of bells and two special ones that Barrie brought from Switzerland\". However, a Miss \"Jane Wren\" or \"Jenny Wren\" was listed among the cast on the programmes of the original productions as playing Tinker Bell: this was meant as a joke that fooled H.M. Inspector of Taxes, who sent her a tax demand.","Peter and Wendy\n\nIt is traditional in productions of Peter Pan for Mr. Darling (the children's father) and Captain Hook to be played (or voiced) by the same actor. Although this was originally done simply to make full use of the actor (the characters appear in different sections of the story) with no thematic intent, some critics have perceived a similarity between the two characters as central figures in the lives of the children. It also brings a poignant juxtaposition between Mr. Darling's harmless bluster and Captain Hook's pompous vanity.","Peter and Wendy\n\nCecilia Loftus played Peter in the 1905–1906 production. Pauline Chase took the role from the 1906–07 London season until 1914 while Zena Dare was Peter on tour during most of that period. Jean Forbes-Robertson became a well-known Pan in London in the 1920s and 1930s.","Peter and Wendy\n\nFollowing the success of his original London production, Charles Frohman mounted a production in New York City at the Empire Theatre in 1905. The 1905 Broadway production starred Maude Adams, who would play the role on and off again for more than a decade and, in the U.S., was the actress most associated in the public's consciousness with the role for the next fifty years. It was produced again in the U.S. by the Civic Repertory Theater in November 1928 and December 1928, in which Eva LeGallienne directed and played the role of Peter Pan. Among musical theatre adaptations, the most successful in the U.S. has been an American musical version first produced on Broadway in 1954 starring Mary Martin, which was later videotaped for television and rebroadcast several times. Martin became the actress most associated with the role in the U.S. for several decades, although Sandy Duncan and Cathy Rigby each later toured extensively in this version and became well known in the role.","Peter and Wendy\n\nAdaptations","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe story of Peter Pan has been a popular one for adaptation into other media. The story and its characters have been used as the basis for a number of motion pictures (live action and animated), stage musicals, television programs, a ballet, and ancillary media and merchandise. The best known of these are the 1953 animated feature film produced by Walt Disney featuring the voice of 15-year-old film actor Bobby Driscoll (one of the first male actors in the title role, which was traditionally played by women); the series of musical productions (and their televised presentations) starring Mary Martin, Sandy Duncan, and Cathy Rigby; and the 2003 live-action feature film produced by P. J. Hogan starring Jeremy Sumpter.","Peter and Wendy\n\nThere have been several additions to Peter Pan's story, including the authorised sequel novel Peter Pan in Scarlet, and the high-profile sequel films Return to Never Land and Hook. Various characters from the story have appeared in other places, especially Tinker Bell as a mascot and character of Disney. The characters are in the public domain in some jurisdictions, leading to unauthorised extensions to the mythos and uses of the characters. Some of these have been controversial, such as a series of prequels by Dave Barry and Ridley Pearson, and Lost Girls, a sexually explicit graphic novel by Alan Moore and Melinda Gebbie, featuring Wendy Darling and the heroines of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.","Peter and Wendy\n\nCopyright status","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe copyright status of the story of Peter Pan and its characters has been the subject of dispute, particularly as the original version began to enter the public domain in various jurisdictions. In 1929, Barrie gave the copyright to the works featuring Peter Pan to Great Ormond Street Hospital (GOSH), Britain's leading children's hospital, and requested that the value of the gift should never be disclosed; this gift was confirmed in his will. GOSH has exercised these rights internationally to help support the work of the institution.","Peter and Wendy\n\nUnited Kingdom","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe UK copyright originally expired at the end of 1987 (50 years after Barrie's death), but was revived in 1995 until 31 December 2007 by a directive to harmonise copyright laws within the EU. Meanwhile, in 1988, former Prime Minister James Callaghan sponsored a Parliamentary Bill granting a perpetual extension of some of the rights to the work, entitling the hospital to royalties for any performance, publication, or adaptation of the play. This is not a true perpetual copyright, however, as it does not grant the hospital creative control over the use of the material, nor the right to refuse permission to use it. The law also does not cover the Peter Pan section of The Little White Bird, which pre-dates the play and was not therefore an \"adaptation\" of it. The exact phrasing is in section 301 of, and Schedule 6 to, the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988:301.","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe provisions of Schedule 6 have effect for conferring on trustees for the benefit of the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street, London, a right to a royalty in respect of the public performance, commercial publication, broadcasting or inclusion in a cable programme service of the play 'Peter Pan' by Sir James Matthew Barrie, or of any adaptation of that work, notwithstanding that copyright in the work expired on 31 December 1987.","Peter and Wendy\n\nUnited States","Peter and Wendy\n\nGreat Ormond Street Hospital (GOSH) claims that U.S. legislation effective in 1978 and again in 1998, which extended the copyright of the play script published in 1928, gives them copyright over \"Peter Pan\" in general until 2023, although GOSH acknowledges that the copyright of the novel version, published in 1911, has expired in the United States.","Peter and Wendy\n\nPreviously, GOSH's claim of U.S. copyright had been contested by various parties. J. E. Somma sued GOSH to permit the U.S. publication of her sequel After the Rain, A New Adventure for Peter Pan. GOSH and Somma settled out of court in March 2004, issuing a joint statement in which GOSH stated the work is a valuable contribution to the field of children's literature. Somma characterised her novel – which she had argued was a critique of the original work, rather than a mere derivative of it – as \"fair use\" of the hospital's \"U.S. intellectual property rights\". The suit was settled under terms of absolute secrecy. It did not set any legal precedent, however. Disney was a long-time licensee to the animation rights, and cooperated with the hospital when its copyright claim was clear, but in 2004 Disney published Dave Barry's and Ridley Pearson's Peter and the Starcatchers in the U.S., the first of several sequels, without permission and without making royalty payments. In 2006, Top Shelf Productions published in the U.S. Lost Girls, a pornographic graphic novel featuring Wendy Darling, also without permission or royalties.","Peter and Wendy\n\nOther jurisdictions","Peter and Wendy\n\nThe original versions of the play and novel are in the public domain in countries where the term of copyright is 70 years (or less) after the death of the creators. This includes the European Union (except Spain), Australia, Canada (where Somma's book was first published without incident), and most other countries (see list of countries' copyright length). It is out of copyright in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, where copyright lasts 75 years after the author's death.","Peter and Wendy\n\nHowever, the work is still under copyright in several countries: in Colombia and Spain until 2018, where the applicable term is 80 years after death. (It would also be under copyright in Côte d'Ivoire, Guatemala, and Honduras, but these countries recognise the \"rule of the shorter term\", which means that the term of the country of origin applies if it is shorter than their local term.)"],"string":"[\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nPeter Pan; or, the Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up or Peter and Wendy is J. M. Barrie's most famous work, in the form of a 1904 play and a 1911 novel. Both versions tell the story of Peter Pan, a mischievous yet innocent little boy who can fly, and has many adventures on the island of Neverland that is inhabited by mermaids, fairies, Native Americans and pirates. Peter has many stories involving Wendy Darling and her two brothers, his fairy Tinker Bell, the Lost Boys, and the pirate Captain Hook. The play and novel were inspired by Barrie's friendship with the Llewelyn Davies family. Barrie continued to revise the play for years after its debut until publication of the play script in 1928.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe play debuted in London on 27 December 1904 with Nina Boucicault, daughter of playwright Dion Boucicault, in the title role. A Broadway production was mounted in 1905 starring Maude Adams. It was later revived with such actresses as Marilyn Miller and Eva Le Gallienne. The play has since been adapted as a pantomime, stage musical, a television special, and several films, including a 1924 silent film, Disney's 1953 animated full-length feature film, and a 2003 live action production. The play is now rarely performed in its original form on stage in the United Kingdom, whereas pantomime adaptations are frequently staged around Christmas. In the U.S., the original version has also been supplanted in popularity by the 1954 musical version, which became popular on television.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe novel was first published in 1911 by Hodder & Stoughton in the United Kingdom and Charles Scribner's Sons in the United States. The original book contains a frontispiece and 11 half-tone plates by artist F. D. Bedford (whose illustrations are still under copyright in the EU). The novel was first abridged by May Byron in 1915, with Barrie's permission, and published under the title Peter Pan and Wendy, the first time this form was used. This version was later illustrated by Mabel Lucie Attwell in 1921. In 1929, Barrie gave the copyright of the Peter Pan works to Great Ormond Street Hospital, a children's hospital in London.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nBackground\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nBarrie created Peter Pan in stories he told to the sons of his friend Sylvia Llewelyn Davies, with whom he had forged a special relationship. Mrs. Llewelyn Davies's death from cancer came within a few years after the death of her husband. Barrie was named as co-guardian of the boys and unofficially adopted them.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe character's name comes from two sources: Peter Llewelyn Davies, one of the boys, and Pan, the mischievous Greek god of the woodlands. Andrew Birkin has suggested that the inspiration for the character was Barrie's elder brother David, whose death in a skating accident at the age of fourteen deeply affected their mother. According to Birkin, the death was \\\"a catastrophe beyond belief, and one from which she never fully recovered. If Margaret Ogilvy [Barrie's mother as the heroine of his 1896 novel of that title] drew a measure of comfort from the notion that David, in dying a boy, would remain a boy for ever, Barrie drew inspiration.\\\"\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe Peter Pan character first appeared in print in the 1902 novel The Little White Bird, written for adults. The character was next used in the stage play Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up that premiered in London on 27 December 1904 and became an instant success.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nIn 1906, the chapters of The Little White Bird which featured Peter Pan was published as the book Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens, with illustrations by Arthur Rackham.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nBarrie then adapted the play into the 1911 novel Peter and Wendy (most often now published simply as Peter Pan).\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe original draft of the play was entitled simply Anon: A Play. Barrie's working titles for it included The Great White Father and Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Hated Mothers. Producer Charles Frohman disliked the title on the manuscript, in answer to which Barrie reportedly suggested The Boy Who Couldn't Grow Up; Frohman suggested changing it to Wouldn't and dropping The Great White Father as a title.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nPlot summary\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nAlthough the character appeared previously in Barrie's book The Little White Bird, the play and its novelisation contain the story of Peter Pan mythos that is best known. The two versions differ in some details of the story, but have much in common. In both versions Peter makes night-time calls on the Darlings' house in Bloomsbury, listening in on Mrs. Mary Darling's bedtime stories by the open window. One night Peter is spotted and, while trying to escape, he loses his shadow. On returning to claim it, Peter wakes Mary's daughter, Wendy Darling. Wendy succeeds in re-attaching his shadow to him, and Peter learns that she knows lots of bedtime stories. He invites her to Neverland to be a mother to his gang, the Lost Boys, children who were lost in Kensington Gardens. Wendy agrees, and her brothers John and Michael go along.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nTheir magical flight to Neverland is followed by many adventures. The children are blown out of the air by a cannon and Wendy is nearly killed by the Lost Boy Tootles. Peter and the Lost Boys build a little house for Wendy to live in while she recuperates (a structure that, to this day, is called a Wendy House.) Soon John and Michael adopt the ways of the Lost Boys.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nPeter welcomes Wendy to his underground home, and she immediately assumes the role of mother figure. Peter takes the Darlings on several adventures, the first truly dangerous one occurring at Mermaids' Lagoon. At Mermaids' Lagoon, Peter and the Lost Boys save the princess Tiger Lily and become involved in a battle with the pirates, including the evil Captain Hook. Peter is wounded when Hook claws him. He believes he will die, stranded on a rock when the tide is rising, but he views death as \\\"an awfully big adventure\\\". Luckily, a bird allows him to use her nest as a boat, and Peter sails home.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nBecause he has saved Tiger Lily, the Native Americans are devoted to him, guarding his home from the next imminent pirate attack. Meanwhile, Wendy begins to fall in love with Peter, at least as a child, and asks Peter what kind of feelings he has for her. Peter says that he is like her faithful son. One day while telling stories to the Lost Boys and her brothers, John and Michael, Wendy recalls her parents and then decides to take them back and return to England. Unfortunately, and unbeknownst to Peter, Wendy and the boys are captured by Captain Hook, who also tries to poison Peter's medicine while the boy is asleep. When Peter awakes, he learns from the fairy Tinker Bell that Wendy has been kidnapped – in an effort to please Wendy, he goes to drink his medicine. Tink does not have time to warn him of the poison, and instead drinks it herself, causing her near death. Tink tells him she could be saved if children believed in fairies. In one of the play's most famous moments, Peter turns to the audience watching the play and begs those who believe in fairies to clap their hands.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nAt this there is usually an explosion of handclapping from the audience, and Tinker Bell is saved.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nPeter heads to the ship. On the way, he encounters the ticking crocodile; Peter decides to copy the tick, so any animals will recognise it and leave him unharmed. He does not realise that he is still ticking as he boards the ship, where Hook cowers, mistaking him for the crocodile. While the pirates are searching for the croc, Peter sneaks into the cabin to steal the keys and frees the Lost Boys. When the pirates investigate a noise in the cabin, Peter defeats them. When he finally reveals himself, he and Hook fall to the climactic battle, which Peter easily wins. He kicks Hook into the jaws of the waiting crocodile, and Hook dies with the satisfaction that Peter had literally kicked him off the ship, which Hook considers \\\"bad form\\\". Then Peter takes control of the ship, and sails the seas back to London.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nIn the end, Wendy decides that her place is at home, much to the joy of her heartsick mother. Wendy then brings all the boys but Peter back to London. Before Wendy and her brothers arrive at their house, Peter flies ahead, to try and bar the window so Wendy will think her mother has forgotten her. But when he learns of Mrs Darling's distress, he bitterly leaves the window open and flies away. Peter returns briefly, and he meets Mrs. Darling, who has agreed to adopt the Lost Boys. She offers to adopt Peter as well, but Peter refuses, afraid they will \\\"catch him and make him a man.\\\" It is hinted that Mary Darling knew Peter when she was a girl, because she is left slightly changed when Peter leaves.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nPeter promises to return for Wendy every spring. The end of the play finds Wendy looking out through the window and saying into space, \\\"You won't forget to come for me, Peter? Please, please don't forget.\\\"\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nWhen Wendy Grew Up. An Afterthought\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nFour years after the premiere of the original production of Peter Pan, Barrie wrote an additional scene entitled When Wendy Grew Up. An Afterthought, later included in the final chapter of Peter and Wendy. In this scene, Peter returns for Wendy years later. But she is now grown up with a daughter of her own named Jane. It is also revealed Wendy married one of the Lost Boys, although this is not mentioned in the novel, and it is never revealed which one she did marry. When Peter learns that Wendy has \\\"betrayed\\\" him by growing up, he is heartbroken until Jane agrees to come to Neverland as Peter's new mother. In the novel's last few sentences, Barrie mentions that Jane has grown up as well and that Peter now takes her daughter Margaret to Neverland. Barrie says this cycle will go on forever as long as children are \\\"gay and innocent and heartless\\\".\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nAn Afterthought is only occasionally used in productions of the play, but it made a poignant conclusion to the musical production starring Mary Martin, and provided the premise for Disney's sequel to their animated adaptation of the story, Return to Never Land. This epilogue was filmed for the 2003 film but not included in the final version, though a rough cut of the sequence was included as an extra on the DVD of the film.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nCharacters\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nPeter Pan\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nPeter Pan is one of the protagonists of the play and the novel. He is described in the novel as a young boy who still has all his first teeth; he wears clothes made of leaves (autumn leaves in the play, skeleton leaves in the novel) and plays the pipes. He is the only boy able to fly without the help of Tinker Bell's golden fairy dust. He is afraid of nothing except of mothers, fathers, and growing up. He cares about Wendy very much, but only sees her as a loving motherly figure, as opposed to a romantic and girlfriend/love interest. Barrie attributes this to \\\"the riddle of his very being\\\".\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe Darling Family\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nAccording to Barrie's description of the Darlings' house, the family lives in Bloomsbury, London.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\n*Wendy Darling – Wendy is the eldest child, their only daughter, and the protagonist of the novel. She loves the idea of homemaking and storytelling and wants to become a mother; her dreams consist of adventures in a little woodland house with her pet wolf. She bears a bit of (mutual) animosity toward Tiger Lily because of their similar affections toward Peter. She does not seem to feel the same way about Tinker Bell, but the fairy is constantly bad-mouthing her and even has attempted to have her killed. At the end of the novel, she has grown up and is married with a daughter (Jane) and a granddaughter (Margaret), although we are not told who her husband is. She is portrayed variously with blonde, brown, or black hair in different stories. While it is not clear whether or not she is in love with Peter, one can assume that she does have some feelings toward him. Wendy is often referred to as the \\\"mother\\\" of the Lost Boys and, while Peter also considers her to be his \\\"mother\\\", he takes on the \\\"father\\\" role, hinting that they play a married couple in their games.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nSeveral writers have stated that Barrie was the first to use the name Wendy in a published work, and that the source of the name was Barrie's childhood friend, Margaret Henley, 4-year-old daughter of poet William Ernest Henley, who pronounced the word \\\"friend\\\" as \\\"Fwiendy\\\", adapted by Barrie as \\\"Wendy\\\" in writing the play. There is some evidence that the name Wendy may be related to the Welsh name Gwendolyn, and it is also used as a diminutive variant of the eastern European name \\\"Wanda\\\", but prior to its use in the Peter Pan stories, the name was not used as an independent first name.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\n*John Darling – John is the middle child. He gets along well with Wendy, but he often argues with Michael. He is fascinated with pirates, and he once thought of becoming \\\"Redhanded Jack\\\". He dreams of living in an inverted boat on the sands, where he has no friends and spends his time shooting flamingos. He looks up to Peter Pan, but at times they clash due to Peter's nature of showing off. He also looks up to his father and dreams of running his firm one day when he is grown up. The character of John was named after Jack Llewelyn Davies. *Michael Darling – Michael is the youngest child. He is approximately five years old, as he still wears the pinafores young Edwardian boys wear. He looks up to John and Wendy, dreaming of living in a wigwam where his friends visit at night. He was named after Michael Llewelyn Davies. *Mr. and Mrs. Darling – George and Mary Darling are the children's loving parents. Mr. Darling is a pompous, blustering clerk in the City but kind at heart. Mary Darling is described as an intelligent, romantic lady. It is hinted that she knew Peter Pan before her children were born. Mr.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nDarling was named after the eldest Llewelyn Davies boy, George, and Mrs. Darling was named after Mary Ansell, Barrie's wife, although their personalities were based on Arthur and Sylvia Llewelyn Davies. In the stage version, the roles of Mr. Darling and Captain Hook are traditionally played by the same actor. *Nana – Nana is a Newfoundland dog who is employed as a nanny by the Darling family. Nana does not speak or do anything beyond the physical capabilities of a large dog, but acts with apparent understanding of her responsibilities. The character is played in stage productions by an actor in a dog costume. Barrie based the character of Nana on his dog [http://neverpedia.com/pan/Luath Luath], a Newfoundland. * Liza is the maidservant of the Darling family. She appears only in the first act, except in the 1954 musical in which she sees the Darling children fly off with Peter; when she tries stopping them, Michael sprinkles her with fairy dust and she ends up in Neverland. She returns with the children at the end. She is given two musical numbers in this adaptation.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nLost Boys\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\n*Tootles – Tootles is the humblest Lost Boy because he often misses out on their violent adventures. Although he is often stupid, he is always the first to defend Wendy. Ironically, he shoots her before meeting her for the first time because of Tinker Bell's trickery. He grows up to become a judge. *Nibs – Nibs is described as \\\"gay and debonair\\\", probably the bravest Lost Boy. He says the only thing he remembers about his mother is she always wanted a cheque-book; he says he would love to give her one...if he knew what a cheque-book was. He's also the oldest and best looking Lost Boy. *Slightly – Slightly is the most conceited because he believes he remembers the days before he was \\\"lost\\\". He is the only Lost Boy who \\\"knows\\\" his last name – he says his pinafore had the words \\\"Slightly Soiled\\\" written on the tag. He cuts whistles from the branches of trees, and dances to tunes he creates himself. Slightly is, apparently, a poor make-believer. He blows big breaths when he feels he is in trouble, and he eventually leads to Peter's almost-downfall. *Curly – Curly is the most troublesome Lost Boy.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nIn Disney's version of the story, he became \\\"Cubby\\\". *The Twins – First and Second Twin know little about themselves – they are not allowed to, because Peter Pan does not know what Twins are (he thinks that twins are two parts of the same person, which, while not entirely correct, is right in the sense that the Twins finish each other's sentences (at least, in the movie adaptation).\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nInhabitants of Neverland\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\n*Tiger Lily is the proud, beautiful princess of the Piccaninny Tribe. In the book, the Indians of Neverland were portrayed in a nature that is now regarded as stereotypical. Barrie portrayed them as primitive, warlike savages who spoke with guttural voice tones. She is apparently old enough to be married, but she refuses any suitors because she desires Peter over all. She is jealous of Wendy and Tinker Bell. Tiger Lily is nearly killed by Captain Hook when she is seen boarding the Jolly Roger with a knife in her mouth, but Peter saves her. *Tinker Bell is Peter Pan's fairy. She is described as a common fairy who mends pots and kettles and, though she is sometimes ill-behaved and vindictive, at other times she is helpful and kind to Peter (for whom she has romantic feelings). The extremes in her personality are explained by the fact that a fairy's size prevents her from holding more than one feeling at a time. In Barrie's book, by Peter's first annual return for Wendy, the boy has forgotten about Tinker Bell and suggests that she \\\"is no more\\\" for fairies do not live long.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\n*Captain James Hook is the vengeful pirate who lives to kill Peter Pan, not so much because Peter cut off his right hand, but because the boy is \\\"cocky\\\" and drives the genteel pirate to \\\"madness\\\". He is captain of the ship Jolly Roger. He attended Eton College before becoming a pirate and is obsessed with \\\"good form\\\". Hook meets his demise when a crocodile eats him. In the stage version, the same actor who plays Mr. Darling also plays this character. *Mr. Smee is an Irish nonconformist pirate. He is the boatswain of the Jolly Roger. Smee is one of only two pirates to survive Peter Pan's massacre. He then makes his living saying he was the only man James Hook ever feared. *Gentleman Starkey was once an usher at a public school. He is Captain Hook's first mate. Starkey is one of two pirates who escaped Peter Pan's massacre – he swims ashore and becomes baby-sitter to the Piccaninny Tribe. Peter Pan gives Starkey's hat to the Never Bird to use as a nest. * Fairies – In the novel Peter and Wendy, published in 1911, there are fairies on Neverland.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nIn the part of the story where Peter Pan and the Lost Boys built a house for Wendy on Neverland, Peter Pan stays up late that night to guard her from the pirates, but then the story says: \\\"After a time he fell asleep, and some unsteady fairies had to climb over him on their way home from an orgy. Any of the other boys obstructing the fairy path at night they would have mischiefed, but they just tweaked Peter's nose and passed on.\\\" In the early 20th century, the word \\\"orgy\\\" generally referred to a large group of people consuming alcohol. *Mermaids who live in the waters near Neverland reside within the Mermaids' Lagoon. They are described as being very beautiful and mysterious creatures but equally just as vain and malevolent. Barrie states in the novel Peter and Wendy that the mermaids are only friendly to Peter, and that they will intentionally splash or even attempt to drown anyone else if they come close enough. It is especially dangerous for mortals to go to Mermaids' Lagoon at night, because that's when the mermaids sing hauntingly in the moonlight and utter strange wailing cries to attract potential victims.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\n*The Crocodile is Captain Hook's nemesis. During a sword fight, Peter cut off Hook's right hand and fed it to a crocodile which followed Hook ever since, hungering for more. The crocodile also swallowed a clock which ticking warns Hook of its presence. At the end of the story, Captain Hook falls into the crocodile's mouth and is swallowed whole.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nMajor themes\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe play's subtitle \\\"The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up\\\" underscores the primary theme: the conflict between the innocence of childhood and the responsibility of adulthood. Peter has literally chosen not to make the transition from one to the other, and encourages the other children to do the same. However, the opening line of the novel, \\\"All children, except one, grow up\\\", and the conclusion of the story indicates that this wish is unrealistic, and there is an element of tragedy in the alternative.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nBarrie was very perspicacious in noticing many aspects of children's mental development decades before they were studied by cognitive psychologists. In particular, Peter lacks the mental capacity for secondary mental representation and cannot recollect the past, anticipate the future, consider two things as once or see things from another person's point of view. He is therefore amnesic, inconsequential, impulsive and callous.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThere is a slight romantic aspect to the story, which is sometimes played down or omitted completely. Wendy's flirtatious desire to kiss Peter, his desire for a mother figure, his conflicting feelings for Wendy, Tiger Lily, and Tinker Bell (each representing different female archetypes), and the symbolism of his fight with Captain Hook (traditionally played by the same actor as Wendy's father), all could possibly hint at a Freudian interpretation (see oedipus complex). Most children's adaptations of the play, including the 1953 Disney film, omit any romantic themes between Wendy and Peter, but Barrie's 1904 original, his 1911 novelisation, the 1954 Mary Martin musical, the 1924 and 2003 feature films, all hint at the romantic elements.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nStage productions\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe original stage production took place at the Duke of York's Theatre, London, on 27 December 1904. It starred Gerald du Maurier as Captain Hook and Mr Darling, and Nina Boucicault as Peter. Members of Peter's Band were Joan Burnett (Tootles), Christine Silver (Nibs), A. W. Baskcomb (Slightly), Alice DuBarry (Curly), Pauline Chase (1st twin), Phyllis Beadon (2nd twin). Besides du Maurier, the pirates were: George Shelton (Smee), Sidney Harcourt (Gentleman Starkey), Charles Trevor (Cookson), Frederick Annerley (Cecco), Hubert Willis (Mullins), James English (Jukes), John Kelt (Noodler). Philip Darwin played Great Big Little Panther, Miriam Nesbitt was Tiger Lily, and Ela Q. May played Liza, (credited ironically as \\\"Author of the Play\\\"). First Pirate was played by Gerald Malvern, Second Pirate by J. Grahame, Black Pirate by S. Spencer, Crocodile by A. Ganker & C. Lawton, and the Ostrich by G. Henson.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nTinker Bell was represented on stage by a darting light \\\"created by a small mirror held in the hand off-stage and reflecting a little circle of light from a powerful lamp\\\" and her voice was \\\"a collar of bells and two special ones that Barrie brought from Switzerland\\\". However, a Miss \\\"Jane Wren\\\" or \\\"Jenny Wren\\\" was listed among the cast on the programmes of the original productions as playing Tinker Bell: this was meant as a joke that fooled H.M. Inspector of Taxes, who sent her a tax demand.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nIt is traditional in productions of Peter Pan for Mr. Darling (the children's father) and Captain Hook to be played (or voiced) by the same actor. Although this was originally done simply to make full use of the actor (the characters appear in different sections of the story) with no thematic intent, some critics have perceived a similarity between the two characters as central figures in the lives of the children. It also brings a poignant juxtaposition between Mr. Darling's harmless bluster and Captain Hook's pompous vanity.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nCecilia Loftus played Peter in the 1905–1906 production. Pauline Chase took the role from the 1906–07 London season until 1914 while Zena Dare was Peter on tour during most of that period. Jean Forbes-Robertson became a well-known Pan in London in the 1920s and 1930s.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nFollowing the success of his original London production, Charles Frohman mounted a production in New York City at the Empire Theatre in 1905. The 1905 Broadway production starred Maude Adams, who would play the role on and off again for more than a decade and, in the U.S., was the actress most associated in the public's consciousness with the role for the next fifty years. It was produced again in the U.S. by the Civic Repertory Theater in November 1928 and December 1928, in which Eva LeGallienne directed and played the role of Peter Pan. Among musical theatre adaptations, the most successful in the U.S. has been an American musical version first produced on Broadway in 1954 starring Mary Martin, which was later videotaped for television and rebroadcast several times. Martin became the actress most associated with the role in the U.S. for several decades, although Sandy Duncan and Cathy Rigby each later toured extensively in this version and became well known in the role.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nAdaptations\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe story of Peter Pan has been a popular one for adaptation into other media. The story and its characters have been used as the basis for a number of motion pictures (live action and animated), stage musicals, television programs, a ballet, and ancillary media and merchandise. The best known of these are the 1953 animated feature film produced by Walt Disney featuring the voice of 15-year-old film actor Bobby Driscoll (one of the first male actors in the title role, which was traditionally played by women); the series of musical productions (and their televised presentations) starring Mary Martin, Sandy Duncan, and Cathy Rigby; and the 2003 live-action feature film produced by P. J. Hogan starring Jeremy Sumpter.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThere have been several additions to Peter Pan's story, including the authorised sequel novel Peter Pan in Scarlet, and the high-profile sequel films Return to Never Land and Hook. Various characters from the story have appeared in other places, especially Tinker Bell as a mascot and character of Disney. The characters are in the public domain in some jurisdictions, leading to unauthorised extensions to the mythos and uses of the characters. Some of these have been controversial, such as a series of prequels by Dave Barry and Ridley Pearson, and Lost Girls, a sexually explicit graphic novel by Alan Moore and Melinda Gebbie, featuring Wendy Darling and the heroines of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nCopyright status\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe copyright status of the story of Peter Pan and its characters has been the subject of dispute, particularly as the original version began to enter the public domain in various jurisdictions. In 1929, Barrie gave the copyright to the works featuring Peter Pan to Great Ormond Street Hospital (GOSH), Britain's leading children's hospital, and requested that the value of the gift should never be disclosed; this gift was confirmed in his will. GOSH has exercised these rights internationally to help support the work of the institution.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nUnited Kingdom\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe UK copyright originally expired at the end of 1987 (50 years after Barrie's death), but was revived in 1995 until 31 December 2007 by a directive to harmonise copyright laws within the EU. Meanwhile, in 1988, former Prime Minister James Callaghan sponsored a Parliamentary Bill granting a perpetual extension of some of the rights to the work, entitling the hospital to royalties for any performance, publication, or adaptation of the play. This is not a true perpetual copyright, however, as it does not grant the hospital creative control over the use of the material, nor the right to refuse permission to use it. The law also does not cover the Peter Pan section of The Little White Bird, which pre-dates the play and was not therefore an \\\"adaptation\\\" of it. The exact phrasing is in section 301 of, and Schedule 6 to, the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988:301.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe provisions of Schedule 6 have effect for conferring on trustees for the benefit of the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street, London, a right to a royalty in respect of the public performance, commercial publication, broadcasting or inclusion in a cable programme service of the play 'Peter Pan' by Sir James Matthew Barrie, or of any adaptation of that work, notwithstanding that copyright in the work expired on 31 December 1987.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nUnited States\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nGreat Ormond Street Hospital (GOSH) claims that U.S. legislation effective in 1978 and again in 1998, which extended the copyright of the play script published in 1928, gives them copyright over \\\"Peter Pan\\\" in general until 2023, although GOSH acknowledges that the copyright of the novel version, published in 1911, has expired in the United States.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nPreviously, GOSH's claim of U.S. copyright had been contested by various parties. J. E. Somma sued GOSH to permit the U.S. publication of her sequel After the Rain, A New Adventure for Peter Pan. GOSH and Somma settled out of court in March 2004, issuing a joint statement in which GOSH stated the work is a valuable contribution to the field of children's literature. Somma characterised her novel – which she had argued was a critique of the original work, rather than a mere derivative of it – as \\\"fair use\\\" of the hospital's \\\"U.S. intellectual property rights\\\". The suit was settled under terms of absolute secrecy. It did not set any legal precedent, however. Disney was a long-time licensee to the animation rights, and cooperated with the hospital when its copyright claim was clear, but in 2004 Disney published Dave Barry's and Ridley Pearson's Peter and the Starcatchers in the U.S., the first of several sequels, without permission and without making royalty payments. In 2006, Top Shelf Productions published in the U.S. Lost Girls, a pornographic graphic novel featuring Wendy Darling, also without permission or royalties.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nOther jurisdictions\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nThe original versions of the play and novel are in the public domain in countries where the term of copyright is 70 years (or less) after the death of the creators. This includes the European Union (except Spain), Australia, Canada (where Somma's book was first published without incident), and most other countries (see list of countries' copyright length). It is out of copyright in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, where copyright lasts 75 years after the author's death.\",\n \"Peter and Wendy\\n\\nHowever, the work is still under copyright in several countries: in Colombia and Spain until 2018, where the applicable term is 80 years after death. (It would also be under copyright in Côte d'Ivoire, Guatemala, and Honduras, but these countries recognise the \\\"rule of the shorter term\\\", which means that the term of the country of origin applies if it is shorter than their local term.)\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2092,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_41"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Who wrote the novel The 39 Steps?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"John Buchan"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["buchan john","buchan john sir","sir john buchan","john scantlebury blenkiron","lord tweedsmuir","john buchan 1st baron tweedsmuir","john buchan","baron tweedsmuir of elsfield","john buchan baron tweedsmuir","john sir buchan","buchanesque","john s blenkiron","john blenkiron"],"string":"[\n \"buchan john\",\n \"buchan john sir\",\n \"sir john buchan\",\n \"john scantlebury blenkiron\",\n \"lord tweedsmuir\",\n \"john buchan 1st baron tweedsmuir\",\n \"john buchan\",\n \"baron tweedsmuir of elsfield\",\n \"john buchan baron tweedsmuir\",\n \"john sir buchan\",\n \"buchanesque\",\n \"john s blenkiron\",\n \"john blenkiron\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nThe 39 Steps is a 1935 British thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock, starring Robert Donat and Madeleine Carroll. Very loosely based on the 1915 adventure novel The Thirty-Nine Steps by John Buchan, the film is about an everyman civilian in London, Richard Hannay, who becomes caught up in preventing an organization of spies called The 39 Steps from stealing British military secrets. After being mistakenly accused of the murder of a counter-espionage agent, Hannay goes on the run to Scotland with an attractive woman in the hopes of stopping the spy ring and clearing his name.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nPlot","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nAt a London music hall theatre, Richard Hannay (Robert Donat) is watching a demonstration of the superlative powers of recall of \"Mr. Memory\" (Wylie Watson) when shots are fired. In the ensuing panic, Hannay finds himself holding a seemingly frightened Annabella Smith (Lucie Mannheim), who talks him into taking her back to his flat. There, she tells him that she is a spy, being chased by assassins, and that she has uncovered a plot to steal vital British military information, masterminded by a man with the top joint missing from one of his fingers. She mentions the \"39 Steps\", but does not explain its meaning.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nLater that night, Smith bursts into Hannay's bedroom, fatally stabbed, and warns him to flee. He finds a map of the Scottish Highlands clutched in her hand, showing the area around Killin, with a house or farm named \"Alt-na-Shellach\" circled. He sneaks out of the watched flat disguised as a milkman and boards the Flying Scotsman express train to Scotland. He learns from a newspaper that he is the target of a nationwide manhunt for Smith's murderer. When he sees the police searching the train, he enters a compartment and kisses the sole occupant, Pamela (Madeleine Carroll), in a desperate attempt to escape detection. She frees herself from his unwanted embrace and alerts the policemen, who stop the train on the Forth Bridge. Hannay escapes, however.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nHe walks toward Alt-na-Shellach, staying the night in the house of a poor crofter (John Laurie) and his much younger wife (Peggy Ashcroft). Early the next morning, she sees a police car approaching and warns Hannay. Hannay flees, wearing the crofter's coat. At a bridge, he finds a sign for Alt-na-Shellach. He arrives at the house of the seemingly respectable Professor Jordan (Godfrey Tearle) and is let in after saying he has been sent by Anabella Smith. The police arrive, but Jordan sends them away and listens to Hannay's story. Jordan then reveals that he is missing part of a finger; he shoots Hannay and leaves him for dead.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nLuckily, the bullet is stopped by the crofter's hymn book in the coat pocket. Hannay drives into town and goes to the sheriff, who does not believe the fugitive's story since he knows Jordan well. Hannay's right wrist is handcuffed, but he jumps through a window and escapes by joining a march through the town. He tries to hide at a political meeting and is mistaken for the introductory speaker. He gives a rousing impromptu speech—without knowing anything about the candidate he is introducing—but is recognised by Pamela, who gives him up once more. He is taken away by \"policemen\" who ask Pamela to accompany them. They drive past the police station, claiming they have orders to go directly to Inveraray, but Hannay realises they are agents of the conspiracy when they take the wrong road. When the men get out to disperse a flock of sheep blocking the road, Hannay escapes, dragging the unwilling Pamela (to whom he is handcuffed) along.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nThey make their way across the countryside and stay the night at an inn. While he sleeps, Pamela manages to slip out of the handcuffs, but then overhears one of the fake policemen on the telephone, confirming Hannay's assertions. She returns to the room and sleeps on a sofa. The next morning, she tells him what she heard. He sends her to London to alert the police. No secret documents have been reported missing, however, so they do not believe her. Instead, they follow her.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nPamela leads them to the London Palladium. When Mr. Memory is introduced, Hannay recognises his theme music—the annoyingly catchy tune he has been unable to forget for days. Hannay realizes that the spies are using Mr. Memory to smuggle the secrets out. As the police take him into custody, he shouts, \"What are the 39 Steps?\" Mr. Memory compulsively answers, \"The 39 Steps is an organisation of spies, collecting information on behalf of the Foreign Office of ...\" Jordan shoots him and tries to flee, but is apprehended. The dying Mr. Memory recites the information stored in his brain—the design for a silent aircraft engine—and is then able to pass away peacefully, saying \"I'm glad it's off my mind.\"","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nThe film fades to an image of Hannay and Pamela's clasped hands as they stand at the side of the stage while the hurriedly ushered-on chorus line dance to an orchestrated version of the Jessie Matthews song \"Tinkle Tinkle Tinkle\".","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\n(Hitchcock had worked with Jessie Matthews on the film \"Waltzes From Vienna\" and reportedly didn't like her very much, but as well as the fade-out music to \"The 39 Steps\", he also used an orchestrated version of her song \"May I Have The Next Romance With You\" in the ballroom sequence of his film \"Young and Innocent\".)","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nCast","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\n* Robert Donat as Richard Hannay\n* Madeleine Carroll as Pamela\n* Lucie Mannheim as Annabella Smith\n* Godfrey Tearle as Professor Jordan\n* Peggy Ashcroft as Margaret, the crofter's wife\n* John Laurie as John, the crofter\n* Helen Haye as Mrs. Louisa Jordan, the professor's wife\n* Frank Cellier as Sheriff Watson\n* Wylie Watson as Mr. Memory\n* Gus McNaughton as Commercial Traveller\n* Jerry Verno as Commercial Traveller\n* Peggy Simpson as Maid\n* Matthew Boulton as Fake Policeman","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nAdaptation","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nThe script was originally written by Charles Bennett, who prepared the initial treatment in close collaboration with Hitchcock; Ian Hay then wrote some dialogue.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nThe film's plot departs substantially from John Buchan's novel, with scenes such as in the music hall and on the Forth Bridge absent from the book. Hitchcock also introduced the two major female characters, Annabella the spy and Pamela, reluctant companion. In this film, The 39 Steps refers to the clandestine organisation, whereas in the book and the other film versions it refers to physical steps, with the German spies being called \"The Black Stone\" . By having Annabella tell Hannay she is travelling to meet a man in Scotland (and produce a map with Alt-na-Shellach house circled) Hitchcock avoids the coincidence in Buchan's novel where Hannay, with the whole country in which to hide, chances to walk into the one house where the spy ringleader lives.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nProduction","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nThe 39 Steps was a major British film of its time. The production company, Gaumont-British, was eager to establish its films in international markets, and especially in the United States, and The 39 Steps was conceived as a prime vehicle towards this end. Where Hitchcock's previous film, The Man Who Knew Too Much, had costs of £40,000, The 39 Steps cost nearly £60,000. Much of the extra money went to the star salaries for Robert Donat and Madeleine Carroll. Both had already made films in Hollywood and were therefore known to American audiences. At a time when British cinema had few international stars, this was considered vital to the film's success. Hitchcock heard Scottish industrialist and aircraft pioneer James G. Weir commuted to work daily in an autogyro, and worked the aircraft into the film.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nReception","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nIt was voted the best British film of 1935.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nIt was the 17th most popular film at the British box office in 1935-36.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nOf the four major film versions of the novel, Hitchcock's film has been the most acclaimed. In 1999, the British Film Institute ranked it the fourth best British film of the 20th century; in 2004, Total Film named it the 21st greatest British movie ever made, and in 2011 ranked it the second-best book-to-film adaptation of all time.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nHitchcockian elements","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nThe 39 Steps is the second film (after the silent film The Lodger) in a line of Hitchcock films based upon an innocent man being forced on the run, including Saboteur (1942) and North by Northwest (1959).","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nAlfred Hitchcock cameo: A signature occurrence in most of Hitchcock's films. Towards the beginning of the film, both Hitchcock and the screenwriter Charles Bennett can be seen walking past a bus that Robert Donat and Lucie Mannheim board outside the music hall. The bus is on London Transport's number 25 route, which runs from Oxford Street through the East End and on to Leytonstone. As Glancy points out, this was familiar ground to Hitchcock, who lived in Leytonstone and then in Stepney (in the East End) as a youth. The director's appearance can thus be seen as an assertion of his connection with the area, but he was by no means romanticising it. As the bus pulls up he litters by throwing a cigarette packet on the ground.\nHitchcock is also seen briefly as a member of the audience scrambling to leave the music hall\nafter the shot is fired in the opening scene.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nIn the middle of the film, Hannay is shot in the chest with a revolver at close range, and a long fade out suggests that he has been killed. This jarringly unusual development – the main character is apparently killed while the story is still unfolding – anticipates Hitchcock's Psycho (1960), and the murder of Marion Crane in the Bates Motel. Hannay, however, was not truly dead. In the next scene it is revealed that a hymn book in his coat pocket prevented the bullet from killing him.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nThe film established the quintessential English 'Hitchcock blonde' Madeleine Carroll as the template for his succession of ice cold and elegant leading ladies. Of Hitchcock heroines as exemplified by Carroll, film critic Roger Ebert wrote: \"The female characters in his films reflected the same qualities over and over again: They were blonde. They were icy and remote. They were imprisoned in costumes that subtly combined fashion with fetishism. They mesmerised the men, who often had physical or psychological handicaps. Sooner or later, every Hitchcock woman was humiliated\".","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nAdaptations to other media","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\n* Hitchcock's film version of The 39 Steps was adapted as a radio play on Lux Radio Theater on 13 December 1937, starring Robert Montgomery and Ida Lupino. * Herbert Marshall starred in an adaptation of The 39 Steps on Suspense on radio, on 3 March 1952. * The West End and Broadway stage comedy The 39 Steps, first premiering in 2005, is adapted primarily from the plot of the Hitchcock film. * The 39 Steps was remade by the BBC in 2008, starring Rupert Penry-Jones, Lydia Leonard, Patrick Malahide and Eddie Marsan. *In the Sesame Street segment \"Monsterpiece Theater\" Alistair Cookie (Cookie Monster) introduces the audience to the thriller film, \"The 39 Stairs\" (\"By a guy named Alfred...\"). Grover in a film noir setting climbs a set of stairs counting each one as he ascends. Once he reaches the top he finds a brick wall. Instead of climbing back down, Grover slides down the banister. *In chapter 10 of J.D. Salinger's \"The Catcher in the Rye\", the protagonist Holden Caulfield recounts the admiration that he and his younger sister, Phoebe, have for the movie: \"Her favorite [movie] is The 39 Steps, though, with Robert Donat.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nShe knows the whole goddam movie by heart, because I've taken her to see it about ten times. When old Donat comes up to this Scotch farmhouse, for instance, when he's running away from the cops and all, Phoebe'll say right out loud in the movie--right when the Scotch guy in the picture says it--\"Can you eat the herring?\" She knows all the talk by heart...\"","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nCopyright status","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nOn 18 January 2012 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the copyright clause of the U.S. Constitution does not prevent the United States from meeting its treaty obligations towards copyright protection for foreign works. Following the ruling, notable films such as The 39 Steps and The Third Man (1949) were taken back out of the public domain and became fully protected under American copyright law. Despite this, there are versions of the film in the internet continuing to leak online.","The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nThe rights to the film are currently owned by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThe Thirty-Nine Steps is an adventure novel by the Scottish author John Buchan. It first appeared as a serial in Blackwood's Magazine in August and September 1915 before being published in book form in October that year by William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh. It is the first of five novels featuring Richard Hannay, an all-action hero with a stiff upper lip and a miraculous knack for getting himself out of sticky situations.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThe novel formed the basis for a number of film adaptations, notably: Alfred Hitchcock's 1935 version; a 1959 colour remake; a 1978 version which is perhaps most faithful to the novel; and a 2008 version for British television.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nBackground","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nJohn Buchan wrote The Thirty-Nine Steps while he was ill in bed with a duodenal ulcer, an illness which remained with him all his life. The novel was his first \"shocker\", as he called it — a story combining personal and political dramas. The novel marked a turning point in Buchan's literary career and introduced his adventuring hero, Richard Hannay. He described a \"shocker\" as an adventure where the events in the story are unlikely and the reader is only just able to believe that they really happened.[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article4263879.ece?token\nnull&offset0&page\n1 \"Lord Tweedsmuir: novelist and son of John Buchan\"], obituary, The Times of London, July 4, 2008 (\"In 1990 [William] Buchan published a memoir of his own early life, The Rags of Time, in which he described his family life [...]\"), retrieved December 8, 2008","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nBuchan's son, William, later wrote that the name of the book originated when the author's daughter was counting the stairs at a private nursing home in Broadstairs, where Buchan was convalescing. \"There was a wooden staircase leading down to the beach. My sister, who was about six, and who had just learnt to count properly, went down them and gleefully announced: there are 39 steps.\" Some time later the house was demolished and a section of the stairs, complete with a brass plaque, was sent to Buchan. The mysterious phrase Thirty-Nine Steps, first mentioned by the character Franklin Scudder, becomes the title of the novel and the solution to its meaning is a thread that runs through the whole story.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nPlot summary","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThe novel is set during May and June 1914; war was evident in Europe, Richard Hannay the protagonist and narrator, an expatriate Scot, returns to his new home, a flat in London, after a long stay in Rhodesia, in order to begin a new life. One night he is buttonholed by a stranger, a well-travelled American, who claims to be in fear for his life. The man appears to know of an anarchist plot to destabilise Europe, beginning with a plan to assassinate the Greek Premier, Constantine Karolides, during his forthcoming visit to London. The man reveals his name to be Franklin P. Scudder, a freelance spy, and remarks that he is dead, which holds Hannay's attention. Scudder explains that he has faked his own death in order to avert suspicion. Scudder claims to be following a ring of German spies called the Black Stone who are trying to steal British plans for the outbreak of war. Hannay lets Scudder hide in his flat, and sure enough the next day another man is discovered having apparently committed suicide in the same building. Four days later Hannay returns home to find Scudder dead with a knife through his heart.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nHannay fears that the murderers will come for him next, but cannot ask the police for help because he is the most likely suspect for the murders because he lived in the same building. Not only does he want to avoid imprisonment, but he also feels a duty to take up Scudder's cause and save Karolides from the assassination, planned in three weeks' time. He decides to go into hiding in Scotland and then to contact the authorities at the last minute. In order to escape from his flat unseen, he bribes the milkman into lending him his uniform and exits wearing it, escaping from the German spies watching the house. Carrying Scudder's pocket-book, he catches an express train leaving from London St. Pancras station. Hannay fixes upon Galloway, in south-west Scotland, as a suitably remote place in which to make his escape and remembers somehow the town of Newton-Stewart, which he names as his destination when he buys his ticket from the guard.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nArriving at a remote station somewhere in Galloway (apparently not Newton Stewart itself), Hannay lodges in a shepherd's cottage. The next morning he reads in a newspaper that the police are looking for him in Scotland. Reasoning that the police would expect him to head for a port on the West Coast, he doubles back and boards a local train heading east, but jumps off between stations. He is seen but escapes, finding an inn where he stays the night. He tells the innkeeper a modified version of his story, and the man is persuaded to shelter him. While staying at the inn, Hannay cracks the substitution cipher used in Scudder's pocket-sized book. The next day two men arrive at the inn looking for Hannay, but the innkeeper sends them away. When they return later, Hannay steals their car and escapes.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nOn his way, Hannay reflects on what he has learnt from Scudder's notes. They contradict the story that Scudder first told to him, and mention an enemy group called the Black Stone and the mysterious Thirty-nine Steps. The United Kingdom appears to be in danger of an invasion by Germany and its allies. By this time, Hannay is being pursued by an aeroplane, and a policeman in a remote village has tried to stop him. Trying to avoid an oncoming car, Hannay crashes his own, but the other driver offers to take him home. The man is Sir Harry, a local landowner and prospective politician, although politically very naïve. When he learns of Hannay's experiences in South Africa, he invites him to address an election meeting that afternoon. Hannay's speech impresses Sir Harry, and Hannay feels able to trust him with his story. Sir Harry writes an introductory letter about Hannay to a relation in the Foreign Office.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nHannay leaves Sir Harry and tries to hide in the countryside, but is spotted by the aeroplane. Soon he spots a group of men on the ground searching for him. Miraculously, he meets a road mender out on the moor, and swaps places with him, sending the workman home. His disguise fools his pursuers, who pass him by. On the same road he meets, in a passing touring car, a Society sycophant whom he recognizes from London and whom he forces to exchange clothes with him and drive him off the moor.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThe next day, Hannay manages to stay ahead of the pursuers, and hides in a cottage occupied by an elderly man. Unfortunately, the man turns out to be one of the enemy, and with his accomplices he locks Hannay into his storage room. Fortunately, the room in which Hannay is locked is full of bomb-making materials, which he uses to break out of the cottage, injuring himself in the process.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nA day later, Hannay retrieves his possessions from the helpful road mender and stays for a few days to recover from the explosion. He dines at a Public House in Moffat before walking to the junction at Beattock to catch a southbound train to England, changing at Crewe, Birmingham New Street and Reading, to meet Sir Harry's relative at the Foreign Office, Sir Walter Bullivant, at his country home in Berkshire. As they discuss Scudder's notes, Sir Walter receives a phone call to tell him that Karolides has been assassinated.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nSir Walter, now at his house in London, lets Hannay in on some military secrets before releasing him to go home. Hannay is unable to shake off his sense of involvement in important events, and returns to Sir Walter's house where a high-level meeting is in progress. As one of the men, ostensibly the First Sea Lord, leaves the meeting, Hannay recognizes him as one of his former pursuers in Scotland. Hannay warns Sir Walter and the other officials that the man was an impostor, and they realise the spy is about to return to Europe with the information he has obtained from their meeting. At that point, Hannay realises that the phrase \"the thirty-nine steps\" could refer to the landing-point in England from which the spy is about to set sail. Throughout the night, Hannay and the British military leaders try to work out the meaning of the mysterious phrase.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nAfter some reasoning worthy of Sherlock Holmes, and with the help of a knowledgeable coastguard, the group decide on a coastal town in Kent. They find a path down from the cliff that has thirty-nine steps. Just offshore they see a yacht. Posing as fishermen, some of the party visit the yacht, the Ariadne, and find that at least one of the crew appears to be German. The only people onshore are playing tennis by a villa and appear to be English, but they match Scudder's description of the conspirators, The Black Stone. Hannay, alone, confronts the men at the villa. After a struggle, two of the men are captured while the third flees to the yacht, which meanwhile has been seized by the British authorities. The plot is thwarted, and the United Kingdom enters the First World War, having kept its military secrets from the enemy.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nOn the outbreak of war, Hannay joins the New Army and is immediately commissioned captain.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nLiterary significance and criticism","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThe Thirty-Nine Steps is one of the earliest examples of the 'man-on-the-run' thriller archetype subsequently adopted by Hollywood as an often-used plot device. In The Thirty-Nine Steps, Buchan holds up Richard Hannay as an example to his readers of an ordinary man who puts his country’s interests before his own safety. The story was a great success with the men in the First World War trenches. One soldier wrote to Buchan, \"The story is greatly appreciated in the midst of mud and rain and shells, and all that could make trench life depressing.\"","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nRichard Hannay continued his adventures in four subsequent books. Two were set during the war when Hannay continued his undercover work against the Germans and their allies the Turks in Greenmantle and Mr Standfast. The other two stories, The Three Hostages and The Island of Sheep were set in the post war period when Hannay's opponents were criminal gangs.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nCharacters in The Thirty-Nine Steps","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\n*Richard Hannay – an expatriate Scot recently returned from Southern Africa, protagonist and narrator\n*Franklin P. Scudder – freelance spy\n*Karolides – Greek Premier under threat of assassination. He never appears and is alluded to only.\n*Sir Harry – a Scottish landowner and would-be politician\n*Sir Walter Bullivant – Sir Harry's relation at the Foreign Office","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nContents","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\n*I. The Man Who Died.\n*II. The Milkman Sets Out on His Travels.\n*III. The Adventure of the Literary Innkeeper.\n*IV. The Adventure of the Radical Candidate.\n*V. The Adventure of the Spectacled Roadman.\n*VI. The Adventure of the Bald Archaeologist.\n*VII. The Dry-Fly Fisherman.\n*VIII. The Coming of the Black Stone.\n*IX. The Thirty-Nine Steps.\n*X. Various Parties Converging on the Sea.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nRadio, film, TV or theatrical adaptations","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThere have been several film versions of the book; all depart substantially from the text, for example, by introducing a love interest absent from the original novel. For the films, the title is often abbreviated to The 39 Steps, but the full title is more commonly used for the book and for the 1978 adaptation.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nRadio","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nOn 1 August 1939, Orson Welles starred in a radio adaptation of the novel on The Mercury Theatre on the Air .","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nGlenn Ford starred in an adaptation on the 23 March 1948, broadcast of Studio One with Everett Sloane, Mercedes McCambridge and Kathleen Cordell.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nHerbert Marshall starred in a radio adaptation on the 3 March 1952, broadcast of Suspense.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThe BBC has broadcast four different adaptations: the first was a six-part drama in 1939 starring Jack Livesey as Hannay; in 1960 another six-part drama was aired with James Mckechnie as Hannay; a 90-minute version starring David Rintoul as Hannay, directed by Patrick Rayner, aired 28 December 1989; and a two-part adaptation on BBC Radio 4 in March 2001, starring David Robb as Hannay with Tom Baker as Sir Walter Bullivant, was adapted by Bert Coules.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\n1935","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThe 1935 black and white film adaptation directed by Alfred Hitchcock departs substantially from the book. It stars Robert Donat as Hannay and Madeleine Carroll as the woman he meets on the train. It is regarded by critics as the superior film version. This was the first Hitchcock film based upon the idea of an \"innocent man on the run,\" such as Saboteur and North by Northwest. Scholars of his films regard this film as one of his best variations upon this particular theme. In 1999 it came 4th in a BFI poll of British films and in 2004 Total Film named it the 21st greatest British film of all time.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\n1959","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThe 1959 film directed by Ralph Thomas was the first colour version, starring Kenneth More as Hannay and Taina Elg as Miss Fisher. The film is closely based on Hitchcock's adaptation, including the music-hall finale with \"Mr Memory\" and Hannay's escape from a train on the Forth Bridge, scenes not present in the book. It features a musical score by Clifton Parker.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\n1978","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThe 1978 version was directed by Don Sharp and starred Robert Powell as Hannay, Karen Dotrice as Alex, John Mills as Colonel Scudder and a host of other well-known British actors in smaller parts. It is generally regarded as the closest to the book, being set at the same time as the novel was, pre-Great War, but still bears little resemblance to Buchan's original story. It is well remembered for its climax (bearing no relation to the novel's denouement), which sees Hannay hanging from the hands of Big Ben. The film was followed by a spin-off television series, Hannay, starring Powell, featuring adventures occurring prior to the events in The Thirty Nine Steps.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\n1995, 2005","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nA comic theatrical adaptation by Simon Corble and Nobby Dimon for a cast of four actors premiered in 1995 at the Georgian Theatre Royal in Richmond, North Yorkshire, before embarking on a tour of village halls across the north of England. In 2005 Patrick Barlow rewrote the script, keeping the scenes, staging and small-scale feel, and in June 2005 this re-adaption premiered at the West Yorkshire Playhouse, The play then opened in London's Tricycle Theatre, and after a successful run transferred to the Criterion Theatre in Piccadilly where it is still running as of August 2015. Although drawing on Buchan's novel, it is strongly influenced by Hitchcock's 1935 film adaptation. On 15 January 2008, the show made its US Broadway premiere at the American Airlines Theatre; it transferred to the Cort Theatre on 29 April 2008 and then moved to the Helen Hayes Theatre on 21 January 2009, where it ended its run on 10 January 2010. It reopened on Stage One of New York's Off-Broadway venue New World Stages on 25 March 2010 and closed on 15 April 2010.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThe Broadway production received six Tony Award nominations, winning two—Best Lighting Design and Best Sound Design with the London show winning an Olivier in 2007 and two Tony Awards in 2008. The play also won the Drama Desk Award, Unique Theatrical Experience.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\n2008","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThe BBC commissioned a new television adaptation of the novel, scripted by Lizzie Mickery and produced by BBC Scotland's drama unit. The 90 minute film stars Rupert Penry-Jones as Richard Hannay and was broadcast on 28 December 2008 A romantic subplot was added to the story, featuring Lydia Leonard. The storyline only very tenuously follows that of the book, many characters being renamed, or omitted altogether. The film ends with a scene involving a submarine in a Scottish loch, rather than the original setting off the Kent coast, and the apparent death of one character.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nAlso, in 2008, Penguin Books adapted the story as interactive fiction under the authorship of Charles Cumming calling it The 21 Steps.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nVideo game","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nA digital adaptation of Buchan's book, created with Unity, was created by Scottish developer the Story Mechanics and released on 25 April 2013, for Windows, OS X, Linux and iPad. This version is entirely faithful to the plot of the book.","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nThe real thirty-nine steps","The Thirty-Nine Steps\n\nBuchan wrote the book while he was recuperating from illness at a house called St Cuby, Cliff Promenade, Broadstairs. As mentioned in the Background section, the original steps were demolished, and a part of them were sent to Buchan. They were replaced by concrete, and this set of steps still runs from the garden to the beach."],"string":"[\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nThe 39 Steps is a 1935 British thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock, starring Robert Donat and Madeleine Carroll. Very loosely based on the 1915 adventure novel The Thirty-Nine Steps by John Buchan, the film is about an everyman civilian in London, Richard Hannay, who becomes caught up in preventing an organization of spies called The 39 Steps from stealing British military secrets. After being mistakenly accused of the murder of a counter-espionage agent, Hannay goes on the run to Scotland with an attractive woman in the hopes of stopping the spy ring and clearing his name.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nPlot\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nAt a London music hall theatre, Richard Hannay (Robert Donat) is watching a demonstration of the superlative powers of recall of \\\"Mr. Memory\\\" (Wylie Watson) when shots are fired. In the ensuing panic, Hannay finds himself holding a seemingly frightened Annabella Smith (Lucie Mannheim), who talks him into taking her back to his flat. There, she tells him that she is a spy, being chased by assassins, and that she has uncovered a plot to steal vital British military information, masterminded by a man with the top joint missing from one of his fingers. She mentions the \\\"39 Steps\\\", but does not explain its meaning.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nLater that night, Smith bursts into Hannay's bedroom, fatally stabbed, and warns him to flee. He finds a map of the Scottish Highlands clutched in her hand, showing the area around Killin, with a house or farm named \\\"Alt-na-Shellach\\\" circled. He sneaks out of the watched flat disguised as a milkman and boards the Flying Scotsman express train to Scotland. He learns from a newspaper that he is the target of a nationwide manhunt for Smith's murderer. When he sees the police searching the train, he enters a compartment and kisses the sole occupant, Pamela (Madeleine Carroll), in a desperate attempt to escape detection. She frees herself from his unwanted embrace and alerts the policemen, who stop the train on the Forth Bridge. Hannay escapes, however.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nHe walks toward Alt-na-Shellach, staying the night in the house of a poor crofter (John Laurie) and his much younger wife (Peggy Ashcroft). Early the next morning, she sees a police car approaching and warns Hannay. Hannay flees, wearing the crofter's coat. At a bridge, he finds a sign for Alt-na-Shellach. He arrives at the house of the seemingly respectable Professor Jordan (Godfrey Tearle) and is let in after saying he has been sent by Anabella Smith. The police arrive, but Jordan sends them away and listens to Hannay's story. Jordan then reveals that he is missing part of a finger; he shoots Hannay and leaves him for dead.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nLuckily, the bullet is stopped by the crofter's hymn book in the coat pocket. Hannay drives into town and goes to the sheriff, who does not believe the fugitive's story since he knows Jordan well. Hannay's right wrist is handcuffed, but he jumps through a window and escapes by joining a march through the town. He tries to hide at a political meeting and is mistaken for the introductory speaker. He gives a rousing impromptu speech—without knowing anything about the candidate he is introducing—but is recognised by Pamela, who gives him up once more. He is taken away by \\\"policemen\\\" who ask Pamela to accompany them. They drive past the police station, claiming they have orders to go directly to Inveraray, but Hannay realises they are agents of the conspiracy when they take the wrong road. When the men get out to disperse a flock of sheep blocking the road, Hannay escapes, dragging the unwilling Pamela (to whom he is handcuffed) along.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nThey make their way across the countryside and stay the night at an inn. While he sleeps, Pamela manages to slip out of the handcuffs, but then overhears one of the fake policemen on the telephone, confirming Hannay's assertions. She returns to the room and sleeps on a sofa. The next morning, she tells him what she heard. He sends her to London to alert the police. No secret documents have been reported missing, however, so they do not believe her. Instead, they follow her.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nPamela leads them to the London Palladium. When Mr. Memory is introduced, Hannay recognises his theme music—the annoyingly catchy tune he has been unable to forget for days. Hannay realizes that the spies are using Mr. Memory to smuggle the secrets out. As the police take him into custody, he shouts, \\\"What are the 39 Steps?\\\" Mr. Memory compulsively answers, \\\"The 39 Steps is an organisation of spies, collecting information on behalf of the Foreign Office of ...\\\" Jordan shoots him and tries to flee, but is apprehended. The dying Mr. Memory recites the information stored in his brain—the design for a silent aircraft engine—and is then able to pass away peacefully, saying \\\"I'm glad it's off my mind.\\\"\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nThe film fades to an image of Hannay and Pamela's clasped hands as they stand at the side of the stage while the hurriedly ushered-on chorus line dance to an orchestrated version of the Jessie Matthews song \\\"Tinkle Tinkle Tinkle\\\".\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\n(Hitchcock had worked with Jessie Matthews on the film \\\"Waltzes From Vienna\\\" and reportedly didn't like her very much, but as well as the fade-out music to \\\"The 39 Steps\\\", he also used an orchestrated version of her song \\\"May I Have The Next Romance With You\\\" in the ballroom sequence of his film \\\"Young and Innocent\\\".)\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nCast\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\n* Robert Donat as Richard Hannay\\n* Madeleine Carroll as Pamela\\n* Lucie Mannheim as Annabella Smith\\n* Godfrey Tearle as Professor Jordan\\n* Peggy Ashcroft as Margaret, the crofter's wife\\n* John Laurie as John, the crofter\\n* Helen Haye as Mrs. Louisa Jordan, the professor's wife\\n* Frank Cellier as Sheriff Watson\\n* Wylie Watson as Mr. Memory\\n* Gus McNaughton as Commercial Traveller\\n* Jerry Verno as Commercial Traveller\\n* Peggy Simpson as Maid\\n* Matthew Boulton as Fake Policeman\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nAdaptation\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nThe script was originally written by Charles Bennett, who prepared the initial treatment in close collaboration with Hitchcock; Ian Hay then wrote some dialogue.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nThe film's plot departs substantially from John Buchan's novel, with scenes such as in the music hall and on the Forth Bridge absent from the book. Hitchcock also introduced the two major female characters, Annabella the spy and Pamela, reluctant companion. In this film, The 39 Steps refers to the clandestine organisation, whereas in the book and the other film versions it refers to physical steps, with the German spies being called \\\"The Black Stone\\\" . By having Annabella tell Hannay she is travelling to meet a man in Scotland (and produce a map with Alt-na-Shellach house circled) Hitchcock avoids the coincidence in Buchan's novel where Hannay, with the whole country in which to hide, chances to walk into the one house where the spy ringleader lives.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nProduction\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nThe 39 Steps was a major British film of its time. The production company, Gaumont-British, was eager to establish its films in international markets, and especially in the United States, and The 39 Steps was conceived as a prime vehicle towards this end. Where Hitchcock's previous film, The Man Who Knew Too Much, had costs of £40,000, The 39 Steps cost nearly £60,000. Much of the extra money went to the star salaries for Robert Donat and Madeleine Carroll. Both had already made films in Hollywood and were therefore known to American audiences. At a time when British cinema had few international stars, this was considered vital to the film's success. Hitchcock heard Scottish industrialist and aircraft pioneer James G. Weir commuted to work daily in an autogyro, and worked the aircraft into the film.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nReception\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nIt was voted the best British film of 1935.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nIt was the 17th most popular film at the British box office in 1935-36.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nOf the four major film versions of the novel, Hitchcock's film has been the most acclaimed. In 1999, the British Film Institute ranked it the fourth best British film of the 20th century; in 2004, Total Film named it the 21st greatest British movie ever made, and in 2011 ranked it the second-best book-to-film adaptation of all time.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nHitchcockian elements\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nThe 39 Steps is the second film (after the silent film The Lodger) in a line of Hitchcock films based upon an innocent man being forced on the run, including Saboteur (1942) and North by Northwest (1959).\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nAlfred Hitchcock cameo: A signature occurrence in most of Hitchcock's films. Towards the beginning of the film, both Hitchcock and the screenwriter Charles Bennett can be seen walking past a bus that Robert Donat and Lucie Mannheim board outside the music hall. The bus is on London Transport's number 25 route, which runs from Oxford Street through the East End and on to Leytonstone. As Glancy points out, this was familiar ground to Hitchcock, who lived in Leytonstone and then in Stepney (in the East End) as a youth. The director's appearance can thus be seen as an assertion of his connection with the area, but he was by no means romanticising it. As the bus pulls up he litters by throwing a cigarette packet on the ground.\\nHitchcock is also seen briefly as a member of the audience scrambling to leave the music hall\\nafter the shot is fired in the opening scene.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nIn the middle of the film, Hannay is shot in the chest with a revolver at close range, and a long fade out suggests that he has been killed. This jarringly unusual development – the main character is apparently killed while the story is still unfolding – anticipates Hitchcock's Psycho (1960), and the murder of Marion Crane in the Bates Motel. Hannay, however, was not truly dead. In the next scene it is revealed that a hymn book in his coat pocket prevented the bullet from killing him.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nThe film established the quintessential English 'Hitchcock blonde' Madeleine Carroll as the template for his succession of ice cold and elegant leading ladies. Of Hitchcock heroines as exemplified by Carroll, film critic Roger Ebert wrote: \\\"The female characters in his films reflected the same qualities over and over again: They were blonde. They were icy and remote. They were imprisoned in costumes that subtly combined fashion with fetishism. They mesmerised the men, who often had physical or psychological handicaps. Sooner or later, every Hitchcock woman was humiliated\\\".\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nAdaptations to other media\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\n* Hitchcock's film version of The 39 Steps was adapted as a radio play on Lux Radio Theater on 13 December 1937, starring Robert Montgomery and Ida Lupino. * Herbert Marshall starred in an adaptation of The 39 Steps on Suspense on radio, on 3 March 1952. * The West End and Broadway stage comedy The 39 Steps, first premiering in 2005, is adapted primarily from the plot of the Hitchcock film. * The 39 Steps was remade by the BBC in 2008, starring Rupert Penry-Jones, Lydia Leonard, Patrick Malahide and Eddie Marsan. *In the Sesame Street segment \\\"Monsterpiece Theater\\\" Alistair Cookie (Cookie Monster) introduces the audience to the thriller film, \\\"The 39 Stairs\\\" (\\\"By a guy named Alfred...\\\"). Grover in a film noir setting climbs a set of stairs counting each one as he ascends. Once he reaches the top he finds a brick wall. Instead of climbing back down, Grover slides down the banister. *In chapter 10 of J.D. Salinger's \\\"The Catcher in the Rye\\\", the protagonist Holden Caulfield recounts the admiration that he and his younger sister, Phoebe, have for the movie: \\\"Her favorite [movie] is The 39 Steps, though, with Robert Donat.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nShe knows the whole goddam movie by heart, because I've taken her to see it about ten times. When old Donat comes up to this Scotch farmhouse, for instance, when he's running away from the cops and all, Phoebe'll say right out loud in the movie--right when the Scotch guy in the picture says it--\\\"Can you eat the herring?\\\" She knows all the talk by heart...\\\"\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nCopyright status\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nOn 18 January 2012 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the copyright clause of the U.S. Constitution does not prevent the United States from meeting its treaty obligations towards copyright protection for foreign works. Following the ruling, notable films such as The 39 Steps and The Third Man (1949) were taken back out of the public domain and became fully protected under American copyright law. Despite this, there are versions of the film in the internet continuing to leak online.\",\n \"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\\n\\nThe rights to the film are currently owned by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThe Thirty-Nine Steps is an adventure novel by the Scottish author John Buchan. It first appeared as a serial in Blackwood's Magazine in August and September 1915 before being published in book form in October that year by William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh. It is the first of five novels featuring Richard Hannay, an all-action hero with a stiff upper lip and a miraculous knack for getting himself out of sticky situations.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThe novel formed the basis for a number of film adaptations, notably: Alfred Hitchcock's 1935 version; a 1959 colour remake; a 1978 version which is perhaps most faithful to the novel; and a 2008 version for British television.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nBackground\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nJohn Buchan wrote The Thirty-Nine Steps while he was ill in bed with a duodenal ulcer, an illness which remained with him all his life. The novel was his first \\\"shocker\\\", as he called it — a story combining personal and political dramas. The novel marked a turning point in Buchan's literary career and introduced his adventuring hero, Richard Hannay. He described a \\\"shocker\\\" as an adventure where the events in the story are unlikely and the reader is only just able to believe that they really happened.[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article4263879.ece?token\\nnull&offset0&page\\n1 \\\"Lord Tweedsmuir: novelist and son of John Buchan\\\"], obituary, The Times of London, July 4, 2008 (\\\"In 1990 [William] Buchan published a memoir of his own early life, The Rags of Time, in which he described his family life [...]\\\"), retrieved December 8, 2008\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nBuchan's son, William, later wrote that the name of the book originated when the author's daughter was counting the stairs at a private nursing home in Broadstairs, where Buchan was convalescing. \\\"There was a wooden staircase leading down to the beach. My sister, who was about six, and who had just learnt to count properly, went down them and gleefully announced: there are 39 steps.\\\" Some time later the house was demolished and a section of the stairs, complete with a brass plaque, was sent to Buchan. The mysterious phrase Thirty-Nine Steps, first mentioned by the character Franklin Scudder, becomes the title of the novel and the solution to its meaning is a thread that runs through the whole story.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nPlot summary\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThe novel is set during May and June 1914; war was evident in Europe, Richard Hannay the protagonist and narrator, an expatriate Scot, returns to his new home, a flat in London, after a long stay in Rhodesia, in order to begin a new life. One night he is buttonholed by a stranger, a well-travelled American, who claims to be in fear for his life. The man appears to know of an anarchist plot to destabilise Europe, beginning with a plan to assassinate the Greek Premier, Constantine Karolides, during his forthcoming visit to London. The man reveals his name to be Franklin P. Scudder, a freelance spy, and remarks that he is dead, which holds Hannay's attention. Scudder explains that he has faked his own death in order to avert suspicion. Scudder claims to be following a ring of German spies called the Black Stone who are trying to steal British plans for the outbreak of war. Hannay lets Scudder hide in his flat, and sure enough the next day another man is discovered having apparently committed suicide in the same building. Four days later Hannay returns home to find Scudder dead with a knife through his heart.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nHannay fears that the murderers will come for him next, but cannot ask the police for help because he is the most likely suspect for the murders because he lived in the same building. Not only does he want to avoid imprisonment, but he also feels a duty to take up Scudder's cause and save Karolides from the assassination, planned in three weeks' time. He decides to go into hiding in Scotland and then to contact the authorities at the last minute. In order to escape from his flat unseen, he bribes the milkman into lending him his uniform and exits wearing it, escaping from the German spies watching the house. Carrying Scudder's pocket-book, he catches an express train leaving from London St. Pancras station. Hannay fixes upon Galloway, in south-west Scotland, as a suitably remote place in which to make his escape and remembers somehow the town of Newton-Stewart, which he names as his destination when he buys his ticket from the guard.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nArriving at a remote station somewhere in Galloway (apparently not Newton Stewart itself), Hannay lodges in a shepherd's cottage. The next morning he reads in a newspaper that the police are looking for him in Scotland. Reasoning that the police would expect him to head for a port on the West Coast, he doubles back and boards a local train heading east, but jumps off between stations. He is seen but escapes, finding an inn where he stays the night. He tells the innkeeper a modified version of his story, and the man is persuaded to shelter him. While staying at the inn, Hannay cracks the substitution cipher used in Scudder's pocket-sized book. The next day two men arrive at the inn looking for Hannay, but the innkeeper sends them away. When they return later, Hannay steals their car and escapes.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nOn his way, Hannay reflects on what he has learnt from Scudder's notes. They contradict the story that Scudder first told to him, and mention an enemy group called the Black Stone and the mysterious Thirty-nine Steps. The United Kingdom appears to be in danger of an invasion by Germany and its allies. By this time, Hannay is being pursued by an aeroplane, and a policeman in a remote village has tried to stop him. Trying to avoid an oncoming car, Hannay crashes his own, but the other driver offers to take him home. The man is Sir Harry, a local landowner and prospective politician, although politically very naïve. When he learns of Hannay's experiences in South Africa, he invites him to address an election meeting that afternoon. Hannay's speech impresses Sir Harry, and Hannay feels able to trust him with his story. Sir Harry writes an introductory letter about Hannay to a relation in the Foreign Office.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nHannay leaves Sir Harry and tries to hide in the countryside, but is spotted by the aeroplane. Soon he spots a group of men on the ground searching for him. Miraculously, he meets a road mender out on the moor, and swaps places with him, sending the workman home. His disguise fools his pursuers, who pass him by. On the same road he meets, in a passing touring car, a Society sycophant whom he recognizes from London and whom he forces to exchange clothes with him and drive him off the moor.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThe next day, Hannay manages to stay ahead of the pursuers, and hides in a cottage occupied by an elderly man. Unfortunately, the man turns out to be one of the enemy, and with his accomplices he locks Hannay into his storage room. Fortunately, the room in which Hannay is locked is full of bomb-making materials, which he uses to break out of the cottage, injuring himself in the process.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nA day later, Hannay retrieves his possessions from the helpful road mender and stays for a few days to recover from the explosion. He dines at a Public House in Moffat before walking to the junction at Beattock to catch a southbound train to England, changing at Crewe, Birmingham New Street and Reading, to meet Sir Harry's relative at the Foreign Office, Sir Walter Bullivant, at his country home in Berkshire. As they discuss Scudder's notes, Sir Walter receives a phone call to tell him that Karolides has been assassinated.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nSir Walter, now at his house in London, lets Hannay in on some military secrets before releasing him to go home. Hannay is unable to shake off his sense of involvement in important events, and returns to Sir Walter's house where a high-level meeting is in progress. As one of the men, ostensibly the First Sea Lord, leaves the meeting, Hannay recognizes him as one of his former pursuers in Scotland. Hannay warns Sir Walter and the other officials that the man was an impostor, and they realise the spy is about to return to Europe with the information he has obtained from their meeting. At that point, Hannay realises that the phrase \\\"the thirty-nine steps\\\" could refer to the landing-point in England from which the spy is about to set sail. Throughout the night, Hannay and the British military leaders try to work out the meaning of the mysterious phrase.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nAfter some reasoning worthy of Sherlock Holmes, and with the help of a knowledgeable coastguard, the group decide on a coastal town in Kent. They find a path down from the cliff that has thirty-nine steps. Just offshore they see a yacht. Posing as fishermen, some of the party visit the yacht, the Ariadne, and find that at least one of the crew appears to be German. The only people onshore are playing tennis by a villa and appear to be English, but they match Scudder's description of the conspirators, The Black Stone. Hannay, alone, confronts the men at the villa. After a struggle, two of the men are captured while the third flees to the yacht, which meanwhile has been seized by the British authorities. The plot is thwarted, and the United Kingdom enters the First World War, having kept its military secrets from the enemy.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nOn the outbreak of war, Hannay joins the New Army and is immediately commissioned captain.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nLiterary significance and criticism\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThe Thirty-Nine Steps is one of the earliest examples of the 'man-on-the-run' thriller archetype subsequently adopted by Hollywood as an often-used plot device. In The Thirty-Nine Steps, Buchan holds up Richard Hannay as an example to his readers of an ordinary man who puts his country’s interests before his own safety. The story was a great success with the men in the First World War trenches. One soldier wrote to Buchan, \\\"The story is greatly appreciated in the midst of mud and rain and shells, and all that could make trench life depressing.\\\"\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nRichard Hannay continued his adventures in four subsequent books. Two were set during the war when Hannay continued his undercover work against the Germans and their allies the Turks in Greenmantle and Mr Standfast. The other two stories, The Three Hostages and The Island of Sheep were set in the post war period when Hannay's opponents were criminal gangs.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nCharacters in The Thirty-Nine Steps\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\n*Richard Hannay – an expatriate Scot recently returned from Southern Africa, protagonist and narrator\\n*Franklin P. Scudder – freelance spy\\n*Karolides – Greek Premier under threat of assassination. He never appears and is alluded to only.\\n*Sir Harry – a Scottish landowner and would-be politician\\n*Sir Walter Bullivant – Sir Harry's relation at the Foreign Office\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nContents\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\n*I. The Man Who Died.\\n*II. The Milkman Sets Out on His Travels.\\n*III. The Adventure of the Literary Innkeeper.\\n*IV. The Adventure of the Radical Candidate.\\n*V. The Adventure of the Spectacled Roadman.\\n*VI. The Adventure of the Bald Archaeologist.\\n*VII. The Dry-Fly Fisherman.\\n*VIII. The Coming of the Black Stone.\\n*IX. The Thirty-Nine Steps.\\n*X. Various Parties Converging on the Sea.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nRadio, film, TV or theatrical adaptations\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThere have been several film versions of the book; all depart substantially from the text, for example, by introducing a love interest absent from the original novel. For the films, the title is often abbreviated to The 39 Steps, but the full title is more commonly used for the book and for the 1978 adaptation.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nRadio\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nOn 1 August 1939, Orson Welles starred in a radio adaptation of the novel on The Mercury Theatre on the Air .\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nGlenn Ford starred in an adaptation on the 23 March 1948, broadcast of Studio One with Everett Sloane, Mercedes McCambridge and Kathleen Cordell.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nHerbert Marshall starred in a radio adaptation on the 3 March 1952, broadcast of Suspense.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThe BBC has broadcast four different adaptations: the first was a six-part drama in 1939 starring Jack Livesey as Hannay; in 1960 another six-part drama was aired with James Mckechnie as Hannay; a 90-minute version starring David Rintoul as Hannay, directed by Patrick Rayner, aired 28 December 1989; and a two-part adaptation on BBC Radio 4 in March 2001, starring David Robb as Hannay with Tom Baker as Sir Walter Bullivant, was adapted by Bert Coules.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\n1935\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThe 1935 black and white film adaptation directed by Alfred Hitchcock departs substantially from the book. It stars Robert Donat as Hannay and Madeleine Carroll as the woman he meets on the train. It is regarded by critics as the superior film version. This was the first Hitchcock film based upon the idea of an \\\"innocent man on the run,\\\" such as Saboteur and North by Northwest. Scholars of his films regard this film as one of his best variations upon this particular theme. In 1999 it came 4th in a BFI poll of British films and in 2004 Total Film named it the 21st greatest British film of all time.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\n1959\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThe 1959 film directed by Ralph Thomas was the first colour version, starring Kenneth More as Hannay and Taina Elg as Miss Fisher. The film is closely based on Hitchcock's adaptation, including the music-hall finale with \\\"Mr Memory\\\" and Hannay's escape from a train on the Forth Bridge, scenes not present in the book. It features a musical score by Clifton Parker.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\n1978\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThe 1978 version was directed by Don Sharp and starred Robert Powell as Hannay, Karen Dotrice as Alex, John Mills as Colonel Scudder and a host of other well-known British actors in smaller parts. It is generally regarded as the closest to the book, being set at the same time as the novel was, pre-Great War, but still bears little resemblance to Buchan's original story. It is well remembered for its climax (bearing no relation to the novel's denouement), which sees Hannay hanging from the hands of Big Ben. The film was followed by a spin-off television series, Hannay, starring Powell, featuring adventures occurring prior to the events in The Thirty Nine Steps.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\n1995, 2005\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nA comic theatrical adaptation by Simon Corble and Nobby Dimon for a cast of four actors premiered in 1995 at the Georgian Theatre Royal in Richmond, North Yorkshire, before embarking on a tour of village halls across the north of England. In 2005 Patrick Barlow rewrote the script, keeping the scenes, staging and small-scale feel, and in June 2005 this re-adaption premiered at the West Yorkshire Playhouse, The play then opened in London's Tricycle Theatre, and after a successful run transferred to the Criterion Theatre in Piccadilly where it is still running as of August 2015. Although drawing on Buchan's novel, it is strongly influenced by Hitchcock's 1935 film adaptation. On 15 January 2008, the show made its US Broadway premiere at the American Airlines Theatre; it transferred to the Cort Theatre on 29 April 2008 and then moved to the Helen Hayes Theatre on 21 January 2009, where it ended its run on 10 January 2010. It reopened on Stage One of New York's Off-Broadway venue New World Stages on 25 March 2010 and closed on 15 April 2010.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThe Broadway production received six Tony Award nominations, winning two—Best Lighting Design and Best Sound Design with the London show winning an Olivier in 2007 and two Tony Awards in 2008. The play also won the Drama Desk Award, Unique Theatrical Experience.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\n2008\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThe BBC commissioned a new television adaptation of the novel, scripted by Lizzie Mickery and produced by BBC Scotland's drama unit. The 90 minute film stars Rupert Penry-Jones as Richard Hannay and was broadcast on 28 December 2008 A romantic subplot was added to the story, featuring Lydia Leonard. The storyline only very tenuously follows that of the book, many characters being renamed, or omitted altogether. The film ends with a scene involving a submarine in a Scottish loch, rather than the original setting off the Kent coast, and the apparent death of one character.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nAlso, in 2008, Penguin Books adapted the story as interactive fiction under the authorship of Charles Cumming calling it The 21 Steps.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nVideo game\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nA digital adaptation of Buchan's book, created with Unity, was created by Scottish developer the Story Mechanics and released on 25 April 2013, for Windows, OS X, Linux and iPad. This version is entirely faithful to the plot of the book.\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nThe real thirty-nine steps\",\n \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\\n\\nBuchan wrote the book while he was recuperating from illness at a house called St Cuby, Cliff Promenade, Broadstairs. As mentioned in the Background section, the original steps were demolished, and a part of them were sent to Buchan. They were replaced by concrete, and this set of steps still runs from the garden to the beach.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2093,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_42"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which famous book, published in 1816, is sub-titled The Modern Prometheus?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Frankenstein"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["frankenstein novel","frankestein","frankinsteine","frankensteinian","modern prometheus","henry clerval","frankenstein or modern prometheus","lackington hughes harding mavor jones","frankenstein","frankenstein or modern prometheu","frankenstien","frankenstein book","doctor frankenstein","frankenstein modern prometheus"],"string":"[\n \"frankenstein novel\",\n \"frankestein\",\n \"frankinsteine\",\n \"frankensteinian\",\n \"modern prometheus\",\n \"henry clerval\",\n \"frankenstein or modern prometheus\",\n \"lackington hughes harding mavor jones\",\n \"frankenstein\",\n \"frankenstein or modern prometheu\",\n \"frankenstien\",\n \"frankenstein book\",\n \"doctor frankenstein\",\n \"frankenstein modern prometheus\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Prometheus\n\nPrometheus ( ; , meaning \"forethought\") is a Titan in Greek mythology, best known as the deity in Greek mythology who was the creator of mankind and its greatest benefactor, who stole fire from Mount Olympus and gave it to mankind.","Prometheus\n\nAncient myths and legends relate at least four versions of the narratives describing Prometheus, his exploits with Zeus, and his eternal punishment as also inflicted by Zeus. There is a single somewhat comprehensive version of the birth of Prometheus and several variant versions of his subjection to eternal suffering at the will of Zeus. The most significant narratives of his origin appear in the Theogony of Hesiod which relates Prometheus as being the son of the Titan Iapetus by Clymene, one of the Oceanids. Hesiod then presents Prometheus as subsequently being a lowly challenger to Zeus's omnipotence. In the trick at Mecone, Prometheus tricks Zeus into eternally claiming the inedible parts of cows and bulls for the sacrificial ceremonies of the gods, while conceding the nourishing parts to humans for the eternal benefit of humankind. The two remaining central episodes regarding Prometheus as written by Hesiod include his theft of fire from Olympus for the benefit of humanity against the will of Zeus, and the eternal punishment which Prometheus would endure for these acts as inflicted upon him by the judgment of Zeus.","Prometheus\n\nFor the greater part, the pre-Athenian ancient sources are selective in which of these narrative elements they chose by their own preferences to honor and support, and which ones they chose to exclude. The specific combinations of these relatively independent narrative elements by individual ancient authors (Hesiod, Homer, Pindar, Pythagoras), and specific exclusions among them, are often influenced by the particular needs and purposes of the larger myths and legends which they are depicting. Each individual ancient author selectively preferred certain crucial stories depicting Prometheus over others.","Prometheus\n\nThe intensive growth and expansion of Greek literature and philosophy in the classical fourth and fifth century Athenian period would greatly affect both the interpretation and influence which the myth of Prometheus would exert upon Athenian culture. This influence would extend beyond its dramatic and tragic form in the Athenian period, and influence large portions of the greater Western literary tradition which would follow it for over two millennia. All three of the major Athenian tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, were affected by the myth of Prometheus. The surviving plays and fragments of Aeschylus regarding Prometheus retain a special place of prominence within modern scholarship for their having survived the ravages of time. The majority of plays written by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides have been lost to literary antiquity, including many of their writings on Prometheus.","Prometheus\n\nBoth during and after the Renaissance, Prometheus would again emerge as a major inspiration for his literary and poetic significance as a symbol and archetype to inspire new generations of artists, sculptors, poets, musicians, novelists, playwrights, inventors, technologists, engineers, and film-makers. His literary and mythological personage remains prominently portrayed in contemporary sculpture, art and literary expression including Mary Shelley's portrayal of Frankenstein as The Modern Prometheus. The influence of the myth of Prometheus extends well into the 20th and 21st century as well.","Prometheus\n\nEtymology","Prometheus\n\nThe etymology of the theonym prometheus is debated. The classical view is that it signifies \"forethought,\" as that of his brother Epimetheus denotes \"afterthought\". It has been theorized that it derives from the Proto-Indo-European root that also produces the Vedic pra math, \"to steal,\" hence pramathyu-s, \"thief\", cognate with \"Prometheus\", the thief of fire. The Vedic myth of fire's theft by Mātariśvan is an analog to the Greek account. Pramantha was the tool used to create fire.","Prometheus\n\nMyths and legends","Prometheus\n\nThe oldest legends","Prometheus\n\nThe four most ancient sources for understanding the origin of the Prometheus myths and legends all rely on the images represented in the Titanomachy, or the cosmological struggle between the Greek gods and their parents, the Titans. Prometheus, himself a Titan, managed to avoid being in the direct confrontational cosmic battle between Zeus and the other Olympians against Cronus and the other Titans. Prometheus therefore survived the struggle in which the offending Titans were eternally banished by Zeus to the chthonic depths of Tartarus, only to survive to confront Zeus on his own terms in subsequent climactic struggles. The greater Titanomachia depicts an overarching metaphor of the struggle between generations, between parents and their children, symbolic of the generation of parents needing to eventually give ground to the growing needs, vitality, and responsibilities of the new generation for the perpetuation of society and survival interests of the human race as a whole. Prometheus and his struggle would be of vast merit to human society as well in this mythology as he was to be credited with the creation of humans and therefore all of humanity as well.","Prometheus\n\nThe four most ancient historical sources for the Prometheus myth are Hesiod, Homer, Pindar, and Pythagoras.","Prometheus\n\nHesiod and the Theogony and Works and Days","Prometheus\n\nThe Prometheus myth first appeared in the late 8th-century BCE Greek epic poet Hesiod's Theogony (lines 507–616). He was a son of the Titan Iapetus by Clymene, one of the Oceanids. He was brother to Menoetius, Atlas, and Epimetheus. In the Theogony, Hesiod introduces Prometheus as a lowly challenger to Zeus's omniscience and omnipotence. In the trick at Mekone, a sacrificial meal marking the \"settling of accounts\" between mortals and immortals, Prometheus played a trick against Zeus (545–557). He placed two sacrificial offerings before the Olympian: a selection of beef hidden inside an ox's stomach (nourishment hidden inside a displeasing exterior), and the bull's bones wrapped completely in \"glistening fat\" (something inedible hidden inside a pleasing exterior). Zeus chose the latter, setting a precedent for future sacrifices.","Prometheus\n\nHenceforth, humans would keep that meat for themselves and burn the bones wrapped in fat as an offering to the gods. This angered Zeus, who hid fire from humans in retribution. In this version of the myth, the use of fire was already known to humans, but withdrawn by Zeus. Prometheus, however, stole fire back in a giant fennel-stalk and restored it to humanity. This further enraged Zeus, who sent Pandora, the first woman, to live with humanity. Pandora was fashioned by Hephaestus out of clay and brought to life by the four winds, with all the goddesses of Olympus assembled to adorn her. \"From her is the race of women and female kind,\" Hesiod writes; \"of her is the deadly race and tribe of women who live amongst mortal men to their great trouble, no helpmeets in hateful poverty, but only in wealth.\"","Prometheus\n\nPrometheus, in eternal punishment, is chained to a rock in the Caucasus, Kazbek Mountain or Mountain of Khvamli, where his liver is eaten daily by an eagle, only to be regenerated by night, due to his immortality. The eagle is a symbol of Zeus himself. Years later, the Greek hero Heracles (Hercules) slays the eagle and frees Prometheus from the eagle's torment.","Prometheus\n\nHesiod revisits the story of Prometheus in the Works and Days (lines 42–105). Here, the poet expands upon Zeus's reaction to Prometheus's deception. Not only does Zeus withhold fire from humanity, but \"the means of life,\" as well (42). Had Prometheus not provoked Zeus's wrath (44–47), \"you would easily do work enough in a day to supply you for a full year even without working; soon would you put away your rudder over the smoke, and the fields worked by ox and sturdy mule would run to waste.\" Hesiod also expands upon the Theogonys story of the first woman, now explicitly called Pandora (\"all gifts\"). After Prometheus' theft of fire, Zeus sent Pandora in retaliation. Despite Prometheus' warning, Epimetheus accepted this \"gift\" from the gods. Pandora carried a jar with her, from which were released (91–92) \"evils, harsh pain and troublesome diseases which give men death\". Pandora shut the lid of the jar too late to contain all the evil plights that escaped, but foresight remained in the jar, depriving humanity from hope.","Prometheus\n\nAngelo Casanova, Professor of Greek Literature at the University of Florence, finds in Prometheus a reflection of an ancient, pre-Hesiodic trickster-figure, who served to account for the mixture of good and bad in human life, and whose fashioning of humanity from clay was an Eastern motif familiar in Enuma Elish; as an opponent of Zeus he was an analogue of the Titans, and like them was punished. As an advocate for humanity he gains semi-divine status at Athens, where the episode in Theogony in which he is liberated is interpreted by Casanova as a post-Hesiodic interpolation.","Prometheus\n\nAccording to the German classicist Karl-Martin Dietz, in Hesiod's scriptures, Prometheus represents the \"descent of mankind from the communion with the gods into the present troublesome life.\"","Prometheus\n\nHomer and the Homeric Hymns","Prometheus\n\nThe banishment of the warring Titans by the Olympians to the chthonic depths of Tartarus was documented as early as Homer's Iliad and the Odyssey where they are also identified as the hypotartarioi, or, the \"subterranean.\" The passages appear in the Iliad (XIV 279) and also in the Homeric hymn to Apollo (335). The particular forms of violence associated especially with the Titans are those of hybristes and atasthalie as further found in the Iliad (XIII 633-34). They are used by Homer to designate an unlimited, violent insolence among the warring Titans which only Zeus was able to ultimately overcome. This text finds direct parallel in Hesiod's reading in the Theogony (209) and in Homer's own Odyssey (XIX 406).","Prometheus\n\nIn the words of Kerenyi, \"Autolykos, the grandfather, is introduced in order that he may give his grandson the name of Odysseus.\" In a similar fashion, the origin of the naming of the Titans as a group has been disputed with some voicing a preference for reading it as a combination of titainein (to exert), and, titis (retribution) usually rendered as \"retribution meted out to the exertion of the Titans.\" It should be noted in studying material concerning Prometheus that Prometheus was not directly among the warring Titans with Zeus though Prometheus's association with them by lineage is a recurrent theme in each of his subsequent confrontations with Zeus and with the Olympian gods.","Prometheus\n\nPindar and the Nemean Odes","Prometheus\n\nThe duality of the gods and of humans standing as polar opposites is also clearly identified in the earliest traditions of Greek mythology and its legends by Pindar. In the sixth Nemean Ode, Pindar states: \"There is one/race of men, one race of gods; both have breath/of life from a single mother. But sundered power/holds us divided, so that one side is nothing, while on the other the brazen sky is established/a sure citadel forever.\" Although this duality in strikingly apparent in Pindar, it also has paradoxical elements where Pindar actually comes quite close to Hesiod who before him had said in his Works and Days (108) \"how the gods and mortal men sprang from one source.\" The understanding of Prometheus and his role in the creation of humans and the theft of fire for their benefit is therefore distinctly adapted within this distinguishable source for understanding the role of Prometheus within the mythology of the interaction of the Gods with humans.","Prometheus\n\nPythagoras and the Pythagorean Doctrine","Prometheus\n\nIn order to understand the Prometheus myth in its most general context, the Late Roman author Censorinus states in his book titled De die natali that, \"Pythagoras of Samos, Okellos of Lukania, Archytas of Tarentum, and in general all Pythagoreans were the authors and proponents of the opinion that the human race was eternal.\" By this they held that Prometheus's creation of humans was the creation of humanity for eternity. This Pythagorean view is further confirmed in the book On the Cosmos written by the Pythagorean Okellos of Lukania. Okellos, in his cosmology, further delineates the three realms of the cosmos as all contained within an overarching order called the diakosmesis which is also the world order kosmos, and which also must be eternal. The three realms were delineated by Okellos as having \"two poles, man on earth, the gods in heaven. Merely for the sake of symmetry, as it were, the daemons – not evil spirits but beings intermediate between God and man – occupy a middle position in the air, the realm between heaven and earth.","Prometheus\n\nThey were not a product of Greek mythology, but of the belief in daemons that had sprung up in various parts of the Mediterranean world and the Near East.\"","Prometheus\n\nThe Athenian tradition","Prometheus\n\nThe two major authors to have a distinctive influence on the development of the myths and legends surrounding the Titan Prometheus during the Socratic era of greater Athens were Aeschylus and Plato. The two men wrote in highly distinctive forms of expression which for Aeschylus centered on his mastery of the literary form of Greek tragedy, while for Plato this centered on the philosophical expression of his thought in the form of the various dialogues he had written and recorded during his lifetime.","Prometheus\n\nAeschylus and the ancient literary tradition","Prometheus\n\nPrometheus Bound, perhaps the most famous treatment of the myth to be found among the Greek tragedies, is traditionally attributed to the 5th-century BCE Greek tragedian Aeschylus. At the center of the drama are the results of Prometheus' theft of fire and his current punishment by Zeus; the playwright's dependence on the Hesiodic source material is clear, though Prometheus Bound also includes a number of changes to the received tradition.","Prometheus\n\nBefore his theft of fire, Prometheus played a decisive role in the Titanomachy, securing victory for Zeus and the other Olympians. Zeus's torture of Prometheus thus becomes a particularly harsh betrayal. The scope and character of Prometheus' transgressions against Zeus are also widened. In addition to giving humankind fire, Prometheus claims to have taught them the arts of civilization, such as writing, mathematics, agriculture, medicine, and science. The Titan's greatest benefaction for humankind seems to have been saving them from complete destruction. In an apparent twist on the myth of the so-called Five Ages of Man found in Hesiod's Works and Days (wherein Cronus and, later, Zeus created and destroyed five successive races of humanity), Prometheus asserts that Zeus had wanted to obliterate the human race, but that he somehow stopped him.","Prometheus\n\nMoreover, Aeschylus anachronistically and artificially injects Io, another victim of Zeus's violence and ancestor of Heracles, into Prometheus' story. Finally, just as Aeschylus gave Prometheus a key role in bringing Zeus to power, he also attributed to him secret knowledge that could lead to Zeus's downfall: Prometheus had been told by his mother Themis, who in the play is identified with Gaia (Earth), of a potential marriage that would produce a son who would overthrow Zeus. Fragmentary evidence indicates that Heracles, as in Hesiod, frees the Titan in the trilogy's second play, Prometheus Unbound. It is apparently not until Prometheus reveals this secret of Zeus's potential downfall that the two reconcile in the final play, Prometheus the Fire-Bringer or Prometheus Pyrphoros, a lost tragedy by Aeschylus.","Prometheus\n\nPrometheus Bound also includes two mythic innovations of omission. The first is the absence of Pandora's story in connection with Prometheus' own. Instead, Aeschylus includes this one oblique allusion to Pandora and her jar that contained Hope (252): \"[Prometheus] caused blind hopes to live in the hearts of men.\" Second, Aeschylus makes no mention of the sacrifice-trick played against Zeus in the Theogony. The four tragedies of Prometheus attributed to Aeschylus, most of which are sadly lost to the passages of time into antiquity, are Prometheus Bound (Desmotes), Prometheus Delivered (Lyomens), Prometheus the Fire Bringer (Pyrphoros), and Prometheus the Fire Kindler (Pyrkaeus).","Prometheus\n\nThe larger scope of Aeschylus as a dramatist revisiting the myth of Prometheus in the age of Athenian prominence has been discussed by William Lynch. Lynch's general thesis concerns the rise of humanist and secular tendencies in Athenian culture and society which required the growth and expansion of the mythological and religious tradition as acquired from the most ancient sources of the myth stemming from Hesiod. For Lynch, modern scholarship is hampered by not having the full trilogy of Prometheus by Aeschylus, the last two parts of which have been lost to antiquity. Significantly, Lynch further comments that although the Prometheus trilogy is not available, that the Orestia trilogy by Aeschylus remains available and may be assumed to provide significant insight into the overall structural intentions which may be ascribed to the Prometheus trilogy by Aeschylus as an author of significant consistency and exemplary dramatic erudition.","Prometheus\n\nHarold Bloom, in his research guide for Aeschylus, has summarized some of the critical attention that has been applied to Aeschylus concerning his general philosophical import in Athens. As Bloom states, \"Much critical attention has been paid to the question of theodicy in Aeschylus. For generations, scholars warred incessantly over 'the justice of Zeus,' unintentionally blurring it with a monotheism imported from Judeo-Christian thought. The playwright undoubtedly had religious concerns; for instance, Jacqueline de Romilly suggests that his treatment of time flows directly out of his belief in divine justice. But it would be an error to think of Aeschylus as sermonizing. His Zeus does not arrive at decisions which he then enacts in the mortal world; rather, human events are themselves an enactment of divine will.\"","Prometheus\n\nAccording to Thomas Rosenmeyer regarding the religious import of Aeschylus, \"In Aeschylus, as in Homer, the two levels of causation, the supernatural and the human, are co-existent and simultaneous, two way of describing the same event.\" Rosenmeyer insists that ascribing portrayed characters in Aeschylus should not conclude them to be either victims or agents of theological or religious activity too quickly. As Rosenmeyer states: \"[T]he text defines their being. For a critic to construct an Aeschylean theology would be as quixotic as designing a typology of Aeschylean man. The needs of the drama prevail.\"","Prometheus\n\nIn a rare comparison of Prometheus in Aeschylus with Oedipus in Sophocles, Harold Bloom with more than simple irony has quoted Freud as stating that, \"Freud called Oedipus an 'immoral play,' since the gods ordained incest and parricide. Oedipus therefore participates in our universal unconscious sense of guilt, but on this reading so do the gods. I (states Bloom) sometimes wish that Freud had turned to Aeschylus instead, and given us the Prometheus complex rather than the Oedipus complex.\"","Prometheus\n\nKarl-Martin Dietz states that in contrast to Hesiod's, in Aeschylus' oeuvre, Prometheus stands for the \"Ascent of humanity from primitive beginnings to the present level of civilization.\"","Prometheus\n\nPlato and philosophy","Prometheus\n\nOlga Raggio in her study \"The Myth of Prometheus\" for the Courtauld Institute attributes Plato in the Protagoras as an important contributor to the early development of the Prometheus myth. Raggio indicates that many of the more challenging and dramatic assertions which Aeschylean tragedy explores are absent from Plato's writings about Prometheus. As summarized by Raggio, \"After the gods have moulded men and other living creatures with a mixture of clay and fire, the two brothers Epimetheus and Prometheus are called to complete the task and distribute among the newly born creatures all sorts of natural qualities. Epimetheus sets to work, but, being unwise, distributes all the gifts of nature among the animals, leaving men naked and unprotected, unable to defend themselves and to survive in a hostile world. Prometheus then steals the fire of creative power from the workshop of Athena and Hephaistos and gives it to mankind.\" Raggio then goes on to point out Plato's distinction of creative power (techne) which is presented as superior to merely natural instincts (physis).","Prometheus\n\nFor Plato, only the virtues of \"reverence and justice can provide for the maintenance of a civilized society – and these virtues are the highest gift finally bestowed on men in equal measure.\" The ancients by way of Plato believed that the name Prometheus derived from the Greek prefix pro- (before) + manthano (intelligence) and the agent suffix -eus, thus meaning \"Forethinker\". In his dialogue titled Protagoras, Plato contrasts Prometheus with his dull-witted brother Epimetheus, \"Afterthinker\". In Plato's dialogue Protagoras, Protagoras asserts that the gods created humans and all the other animals, but it was left to Prometheus and his brother Epimetheus to give defining attributes to each. As no physical traits were left when the pair came to humans, Prometheus decided to give them fire and other civilizing arts.","Prometheus\n\nAthenian religious dedication and observance","Prometheus\n\nIt is understandable that since Prometheus was considered a Titan and not one of the Olympian gods that there would be an absence of evidence, with the exception of Athens, for the direct religious devotion to his worship. Despite his importance to the myths and imaginative literature of ancient Greece, the religious cult of Prometheus during the Archaic and Classical periods seems to have been limited. Writing in the 2nd century AD, the satirist Lucian points out that while temples to the major Olympians were everywhere, none to Prometheus is to be seen.","Prometheus\n\nAthens was the exception. The altar of Prometheus in the grove of the Academy was the point of origin for several significant processions and other events regularly observed on the Athenian calendar. For the Panathenaic festival, arguably the most important civic festival at Athens, a torch race began at the altar, which was located outside the sacred boundary of the city, and passed through the Kerameikos, the district inhabited by potters and other artisans who regarded Prometheus and Hephaestus as patrons. The race then traveled to the heart of the city, where it kindled the sacrificial fire on the altar of Athena on the Acropolis to conclude the festival. These footraces took the form of relays in which teams of runners passed off a flaming torch. According to Pausanias (2nd century AD), the torch relay, called lampadedromia or lampadephoria, was first instituted at Athens in honor of Prometheus. By the Classical period, the races were run by ephebes also in honor of Hephaestus and Athena. Prometheus' association with fire is the key to his religious significance and to the alignment with Athena and Hephaestus that was specific to Athens and its \"unique degree of cultic emphasis\" on honoring technology.","Prometheus\n\nThe festival of Prometheus was the Prometheia. The wreaths worn symbolized the chains of Prometheus.","Prometheus\n\nPausanias recorded a few other religious sites in Greece devoted to Prometheus. Both Argos and Opous claimed to be Prometheus' final resting place, each erecting a tomb in his honor. The Greek city of Panopeus had a cult statue that was supposed to honor Prometheus for having created the human race there.","Prometheus\n\nThe Aesthetic tradition in Athenian art","Prometheus\n\nPrometheus' torment by the eagle and his rescue by Heracles were popular subjects in vase paintings of the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. He also sometimes appears in depictions of Athena's birth from Zeus' forehead. There was a relief sculpture of Prometheus with Pandora on the base of Athena's cult statue in the Athenian Parthenon of the 5th century BCE. A similar rendering is also found at the great altar of Zeus at Pergamon from the second century BCE.","Prometheus\n\nThe event of the release of Prometheus from captivity was frequently revisited on Attic and Etruscan vases between the sixth and fifth centuries BCE. In the depiction on display at the Museum of Karlsruhe and in Berlin, the depiction is that of Prometheus confronted by a menacing large bird (assumed to be the eagle) with Hercules approaching from behind shooting his arrows at it. In the fourth century this imagery was modified to depicting Prometheus bound in a cruciform manner, possibly reflecting an Aeschylus-inspired manner of influence, again with an eagle and with Hercules approaching from the side.","Prometheus\n\nOther authors","Prometheus\n\nSome two dozen other Greek and Roman authors retold and further embellished the Prometheus myth from as early as the 5th century BCE (Diodorus, Herodorus) into the 4th century AD. The most significant detail added to the myth found in, e.g., Sappho, Aesop and Ovid — was the central role of Prometheus in the creation of the human race. According to these sources, Prometheus fashioned humans out of clay.","Prometheus\n\nAlthough perhaps made explicit in the Prometheia, later authors such as Hyginus, the Bibliotheca, and Quintus of Smyrna would confirm that Prometheus warned Zeus not to marry the sea nymph Thetis. She is consequently married off to the mortal Peleus, and bears him a son greater than the father — Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. Pseudo-Apollodorus moreover clarifies a cryptic statement (1026–29) made by Hermes in Prometheus Bound, identifying the centaur Chiron as the one who would take on Prometheus' suffering and die in his place. Reflecting a myth attested in Greek vase paintings from the Classical period, Pseudo-Apollodorus places the Titan (armed with an axe) at the birth of Athena, thus explaining how the goddess sprang forth from the forehead of Zeus.","Prometheus\n\nOther minor details attached to the myth include: the duration of Prometheus' torment; the origin of the eagle that ate the Titan's liver (found in Pseudo-Apollodorus and Hyginus); Pandora's marriage to Epimetheus (found in Pseudo-Apollodorus); myths surrounding the life of Prometheus' son, Deucalion (found in Ovid and Apollonius of Rhodes); and Prometheus' marginal role in the myth of Jason and the Argonauts (found in Apollonius of Rhodes and Valerius Flaccus).","Prometheus\n\n\"Variants of legends containing the Prometheus motif are widespread in the Caucasus\" region, reports Hunt, who gave 10 stories related to Prometheus from ethno-linguistic groups in the region.","Prometheus\n\nLate Roman antiquity","Prometheus\n\nThe three most prominent aspects of the Prometheus myth have parallels within the beliefs of many cultures throughout the world; see creation of man from clay, theft of fire, and references for eternal punishment. It is the first of these three which has drawn attention to parallels with the biblical creation account related in the religious symbolism expressed in the book of Genesis.","Prometheus\n\nAs stated by Olga Raggio, \"The Prometheus myth of creation as a visual symbol of the Neoplatonic concept of human nature, illustrated in (many) sarcophagi, was evidently a contradiction of the Christian teaching of the unique and simultaneous act of creation by the Trinity.\" This Neoplatonism of late Roman antiquity was especially stressed by Tertullian who recognized both difference and similarity of the biblical deity with the mythological figure of Prometheus.","Prometheus\n\nThe imagery of Prometheus and the creation of man used for the purposes of the representation of the creation of Adam in biblical symbolism is also a recurrent theme in the artistic expression of late Roman antiquity. Of the relatively rare expressions found of the creation of Adam in those centuries of late Roman antiquity, one can single out the so-called \"Dogma sarcophagus\" of the Lateran Museum where three figures are seen (in representation of the theological trinity) in making a benediction to the new man. Another example is found where the prototype of Prometheus is also recognizable in the early Christian era of late Roman antiquity.","Prometheus\n\nThis can be found upon a sarcophagus of the Church at Mas d'Aire as well, and in an even more direct comparison to what Raggio refers to as \"a coursely carved relief from Campli (Teramo) (where) the Lord sits on a throne and models the body of Adam, exactly like Prometheus.\" Still another such similarity is found in the example found on a Hellenistic relief presently in the Louvre in which the Lord gives life to Eve through the imposition of his two fingers on her eyes recalling the same gesture found in earlier representations of Prometheus.","Prometheus\n\nIn Georgian mythology, Amirani is a culture hero who challenged the chief god, and like Prometheus was chained on the Caucasian mountains where birds would eat his organs. This aspect of the myth had a significant influence on the Greek imagination. It is recognizable from a Greek gem roughly dated to the time of the Hesiod poems, which show Prometheus with hands bound behind his body and crouching before a bird with long wings. This same image would also be used later in the Rome of the Augustan age as documented by Furtwangler.","Prometheus\n\nIn the often cited and highly publicized interview between Joseph Campbell and Bill Moyers on Public Television, the author of The Hero with a Thousand Faces presented his view on the comparison of Prometheus and Jesus. Moyers asked Campbell the question in the following words, \"In this sense, unlike heroes such as Prometheus or Jesus, we're not going on our journey to save the world but to save ourselves.\" To which Campbell's well-known response was that, \"But in doing that, you save the world. The influence of a vital person vitalizes, there's no doubt about it. The world without spirit is a wasteland. People have the notion of saving the world by shifting things around, changing the rules [...] No, no! Any world is a valid world if it's alive.","Prometheus\n\nThe thing to do is to bring life to it, and the only way to do that is to find in your own case where the life is and become alive yourself.\" For Campbell, Jesus mortally suffered on the Cross while Prometheus eternally suffered while chained to a rock, and each of them received punishment for the gift which they bestowed to humankind, for Jesus this was the gift of propitiation from Heaven, and, for Prometheus this was the gift of fire from Olympus.","Prometheus\n\nSignificantly, Campbell is also clear to indicate the limits of applying the metaphors of his methodology in his book The Hero with a Thousand Faces too closely in assessing the comparison of Prometheus and Jesus. Of the four symbols of suffering associated with Jesus after his trial in Jerusalem (i) the crown of thorns, (ii) the scourge of whips, (iii) the nailing to the Cross, and (iv) the spearing of his side, it is only this last one which bears some resemblance to the eternal suffering of Prometheus' daily torment of an eagle devouring a replenishing organ, his liver, from his side. For Campbell, the striking contrast between the New Testament narratives and the Greek mythological narratives remains at the limiting level of the cataclysmic eternal struggle of the eschatological New Testament narratives occurring only at the very end of the biblical narratives in the Apocalypse of John (12:7) where, \"Michael and his angels fought against the dragon.","Prometheus\n\nThe dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in heaven.\" This eschatological and apocalyptic setting of a Last Judgement is in precise contrast to the Titanomachia of Hesiod which serves its distinct service to Greek mythology as its Prolegomenon, bracketing all subsequent mythology, including the creation of humanity, as coming after the cosmological struggle between the Titans and the Olympian gods.","Prometheus\n\nIt remains a continuing debate among scholars of comparative religion and the literary reception of mythological and religious subject matter as to whether the typology of suffering and torment represented in the Prometheus myth finds its more representative comparisons with the narratives of the Hebrew scriptures or with the New Testament narratives. In the Book of Job, significant comparisons can be drawn between the sustained suffering of Job in comparison to that of eternal suffering and torment represented in the Prometheus myth. With Job, the suffering is at the acquiescence of heaven and at the will of the demonic, while in Prometheus the suffering is directly linked to Zeus as the ruler of Olympus. The comparison of the suffering of Jesus after his sentencing in Jerusalem is limited to the three days, from Thursday to Saturday, and leading to the culminating narratives corresponding to Easter Sunday. The symbolic import for comparative religion would maintain that suffering related to justified conduct is redeemed in both the Hebrew scriptures and the New Testament narratives, while in Prometheus there remains the image of a non-forgiving deity, Zeus, who nonetheless requires reverence.","Prometheus\n\nWriting in late antiquity of the fourth and fifth century, the Latin commentator Marcus Servius Honoratus explained that Prometheus was so named because he was a man of great foresight (vir prudentissimus), possessing the abstract quality of providentia, the Latin equivalent of Greek promētheia (). Anecdotally, the Roman fabulist Phaedrus (c.15BCE - c.50CE) attributes to Aesop a simple etiology for homosexuality, in Prometheus' getting drunk while creating the first humans and misapplying the genitalia.","Prometheus\n\nThe Middle Ages","Prometheus\n\nPerhaps the most influential book of the Middle Ages upon the reception of the Prometheus myth was the mythological handbook of Fulgentius Placiades. As stated by Raggio, \"The text of Fulgentius, as well as that of (Marcus) Servius [...] are the main sources of the mythological handbooks written in the ninth century by the anonymous Mythographus Primus and Mythographus Secundus. Both were used for the more lengthy and elaborate compendium by the English scholar Alexander Neckman (1157-1217), the Scintillarium Poetarum, or Poetarius.\" The purpose of his books was to distinguish allegorical interpretation from the historical interpretation of the Prometheus myth. Continuing in this same tradition of the allegorical interpretation of the Prometheus myth, along with the historical interpretation of the Middle Ages, is the Genealogiae of Giovanni Boccaccio. Boccaccio follows these two levels of interpretation and distinguishes between two separate versions of the Prometheus myth.","Prometheus\n\nFor Boccaccio, Prometheus is placed \"In the heavens where all is clarity and truth, [Prometheus] steals, so to speak, a ray of the divine wisdom from God himself, source of all Science, supreme Light of every man.\" With this, Boccaccio shows himself moving from the medieval sources with a shift of accent towards the attitude of the Renaissance humanists.","Prometheus\n\nUsing a similar interpretation to that of Boccaccio, Marsilio Ficino in the fifteenth century updated the philosophical and more somber reception of the Prometheus myth not seen since the time of Plotinus. In his book written in 1476-77 titled Quaestiones Quinque de Mente, Ficino indicates his preference for reading the Prometheus myth as an image of the human soul seeking to obtain supreme truth. As Olga Raggio summarizes Ficino's text, \"The torture of Prometheus is the torment brought by reason itself to man, who is made by it many times more unhappy than the brutes. It is after having stolen one beam of the celestial light [...] that the soul feels as if fastened by chains and [...] only death can release her bonds and carry her to the source of all knowledge.\" This somberness of attitude in Ficino's text would be further developed later by Charles de Bouelles' Liber de Sapiente of 1509 which presented a mix of both scholastic and Neoplatonic ideas.","Prometheus\n\nThe Renaissance","Prometheus\n\nAfter the writings of both Boccaccio and Ficino in the late Middle Ages about Prometheus, interest in the Titan shifted considerably in the direction of becoming subject matter for painters and sculptors alike. Among the most famous examples is that of Piero di Cosimo from about 1510 presently on display at the museums of Munich and Strasburg (see Inset). Raggio summarizes the Munich version as follows; \"The Munich panel represents the dispute between Epimetheus and Prometheus, the handsome triumphant statue of the new man, modeled by Prometheus, his ascension to the sky under the guidance of Minerva; the Strasburg panel shows in the distance Prometheus lighting his torch at the wheels of the Sun, and in the foreground on one side, Prometheus applying his torch to the heart of the statue and , on the other, Mercury fastening him to a tree.\" All the details are evidently borrowed from Boccaccio's Genealogiae.","Prometheus\n\nThe same reference to the Genealogiae can be cited as the source for the drawing by Parmigianino presently located in the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York City. In this drawing, a very noble rendering of Prometheus is presented which evokes the memory of Michelangelo's works portraying Jehovah. This drawing in the Morgan Library is perhaps one of the most intense examples of the visualization of the myth of Prometheus from the Renaissance period.","Prometheus\n\nWriting in the late British Renaissance, William Shakespeare uses the Promethean allusion in the famous death scene of Desdemona in his tragedy of Othello. Othello in contemplating the death of Desdemona asserts plainly that he cannot restore the \"Promethean heat\" to her body once it has been extinguished. For Shakespeare, the allusion is clearly to the interpretation of the fire from the heat as the bestowing of life to the creation of man from clay by Prometheus after it was stolen from Olympus. The analogy bears direct resemblance to the biblical narrative of the creation of life in Adam through the bestowed breathing of the creator in Genesis. Shakespeare's symbolic reference to the \"heat\" associated with Prometheus's fire is to the association of the gift of fire to the mythological gift or theological gift of life to humans.","Prometheus\n\nThe Post-Renaissance","Prometheus\n\nThe myth of Prometheus has been a favorite theme of Western art and literature in the post-renaissance and post-Enlightenment tradition, and occasionally in works produced outside the West.","Prometheus\n\nPost-Renaissance literary arts","Prometheus\n\nFor the Romantic era, Prometheus was the rebel who resisted all forms of institutional tyranny epitomized by Zeus — church, monarch, and patriarch. The Romantics drew comparisons between Prometheus and the spirit of the French Revolution, Christ, the Satan of John Milton's Paradise Lost, and the divinely inspired poet or artist. Prometheus is the lyrical \"I\" who speaks in Goethe's Sturm und Drang poem \"Prometheus\" (written c. 1772–74, published 1789), addressing God (as Zeus) in misotheist accusation and defiance. In Prometheus Unbound (1820), a four-act lyrical drama, Percy Bysshe Shelley rewrites the lost play of Aeschylus so that Prometheus does not submit to Zeus (under the Latin name Jupiter), but instead supplants him in a triumph of the human heart and intellect over tyrannical religion. Lord Byron's poem \"Prometheus\" also portrays the Titan as unrepentant. As documented by Olga Raggio, other leading figures among the great Romantics included Byron, Longfellow and Nietzsche as well. Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein is subtitled \"The Modern Prometheus\", in reference to the novel's themes of the over-reaching of modern humanity into dangerous areas of knowledge.","Prometheus\n\nGoethe's poems","Prometheus\n\n\"Prometheus\" is a poem by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, in which a character based on the mythic Prometheus addresses God (as Zeus) in a romantic and misotheist tone of accusation and defiance. The poem was written between 1772 and 1774. It was first published fifteen years later in 1789. It is an important work as it represents one of the first encounters of the Prometheus myth with the literary Romantic movement identified with Goethe and with the Sturm und Drang movement.","Prometheus\n\nThe poem has appeared in Volume 6 of Goethe's poems (in his Collected Works) in a section of ' (assorted poems), shortly following the '. It is immediately followed by \"Ganymed\", and the two poems are written as informing each other according to Goethe's plan in their actual writing. Prometheus (1774) was originally planned as a drama but never completed by Goethe, though the poem is inspired by it. Prometheus is the creative and rebellious spirit rejected by God, and who angrily defies him and asserts himself; Ganymede, by direct contrast, is the boyish self who is both adored and seduced by God. As a high Romantic poet and a humanist poet, Goethe presents both identities as contrasting aspects of the Romantic human condition.","Prometheus\n\nThe poem offers direct biblical connotations for the Prometheus myth which was unseen in any of the ancient Greek poets dealing with the Prometheus myth in either drama, tragedy, or philosophy. The intentional use of the German phrase \"\" (\"When I was a child\"): the use of ' is distinctive, and with it Goethe directly applies the Lutheran translation of Saint Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians, 13:11: \"\" (\"When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child: but when I became a man, I put away childish things\"). Goethe's Prometheus is significant for the contrast it evokes with the biblical text of the Corinthians rather than for its similarities.","Prometheus\n\nIn his book titled Prometheus: Archetypal Image of Human Existence, C. Kerenyi states the key contrast between Goethe's version of Prometheus with the ancient Greek version. As Kerenyi states, \"Goethe's Prometheus had Zeus for father and a goddess for mother. With this change from the traditional lineage the poet distinguished his hero from the race of the Titans.\" For Goethe, the metaphorical comparison of Prometheus to the image of the Son from the New Testament narratives was of central importance, with the figure of Zeus in Goethe's reading being metaphorically matched directly to the image of the Father from the New Testament narratives.","Prometheus\n\nPercy Bysshe Shelley","Prometheus\n\nPercy Shelley published his four-act lyrical drama titled Prometheus Unbound in 1820. His version was written in response to the version of myth as presented by Aeschylus (described in the Section above) and is oriented to the high British Idealism and high British Romanticism prevailing in Shelley's own time. Shelley, as the author himself discusses, admits the debt of his version of the myth to Aeschylus and the Greek poetic tradition which he assumes is familiar to readers of his own lyrical drama. For example, it is necessary to understand and have knowledge of the reason for Prometheus's punishment if the reader is to form an understanding of whether the exoneration portrayed by Shelley in his version of the Prometheus myth is justified or unjustified. The quote of Shelley's own words describing the extent of his indebtedness to Aeschylus has been published in numerous sources publicly available.","Prometheus\n\nThe literary critic Harold Bloom in his book Shelley's Mythmaking expresses his high expectation of Shelley in the tradition of mythopoeic poetry. For Bloom, Percy Shelley's relationship to the tradition of mythology in poetry \"culminates in 'Prometheus'; the poem provides a complete statement of Shelley's vision.\" Bloom devotes two full chapters in this book to Shelley's lyrical drama Prometheus Unbound which was among the first books Bloom had ever written, originally published in 1959. Following his 1959 book, Bloom edited an anthology of critical opinions on Shelley for Chelsea House Publishers where he concisely stated his opinion as, \"Shelley is the unacknowledged ancestor of Wallace Stevens' conception of poetry as the Supreme Fiction, and Prometheus Unbound is the most capable imagining, outside of Blake and Wordsworth, that the Romantic quest for a Supreme Fiction has achieved.\"","Prometheus\n\nWithin the pages of his Introduction to the Chelsea House edition on Percy Shelley, Harold Bloom also identifies the six major schools of criticism opposing Shelley's idealized mythologizing version of the Prometheus myth. In sequence, the opposing schools to Shelley are given as: (i) The school of \"common sense\", (ii) The Christian orthodox, (iii) The school of \"wit\", (iv) Moralists, of most varieties, (v) The school of \"classic\" form, and (vi) The Precisionists, or concretists. Although Bloom is least interested in the first two schools, the second one on the Christian orthodox has special bearing on the reception of the Prometheus myth during late Roman antiquity and the synthesis of the New Testament canon. The Greek origins of the Prometheus myth have already discussed the Titanomachia as placing the cosmic struggle of Olympus at some point in time preceding the creation of humanity, while in the New Testament synthesis there was a strong assimilation of the prophetic tradition of the Hebrew prophets and their strongly eschatological orientation.","Prometheus\n\nThis contrast placed a strong emphasis within the ancient Greek consciousness as to the moral and ontological acceptance of the mythology of the Titanomachia as an accomplished mythological history, whereas for the synthesis of the New Testament narratives this placed religious consciousness within the community at the level of an anticipated eschaton not yet accomplished. Neither of these would guide Percy Shelley in his poetic retelling and reintegration of the Prometheus myth.","Prometheus\n\nTo the Socratic Greeks, one important aspect of the discussion of religion would correspond to the philosophical discussion of 'becoming' with respect to the New Testament syncretism rather than the ontological discussion of 'being' which was more prominent in the ancient Greek experience of mythologically oriented cult and religion. For Percy Shelley, both of these reading were to be substantially discounted in preference to his own concerns for promoting his own version of an idealized consciousness of a society guided by the precepts of High British Romanticism and High British Idealism.","Prometheus\n\nFrankenstein; or, the Modern Prometheus","Prometheus\n\nFrankenstein; or, the Modern Prometheus, written by Mary Shelley when she was 18, was published in 1818, two years before Percy Shelley's above mentioned play. It has endured as one of the most frequently revisited literary themes in twentieth century film and popular reception with few rivals for its sheer popularity among even established literary works of art. The primary theme is a parallel to the aspect of the Prometheus myth which concentrates on the creation of man by the Titans, transferred and made contemporary by Shelley for British audiences of her time. The subject is that of the creation of life by a scientist, thus bestowing life through the application and technology of medical science rather than by the natural acts of reproduction. The short novel has been adapted into many films and productions ranging from the early versions with Boris Karloff to later versions featuring Kenneth Branagh, among others.","Prometheus\n\nThe twentieth century","Prometheus\n\nFranz Kafka (d. 1924) wrote a short piece on Prometheus, outlining what he saw as his perspective on four aspects of his myth:\nAccording to the first, he was clamped to a rock in the Caucasus for betraying the secrets of the gods to men, and the gods sent eagles to feed on his liver, which was perpetually renewed. According to the second, Prometheus, goaded by the pain of the tearing beaks, pressed himself deeper and deeper into the rock until he became one with it. According to the third, his treachery was forgotten in the course of thousands of years, forgotten by the gods, the eagles, forgotten by himself. According to the fourth, everyone grew weary of the meaningless affair. The gods grew weary, the eagles grew weary, the wound closed wearily.There remains the inexplicable mass of rock. The legend tried to explain the inexplicable. As it came out of a substratum of truth it had in turn to end in the inexplicable.","Prometheus\n\nThis short piece by Kafka concerning his interest in Prometheus was supplemented by two other mythological pieces written by him. As stated by Reiner Stach, \"Kafka's world was mythical in nature, with Old Testament and Jewish legends providing the templates, and it was only logical (even if Kafka did not state it openly) that he would try his hand at the canon of antiquity, reinterpreting it and incorporating it into his own imagination in the form of allusions, as in 'The Silence of the Sirens,' 'Prometheus,' and 'Poseidon.'\" Among contemporary poets, the British poet Ted Hughes wrote the a 1973 collection of poems titled Prometheus On His Crag. The Nepali poet Laxmi Prasad Devkota (d. 1949) also wrote an epic titled Prometheus (प्रमीथस).","Prometheus\n\nIn his 1952 book, Lucifer and Prometheus, Zvi Werblowsky presented the speculatively derived Jungian construction of the character of Satan in Milton's celebrated poem Paradise Lost. Werblowsky applied his own Jungian style of interpretation to appropriate parts of the Prometheus myth for the purpose of interpreting Milton. A reprint of his book in the 1990s by Routledge Press included an introduction to the book by Carl Jung. Some Gnostics have been associated with identifying the theft of fire from heaven as embodied by the fall of Lucifer \"the Light Bearer\".","Prometheus\n\nPost-Renaissance aesthetic tradition","Prometheus\n\nClassical music, opera, and ballet","Prometheus\n\nWorks of classical music, opera, and ballet directly or indirectly inspired by the myth of Prometheus have included renderings by some of the major composers of both the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In this tradition, the orchestral representation of the myth has received the most sustained attention of composers. These have included the symphonic poem by Franz Liszt titled Prometheus from 1850, among his other Symphonic Poems (No. 5, S.99). Alexander Scriabin composed Prometheus: Poem of Fire, Opus 60 (1910), also for orchestra. In the same year Gabriel Fauré composed his three-act opera Prométhée (1910). Charles-Valentin Alkan composed his Grande sonate 'Les quatre âges' (1847), with the 4th movement entitled \"Prométhée enchaîné\" (Prometheus Bound). Beethoven composed the score to a ballet version of the myth titled The Creatures of Prometheus (1801).","Prometheus\n\nAn adaptation of Goethe's poetic version of the myth was composed by Hugo Wolf, Prometheus (Bedecke deinen Himmel, Zeus, 1889), as part of his Goethe-lieder for voice and piano, later transcribed for orchestra and voice. An opera of the myth was composed by Carl Orff titled Prometheus (1968), using Aeschylus' Greek language Prometheia.","Prometheus\n\nIn film","Prometheus\n\nThe 2012 science fiction fantasy film titled Prometheus by Ridley Scott is associated with the myth largely through the coincidence of name. Of the three principal mythological themes associated with the myth of the titan Prometheus – the eternal punishment, the theft of fire, and the creation of man – the film seems to be at least partially concerned only the last theme. In the film, one of the wealthy lead characters in the future spends vast sums of money in order to locate the extraterrestrials who he believes were responsible for the creation of man. His hope is that if he finds his ‘creators’, they will be able somehow to extend his life. In this belief he is straightforwardly disappointed. A 2012 three-part essay on the science fiction film titled Prometheus identified the eight key themes in understanding the film, with only “Parental Issues” appearing to have a solid connection to the myth of Prometheus.","Prometheus\n\nThe inventor of human-like artificial intelligence in the 2015 film Ex Machina, Nathan Bateman, states, \"It is what it is. It’s Promethean. The clay and fire.\" His liver is damaged daily from alcoholic binge drinking, he rejuvenates the next morning with a healthy diet and exercise, and ultimately he is stabbed in the liver (or thereabouts) by his creations.","Prometheus\n\nNotes","Frankenstein\n\nFrankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is a novel written by the English author Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley that tells the story of a young science student Victor Frankenstein, who creates a grotesque but sentient creature in an unorthodox scientific experiment. Shelley started writing the story when she was 18, and the first edition of the novel was published anonymously in London in 1818, when she was 20. Shelley's name first appeared on the second edition, published in France in 1823.","Frankenstein\n\nShelley traveled through Europe in 1814, journeying along the River Rhine in Germany with a stop in Gernsheim which is just 17 km (10 mi) away from Frankenstein Castle, where, two centuries before, an alchemist was engaged in experiments. Later, she traveled in the region of Geneva (Switzerland)—where much of the story takes place—and the topic of galvanism and other similar occult ideas were themes of conversation among her companions, particularly her lover and future husband, Percy Shelley. Mary, Percy, Lord Byron and John Polidori decided to have a competition to see who could write the best horror story. After thinking for days, Shelley dreamt about a scientist who created life and was horrified by what he had made; her dream later evolved into the novel's story.","Frankenstein\n\nFrankenstein is infused with elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic movement. At the same time, it is an early example of science fiction. Brian Aldiss has argued that it should be considered the first true science fiction story because, in contrast to previous stories with fantastical elements resembling those of later science fiction, the central character \"makes a deliberate decision\" and \"turns to modern experiments in the laboratory\" to achieve fantastic results. It has had a considerable influence in literature and popular culture and spawned a complete genre of horror stories, films and plays.","Frankenstein\n\nSince the novel's publication, the name \"Frankenstein\" has often been used to refer to the monster itself, as it is in the stage adaptation by Peggy Webling. This usage is sometimes considered erroneous, but usage commentators regard it as well-established and acceptable. In the novel, the monster is identified by words such as \"wretch\", \"creature\", \"monster\", \"demon\", and \"it\". Speaking to Victor Frankenstein, the wretch refers to himself as \"the Adam of your labours\", and elsewhere as someone who \"would have\" been \"your Adam\", but is instead \"your fallen angel.\"","Frankenstein\n\nSummary","Frankenstein\n\nFrankenstein is written in the form of a frame story that starts with Captain Robert Walton writing letters to his sister. It takes place at an unspecified time in the 18th century, as the letters' dates are given as \"17—\".","Frankenstein\n\nCaptain Walton's introductory frame narrative","Frankenstein\n\nThe novel Frankenstein is written in epistolary form, documenting a fictional correspondence between Captain Robert Walton and his sister, Margaret Walton Saville. Walton is a failed writer who sets out to explore the North Pole and expand his scientific knowledge in hopes of achieving fame. During the voyage, the crew spots a dog sled driven by a gigantic figure. A few hours later, the crew rescues a nearly frozen and emaciated man named Victor Frankenstein. Frankenstein has been in pursuit of the gigantic man observed by Walton's crew. Frankenstein starts to recover from his exertion; he sees in Walton the same over-ambitiousness, and recounts a story of his life's miseries to Walton as a warning. The recounted story serves as the frame for Frankenstein's narrative.","Frankenstein\n\nVictor Frankenstein's narrative","Frankenstein\n\nVictor begins by telling of his childhood. Born in Naples, into a wealthy Genevan family, Victor and his brothers, Ernest and William, all three being sons of Alphonse Frankenstein by the former Caroline Beaufort, are encouraged to seek a greater understanding of the world through science. As a young boy, Victor is obsessed with studying outdated theories that focus on simulating natural wonders. When Victor is five years old, his parents adopt the orphan daughter of an expropriated Italian nobleman, Elizabeth Lavenza, with whom Victor later falls in love. (During this period, Victor's parents, Alphonse and Caroline, take in yet another orphan, Justine Moritz, who becomes William's nanny.)","Frankenstein\n\nWeeks before he leaves for the University of Ingolstadt in Germany, his mother dies of scarlet fever contracted from treating Elizabeth (who had been infected first but survived), creating further impetus towards his experiments. At university, he excels at chemistry and other sciences, soon developing a secret technique to impart life to non-living matter, which eventually leads to his creation of the Creature.","Frankenstein\n\nBecause of the difficulty in replicating the minute parts of the human body, Victor makes the Creature large, about 8 ft in height. Despite his intentions, the beautiful creation of his dreams is instead hideous, with yellow eyes and skin that barely conceals the muscle tissue and blood vessels underneath. Repulsed by his work, Victor flees and dismisses him. While wandering the streets, he meets his childhood friend, Henry Clerval, and tries to show him his creation, but the Creature has escaped, saddened by his rejection.","Frankenstein\n\nVictor falls ill from the experience and is nursed back to health by Henry. After a four-month recovery, he returns home when he learns of the murder of his brother William. Upon arriving in Geneva, Victor sees the Creature (now called a Monster) at the crime scene, leading him to believe he (the Monster) is responsible. Justine Moritz, William's nanny, is convicted of the crime after William's locket, which had contained a miniature portrait of Caroline, is found in her pocket. Victor doubts anyone would believe his story, which could stop Justine's hanging.","Frankenstein\n\nRavaged by grief and guilt, Victor retreats into the mountains. The Monster finds him and pleads for Victor to hear his tale. Intelligent and articulate, the Creature says that his encounters with people led to his fear of them, driving him into the wilderness. While living in an abandoned structure connected to a cottage, he grew fond of the family living there. The Creature learned to speak by listening to them and he taught himself to read after discovering a lost satchel of books. When he saw his reflection in a pool, he realized his physical appearance was hideous, and it terrified him as it terrifies normal humans. Nevertheless, he approached the family in hopes of becoming their friend. Initially he was able to befriend the blind father figure of the family, but the rest were frightened and they all fled their home. The Creature then burned the cottage in a fit of rage, and murdered Victor's brother William, framing Justine for the murder.","Frankenstein\n\nThe Creature demands that Victor create a female companion like himself. He argues that as a living being, he has a right to happiness. The Creature promises that he and his mate will vanish into the South American wilderness, never to reappear, if Victor grants his request.","Frankenstein\n\nFearing for his family, Victor reluctantly agrees. Clerval accompanies him to England, but they separate in Perth, Scotland. Victor suspects that the Creature is following him. Working on the female creature on the Orkney Islands, he is plagued by premonitions of disaster, particularly the idea that creating a mate for the Creature might lead to the breeding of a race that could plague mankind. He destroys the female creature after he sees the Creature watching through a window. The Creature confronts him, vowing to be with Victor and Elizabeth on their upcoming wedding night. The Creature then kills Clerval, leaving the corpse to be found where Victor lands in Ireland. Victor is imprisoned for Clerval's murder and suffers another mental breakdown in prison. After being acquitted, he returns home with his father, who has restored to Elizabeth some of her father's fortune.","Frankenstein\n\nIn Geneva, Victor is about to marry Elizabeth and prepares to fight the Creature. Believing the Creature threatened his life, the night before their wedding Victor asks Elizabeth to stay in her room while he looks for \"the fiend.\" While Victor searches the house and grounds, the Creature murders Elizabeth. From the window, Victor sees the Creature, who taunts Victor with Elizabeth's corpse. Grief-stricken by the deaths of William, Justine, Clerval, and Elizabeth, Victor's father dies. Seeking revenge, Victor pursues the Creature to the North Pole, but he does not manage to kill his creation.","Frankenstein\n\nCaptain Walton's concluding frame narrative","Frankenstein\n\nAt the end of Victor's narrative, Captain Walton resumes the telling of the story, closing the frame around Victor's reaccounting. A few days after the creature vanishes, the ship becomes trapped in pack ice and Walton's crew insists on returning south once it is freed. In spite of a passionate speech from Victor, encouraging the crew to push further north, Walton realizes that he must accede to his men's demands and agrees to head for home. Victor becomes agitated, insisting on continuing to search for the Creature, but is too weak from his exertions and dies shortly thereafter.","Frankenstein\n\nWalton discovers the Creature on his ship, mourning over Victor's body. Walton hears the Creature's reasons for his vengeance and expressions of remorse. Victor's death has not brought him peace. Rather, his crimes have increased his misery and alienation, and his words are almost exactly identical to Victor's own in describing himself. The Creature vows to kill himself on his own funeral pyre so that no others will ever know of his existence. Walton watches as he drifts away on an ice raft that is soon lost in darkness, never to be seen again.","Frankenstein\n\nComposition","Frankenstein\n\nDuring the rainy summer of 1816, the \"Year Without a Summer\", the world was locked in a long cold volcanic winter caused by the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815. Mary Shelley, aged 18, and her lover (and later husband) Percy Bysshe Shelley, visited Lord Byron at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva in Switzerland. The weather was consistently too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy the outdoor holiday activities they had planned, so the group retired indoors until dawn.","Frankenstein\n\nSitting around a log fire at Byron's villa, the company amused themselves by reading German ghost stories translated into French from the book Fantasmagoriana, then Byron proposed that they \"each write a ghost story\". Unable to think of a story, young Mary became anxious: \"Have you thought of a story? I was asked each morning, and each morning I was forced to reply with a mortifying negative.\" During one evening in the middle of summer, the discussions turned to the nature of the principle of life. \"Perhaps a corpse would be re-animated\", Mary noted, \"galvanism had given token of such things\". It was after midnight before they retired, and unable to sleep, she became possessed by her imagination as she beheld the grim terrors of her \"waking dream\".","Frankenstein\n\nIn September 2011, astronomer Donald Olson, after a visit to the Lake Geneva villa the previous year, and inspecting data about the motion of the moon and stars, concluded that her \"waking dream\" took place \"between 2 a.m. and 3 a.m.\" on 16 June 1816, several days after the initial idea by Lord Byron that they each write a ghost story.","Frankenstein\n\nShe began writing what she assumed would be a short story. With Percy Shelley's encouragement, she expanded the tale into a full-fledged novel. She later described that summer in Switzerland as the moment \"when I first stepped out from childhood into life\". Shelley wrote the first four chapters in the weeks following the suicide of her half-sister Fanny. Byron managed to write just a fragment based on the vampire legends he heard while travelling the Balkans, and from this John Polidori created The Vampyre (1819), the progenitor of the romantic vampire literary genre. Thus two legendary horror tales originated from the conclave.","Frankenstein\n\nThe group talked about Enlightenment and Counter-Enlightenment ideas as well. Shelley believed the Enlightenment idea that society could progress and grow if political leaders used their powers responsibly; however, she also believed the Romantic ideal that misused power could destroy society (Bennett 36–42).","Frankenstein\n\nMary's and Percy Bysshe Shelley's manuscripts for the first three-volume edition in 1818 (written 1816–1817), as well as Mary Shelley's fair copy for her publisher, are now housed in the Bodleian Library in Oxford. The Bodleian acquired the papers in 2004, and they belong now to the Abinger Collection. In 2008, the Bodleian published a new edition of Frankenstein, edited by Charles E. Robinson, that contains comparisons of Mary Shelley's original text with Percy Shelley's additions and interventions alongside.","Frankenstein\n\nPublication","Frankenstein\n\nShelley completed her writing in May 1817, and Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus was first published on March 11, 1818 by the small London publishing house Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, & Jones. It was issued anonymously, with a preface written for Mary by Percy Bysshe Shelley and with a dedication to philosopher William Godwin, her father. It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes, the standard \"triple-decker\" format for 19th-century first editions.","Frankenstein\n\nThe second edition of Frankenstein was published on August 11, 1822 in two volumes (by G. and W. B. Whittaker) following the success of the stage play Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein by Richard Brinsley Peake; this edition credited Mary Shelley as the author.","Frankenstein\n\nOn October 31, 1831, the first \"popular\" edition in one volume appeared, published by Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley. This edition was heavily revised by Mary Shelley, partially because of pressure to make the story more conservative. It included a new, longer preface by herself, presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the story. This edition tends to be the one most widely read now, although editions containing the original 1818 text are still published. Many scholars prefer the 1818 text, arguing that it preserves the spirit of Shelley's original publication (see Anne K. Mellor's \"Choosing a Text of Frankenstein to Teach\" in the W. W. Norton Critical edition).","Frankenstein\n\nFrankenstein and the Monster","Frankenstein\n\nThe creature","Frankenstein\n\nPart of Frankenstein's rejection of his creation is the fact that he does not give it a name, which causes a lack of identity. Instead it is referred to by words such as \"wretch\", \"monster\", \"creature\", \"demon\", \"devil\", \"fiend\", and \"it\". When Frankenstein converses with the creature in Chapter 10, he addresses it as \"vile insect\", \"abhorred monster\", \"fiend\", \"wretched devil\", and \"abhorred devil\".","Frankenstein\n\nDuring a telling of Frankenstein, Shelley referred to the creature as \"Adam\". Shelley was referring to the first man in the Garden of Eden, as in her epigraph:","Frankenstein\n\nDid I request thee, Maker, from my clay\nTo mould Me man? Did I solicit thee\nFrom darkness to promote me?\n:John Milton, Paradise Lost (X. 743–5)","Frankenstein\n\nAlthough the monster would be described in later works as a composite of whole body parts grafted together from cadavers and reanimated by the use of electricity, this description is not entirely consistent with Shelley's work; both the use of electricity and the cobbled-together image of Frankenstein's monster were more the result of James Whale's popular 1931 film adaptation of the story, and other early motion-picture works based upon the creature. In Shelley's original work, Dr. Frankenstein discovers a previously unknown but elemental principle of life, and that insight allows him to develop a method to imbue vitality into inanimate matter, though the exact nature of the process is left largely ambiguous. After a great deal of hesitation in exercising this power, the doctor spends two years painstakingly constructing the creature's body (one anatomical feature at a time, from raw materials supplied by \"the dissecting room and the slaughter-house\"), which he then brings to life using his unspecified process.","Frankenstein\n\nThe creature has often been mistakenly called \"Frankenstein\". In 1908 one author said \"It is strange to note how well-nigh universally the term \"Frankenstein\" is misused, even by intelligent people, as describing some hideous monster\". Edith Wharton's The Reef (1916) describes an unruly child as an \"infant Frankenstein.\" David Lindsay's \"The Bridal Ornament\", published in The Rover, 12 June 1844, mentioned \"the maker of poor Frankenstein.\" After the release of Whale's cinematic Frankenstein, the public at large began speaking of the creature itself as \"Frankenstein\". This also occurs in Frankenstein films, including Bride of Frankenstein (1935) and several subsequent films, as well as in film titles such as Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. Furthermore, future renditions and adaptations of the story include an evil laboratory assistant Igor/Ygor, who does not actually exist within the original narrative.","Frankenstein\n\nVictor Frankenstein's surname","Frankenstein\n\nMary Shelley maintained that she derived the name Frankenstein from a dream-vision. Despite her public claims of originality, however, a number of other sources have been suggested as Shelley's actual inspiration. The German name Frankenstein means \"stone of the Franks\", and it is associated with various places in Germany, including Frankenstein Castle (Burg Frankenstein) in Darmstadt, Hesse, and Frankenstein Castle in Frankenstein, a town in the Palatinate. There is also a castle called Frankenstein in Bad Salzungen, Thuringia, and a municipality called Frankenstein in Saxony. Until 1945, Ząbkowice Śląskie, now a city in Silesia, Poland, was named Frankenstein in German, and was the site of a scandal involving gravediggers in 1606, which has been suggested as an inspiration to the author. Finally, the name is borne by the aristocratic House of Franckenstein from Franconia.","Frankenstein\n\nRadu Florescu argues that Mary and Percy Shelley visited Frankenstein Castle near Darmstadt in 1814 during their return to England from their elopement to Switzerland. It was at this castle that a notorious alchemist, Conrad Dippel, had experimented with human bodies, and Florescu reasons that Mary suppressed mention of her visit in order to maintain her public claim of originality. A literary essay by A. J. Day supports Florescu's position that Mary Shelley knew of and visited Frankenstein Castle before writing her debut novel. Day includes details of an alleged description of the Frankenstein castle that exists in Mary Shelley's 'lost' journals. According to Jörg Heléne, the 'lost journals', as well as Florescu's claims, cannot be verified.","Frankenstein\n\nVictor Frankenstein's given name","Frankenstein\n\nA possible interpretation of the name Victor is derived from Paradise Lost by John Milton, a great influence on Shelley (a quotation from Paradise Lost is on the opening page of Frankenstein and Shelley even has the monster himself read it). Milton frequently refers to God as \"the Victor\" in Paradise Lost, and Shelley sees Victor as playing God by creating life. In addition, Shelley's portrayal of the monster owes much to the character of Satan in Paradise Lost; indeed, the monster says, after reading the epic poem, that he empathizes with Satan's role in the story.","Frankenstein\n\nThere are many similarities between Victor and Percy Shelley, Mary's husband. Victor was a pen name of Percy Shelley's, as in the collection of poetry he wrote with his sister Elizabeth, Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire. There is speculation that one of Mary Shelley's models for Victor Frankenstein was Percy, who at Eton had \"experimented with electricity and magnetism as well as with gunpowder and numerous chemical reactions\", and whose rooms at Oxford were filled with scientific equipment.","Frankenstein\n\nPercy Shelley was the first-born son of a wealthy country squire with strong political connections and a descendant of Sir Bysshe Shelley, 1st Baronet of Castle Goring, and Richard Fitzalan, 10th Earl of Arundel. Victor's family is one of the most distinguished of that republic and his ancestors were counselors and syndics. Percy had a sister named Elizabeth; Victor had an adopted sister named Elizabeth.","Frankenstein\n\nOn 22 February 1815, Mary Shelley gave birth to a baby two months prematurely, and the baby died two weeks later. Percy did not care about the condition of this premature infant and left with Claire, Mary's stepsister, for a lurid affair. When Victor saw the creature come to life he fled the apartment, though the newborn creature approached him, as a child would a parent. The question of Victor's responsibility to the creature is one of the main themes of the book.","Frankenstein\n\nModern Prometheus","Frankenstein\n\nThe Modern Prometheus is the novel's subtitle (though some modern editions now drop the subtitle, mentioning it only in an introduction). Prometheus, in later versions of Greek mythology, was the Titan who created mankind at the behest of Zeus. He made a being in the image of the gods that could have a spirit breathed into it. Prometheus taught man to hunt, read, and heal their sick, but after he tricked Zeus into accepting poor-quality offerings from humans, Zeus kept fire from mankind. Prometheus, being the creator, took back the fire from Zeus to give to man. When Zeus discovered this, he sentenced Prometheus to be eternally punished by fixing him to a rock of Caucasus, where each day an eagle would peck out his liver, only for the liver to regrow the next day because of his immortality as a god. He was intended to suffer alone for eternity, but eventually Heracles (Hercules) released him.","Frankenstein\n\nPrometheus was also a myth told in Latin, but was a very different story. In this version Prometheus makes man from clay and water, again a very relevant theme to Frankenstein, as Victor rebels against the laws of nature (how life is naturally made) and as a result is punished by his creation.","Frankenstein\n\nThe Titan in the Greek mythology of Prometheus parallels Victor Frankenstein. Victor's work by creating man by new means reflects the same innovative work of the Titan in creating humans.","Frankenstein\n\nSome have claimed that Mary Shelley saw Prometheus not as a hero but rather as something of a devil, and blamed him for bringing fire to man and thereby seducing the human race to the vice of eating meat (fire brought cooking which brought hunting and killing).","Frankenstein\n\nByron was particularly attached to the play Prometheus Bound by Aeschylus, and Percy Shelley would soon write his own Prometheus Unbound (1820). The term \"Modern Prometheus\" was actually coined by Immanuel Kant in reference to Benjamin Franklin and his experiments with electricity.","Frankenstein\n\nShelley's sources","Frankenstein\n\nShelley incorporated a number of different sources into her work, one of which was the Promethean myth from Ovid. The influence of John Milton's Paradise Lost, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, are also clearly evident within the novel. Mary is likely to have acquired some ideas for Frankenstein's character from Humphry Davy's book Elements of Chemical Philosophy, in which he had written that \"science has ... bestowed upon man powers which may be called creative; which have enabled him to change and modify the beings around him ...\". References to the French Revolution run through the novel; a possible source may lie in François-Félix Nogaret's Le Miroir des événemens actuels, ou la Belle au plus offrant (1790): a political parable about scientific progress featuring an inventor named Frankénsteïn who creates a life-sized automaton.","Frankenstein\n\nWithin the past thirty years or so, many writers and historians have attempted to associate several then popular natural philosophers (now called physical scientists) with Shelley's work on account of several notable similarities. Two of the most notable natural philosophers among Shelley's contemporaries were Giovanni Aldini, who made many public attempts at human reanimation through bio-electric Galvanism in London and Johann Konrad Dippel, who was supposed to have developed chemical means to extend the life span of humans. While Shelley was obviously aware of both these men and their activities, she makes no mention of or reference to them or their experiments in any of her published or released notes.","Frankenstein\n\nReception","Frankenstein\n\nThe initial critical reception of the book was mostly unfavorable, compounded by confused speculation as to the identity of the author. Sir Walter Scott wrote that \"upon the whole, the work impresses us with a high idea of the author's original genius and happy power of expression\", but the Quarterly Review described it \"a tissue of horrible and disgusting absurdity\".","Frankenstein\n\nMary Shelley had contact with some of the most influential minds of her time. Shelley's father, William Godwin, was very progressive and encouraged his daughter to participate in the conversations that took place in his home with various scientific minds, many of whom were actively engaged in the study of anatomy. She was familiar with the ideas of using dead bodies for study, the newer theory of using electricity to animate the dead, and the concerns of religion and the general public regarding the morality of tampering with God's work.","Frankenstein\n\nDespite the reviews, Frankenstein achieved an almost immediate popular success. It became widely known especially through melodramatic theatrical adaptations—Mary Shelley saw a production of Presumption; or The Fate of Frankenstein, a play by Richard Brinsley Peake, in 1823. A French translation appeared as early as 1821 (Frankenstein: ou le Prométhée Moderne, translated by Jules Saladin).","Frankenstein\n\nFrankenstein has been both well received and disregarded since its anonymous publication in 1818. Critical reviews of that time demonstrate these two views. The Belle Assemblee described the novel as \"very bold fiction\" (139). The Quarterly Review stated that \"the author has the power of both conception and language\" (185). Sir Walter Scott, writing in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine congratulated \"the author's original genius and happy power of expression\" (620), although he is less convinced about the way in which the monster gains knowledge about the world and language. The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Miscellany hoped to see \"more productions from this author\" (253).","Frankenstein\n\nIn two other reviews where the author is known as the daughter of William Godwin, the criticism of the novel makes reference to the feminine nature of Mary Shelley. The British Critic attacks the novel's flaws as the fault of the author: \"The writer of it is, we understand, a female; this is an aggravation of that which is the prevailing fault of the novel; but if our authoress can forget the gentleness of her sex, it is no reason why we should; and we shall therefore dismiss the novel without further comment\" (438). The Literary Panorama and National Register attacks the novel as a \"feeble imitation of Mr. Godwin's novels\" produced by the \"daughter of a celebrated living novelist\" (414).","Frankenstein\n\nDespite these initial dismissals, critical reception has been largely positive since the mid-20th century. Major critics such as M. A. Goldberg and Harold Bloom have praised the \"aesthetic and moral\" relevance of the novel and in more recent years the novel has become a popular subject for psychoanalytic and feminist criticism. The novel today is generally considered to be a landmark work of romantic and gothic literature, as well as science fiction.","Frankenstein\n\nIn his 1981 non-fiction book Danse Macabre, author Stephen King considers Frankenstein's monster (along with Dracula and the Werewolf) to be an archetype of numerous horrific creations that followed in literature, film, and television, in a role he refers to as \"The Thing Without A Name.\" He considers such contemporary creations as the 1951 film The Thing from Another World and The Incredible Hulk as examples of similar monstrosities that have followed in its wake. He views the book as \"a Shakespearean tragedy\" and argues: \"its classical unity is broken only by the author's uncertainty as to where the fatal flaw lies—is it in Victor's hubris (usurping a power that belongs only to God) or in his failure to take responsibility for his creation after endowing it with the life-spark?\"","Frankenstein\n\nFrankenstein discussed controversial topics and touched on religious ideas. Victor Frankenstein plays God when he creates a new being. Frankenstein deals with Christian and metaphysical themes. The importance of Paradise Lost and the creature's belief that it is \"a true history\" brings a religious tone to the novel.","Frankenstein\n\nDerivative works","Frankenstein\n\nThere are numerous novels retelling or continuing the story of Frankenstein and his monster.","Frankenstein\n\nFilms, plays and television","Frankenstein\n\n*1826: Henry M. Milner's adaptation, The Man and The Monster; or The Fate of Frankenstein opened on 3 July at the Royal Coburg Theatre, London. *1910: Edison Studios produced the first Frankenstein film, directed by J. Searle Dawley. *1915: Life Without Soul, the second film adaptation of Mary Shelley's novel, was released. No known print of the film has survived. *1920: The Monster of Frankenstein, Directed by Eugenio Testa, starring Luciano Albertini and Umberto Guarracino. *1931: Universal Studios' Frankenstein, directed by James Whale, starring Colin Clive, Mae Clarke, John Boles, Edward Van Sloan, Dwight Frye, and Boris Karloff as the monster. *1935: James Whale directed the sequel Bride of Frankenstein, starring Colin Clive as the Doctor, and Boris Karloff as the monster once more. This incorporated the novel's plot motif of Doctor Frankenstein creating a bride for the monster omitted from Whale's earlier film. There were two more sequels, prior to the Universal \"monster rally\" films combining multiple monsters from various movie series or film franchises. *1939: Son of Frankenstein was another Universal monster movie with Boris Karloff as the Creature. Also in the film were Basil Rathbone as the title character and Bela Lugosi as the sinister assistant Ygor.","Frankenstein\n\nKarloff ended playing the Frankenstein monster with this film. *1942: The Ghost of Frankenstein featured brain transplanting and a new monster, played by Lon Chaney Jr. The film also starred Evelyn Ankers and Bela Lugosi. *1942–1948: Universal did \"monster rally\" films featuring Frankenstein's Monster, Dracula and the Wolf-Man. Included would be Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man, House of Frankenstein, House of Dracula and Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. The films introduced Glenn Strange as Frankenstein's monster. *1957–1974: Hammer Films in England did a string of Frankenstein films starring Peter Cushing, including The Curse of Frankenstein, The Revenge of Frankenstein and Frankenstein Must Be Destroyed. Co-starring in these films were Christopher Lee, Hazel Court, Veronica Carlson and Simon Ward. Another Hammer film, The Horror of Frankenstein, starred Ralph Bates as the main character, Victor Frankenstein. *1965: Toho Studios created the film Frankenstein Conquers the World or Frankenstein vs. Baragon, followed by War of the Gargantuas. *1972: A comedic stage adaptation, Frankenstein's Monster, was written by Sally Netzel and produced by the Dallas Theater Center. *1973: The TV film Frankenstein: The True Story appeared on NBC. The movie starred Leonard Whiting, Michael Sarrazin, James Mason, and Jane Seymour.","Frankenstein\n\n*1981: A Broadway adaptation by Victor Gialanella played for one performance (after 29 previews) and was considered the most expensive flop ever produced to that date. *1984: The flop Broadway production yielded a TV film starring Robert Powell, Carrie Fisher, David Warner, and John Gielgud. *1992: Frankenstein became a Turner Network Television film directed by David Wickes, starring Patrick Bergin and Randy Quaid. John Mills played the blind man. *1994: Mary Shelley's Frankenstein appeared in theatres, directed by and starring Kenneth Branagh, with Robert De Niro and Helena Bonham Carter. Its all-star cast also included John Cleese, Ian Holm, and Tom Hulce. *2004: Frankenstein A 2 episode mini-series starring Alec Newman, with Luke Goss and Donald Sutherland. *2011: In March, BBC3 broadcast Colin Teague's live production from Kirkstall Abbey, Leeds, billed as Frankenstein's Wedding, Live in Leeds. About the same time, the National Theatre, London presented a stage version of Frankenstein, which ran until 2 May 2011. The play was written by Nick Dear and directed by Danny Boyle. Jonny Lee Miller and Benedict Cumberbatch alternated the roles of Frankenstein and the Creature. The National Theatre broadcast live performances of the play worldwide (at 13:00 and 19:30) on 17 March.","Frankenstein\n\n*2011: Once Upon a Time is a fantasy series on ABC that features multiple characters from fairy tales and classic literature trapped in the real world. The series includes Dr. Victor Frankenstein, played by David Anders, as a minor supporting character going by the name Dr. Victor Whale in the town of Storybrooke. His creature is featured in flashbacks and revealed to be his brother. The last name Whale was the writers' nod to director James Whale of the Universal films. *2012: An interactive ebook app created by Inkle and Profile Books that retells the story with added interactive elements. *2014: I, Frankenstein is a 2014 fantasy action film. The film stars Aaron Eckhart as Adam Frankenstein and Bill Nighy. The film is based on the graphic novel. *2014: Penny Dreadful is a horror TV series that airs on Showtime, that features Doctor Victor Frankenstein as well as his creature. *2015: Victor Frankenstein is an American film directed by Paul McGuigan. *2016: Second Chance, formerly known as The Frankenstein Code or Lookinglass, a modern-day series take on the classic, is scheduled to debut January 13, 2016, on FOX. *2016: Frankenstein, a full length ballet production by Liam Scarlett.","Frankenstein\n\nSome performances were also live simulcasts worldwide. ;Loose adaptations\n*1967: I'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out, You'll Have to Spend the Night and its sequel, Frankenstein Unbound (Another Monster Musical), are a pair of musical comedies written by Bobby Pickett and Sheldon Allman. The casts of both feature several classic horror characters including Dr. Frankenstein and his monster. *1973: The Rocky Horror Show, is a British horror comedy stage musical written by Richard O'Brian in which Dr. Frank N. Furter has created a creature (Rocky), to satisfy his (pro)creative drives. Elements are similar to I'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out, You'll Have to Spend the Night. *1973: Frankenstein: The True Story has the monster be originally very handsome but become progressively uglier as the story progresses. It incorporates many elements from the Hammer horror series. *1973: Andy Warhol's Frankenstein. Usually, the doctor is a man whose dedication to science takes him too far, but here his interest is to rule the world by creating a new species that will obey him and do his bidding. *1974: Young Frankenstein.","Frankenstein\n\nDirected by Mel Brooks, this sequel-spoof has been listed as one of the best movie comedies of any comedy genre ever made, even prompting an American film preservation program to include it on its listings. It reuses many props from James Whale's 1931 Frankenstein and is shot in black-and-white with 1930s-style credits. Gene Wilder portrayed the descendant of Dr. Frankenstein, with Peter Boyle as the Monster. *1975: The Rocky Horror Picture Show is the 1975 film adaptation of the British rock musical stageplay, The Rocky Horror Show (1973), written by Richard O'Brien. *1984: Frankenweenie is a parody short film directed by Tim Burton, starring Barrett Oliver, Shelley Duvall and Daniel Stern. *1985: The Bride. Specifically, a remake of 1935's The Bride of Frankenstein which incorporated the novel's bride-motif omitted from the 1931 film. *1986: Gothic, directed by Ken Russell, is the story of the night that Mary Shelley gave birth to Frankenstein. Starring Gabriel Byrne, Julian Sands, Natasha Richardson. *1988: Frankenstein (フランケンシュタイン) is a manga adaptation of Shelley's novel by Junji Ito. *1989: Frankenstein the Panto. A pantomime script by David Swan, combining elements of Frankenstein, Dracula, and traditional British panto. *1990: Frankenstein Unbound.","Frankenstein\n\nCombines a time-travel story with the story of Shelley's novel. Scientist Joe Buchanan accidentally creates a time-rift which takes him back to the events of the novel. Filmed as a low-budget independent film in 1990, based on a novel published in 1973 by Brian Aldiss. This novel bears no relation to the 1967 stage musical with the same name listed above. *1995: Monster Mash is a film adaptation of I'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out, You'll Have to Spend the Night starring Bobby Pickett as Dr. Frankenstein. The film also features Candace Cameron Bure, Anthony Crivello and Mink Stole. *1998: Billy Frankenstein is a very loose adaptation about a boy who moves into a mansion with his family and brings the Frankenstein monster to life. The film was directed by Fred Olen Ray. *2003: Reading Frankenstein, a new media performance work in which Mary Shelley is a genetic engineer and artificial life scientist and her Creature a hybrid form of computational a-life. It was co-created by director Annie Loui and artist-writer Antoinette LaFarge for UC Irvine. *2004: Frankenstein made-for-TV film based on Dean Koontz's Frankenstein. *2005: Frankenstein vs.","Frankenstein\n\nthe Creature from Blood Cove, a 90-minute feature film homage of classic monsters and atomic age creature features, shot in black and white, and directed by William Winckler. The Frankenstein Monster design and make-up was based on the character descriptions in Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley's novel. *2009: The Diary of Anne Frankenstein, a short film from Chillerrama. *2009: Anuman Interactive (French publisher) launches Frankestein, a hidden objects game freely inspired by Mary Shelley’s book, on iPhone and iPad. *2011: Frankenstein: Day of the Beast is an independent horror film based loosely on the original book. *2011: Victor Frankenstein appears in the ABC show Once Upon a Time. *2012: Frankenweenie, Tim Burton's feature film remake of his 1984 short film of the same name. *2012: A Nightmare on Lime Street, Fred Lawless's comedy play starring David Gest staged at the Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool. *2014: Bruce vs. Frankenstein, a comedic adaptation directed by and starring Bruce Campbell, is loosely based on the original book and a sequel to Campbell's own 2007 film My Name Is Bruce. *2014: Frankenstein, MD, A web show by Pemberly Digital starring Victoria, a female adaptation of Victor.","Frankenstein\n\n*2014: \"Musical Frankenstein\", A Korean musical based off the original novel, with a few plot differences. *2015: The Frankenstein Chronicles, is a British television drama series - starring Sean Bean as John Marlott and Anna Maxwell Martin as Mary Shelley"],"string":"[\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPrometheus ( ; , meaning \\\"forethought\\\") is a Titan in Greek mythology, best known as the deity in Greek mythology who was the creator of mankind and its greatest benefactor, who stole fire from Mount Olympus and gave it to mankind.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nAncient myths and legends relate at least four versions of the narratives describing Prometheus, his exploits with Zeus, and his eternal punishment as also inflicted by Zeus. There is a single somewhat comprehensive version of the birth of Prometheus and several variant versions of his subjection to eternal suffering at the will of Zeus. The most significant narratives of his origin appear in the Theogony of Hesiod which relates Prometheus as being the son of the Titan Iapetus by Clymene, one of the Oceanids. Hesiod then presents Prometheus as subsequently being a lowly challenger to Zeus's omnipotence. In the trick at Mecone, Prometheus tricks Zeus into eternally claiming the inedible parts of cows and bulls for the sacrificial ceremonies of the gods, while conceding the nourishing parts to humans for the eternal benefit of humankind. The two remaining central episodes regarding Prometheus as written by Hesiod include his theft of fire from Olympus for the benefit of humanity against the will of Zeus, and the eternal punishment which Prometheus would endure for these acts as inflicted upon him by the judgment of Zeus.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nFor the greater part, the pre-Athenian ancient sources are selective in which of these narrative elements they chose by their own preferences to honor and support, and which ones they chose to exclude. The specific combinations of these relatively independent narrative elements by individual ancient authors (Hesiod, Homer, Pindar, Pythagoras), and specific exclusions among them, are often influenced by the particular needs and purposes of the larger myths and legends which they are depicting. Each individual ancient author selectively preferred certain crucial stories depicting Prometheus over others.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe intensive growth and expansion of Greek literature and philosophy in the classical fourth and fifth century Athenian period would greatly affect both the interpretation and influence which the myth of Prometheus would exert upon Athenian culture. This influence would extend beyond its dramatic and tragic form in the Athenian period, and influence large portions of the greater Western literary tradition which would follow it for over two millennia. All three of the major Athenian tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, were affected by the myth of Prometheus. The surviving plays and fragments of Aeschylus regarding Prometheus retain a special place of prominence within modern scholarship for their having survived the ravages of time. The majority of plays written by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides have been lost to literary antiquity, including many of their writings on Prometheus.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nBoth during and after the Renaissance, Prometheus would again emerge as a major inspiration for his literary and poetic significance as a symbol and archetype to inspire new generations of artists, sculptors, poets, musicians, novelists, playwrights, inventors, technologists, engineers, and film-makers. His literary and mythological personage remains prominently portrayed in contemporary sculpture, art and literary expression including Mary Shelley's portrayal of Frankenstein as The Modern Prometheus. The influence of the myth of Prometheus extends well into the 20th and 21st century as well.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe etymology of the theonym prometheus is debated. The classical view is that it signifies \\\"forethought,\\\" as that of his brother Epimetheus denotes \\\"afterthought\\\". It has been theorized that it derives from the Proto-Indo-European root that also produces the Vedic pra math, \\\"to steal,\\\" hence pramathyu-s, \\\"thief\\\", cognate with \\\"Prometheus\\\", the thief of fire. The Vedic myth of fire's theft by Mātariśvan is an analog to the Greek account. Pramantha was the tool used to create fire.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nMyths and legends\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe oldest legends\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe four most ancient sources for understanding the origin of the Prometheus myths and legends all rely on the images represented in the Titanomachy, or the cosmological struggle between the Greek gods and their parents, the Titans. Prometheus, himself a Titan, managed to avoid being in the direct confrontational cosmic battle between Zeus and the other Olympians against Cronus and the other Titans. Prometheus therefore survived the struggle in which the offending Titans were eternally banished by Zeus to the chthonic depths of Tartarus, only to survive to confront Zeus on his own terms in subsequent climactic struggles. The greater Titanomachia depicts an overarching metaphor of the struggle between generations, between parents and their children, symbolic of the generation of parents needing to eventually give ground to the growing needs, vitality, and responsibilities of the new generation for the perpetuation of society and survival interests of the human race as a whole. Prometheus and his struggle would be of vast merit to human society as well in this mythology as he was to be credited with the creation of humans and therefore all of humanity as well.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe four most ancient historical sources for the Prometheus myth are Hesiod, Homer, Pindar, and Pythagoras.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nHesiod and the Theogony and Works and Days\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe Prometheus myth first appeared in the late 8th-century BCE Greek epic poet Hesiod's Theogony (lines 507–616). He was a son of the Titan Iapetus by Clymene, one of the Oceanids. He was brother to Menoetius, Atlas, and Epimetheus. In the Theogony, Hesiod introduces Prometheus as a lowly challenger to Zeus's omniscience and omnipotence. In the trick at Mekone, a sacrificial meal marking the \\\"settling of accounts\\\" between mortals and immortals, Prometheus played a trick against Zeus (545–557). He placed two sacrificial offerings before the Olympian: a selection of beef hidden inside an ox's stomach (nourishment hidden inside a displeasing exterior), and the bull's bones wrapped completely in \\\"glistening fat\\\" (something inedible hidden inside a pleasing exterior). Zeus chose the latter, setting a precedent for future sacrifices.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nHenceforth, humans would keep that meat for themselves and burn the bones wrapped in fat as an offering to the gods. This angered Zeus, who hid fire from humans in retribution. In this version of the myth, the use of fire was already known to humans, but withdrawn by Zeus. Prometheus, however, stole fire back in a giant fennel-stalk and restored it to humanity. This further enraged Zeus, who sent Pandora, the first woman, to live with humanity. Pandora was fashioned by Hephaestus out of clay and brought to life by the four winds, with all the goddesses of Olympus assembled to adorn her. \\\"From her is the race of women and female kind,\\\" Hesiod writes; \\\"of her is the deadly race and tribe of women who live amongst mortal men to their great trouble, no helpmeets in hateful poverty, but only in wealth.\\\"\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPrometheus, in eternal punishment, is chained to a rock in the Caucasus, Kazbek Mountain or Mountain of Khvamli, where his liver is eaten daily by an eagle, only to be regenerated by night, due to his immortality. The eagle is a symbol of Zeus himself. Years later, the Greek hero Heracles (Hercules) slays the eagle and frees Prometheus from the eagle's torment.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nHesiod revisits the story of Prometheus in the Works and Days (lines 42–105). Here, the poet expands upon Zeus's reaction to Prometheus's deception. Not only does Zeus withhold fire from humanity, but \\\"the means of life,\\\" as well (42). Had Prometheus not provoked Zeus's wrath (44–47), \\\"you would easily do work enough in a day to supply you for a full year even without working; soon would you put away your rudder over the smoke, and the fields worked by ox and sturdy mule would run to waste.\\\" Hesiod also expands upon the Theogonys story of the first woman, now explicitly called Pandora (\\\"all gifts\\\"). After Prometheus' theft of fire, Zeus sent Pandora in retaliation. Despite Prometheus' warning, Epimetheus accepted this \\\"gift\\\" from the gods. Pandora carried a jar with her, from which were released (91–92) \\\"evils, harsh pain and troublesome diseases which give men death\\\". Pandora shut the lid of the jar too late to contain all the evil plights that escaped, but foresight remained in the jar, depriving humanity from hope.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nAngelo Casanova, Professor of Greek Literature at the University of Florence, finds in Prometheus a reflection of an ancient, pre-Hesiodic trickster-figure, who served to account for the mixture of good and bad in human life, and whose fashioning of humanity from clay was an Eastern motif familiar in Enuma Elish; as an opponent of Zeus he was an analogue of the Titans, and like them was punished. As an advocate for humanity he gains semi-divine status at Athens, where the episode in Theogony in which he is liberated is interpreted by Casanova as a post-Hesiodic interpolation.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nAccording to the German classicist Karl-Martin Dietz, in Hesiod's scriptures, Prometheus represents the \\\"descent of mankind from the communion with the gods into the present troublesome life.\\\"\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nHomer and the Homeric Hymns\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe banishment of the warring Titans by the Olympians to the chthonic depths of Tartarus was documented as early as Homer's Iliad and the Odyssey where they are also identified as the hypotartarioi, or, the \\\"subterranean.\\\" The passages appear in the Iliad (XIV 279) and also in the Homeric hymn to Apollo (335). The particular forms of violence associated especially with the Titans are those of hybristes and atasthalie as further found in the Iliad (XIII 633-34). They are used by Homer to designate an unlimited, violent insolence among the warring Titans which only Zeus was able to ultimately overcome. This text finds direct parallel in Hesiod's reading in the Theogony (209) and in Homer's own Odyssey (XIX 406).\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nIn the words of Kerenyi, \\\"Autolykos, the grandfather, is introduced in order that he may give his grandson the name of Odysseus.\\\" In a similar fashion, the origin of the naming of the Titans as a group has been disputed with some voicing a preference for reading it as a combination of titainein (to exert), and, titis (retribution) usually rendered as \\\"retribution meted out to the exertion of the Titans.\\\" It should be noted in studying material concerning Prometheus that Prometheus was not directly among the warring Titans with Zeus though Prometheus's association with them by lineage is a recurrent theme in each of his subsequent confrontations with Zeus and with the Olympian gods.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPindar and the Nemean Odes\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe duality of the gods and of humans standing as polar opposites is also clearly identified in the earliest traditions of Greek mythology and its legends by Pindar. In the sixth Nemean Ode, Pindar states: \\\"There is one/race of men, one race of gods; both have breath/of life from a single mother. But sundered power/holds us divided, so that one side is nothing, while on the other the brazen sky is established/a sure citadel forever.\\\" Although this duality in strikingly apparent in Pindar, it also has paradoxical elements where Pindar actually comes quite close to Hesiod who before him had said in his Works and Days (108) \\\"how the gods and mortal men sprang from one source.\\\" The understanding of Prometheus and his role in the creation of humans and the theft of fire for their benefit is therefore distinctly adapted within this distinguishable source for understanding the role of Prometheus within the mythology of the interaction of the Gods with humans.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPythagoras and the Pythagorean Doctrine\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nIn order to understand the Prometheus myth in its most general context, the Late Roman author Censorinus states in his book titled De die natali that, \\\"Pythagoras of Samos, Okellos of Lukania, Archytas of Tarentum, and in general all Pythagoreans were the authors and proponents of the opinion that the human race was eternal.\\\" By this they held that Prometheus's creation of humans was the creation of humanity for eternity. This Pythagorean view is further confirmed in the book On the Cosmos written by the Pythagorean Okellos of Lukania. Okellos, in his cosmology, further delineates the three realms of the cosmos as all contained within an overarching order called the diakosmesis which is also the world order kosmos, and which also must be eternal. The three realms were delineated by Okellos as having \\\"two poles, man on earth, the gods in heaven. Merely for the sake of symmetry, as it were, the daemons – not evil spirits but beings intermediate between God and man – occupy a middle position in the air, the realm between heaven and earth.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThey were not a product of Greek mythology, but of the belief in daemons that had sprung up in various parts of the Mediterranean world and the Near East.\\\"\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe Athenian tradition\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe two major authors to have a distinctive influence on the development of the myths and legends surrounding the Titan Prometheus during the Socratic era of greater Athens were Aeschylus and Plato. The two men wrote in highly distinctive forms of expression which for Aeschylus centered on his mastery of the literary form of Greek tragedy, while for Plato this centered on the philosophical expression of his thought in the form of the various dialogues he had written and recorded during his lifetime.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nAeschylus and the ancient literary tradition\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPrometheus Bound, perhaps the most famous treatment of the myth to be found among the Greek tragedies, is traditionally attributed to the 5th-century BCE Greek tragedian Aeschylus. At the center of the drama are the results of Prometheus' theft of fire and his current punishment by Zeus; the playwright's dependence on the Hesiodic source material is clear, though Prometheus Bound also includes a number of changes to the received tradition.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nBefore his theft of fire, Prometheus played a decisive role in the Titanomachy, securing victory for Zeus and the other Olympians. Zeus's torture of Prometheus thus becomes a particularly harsh betrayal. The scope and character of Prometheus' transgressions against Zeus are also widened. In addition to giving humankind fire, Prometheus claims to have taught them the arts of civilization, such as writing, mathematics, agriculture, medicine, and science. The Titan's greatest benefaction for humankind seems to have been saving them from complete destruction. In an apparent twist on the myth of the so-called Five Ages of Man found in Hesiod's Works and Days (wherein Cronus and, later, Zeus created and destroyed five successive races of humanity), Prometheus asserts that Zeus had wanted to obliterate the human race, but that he somehow stopped him.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nMoreover, Aeschylus anachronistically and artificially injects Io, another victim of Zeus's violence and ancestor of Heracles, into Prometheus' story. Finally, just as Aeschylus gave Prometheus a key role in bringing Zeus to power, he also attributed to him secret knowledge that could lead to Zeus's downfall: Prometheus had been told by his mother Themis, who in the play is identified with Gaia (Earth), of a potential marriage that would produce a son who would overthrow Zeus. Fragmentary evidence indicates that Heracles, as in Hesiod, frees the Titan in the trilogy's second play, Prometheus Unbound. It is apparently not until Prometheus reveals this secret of Zeus's potential downfall that the two reconcile in the final play, Prometheus the Fire-Bringer or Prometheus Pyrphoros, a lost tragedy by Aeschylus.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPrometheus Bound also includes two mythic innovations of omission. The first is the absence of Pandora's story in connection with Prometheus' own. Instead, Aeschylus includes this one oblique allusion to Pandora and her jar that contained Hope (252): \\\"[Prometheus] caused blind hopes to live in the hearts of men.\\\" Second, Aeschylus makes no mention of the sacrifice-trick played against Zeus in the Theogony. The four tragedies of Prometheus attributed to Aeschylus, most of which are sadly lost to the passages of time into antiquity, are Prometheus Bound (Desmotes), Prometheus Delivered (Lyomens), Prometheus the Fire Bringer (Pyrphoros), and Prometheus the Fire Kindler (Pyrkaeus).\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe larger scope of Aeschylus as a dramatist revisiting the myth of Prometheus in the age of Athenian prominence has been discussed by William Lynch. Lynch's general thesis concerns the rise of humanist and secular tendencies in Athenian culture and society which required the growth and expansion of the mythological and religious tradition as acquired from the most ancient sources of the myth stemming from Hesiod. For Lynch, modern scholarship is hampered by not having the full trilogy of Prometheus by Aeschylus, the last two parts of which have been lost to antiquity. Significantly, Lynch further comments that although the Prometheus trilogy is not available, that the Orestia trilogy by Aeschylus remains available and may be assumed to provide significant insight into the overall structural intentions which may be ascribed to the Prometheus trilogy by Aeschylus as an author of significant consistency and exemplary dramatic erudition.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nHarold Bloom, in his research guide for Aeschylus, has summarized some of the critical attention that has been applied to Aeschylus concerning his general philosophical import in Athens. As Bloom states, \\\"Much critical attention has been paid to the question of theodicy in Aeschylus. For generations, scholars warred incessantly over 'the justice of Zeus,' unintentionally blurring it with a monotheism imported from Judeo-Christian thought. The playwright undoubtedly had religious concerns; for instance, Jacqueline de Romilly suggests that his treatment of time flows directly out of his belief in divine justice. But it would be an error to think of Aeschylus as sermonizing. His Zeus does not arrive at decisions which he then enacts in the mortal world; rather, human events are themselves an enactment of divine will.\\\"\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nAccording to Thomas Rosenmeyer regarding the religious import of Aeschylus, \\\"In Aeschylus, as in Homer, the two levels of causation, the supernatural and the human, are co-existent and simultaneous, two way of describing the same event.\\\" Rosenmeyer insists that ascribing portrayed characters in Aeschylus should not conclude them to be either victims or agents of theological or religious activity too quickly. As Rosenmeyer states: \\\"[T]he text defines their being. For a critic to construct an Aeschylean theology would be as quixotic as designing a typology of Aeschylean man. The needs of the drama prevail.\\\"\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nIn a rare comparison of Prometheus in Aeschylus with Oedipus in Sophocles, Harold Bloom with more than simple irony has quoted Freud as stating that, \\\"Freud called Oedipus an 'immoral play,' since the gods ordained incest and parricide. Oedipus therefore participates in our universal unconscious sense of guilt, but on this reading so do the gods. I (states Bloom) sometimes wish that Freud had turned to Aeschylus instead, and given us the Prometheus complex rather than the Oedipus complex.\\\"\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nKarl-Martin Dietz states that in contrast to Hesiod's, in Aeschylus' oeuvre, Prometheus stands for the \\\"Ascent of humanity from primitive beginnings to the present level of civilization.\\\"\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPlato and philosophy\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nOlga Raggio in her study \\\"The Myth of Prometheus\\\" for the Courtauld Institute attributes Plato in the Protagoras as an important contributor to the early development of the Prometheus myth. Raggio indicates that many of the more challenging and dramatic assertions which Aeschylean tragedy explores are absent from Plato's writings about Prometheus. As summarized by Raggio, \\\"After the gods have moulded men and other living creatures with a mixture of clay and fire, the two brothers Epimetheus and Prometheus are called to complete the task and distribute among the newly born creatures all sorts of natural qualities. Epimetheus sets to work, but, being unwise, distributes all the gifts of nature among the animals, leaving men naked and unprotected, unable to defend themselves and to survive in a hostile world. Prometheus then steals the fire of creative power from the workshop of Athena and Hephaistos and gives it to mankind.\\\" Raggio then goes on to point out Plato's distinction of creative power (techne) which is presented as superior to merely natural instincts (physis).\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nFor Plato, only the virtues of \\\"reverence and justice can provide for the maintenance of a civilized society – and these virtues are the highest gift finally bestowed on men in equal measure.\\\" The ancients by way of Plato believed that the name Prometheus derived from the Greek prefix pro- (before) + manthano (intelligence) and the agent suffix -eus, thus meaning \\\"Forethinker\\\". In his dialogue titled Protagoras, Plato contrasts Prometheus with his dull-witted brother Epimetheus, \\\"Afterthinker\\\". In Plato's dialogue Protagoras, Protagoras asserts that the gods created humans and all the other animals, but it was left to Prometheus and his brother Epimetheus to give defining attributes to each. As no physical traits were left when the pair came to humans, Prometheus decided to give them fire and other civilizing arts.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nAthenian religious dedication and observance\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nIt is understandable that since Prometheus was considered a Titan and not one of the Olympian gods that there would be an absence of evidence, with the exception of Athens, for the direct religious devotion to his worship. Despite his importance to the myths and imaginative literature of ancient Greece, the religious cult of Prometheus during the Archaic and Classical periods seems to have been limited. Writing in the 2nd century AD, the satirist Lucian points out that while temples to the major Olympians were everywhere, none to Prometheus is to be seen.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nAthens was the exception. The altar of Prometheus in the grove of the Academy was the point of origin for several significant processions and other events regularly observed on the Athenian calendar. For the Panathenaic festival, arguably the most important civic festival at Athens, a torch race began at the altar, which was located outside the sacred boundary of the city, and passed through the Kerameikos, the district inhabited by potters and other artisans who regarded Prometheus and Hephaestus as patrons. The race then traveled to the heart of the city, where it kindled the sacrificial fire on the altar of Athena on the Acropolis to conclude the festival. These footraces took the form of relays in which teams of runners passed off a flaming torch. According to Pausanias (2nd century AD), the torch relay, called lampadedromia or lampadephoria, was first instituted at Athens in honor of Prometheus. By the Classical period, the races were run by ephebes also in honor of Hephaestus and Athena. Prometheus' association with fire is the key to his religious significance and to the alignment with Athena and Hephaestus that was specific to Athens and its \\\"unique degree of cultic emphasis\\\" on honoring technology.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe festival of Prometheus was the Prometheia. The wreaths worn symbolized the chains of Prometheus.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPausanias recorded a few other religious sites in Greece devoted to Prometheus. Both Argos and Opous claimed to be Prometheus' final resting place, each erecting a tomb in his honor. The Greek city of Panopeus had a cult statue that was supposed to honor Prometheus for having created the human race there.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe Aesthetic tradition in Athenian art\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPrometheus' torment by the eagle and his rescue by Heracles were popular subjects in vase paintings of the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. He also sometimes appears in depictions of Athena's birth from Zeus' forehead. There was a relief sculpture of Prometheus with Pandora on the base of Athena's cult statue in the Athenian Parthenon of the 5th century BCE. A similar rendering is also found at the great altar of Zeus at Pergamon from the second century BCE.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe event of the release of Prometheus from captivity was frequently revisited on Attic and Etruscan vases between the sixth and fifth centuries BCE. In the depiction on display at the Museum of Karlsruhe and in Berlin, the depiction is that of Prometheus confronted by a menacing large bird (assumed to be the eagle) with Hercules approaching from behind shooting his arrows at it. In the fourth century this imagery was modified to depicting Prometheus bound in a cruciform manner, possibly reflecting an Aeschylus-inspired manner of influence, again with an eagle and with Hercules approaching from the side.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nOther authors\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nSome two dozen other Greek and Roman authors retold and further embellished the Prometheus myth from as early as the 5th century BCE (Diodorus, Herodorus) into the 4th century AD. The most significant detail added to the myth found in, e.g., Sappho, Aesop and Ovid — was the central role of Prometheus in the creation of the human race. According to these sources, Prometheus fashioned humans out of clay.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nAlthough perhaps made explicit in the Prometheia, later authors such as Hyginus, the Bibliotheca, and Quintus of Smyrna would confirm that Prometheus warned Zeus not to marry the sea nymph Thetis. She is consequently married off to the mortal Peleus, and bears him a son greater than the father — Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. Pseudo-Apollodorus moreover clarifies a cryptic statement (1026–29) made by Hermes in Prometheus Bound, identifying the centaur Chiron as the one who would take on Prometheus' suffering and die in his place. Reflecting a myth attested in Greek vase paintings from the Classical period, Pseudo-Apollodorus places the Titan (armed with an axe) at the birth of Athena, thus explaining how the goddess sprang forth from the forehead of Zeus.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nOther minor details attached to the myth include: the duration of Prometheus' torment; the origin of the eagle that ate the Titan's liver (found in Pseudo-Apollodorus and Hyginus); Pandora's marriage to Epimetheus (found in Pseudo-Apollodorus); myths surrounding the life of Prometheus' son, Deucalion (found in Ovid and Apollonius of Rhodes); and Prometheus' marginal role in the myth of Jason and the Argonauts (found in Apollonius of Rhodes and Valerius Flaccus).\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\n\\\"Variants of legends containing the Prometheus motif are widespread in the Caucasus\\\" region, reports Hunt, who gave 10 stories related to Prometheus from ethno-linguistic groups in the region.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nLate Roman antiquity\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe three most prominent aspects of the Prometheus myth have parallels within the beliefs of many cultures throughout the world; see creation of man from clay, theft of fire, and references for eternal punishment. It is the first of these three which has drawn attention to parallels with the biblical creation account related in the religious symbolism expressed in the book of Genesis.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nAs stated by Olga Raggio, \\\"The Prometheus myth of creation as a visual symbol of the Neoplatonic concept of human nature, illustrated in (many) sarcophagi, was evidently a contradiction of the Christian teaching of the unique and simultaneous act of creation by the Trinity.\\\" This Neoplatonism of late Roman antiquity was especially stressed by Tertullian who recognized both difference and similarity of the biblical deity with the mythological figure of Prometheus.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe imagery of Prometheus and the creation of man used for the purposes of the representation of the creation of Adam in biblical symbolism is also a recurrent theme in the artistic expression of late Roman antiquity. Of the relatively rare expressions found of the creation of Adam in those centuries of late Roman antiquity, one can single out the so-called \\\"Dogma sarcophagus\\\" of the Lateran Museum where three figures are seen (in representation of the theological trinity) in making a benediction to the new man. Another example is found where the prototype of Prometheus is also recognizable in the early Christian era of late Roman antiquity.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThis can be found upon a sarcophagus of the Church at Mas d'Aire as well, and in an even more direct comparison to what Raggio refers to as \\\"a coursely carved relief from Campli (Teramo) (where) the Lord sits on a throne and models the body of Adam, exactly like Prometheus.\\\" Still another such similarity is found in the example found on a Hellenistic relief presently in the Louvre in which the Lord gives life to Eve through the imposition of his two fingers on her eyes recalling the same gesture found in earlier representations of Prometheus.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nIn Georgian mythology, Amirani is a culture hero who challenged the chief god, and like Prometheus was chained on the Caucasian mountains where birds would eat his organs. This aspect of the myth had a significant influence on the Greek imagination. It is recognizable from a Greek gem roughly dated to the time of the Hesiod poems, which show Prometheus with hands bound behind his body and crouching before a bird with long wings. This same image would also be used later in the Rome of the Augustan age as documented by Furtwangler.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nIn the often cited and highly publicized interview between Joseph Campbell and Bill Moyers on Public Television, the author of The Hero with a Thousand Faces presented his view on the comparison of Prometheus and Jesus. Moyers asked Campbell the question in the following words, \\\"In this sense, unlike heroes such as Prometheus or Jesus, we're not going on our journey to save the world but to save ourselves.\\\" To which Campbell's well-known response was that, \\\"But in doing that, you save the world. The influence of a vital person vitalizes, there's no doubt about it. The world without spirit is a wasteland. People have the notion of saving the world by shifting things around, changing the rules [...] No, no! Any world is a valid world if it's alive.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe thing to do is to bring life to it, and the only way to do that is to find in your own case where the life is and become alive yourself.\\\" For Campbell, Jesus mortally suffered on the Cross while Prometheus eternally suffered while chained to a rock, and each of them received punishment for the gift which they bestowed to humankind, for Jesus this was the gift of propitiation from Heaven, and, for Prometheus this was the gift of fire from Olympus.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nSignificantly, Campbell is also clear to indicate the limits of applying the metaphors of his methodology in his book The Hero with a Thousand Faces too closely in assessing the comparison of Prometheus and Jesus. Of the four symbols of suffering associated with Jesus after his trial in Jerusalem (i) the crown of thorns, (ii) the scourge of whips, (iii) the nailing to the Cross, and (iv) the spearing of his side, it is only this last one which bears some resemblance to the eternal suffering of Prometheus' daily torment of an eagle devouring a replenishing organ, his liver, from his side. For Campbell, the striking contrast between the New Testament narratives and the Greek mythological narratives remains at the limiting level of the cataclysmic eternal struggle of the eschatological New Testament narratives occurring only at the very end of the biblical narratives in the Apocalypse of John (12:7) where, \\\"Michael and his angels fought against the dragon.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in heaven.\\\" This eschatological and apocalyptic setting of a Last Judgement is in precise contrast to the Titanomachia of Hesiod which serves its distinct service to Greek mythology as its Prolegomenon, bracketing all subsequent mythology, including the creation of humanity, as coming after the cosmological struggle between the Titans and the Olympian gods.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nIt remains a continuing debate among scholars of comparative religion and the literary reception of mythological and religious subject matter as to whether the typology of suffering and torment represented in the Prometheus myth finds its more representative comparisons with the narratives of the Hebrew scriptures or with the New Testament narratives. In the Book of Job, significant comparisons can be drawn between the sustained suffering of Job in comparison to that of eternal suffering and torment represented in the Prometheus myth. With Job, the suffering is at the acquiescence of heaven and at the will of the demonic, while in Prometheus the suffering is directly linked to Zeus as the ruler of Olympus. The comparison of the suffering of Jesus after his sentencing in Jerusalem is limited to the three days, from Thursday to Saturday, and leading to the culminating narratives corresponding to Easter Sunday. The symbolic import for comparative religion would maintain that suffering related to justified conduct is redeemed in both the Hebrew scriptures and the New Testament narratives, while in Prometheus there remains the image of a non-forgiving deity, Zeus, who nonetheless requires reverence.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nWriting in late antiquity of the fourth and fifth century, the Latin commentator Marcus Servius Honoratus explained that Prometheus was so named because he was a man of great foresight (vir prudentissimus), possessing the abstract quality of providentia, the Latin equivalent of Greek promētheia (). Anecdotally, the Roman fabulist Phaedrus (c.15BCE - c.50CE) attributes to Aesop a simple etiology for homosexuality, in Prometheus' getting drunk while creating the first humans and misapplying the genitalia.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe Middle Ages\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPerhaps the most influential book of the Middle Ages upon the reception of the Prometheus myth was the mythological handbook of Fulgentius Placiades. As stated by Raggio, \\\"The text of Fulgentius, as well as that of (Marcus) Servius [...] are the main sources of the mythological handbooks written in the ninth century by the anonymous Mythographus Primus and Mythographus Secundus. Both were used for the more lengthy and elaborate compendium by the English scholar Alexander Neckman (1157-1217), the Scintillarium Poetarum, or Poetarius.\\\" The purpose of his books was to distinguish allegorical interpretation from the historical interpretation of the Prometheus myth. Continuing in this same tradition of the allegorical interpretation of the Prometheus myth, along with the historical interpretation of the Middle Ages, is the Genealogiae of Giovanni Boccaccio. Boccaccio follows these two levels of interpretation and distinguishes between two separate versions of the Prometheus myth.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nFor Boccaccio, Prometheus is placed \\\"In the heavens where all is clarity and truth, [Prometheus] steals, so to speak, a ray of the divine wisdom from God himself, source of all Science, supreme Light of every man.\\\" With this, Boccaccio shows himself moving from the medieval sources with a shift of accent towards the attitude of the Renaissance humanists.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nUsing a similar interpretation to that of Boccaccio, Marsilio Ficino in the fifteenth century updated the philosophical and more somber reception of the Prometheus myth not seen since the time of Plotinus. In his book written in 1476-77 titled Quaestiones Quinque de Mente, Ficino indicates his preference for reading the Prometheus myth as an image of the human soul seeking to obtain supreme truth. As Olga Raggio summarizes Ficino's text, \\\"The torture of Prometheus is the torment brought by reason itself to man, who is made by it many times more unhappy than the brutes. It is after having stolen one beam of the celestial light [...] that the soul feels as if fastened by chains and [...] only death can release her bonds and carry her to the source of all knowledge.\\\" This somberness of attitude in Ficino's text would be further developed later by Charles de Bouelles' Liber de Sapiente of 1509 which presented a mix of both scholastic and Neoplatonic ideas.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe Renaissance\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nAfter the writings of both Boccaccio and Ficino in the late Middle Ages about Prometheus, interest in the Titan shifted considerably in the direction of becoming subject matter for painters and sculptors alike. Among the most famous examples is that of Piero di Cosimo from about 1510 presently on display at the museums of Munich and Strasburg (see Inset). Raggio summarizes the Munich version as follows; \\\"The Munich panel represents the dispute between Epimetheus and Prometheus, the handsome triumphant statue of the new man, modeled by Prometheus, his ascension to the sky under the guidance of Minerva; the Strasburg panel shows in the distance Prometheus lighting his torch at the wheels of the Sun, and in the foreground on one side, Prometheus applying his torch to the heart of the statue and , on the other, Mercury fastening him to a tree.\\\" All the details are evidently borrowed from Boccaccio's Genealogiae.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe same reference to the Genealogiae can be cited as the source for the drawing by Parmigianino presently located in the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York City. In this drawing, a very noble rendering of Prometheus is presented which evokes the memory of Michelangelo's works portraying Jehovah. This drawing in the Morgan Library is perhaps one of the most intense examples of the visualization of the myth of Prometheus from the Renaissance period.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nWriting in the late British Renaissance, William Shakespeare uses the Promethean allusion in the famous death scene of Desdemona in his tragedy of Othello. Othello in contemplating the death of Desdemona asserts plainly that he cannot restore the \\\"Promethean heat\\\" to her body once it has been extinguished. For Shakespeare, the allusion is clearly to the interpretation of the fire from the heat as the bestowing of life to the creation of man from clay by Prometheus after it was stolen from Olympus. The analogy bears direct resemblance to the biblical narrative of the creation of life in Adam through the bestowed breathing of the creator in Genesis. Shakespeare's symbolic reference to the \\\"heat\\\" associated with Prometheus's fire is to the association of the gift of fire to the mythological gift or theological gift of life to humans.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe Post-Renaissance\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe myth of Prometheus has been a favorite theme of Western art and literature in the post-renaissance and post-Enlightenment tradition, and occasionally in works produced outside the West.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPost-Renaissance literary arts\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nFor the Romantic era, Prometheus was the rebel who resisted all forms of institutional tyranny epitomized by Zeus — church, monarch, and patriarch. The Romantics drew comparisons between Prometheus and the spirit of the French Revolution, Christ, the Satan of John Milton's Paradise Lost, and the divinely inspired poet or artist. Prometheus is the lyrical \\\"I\\\" who speaks in Goethe's Sturm und Drang poem \\\"Prometheus\\\" (written c. 1772–74, published 1789), addressing God (as Zeus) in misotheist accusation and defiance. In Prometheus Unbound (1820), a four-act lyrical drama, Percy Bysshe Shelley rewrites the lost play of Aeschylus so that Prometheus does not submit to Zeus (under the Latin name Jupiter), but instead supplants him in a triumph of the human heart and intellect over tyrannical religion. Lord Byron's poem \\\"Prometheus\\\" also portrays the Titan as unrepentant. As documented by Olga Raggio, other leading figures among the great Romantics included Byron, Longfellow and Nietzsche as well. Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein is subtitled \\\"The Modern Prometheus\\\", in reference to the novel's themes of the over-reaching of modern humanity into dangerous areas of knowledge.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nGoethe's poems\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\n\\\"Prometheus\\\" is a poem by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, in which a character based on the mythic Prometheus addresses God (as Zeus) in a romantic and misotheist tone of accusation and defiance. The poem was written between 1772 and 1774. It was first published fifteen years later in 1789. It is an important work as it represents one of the first encounters of the Prometheus myth with the literary Romantic movement identified with Goethe and with the Sturm und Drang movement.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe poem has appeared in Volume 6 of Goethe's poems (in his Collected Works) in a section of ' (assorted poems), shortly following the '. It is immediately followed by \\\"Ganymed\\\", and the two poems are written as informing each other according to Goethe's plan in their actual writing. Prometheus (1774) was originally planned as a drama but never completed by Goethe, though the poem is inspired by it. Prometheus is the creative and rebellious spirit rejected by God, and who angrily defies him and asserts himself; Ganymede, by direct contrast, is the boyish self who is both adored and seduced by God. As a high Romantic poet and a humanist poet, Goethe presents both identities as contrasting aspects of the Romantic human condition.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe poem offers direct biblical connotations for the Prometheus myth which was unseen in any of the ancient Greek poets dealing with the Prometheus myth in either drama, tragedy, or philosophy. The intentional use of the German phrase \\\"\\\" (\\\"When I was a child\\\"): the use of ' is distinctive, and with it Goethe directly applies the Lutheran translation of Saint Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians, 13:11: \\\"\\\" (\\\"When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child: but when I became a man, I put away childish things\\\"). Goethe's Prometheus is significant for the contrast it evokes with the biblical text of the Corinthians rather than for its similarities.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nIn his book titled Prometheus: Archetypal Image of Human Existence, C. Kerenyi states the key contrast between Goethe's version of Prometheus with the ancient Greek version. As Kerenyi states, \\\"Goethe's Prometheus had Zeus for father and a goddess for mother. With this change from the traditional lineage the poet distinguished his hero from the race of the Titans.\\\" For Goethe, the metaphorical comparison of Prometheus to the image of the Son from the New Testament narratives was of central importance, with the figure of Zeus in Goethe's reading being metaphorically matched directly to the image of the Father from the New Testament narratives.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPercy Bysshe Shelley\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPercy Shelley published his four-act lyrical drama titled Prometheus Unbound in 1820. His version was written in response to the version of myth as presented by Aeschylus (described in the Section above) and is oriented to the high British Idealism and high British Romanticism prevailing in Shelley's own time. Shelley, as the author himself discusses, admits the debt of his version of the myth to Aeschylus and the Greek poetic tradition which he assumes is familiar to readers of his own lyrical drama. For example, it is necessary to understand and have knowledge of the reason for Prometheus's punishment if the reader is to form an understanding of whether the exoneration portrayed by Shelley in his version of the Prometheus myth is justified or unjustified. The quote of Shelley's own words describing the extent of his indebtedness to Aeschylus has been published in numerous sources publicly available.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe literary critic Harold Bloom in his book Shelley's Mythmaking expresses his high expectation of Shelley in the tradition of mythopoeic poetry. For Bloom, Percy Shelley's relationship to the tradition of mythology in poetry \\\"culminates in 'Prometheus'; the poem provides a complete statement of Shelley's vision.\\\" Bloom devotes two full chapters in this book to Shelley's lyrical drama Prometheus Unbound which was among the first books Bloom had ever written, originally published in 1959. Following his 1959 book, Bloom edited an anthology of critical opinions on Shelley for Chelsea House Publishers where he concisely stated his opinion as, \\\"Shelley is the unacknowledged ancestor of Wallace Stevens' conception of poetry as the Supreme Fiction, and Prometheus Unbound is the most capable imagining, outside of Blake and Wordsworth, that the Romantic quest for a Supreme Fiction has achieved.\\\"\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nWithin the pages of his Introduction to the Chelsea House edition on Percy Shelley, Harold Bloom also identifies the six major schools of criticism opposing Shelley's idealized mythologizing version of the Prometheus myth. In sequence, the opposing schools to Shelley are given as: (i) The school of \\\"common sense\\\", (ii) The Christian orthodox, (iii) The school of \\\"wit\\\", (iv) Moralists, of most varieties, (v) The school of \\\"classic\\\" form, and (vi) The Precisionists, or concretists. Although Bloom is least interested in the first two schools, the second one on the Christian orthodox has special bearing on the reception of the Prometheus myth during late Roman antiquity and the synthesis of the New Testament canon. The Greek origins of the Prometheus myth have already discussed the Titanomachia as placing the cosmic struggle of Olympus at some point in time preceding the creation of humanity, while in the New Testament synthesis there was a strong assimilation of the prophetic tradition of the Hebrew prophets and their strongly eschatological orientation.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThis contrast placed a strong emphasis within the ancient Greek consciousness as to the moral and ontological acceptance of the mythology of the Titanomachia as an accomplished mythological history, whereas for the synthesis of the New Testament narratives this placed religious consciousness within the community at the level of an anticipated eschaton not yet accomplished. Neither of these would guide Percy Shelley in his poetic retelling and reintegration of the Prometheus myth.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nTo the Socratic Greeks, one important aspect of the discussion of religion would correspond to the philosophical discussion of 'becoming' with respect to the New Testament syncretism rather than the ontological discussion of 'being' which was more prominent in the ancient Greek experience of mythologically oriented cult and religion. For Percy Shelley, both of these reading were to be substantially discounted in preference to his own concerns for promoting his own version of an idealized consciousness of a society guided by the precepts of High British Romanticism and High British Idealism.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nFrankenstein; or, the Modern Prometheus\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nFrankenstein; or, the Modern Prometheus, written by Mary Shelley when she was 18, was published in 1818, two years before Percy Shelley's above mentioned play. It has endured as one of the most frequently revisited literary themes in twentieth century film and popular reception with few rivals for its sheer popularity among even established literary works of art. The primary theme is a parallel to the aspect of the Prometheus myth which concentrates on the creation of man by the Titans, transferred and made contemporary by Shelley for British audiences of her time. The subject is that of the creation of life by a scientist, thus bestowing life through the application and technology of medical science rather than by the natural acts of reproduction. The short novel has been adapted into many films and productions ranging from the early versions with Boris Karloff to later versions featuring Kenneth Branagh, among others.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe twentieth century\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nFranz Kafka (d. 1924) wrote a short piece on Prometheus, outlining what he saw as his perspective on four aspects of his myth:\\nAccording to the first, he was clamped to a rock in the Caucasus for betraying the secrets of the gods to men, and the gods sent eagles to feed on his liver, which was perpetually renewed. According to the second, Prometheus, goaded by the pain of the tearing beaks, pressed himself deeper and deeper into the rock until he became one with it. According to the third, his treachery was forgotten in the course of thousands of years, forgotten by the gods, the eagles, forgotten by himself. According to the fourth, everyone grew weary of the meaningless affair. The gods grew weary, the eagles grew weary, the wound closed wearily.There remains the inexplicable mass of rock. The legend tried to explain the inexplicable. As it came out of a substratum of truth it had in turn to end in the inexplicable.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThis short piece by Kafka concerning his interest in Prometheus was supplemented by two other mythological pieces written by him. As stated by Reiner Stach, \\\"Kafka's world was mythical in nature, with Old Testament and Jewish legends providing the templates, and it was only logical (even if Kafka did not state it openly) that he would try his hand at the canon of antiquity, reinterpreting it and incorporating it into his own imagination in the form of allusions, as in 'The Silence of the Sirens,' 'Prometheus,' and 'Poseidon.'\\\" Among contemporary poets, the British poet Ted Hughes wrote the a 1973 collection of poems titled Prometheus On His Crag. The Nepali poet Laxmi Prasad Devkota (d. 1949) also wrote an epic titled Prometheus (प्रमीथस).\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nIn his 1952 book, Lucifer and Prometheus, Zvi Werblowsky presented the speculatively derived Jungian construction of the character of Satan in Milton's celebrated poem Paradise Lost. Werblowsky applied his own Jungian style of interpretation to appropriate parts of the Prometheus myth for the purpose of interpreting Milton. A reprint of his book in the 1990s by Routledge Press included an introduction to the book by Carl Jung. Some Gnostics have been associated with identifying the theft of fire from heaven as embodied by the fall of Lucifer \\\"the Light Bearer\\\".\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nPost-Renaissance aesthetic tradition\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nClassical music, opera, and ballet\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nWorks of classical music, opera, and ballet directly or indirectly inspired by the myth of Prometheus have included renderings by some of the major composers of both the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In this tradition, the orchestral representation of the myth has received the most sustained attention of composers. These have included the symphonic poem by Franz Liszt titled Prometheus from 1850, among his other Symphonic Poems (No. 5, S.99). Alexander Scriabin composed Prometheus: Poem of Fire, Opus 60 (1910), also for orchestra. In the same year Gabriel Fauré composed his three-act opera Prométhée (1910). Charles-Valentin Alkan composed his Grande sonate 'Les quatre âges' (1847), with the 4th movement entitled \\\"Prométhée enchaîné\\\" (Prometheus Bound). Beethoven composed the score to a ballet version of the myth titled The Creatures of Prometheus (1801).\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nAn adaptation of Goethe's poetic version of the myth was composed by Hugo Wolf, Prometheus (Bedecke deinen Himmel, Zeus, 1889), as part of his Goethe-lieder for voice and piano, later transcribed for orchestra and voice. An opera of the myth was composed by Carl Orff titled Prometheus (1968), using Aeschylus' Greek language Prometheia.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nIn film\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe 2012 science fiction fantasy film titled Prometheus by Ridley Scott is associated with the myth largely through the coincidence of name. Of the three principal mythological themes associated with the myth of the titan Prometheus – the eternal punishment, the theft of fire, and the creation of man – the film seems to be at least partially concerned only the last theme. In the film, one of the wealthy lead characters in the future spends vast sums of money in order to locate the extraterrestrials who he believes were responsible for the creation of man. His hope is that if he finds his ‘creators’, they will be able somehow to extend his life. In this belief he is straightforwardly disappointed. A 2012 three-part essay on the science fiction film titled Prometheus identified the eight key themes in understanding the film, with only “Parental Issues” appearing to have a solid connection to the myth of Prometheus.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nThe inventor of human-like artificial intelligence in the 2015 film Ex Machina, Nathan Bateman, states, \\\"It is what it is. It’s Promethean. The clay and fire.\\\" His liver is damaged daily from alcoholic binge drinking, he rejuvenates the next morning with a healthy diet and exercise, and ultimately he is stabbed in the liver (or thereabouts) by his creations.\",\n \"Prometheus\\n\\nNotes\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nFrankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is a novel written by the English author Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley that tells the story of a young science student Victor Frankenstein, who creates a grotesque but sentient creature in an unorthodox scientific experiment. Shelley started writing the story when she was 18, and the first edition of the novel was published anonymously in London in 1818, when she was 20. Shelley's name first appeared on the second edition, published in France in 1823.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nShelley traveled through Europe in 1814, journeying along the River Rhine in Germany with a stop in Gernsheim which is just 17 km (10 mi) away from Frankenstein Castle, where, two centuries before, an alchemist was engaged in experiments. Later, she traveled in the region of Geneva (Switzerland)—where much of the story takes place—and the topic of galvanism and other similar occult ideas were themes of conversation among her companions, particularly her lover and future husband, Percy Shelley. Mary, Percy, Lord Byron and John Polidori decided to have a competition to see who could write the best horror story. After thinking for days, Shelley dreamt about a scientist who created life and was horrified by what he had made; her dream later evolved into the novel's story.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nFrankenstein is infused with elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic movement. At the same time, it is an early example of science fiction. Brian Aldiss has argued that it should be considered the first true science fiction story because, in contrast to previous stories with fantastical elements resembling those of later science fiction, the central character \\\"makes a deliberate decision\\\" and \\\"turns to modern experiments in the laboratory\\\" to achieve fantastic results. It has had a considerable influence in literature and popular culture and spawned a complete genre of horror stories, films and plays.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nSince the novel's publication, the name \\\"Frankenstein\\\" has often been used to refer to the monster itself, as it is in the stage adaptation by Peggy Webling. This usage is sometimes considered erroneous, but usage commentators regard it as well-established and acceptable. In the novel, the monster is identified by words such as \\\"wretch\\\", \\\"creature\\\", \\\"monster\\\", \\\"demon\\\", and \\\"it\\\". Speaking to Victor Frankenstein, the wretch refers to himself as \\\"the Adam of your labours\\\", and elsewhere as someone who \\\"would have\\\" been \\\"your Adam\\\", but is instead \\\"your fallen angel.\\\"\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nSummary\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nFrankenstein is written in the form of a frame story that starts with Captain Robert Walton writing letters to his sister. It takes place at an unspecified time in the 18th century, as the letters' dates are given as \\\"17—\\\".\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nCaptain Walton's introductory frame narrative\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nThe novel Frankenstein is written in epistolary form, documenting a fictional correspondence between Captain Robert Walton and his sister, Margaret Walton Saville. Walton is a failed writer who sets out to explore the North Pole and expand his scientific knowledge in hopes of achieving fame. During the voyage, the crew spots a dog sled driven by a gigantic figure. A few hours later, the crew rescues a nearly frozen and emaciated man named Victor Frankenstein. Frankenstein has been in pursuit of the gigantic man observed by Walton's crew. Frankenstein starts to recover from his exertion; he sees in Walton the same over-ambitiousness, and recounts a story of his life's miseries to Walton as a warning. The recounted story serves as the frame for Frankenstein's narrative.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nVictor Frankenstein's narrative\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nVictor begins by telling of his childhood. Born in Naples, into a wealthy Genevan family, Victor and his brothers, Ernest and William, all three being sons of Alphonse Frankenstein by the former Caroline Beaufort, are encouraged to seek a greater understanding of the world through science. As a young boy, Victor is obsessed with studying outdated theories that focus on simulating natural wonders. When Victor is five years old, his parents adopt the orphan daughter of an expropriated Italian nobleman, Elizabeth Lavenza, with whom Victor later falls in love. (During this period, Victor's parents, Alphonse and Caroline, take in yet another orphan, Justine Moritz, who becomes William's nanny.)\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nWeeks before he leaves for the University of Ingolstadt in Germany, his mother dies of scarlet fever contracted from treating Elizabeth (who had been infected first but survived), creating further impetus towards his experiments. At university, he excels at chemistry and other sciences, soon developing a secret technique to impart life to non-living matter, which eventually leads to his creation of the Creature.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nBecause of the difficulty in replicating the minute parts of the human body, Victor makes the Creature large, about 8 ft in height. Despite his intentions, the beautiful creation of his dreams is instead hideous, with yellow eyes and skin that barely conceals the muscle tissue and blood vessels underneath. Repulsed by his work, Victor flees and dismisses him. While wandering the streets, he meets his childhood friend, Henry Clerval, and tries to show him his creation, but the Creature has escaped, saddened by his rejection.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nVictor falls ill from the experience and is nursed back to health by Henry. After a four-month recovery, he returns home when he learns of the murder of his brother William. Upon arriving in Geneva, Victor sees the Creature (now called a Monster) at the crime scene, leading him to believe he (the Monster) is responsible. Justine Moritz, William's nanny, is convicted of the crime after William's locket, which had contained a miniature portrait of Caroline, is found in her pocket. Victor doubts anyone would believe his story, which could stop Justine's hanging.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nRavaged by grief and guilt, Victor retreats into the mountains. The Monster finds him and pleads for Victor to hear his tale. Intelligent and articulate, the Creature says that his encounters with people led to his fear of them, driving him into the wilderness. While living in an abandoned structure connected to a cottage, he grew fond of the family living there. The Creature learned to speak by listening to them and he taught himself to read after discovering a lost satchel of books. When he saw his reflection in a pool, he realized his physical appearance was hideous, and it terrified him as it terrifies normal humans. Nevertheless, he approached the family in hopes of becoming their friend. Initially he was able to befriend the blind father figure of the family, but the rest were frightened and they all fled their home. The Creature then burned the cottage in a fit of rage, and murdered Victor's brother William, framing Justine for the murder.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nThe Creature demands that Victor create a female companion like himself. He argues that as a living being, he has a right to happiness. The Creature promises that he and his mate will vanish into the South American wilderness, never to reappear, if Victor grants his request.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nFearing for his family, Victor reluctantly agrees. Clerval accompanies him to England, but they separate in Perth, Scotland. Victor suspects that the Creature is following him. Working on the female creature on the Orkney Islands, he is plagued by premonitions of disaster, particularly the idea that creating a mate for the Creature might lead to the breeding of a race that could plague mankind. He destroys the female creature after he sees the Creature watching through a window. The Creature confronts him, vowing to be with Victor and Elizabeth on their upcoming wedding night. The Creature then kills Clerval, leaving the corpse to be found where Victor lands in Ireland. Victor is imprisoned for Clerval's murder and suffers another mental breakdown in prison. After being acquitted, he returns home with his father, who has restored to Elizabeth some of her father's fortune.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nIn Geneva, Victor is about to marry Elizabeth and prepares to fight the Creature. Believing the Creature threatened his life, the night before their wedding Victor asks Elizabeth to stay in her room while he looks for \\\"the fiend.\\\" While Victor searches the house and grounds, the Creature murders Elizabeth. From the window, Victor sees the Creature, who taunts Victor with Elizabeth's corpse. Grief-stricken by the deaths of William, Justine, Clerval, and Elizabeth, Victor's father dies. Seeking revenge, Victor pursues the Creature to the North Pole, but he does not manage to kill his creation.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nCaptain Walton's concluding frame narrative\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nAt the end of Victor's narrative, Captain Walton resumes the telling of the story, closing the frame around Victor's reaccounting. A few days after the creature vanishes, the ship becomes trapped in pack ice and Walton's crew insists on returning south once it is freed. In spite of a passionate speech from Victor, encouraging the crew to push further north, Walton realizes that he must accede to his men's demands and agrees to head for home. Victor becomes agitated, insisting on continuing to search for the Creature, but is too weak from his exertions and dies shortly thereafter.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nWalton discovers the Creature on his ship, mourning over Victor's body. Walton hears the Creature's reasons for his vengeance and expressions of remorse. Victor's death has not brought him peace. Rather, his crimes have increased his misery and alienation, and his words are almost exactly identical to Victor's own in describing himself. The Creature vows to kill himself on his own funeral pyre so that no others will ever know of his existence. Walton watches as he drifts away on an ice raft that is soon lost in darkness, never to be seen again.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nComposition\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nDuring the rainy summer of 1816, the \\\"Year Without a Summer\\\", the world was locked in a long cold volcanic winter caused by the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815. Mary Shelley, aged 18, and her lover (and later husband) Percy Bysshe Shelley, visited Lord Byron at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva in Switzerland. The weather was consistently too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy the outdoor holiday activities they had planned, so the group retired indoors until dawn.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nSitting around a log fire at Byron's villa, the company amused themselves by reading German ghost stories translated into French from the book Fantasmagoriana, then Byron proposed that they \\\"each write a ghost story\\\". Unable to think of a story, young Mary became anxious: \\\"Have you thought of a story? I was asked each morning, and each morning I was forced to reply with a mortifying negative.\\\" During one evening in the middle of summer, the discussions turned to the nature of the principle of life. \\\"Perhaps a corpse would be re-animated\\\", Mary noted, \\\"galvanism had given token of such things\\\". It was after midnight before they retired, and unable to sleep, she became possessed by her imagination as she beheld the grim terrors of her \\\"waking dream\\\".\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nIn September 2011, astronomer Donald Olson, after a visit to the Lake Geneva villa the previous year, and inspecting data about the motion of the moon and stars, concluded that her \\\"waking dream\\\" took place \\\"between 2 a.m. and 3 a.m.\\\" on 16 June 1816, several days after the initial idea by Lord Byron that they each write a ghost story.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nShe began writing what she assumed would be a short story. With Percy Shelley's encouragement, she expanded the tale into a full-fledged novel. She later described that summer in Switzerland as the moment \\\"when I first stepped out from childhood into life\\\". Shelley wrote the first four chapters in the weeks following the suicide of her half-sister Fanny. Byron managed to write just a fragment based on the vampire legends he heard while travelling the Balkans, and from this John Polidori created The Vampyre (1819), the progenitor of the romantic vampire literary genre. Thus two legendary horror tales originated from the conclave.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nThe group talked about Enlightenment and Counter-Enlightenment ideas as well. Shelley believed the Enlightenment idea that society could progress and grow if political leaders used their powers responsibly; however, she also believed the Romantic ideal that misused power could destroy society (Bennett 36–42).\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nMary's and Percy Bysshe Shelley's manuscripts for the first three-volume edition in 1818 (written 1816–1817), as well as Mary Shelley's fair copy for her publisher, are now housed in the Bodleian Library in Oxford. The Bodleian acquired the papers in 2004, and they belong now to the Abinger Collection. In 2008, the Bodleian published a new edition of Frankenstein, edited by Charles E. Robinson, that contains comparisons of Mary Shelley's original text with Percy Shelley's additions and interventions alongside.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nPublication\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nShelley completed her writing in May 1817, and Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus was first published on March 11, 1818 by the small London publishing house Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, & Jones. It was issued anonymously, with a preface written for Mary by Percy Bysshe Shelley and with a dedication to philosopher William Godwin, her father. It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes, the standard \\\"triple-decker\\\" format for 19th-century first editions.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nThe second edition of Frankenstein was published on August 11, 1822 in two volumes (by G. and W. B. Whittaker) following the success of the stage play Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein by Richard Brinsley Peake; this edition credited Mary Shelley as the author.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nOn October 31, 1831, the first \\\"popular\\\" edition in one volume appeared, published by Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley. This edition was heavily revised by Mary Shelley, partially because of pressure to make the story more conservative. It included a new, longer preface by herself, presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the story. This edition tends to be the one most widely read now, although editions containing the original 1818 text are still published. Many scholars prefer the 1818 text, arguing that it preserves the spirit of Shelley's original publication (see Anne K. Mellor's \\\"Choosing a Text of Frankenstein to Teach\\\" in the W. W. Norton Critical edition).\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nFrankenstein and the Monster\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nThe creature\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nPart of Frankenstein's rejection of his creation is the fact that he does not give it a name, which causes a lack of identity. Instead it is referred to by words such as \\\"wretch\\\", \\\"monster\\\", \\\"creature\\\", \\\"demon\\\", \\\"devil\\\", \\\"fiend\\\", and \\\"it\\\". When Frankenstein converses with the creature in Chapter 10, he addresses it as \\\"vile insect\\\", \\\"abhorred monster\\\", \\\"fiend\\\", \\\"wretched devil\\\", and \\\"abhorred devil\\\".\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nDuring a telling of Frankenstein, Shelley referred to the creature as \\\"Adam\\\". Shelley was referring to the first man in the Garden of Eden, as in her epigraph:\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nDid I request thee, Maker, from my clay\\nTo mould Me man? Did I solicit thee\\nFrom darkness to promote me?\\n:John Milton, Paradise Lost (X. 743–5)\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nAlthough the monster would be described in later works as a composite of whole body parts grafted together from cadavers and reanimated by the use of electricity, this description is not entirely consistent with Shelley's work; both the use of electricity and the cobbled-together image of Frankenstein's monster were more the result of James Whale's popular 1931 film adaptation of the story, and other early motion-picture works based upon the creature. In Shelley's original work, Dr. Frankenstein discovers a previously unknown but elemental principle of life, and that insight allows him to develop a method to imbue vitality into inanimate matter, though the exact nature of the process is left largely ambiguous. After a great deal of hesitation in exercising this power, the doctor spends two years painstakingly constructing the creature's body (one anatomical feature at a time, from raw materials supplied by \\\"the dissecting room and the slaughter-house\\\"), which he then brings to life using his unspecified process.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nThe creature has often been mistakenly called \\\"Frankenstein\\\". In 1908 one author said \\\"It is strange to note how well-nigh universally the term \\\"Frankenstein\\\" is misused, even by intelligent people, as describing some hideous monster\\\". Edith Wharton's The Reef (1916) describes an unruly child as an \\\"infant Frankenstein.\\\" David Lindsay's \\\"The Bridal Ornament\\\", published in The Rover, 12 June 1844, mentioned \\\"the maker of poor Frankenstein.\\\" After the release of Whale's cinematic Frankenstein, the public at large began speaking of the creature itself as \\\"Frankenstein\\\". This also occurs in Frankenstein films, including Bride of Frankenstein (1935) and several subsequent films, as well as in film titles such as Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. Furthermore, future renditions and adaptations of the story include an evil laboratory assistant Igor/Ygor, who does not actually exist within the original narrative.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nVictor Frankenstein's surname\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nMary Shelley maintained that she derived the name Frankenstein from a dream-vision. Despite her public claims of originality, however, a number of other sources have been suggested as Shelley's actual inspiration. The German name Frankenstein means \\\"stone of the Franks\\\", and it is associated with various places in Germany, including Frankenstein Castle (Burg Frankenstein) in Darmstadt, Hesse, and Frankenstein Castle in Frankenstein, a town in the Palatinate. There is also a castle called Frankenstein in Bad Salzungen, Thuringia, and a municipality called Frankenstein in Saxony. Until 1945, Ząbkowice Śląskie, now a city in Silesia, Poland, was named Frankenstein in German, and was the site of a scandal involving gravediggers in 1606, which has been suggested as an inspiration to the author. Finally, the name is borne by the aristocratic House of Franckenstein from Franconia.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nRadu Florescu argues that Mary and Percy Shelley visited Frankenstein Castle near Darmstadt in 1814 during their return to England from their elopement to Switzerland. It was at this castle that a notorious alchemist, Conrad Dippel, had experimented with human bodies, and Florescu reasons that Mary suppressed mention of her visit in order to maintain her public claim of originality. A literary essay by A. J. Day supports Florescu's position that Mary Shelley knew of and visited Frankenstein Castle before writing her debut novel. Day includes details of an alleged description of the Frankenstein castle that exists in Mary Shelley's 'lost' journals. According to Jörg Heléne, the 'lost journals', as well as Florescu's claims, cannot be verified.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nVictor Frankenstein's given name\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nA possible interpretation of the name Victor is derived from Paradise Lost by John Milton, a great influence on Shelley (a quotation from Paradise Lost is on the opening page of Frankenstein and Shelley even has the monster himself read it). Milton frequently refers to God as \\\"the Victor\\\" in Paradise Lost, and Shelley sees Victor as playing God by creating life. In addition, Shelley's portrayal of the monster owes much to the character of Satan in Paradise Lost; indeed, the monster says, after reading the epic poem, that he empathizes with Satan's role in the story.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nThere are many similarities between Victor and Percy Shelley, Mary's husband. Victor was a pen name of Percy Shelley's, as in the collection of poetry he wrote with his sister Elizabeth, Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire. There is speculation that one of Mary Shelley's models for Victor Frankenstein was Percy, who at Eton had \\\"experimented with electricity and magnetism as well as with gunpowder and numerous chemical reactions\\\", and whose rooms at Oxford were filled with scientific equipment.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nPercy Shelley was the first-born son of a wealthy country squire with strong political connections and a descendant of Sir Bysshe Shelley, 1st Baronet of Castle Goring, and Richard Fitzalan, 10th Earl of Arundel. Victor's family is one of the most distinguished of that republic and his ancestors were counselors and syndics. Percy had a sister named Elizabeth; Victor had an adopted sister named Elizabeth.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nOn 22 February 1815, Mary Shelley gave birth to a baby two months prematurely, and the baby died two weeks later. Percy did not care about the condition of this premature infant and left with Claire, Mary's stepsister, for a lurid affair. When Victor saw the creature come to life he fled the apartment, though the newborn creature approached him, as a child would a parent. The question of Victor's responsibility to the creature is one of the main themes of the book.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nModern Prometheus\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nThe Modern Prometheus is the novel's subtitle (though some modern editions now drop the subtitle, mentioning it only in an introduction). Prometheus, in later versions of Greek mythology, was the Titan who created mankind at the behest of Zeus. He made a being in the image of the gods that could have a spirit breathed into it. Prometheus taught man to hunt, read, and heal their sick, but after he tricked Zeus into accepting poor-quality offerings from humans, Zeus kept fire from mankind. Prometheus, being the creator, took back the fire from Zeus to give to man. When Zeus discovered this, he sentenced Prometheus to be eternally punished by fixing him to a rock of Caucasus, where each day an eagle would peck out his liver, only for the liver to regrow the next day because of his immortality as a god. He was intended to suffer alone for eternity, but eventually Heracles (Hercules) released him.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nPrometheus was also a myth told in Latin, but was a very different story. In this version Prometheus makes man from clay and water, again a very relevant theme to Frankenstein, as Victor rebels against the laws of nature (how life is naturally made) and as a result is punished by his creation.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nThe Titan in the Greek mythology of Prometheus parallels Victor Frankenstein. Victor's work by creating man by new means reflects the same innovative work of the Titan in creating humans.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nSome have claimed that Mary Shelley saw Prometheus not as a hero but rather as something of a devil, and blamed him for bringing fire to man and thereby seducing the human race to the vice of eating meat (fire brought cooking which brought hunting and killing).\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nByron was particularly attached to the play Prometheus Bound by Aeschylus, and Percy Shelley would soon write his own Prometheus Unbound (1820). The term \\\"Modern Prometheus\\\" was actually coined by Immanuel Kant in reference to Benjamin Franklin and his experiments with electricity.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nShelley's sources\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nShelley incorporated a number of different sources into her work, one of which was the Promethean myth from Ovid. The influence of John Milton's Paradise Lost, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, are also clearly evident within the novel. Mary is likely to have acquired some ideas for Frankenstein's character from Humphry Davy's book Elements of Chemical Philosophy, in which he had written that \\\"science has ... bestowed upon man powers which may be called creative; which have enabled him to change and modify the beings around him ...\\\". References to the French Revolution run through the novel; a possible source may lie in François-Félix Nogaret's Le Miroir des événemens actuels, ou la Belle au plus offrant (1790): a political parable about scientific progress featuring an inventor named Frankénsteïn who creates a life-sized automaton.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nWithin the past thirty years or so, many writers and historians have attempted to associate several then popular natural philosophers (now called physical scientists) with Shelley's work on account of several notable similarities. Two of the most notable natural philosophers among Shelley's contemporaries were Giovanni Aldini, who made many public attempts at human reanimation through bio-electric Galvanism in London and Johann Konrad Dippel, who was supposed to have developed chemical means to extend the life span of humans. While Shelley was obviously aware of both these men and their activities, she makes no mention of or reference to them or their experiments in any of her published or released notes.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nReception\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nThe initial critical reception of the book was mostly unfavorable, compounded by confused speculation as to the identity of the author. Sir Walter Scott wrote that \\\"upon the whole, the work impresses us with a high idea of the author's original genius and happy power of expression\\\", but the Quarterly Review described it \\\"a tissue of horrible and disgusting absurdity\\\".\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nMary Shelley had contact with some of the most influential minds of her time. Shelley's father, William Godwin, was very progressive and encouraged his daughter to participate in the conversations that took place in his home with various scientific minds, many of whom were actively engaged in the study of anatomy. She was familiar with the ideas of using dead bodies for study, the newer theory of using electricity to animate the dead, and the concerns of religion and the general public regarding the morality of tampering with God's work.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nDespite the reviews, Frankenstein achieved an almost immediate popular success. It became widely known especially through melodramatic theatrical adaptations—Mary Shelley saw a production of Presumption; or The Fate of Frankenstein, a play by Richard Brinsley Peake, in 1823. A French translation appeared as early as 1821 (Frankenstein: ou le Prométhée Moderne, translated by Jules Saladin).\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nFrankenstein has been both well received and disregarded since its anonymous publication in 1818. Critical reviews of that time demonstrate these two views. The Belle Assemblee described the novel as \\\"very bold fiction\\\" (139). The Quarterly Review stated that \\\"the author has the power of both conception and language\\\" (185). Sir Walter Scott, writing in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine congratulated \\\"the author's original genius and happy power of expression\\\" (620), although he is less convinced about the way in which the monster gains knowledge about the world and language. The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Miscellany hoped to see \\\"more productions from this author\\\" (253).\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nIn two other reviews where the author is known as the daughter of William Godwin, the criticism of the novel makes reference to the feminine nature of Mary Shelley. The British Critic attacks the novel's flaws as the fault of the author: \\\"The writer of it is, we understand, a female; this is an aggravation of that which is the prevailing fault of the novel; but if our authoress can forget the gentleness of her sex, it is no reason why we should; and we shall therefore dismiss the novel without further comment\\\" (438). The Literary Panorama and National Register attacks the novel as a \\\"feeble imitation of Mr. Godwin's novels\\\" produced by the \\\"daughter of a celebrated living novelist\\\" (414).\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nDespite these initial dismissals, critical reception has been largely positive since the mid-20th century. Major critics such as M. A. Goldberg and Harold Bloom have praised the \\\"aesthetic and moral\\\" relevance of the novel and in more recent years the novel has become a popular subject for psychoanalytic and feminist criticism. The novel today is generally considered to be a landmark work of romantic and gothic literature, as well as science fiction.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nIn his 1981 non-fiction book Danse Macabre, author Stephen King considers Frankenstein's monster (along with Dracula and the Werewolf) to be an archetype of numerous horrific creations that followed in literature, film, and television, in a role he refers to as \\\"The Thing Without A Name.\\\" He considers such contemporary creations as the 1951 film The Thing from Another World and The Incredible Hulk as examples of similar monstrosities that have followed in its wake. He views the book as \\\"a Shakespearean tragedy\\\" and argues: \\\"its classical unity is broken only by the author's uncertainty as to where the fatal flaw lies—is it in Victor's hubris (usurping a power that belongs only to God) or in his failure to take responsibility for his creation after endowing it with the life-spark?\\\"\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nFrankenstein discussed controversial topics and touched on religious ideas. Victor Frankenstein plays God when he creates a new being. Frankenstein deals with Christian and metaphysical themes. The importance of Paradise Lost and the creature's belief that it is \\\"a true history\\\" brings a religious tone to the novel.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nDerivative works\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nThere are numerous novels retelling or continuing the story of Frankenstein and his monster.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nFilms, plays and television\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\n*1826: Henry M. Milner's adaptation, The Man and The Monster; or The Fate of Frankenstein opened on 3 July at the Royal Coburg Theatre, London. *1910: Edison Studios produced the first Frankenstein film, directed by J. Searle Dawley. *1915: Life Without Soul, the second film adaptation of Mary Shelley's novel, was released. No known print of the film has survived. *1920: The Monster of Frankenstein, Directed by Eugenio Testa, starring Luciano Albertini and Umberto Guarracino. *1931: Universal Studios' Frankenstein, directed by James Whale, starring Colin Clive, Mae Clarke, John Boles, Edward Van Sloan, Dwight Frye, and Boris Karloff as the monster. *1935: James Whale directed the sequel Bride of Frankenstein, starring Colin Clive as the Doctor, and Boris Karloff as the monster once more. This incorporated the novel's plot motif of Doctor Frankenstein creating a bride for the monster omitted from Whale's earlier film. There were two more sequels, prior to the Universal \\\"monster rally\\\" films combining multiple monsters from various movie series or film franchises. *1939: Son of Frankenstein was another Universal monster movie with Boris Karloff as the Creature. Also in the film were Basil Rathbone as the title character and Bela Lugosi as the sinister assistant Ygor.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nKarloff ended playing the Frankenstein monster with this film. *1942: The Ghost of Frankenstein featured brain transplanting and a new monster, played by Lon Chaney Jr. The film also starred Evelyn Ankers and Bela Lugosi. *1942–1948: Universal did \\\"monster rally\\\" films featuring Frankenstein's Monster, Dracula and the Wolf-Man. Included would be Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man, House of Frankenstein, House of Dracula and Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. The films introduced Glenn Strange as Frankenstein's monster. *1957–1974: Hammer Films in England did a string of Frankenstein films starring Peter Cushing, including The Curse of Frankenstein, The Revenge of Frankenstein and Frankenstein Must Be Destroyed. Co-starring in these films were Christopher Lee, Hazel Court, Veronica Carlson and Simon Ward. Another Hammer film, The Horror of Frankenstein, starred Ralph Bates as the main character, Victor Frankenstein. *1965: Toho Studios created the film Frankenstein Conquers the World or Frankenstein vs. Baragon, followed by War of the Gargantuas. *1972: A comedic stage adaptation, Frankenstein's Monster, was written by Sally Netzel and produced by the Dallas Theater Center. *1973: The TV film Frankenstein: The True Story appeared on NBC. The movie starred Leonard Whiting, Michael Sarrazin, James Mason, and Jane Seymour.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\n*1981: A Broadway adaptation by Victor Gialanella played for one performance (after 29 previews) and was considered the most expensive flop ever produced to that date. *1984: The flop Broadway production yielded a TV film starring Robert Powell, Carrie Fisher, David Warner, and John Gielgud. *1992: Frankenstein became a Turner Network Television film directed by David Wickes, starring Patrick Bergin and Randy Quaid. John Mills played the blind man. *1994: Mary Shelley's Frankenstein appeared in theatres, directed by and starring Kenneth Branagh, with Robert De Niro and Helena Bonham Carter. Its all-star cast also included John Cleese, Ian Holm, and Tom Hulce. *2004: Frankenstein A 2 episode mini-series starring Alec Newman, with Luke Goss and Donald Sutherland. *2011: In March, BBC3 broadcast Colin Teague's live production from Kirkstall Abbey, Leeds, billed as Frankenstein's Wedding, Live in Leeds. About the same time, the National Theatre, London presented a stage version of Frankenstein, which ran until 2 May 2011. The play was written by Nick Dear and directed by Danny Boyle. Jonny Lee Miller and Benedict Cumberbatch alternated the roles of Frankenstein and the Creature. The National Theatre broadcast live performances of the play worldwide (at 13:00 and 19:30) on 17 March.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\n*2011: Once Upon a Time is a fantasy series on ABC that features multiple characters from fairy tales and classic literature trapped in the real world. The series includes Dr. Victor Frankenstein, played by David Anders, as a minor supporting character going by the name Dr. Victor Whale in the town of Storybrooke. His creature is featured in flashbacks and revealed to be his brother. The last name Whale was the writers' nod to director James Whale of the Universal films. *2012: An interactive ebook app created by Inkle and Profile Books that retells the story with added interactive elements. *2014: I, Frankenstein is a 2014 fantasy action film. The film stars Aaron Eckhart as Adam Frankenstein and Bill Nighy. The film is based on the graphic novel. *2014: Penny Dreadful is a horror TV series that airs on Showtime, that features Doctor Victor Frankenstein as well as his creature. *2015: Victor Frankenstein is an American film directed by Paul McGuigan. *2016: Second Chance, formerly known as The Frankenstein Code or Lookinglass, a modern-day series take on the classic, is scheduled to debut January 13, 2016, on FOX. *2016: Frankenstein, a full length ballet production by Liam Scarlett.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nSome performances were also live simulcasts worldwide. ;Loose adaptations\\n*1967: I'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out, You'll Have to Spend the Night and its sequel, Frankenstein Unbound (Another Monster Musical), are a pair of musical comedies written by Bobby Pickett and Sheldon Allman. The casts of both feature several classic horror characters including Dr. Frankenstein and his monster. *1973: The Rocky Horror Show, is a British horror comedy stage musical written by Richard O'Brian in which Dr. Frank N. Furter has created a creature (Rocky), to satisfy his (pro)creative drives. Elements are similar to I'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out, You'll Have to Spend the Night. *1973: Frankenstein: The True Story has the monster be originally very handsome but become progressively uglier as the story progresses. It incorporates many elements from the Hammer horror series. *1973: Andy Warhol's Frankenstein. Usually, the doctor is a man whose dedication to science takes him too far, but here his interest is to rule the world by creating a new species that will obey him and do his bidding. *1974: Young Frankenstein.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nDirected by Mel Brooks, this sequel-spoof has been listed as one of the best movie comedies of any comedy genre ever made, even prompting an American film preservation program to include it on its listings. It reuses many props from James Whale's 1931 Frankenstein and is shot in black-and-white with 1930s-style credits. Gene Wilder portrayed the descendant of Dr. Frankenstein, with Peter Boyle as the Monster. *1975: The Rocky Horror Picture Show is the 1975 film adaptation of the British rock musical stageplay, The Rocky Horror Show (1973), written by Richard O'Brien. *1984: Frankenweenie is a parody short film directed by Tim Burton, starring Barrett Oliver, Shelley Duvall and Daniel Stern. *1985: The Bride. Specifically, a remake of 1935's The Bride of Frankenstein which incorporated the novel's bride-motif omitted from the 1931 film. *1986: Gothic, directed by Ken Russell, is the story of the night that Mary Shelley gave birth to Frankenstein. Starring Gabriel Byrne, Julian Sands, Natasha Richardson. *1988: Frankenstein (フランケンシュタイン) is a manga adaptation of Shelley's novel by Junji Ito. *1989: Frankenstein the Panto. A pantomime script by David Swan, combining elements of Frankenstein, Dracula, and traditional British panto. *1990: Frankenstein Unbound.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nCombines a time-travel story with the story of Shelley's novel. Scientist Joe Buchanan accidentally creates a time-rift which takes him back to the events of the novel. Filmed as a low-budget independent film in 1990, based on a novel published in 1973 by Brian Aldiss. This novel bears no relation to the 1967 stage musical with the same name listed above. *1995: Monster Mash is a film adaptation of I'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out, You'll Have to Spend the Night starring Bobby Pickett as Dr. Frankenstein. The film also features Candace Cameron Bure, Anthony Crivello and Mink Stole. *1998: Billy Frankenstein is a very loose adaptation about a boy who moves into a mansion with his family and brings the Frankenstein monster to life. The film was directed by Fred Olen Ray. *2003: Reading Frankenstein, a new media performance work in which Mary Shelley is a genetic engineer and artificial life scientist and her Creature a hybrid form of computational a-life. It was co-created by director Annie Loui and artist-writer Antoinette LaFarge for UC Irvine. *2004: Frankenstein made-for-TV film based on Dean Koontz's Frankenstein. *2005: Frankenstein vs.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\nthe Creature from Blood Cove, a 90-minute feature film homage of classic monsters and atomic age creature features, shot in black and white, and directed by William Winckler. The Frankenstein Monster design and make-up was based on the character descriptions in Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley's novel. *2009: The Diary of Anne Frankenstein, a short film from Chillerrama. *2009: Anuman Interactive (French publisher) launches Frankestein, a hidden objects game freely inspired by Mary Shelley’s book, on iPhone and iPad. *2011: Frankenstein: Day of the Beast is an independent horror film based loosely on the original book. *2011: Victor Frankenstein appears in the ABC show Once Upon a Time. *2012: Frankenweenie, Tim Burton's feature film remake of his 1984 short film of the same name. *2012: A Nightmare on Lime Street, Fred Lawless's comedy play starring David Gest staged at the Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool. *2014: Bruce vs. Frankenstein, a comedic adaptation directed by and starring Bruce Campbell, is loosely based on the original book and a sequel to Campbell's own 2007 film My Name Is Bruce. *2014: Frankenstein, MD, A web show by Pemberly Digital starring Victoria, a female adaptation of Victor.\",\n \"Frankenstein\\n\\n*2014: \\\"Musical Frankenstein\\\", A Korean musical based off the original novel, with a few plot differences. *2015: The Frankenstein Chronicles, is a British television drama series - starring Sean Bean as John Marlott and Anna Maxwell Martin as Mary Shelley\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2094,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_43"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"When was the nobel prize for literature first awarded?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"1901"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["one thousand nine hundred and one"],"string":"[\n \"one thousand nine hundred and one\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nSince 1901, the Nobel Prize in Literature () has been awarded annually to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Alfred Nobel, produced \"in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction\" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning). Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here \"work\" refers to an author's work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year. The academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Physics, Nobel Peace Prize, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nNobel's choice of emphasis on idealism in his criteria for the Nobel Prize in Literature has led to recurrent controversy. In the original Swedish, the word idealisk translates as either \"idealistic\" or \"ideal\". In the early twentieth century, the Nobel Committee interpreted the intent of the will strictly. For this reason, they did not award certain world-renowned authors of the time such as James Joyce, Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, Marcel Proust, Henrik Ibsen, and Henry James. More recently, the wording has been more liberally interpreted. Thus, the prize is now awarded both for lasting literary merit and for evidence of consistent idealism on some significant level. In recent years, this means a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale. Hence, the award is now arguably more political.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe Swedish Academy has attracted significant criticism in recent years for its handling of the award. Some critics contend that many well-known writers have not been awarded the prize or even been nominated and others contend that some well-known recipients do not deserve it. There have also been controversies involving alleged political interests relating to the nomination process and ultimate selection of some of the recent literary laureates. Some, such as Indian academic Sabaree Mitra, have noted that, though the Nobel Prize in Literature is significant and tends to overshadow other awards, it is \"not the only benchmark of literary excellence\".","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nBackground","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nAlfred Nobel stipulated in his last will and testament that his money be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the \"greatest benefit on mankind\" in physics, chemistry, peace, physiology or medicine, and literature. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million Swedish kronor (US$186 million, €135 million in 2008), to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes.[http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/will/index.html \"The Will of Alfred Nobel\"], nobelprize.org. Retrieved 6 November 2007. Due to the level of scepticism surrounding the will, it was not until April 26, 1897 that the Storting (Norwegian Parliament) approved it. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, who formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organize the prizes.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed: the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on June 11. The Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/416856/Nobel-Prize \"Nobel Prize]\" (2007), in Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 15 January 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: According to Nobel's will, the Royal Swedish Academy were to award the Prize in Literature.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nNomination procedure","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nEach year, the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Members of the Academy, members of literature academies and societies, professors of literature and language, former Nobel literature laureates, and the presidents of writers' organizations are all allowed to nominate a candidate. It is not permitted to nominate oneself.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThousands of requests are sent out each year, and about 220 proposals are returned.Per Wästberg (President of The Nobel Committee for Literature), [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2011/dec/22/do-we-need-nobel-exchange/?pagination\nfalse \"Do We Need the Nobel?\"], The New York Review of Books, December 22, 2011. Last accessed December 2011. These proposals must be received by the Academy by 1 February, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates. By May, a short list of five names is approved by the Committee. The subsequent four months are then spent in reading and reviewing the works of the five candidates. In October, members of the Academy vote and the candidate who receives more than half of the votes is named the Nobel laureate in Literature. No one can get the prize without being on the list at least twice, thus many of the same authors reappear and are reviewed repeatedly over the years. The academy is master of thirteen languages, but when a candidate is shortlisted from an unknown language, they call on translators and oath-sworn experts to provide samples of that writer. Other elements of the process are similar to that of other Nobel Prizes.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nPrizes","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nA Literature Nobel Prize laureate earns a gold medal, a diploma bearing a citation, and a sum of money. The amount of money awarded depends on the income of the Nobel Foundation that year. If a prize is awarded to more than one laureate, the money is either split evenly among them or, for three laureates, it may be divided into a half and two quarters.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/416856/Nobel-Prize/93434/The-prizes \"Nobel Prize – Prizes\"] (2007), in Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 15 January 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: If a prize is awarded jointly to two or more laureates, the money is split among them.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe prize money of the Nobel Prize has been fluctuating since its inauguration but it stands at (about ), previously it was . This was not the first time the prize-amount was decreased—beginning with a nominal value of in 1901 (worth 8,123,951 in 2011 SEK) the nominal value has been as low as (2,370,660 in 2011 SEK) in 1945—but it has been uphill or stable since then, peaking at an SEK-2011 value of 11,659,016 in 2001.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe laureate is also invited to give a lecture during \"Nobel Week\" in Stockholm; the highlight is the prize-giving ceremony and banquet on December 10. It is the richest literary prize in the world by a large margin.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nNobel Prize Medals","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe Nobel Prize medals, minted by Myntverket in Sweden and the Mint of Norway since 1902, are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse (front side of the medal). The Nobel Prize medals for Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death (1833–1896). Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Nobel Peace Prize medal and the Medal for the Prize in Economics, but with a slightly different design.[http://digitalcollections.library.oregonstate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT\n/pawardsmedals&CISOPTR47 \"The Nobel Prize for Peace\"], \"Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors, and Medals\", Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History, the Valley Library, Oregon State University. Retrieved 7 December 2007. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the Nobel Prize medals for Chemistry and Physics share the same design.[http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/pictures/nobel-chemistry-medal.html \"Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Front and back images of the medal. 1954\"], \"Source: Photo by Eric Arnold. Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nHonors and Awards, 1954h2.1\", \"All Documents and Media: Pictures and Illustrations\", Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History, the Valley Library, Oregon State University. Retrieved 7 December 2007. The medal for the Nobel Prize in Literature was designed by Erik Lindberg.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nNobel Prize Diplomas","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nNobel laureates receive a Diploma directly from the King of Sweden. Each Diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureate that receives it. The Diploma contains a picture and text that states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nLaureates","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nPotential candidates","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nPotential recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature are difficult to predict as nominations are kept secret for fifty years until they are publicly available at The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Currently, only nominations submitted between 1901 and 1965 are available for public viewing. This secrecy has led to speculation about the next Nobel laureate.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nAccording to Professor Göran Malmqvist of the Swedish Academy, Chinese writer Shen Congwen was to have been awarded the 1988 Nobel Prize in Literature, had he not suddenly died that year.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nCriticism","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nControversies about Nobel Laureate selections","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nFrom 1901 to 1912, the committee was characterised by an interpretation of the \"ideal direction\" stated in Nobel's will as \"a lofty and sound idealism.\" That caused Leo Tolstoy, Henrik Ibsen, Émile Zola, and Mark Twain to be rejected. Also, many believe Sweden's historic antipathy towards Russia is the reason neither Tolstoy nor Anton Chekhov was awarded the prize. During World War I and its immediate aftermath, the committee adopted a policy of neutrality, favouring writers from non-combatant countries. August Strindberg was repeatedly bypassed by the committee, but holds the singular distinction of being awarded an Anti-Nobel Prize, conferred by popular acclaim and national subscription and presented to him in 1912 by future prime minister Hjalmar Branting. James Joyce wrote the books that rank 1st and 3rd on the Modern Library 100 Best Novels, Ulysses and Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man respectively, but Joyce never won; as biographer Gordon Barker wrote, \"That prize was just out of Joyce's reach.\"","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe academy considered Czech writer Karel Čapek's War With the Newts too offensive to the German government. He also declined to suggest some noncontroversial publication that could be cited as an example of his work, stating \"Thank you for the good will, but I have already written my doctoral dissertation\". He was thus denied the prize.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nAccording to Swedish Academy archives studied by the newspaper Le Monde on their opening in 2008, French novelist and intellectual André Malraux was seriously considered for the prize in the 1950s. Malraux was competing with Albert Camus but was rejected several times, especially in 1954 and 1955, \"so long as he does not come back to novel\". Thus, Camus was awarded the prize in 1957.Olivier Truc, [http://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2008/12/27/et-camus-obtint-enfin-le-prix-nobel_1135690_3246.html \"Et Camus obtint enfin le prix Nobel\"]. Le Monde, 28 December 2008.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nSome attribute W. H. Auden's not being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature to errors in his translation of 1961 Peace Prize laureate Dag Hammarskjöld's Vägmärken (Markings)Harold Orlans, [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-62828416.html \"Self-Centered Translating: Why W. H. Auden Misinterpreted 'Markings' When Translating It from Swedish to English\"], Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning (published by Heldref Publications for The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching), 1 May 2000, Highbeam Encyclopedia, encyclopedia.com, accessed 26 April 2008: \"Swedish dismay at the mangled translation may have cost Auden the Nobel prize in literature.\" and to statements that Auden made during a Scandinavian lecture tour suggesting that Hammarskjöld was, like Auden, homosexual.Alex Hunnicutt, [http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/hammarskjold_d.html \"Dag Hammarskjöld\"], glbtq: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture (Heldref Publications, 2004), glbtq.com, accessed 11 August 2006: \"Unless some hidden manuscript surfaces or an aging lover suddenly feels moved to revelation, it seems unlikely the world will ever know for sure the details of Hammarskjöld's sexual experience. W. H. Auden, who translated Markings, was convinced of his [Hammarsköld's] homosexuality. Saying so publicly during a lecture tour of Scandinavia may have cost Auden the Nobel Prize in Literature that he was widely expected to receive in the 1960s.\"","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nIn 1962, John Steinbeck received the Nobel Prize for Literature. The selection was heavily criticized, and described as \"one of the Academy's biggest mistakes\" in one Swedish newspaper. The New York Times asked why the Nobel committee gave the award to an author whose \"limited talent is, in his best books, watered down by tenth-rate philosophising\", adding, \"we think it interesting that the laurel was not awarded to a writer ... whose significance, influence and sheer body of work had already made a more profound impression on the literature of our age\". Steinbeck himself, when asked if he deserved the Nobel on the day of the announcement, replied: \"Frankly, no.\" In 2012 (50 years later), the Nobel Prize opened its archives and it was revealed that Steinbeck was a \"compromise choice\" among a shortlist consisting of Steinbeck, British authors Robert Graves and Lawrence Durrell, French dramatist Jean Anouilh and Danish author Karen Blixen. The declassified documents showed that he was chosen as the best of a bad lot, \"There aren't any obvious candidates for the Nobel prize and the prize committee is in an unenviable situation,\" wrote committee member Henry Olsson.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nIn 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, but he declined it, stating that \"It is not the same thing if I sign Jean-Paul Sartre or if I sign Jean-Paul Sartre, Nobel Prize laureate. A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honorable form.\"","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nSoviet dissident writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, the 1970 prize laureate, did not attend the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm for fear that the USSR would prevent his return afterwards (his works there were circulated in samizdat—clandestine form). After the Swedish government refused to honor Solzhenitsyn with a public award ceremony and lecture at its Moscow embassy, Solzhenitsyn refused the award altogether, commenting that the conditions set by the Swedes (who preferred a private ceremony) were \"an insult to the Nobel Prize itself.\" Solzhenitsyn did not accept the award and prize money, until 10 December 1974, after he was deported from the Soviet Union.Stig Fredrikson, [http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1970/solzhenitsyn-article.html \"How I Helped Alexandr Solzhenitsyn Smuggle His Nobel Lecture from the USSR\"], nobelprize.org, 22 February 2006. Retrieved 12 October 2011.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nIn 1974, Graham Greene, Vladimir Nabokov, and Saul Bellow were considered but rejected in favor of a joint award for Swedish authors Eyvind Johnson and Harry Martinson, both members of the Swedish Academy at the time, and unknown outside their home country. Bellow received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1976; neither Greene nor Nabokov was awarded it.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nArgentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was nominated for the Prize several times but, as Edwin Williamson, Borges's biographer, states, the Academy did not award it to him, most likely because of his support of certain Argentine and Chilean right-wing military dictators, including Augusto Pinochet, which, according to Tóibín's review of Williamson's Borges: A Life, had complex social and personal contexts. Borges' failure to receive the Nobel Prize for his support of these right-wing dictators contrasts with the Committee honoring writers who openly supported controversial left-wing dictatorships, including Joseph Stalin, in the cases of Sartre and Pablo Neruda, and Fidel Castro, in the case of Gabriel García Márquez.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe award to Italian performance artist Dario Fo in 1997 was initially considered \"rather lightweight\" by some critics, as he was seen primarily as a performer and Catholic organizations saw the award to Fo as controversial as he had previously been censured by the Roman Catholic Church.Julie Carroll, [http://www.catholic.org/printer_friendly.php?id23190§ion\nCathcom \" 'Pope and Witch' Draws Catholic Protests\"], The Catholic Spirit, 27 February 2007. Retrieved 13 October 2007. The Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano expressed surprise at Fo's selection for the prize commenting that \"Giving the prize to someone who is also the author of questionable works is beyond all imagination.\" Salman Rushdie and Arthur Miller had been strongly favoured to receive the Prize, but the Nobel organisers were later quoted as saying that they would have been \"too predictable, too popular.\"","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nCamilo José Cela willingly offered his services as an informer for Franco's regime and had moved voluntarily from Madrid to Galicia during the Spanish Civil War in order to join the rebel forces there; an article by Miguel Angel Villena, Between Fear and Impunity which compiled commentaries by Spanish novelists on the noteworthy silence of the older generation of Spanish novelists on the Francoist pasts of public intellectuals, appeared below a photograph of Cela during the Nobel ceremony in Stockholm in 1989.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe choice of the 2004 laureate, Elfriede Jelinek, was protested by a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund, who had not played an active role in the Academy since 1996; Ahnlund resigned, alleging that selecting Jelinek had caused \"irreparable damage\" to the reputation of the award.Associated Press, [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9665122/ \"Who Deserves Nobel Prize? Judges Don't Agree\"], MSNBC, 11 October 2005. Retrieved 13 October 2007.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe selection of Harold Pinter for the Prize in 2005 was delayed for a couple of days, apparently due to Ahnlund's resignation, and led to renewed speculations about there being a \"political element\" in the Swedish Academy's awarding of the Prize. Although Pinter was unable to give his controversial Nobel Lecture in person because of ill health, he delivered it from a television studio on video projected on screens to an audience at the Swedish Academy, in Stockholm. His comments have been the source of much commentary and debate. The issue of their \"political stance\" was also raised in response to the awards of the Nobel Prize in Literature to Orhan Pamuk and Doris Lessing in 2006 and 2007, respectively.Dan Kellum,\n[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/10/12/opinion/main3361514.shtml \"Lessing's Legacy of Political Literature:] The Nation: Skeptics Call It A Nonliterary Nobel Win, But Academy Saw Her Visionary Power\", CBS News, rpt. from The Nation (column), 14 October 2007. Retrieved 17 October 2007.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nNationality-based criticism","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe prize's focus on Europeans, and Swedes in particular, has been the subject of criticism, even from Swedish newspapers. The majority of laureates have been European, with Sweden itself receiving more prizes than all of Asia, as well as all of Latin America. In 2009, Horace Engdahl, then the permanent secretary of the Academy, declared that \"Europe still is the center of the literary world\" and that \"the US is too isolated, too insular. They don't translate enough and don't really participate in the big dialogue of literature.\"","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nIn 2009, Engdahl's replacement, Peter Englund, rejected this sentiment (\"In most language areas ... there are authors that really deserve and could get the Nobel Prize and that goes for the United States and the Americas, as well\") and acknowledged the Eurocentric nature of the award, saying that, \"I think that is a problem. We tend to relate more easily to literature written in Europe and in the European tradition.\" American critics are known to object that those from their own country, like Philip Roth, Thomas Pynchon, and Cormac McCarthy, have been overlooked, as have Latin Americans such as Jorge Luis Borges, Julio Cortázar, and Carlos Fuentes, while in their place Europeans lesser-known to that continent have triumphed. The 2009 award to Herta Müller, previously little-known outside Germany but many times named favorite for the Nobel Prize, re-ignited the viewpoint that the Swedish Academy was biased and Eurocentric.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nHowever, the 2010 prize was awarded to Mario Vargas Llosa, a native of Peru in South America. When the 2011 prize was awarded to the eminent Swedish poet Tomas Tranströmer, permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy Peter Englund said the prize was not decided based on politics, describing such a notion as \"literature for dummies\". The Swedish Academy awarded the next two prizes to non-Europeans, Chinese author Mo Yan and Canadian short story writer Alice Munro. French writer Patrick Modiano's win in 2014 renewed questions of Eurocentrism; when asked by The Wall Street Journal \"So no American this year, yet again. Why is that?\", Englund reminded Americans of the Canadian origins of the previous year's winner, the Academy's desire for literary quality and the impossibility of rewarding everyone who deserves the prize.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nOverlooked literary achievements","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nIn the history of the Nobel Prize in Literature, many literary achievements were overlooked. The literary historian Kjell Espmark admitted that \"as to the early prizes, the censure of bad choices and blatant omissions is often justified. Tolstoy, Ibsen, and Henry James should have been rewarded instead of, for instance, Sully Prudhomme, Eucken, and Heyse\". There are omissions which are beyond the control of the Nobel Committee such as the early death of an author as was the case with Marcel Proust, Italo Calvino, and Roberto Bolaño. According to Kjell Espmark \"the main works of Kafka, Cavafy, and Pessoa were not published until after their deaths and the true dimensions of Mandelstam's poetry were revealed above all in the unpublished poems that his wife saved from extinction and gave to the world long after he had perished in his Siberian exile\".","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nBritish novelist Tim Parks ascribed the never-ending controversy surrounding the decisions of the Nobel Committee to the \"essential silliness of the prize and our own foolishness at taking it seriously\" and noted that \"eighteen (or sixteen) Swedish nationals will have a certain credibility when weighing up works of Swedish literature, but what group could ever really get its mind round the infinitely varied work of scores of different traditions. And why should we ask them to do that?\"","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nSimilar international prizes","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe Nobel Prize in Literature is not the only literary prize for which all nationalities are eligible. Other notable international literary prizes include the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the Franz Kafka Prize, and the Man Booker International Prize. In contrast to the Nobel Prize in Literature, the Franz Kafka Prize, and the Man Booker International Prize, the Neustadt International Prize is awarded biennially. The journalist Hephzibah Anderson has noted that the Man Booker International Prize \"is fast becoming the more significant award, appearing an ever more competent alternative to the Nobel\". The Man Booker International Prize \"highlights one writer's overall contribution to fiction on the world stage\" and \"has literary excellence as its sole focus\". Established in 2005, it is not yet possible to analyze its importance on potential future Nobel Prize in Literature laureates. Only Alice Munro (2009) has been awarded with both. However, some winners of the Man Booker International Prize, such as Ismail Kadare (2005) and Philip Roth (2011) are considered contenders for the Nobel Prize in Literature.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe Neustadt International Prize for Literature is regarded as one of the most prestigious international literary prizes, often referred to as the American equivalent to the Nobel Prize. Like the Nobel or the Man Booker International Prize, it is awarded not for any one work, but for an entire body of work. It is frequently seen as an indicator of who may be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Gabriel García Márquez (1972 Neustadt, 1982 Nobel), Czesław Miłosz (1978 Neustadt, 1980 Nobel), Octavio Paz (1982 Neustadt, 1990 Nobel), Tomas Tranströmer (1990 Neustadt, 2011 Nobel) were first awarded the Neustadt International Prize for Literature before being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nAnother award of note is the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award (formerly Prince of Asturias Award) in Letters. During the first years of its existence it was almost exclusively awarded to writers in the Spanish language, but in more recent times writers in other languages have been awarded as well. Writers who have won both the Asturias Award in Letters and the Nobel Prize in Literature include Camilo José Cela, Günter Grass, Doris Lessing, and Mario Vargas Llosa.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe America Award in Literature, which does not include a monetary prize, presents itself as an alternative to the Nobel Prize in Literature. To date, Harold Pinter and José Saramago are the only writers to have received both the America Award and the Nobel Prize in Literature.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThere are also prizes for honouring the lifetime achievement of writers in specific languages, like the Miguel de Cervantes Prize (for Spanish language, established in 1976) and the Camões Prize (for Portuguese language, established in 1989). Nobel laureates who were also awarded the Miguel de Cervantes Prize include Octavio Paz (1981 Cervantes, 1990 Nobel); Mario Vargas Llosa (1994 Cervantes, 2010 Nobel); and Camilo José Cela (1995 Cervantes, 1989 Nobel). José Saramago is the only author to receive both the Camões Prize (1995) and the Nobel Prize (1998) to date.","Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nThe Hans Christian Andersen Award is sometimes referred to as \"the Little Nobel.\" The award has earned this appellation since, in a similar manner to the Nobel Prize in Literature, it recognizes the lifetime achievement of writers, though the Andersen Award focuses on a single category of literary works (children's literature).","Nobel Prize\n\nThe Nobel Prize (,; Swedish definite form, singular: Nobelpriset; ) is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian committees in recognition of academic, cultural and/or scientific advances.","Nobel Prize\n\nThe will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895. The prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. The related Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was established by Sweden's central bank in 1968. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, and later from 18 carat green gold plated with a 24 carat gold coating. Between 1901 and 2015, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 573 times to 900 people and organizations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 870 individuals (822 men and 48 women) and 23 organizations.","Nobel Prize\n\nThe prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden, except for the peace prize which is held in Oslo, Norway and each recipient, or laureate, receives a gold medal, a diploma and a sum of money that has been decided by the Nobel Foundation. (, each prize was worth SEK8 million or about , €0.93 million or £0.6 million.) The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics.","Nobel Prize\n\nThe Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Nobel Prize in Physics, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences; the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet awards the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; the Swedish Academy grants the Nobel Prize in Literature; and the Nobel Peace Prize is awarded not by a Swedish organisation but by the Norwegian Nobel Committee.","Nobel Prize\n\nThe prize is not awarded posthumously; however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, the prize may still be presented. Though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people.","Nobel Prize\n\nHistory","Nobel Prize\n\nAlfred Nobel () was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden, into a family of engineers. He was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill, which he made into a major armaments manufacturer. Nobel also invented ballistite. This invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite. Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous.","Nobel Prize\n\nIn 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. As it was Alfred's brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered. This inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, from a cerebral haemorrhage. He was 63 years old.","Nobel Prize\n\nNobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. To widespread astonishment, Nobel's last will specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the \"greatest benefit on mankind\" in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace.[http://www.nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/will/will-full.html Full text of Alfred Nobel´s Will] Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million SEK (c. US$186 million, €150 million in 2008), to establish the five Nobel Prizes. \nBecause of scepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobel's will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organise the award of prizes.","Nobel Prize\n\nNobel's instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established. These were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded; and, in 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. In 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved.","Nobel Prize\n\nNobel Foundation","Nobel Prize\n\nThe Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organisation on 29 June 1900. Its function is to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. In accordance with Nobel's will, the primary task of the Foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left. Robert and Ludwig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan and, according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren, who accessed the Nobel family archives, it was this \"decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred's money from Baku that became the decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established\". Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes. The Foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates. In many ways, the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company, in that it invests Nobel's money to create a solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden (since 1946) and from investment taxes in the United States (since 1953).","Nobel Prize\n\nSince the 1980s, the Foundation's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish kronor (c. US$560 million).","Nobel Prize\n\nAccording to the statutes, the Foundation consists of a board of five Swedish or Norwegian citizens, with its seat in Stockholm. The Chairman of the Board is appointed by the Swedish King in Council, with the other four members appointed by the trustees of the prize-awarding institutions. An Executive Director is chosen from among the board members, a Deputy Director is appointed by the King in Council, and two deputies are appointed by the trustees. However, since 1995, all the members of the board have been chosen by the trustees, and the Executive Director and the Deputy Director appointed by the board itself. As well as the board, the Nobel Foundation is made up of the prize-awarding institutions (the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute, the Swedish Academy, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee), the trustees of these institutions, and auditors.","Nobel Prize\n\nFirst prizes","Nobel Prize\n\nOnce the Nobel Foundation and its guidelines were in place, the Nobel Committees began collecting nominations for the inaugural prizes. Subsequently they sent a list of preliminary candidates to the prize-awarding institutions.","Nobel Prize\n\nThe Nobel Committee's Physics Prize shortlist cited Wilhelm Röntgen's discovery of X-rays and Philipp Lenard's work on cathode rays. The Academy of Sciences selected Röntgen for the prize. In the last decades of the 19th century, many chemists had made significant contributions. Thus, with the Chemistry Prize, the Academy \"was chiefly faced with merely deciding the order in which these scientists should be awarded the prize.\" The Academy received 20 nominations, eleven of them for Jacobus van't Hoff. Van't Hoff was awarded the prize for his contributions in chemical thermodynamics.","Nobel Prize\n\nThe Swedish Academy chose the poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature. A group including 42 Swedish writers, artists and literary critics protested against this decision, having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded. Some, including Burton Feldman, have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet. Feldman's explanation is that most of the Academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected a Victorian poet. The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring. During the 1890s, von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria, which until then was causing thousands of deaths each year.","Nobel Prize\n\nThe first Nobel Peace Prize went to the Swiss Jean Henri Dunant for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating the Geneva Convention, and jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy, founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization.","Nobel Prize\n\nSecond World War","Nobel Prize\n\nIn 1938 and 1939, Adolf Hitler's Third Reich forbade three laureates from Germany (Richard Kuhn, Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk) from accepting their prizes. Each man was later able to receive the diploma and medal. Even though Sweden was officially neutral during the Second World War, the prizes were awarded irregularly. In 1939, the Peace Prize was not awarded. No prize was awarded in any category from 1940–42, due to the occupation of Norway by Germany. In the subsequent year, all prizes were awarded except those for literature and peace.","Nobel Prize\n\nDuring the occupation of Norway, three members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee fled into exile. The remaining members escaped persecution from the Germans when the Nobel Foundation stated that the Committee building in Oslo was Swedish property. Thus it was a safe haven from the German military, which was not at war with Sweden. These members kept the work of the Committee going, but did not award any prizes. In 1944, the Nobel Foundation, together with the three members in exile, made sure that nominations were submitted for the Peace Prize and that the prize could be awarded once again.","Nobel Prize\n\nPrize in Economic Sciences","Nobel Prize\n\nIn 1968, Sveriges Riksbank celebrated its 300th anniversary by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a prize in honor of Nobel. The following year, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded for the first time. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences became responsible for selecting laureates. The first laureates for the Economics Prize were Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch \"for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes.\" Although not a Nobel Prize, it is intimately identified with the other awards; the laureates are announced with the Nobel Prize recipients, and the Prize in Economic Sciences is presented at the Swedish Nobel Prize Award Ceremony. The Board of the Nobel Foundation decided that after this addition, it would allow no further new prizes.","Nobel Prize\n\nAward process","Nobel Prize\n\nThe award process is similar for all of the Nobel Prizes; the main difference is in who can make nominations for each of them.","Nobel Prize\n\nNominations","Nobel Prize\n\nNomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee to about 3,000 individuals, usually in September the year before the prizes are awarded. These individuals are generally prominent academics working in a relevant area. Regarding the Peace Prize, inquiries are also sent to governments, former Peace Prize laureates and current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. The deadline for the return of the nomination forms is 31 January of the year of the award. The Nobel Committee nominates about 300 potential laureates from these forms and additional names. The nominees are not publicly named, nor are they told that they are being considered for the prize. All nomination records for a prize are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize.","Nobel Prize\n\nSelection","Nobel Prize\n\nThe Nobel Committee then prepares a report reflecting the advice of experts in the relevant fields. This, along with the list of preliminary candidates, is submitted to the prize-awarding institutions. The institutions meet to choose the laureate or laureates in each field by a majority vote. Their decision, which cannot be appealed, is announced immediately after the vote. A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Except for the Peace Prize, which can be awarded to institutions, the awards can only be given to individuals. If the Peace Prize is not awarded, the money is split among the scientific prizes. This has happened 19 times so far.","Nobel Prize\n\nPosthumous nominations","Nobel Prize\n\nAlthough posthumous nominations are not presently permitted, individuals who died in the months between their nomination and the decision of the prize committee were originally eligible to receive the prize. This has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize awarded to Erik Axel Karlfeldt, and the 1961 Peace Prize awarded to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. Since 1974, laureates must be thought alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate, William Vickrey, who in 1996 died after the prize (in Economics) was announced but before it could be presented. On 3 October 2011, the laureates for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced; however, the committee was not aware that one of the laureates, Ralph M. Steinman, had died three days earlier. The committee was debating about Steinman's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously. The committee later decided that as the decision to award Steinman the prize \"was made in good faith\", it would remain unchanged.","Nobel Prize\n\nRecognition time lag","Nobel Prize\n\nNobel's will provided for prizes to be awarded in recognition of discoveries made \"during the preceding year\". Early on, the awards usually recognised recent discoveries. However, some of these early discoveries were later discredited. For example, Johannes Fibiger was awarded the 1926 Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his purported discovery of a parasite that caused cancer. To avoid repeating this embarrassment, the awards increasingly recognised scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time. According to Ralf Pettersson, former chairman of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine, \"the criterion 'the previous year' is interpreted by the Nobel Assembly as the year when the full impact of the discovery has become evident.\"","Nobel Prize\n\nThe interval between the award and the accomplishment it recognises varies from discipline to discipline. The Literature Prize is typically awarded to recognise a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement. The Peace Prize can also be awarded for a lifetime body of work. For example, 2008 laureate Martti Ahtisaari was awarded for his work to resolve international conflicts. However, they can also be awarded for specific recent events. For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Similarly Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, and Shimon Peres received the 1994 award, about a year after they successfully concluded the Oslo Accords.","Nobel Prize\n\nAlthough Nobel's will stated that prizes should be awarded for contributions made \"during the preceding year\", awards for physics, chemistry, and medicine are typically awarded once the achievement has been widely accepted. Sometimes, this takes decades – for example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Physics Prize for his 1930s work on stellar structure and evolution. Not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognised. Some discoveries can never be considered for a prize if their impact is realised after the discoverers have died.","Nobel Prize\n\nAward ceremonies","Nobel Prize\n\nExcept for the Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The recipients' lectures are normally held in the days prior to the award ceremony. The Peace Prize and its recipients' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, usually on 10 December. The award ceremonies and the associated banquets are typically major international events. The Prizes awarded in Sweden's ceremonies' are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall, with the Nobel banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall. The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–1946), at the auditorium of the University of Oslo (1947–1989) and at Oslo City Hall (1990–present).","Nobel Prize\n\nThe highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway. At first King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners. It is said that his mind changed once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden.","Nobel Prize\n\nNobel Banquet","Nobel Prize\n\nAfter the award ceremony in Sweden, a banquet is held in the Blue Hall at the Stockholm City Hall, which is attended by the Swedish Royal Family and around 1,300 guests.","Nobel Prize\n\nThe Nobel Peace Prize banquet is held in Norway at the Oslo Grand Hotel after the award ceremony. Apart from the laureate, guests include the President of the Storting, the Prime Minister, and, since 2006, the King and Queen of Norway. In total, about 250 guests attend.","Nobel Prize\n\nNobel lecture","Nobel Prize\n\nAccording to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, each laureate is required to give a public lecture on a subject related to the topic of their prize. The Nobel lecture as a rhetorical genre took decades to reach its current format. These lectures normally occur during Nobel Week (the week leading up to the award ceremony and banquet, which begins with the laureates arriving in Stockholm and normally ends with the Nobel banquet), but this is not mandatory. The laureate is only obliged to give the lecture within six months of receiving the prize. Some have happened even later. For example, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt received the Peace Prize in 1906 but gave his lecture in 1910, after his term in office. The lectures are organized by the same association which selected the laureates.","Nobel Prize\n\nPrizes","Nobel Prize\n\nMedals","Nobel Prize\n\nIt was announced on 30 May 2012 that the Nobel Foundation had awarded the contract for the production of the five (Swedish) Nobel Prize medals to Svenska Medalj AB. Formerly, the Nobel Prize medals were minted by Myntverket (the Swedish Mint) from 1902 to 2010. Myntverket, Sweden's oldest company, ceased operations in 2011 after 1,017 years. In 2011, the Mint of Norway, located in Kongsberg, made the medals. The Nobel Prize medals are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse. The medals for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death. Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Peace Prize medal and the medal for the Economics Prize, but with a slightly different design. For instance, the laureate's name is engraved on the rim of the Economics medal. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the medals for chemistry and physics share the same design.[http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/pictures/nobel-chemistry-medal.html \"Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Front and back images of the medal.","Nobel Prize\n\n1954\"], \"Source: Photo by Eric Arnold. Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers. Honors and Awards, 1954h2.1\", \"All Documents and Media: Pictures and Illustrations\", Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History, the Valley Library, Oregon State University. Retrieved 7 December 2007.","Nobel Prize\n\nAll medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Since then, they have been struck in 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. The weight of each medal varies with the value of gold, but averages about 175 g for each medal. The diameter is 66 mm and the thickness varies between and . Because of the high value of their gold content and tendency to be on public display, Nobel medals are subject to medal theft. During World War II, the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark, chemist George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid), to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for the holders. After the war, the gold was recovered from solution, and the medals re-cast.","Nobel Prize\n\nDiplomas","Nobel Prize\n\nNobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden or, in the case of the peace prize, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureates that receive them. The diploma contains a picture and text in Swedish which states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. None of the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has ever had a citation on their diplomas.","Nobel Prize\n\nAward money","Nobel Prize\n\nThe laureates are given a sum of money when they receive their prizes, in the form of a document confirming the amount awarded. The amount of prize money depends upon how much money the Nobel Foundation can award each year. The purse has increased since the 1980s, when the prize money was 880 000 SEK (c. 2.6 million SEK, US$350 000 or €295,000 today) per prize. In 2009, the monetary award was 10 million SEK (US$1.4 million, €950,000). In June 2012, it was lowered to 8 million SEK. If there are two laureates in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others. It is common for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural, or humanitarian causes.","Nobel Prize\n\nControversies and criticisms","Nobel Prize\n\nControversial recipients","Nobel Prize\n\nAmong other criticisms, the Nobel Committees have been accused of having a political agenda, and of omitting more deserving candidates. They have also been accused of Eurocentrism, especially for the Literature Prize.","Nobel Prize\n\n;Peace Prize","Nobel Prize\n\nAmong the most criticised Nobel Peace Prizes was the one awarded to Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ. This led to the resignation of two Norwegian Nobel Committee members. Lê Đức Thọ declined the prize. Kissinger and Thọ were awarded the prize for negotiating a ceasefire between North Vietnam and the United States in January 1973. However, when the award was announced, both sides were still engaging in hostilities. Many critics were of the opinion that Kissinger was not a peace-maker but the opposite, responsible for widening the war.","Nobel Prize\n\nYasser Arafat, Shimon Peres, and Yitzhak Rabin received the Peace Prize in 1994 for their efforts in making peace between Israel and Palestine. Immediately after the award was announced, one of the five Norwegian Nobel Committee members denounced Arafat as a terrorist and resigned. Additional misgivings about Arafat were widely expressed in various newspapers.","Nobel Prize\n\nAnother controversial Peace Prize was that awarded to Barack Obama in 2009. Nominations had closed only eleven days after Obama took office as President, but the actual evaluation occurred over the next eight months. Obama himself stated that he did not feel deserving of the award, or worthy of the company it would place him in. Past Peace Prize laureates were divided, some saying that Obama deserved the award, and others saying he had not secured the achievements to yet merit such an accolade. Obama's award, along with the previous Peace Prizes for Jimmy Carter and Al Gore, also prompted accusations of a left-wing bias.","Nobel Prize\n\n;Literature Prize","Nobel Prize\n\nThe award of the 2004 Literature Prize to Elfriede Jelinek drew a protest from a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund. Ahnlund resigned, alleging that the selection of Jelinek had caused \"irreparable damage to all progressive forces, it has also confused the general view of literature as an art.\" He alleged that Jelinek's works were \"a mass of text shovelled together without artistic structure.\" The 2009 Literature Prize to Herta Müller also generated criticism. According to The Washington Post many US literary critics and professors were ignorant of her work. This made those critics feel the prizes were too Eurocentric.","Nobel Prize\n\n;Science prizes","Nobel Prize\n\nIn 1949, the neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy. The previous year Dr. Walter Freeman had developed a version of the procedure which was faster and easier to carry out. Due in part to the publicity surrounding the original procedure, Freeman's procedure was prescribed without due consideration or regard for modern medical ethics. Endorsed by such influential publications as The New England Journal of Medicine, leucotomy or \"lobotomy\" became so popular that about 5,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States in the three years immediately following Moniz's receipt of the Prize.","Nobel Prize\n\nOverlooked achievements","Nobel Prize\n\nThe Norwegian Nobel Committee confirmed that Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Peace Prize in 1937–39, 1947, and a few days before he was assassinated in January 1948. Later, members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee expressed regret that he was not given the prize. Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said, \"The greatest omission in our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize. Whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question\". In 1948, the year of Gandhi's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the grounds that \"there was no suitable living candidate\" that year. Later, when the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was \"in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi.\" Other high profile individuals with widely recognised contributions to peace have been missed out. Foreign Policy lists Eleanor Roosevelt, Václav Havel, Ken Saro-Wiwa, Sari Nusseibeh and Corazon Aquino as people who \"never won the prize, but should have.\".","Nobel Prize\n\nThe physicist Arnold Sommerfeld was nominated 81 times but an award was never made.","Nobel Prize\n\nIn 1965, UN Secretary General U Thant was informed by the Norwegian Permananent Representative to the UN that he would be awarded that year's prize and asked whether or not he would accept. He consulted staff and later replied that he would. At the same time, Chairman Gunnar Jahn of the Nobel Peace prize committee, lobbied heavily against giving U Thant the prize and the prize was at the last minute awarded to UNICEF. The rest of the committee all wanted the prize to go to U Thant, for his work in defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis, ending the war in the Congo, and his ongoing work to mediate an end to the Vietnam War. The disagreement lasted three years and in 1966 and 1967 no prize was given, with Gunnar Jahn effectively vetoing an award to U Thant.","Nobel Prize\n\nThe Literature Prize also has controversial omissions. Adam Kirsch has suggested that many notable writers have missed out on the award for political or extra-literary reasons. The heavy focus on European and Swedish authors has been a subject of criticism. The Eurocentric nature of the award was acknowledged by Peter Englund, the 2009 Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, as a problem with the award and was attributed to the tendency for the academy to relate more to European authors. This tendency towards European authors still leaves a number of European writers on a list of notable writers that have been overlooked for the Literature Prize, including Europe's Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, J. R. R. Tolkien, Émile Zola, Marcel Proust, Vladimir Nabokov, James Joyce, August Strindberg, Simon Vestdijk, the New World's Jorge Luis Borges, Ezra Pound, John Updike, Arthur Miller, Mark Twain, and Africa's Chinua Achebe.","Nobel Prize\n\nThe strict rule against awarding a prize to more than three people is also controversial. When a prize is awarded to recognize an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, the prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that did not recognize the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt. According to one of the nominees for the prize in physics, the three person limit deprived him and two other members of his team of the honor in 2013: the team of Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, and Tom Kibble published a paper in 1964 that gave answers to how the Cosmos began, but did not share the 2013 Physics Prize awarded to Peter Higgs and François Englert, who had also published papers in 1964 concerning the subject. All five physicists arrived at the same conclusion, albeit from different angles.","Nobel Prize\n\nHagen contends that an equitable solution is to either abandon the three limit restriction, or expand the time period of recognition for a given achievement to two years.","Nobel Prize\n\nSimilarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by an individual or collaborator who dies before the prize is awarded. In 1962, Francis Crick, James D. Watson, and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize for discovering the structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin, a key contributor in that discovery, died of ovarian cancer four years earlier. The Economics Prize was not awarded to Fischer Black, who died in 1995, when his co-author Myron Scholes received the honor in 1997 for their landmark work on option pricing along with Robert C. Merton, another pioneer in the development of valuation of stock options. In the announcement of the award that year, the Nobel committee prominently mentioned Black's key role.","Nobel Prize\n\nPolitical subterfuge may also deny proper recognition. Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann, who co-discovered nuclear fission along with Otto Hahn, may have been denied a share of Hahn's 1944 Nobel Chemistry Award due to having fled Germany when the Nazis came to power. The Meitner and Strassmann roles in the research was not fully recognized until years later, when they joined Hahn in receiving the 1966 Enrico Fermi Award.","Nobel Prize\n\nEmphasis on discoveries over inventions","Nobel Prize\n\nAlfred Nobel left his fortune to finance annual prizes to be awarded \"to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind.\" He stated that the Nobel Prizes in Physics should be given \"to the person who shall have made the most important 'discovery' or 'invention' within the field of physics.\" Nobel did not emphasise discoveries, but they have historically been held in higher respect by the Nobel Prize Committee than inventions: 77% of the Physics Prizes have been given to discoveries, compared with only 23% to inventions. Christoph Bartneck and Matthias Rauterberg, in papers published in Nature and Technoetic Arts, have argued this emphasis on discoveries has moved the Nobel Prize away from its original intention of rewarding the greatest contribution to society.","Nobel Prize\n\nSpecially distinguished laureates","Nobel Prize\n\nMultiple laureates","Nobel Prize\n\nFour people have received two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie received the Physics Prize in 1903 for her work on radioactivity and the Chemistry Prize in 1911 for the isolation of pure radium, making her the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. Linus Pauling won the 1954 Chemistry Prize for his research into the chemical bond and its application to the structure of complex substances. Pauling also won the Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons, making him the only laureate of two unshared prizes. John Bardeen received the Physics Prize twice: in 1956 for the invention of the transistor and in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity. Frederick Sanger received the prize twice in Chemistry: in 1958 for determining the structure of the insulin molecule and in 1980 for inventing a method of determining base sequences in DNA.","Nobel Prize\n\nTwo organisations have received the Peace Prize multiple times. The International Committee of the Red Cross received it three times: in 1917 and 1944 for its work during the world wars; and in 1963 during the year of its centenary. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has won the Peace Prize twice for assisting refugees: in 1954 and 1981.","Nobel Prize\n\nFamily laureates","Nobel Prize\n\nThe Curie family has received the most prizes, with four prizes won by five individual laureates. Marie Curie received the prizes in Physics (in 1903) and Chemistry (in 1911). Her husband, Pierre Curie, shared the 1903 Physics prize with her. Their daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, received the Chemistry Prize in 1935 together with her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie. In addition, the husband of Marie Curie's second daughter, Henry Labouisse, was the director of UNICEF when it won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965.","Nobel Prize\n\nAlthough no family matches the Curie family's record, there have been several with two laureates. The husband-and-wife team of Gerty Cori and Carl Ferdinand Cori shared the 1947 Prize in Physiology or Medicine as did the husband-and-wife team of May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser in 2014 (along with John O'Keefe). J. J. Thomson was awarded the Physics Prize in 1906 for showing that electrons are particles. His son, George Paget Thomson, received the same prize in 1937 for showing that they also have the properties of waves. William Henry Bragg and his son, William Lawrence Bragg, shared the Physics Prize in 1915 for inventing the X-ray spectrometer. Niels Bohr won the Physics prize in 1922, as did his son, Aage Bohr, in 1975. Manne Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1924, was the father of Kai Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1981. Hans von Euler-Chelpin, who received the Chemistry Prize in 1929, was the father of Ulf von Euler, who was awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1970. C.V. Raman won the Physics Prize in 1930 and was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who won the same prize in 1983.","Nobel Prize\n\nArthur Kornberg received the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1959. Kornberg's son, Roger later received the Chemistry Prize in 2006. Jan Tinbergen, who won the first Economics Prize in 1969, was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen, who received the 1973 Physiology or Medicine Prize. Alva Myrdal, Peace Prize laureate in 1982, was the wife of Gunnar Myrdal who was awarded the Economics Prize in 1974. Economics laureates Paul Samuelson and Kenneth Arrow were brothers-in-law.","Nobel Prize\n\nCultural impact","Nobel Prize\n\nBeing a symbol of scientific or literary achievement that's recognisable worldwide, the Nobel Prize is often depicted in fiction. This includes films like The Prize and Nobel Son about fictional Nobel laureates as well as fictionalized accounts of stories surrounding real prizes such as Nobel Chor, a film based on the unsolved theft of Rabindranath Tagore's prize.","Nobel Prize\n\nRefusals and constraints","Nobel Prize\n\nTwo laureates have voluntarily declined the Nobel Prize. In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Literature Prize but refused, stating, \"A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honourable form.\" The other is Lê Đức Thọ, chosen for the 1973 Peace Prize for his role in the Paris Peace Accords. He declined, stating that there was no actual peace in Vietnam.","Nobel Prize\n\nDuring the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler hindered Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk from accepting their prizes. All of them were awarded their diplomas and gold medals after World War II. In 1958, Boris Pasternak declined his prize for literature due to fear of what the Soviet Union government might do if he travelled to Stockholm to accept his prize. In return, the Swedish Academy refused his refusal, saying \"this refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award.\" The Academy announced with regret that the presentation of the Literature Prize could not take place that year, holding it until 1989 when Pasternak's son accepted the prize on his behalf. Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991, but her children accepted the prize because she had been placed under house arrest in Burma; Suu Kyi delivered her speech two decades later, in 2012. Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 while he and his wife were under house arrest in China as political prisoners.","Nobel Prize\n\nLegacy","Nobel Prize\n\nThe memorial symbol \"Planet of Alfred Nobel\" was opened in Dnipropetrovsk University of Economics and Law in 2008. On the globe, there are 802 Nobel laureates' reliefs made of a composite alloy obtained when disposing of military strategic missiles."],"string":"[\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nSince 1901, the Nobel Prize in Literature () has been awarded annually to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Alfred Nobel, produced \\\"in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction\\\" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning). Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here \\\"work\\\" refers to an author's work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year. The academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Physics, Nobel Peace Prize, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nNobel's choice of emphasis on idealism in his criteria for the Nobel Prize in Literature has led to recurrent controversy. In the original Swedish, the word idealisk translates as either \\\"idealistic\\\" or \\\"ideal\\\". In the early twentieth century, the Nobel Committee interpreted the intent of the will strictly. For this reason, they did not award certain world-renowned authors of the time such as James Joyce, Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, Marcel Proust, Henrik Ibsen, and Henry James. More recently, the wording has been more liberally interpreted. Thus, the prize is now awarded both for lasting literary merit and for evidence of consistent idealism on some significant level. In recent years, this means a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale. Hence, the award is now arguably more political.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe Swedish Academy has attracted significant criticism in recent years for its handling of the award. Some critics contend that many well-known writers have not been awarded the prize or even been nominated and others contend that some well-known recipients do not deserve it. There have also been controversies involving alleged political interests relating to the nomination process and ultimate selection of some of the recent literary laureates. Some, such as Indian academic Sabaree Mitra, have noted that, though the Nobel Prize in Literature is significant and tends to overshadow other awards, it is \\\"not the only benchmark of literary excellence\\\".\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nBackground\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nAlfred Nobel stipulated in his last will and testament that his money be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the \\\"greatest benefit on mankind\\\" in physics, chemistry, peace, physiology or medicine, and literature. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million Swedish kronor (US$186 million, €135 million in 2008), to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes.[http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/will/index.html \\\"The Will of Alfred Nobel\\\"], nobelprize.org. Retrieved 6 November 2007. Due to the level of scepticism surrounding the will, it was not until April 26, 1897 that the Storting (Norwegian Parliament) approved it. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, who formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organize the prizes.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed: the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on June 11. The Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/416856/Nobel-Prize \\\"Nobel Prize]\\\" (2007), in Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 15 January 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: According to Nobel's will, the Royal Swedish Academy were to award the Prize in Literature.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nNomination procedure\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nEach year, the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Members of the Academy, members of literature academies and societies, professors of literature and language, former Nobel literature laureates, and the presidents of writers' organizations are all allowed to nominate a candidate. It is not permitted to nominate oneself.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThousands of requests are sent out each year, and about 220 proposals are returned.Per Wästberg (President of The Nobel Committee for Literature), [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2011/dec/22/do-we-need-nobel-exchange/?pagination\\nfalse \\\"Do We Need the Nobel?\\\"], The New York Review of Books, December 22, 2011. Last accessed December 2011. These proposals must be received by the Academy by 1 February, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates. By May, a short list of five names is approved by the Committee. The subsequent four months are then spent in reading and reviewing the works of the five candidates. In October, members of the Academy vote and the candidate who receives more than half of the votes is named the Nobel laureate in Literature. No one can get the prize without being on the list at least twice, thus many of the same authors reappear and are reviewed repeatedly over the years. The academy is master of thirteen languages, but when a candidate is shortlisted from an unknown language, they call on translators and oath-sworn experts to provide samples of that writer. Other elements of the process are similar to that of other Nobel Prizes.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nPrizes\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nA Literature Nobel Prize laureate earns a gold medal, a diploma bearing a citation, and a sum of money. The amount of money awarded depends on the income of the Nobel Foundation that year. If a prize is awarded to more than one laureate, the money is either split evenly among them or, for three laureates, it may be divided into a half and two quarters.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/416856/Nobel-Prize/93434/The-prizes \\\"Nobel Prize – Prizes\\\"] (2007), in Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 15 January 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: If a prize is awarded jointly to two or more laureates, the money is split among them.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe prize money of the Nobel Prize has been fluctuating since its inauguration but it stands at (about ), previously it was . This was not the first time the prize-amount was decreased—beginning with a nominal value of in 1901 (worth 8,123,951 in 2011 SEK) the nominal value has been as low as (2,370,660 in 2011 SEK) in 1945—but it has been uphill or stable since then, peaking at an SEK-2011 value of 11,659,016 in 2001.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe laureate is also invited to give a lecture during \\\"Nobel Week\\\" in Stockholm; the highlight is the prize-giving ceremony and banquet on December 10. It is the richest literary prize in the world by a large margin.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nNobel Prize Medals\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe Nobel Prize medals, minted by Myntverket in Sweden and the Mint of Norway since 1902, are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse (front side of the medal). The Nobel Prize medals for Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death (1833–1896). Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Nobel Peace Prize medal and the Medal for the Prize in Economics, but with a slightly different design.[http://digitalcollections.library.oregonstate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT\\n/pawardsmedals&CISOPTR47 \\\"The Nobel Prize for Peace\\\"], \\\"Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors, and Medals\\\", Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History, the Valley Library, Oregon State University. Retrieved 7 December 2007. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the Nobel Prize medals for Chemistry and Physics share the same design.[http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/pictures/nobel-chemistry-medal.html \\\"Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Front and back images of the medal. 1954\\\"], \\\"Source: Photo by Eric Arnold. Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nHonors and Awards, 1954h2.1\\\", \\\"All Documents and Media: Pictures and Illustrations\\\", Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History, the Valley Library, Oregon State University. Retrieved 7 December 2007. The medal for the Nobel Prize in Literature was designed by Erik Lindberg.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nNobel Prize Diplomas\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nNobel laureates receive a Diploma directly from the King of Sweden. Each Diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureate that receives it. The Diploma contains a picture and text that states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nLaureates\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nPotential candidates\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nPotential recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature are difficult to predict as nominations are kept secret for fifty years until they are publicly available at The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Currently, only nominations submitted between 1901 and 1965 are available for public viewing. This secrecy has led to speculation about the next Nobel laureate.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nAccording to Professor Göran Malmqvist of the Swedish Academy, Chinese writer Shen Congwen was to have been awarded the 1988 Nobel Prize in Literature, had he not suddenly died that year.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nCriticism\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nControversies about Nobel Laureate selections\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nFrom 1901 to 1912, the committee was characterised by an interpretation of the \\\"ideal direction\\\" stated in Nobel's will as \\\"a lofty and sound idealism.\\\" That caused Leo Tolstoy, Henrik Ibsen, Émile Zola, and Mark Twain to be rejected. Also, many believe Sweden's historic antipathy towards Russia is the reason neither Tolstoy nor Anton Chekhov was awarded the prize. During World War I and its immediate aftermath, the committee adopted a policy of neutrality, favouring writers from non-combatant countries. August Strindberg was repeatedly bypassed by the committee, but holds the singular distinction of being awarded an Anti-Nobel Prize, conferred by popular acclaim and national subscription and presented to him in 1912 by future prime minister Hjalmar Branting. James Joyce wrote the books that rank 1st and 3rd on the Modern Library 100 Best Novels, Ulysses and Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man respectively, but Joyce never won; as biographer Gordon Barker wrote, \\\"That prize was just out of Joyce's reach.\\\"\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe academy considered Czech writer Karel Čapek's War With the Newts too offensive to the German government. He also declined to suggest some noncontroversial publication that could be cited as an example of his work, stating \\\"Thank you for the good will, but I have already written my doctoral dissertation\\\". He was thus denied the prize.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nAccording to Swedish Academy archives studied by the newspaper Le Monde on their opening in 2008, French novelist and intellectual André Malraux was seriously considered for the prize in the 1950s. Malraux was competing with Albert Camus but was rejected several times, especially in 1954 and 1955, \\\"so long as he does not come back to novel\\\". Thus, Camus was awarded the prize in 1957.Olivier Truc, [http://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2008/12/27/et-camus-obtint-enfin-le-prix-nobel_1135690_3246.html \\\"Et Camus obtint enfin le prix Nobel\\\"]. Le Monde, 28 December 2008.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nSome attribute W. H. Auden's not being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature to errors in his translation of 1961 Peace Prize laureate Dag Hammarskjöld's Vägmärken (Markings)Harold Orlans, [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-62828416.html \\\"Self-Centered Translating: Why W. H. Auden Misinterpreted 'Markings' When Translating It from Swedish to English\\\"], Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning (published by Heldref Publications for The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching), 1 May 2000, Highbeam Encyclopedia, encyclopedia.com, accessed 26 April 2008: \\\"Swedish dismay at the mangled translation may have cost Auden the Nobel prize in literature.\\\" and to statements that Auden made during a Scandinavian lecture tour suggesting that Hammarskjöld was, like Auden, homosexual.Alex Hunnicutt, [http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/hammarskjold_d.html \\\"Dag Hammarskjöld\\\"], glbtq: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture (Heldref Publications, 2004), glbtq.com, accessed 11 August 2006: \\\"Unless some hidden manuscript surfaces or an aging lover suddenly feels moved to revelation, it seems unlikely the world will ever know for sure the details of Hammarskjöld's sexual experience. W. H. Auden, who translated Markings, was convinced of his [Hammarsköld's] homosexuality. Saying so publicly during a lecture tour of Scandinavia may have cost Auden the Nobel Prize in Literature that he was widely expected to receive in the 1960s.\\\"\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nIn 1962, John Steinbeck received the Nobel Prize for Literature. The selection was heavily criticized, and described as \\\"one of the Academy's biggest mistakes\\\" in one Swedish newspaper. The New York Times asked why the Nobel committee gave the award to an author whose \\\"limited talent is, in his best books, watered down by tenth-rate philosophising\\\", adding, \\\"we think it interesting that the laurel was not awarded to a writer ... whose significance, influence and sheer body of work had already made a more profound impression on the literature of our age\\\". Steinbeck himself, when asked if he deserved the Nobel on the day of the announcement, replied: \\\"Frankly, no.\\\" In 2012 (50 years later), the Nobel Prize opened its archives and it was revealed that Steinbeck was a \\\"compromise choice\\\" among a shortlist consisting of Steinbeck, British authors Robert Graves and Lawrence Durrell, French dramatist Jean Anouilh and Danish author Karen Blixen. The declassified documents showed that he was chosen as the best of a bad lot, \\\"There aren't any obvious candidates for the Nobel prize and the prize committee is in an unenviable situation,\\\" wrote committee member Henry Olsson.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nIn 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, but he declined it, stating that \\\"It is not the same thing if I sign Jean-Paul Sartre or if I sign Jean-Paul Sartre, Nobel Prize laureate. A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honorable form.\\\"\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nSoviet dissident writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, the 1970 prize laureate, did not attend the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm for fear that the USSR would prevent his return afterwards (his works there were circulated in samizdat—clandestine form). After the Swedish government refused to honor Solzhenitsyn with a public award ceremony and lecture at its Moscow embassy, Solzhenitsyn refused the award altogether, commenting that the conditions set by the Swedes (who preferred a private ceremony) were \\\"an insult to the Nobel Prize itself.\\\" Solzhenitsyn did not accept the award and prize money, until 10 December 1974, after he was deported from the Soviet Union.Stig Fredrikson, [http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1970/solzhenitsyn-article.html \\\"How I Helped Alexandr Solzhenitsyn Smuggle His Nobel Lecture from the USSR\\\"], nobelprize.org, 22 February 2006. Retrieved 12 October 2011.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nIn 1974, Graham Greene, Vladimir Nabokov, and Saul Bellow were considered but rejected in favor of a joint award for Swedish authors Eyvind Johnson and Harry Martinson, both members of the Swedish Academy at the time, and unknown outside their home country. Bellow received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1976; neither Greene nor Nabokov was awarded it.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nArgentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was nominated for the Prize several times but, as Edwin Williamson, Borges's biographer, states, the Academy did not award it to him, most likely because of his support of certain Argentine and Chilean right-wing military dictators, including Augusto Pinochet, which, according to Tóibín's review of Williamson's Borges: A Life, had complex social and personal contexts. Borges' failure to receive the Nobel Prize for his support of these right-wing dictators contrasts with the Committee honoring writers who openly supported controversial left-wing dictatorships, including Joseph Stalin, in the cases of Sartre and Pablo Neruda, and Fidel Castro, in the case of Gabriel García Márquez.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe award to Italian performance artist Dario Fo in 1997 was initially considered \\\"rather lightweight\\\" by some critics, as he was seen primarily as a performer and Catholic organizations saw the award to Fo as controversial as he had previously been censured by the Roman Catholic Church.Julie Carroll, [http://www.catholic.org/printer_friendly.php?id23190§ion\\nCathcom \\\" 'Pope and Witch' Draws Catholic Protests\\\"], The Catholic Spirit, 27 February 2007. Retrieved 13 October 2007. The Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano expressed surprise at Fo's selection for the prize commenting that \\\"Giving the prize to someone who is also the author of questionable works is beyond all imagination.\\\" Salman Rushdie and Arthur Miller had been strongly favoured to receive the Prize, but the Nobel organisers were later quoted as saying that they would have been \\\"too predictable, too popular.\\\"\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nCamilo José Cela willingly offered his services as an informer for Franco's regime and had moved voluntarily from Madrid to Galicia during the Spanish Civil War in order to join the rebel forces there; an article by Miguel Angel Villena, Between Fear and Impunity which compiled commentaries by Spanish novelists on the noteworthy silence of the older generation of Spanish novelists on the Francoist pasts of public intellectuals, appeared below a photograph of Cela during the Nobel ceremony in Stockholm in 1989.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe choice of the 2004 laureate, Elfriede Jelinek, was protested by a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund, who had not played an active role in the Academy since 1996; Ahnlund resigned, alleging that selecting Jelinek had caused \\\"irreparable damage\\\" to the reputation of the award.Associated Press, [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9665122/ \\\"Who Deserves Nobel Prize? Judges Don't Agree\\\"], MSNBC, 11 October 2005. Retrieved 13 October 2007.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe selection of Harold Pinter for the Prize in 2005 was delayed for a couple of days, apparently due to Ahnlund's resignation, and led to renewed speculations about there being a \\\"political element\\\" in the Swedish Academy's awarding of the Prize. Although Pinter was unable to give his controversial Nobel Lecture in person because of ill health, he delivered it from a television studio on video projected on screens to an audience at the Swedish Academy, in Stockholm. His comments have been the source of much commentary and debate. The issue of their \\\"political stance\\\" was also raised in response to the awards of the Nobel Prize in Literature to Orhan Pamuk and Doris Lessing in 2006 and 2007, respectively.Dan Kellum,\\n[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/10/12/opinion/main3361514.shtml \\\"Lessing's Legacy of Political Literature:] The Nation: Skeptics Call It A Nonliterary Nobel Win, But Academy Saw Her Visionary Power\\\", CBS News, rpt. from The Nation (column), 14 October 2007. Retrieved 17 October 2007.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nNationality-based criticism\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe prize's focus on Europeans, and Swedes in particular, has been the subject of criticism, even from Swedish newspapers. The majority of laureates have been European, with Sweden itself receiving more prizes than all of Asia, as well as all of Latin America. In 2009, Horace Engdahl, then the permanent secretary of the Academy, declared that \\\"Europe still is the center of the literary world\\\" and that \\\"the US is too isolated, too insular. They don't translate enough and don't really participate in the big dialogue of literature.\\\"\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nIn 2009, Engdahl's replacement, Peter Englund, rejected this sentiment (\\\"In most language areas ... there are authors that really deserve and could get the Nobel Prize and that goes for the United States and the Americas, as well\\\") and acknowledged the Eurocentric nature of the award, saying that, \\\"I think that is a problem. We tend to relate more easily to literature written in Europe and in the European tradition.\\\" American critics are known to object that those from their own country, like Philip Roth, Thomas Pynchon, and Cormac McCarthy, have been overlooked, as have Latin Americans such as Jorge Luis Borges, Julio Cortázar, and Carlos Fuentes, while in their place Europeans lesser-known to that continent have triumphed. The 2009 award to Herta Müller, previously little-known outside Germany but many times named favorite for the Nobel Prize, re-ignited the viewpoint that the Swedish Academy was biased and Eurocentric.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nHowever, the 2010 prize was awarded to Mario Vargas Llosa, a native of Peru in South America. When the 2011 prize was awarded to the eminent Swedish poet Tomas Tranströmer, permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy Peter Englund said the prize was not decided based on politics, describing such a notion as \\\"literature for dummies\\\". The Swedish Academy awarded the next two prizes to non-Europeans, Chinese author Mo Yan and Canadian short story writer Alice Munro. French writer Patrick Modiano's win in 2014 renewed questions of Eurocentrism; when asked by The Wall Street Journal \\\"So no American this year, yet again. Why is that?\\\", Englund reminded Americans of the Canadian origins of the previous year's winner, the Academy's desire for literary quality and the impossibility of rewarding everyone who deserves the prize.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nOverlooked literary achievements\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nIn the history of the Nobel Prize in Literature, many literary achievements were overlooked. The literary historian Kjell Espmark admitted that \\\"as to the early prizes, the censure of bad choices and blatant omissions is often justified. Tolstoy, Ibsen, and Henry James should have been rewarded instead of, for instance, Sully Prudhomme, Eucken, and Heyse\\\". There are omissions which are beyond the control of the Nobel Committee such as the early death of an author as was the case with Marcel Proust, Italo Calvino, and Roberto Bolaño. According to Kjell Espmark \\\"the main works of Kafka, Cavafy, and Pessoa were not published until after their deaths and the true dimensions of Mandelstam's poetry were revealed above all in the unpublished poems that his wife saved from extinction and gave to the world long after he had perished in his Siberian exile\\\".\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nBritish novelist Tim Parks ascribed the never-ending controversy surrounding the decisions of the Nobel Committee to the \\\"essential silliness of the prize and our own foolishness at taking it seriously\\\" and noted that \\\"eighteen (or sixteen) Swedish nationals will have a certain credibility when weighing up works of Swedish literature, but what group could ever really get its mind round the infinitely varied work of scores of different traditions. And why should we ask them to do that?\\\"\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nSimilar international prizes\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe Nobel Prize in Literature is not the only literary prize for which all nationalities are eligible. Other notable international literary prizes include the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the Franz Kafka Prize, and the Man Booker International Prize. In contrast to the Nobel Prize in Literature, the Franz Kafka Prize, and the Man Booker International Prize, the Neustadt International Prize is awarded biennially. The journalist Hephzibah Anderson has noted that the Man Booker International Prize \\\"is fast becoming the more significant award, appearing an ever more competent alternative to the Nobel\\\". The Man Booker International Prize \\\"highlights one writer's overall contribution to fiction on the world stage\\\" and \\\"has literary excellence as its sole focus\\\". Established in 2005, it is not yet possible to analyze its importance on potential future Nobel Prize in Literature laureates. Only Alice Munro (2009) has been awarded with both. However, some winners of the Man Booker International Prize, such as Ismail Kadare (2005) and Philip Roth (2011) are considered contenders for the Nobel Prize in Literature.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe Neustadt International Prize for Literature is regarded as one of the most prestigious international literary prizes, often referred to as the American equivalent to the Nobel Prize. Like the Nobel or the Man Booker International Prize, it is awarded not for any one work, but for an entire body of work. It is frequently seen as an indicator of who may be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Gabriel García Márquez (1972 Neustadt, 1982 Nobel), Czesław Miłosz (1978 Neustadt, 1980 Nobel), Octavio Paz (1982 Neustadt, 1990 Nobel), Tomas Tranströmer (1990 Neustadt, 2011 Nobel) were first awarded the Neustadt International Prize for Literature before being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nAnother award of note is the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award (formerly Prince of Asturias Award) in Letters. During the first years of its existence it was almost exclusively awarded to writers in the Spanish language, but in more recent times writers in other languages have been awarded as well. Writers who have won both the Asturias Award in Letters and the Nobel Prize in Literature include Camilo José Cela, Günter Grass, Doris Lessing, and Mario Vargas Llosa.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe America Award in Literature, which does not include a monetary prize, presents itself as an alternative to the Nobel Prize in Literature. To date, Harold Pinter and José Saramago are the only writers to have received both the America Award and the Nobel Prize in Literature.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThere are also prizes for honouring the lifetime achievement of writers in specific languages, like the Miguel de Cervantes Prize (for Spanish language, established in 1976) and the Camões Prize (for Portuguese language, established in 1989). Nobel laureates who were also awarded the Miguel de Cervantes Prize include Octavio Paz (1981 Cervantes, 1990 Nobel); Mario Vargas Llosa (1994 Cervantes, 2010 Nobel); and Camilo José Cela (1995 Cervantes, 1989 Nobel). José Saramago is the only author to receive both the Camões Prize (1995) and the Nobel Prize (1998) to date.\",\n \"Nobel Prize in Literature\\n\\nThe Hans Christian Andersen Award is sometimes referred to as \\\"the Little Nobel.\\\" The award has earned this appellation since, in a similar manner to the Nobel Prize in Literature, it recognizes the lifetime achievement of writers, though the Andersen Award focuses on a single category of literary works (children's literature).\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe Nobel Prize (,; Swedish definite form, singular: Nobelpriset; ) is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian committees in recognition of academic, cultural and/or scientific advances.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895. The prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. The related Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was established by Sweden's central bank in 1968. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, and later from 18 carat green gold plated with a 24 carat gold coating. Between 1901 and 2015, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 573 times to 900 people and organizations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 870 individuals (822 men and 48 women) and 23 organizations.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden, except for the peace prize which is held in Oslo, Norway and each recipient, or laureate, receives a gold medal, a diploma and a sum of money that has been decided by the Nobel Foundation. (, each prize was worth SEK8 million or about , €0.93 million or £0.6 million.) The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Nobel Prize in Physics, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences; the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet awards the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; the Swedish Academy grants the Nobel Prize in Literature; and the Nobel Peace Prize is awarded not by a Swedish organisation but by the Norwegian Nobel Committee.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe prize is not awarded posthumously; however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, the prize may still be presented. Though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAlfred Nobel () was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden, into a family of engineers. He was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill, which he made into a major armaments manufacturer. Nobel also invented ballistite. This invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite. Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nIn 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. As it was Alfred's brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered. This inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, from a cerebral haemorrhage. He was 63 years old.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nNobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. To widespread astonishment, Nobel's last will specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the \\\"greatest benefit on mankind\\\" in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace.[http://www.nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/will/will-full.html Full text of Alfred Nobel´s Will] Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million SEK (c. US$186 million, €150 million in 2008), to establish the five Nobel Prizes. \\nBecause of scepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobel's will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organise the award of prizes.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nNobel's instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established. These were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded; and, in 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. In 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nNobel Foundation\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organisation on 29 June 1900. Its function is to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. In accordance with Nobel's will, the primary task of the Foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left. Robert and Ludwig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan and, according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren, who accessed the Nobel family archives, it was this \\\"decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred's money from Baku that became the decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established\\\". Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes. The Foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates. In many ways, the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company, in that it invests Nobel's money to create a solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden (since 1946) and from investment taxes in the United States (since 1953).\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nSince the 1980s, the Foundation's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish kronor (c. US$560 million).\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAccording to the statutes, the Foundation consists of a board of five Swedish or Norwegian citizens, with its seat in Stockholm. The Chairman of the Board is appointed by the Swedish King in Council, with the other four members appointed by the trustees of the prize-awarding institutions. An Executive Director is chosen from among the board members, a Deputy Director is appointed by the King in Council, and two deputies are appointed by the trustees. However, since 1995, all the members of the board have been chosen by the trustees, and the Executive Director and the Deputy Director appointed by the board itself. As well as the board, the Nobel Foundation is made up of the prize-awarding institutions (the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute, the Swedish Academy, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee), the trustees of these institutions, and auditors.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nFirst prizes\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nOnce the Nobel Foundation and its guidelines were in place, the Nobel Committees began collecting nominations for the inaugural prizes. Subsequently they sent a list of preliminary candidates to the prize-awarding institutions.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe Nobel Committee's Physics Prize shortlist cited Wilhelm Röntgen's discovery of X-rays and Philipp Lenard's work on cathode rays. The Academy of Sciences selected Röntgen for the prize. In the last decades of the 19th century, many chemists had made significant contributions. Thus, with the Chemistry Prize, the Academy \\\"was chiefly faced with merely deciding the order in which these scientists should be awarded the prize.\\\" The Academy received 20 nominations, eleven of them for Jacobus van't Hoff. Van't Hoff was awarded the prize for his contributions in chemical thermodynamics.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe Swedish Academy chose the poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature. A group including 42 Swedish writers, artists and literary critics protested against this decision, having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded. Some, including Burton Feldman, have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet. Feldman's explanation is that most of the Academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected a Victorian poet. The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring. During the 1890s, von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria, which until then was causing thousands of deaths each year.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe first Nobel Peace Prize went to the Swiss Jean Henri Dunant for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating the Geneva Convention, and jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy, founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nSecond World War\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nIn 1938 and 1939, Adolf Hitler's Third Reich forbade three laureates from Germany (Richard Kuhn, Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk) from accepting their prizes. Each man was later able to receive the diploma and medal. Even though Sweden was officially neutral during the Second World War, the prizes were awarded irregularly. In 1939, the Peace Prize was not awarded. No prize was awarded in any category from 1940–42, due to the occupation of Norway by Germany. In the subsequent year, all prizes were awarded except those for literature and peace.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nDuring the occupation of Norway, three members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee fled into exile. The remaining members escaped persecution from the Germans when the Nobel Foundation stated that the Committee building in Oslo was Swedish property. Thus it was a safe haven from the German military, which was not at war with Sweden. These members kept the work of the Committee going, but did not award any prizes. In 1944, the Nobel Foundation, together with the three members in exile, made sure that nominations were submitted for the Peace Prize and that the prize could be awarded once again.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nPrize in Economic Sciences\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nIn 1968, Sveriges Riksbank celebrated its 300th anniversary by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a prize in honor of Nobel. The following year, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded for the first time. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences became responsible for selecting laureates. The first laureates for the Economics Prize were Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch \\\"for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes.\\\" Although not a Nobel Prize, it is intimately identified with the other awards; the laureates are announced with the Nobel Prize recipients, and the Prize in Economic Sciences is presented at the Swedish Nobel Prize Award Ceremony. The Board of the Nobel Foundation decided that after this addition, it would allow no further new prizes.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAward process\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe award process is similar for all of the Nobel Prizes; the main difference is in who can make nominations for each of them.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nNominations\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nNomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee to about 3,000 individuals, usually in September the year before the prizes are awarded. These individuals are generally prominent academics working in a relevant area. Regarding the Peace Prize, inquiries are also sent to governments, former Peace Prize laureates and current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. The deadline for the return of the nomination forms is 31 January of the year of the award. The Nobel Committee nominates about 300 potential laureates from these forms and additional names. The nominees are not publicly named, nor are they told that they are being considered for the prize. All nomination records for a prize are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nSelection\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe Nobel Committee then prepares a report reflecting the advice of experts in the relevant fields. This, along with the list of preliminary candidates, is submitted to the prize-awarding institutions. The institutions meet to choose the laureate or laureates in each field by a majority vote. Their decision, which cannot be appealed, is announced immediately after the vote. A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Except for the Peace Prize, which can be awarded to institutions, the awards can only be given to individuals. If the Peace Prize is not awarded, the money is split among the scientific prizes. This has happened 19 times so far.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nPosthumous nominations\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAlthough posthumous nominations are not presently permitted, individuals who died in the months between their nomination and the decision of the prize committee were originally eligible to receive the prize. This has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize awarded to Erik Axel Karlfeldt, and the 1961 Peace Prize awarded to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. Since 1974, laureates must be thought alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate, William Vickrey, who in 1996 died after the prize (in Economics) was announced but before it could be presented. On 3 October 2011, the laureates for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced; however, the committee was not aware that one of the laureates, Ralph M. Steinman, had died three days earlier. The committee was debating about Steinman's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously. The committee later decided that as the decision to award Steinman the prize \\\"was made in good faith\\\", it would remain unchanged.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nRecognition time lag\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nNobel's will provided for prizes to be awarded in recognition of discoveries made \\\"during the preceding year\\\". Early on, the awards usually recognised recent discoveries. However, some of these early discoveries were later discredited. For example, Johannes Fibiger was awarded the 1926 Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his purported discovery of a parasite that caused cancer. To avoid repeating this embarrassment, the awards increasingly recognised scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time. According to Ralf Pettersson, former chairman of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine, \\\"the criterion 'the previous year' is interpreted by the Nobel Assembly as the year when the full impact of the discovery has become evident.\\\"\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe interval between the award and the accomplishment it recognises varies from discipline to discipline. The Literature Prize is typically awarded to recognise a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement. The Peace Prize can also be awarded for a lifetime body of work. For example, 2008 laureate Martti Ahtisaari was awarded for his work to resolve international conflicts. However, they can also be awarded for specific recent events. For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Similarly Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, and Shimon Peres received the 1994 award, about a year after they successfully concluded the Oslo Accords.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAlthough Nobel's will stated that prizes should be awarded for contributions made \\\"during the preceding year\\\", awards for physics, chemistry, and medicine are typically awarded once the achievement has been widely accepted. Sometimes, this takes decades – for example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Physics Prize for his 1930s work on stellar structure and evolution. Not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognised. Some discoveries can never be considered for a prize if their impact is realised after the discoverers have died.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAward ceremonies\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nExcept for the Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The recipients' lectures are normally held in the days prior to the award ceremony. The Peace Prize and its recipients' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, usually on 10 December. The award ceremonies and the associated banquets are typically major international events. The Prizes awarded in Sweden's ceremonies' are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall, with the Nobel banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall. The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–1946), at the auditorium of the University of Oslo (1947–1989) and at Oslo City Hall (1990–present).\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway. At first King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners. It is said that his mind changed once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nNobel Banquet\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAfter the award ceremony in Sweden, a banquet is held in the Blue Hall at the Stockholm City Hall, which is attended by the Swedish Royal Family and around 1,300 guests.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe Nobel Peace Prize banquet is held in Norway at the Oslo Grand Hotel after the award ceremony. Apart from the laureate, guests include the President of the Storting, the Prime Minister, and, since 2006, the King and Queen of Norway. In total, about 250 guests attend.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nNobel lecture\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAccording to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, each laureate is required to give a public lecture on a subject related to the topic of their prize. The Nobel lecture as a rhetorical genre took decades to reach its current format. These lectures normally occur during Nobel Week (the week leading up to the award ceremony and banquet, which begins with the laureates arriving in Stockholm and normally ends with the Nobel banquet), but this is not mandatory. The laureate is only obliged to give the lecture within six months of receiving the prize. Some have happened even later. For example, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt received the Peace Prize in 1906 but gave his lecture in 1910, after his term in office. The lectures are organized by the same association which selected the laureates.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nPrizes\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nMedals\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nIt was announced on 30 May 2012 that the Nobel Foundation had awarded the contract for the production of the five (Swedish) Nobel Prize medals to Svenska Medalj AB. Formerly, the Nobel Prize medals were minted by Myntverket (the Swedish Mint) from 1902 to 2010. Myntverket, Sweden's oldest company, ceased operations in 2011 after 1,017 years. In 2011, the Mint of Norway, located in Kongsberg, made the medals. The Nobel Prize medals are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse. The medals for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death. Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Peace Prize medal and the medal for the Economics Prize, but with a slightly different design. For instance, the laureate's name is engraved on the rim of the Economics medal. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the medals for chemistry and physics share the same design.[http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/pictures/nobel-chemistry-medal.html \\\"Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Front and back images of the medal.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\n1954\\\"], \\\"Source: Photo by Eric Arnold. Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers. Honors and Awards, 1954h2.1\\\", \\\"All Documents and Media: Pictures and Illustrations\\\", Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History, the Valley Library, Oregon State University. Retrieved 7 December 2007.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAll medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Since then, they have been struck in 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. The weight of each medal varies with the value of gold, but averages about 175 g for each medal. The diameter is 66 mm and the thickness varies between and . Because of the high value of their gold content and tendency to be on public display, Nobel medals are subject to medal theft. During World War II, the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark, chemist George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid), to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for the holders. After the war, the gold was recovered from solution, and the medals re-cast.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nDiplomas\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nNobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden or, in the case of the peace prize, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureates that receive them. The diploma contains a picture and text in Swedish which states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. None of the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has ever had a citation on their diplomas.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAward money\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe laureates are given a sum of money when they receive their prizes, in the form of a document confirming the amount awarded. The amount of prize money depends upon how much money the Nobel Foundation can award each year. The purse has increased since the 1980s, when the prize money was 880 000 SEK (c. 2.6 million SEK, US$350 000 or €295,000 today) per prize. In 2009, the monetary award was 10 million SEK (US$1.4 million, €950,000). In June 2012, it was lowered to 8 million SEK. If there are two laureates in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others. It is common for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural, or humanitarian causes.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nControversies and criticisms\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nControversial recipients\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAmong other criticisms, the Nobel Committees have been accused of having a political agenda, and of omitting more deserving candidates. They have also been accused of Eurocentrism, especially for the Literature Prize.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\n;Peace Prize\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAmong the most criticised Nobel Peace Prizes was the one awarded to Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ. This led to the resignation of two Norwegian Nobel Committee members. Lê Đức Thọ declined the prize. Kissinger and Thọ were awarded the prize for negotiating a ceasefire between North Vietnam and the United States in January 1973. However, when the award was announced, both sides were still engaging in hostilities. Many critics were of the opinion that Kissinger was not a peace-maker but the opposite, responsible for widening the war.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nYasser Arafat, Shimon Peres, and Yitzhak Rabin received the Peace Prize in 1994 for their efforts in making peace between Israel and Palestine. Immediately after the award was announced, one of the five Norwegian Nobel Committee members denounced Arafat as a terrorist and resigned. Additional misgivings about Arafat were widely expressed in various newspapers.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAnother controversial Peace Prize was that awarded to Barack Obama in 2009. Nominations had closed only eleven days after Obama took office as President, but the actual evaluation occurred over the next eight months. Obama himself stated that he did not feel deserving of the award, or worthy of the company it would place him in. Past Peace Prize laureates were divided, some saying that Obama deserved the award, and others saying he had not secured the achievements to yet merit such an accolade. Obama's award, along with the previous Peace Prizes for Jimmy Carter and Al Gore, also prompted accusations of a left-wing bias.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\n;Literature Prize\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe award of the 2004 Literature Prize to Elfriede Jelinek drew a protest from a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund. Ahnlund resigned, alleging that the selection of Jelinek had caused \\\"irreparable damage to all progressive forces, it has also confused the general view of literature as an art.\\\" He alleged that Jelinek's works were \\\"a mass of text shovelled together without artistic structure.\\\" The 2009 Literature Prize to Herta Müller also generated criticism. According to The Washington Post many US literary critics and professors were ignorant of her work. This made those critics feel the prizes were too Eurocentric.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\n;Science prizes\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nIn 1949, the neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy. The previous year Dr. Walter Freeman had developed a version of the procedure which was faster and easier to carry out. Due in part to the publicity surrounding the original procedure, Freeman's procedure was prescribed without due consideration or regard for modern medical ethics. Endorsed by such influential publications as The New England Journal of Medicine, leucotomy or \\\"lobotomy\\\" became so popular that about 5,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States in the three years immediately following Moniz's receipt of the Prize.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nOverlooked achievements\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe Norwegian Nobel Committee confirmed that Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Peace Prize in 1937–39, 1947, and a few days before he was assassinated in January 1948. Later, members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee expressed regret that he was not given the prize. Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said, \\\"The greatest omission in our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize. Whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question\\\". In 1948, the year of Gandhi's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the grounds that \\\"there was no suitable living candidate\\\" that year. Later, when the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was \\\"in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi.\\\" Other high profile individuals with widely recognised contributions to peace have been missed out. Foreign Policy lists Eleanor Roosevelt, Václav Havel, Ken Saro-Wiwa, Sari Nusseibeh and Corazon Aquino as people who \\\"never won the prize, but should have.\\\".\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe physicist Arnold Sommerfeld was nominated 81 times but an award was never made.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nIn 1965, UN Secretary General U Thant was informed by the Norwegian Permananent Representative to the UN that he would be awarded that year's prize and asked whether or not he would accept. He consulted staff and later replied that he would. At the same time, Chairman Gunnar Jahn of the Nobel Peace prize committee, lobbied heavily against giving U Thant the prize and the prize was at the last minute awarded to UNICEF. The rest of the committee all wanted the prize to go to U Thant, for his work in defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis, ending the war in the Congo, and his ongoing work to mediate an end to the Vietnam War. The disagreement lasted three years and in 1966 and 1967 no prize was given, with Gunnar Jahn effectively vetoing an award to U Thant.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe Literature Prize also has controversial omissions. Adam Kirsch has suggested that many notable writers have missed out on the award for political or extra-literary reasons. The heavy focus on European and Swedish authors has been a subject of criticism. The Eurocentric nature of the award was acknowledged by Peter Englund, the 2009 Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, as a problem with the award and was attributed to the tendency for the academy to relate more to European authors. This tendency towards European authors still leaves a number of European writers on a list of notable writers that have been overlooked for the Literature Prize, including Europe's Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, J. R. R. Tolkien, Émile Zola, Marcel Proust, Vladimir Nabokov, James Joyce, August Strindberg, Simon Vestdijk, the New World's Jorge Luis Borges, Ezra Pound, John Updike, Arthur Miller, Mark Twain, and Africa's Chinua Achebe.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe strict rule against awarding a prize to more than three people is also controversial. When a prize is awarded to recognize an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, the prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that did not recognize the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt. According to one of the nominees for the prize in physics, the three person limit deprived him and two other members of his team of the honor in 2013: the team of Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, and Tom Kibble published a paper in 1964 that gave answers to how the Cosmos began, but did not share the 2013 Physics Prize awarded to Peter Higgs and François Englert, who had also published papers in 1964 concerning the subject. All five physicists arrived at the same conclusion, albeit from different angles.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nHagen contends that an equitable solution is to either abandon the three limit restriction, or expand the time period of recognition for a given achievement to two years.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nSimilarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by an individual or collaborator who dies before the prize is awarded. In 1962, Francis Crick, James D. Watson, and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize for discovering the structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin, a key contributor in that discovery, died of ovarian cancer four years earlier. The Economics Prize was not awarded to Fischer Black, who died in 1995, when his co-author Myron Scholes received the honor in 1997 for their landmark work on option pricing along with Robert C. Merton, another pioneer in the development of valuation of stock options. In the announcement of the award that year, the Nobel committee prominently mentioned Black's key role.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nPolitical subterfuge may also deny proper recognition. Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann, who co-discovered nuclear fission along with Otto Hahn, may have been denied a share of Hahn's 1944 Nobel Chemistry Award due to having fled Germany when the Nazis came to power. The Meitner and Strassmann roles in the research was not fully recognized until years later, when they joined Hahn in receiving the 1966 Enrico Fermi Award.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nEmphasis on discoveries over inventions\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAlfred Nobel left his fortune to finance annual prizes to be awarded \\\"to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind.\\\" He stated that the Nobel Prizes in Physics should be given \\\"to the person who shall have made the most important 'discovery' or 'invention' within the field of physics.\\\" Nobel did not emphasise discoveries, but they have historically been held in higher respect by the Nobel Prize Committee than inventions: 77% of the Physics Prizes have been given to discoveries, compared with only 23% to inventions. Christoph Bartneck and Matthias Rauterberg, in papers published in Nature and Technoetic Arts, have argued this emphasis on discoveries has moved the Nobel Prize away from its original intention of rewarding the greatest contribution to society.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nSpecially distinguished laureates\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nMultiple laureates\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nFour people have received two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie received the Physics Prize in 1903 for her work on radioactivity and the Chemistry Prize in 1911 for the isolation of pure radium, making her the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. Linus Pauling won the 1954 Chemistry Prize for his research into the chemical bond and its application to the structure of complex substances. Pauling also won the Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons, making him the only laureate of two unshared prizes. John Bardeen received the Physics Prize twice: in 1956 for the invention of the transistor and in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity. Frederick Sanger received the prize twice in Chemistry: in 1958 for determining the structure of the insulin molecule and in 1980 for inventing a method of determining base sequences in DNA.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nTwo organisations have received the Peace Prize multiple times. The International Committee of the Red Cross received it three times: in 1917 and 1944 for its work during the world wars; and in 1963 during the year of its centenary. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has won the Peace Prize twice for assisting refugees: in 1954 and 1981.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nFamily laureates\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe Curie family has received the most prizes, with four prizes won by five individual laureates. Marie Curie received the prizes in Physics (in 1903) and Chemistry (in 1911). Her husband, Pierre Curie, shared the 1903 Physics prize with her. Their daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, received the Chemistry Prize in 1935 together with her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie. In addition, the husband of Marie Curie's second daughter, Henry Labouisse, was the director of UNICEF when it won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nAlthough no family matches the Curie family's record, there have been several with two laureates. The husband-and-wife team of Gerty Cori and Carl Ferdinand Cori shared the 1947 Prize in Physiology or Medicine as did the husband-and-wife team of May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser in 2014 (along with John O'Keefe). J. J. Thomson was awarded the Physics Prize in 1906 for showing that electrons are particles. His son, George Paget Thomson, received the same prize in 1937 for showing that they also have the properties of waves. William Henry Bragg and his son, William Lawrence Bragg, shared the Physics Prize in 1915 for inventing the X-ray spectrometer. Niels Bohr won the Physics prize in 1922, as did his son, Aage Bohr, in 1975. Manne Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1924, was the father of Kai Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1981. Hans von Euler-Chelpin, who received the Chemistry Prize in 1929, was the father of Ulf von Euler, who was awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1970. C.V. Raman won the Physics Prize in 1930 and was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who won the same prize in 1983.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nArthur Kornberg received the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1959. Kornberg's son, Roger later received the Chemistry Prize in 2006. Jan Tinbergen, who won the first Economics Prize in 1969, was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen, who received the 1973 Physiology or Medicine Prize. Alva Myrdal, Peace Prize laureate in 1982, was the wife of Gunnar Myrdal who was awarded the Economics Prize in 1974. Economics laureates Paul Samuelson and Kenneth Arrow were brothers-in-law.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nCultural impact\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nBeing a symbol of scientific or literary achievement that's recognisable worldwide, the Nobel Prize is often depicted in fiction. This includes films like The Prize and Nobel Son about fictional Nobel laureates as well as fictionalized accounts of stories surrounding real prizes such as Nobel Chor, a film based on the unsolved theft of Rabindranath Tagore's prize.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nRefusals and constraints\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nTwo laureates have voluntarily declined the Nobel Prize. In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Literature Prize but refused, stating, \\\"A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honourable form.\\\" The other is Lê Đức Thọ, chosen for the 1973 Peace Prize for his role in the Paris Peace Accords. He declined, stating that there was no actual peace in Vietnam.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nDuring the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler hindered Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk from accepting their prizes. All of them were awarded their diplomas and gold medals after World War II. In 1958, Boris Pasternak declined his prize for literature due to fear of what the Soviet Union government might do if he travelled to Stockholm to accept his prize. In return, the Swedish Academy refused his refusal, saying \\\"this refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award.\\\" The Academy announced with regret that the presentation of the Literature Prize could not take place that year, holding it until 1989 when Pasternak's son accepted the prize on his behalf. Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991, but her children accepted the prize because she had been placed under house arrest in Burma; Suu Kyi delivered her speech two decades later, in 2012. Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 while he and his wife were under house arrest in China as political prisoners.\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"Nobel Prize\\n\\nThe memorial symbol \\\"Planet of Alfred Nobel\\\" was opened in Dnipropetrovsk University of Economics and Law in 2008. On the globe, there are 802 Nobel laureates' reliefs made of a composite alloy obtained when disposing of military strategic missiles.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2095,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_44"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What major war began on 10 October, 1899?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"The Boer War"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["boer war","boer war 1914 film"],"string":"[\n \"boer war\",\n \"boer war 1914 film\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Boer War begins in South Africa - Oct 11, 1899 - History.com\n\nBoer War begins in South Africa - Oct 11, 1899 - HISTORY.com\nBoer War begins in South Africa\nShare this:\nBoer War begins in South Africa\nAuthor\nBoer War begins in South Africa\nURL\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nThe South African Boer War begins between the British Empire and the Boers of the Transvaal and Orange Free State. The Boers, also known as Afrikaners, were the descendants of the original Dutch settlers of southern Africa. Britain took possession of the Dutch Cape colony in 1806 during the Napoleonic wars, sparking resistance from the independence-minded Boers, who resented the Anglicization of South Africa and Britain’s anti-slavery policies. In 1833, the Boers began an exodus into African tribal territory, where they founded the republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The two new republics lived peaceably with their British neighbors until 1867, when the discovery of diamonds and gold in the region made conflict between the Boer states and Britain inevitable. Minor fighting with Britain began in the 1890s, and in October 1899 full-scale war ensued.","Boer War begins in South Africa - Oct 11, 1899 - History.com\n\nBy mid June 1900, British forces had captured most major Boer cities and formally annexed their territories, but the Boers launched a guerrilla war that frustrated the British occupiers. Beginning in 1901, the British began a strategy of systematically searching out and destroying these guerrilla units, while herding the families of the Boer soldiers into concentration camps. By 1902, the British had crushed the Boer resistance, and on May 31 of that year the Peace of Vereeniging was signed, ending hostilities. The treaty recognized the British military administration over Transvaal and the Orange Free State and authorized a general amnesty for Boer forces. In 1910, the autonomous Union of South Africa was established by the British. It included Transvaal, the Orange Free State, the Cape of Good Hope, and Natal as provinces. Related Videos","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nThe Boer War Remembered\nThe Boer War Remembered\nBy Mark Weber\nThe Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 was more than the first major military clash of the 20th century. Pitting as it did the might of the globe-girdling British Empire, backed by international finance, against a small pioneering nation of independent-minded farmers, ranchers and merchants in southern Africa who lived by the Bible and the rifle, its legacy continues to resonate today. The Boers' recourse to irregular warfare, and Britain's response in herding a hundred thousand women and children into concentration camps foreshadowed the horrors of guerilla warfare and mass detention of innocents that have become emblematic of the 20th century. The Dutch, Huguenot and German ancestors of the Boers first settled the Cape area of South Africa in 1652. After several attempts, Britain took control of it in 1814. Refusing to submit to foreign colonial rule, 10,000 Boers left the Cape area in the Great Trek of 1835-1842. The trekkers moved northwards, first to Natal and then to the interior highlands where they set up two independent republics, the Orange Free State and the South African (Transvaal) Republic.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nThe Boers (Dutch: \"farmers\") worked hard to build a new life for themselves. But they also had to fight to keep their fledgling republics free of British encroachment and safe from native African attacks. Their great leader was Paul Kruger, an imposing, passionate and deeply religious man. The bearded, patriarchal figure was beloved by his people, who affectionately referred to him as \"Oom Paul\" (Uncle Paul). Born into a relatively well-to-do Cape colony farming family in 1825, he took part as a boy in the Great Trek. He married at the age of 17, became a widower at 21, remarried twice, and fathered 16 children. With just a few months of schooling, his reading was confined almost entirely to the Bible. He was an avid hunter, an expert horseman, and an able swimmer and diver. Over his lifetime, Kruger repeatedly proved his courage and resourcefulness in numerous pitched military engagements. When he was 14 he fought in his first battle, a commando raid against Matabele regiments, and also shot his first lion. While in his twenties he took part in two major battles against native black forces. Four times he was elected President of the Transvaal republic.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nHis courage, honesty and devotion helped greatly to sustain the morale of his people during the hard years of conflict. A contemporary observer described Kruger as a \"natural orator; rugged in speech, lacking in measured phrase and in logical balance; but passionate and convincing in the unaffected pleading of his earnestness.\" note 1\nGold and Diamonds\nThe discovery of gold at Witwatersrand in the Transvaal in 1886 ended Boer seclusion, and brought a mortal threat to the young nation's dream of freedom from alien rule. Like a magnet, the land's rich gold deposits drew waves of foreign adventurers and speculators, whom the Boers called \"uitlanders\" (\"outlanders\"). By 1896 the population of Johannesburg had grown to more than a hundred thousand. Of the 50,000c white residents, only 6,205 were citizens. note 2\nAs often happens in history, important aspects of the Anglo-Boer conflict came to light only years after the fighting had ended. In a masterful 1979 study, The Boer War, British historian Thomas Pakenham revealed previously unknown details about the conspiracy of British colonial officials and Jewish financiers to plunge South Africa into war.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nThe men who flocked to South Africa in search of wealth included Cecil Rhodes, the renowned English capitalist and imperial visionary, and a collection of ambitious Jews who, together with him, were to play a decisive role in fomenting the Boer war. (Click on map to enlarge)\nBarney Barnato, a dapper, vulgar fellow from London's East End (born Barnett Isaacs), was one of the first of many Jews who have played a major role in South African affairs. Through pluck and shrewd maneuvering, by 1887 he presided over an enormous South African financial-business empire of diamonds and gold. In 1888 he joined with his chief rival, Cecil Rhodes, who was backed by the Rothschild family of European financiers, in running the De Beers empire, which controlled all South African diamond production, and thereby 90 percent of the world's diamond output, as well as a large share of the world's gold production. note 3 (In the 20th century, the De Beers diamond cartel came under the control of a German-Jewish dynasty, the Oppenheimers, who also controlled its gold-mining twin, the Anglo-American Corporation.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nWith its virtual world monopoly on diamond production and distribution, and grip on a large part of the world's gold production, the billionaire family has ruled a financial empire of unmatched global importance. It also controlled influential newspapers in South Africa. So great was the Oppenheimers' power and influence in South Africa that it rivaled that of the formal government.) note 4\nIn the 1890s the most powerful South African financial house was Wernher, Beit & Co., which was controlled and run by a Jewish speculator from Germany named Alfred Beit. Rhodes relied heavily on support from Beit, whose close ties to the Rothschilds and the Dresdner Bank made it possible for the ambitious Englishman to acquire and consolidate his great financial-business empire. note 5\nAs historian Pakenham has noted, the \"secret allies\" of Alfred Milner, the British High Commissioner for South Africa, were \"the London 'gold-bugs' -- especially the financiers of the largest of all the Rand mining houses, Wernher-Beit.\" Pakenham continued: \"Alfred Beit was the giant -- a giant who bestrode the world's gold market like a gnome.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nHe was short, plump and bald, with large, pale, luminous eyes and a nervous way of tugging at his grey moustache.\" note 6\nBeit and Lionel Phillips, a Jewish millionaire from England, together controlled H. Eckstein & Co., the largest South African mining syndicate. Of the six largest mining companies, four were controlled by Jews. note 7\nBy 1894, Beit and Phillips were conspiring behind the backs of Briton and Boer alike to \"improve\" the Transvaal Volksraad (parliament) with tens of thousands of pounds in bribe money. In one case, Beit and Phillips spent 25,000 pounds to arrange settlement of an important issue before the assembly. note 8\nThe Jameson Raid\nOn December 29, 1895, a band of 500 British adventurers forcibly tried to seize control of the Boer republics in an \"unofficial\" armed takeover. Rhodes, who was then also prime minister of the British-ruled Cape Colony, organized the venture, which Alfred Beit financed to the tune of 200,000 pounds. Phillips also joined the conspiracy.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nAccording to their plan, raiders led by Sir Leander Starr Jameson, a close personal friend of Rhodes, would dash from neighboring British territory into Johannesburg to \"defend\" the British \"outlanders\" there who, by secret prior arrangement, would simultaneously seize control of the city in the name of the \"oppressed\" aliens, and proclaim themselves the new government of Transvaal. In a letter about the plan written four months before the raid, Rhodes confided to Beit: \"Johannesburg is ready ... [this is] the big idea which makes England dominant in Africa, in fact gives England the African continent.\" note 9\nPaul Kruger, Boer leader and President of the Transvaal Republic. Rhodes, Beit and Jameson counted on the secret backing in London of the new Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain (father of future Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain). Upon taking office in the administration of Prime Minister Salisbury, Chamberlain proudly proclaimed his arch-imperialist sentiments: \"I believe in the British Empire, and I believe in the British race.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nI believe that the British race is the greatest of governing races that the world has ever seen.\" Clandestinely Chamberlain provided the conspirators with rifles, and made available to them a tract of land as a staging area for the attack. note 10\nAfter 21 men lost their lives in the takeover attempt, Jameson and his fellow raiders were captured and put on trial. In Johannesburg, Transvaal authorities arrested Phillips for his part in organizing the raid. They found incriminating secret correspondence between him and co-conspirators Beit and Rhodes, which encouraged Phillips to confess his guilt. A Transvaal court leniently sentenced Jameson to 15 months imprisonment. Phillips was sentenced to death, but this was quickly commuted to a fine of 25,000 pounds. (Later, after returning to Britain, the financier was knighted for his services to the Empire, and during the First World War was given a high post in the Ministry of Munitions.)\nAlthough it proved a fiasco, the Jameson raid convinced the Boers that the British were determined, even at the cost of human lives, to rob them of their hard-won freedom.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nThe blood of those who died in the abortive raid also figuratively baptized the alliance of Jewish finance and British imperialism. note 11\nJan Christiann Smuts, the brilliant young Boer leader who would one day be Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa, later reflected: \"The Jameson Raid was the real declaration of war in the Great Anglo-Boer conflict ... And that is so in spite of the four years truce that followed ... [the] aggressors consolidated their alliance ... the defenders on the other hand silently and grimly prepared for the inevitable.\" note 12\nPreparing for War\nUndaunted by the Jameson Raid disaster, British High Commissioner Milner, with crucial \"gold bug\" backing, began secretly to foment a full-scale war to drag the Boer lands into the Empire. While publicly preparing to \"negotiate\" with President Kruger over the status of the \"uitlanders,\" Milner was secretly confiding his intention to \"screw\" the Boers. At their May-June 1899 meeting, he demanded of Kruger an \"immediate voice\" for the flood of foreigners who had poured into the Transvaal republic in recent years.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nAs the talks inevitably broke down, Kruger angrily declared: \"It is our country you want!\"\nEven as the \"negotiations\" were underway, Wernher, Beit & Co. was secretly financing an \"outlander\" army of 1,500, which eventually grew to 10,000. As Thomas Pakenham has noted: \"The gold-bugs, contrary to the accepted view of later historians, were thus active partners with Milner in the making of the war.\" note 13\nHoratio Herbert Kitchener, the illustrious warlord who commanded British forces in South Africa, 1900-1902, later privately acknowledged that a major factor in the conflict was that the Boers were \"afraid of getting into the hands of certain Jews who no doubt wield great influence in the country.\" note 14\nFor Britain's leaders, bringing the Boer republics under imperial rule seemed entirely logical and virtually pre-ordained. On the prevailing mind-set in London, historian Pakenham has written: note 15\nThe independence of a Boer republic, bursting with gold and bristling with imported rifles, threatened Britain's status as a \"paramount\" power. British paramountcy (alias supremacy) was not a concept in international law. But most of the British thought it made practical sense ... Boer independence seemed worse than absurd; it was dangerous for world peace ...","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nThe solution seemed to be to wrap the whole of South Africa in the Union Jack, the make the whole country a British dominion ... Barney Barnato\nMost of Britain's leading newspapers pushed for war. This was especially true of the Jewish-owned or Jewish-controlled press, which included the influential conservative organ, The Daily Telegraph, owned by Lord Burnham (born Edward Levy), Oppenheim's Daily News, Marks' Evening News, and Steinkopf's St. James Gazette. note 16\nReflecting the official consensus in London, on August 26, 1899, Chamberlain delivered an uncompromising speech directed against the Boers, and two days later sent a threatening dispatch to Kruger. The British Colonial Secretary was, in effect, asking the Boers to surrender their sovereignty. In preparation for war against the republics, the Salisbury government resolved on September 8 to send an additional 10,000 troops to South Africa. When the Boer leaders learned a short time later that London was preparing a force of 47,000 men to invade the their lands, the two republics jointly began in earnest to ready their own troops and weapons for battle. With war now imminent, and Boer patience now exhausted, Kruger and his government issued an ultimatum on October 9, 1899.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nTantamount to a declaration of war, it demanded the withdrawal of British forces and the arbitration of all points of disagreement. Two days later, after Britain had let the ultimatum expire, the war was on. A People's War\nBoer men were citizen-soldiers. By law, all males in the two republics between the ages of 16 and 60 were eligible for war service. In the Transvaal, every male burgher was required to have a rifle and ammunition. At a military parade held in Pretoria, the Transvaal capital, on October 10, 1899, in honor of Kruger's 74th birthday, ranchers from the bushveld, clerks and solicitors from the cities, and other battle-ready citizens rode or marched past their leader. Joining them were foreign volunteer fighters who had rallied to the Boer cause, including a thousand Dutchmen and Germans, and a contingent of a hundred Irishmen (including a youthful John MacBride, who was executed 17 years later for his role in the Dublin Easter Uprising). note 17\nEven as they prepared to face the might of the world's foremost imperial power, the Boers were confident and determined. Although outnumbered, their morale was good.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nThey were fighting for their land, their freedom and their way of life -- and on familiar home territory. As British historian Phillip Knightley has written: note 18\nThe Boer, neither completely civilian nor completely a soldier, alternating between tending his farm and fighting the British, lightly armed with an accurate repeating rifle, mobile, able to live for long periods on strips of dried meat and a little water, drawing on the hidden support of his countrymen, unafraid to flee when the battle was not in his favor, choosing his ground and his time for attack, was more than a match for any regular army, no matter what his strength. Boers fighters were also chivalrous in combat. A few years after the end of the war, when passions had cooled somewhat, the London Times' history of the war conceded: note 19\nIn the moment of their triumph the Boers behaved with the same unaffected kindheartedness ... which they displayed after most of their victories. Although exultant they were not insulting. They fetched water and blankets for the wounded and treated prisoners with every consideration.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nCecil Rhodes (left) and Alfred Beit: the \"gold-bugs.\"\nAlthough the Boers scored some impressive initial battlefield victories, the numerically superior British forces soon gained the upper hand. But even the capture of their main towns and rail lines did not bring the Boers to capitulate. Boer \"commandos,\" outnumbered about four to one but supported by the people, launched a guerilla campaign against the invaders. Striking without warning, they kept the enemy from totally subjugating the land and its people. Mounted on horseback, the Boer \"commando\" fighter didn't look anything like a typical soldier. Usually with a long beard, he wore rough farming clothes and a wide-brimmed hat, and slung belts of bullets over both shoulders. 'Methods of Barbarism'\nLord Kitchener, the new British commander, adopted tactics to \"clean up\" a war that many in Britain had considered already won. In waging ruthless war against an entire people, he ordered his troops to destroy livestock and crops, burn down farms, and herd women and children into \"camps of refuge.\" Reports about these grim internment centers, which were soon called concentration camps, shocked the western world.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nBritain's new style of waging war was summarized in a report made in January 1902 by Jan Smuts, the 31-year-old Boer general (and future South African prime minister):\nLord Kitchener has begun to carry out a policy in both [Boer] republics of unbelievable barbarism and gruesomeness which violates the most elementary principles of the international rules of war. Almost all farmsteads and villages in both republics have been burned down and destroyed. All crops have been destroyed. All livestock which has fallen into the hands of the enemy has been killed or slaughtered. The basic principle behind Lord Kitchener's tactics has been to win, not so much through direct operations against fighting commandos, but rather indirectly by bringing the pressure of war against defenseless women and children. ... This violation of every international law is really very characteristic of the nation which always plays the role of chosen judge over the customs and behavior of all other nations. Shooting Prisoners\nBoer guerilla leader General Jan Smuts with his commando unit while operating against the British in the Cape Colony. Smuts later became prime minister of unified South Africa.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nJohn Dillon, an Irish nationalist Member of Parliament, spoke out against the British policy of shooting Boer prisoners of war. On February 26, 1901, he made public a letter by a British officer in the field:\nThe orders in this district from Lord Kitchener are to burn and destroy all provisions, forage, etc., and seize cattle, horses, and stock of all sorts wherever found, and to leave no food in the houses of the inhabitants. And the word has been passed round privately that no prisoners are to be taken. That is, all the men found fighting are to be shot. This order was given to me personally by a general, one of the highest in rank in South Africa. So there is no mistake about it. The instructions given to the columns closing round De Wet north of the Orange River are that all men are to be shot so that no tales may be told. Also, the troops are told to loot freely from every house, whether the men belonging to the house are fighting or not.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nDillon read from another letter by a soldier that had been published in the Liverpool Courier: \"Lord Kitchener has issued orders that no man has to bring in any Boer prisoners. If he does, he has to give him half his rations for the prisoner's keep.\" Dillon quoted a third letter by a soldier serving with the Royal Welsh Regiment and published in the Wolverhampton Express and Star: \"We take no prisoners now ... There happened to be a few wounded Boers left. We put them through the mill. Every one was killed.\"\nOn January 20, 1902, John Dillon once again expressed his outrage in the House of Commons against Britain's \"wholesale violation of one of the best recognized usages of modern war, which forbids you to desolate or devastate the country of the enemy and destroy the food supply on such a scale as to reduce non-combatants to starvation.\" \"What would have been said by civilized mankind,\" Dillon asked, \"if Germany on her march on Paris [in 1870] had turned the whole country into a howling wilderness and concentrated the French women and children into camps where they died in thousands?","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nAll civilized Europe would have rushed in to the rescue.\" note 20\nArming the Natives\nBritish Commander-in-Chief Herbert Kitchener's \"scorched earth\" policies against the Boers included burning their farmsteads, destruction of their crops and livestock, and herding their women and children into concentration camps. Defying the prevailing racial sensibilities of the period, General Kitchener supplied rifles to native black Africans to fight the white Boers. Eventually the British armed at least 10,000 blacks, although the policy was kept secret for fear of offending white public opinion, especially back home. As it happens, the blacks proved to be poor soldiers, and in many cases they murdered defenseless Boer women and children across the countryside. The fate of the Boer women and children who escaped the hell of the internment camps was therefore often more terrible than that of those who did not. In his January 1902 report, General Smuts described how the British recruited black Africans:\nIn the Cape Colony the uncivilized Blacks have been told that if the Boers win, slavery will be brought back in the Cape Colony.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nThey have been promised Boer property and farmsteads if they will join the English; that the Boers will have to work for the Blacks, and that they will be able to marry Boer women. Arming the blacks, Smuts said, \"represents the greatest crime which has ever been perpetrated against the White race in South Africa.\" Boer commando leader Jan Kemp similarly complained that the war was being fought \"contrary to civilized warfare on account of it being carried on in a great measure with Kaffirs.\" note 21 The arming of native blacks was a major reason cited by the Boer leaders for finally giving up the struggle: note 22\n... The Kaffir tribes, within and without the frontiers of the territories of the two republics, are mostly armed and are taking part in the war against us, and through the committing of murders and all sorts of cruelties have caused and unbearable condition of affairs in many districts of both republics. Concentration Camps\nBritain's internment centers in South Africa soon became known as concentration camps, a term adapted from the reconcentrado camps that Spanish authorities in Cuba had set up to hold insurgents.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nnote 23\nA crusading 41-year-old English spinster, Emily Hobhouse, visited the South Africa camps and, armed with this first-hand knowledge, alerted the world to their horrors. She told of internees \"... deprived of clothes ... the semi-starvation in the camps ... the fever-stricken children lying... upon the bare earth ... the appalling mortality.\" She also reported seeing open trucks full of women and children, exposed to the icy rain of the plains, sometimes left on railroad siding for days at a time, without food or shelter. \"In some camps,\" Hobhouse told lecture audiences and newspaper readers back in England, \"two and sometimes three different families live in one tent. Ten and even twelve persons are forced into a single tent.\" Most had to sleep on the ground. \"These people will never ever forget what has happened,\" She also declared. \"The children have been the hardest hit. They wither in the terrible heat and as a result of insufficient and improper nourishment ... To maintain this kind of camp means nothing less than murdering children.\" note 24\nIn a report to members of Parliament, Hobhouse described conditions in one camp she had visited: note 25\n...","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nA six month old baby [is] gasping its life out on its mother's knee. Next [tent]: a child recovering from measles sent back from hospital before it could walk, stretched on the ground white and wan. Next a girl of 21 lay dying on a stretcher. The father ... kneeling beside her, while his wife was watching a child of six also dying and one of about five drooping. Already this couple had lost three children. Emily Hobhouse\nHobhouse found that none of their hardships would shake the Boer women's determination, not even seeing their own hungry children die before their eyes. They \"never express,\" she wrote, \"a wish that their men must give way. It must be fought out now, they think, to the bitter end.\"\nDeadly epidemics -- typhoid, dysentery and (for children) measles -- broke out in the camps and spread rapidly. During one three week period, an epidemic at the camp at Brandfort killed nearly a tenth of the entire inmate population. In the Mafeking camp, at one point there were 400 deaths a month, most of them caused by typhoid, which worked out to an annual death rate of 173 percent.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nAltogether the British held 116,572 Boers in their South African internment camps -- that is, about a fourth of the entire Boer population -- nearly all of them women and children. After the war, an official government report concluded that 27,927 Boers had died in the camps -- victims of disease, undernourishment and exposure. Of these, 26,251 were women and children, of whom 22,074 were children under the age of 16. Among the nearly 115,000 black Africans who were also interned in the British camps, nearly all of whom were tenant workers and servants of the better-off Boers, it is estimated that more than 12,000 died. note 26\nAfter meeting with Hobhouse, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, leader of the Liberal Party opposition (and future Prime Minister), publicly declared: \"When is a war not a war? When it is waged by methods of barbarism in South Africa.\" This memorable phrase -- \"methods of barbarism\" -- quickly became widely quoted, provoking both warm praise and angry condemnation. note 27\nMost Englishmen, who supported their government's war policy, did not wish to hear such talk.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nEchoing the widespread sentiment in favor of the war, the London Times editorialized that Campbell-Bannerman's remarks were irresponsible, if not subversive. The influential paper's reasoning reflected the prevailing \"my country, right or wrong\" attitude. \"When a nation is committed to a serious struggle in which its position in the world is at stake,\" the Times told its readers, \"it is the duty of every citizen, no matter what his opinion about the political quarrel, to abstain at the very least from hampering and impeding the policy of his country, if he cannot lend his active support.\" note 28\nDavid Lloyd George, an MP who would later serve as his country's Prime Minister during the First World War, accused the British authorities of pursuing \"a policy of extermination\" against women and children. Granted, it was not a direct policy, he said, but it was one that was having that effect. \"... The war is an outrage perpetrated in the name of human freedom,\" Lloyd George protested.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nHe also expressed concern over the impact of these cruel policies on Britain's long-term interests: note 29\nWhen children are being treated in this way and dying, we are simply ranging the deepest passions of the human heart against British rule in Africa.... It will always be remembered that this is the way British rule started there [in the Boer republics], and this is the method by which it was brought about.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nDuring a speech in Parliament on February 18, 1901, David Lloyd George quoted from a letter by a British officer: \"We move from valley to valley, lifting cattle and sheep, burning and looting, and turning out women and children to weep in despair beside the ruin of their once beautiful homesteads.\" Lloyd George commented: \"It is a war not against men, but against women and children.\" note 30\n\"The conscience of Britain,\" historian Thomas Pakenham later observed, \"was stirred by the holocaust in the camps, just as the conscience of America was stirred by the holocaust in Vietnam.\" It was largely as a result of public outrage in Britain over conditions in the camps -- for which Emily Hobhouse deserves much of the credit -- that measures were eventually taken that sharply reduced the death rate. note 31\nPropaganda\nIn this war, as in so many others, propagandists churned out a stream of malicious lies to generate popular backing for the aggression and killing. British newspapers, churchmen and war correspondents invented hundreds of fake atrocity stories that portrayed the Boers as treacherous and arrogant brutes.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nThese included numerous shocking claims alleging that Boer soldiers massacred pro-British civilians, that Boer civilians murdered British soldiers, and that Boers executed fellow-Boers who wanted to surrender. \"There was virtually no limit to such invention,\" historian Phillip Knightley has noted. A widely shown newsreel film purported to show Boers attacking a Red Cross tent while British doctors and nurses treat the wounded. Actually this fake had been shot with actors on Hampstead Heath, a suburb of London. note 32\nExposing the War-Makers\nCourtroom scene from the 1980 Australian film \"Breaker Morant,\" which highlighted the British policy of shooting Boer prisoners during the war in South Africa. The film dramatized the case of several Australians serving with the Bush Veldt Carbineers, a special \"anti-commando\" unit, who were tried and executed in February 1902 for having shot twelve Boer prisoners. In the award-winning film, Edward Woodward played the role of Lt. \"Breaker\" Morant. In the United States, as in most of Europe, public interest in the conflict was keen. Although public sentiment in these countries was largely pro-Boer and anti-British, the government leaders -- fearful of the adverse consequences of defying Britain -- were publicly pro-British, or at least studiously neutral.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nWilliam Jennings Bryan, Andrew Carnegie and many other Americans were embarrassed by the striking parallel between US and British policy of the day: just as Britain was forcibly subduing the Boers in southern Africa, American troops were brutally suppressing native fighters for independence in the newly-acquired Philippines. Echoing a widespread American sentiment of the day, Mark Twain declared: \"I think that England sinned when she got herself into a war in South Africa which she could have avoided, just as we have sinned in getting into a similar war in the Philippines.\" In spite of such sentiment, the government of President McKinley and the jingoistic newspapers of William Randolph Hearst sided with Britain. note 33\nBut even in Britain itself, there was considerable opposition to the war. In the House of Commons, Liberal MP Philip Stanhope (later Baron Weardale) introduced a resolution expressing disapproval of Britain's military campaign against the Boer republics. In tracing the war's origins, he said: note 34\nAccordingly, the [pro-British] South African League was formed, and Mr. Rhodes and his associates -- generally of the German Jew extraction -- found money in thousands for its propaganda.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nBy this league in [British] South Africa and here [in Britain] they have poisoned the wells of public knowledge. Money has been lavished in the London world and in the press, and the result has been that little by little public opinion has been wrought up and inflamed, and now, instead of finding the English people dealing with this matter in a truly English spirit, we are dealing with it in a spirit which generations to come will condemn ... Opposition in Britain to the war came especially from the political left. The Social Democratic Federation (SDF), led by Henry M. Hyndman, was especially outspoken.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nJustice, the SDF weekly, had already warned its readers in 1896 that \"Beit, Barnato and their fellow-Jews\" were aiming for \"an Anglo-Hebraic Empire in Africa stretching from Egypt to Cape Colony, designed to swell their \"overgrown fortunes.\" Since 1890, the SDF had repeatedly cautioned against the pernicious influence of \"capitalist Jews on the London press.\" When war broke out in 1899, Justice declared that the \"Semitic lords of the press\" had successfully propagandized Britain into a \"criminal war of aggression.\" note 35\nDavid Lloyd George, an influential Member of Parliament who would later serve as his country's Prime Minister during the First World War, accused Britain of waging a \"war of extermination\" against Boer women and children. Opposition to the war was similarly strong in the British labor movement. In September 1900, the Trades Union Congress passed a resolution condemning the Anglo-Boer war as one designed \"to secure the gold fields of South Africa for cosmopolitan Jews, most of whom had no patriotism and no country.\" note 36\nNo member of the House of Commons spoke out more vigorously against the war than John Burns, Labour MP for Battersea.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nThe former SDF member had gained national prominence as a staunch defender of the British workingman during his leadership of the dockworkers' strike of 1889. \"Wherever we examine, there is the financial Jew,\" Burns declared in the House on February 6, 1900, \"operating, directing, inspiring the agencies that have led to this war.\"\n\"The trail of the financial serpent is over this war from beginning to end.\" The British army, Burns said, had traditionally been the \"Sir Galahad of History.\" But in Africa it had become the \"janissary of the Jews.\" note 37\nBurns was a legendary fighter for the rights of the British worker, a tireless champion of environmental reform, women's rights and improved municipal services. Even Cecil Rhodes had referred to him as \"the most eloquent leader of the British democracy.\" It was not merely the Jewish role in Capitalism that alarmed Burns. To his diary he once confided that \"the undoing of England is within the confines of our afternoon journey amongst the Jews\" of East London.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nnote 38\nIrish nationalist Members of Parliament had special reason to sympathize with the Boers, whom they regarded -- like the people of Ireland -- as fellow victims of British duplicity and oppression. One Irish MP, Michael Davitt, even resigned his seat in the House of Commons in \"personal and political protest against a war which I believe to be the greatest infamy of the nineteenth century.\" note 39\nAt the age of 23, Cecil Rhodes wrote of his great goal: \"Why should we not form a secret society with but one object, the furtherance of the British Empire and the bringing of the whole uncivilized world under British rule, for the recovery of the United States, for the making the Anglo-Saxon race but one Empire? What a dream, but yet it is probable, it is possible,\" (Source: A. Thomas, \"Rhodes,\" 1997, p. 6.)\nOne of the most influential campaigners against the \"Jew-imperialist design\" in South Africa was John A. Hobson (1858-1940), a prominent journalist and economist. note 40 In 1899 the Manchester Guardian sent him to South Africa to report first-hand for its readers on the situation there.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nDuring his three month investigation, Hobson became convinced that a small group of Jewish \"Randlords\" was essentially responsible for the strife and conflict. note 41\nIn a Guardian article dispatched from Johannesburg just a few weeks before the outbreak of the war, he told readers of the influential liberal daily: note 42\nIn Johannesburg the Boer population is a mere handful of officials and their families, some five thousand of the population; the rest is about evenly divided between white settlers, mostly from Great Britain, and the [native black] Kaffirs, who are everywhere in White Man's Africa the hewers of wood and the drawers of water. The town is in some respects dominantly and even aggressively British, but British with a difference which it takes some little time to understand. That difference is due to the Jewish factor. If one takes the recent figures of the census, there appears to be less than seven thousand Jews in Johannesburg, but the experience of the street rapidly exposes this fallacy of figures.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nThe shop fronts and business houses, the market place, the saloons, the \"stoops\" of the smart suburban houses and sufficient to convince one of the large presence of the chosen people. If any doubt remains, a walk outside the Exchange, where in the streets, \"between the chains,\" the financial side of the gold business is transacted, will dispel it. So far as wealth and power and even numbers are concerned Johannesburg is essentially a Jewish town. Most of these Jews figure as British subjects, though many are in fact German and Russian Jews who have come to Africa after a brief sojourn in England. The rich, rigorous, and energetic financial and commercial families are chiefly English Jews, not a few of whom here, as elsewhere, have Anglicised their names after true parasitic fashion. I lay stress on this fact because, though everyone knows the Jews are strong, their real strength here is much underestimated. Though figures are so misleading, it is worth while to mention that the directory of Johannesburg shows 68 Cohens against 21 Joneses and 53 Browns. The Jews take little active part in the Outlander agitation; they let others do that sort of work.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nBut since half of the land and nine-tenths of the wealth of the Transvaal claimed for the Outlander are chiefly theirs, they will be chief gainers by an settlement advantageous to the Outlander. In an influential book published in 1900, The War in South Africa, Hobson warned and admonished his fellow countrymen: note\n43\nWe are fighting in order to place a small international oligarchy of mine-owners and speculators in power at Pretoria. Englishmen will surely do well to recognize that the economic and political destinies of South Africa are, and seem likely to remain, in the hands of men most of whom are foreigners by origin, whose trade is finance, and whose trade interests are not chiefly British. Anti-imperialist and working-class circles acclaimed Hobson's widely read work. Commenting on it, the weekly Labour Leader, semi-official organ of the Independent Labour Party, noted: \"Modern imperialism is really run by half a dozen financial houses, many of them Jewish, to whom politics is a counter in the game of buying and selling securities.\" note 44 In a January 1900 essay, Labour Leader editor (and MP) J.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nKeir Hardie told readers: note 45\nThe war is a capitalist' war, begotten by capitalists' money, lied into being by a perjured mercenary capitalist press, and fathered by unscrupulous politicians, themselves the merest tools of the capitalists ... As Socialists, our sympathies are bound to be with the Boers. Their Republican form of Government bespeaks freedom, and is thus hateful to tyrants ... Defeat\nAs the year 1900 drew to a close, British forces held the major Boer towns, including the capitals of the two republics, as well as the main Boer railway lines. Paul Kruger, the man who personified his people's resistance to alien rule, had been forced into exile. By the end of 1901, the Boers' military forces had been reduced to some 25,000 men in the field, deployed in scattered and largely un-coordinated commando units. The hard-pressed defenders had only a shadow of a central government. In the spring of 1902, with their land almost entirely under enemy occupation, and their remaining fighters threatened with annihilation and militarily outnumbered six to one, the Boers sued for peace.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nOn May 31, 1902, their leaders concluded 33 months of heroic struggle against greatly superior forces by signing a treaty that recognized King Edward VII as their sovereign. President Kruger learned of the surrender while living in European exile, far from his beloved homeland. After devoting his life to his cherished dream of a self-reliant white people's republic, he died in 1904 in Switzerland, a blind and broken man. Conclusion\nSir Alfred Milner, British High Commissioner for South Africa. When the fighting began in October 1899, the British confidently expected their troops to victoriously conclude the conflict by Christmas. But this actually proved to be the longest, costliest, bloodiest and most humiliating war fought by Britain between 1815 and 1914. Even though the military forces mobilized in South Africa by the world's greatest imperial power outnumbered the Boer fighters by nearly five to one, they required almost three years to completely subdue the tough pioneer people of fewer than half a million. Britain deployed some 336,000 imperial and 83,000 colonial troops -- or 448,000 altogether. Of this force, 22,000 found a grave in South Africa, 14,000 of them succumbing to sickness.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nFor their part, the two Boer republics were able to mobilize 87,360 fighters, a force that included 2,120 foreign volunteers and 13,300 Boer-related Afrikaners from the British-ruled Cape and Natal provinces. In addition to the more than 7,000 Boer fighters who lost their lives, some 28,000 Boers perished in the British concentration camps -- nearly all of them women and children. note 46\nThe war's non-human costs were similarly appalling. As part of Kitchener's \"scorched-earth\" campaign, British troops wrought terrible destruction throughout the rural Boer areas, especially in the Orange Free State. Outside of the largest towns, hardly a building was left intact. Perhaps a tenth of the prewar horses, cows and other farm stock remained. In much of the Boer lands, no crops had been sown for two years. note 47\nEven by the standards of the time (and certainly by those of today), British political and military leaders committed frightful war crimes and crimes against humanity against the Boers of South Africa -- crimes for which no one was ever brought to account.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nGeneral Kitchener, for one, was never punished for introducing measures that even a future prime minister called \"methods of barbarism.\" To the contrary, after concluding his South African service he was named a viscount and a field marshal, and then, at the outbreak of the First World War, was appointed Secretary of War. Upon his death in 1916, he was remembered not as a criminal, but rather idolized as a personification of British virtue and rectitude. note\n48\nIn a sense, the Anglo-Boer conflict was less a war between combatants than a military campaign against civilians. The number of Boer women and children who perished in the concentration camps was four times as large as the number of Boer fighting men who died (of all causes) during the war. In fact, more children under the age of 16 perished in the British camps than men were killed in action on both sides. The boundless greed of the Jewish \"gold bugs\" coincided with the imperialistic aims of British Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, the dreams of gold and diamond baron Cecil Rhodes, and the political ambitions of Alfred Milner.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nOn the altar of their avarice and ambition, they sacrificed the lives of some 30,000 people who wanted only to live in freedom, as well as 22,000 young men of Britain and her dominions. At its core, Britain's leaders were willing to sacrifice the lives of many of her own sons, and to kill men, women and children in a far-away continent, to add to the wealth and power of an already immensely wealthy and powerful worldwide empire. Few wars during the past one hundred years were as avoidable, or as patently crass in motivation as was the South African War of 1899-1902.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nNotes\n1. M. Davitt, The Boer Fight For Freedom, p. 425. See also: A. Thomas, Rhodes, pp. 143-144; F. Welsh, South Africa: A Narrative History, p. 303; \"Kruger, Stephanus Johannes Paulus,\" Encyclopaedia Britannica (Chicago), 1957 edition, vol. 13, pp. 506-507. 2. F. Welsh, South Africa: A Narrative History, p. 302. 3. A. Thomas, Rhodes, pp. 172-181; Reader's Digest Association, Illustrated History of South Africa, p. 174; See also S. Kanfer, The Last Empire, esp. pp. 96, 101-111. 4. See S. Kanfer, The Last Empire. 5. J. Flint, Cecil Rhodes, pp. 86-93. See also: P. Emden, Randlords (1935). 6. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 86-87. 7. G. Saron and L. Hotz, eds., The Jews in South Africa, pp. 193-194. 8. Report of the Select Committee of the Cape of Good Hope House of Assembly on the Jameson Raid (1897), pp. 165, 167. 9. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. xxv, 87, 121; A. Thomas, Rhodes, p. 284. 10. A. Thomas, Rhodes, pp. 284-304; S. Kanfer, The Last Empire, pp. 129-131; Chamberlain's speech of Nov. 11, 1895, is also quoted in: Robin W. Winks, ed., British Imperialism (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967), p. 80. 11. G. Saron & L. Hotz, eds., The Jews in South Africa (1955), pp.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\n193-194; Second Report from the Select Committee on British South Africa (1897), p. vii. 12. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 1. Also quoted in: A. Thomas, Rhodes, p. 337. 13. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 88. 14. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 518. 15. T. Pakenham, Scramble, p. 558. 16. Claire Hirshfield, \"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility\" (1978), p. 4. 17. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 90-92, 103, 104, 107. 18. P. Knightley, The First Casualty (1976), pp. 77-78. 19. Quoted in: Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty, p. 75. 20. W. Ziegler, ed., Ein Dokumentenwerk Über die Englische Humanität (1940), p. 199. 21. Reader's Digest Association, Illustrated History of South Africa, p. 246. 22. Reader's Digest Association, Illustrated History of South Africa, p. 246. 23. During the American Civil War, Union forces rounded up large numbers of civilians who were considered hostile to Federal authority and interned them in \"posts.\" President Truman's grandmother, with six of her children, was held in one such \"post,\" which Truman said was really a \"concentration camp.\" Source: Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman (New York: 1974), pp. 78-79. See also: M.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nWeber \"The Civil War Concentration Camps,\" The Journal of Historical Review, Summer 1981, p. 143. In September 1918, the fledgling Soviet government issued a decree that ordered: \"It is essential to protect the Soviet Republic from class enemies by isolating them in concentration camps.\" Sources: D. Volkogonov, Lenin: A New Biography (New York: 1994), p. 234; M. Heller & A. Nekrich, Utopia in Power (New York: 1986), p. 66. 24. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 533-539; T. Pakenham, Scramble, pp. 578; A rather detailed report by Hobhouse about the camps is in: S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, pp. 198-207. 25. P. Knightley, The First Casualty, pp. 75-76. Source cited: UK Public Record Office, W.O. 32/8061. 26. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 607; T. Pakenham, Scramble, pp. 578-579; Reader's Digest Association, Illustrated History of South Africa, p. 256. 27. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 534, 540-541; S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, pp. 216, 238. 28. S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, pp. 238-239 (note)\n29. P. Knightley, The First Casualty, p. 72; T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 539-540. 30. In a speech on Nov. 27, 1899, Lloyd George said that the Uitlanders on whose behalf Britain had presumably gone to war were German Jews.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nRight or wrong, the Boers were better than the people Britain was defending in South Africa. And in a speech on July 25, 1900, Lloyd George said: \"... A war of annexation, however, against a proud people must be a war of extermination, and that is unfortunately what it seems we are committing ourselves to -- burning homesteads and turning women and children out of their homes.\" Source: Bentley Brinkerhoff Gilbert, David Lloyd George: A Political Life (Ohio State Univ. Press, 1987), pp. 183, 191. 31. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 547-548. 32. P. Knightley, The First Casualty, pp. 72, 73, 75. 33. Byron Farwell, \"Taking Sides in the Boer War,\" American Heritage, April 1976, pp. 22, 24, 25. 34. Speech of October 18, 1899. S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, p. 43. 35. C. Hirshfield, \"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility\" (1978), pp. 5, 15; Robert S. Wistrich, Antisemitism (1992), p. 105-106, p. 281 (n. 10, 11). Source cited: C. Hirshfield, \"The British Left and the 'Jewish Conspiracy',\" Jewish Social Studies, Spring 1981, pp. 105-107. 36. C. Hirshfield, \"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility,\" pp. 11, 20; Also quoted in: Robert S. Wistrich, Antisemitism (1992), p. 281 (n. 11). Source cited: C.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nHirshfield, \"The British Left and the 'Jewish Conspiracy',\" Jewish Social Studies, Spring 1981, pp. 106-107. 37. C. Hirshfield, \"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility,\" pp. 10, 20. Burns' speech of Feb. 6, 1990, is also quoted in part in S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, pp. 94-95. It is also quoted (although not entirely accurately) in: R. S. Wistrich, Antisemitism (1992), p. 281 (n. 11). Source cited: C. Hirshfield, \"The British Left and the 'Jewish Conspiracy',\" Jewish Social Studies, Spring 1981, p. 105. 38. C. Hirshfield, \"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility,\" pp. 10, 20. 39. An excerpt of Davitt's speech of October 17, 1899, is given in: S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, pp. 33-34. Davitt also wrote a book, The Boer Fight For Freedom, published in 1902. 40. Hobson is perhaps best known as the author of Imperialism: A Study, a classic treatise on the subject first published in 1902. 41. C. Hirshfield, \"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility,\" pp. 13, 23; J. A. Hobson, The War in South Africa: Its Causes and Effects (1900 and 1969), p. 189. 42. J. A. Hobson, \"Johannesburg Today,\" Manchester Guardian, Sept. 28, 1899. Reprinted in: S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, pp. 26-27. 43. J. A.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nHobson, The War in South Africa, p. 197. 44. C. Hirshfield, \"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility,\" pp. 13, 23. 45. S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, p. 54. 46. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 607-608; T. Pakenham, Scramble, p. 581. 47. F. Welsh, South Africa: A Narrative History (1999), p. 343. 48. In his honor, the city of Berlin in Ontario province, Canada, was renamed Kitchener in 1916, a move that reflected the anti-German hysteria of the day. Bibliography\nBarbary, James. The Boer War. New York: 1969. Davitt, Michael. The Boer Fight For Freedom. New York: 1902 and 1972. Emden, Paul. Randlords, London: 1935. Farwell, Byron. The Great Anglo-Boer War. New York & London: 1976. Farwell, Byron. \"Taking Sides in the Boer War,\" American Heritage, April 1976, pp. 20-25, 92-97. Flint, John. Cecil Rhodes. Boston: 1974. Hirshfield, Claire. \"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility.\" Pennsylvania State University, Ogontz Campus, 1978. Unpublished manuscript, provided by the author. A revised version was scheduled for 1980 publication in The Journal of Contemporary History. A version of this paper was published in the Spring 1981 issue of Jewish Social Studies under the title \"The British Left and the 'Jewish Conspiracy': A Case Study of Modern Anti-Semitism.\"\nHobson, John A.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nThe War in South Africa: Its Causes and Effects. New York: 1900 and 1969. Kanfer, Stefan. The Last Empire: De Beers, Diamonds and the World. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1993. Knightley, Phillip. The First Casualty. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. Koss, Stephen. The Pro-Boers: The Anatomy of an Antiwar Movement. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973. Reader's Digest Association [Dougie Oakes, ed.]. Illustrated History of South Africa: The Real Story. Pleasantville, New York: Reader's Digest, 1988. Ogden, J. J. The War Against the Dutch Republics in South Africa: Its Origin, Progress and Results. Manchester: 1901. Pakenham, Thomas. The Boer War. New York: Random House, 1979. Pakenham, Thomas. The Scramble for Africa. New York: Random House, 1991. Report of the Select Committee of the Cape of Good Hope House of Assembly on the Jameson Raid. London: 1897. Rhoodie, Denys O. Conspirators in Conflict. Capetown: 1967. Saron, Gustav and Louis Hotz, eds. The Jews in South Africa. Oxford: 1955. Second Report from the Select Committee on British South Africa. London: 1897. Spies, S. B. Methods of Barbarism?: Roberts and Kitchener and Civilians in the Boer Republics. Cape Town: 1977. Thomas, Anthony. Rhodes: The Race for Africa. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997. Welsh, Frank. South Africa: A Narrative History. New York: Kondansha, 1999. Wistrich, Robert S.","The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\n\nAntisemitism: The Longest Hatred. New York: Pantheon, 1992. Ziegler, Wilhelm, ed., Ein Dokumentenwerk Über die Englische Humanität. Berlin, 1940. From The Journal of Historical Review, May-June 1999 (Vol. 18, No. 3), pages 14-27. This essay is a revision and expansion of an essay that was first published in the Fall 1980 issue of The Journal of Historical Review.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nDinge en Goete (Things and Stuff): This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War begins in South Africa\nBackground","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe southern part of the African continent was dominated in the 19th century by a set of struggles to create within it a single unified state. While the Berlin Conference of 1884–5 sought to draw boundaries between the European powers' African possessions, it also set the stage for further scrambles. The British attempted to annexe first the South African Republic in 1880, and then, in 1899, both the South African Republic and the Orange Free State. In 1868, the British annexed Basutoland in the Drakensberg Mountains following an appeal from Moshesh, the leader of a mixed group of African refugees from the Zulu wars, who sought British protection against the Boers.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nIn the 1880s, Bechuanaland (modern Botswana, located north of the Orange River) became the object of a dispute between the Germans to the west, the Boers to the east, and the British Cape Colony to the south. Although Bechuanaland had no economic value, the \"Missionaries Road\" passed through it towards territory farther north. After the Germans annexed Damaraland and Namaqualand (modern Namibia) in 1884, the British annexed Bechuanaland in 1885.\nIn the First Boer War of 1880–81 the Boers of the Transvaal Republic had proved skilful fighters in resisting the British attempt at annexation, in causing in a series of British defeats. The British government of William Ewart Gladstone had been unwilling to become bemired in a distant war, which required substantial troop reinforcement and expense, for what was at the time perceived to be a minimal return. An armistice followed, ending the war, and subsequently a peace treaty was signed with the Transvaal President Paul Kruger.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nHowever, when, in 1886, a major gold field was discovered at an outcrop on a large ridge some sixty kilometres south of the Boer capital at Pretoria, it reignited British imperial interests. The ridge, known locally as the \"Witwatersrand\" (literally \"white water ridge\"–a watershed) contained the world's largest deposit of gold-bearing ore. Although it was not as rich as gold finds in Canada and Australia, its consistency made it especially well-suited to industrial mining methods. With the 1886 discovery of gold in the Transvaal, the resulting gold rush brought thousands of British and other prospectors and settlers from across the globe and over the border from the Cape Colony (under British control since 1806).","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe city of Johannesburg sprang up as a shanty town nearly overnight as the uitlanders (\"foreigners,\" meaning non-Boer whites) poured in and settled around the mines. The influx was such that the uitlanders quickly outnumbered the Boers in Johannesburg and along the Rand, although they remained a minority in the Transvaal as a whole. The Boers, nervous and resentful of the uitlanders' growing presence, sought to contain their influence through requiring lengthy residential qualifying periods before voting rights could be obtained, by imposing taxes on the gold industry, and by introducing controls through licensing, tariffs and administrative requirements. Among the issues giving rise to tension between the Transvaal government on the one hand, and the Uitlanders and British interests on the other, were","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\n(a) Established uitlanders, including the mining magnates, wanted political, social, and economic control over their lives. These rights included a stable constitution, a fair franchise law, an independent judiciary, and a better educational system. The Boers, for their part, recognised that the more concessions they made to the uitlanders the greater the likelihood–with approximately 30,000 white male Boer voters and potentially 60,000 white male uitlanders–that their independent control of the Transvaal would be lost and the territory absorbed into the British Empire.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\n(b) The uitlanders resented the taxes levied by the Transvaal government, particularly when this money was not spent on Johannesburg or uitlander interests, but diverted to projects elsewhere in the Transvaal. For example, as the gold-bearing ore sloped away from the outcrop underground to the south, more and more blasting was necessary for extraction, and mines consumed vast quantities of explosives. A box of dynamite costing five pounds included five shillings tax. Not only was this tax perceived as exorbitant, but British interests were offended when President Paul Kruger gave monopoly rights for the manufacture of the explosive to a non-British branch of the Nobel company, which infuriated the British.[14] The so-called \"dynamite monopoly\" became a major pretext for war. (c) British imperial interests were alarmed when in 1894–95 Kruger proposed building a railway through Portuguese East Africa to Delagoa Bay, bypassing British controlled ports in Natal and Cape Town and avoiding British tariffs.[15] At the time the Prime Minister of the Cape Colony was Cecil Rhodes, a man driven by a vision of a British controlled Africa extending from Cape to Cairo.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nCertain self-appointed uitlanders representatives and British mine owners became increasingly angered and frustrated by their dealings with the Transvaal government. A Reform Committee (Transvaal) was formed to represent the uitlanders. Jameson Raid","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nIn 1895, a plan was hatched with the connivance of the Cape Prime Minister Cecil Rhodes, Johannesburg gold magnate Alfred Beit, and Sir Alfred Milner (British High Commissioner for South Africa and Lieutenant Governor of the Cape) to liberate Johannesburg from the control of the Transvaal government. A column of 600 armed men (mainly made up of his Rhodesian and Bechuanaland policemen) was led by Dr. Leander Starr Jameson (the Administrator in Rhodesia of the British South Africa Company (or \"Chartered Company\") of which Cecil Rhodes was the Chairman) over the border from Bechuanaland towards Johannesburg. The column was equipped with six Maxim machine guns, two 7-pounder mountain guns, and a 12½ pounder field piece. The plan was to make a three-day dash to Johannesburg before the Boer commandos could mobilise, and once there, trigger an uprising by the primarily British expatriate workers (uitlanders) organised by the Reform Committee. However, the Transvaal authorities had advance warning of the Jameson Raid and tracked it from the moment it crossed the border. Four days later, the weary and dispirited column was surrounded near Krugersdorp within sight of Johannesburg.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAfter a brief skirmish in which the column lost 65 killed and wounded—while the Boers lost but one man—Jameson's men surrendered and were arrested by the Boers.[10]","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe botched raid resulted in repercussions throughout southern Africa and in Europe. In Rhodesia, the departure of so many policemen enabled the Matabele and Mashona tribes to rise up against the Chartered Company, and the rebellion, known as the Second Matabele War, was suppressed only at great cost.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nA few days after the raid, the German Kaiser sent a telegram (\"Kruger telegram\") congratulating President Kruger and the government of the South African Republic on their success, and when the text of this telegram was disclosed in the British press, it generated a storm of anti-German feeling. In the baggage of the raiding column, to the great embarrassment of the British, the Boers found telegrams from Cecil Rhodes and the other plotters in Johannesburg. Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary, quickly moved to condemn the raid, despite previously having approved Rhodes' plans to send armed assistance in the case of a Johannesburg uprising. Subsequently, Rhodes was severely censured at the Cape inquiry and the London parliamentary inquiry, and forced to resign as Prime Minister of the Cape and as Chairman of the Chartered Company for having sponsored the failed coup d'état. The Boer government handed their raid prisoners over to the British for trial. Dr. Jameson was tried in England for leading the raid. However, the British press and London society inflamed by anti-Boer and anti-German feeling and in a frenzy of jingoism, lionised Dr. Jameson and treated him as a hero.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAlthough sentenced to 15 months imprisonment (which he served in Holloway), Jameson was later rewarded by being named Prime Minister of the Cape Colony (1904–08) and ultimately anointed as one of the founders of the Union of South Africa. For conspiring with Jameson, the uitlander members of the Reform Committee (Transvaal) were tried in the Transvaal courts and found guilty of high treason. The four leaders were sentenced to death by hanging, but this sentence was next day commuted to 15 years' imprisonment; and in June 1896, the other members of the Committee were released on payment of £2,000 each in fines, all of which were paid by Cecil Rhodes. One Reform Committee member, Frederick Gray, had committed suicide while in Pretoria gaol, on 16 May, and his death was a factor in softening the Transvaal government's attitude to the remaining prisoners. Jan C. Smuts wrote in 1906, \"The Jameson Raid was the real declaration of war. . . . And that is so in spite of the four years of truce that followed . . .[the] aggressors consolidated their alliance . . .","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nthe defenders on the other hand silently and grimly prepared for the inevitable.\"[16]\nEscalation and war\nThe Jameson Raid alienated many Cape Afrikaners from the British, and united the Transvaal Boers behind President Kruger and his government. It also had the effect of drawing the Transvaal and the Orange Free State (led by President Martinus Theunis Steyn) together in opposition to perceived British imperialism. In 1897, a military pact was concluded between the two republics. President Paul Kruger proceeded to re-equip the Transvaal army, and imported 37,000 of the latest magazine Mauser rifles, and some 40 to 50 million rounds of ammunition.[17] The best modern European artillery was also purchased. By October 1899 the Transvaal State Artillery had 73 guns, of which 59 of them were new, including four 155-mm Creusot fortress guns, and 25 37mm Maxim Nordenfeldt guns.[18] The Transvaal army had been transformed; approximately 25,000 men equipped with modern rifles and artillery could mobilise within two weeks. However, President Kruger's victory in the Jameson Raid incident did nothing to resolve the fundamental problem; the impossible dilemma continued, namely how to make concessions to the uitlanders without surrendering the independence of the Transvaal.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe failure to gain improved rights for uitlanders became a pretext for war and a justification for a major military buildup in the Cape Colony. The case for war was developed and espoused as far away as the Australian colonies.[19] Several key British colonial leaders favoured annexation of the independent Boer republics. These figures included Cape Colony Governor Sir Alfred Milner, Cape Prime Minister Cecil Rhodes, British Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, and mining syndicate owners or Randlords (nicknamed the gold bugs), such as Alfred Beit, Barney Barnato, and Lionel Phillips. Confident that the Boers would be quickly defeated, they planned and organised a short war, citing the uitlanders' grievances as the motivation for the conflict.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nTheir influence with the British government was, however, limited. Lord Salisbury, the Prime Minister, despised jingoism and jingoists. He also distrusted the abilities of the British army. Yet he led Britain into war for three main reasons: because he believed the British government had an obligation to British South Africans; because he thought that the Transvaal, the Orange Free State, and the Cape Boers aspired to a Dutch South Africa, and that the achievement of such a state would damage Britain's imperial prestige around the world; and because of the Boers' treatment of black South Africans.[20] (Salisbury had referred to the London Convention of 1884, after the British defeat, as an agreement 'really in the interest of slavery'.)[21] Salisbury was not alone in this concern over the treatment of black South Africans; Roger Casement, already well on the way to becoming an Irish Nationalist, was nevertheless happy to gather intelligence for the British against the Boers because of their treatment of black Africans.[22]","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nGiven this sense of caution among key members of the British cabinet and of the army, it is even harder to understand why the British government went against the advice of its generals (such as Wolsely) to send substantial reinforcements to South Africa before war broke out. One strong argument is that Lansdowne, Secretary of State for War, did not believe the Boers were preparing for war, and also believed that if Britain were to send large numbers of troops, it would strike too aggressive a posture and so prevent a negotiated settlement being reached or even encourage a Boer attack.[23]\nPresident Steyn of the Orange Free State invited Milner and Kruger to attend a conference in Bloemfontein. The conference started on 30 May 1899, but negotiations quickly broke down, despite Kruger's offer of concessions. In September 1899, Chamberlain sent an ultimatum demanding full equality for British citizens resident in Transvaal. Kruger, seeing that war was inevitable, simultaneously issued his own ultimatum prior to receiving Chamberlain's. This gave the British 48 hours to withdraw all their troops from the border of Transvaal; otherwise the Transvaal, allied with the Orange Free State, would declare war.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nNews of the ultimatum reached London on the day it expired. Outrage and laughter were the main responses. The editor of the Times laughed out loud when he read it, saying 'an official document is seldom amusing and useful yet this was both.' The Times denounced the ultimatum as an 'extravagant farce.' The Globe denounced this 'trumpery little state.' Most editorials were similar to the Daily Telegraph, which declared: 'of course there can only be one answer to this grotesque challenge. Kruger has asked for war and war he must have!'","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nSuch views were far from those of the British government, and from those in the army. To most sensible observers, army reform had been a matter of pressing concern from the 1870s, constantly put off because the British public did not want the expense of a larger, more professional army, and because a large home army was not politically welcome. Lord Salisbury, the Prime Minister, had had to explain to a surprised Queen Victoria that: 'We have no army capable of meeting even a second-class Continental Power.'[24]\nFirst phase: The Boer offensive (October – December 1899)","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nWar was declared on 11 October 1899 with a Boer offensive into the British-held Natal and Cape Colony areas. The Boers had no problems with mobilisation, since the fiercely independent Boers had no regular army units, apart from the Staatsartillerie (Afrikaans for 'States Artillery') of both republics. As with the First Boer War, since the Boers were civilian militia, each man wore what he wished, usually his everyday dark-grey, light-grey, neutral-coloured, or earthtone khaki farming clothes—often a jacket, trousers and slouch hat. Only the members of the Staatsartillerie wore light green uniforms.\nWhen danger loomed, all the burghers (citizens) in a district would form a military unit called a commando and would elect officers. A full-time official titled a Veldkornet maintained muster rolls, but had no disciplinary powers. Each man brought his own weapon, usually a hunting rifle, and his own horse. Those who could not afford a gun were given one by the authorities.[18] (See also the arms procurement mentioned above.) The Presidents of the Transvaal and Orange Free State simply signed decrees to concentrate within a week and the Commandos could muster between 30,000–40,000 men.[25]","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe average Boer nevertheless was not thirsty for war. Many did not look forward to fighting against fellow Christians and, by and large, fellow Christian Protestants. Many may have had an overly optimistic sense of what the war would involve, imagining that victory could be won as easily as in the First South African War.[26] Many, including many generals, also had a sense that their cause was holy and just, and blessed by God.[27]","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nIt rapidly became clear that the Boer forces presented the British forces with a severe tactical challenge. What the Boers presented was a mobile and innovative approach to warfare, drawing on their experiences from the First Boer War. The average Boers who made up their Commandos were farmers who had spent almost all their working life in the saddle, both as farmers and hunters. They had to depend on the pot on their horse and their rifle and were skilled stalkers and marksmen. As hunters they had learned to fire from cover, from a prone position and to make the first shot count, knowing that if they missed, the game would either be long gone or could charge and potentially kill them.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAt community gatherings, target shooting was a major sport, and they practised shooting at targets such as hens' eggs perched on posts 100 metres (100 yd) away. They made expert mounted infantry, using every scrap of cover, from which they could pour in a destructive fire using their modern, smokeless, Mauser rifles. Furthermore, in preparation for hostilities, the Boers had acquired around one hundred of the latest Krupp field guns, all horse-drawn and dispersed among the various Commando groups, and several Le Creusot \"Long Tom\" siege guns. The Boers' skill in adapting themselves to becoming first-rate artillerymen shows them to have been a versatile adversary.[28] The Transvaal also had an intelligence service that stretched across South Africa, and of whose extent and efficiency the British were unaware.[29]","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe Boers struck first on 12 October at Kraaipan, an attack that heralded the invasion of the Cape Colony and Colony of Natal between October 1899 and January 1900. With elements of both speed and surprise the Boer drove quickly towards the major British garrison at Ladysmith and the smaller ones at Mafeking and Kimberley. The quick Boer mobilisation resulted in early military successes against the scattered British forces.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nSir George Stuart White, commanding the British division at Ladysmith, had unwisely allowed Major-General Penn Symons to throw a brigade forward to the coal-mining town of Dundee (also reported as Glencoe), which was surrounded by hills. This became the site of the first engagement of the war, the Battle of Talana Hill.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nBoer guns began shelling the British camp from the summit of Talana Hill at dawn on 20 October. Penn Symons immediately counter-attacked. His infantry drove the Boers from the hill, but at the cost of 446 British casualties including Penn Symons himself.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAnother Boer force occupied Elandslaagte, which lay between Ladysmith and Dundee. The British under Major General John French and Colonel Ian Hamilton attacked to clear the line of communications to Dundee. The resulting Battle of Elandslaagte was a clear-cut British tactical victory, but Sir George White feared that more Boers were about to attack his main position and ordered a chaotic retreat from Elandslaagte, throwing away any advantage gained. The detachment from Dundee was compelled to make an exhausting cross-country retreat to rejoin White's main force.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAs Boers surrounded Ladysmith and opened fire on the town with siege guns, White ordered a major sortie against the Boer artillery positions. The result was a disaster, with 140 men killed and over 1,000 captured. The Siege of Ladysmith began, and was to last several months.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nMeanwhile to the north-west at Mafeking, on the border with Transvaal, Colonel Robert Baden-Powell had raised two regiments of local forces amounting to some 1,200 men in order to attack and create diversions if things further south went amiss. Mafeking, being a railway junction, provided good supply facilities and was the obvious place for Baden-Powell to fortify in readiness for such attacks. However, instead of being the aggressor Baden-Powell and Mafeking were forced to defend when 6,000 Boer, commanded by Piet Cronje, attempted a determined assault on the town. But this quickly subsided into a desultory affair with the Boers prepared to starve the stronghold into submission, and so, on 13 October, began the 217-day Siege of Mafeking.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nLastly, over 360 kilometres (220 mi) to the south of Mafeking lay the diamond mining city of Kimberley, which was also subjected to a siege. Although not militarily significant, it nonetheless represented an enclave of British imperialism on the borders of the Orange Free State and was hence an important Boer objective. From early November about 7,500 Boer began their siege, again content to starve the town into submission. Despite Boer shelling, the 40,000 inhabitants, of which only 5,000 were armed, were under little threat as the town was well-stocked with provisions. The garrison was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Kekewich, although Cecil Rhodes was also a prominent figure in the defense.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nSiege life took its toll on both the defending soldiers and the civilians in the cities of Mafeking, Ladysmith, and Kimberley as food began to grow scarce after a few weeks. In Mafeking, Sol Plaatje wrote, \"I saw horseflesh for the first time being treated as a human foodstuff.\" The cities under siege also dealt with constant artillery bombardment, making the streets a dangerous place. Near the end of the siege of Kimberley, it was expected that the Boers would intensify their bombardment, so Rhodes displayed a notice encouraging people to go down into shafts of the Kimberley Mine for protection. The townspeople panicked, and people surged into the mine-shafts constantly for a 12-hour period. Although the bombardment never came, this did nothing to diminish the distress of the civilians. The most well-heeled of the townspeople, such as Cecil Rhodes, sheltered in the Sanatorium, site of the present-day McGregor Museum; the poorer residents, notably the black population, did not have any shelter from the shelling.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nIn retrospect, the Boer decision to commit themselves to sieges (Sitzkrieg) was a mistake, and one of the best illustrations of the Boers' lack of strategic vision. Historically, it had little in its favour. Of the seven sieges in the First Boer War, the Boers had won none. More importantly, it handed the initiative back to the British and allowed them time to recover, which they then did. Generally speaking, throughout the campaign, the Boers were too defensive and passive, wasting the opportunities they had for victory. Yet that passiveness also testified to the fact that they had no desire to conquer British territory, but only to preserve their ability to rule in their own territory.[30]\nFirst British relief attempts","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nIt was at this point that General Sir Redvers Henry Buller, a much respected commander, arrived in South Africa with major British reinforcements (including an army corps of three divisions). Buller originally intended an offensive straight up the railway line leading from Cape Town through Bloemfontein to Pretoria. Finding on arrival that the British troops already in South Africa were under siege, he split his army corps into several widely spread detachments, to relieve the besieged garrisons. One division, led by Lieutenant General Lord Methuen, was to follow the Western Railway to the north and relieve Kimberley and Mafeking. A smaller force of about 3,000 led by Major General William Gatacre, was to push north toward the railway junction at Stormberg, to secure the Cape Midlands district from Boer raids and local rebellions by Boer inhabitants. Finally, Buller himself would lead the major part of the army corps to relieve Ladysmith to the east.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe initial results of this offensive were mixed, with Methuen winning several bloody skirmishes at Belmont on 23 November, at Graspan on 25 November, and at a larger conflict, Modder River on 28 November resulting in British losses of 71 dead and over 400 wounded. British commanders had trained on the lessons of the Crimean War, and were adept at battalion and regimental set pieces with columns manoeuvring in jungles, deserts and mountainous regions. What they entirely failed to comprehend, however, was both the impact of destructive fire from trench positions and the mobility of cavalry raids, both of which had been developed in the American Civil War. The British troops went to war with what would prove to be antiquated tactics, and in some cases antiquated weapons,[31] against the mobile Boer forces with the destructive fire of their modern Mausers, the latest Krupp field guns, and their innovative tactics.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe middle of December was disastrous for the British army. In a period known as Black Week (10 – 15 December 1899), the British suffered a series of losses on each of the three major fronts.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nOn 10 December, General Gatacre tried to recapture Stormberg railway junction about 50 miles (80 km) south of the Orange River. Gatacre's attack was marked by administrative and tactical blunders, and the Battle of Stormberg ended in a British defeat, with 135 killed and wounded, and two guns and over 600 troops captured.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAt the Battle of Magersfontein on 11 December, Methuen's 14,000 British troops attempted to capture a Boer position in a dawn attack to relieve Kimberley. This too turned into a disaster when the Highland Brigade became pinned down by accurate Boer fire. After suffering from intense heat and thirst for nine hours, they eventually broke in ill-disciplined retreat. The Boer commanders, Koos de la Rey and Piet Cronje, had ordered trenches to be dug in an unconventional place to fool the British and to give their riflemen a greater firing range. The plan worked and this tactic helped write the doctrine of the supremacy of the defensive position, using modern small arms and trench fortifications.[32] The British lost 120 killed and 690 wounded and were prevented from relieving Kimberley and Mafeking.\nA British soldier encapsulated the soldiers' view of the defeat:\n \"Such was the day for our regiment\n Dread the revenge we will take.\n Dearly we paid for the blunder -\n A drawing-room General’s mistake.\n Why weren’t we told of the trenches?\n Why weren’t we told of the wire?\n Why were we marched up in column,\n May Tommy Atkins enquire….\" [33]","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nHowever, the nadir of Black Week was the Battle of Colenso on 15 December where 21,000 British troops commanded by Buller himself, attempted to cross the Tugela River to relieve Ladysmith where 8,000 Transvaal Boers, under the command of Louis Botha, were awaiting them. Through a combination of artillery and accurate rifle fire, and a better use of the ground, the Boers repelled all British attempts to cross the river. After his first attacks failed, Buller broke off the battle and ordered a retreat, abandoning many wounded men, several isolated units and ten field guns to be captured by Botha's men. Buller's forces lost 145 men killed and 1,200 missing or wounded. The Boers suffered 40 casualties, including only 8 killed.[34]","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nSecond phase: The British offensive of January to September 1900","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe British government took these defeats badly and with the sieges still continuing was compelled to send two more divisions plus large numbers of colonial volunteers. By January 1900 this would become the largest force Britain had ever sent overseas, amounting to some 180,000 men with further reinforcements being sought.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nWhile watching for these reinforcements, Buller made another bid to relieve Ladysmith by crossing the Tugela west of Colenso. Buller's subordinate, Major General Charles Warren, successfully crossed the river, but was then faced with a fresh defensive position centred on a prominent hill known as Spion Kop. In the resulting Battle of Spion Kop, British troops captured the summit by surprise during the early hours of 24 January 1900, but as the early morning fog lifted they realised too late that they were overlooked by Boer gun emplacements on the surrounding hills. The rest of the day resulted in a disaster caused by poor communication between Buller and his commanders. Between them they issued contradictory orders, on the one hand ordering men off the hill, while other officers ordered fresh reinforcements to defend it. The result was 350 men killed and nearly 1,000 wounded and a retreat back across the Tugela River into British territory. There were nearly 300 Boer casualties.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nBuller attacked Louis Botha again on 5 February at Vaal Krantz and was again defeated. Buller withdrew early when it appeared that the British would be isolated in an exposed bridgehead across the Tugela, and was nicknamed \"Sir Reverse\" by some of his officers.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nBy taking command in person in Natal, Buller had allowed the overall direction of the war to drift. Because of concerns about his performance and negative reports from the field, he was replaced as Commander in Chief by Field Marshal Lord Roberts. Like Buller, Roberts first intended to attack directly along the Cape Town – Pretoria railway but, again like Buller, was forced to relieve the beleaguered garrisons. Leaving Buller in command in Natal, Roberts massed his main force near the Orange River and along the Western Railway behind Methuen's force at the Modder River, and prepared to make a wide outflanking move to relieve Kimberley.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nExcept in Natal, the war had stagnated. Other than a single attempt to storm Ladysmith, the Boers made no attempt to capture the besieged towns. In the Cape Midlands, the Boers did not exploit the British defeat at Stormberg, and were prevented from capturing the railway junction at Colesberg. In the dry summer, the grazing on the veld became parched, weakening the Boers' horses and draught oxen, and many Boer families joined their menfolk in the siege lines and laagers (encampments), fatally encumbering Cronje's army.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nRoberts launched his main attack on 10 February 1900 and although hampered by a long supply route, managed to outflank the Boers defending Magersfontein. On 14 February, a cavalry division under Major General John French launched a major attack to relieve Kimberley. Although encountering severe fire, a massed cavalry charge split the Boer defences on 15 February, opening the way for French to enter Kimberley that evening, ending its 124 days’ siege.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nMeanwhile, Roberts pursued Piet Cronje’s 7,000-strong force, which had abandoned Magersfontein to head for Bloemfontein. General French’s cavalry was ordered to assist in the pursuit by embarking on an epic 30-mile drive towards Paardeberg where Cronje was attempting to cross the Modder River. At the Battle of Paardeberg from 18 to 27 February, Roberts then surrounded General Piet Cronje's retreating Boer army. On 17 February, a pincer movement involving both French’s cavalry and the main British force attempted to take the entrenched position, but the frontal attacks were uncoordinated and so were easily repulsed by the Boers. Finally, Roberts resorted to bombarding Cronje into submission, but it took a further ten precious days and with the British troops using the polluted Modder River as water supply, resulting in a typhoid epidemic killing many troops. General Cronje was forced to surrender at Surrender Hill with 4000 men. In Natal, the Battle of the Tugela Heights, which started on 14 February was Buller's fourth attempt to relieve Ladysmith. Despite reinforcements his progress was painfully slow against stiff opposition.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nHowever, on 26 February, after much deliberation, Buller used all his forces in one all-out attack for the first time and at last succeeded in forcing a crossing of the Tugela, and defeated Botha's outnumbered forces north of Colenso. After a siege lasting 118 days, the Relief of Ladysmith was effected, the day after Cronje surrendered, but at a total cost of 7,000 British casualties.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAfter a succession of defeats, the Boers realised that against such overwhelming superiority of troops, they had little chance of defeating the British and so became demoralised. Roberts then advanced into the Orange Free State from the west, putting the Boers to flight at the Battle of Poplar Grove and capturing Bloemfontein, the capital, unopposed on 13 March with the Boer defenders escaping and scattering. Meanwhile, he detached a small force to relieve Baden-Powell, and the Relief of Mafeking on 18 May 1900 provoked riotous celebrations in Britain.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nOn 28 May, the Orange Free State was annexed and renamed the Orange River Colony.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAfter being forced to delay for several weeks at Bloemfontein due to a shortage of supplies and enteric fever (caused by poor hygiene, drinking bad water at Paardeburg and appalling medical care),[35] Roberts resumed his advance. He was forced to halt again at Kroonstad for 10 days, due once again to the collapse of his medical and supply systems, but finally captured Johannesburg on 31 May and the capital of the Transvaal, Pretoria, on 5 June. The first into Pretoria, was Lt. William Watson of the New South Wales Mounted Rifles, who persuaded the Boers to surrender the capital.[36] (Before the war, the Boers had constructed several forts south of Pretoria, but the artillery had been removed from the forts for use in the field, and in the event the Boers abandoned Pretoria without a fight).\nThis allowed the Roberts to declare the war over, having won the principal cities and so, on 3 September 1900, the South African Republic was formally annexed.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nBritish observers believed the war to be all but over after the capture of the two capital cities. However, the Boers had earlier met at the temporary new capital of the Orange Free State, Kroonstad, and planned a guerrilla campaign to hit the British supply and communication lines. The first engagement of this new form of warfare was at Sanna's Post on 31 March where 1,500 Boers under the command of Christiaan De Wet attacked Bloemfontein's waterworks about 23 miles (37 km) east of the city, and ambushed a heavily escorted convoy, which caused 155 British casualties and the capture of seven guns, 117 wagons, and 428 British troops.[37]","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAfter the fall of Pretoria, one of the last formal battles was at Diamond Hill on 11 – 12 June, where Roberts attempted to drive the remnants of the Boer field army beyond striking distance of Pretoria. Although Roberts drove the Boers from the hill, the Boer commander, Louis Botha, did not regard it as a defeat, for he inflicted more casualties on the British (totalling 162 men) while suffering around 50 casualties.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe set-piece period of the war now largely gave way to a mobile guerrilla war, but one final operation remained. President Kruger and what remained of the Transvaal government had retreated to eastern Transvaal. Roberts, joined by troops from Natal under Buller, advanced against them, and broke their last defensive position at Bergendal on 26 August. As Roberts and Buller followed up along the railway line to Komatipoort, Kruger sought asylum in Portuguese East Africa (modern Mozambique). Some dispirited Boers did likewise, and the British gathered up much war material. However, the core of the Boer fighters under Botha easily broke back through the Drakensberg mountains into the Transvaal highveld after riding north through the bushveld. Under the new conditions of the war, heavy equipment was no use to them, and therefore no great loss.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAs Roberts's army occupied Pretoria, the Boer fighters in the Orange Free State had been driven into a fertile area known as the Brandwater Basin in the north east of the Republic. This offered only temporary sanctuary, as the mountain passes leading to it could be occupied by the British, trapping the Boers. A force under General Archibald Hunter set out from Bloemfontein to achieve this in July 1900. The hard core of the Free State Boers under Christiaan De Wet, accompanied by President Steyn, left the basin early. Those remaining fell into confusion and most failed to break out before Hunter trapped them. 4,500 Boers surrendered and much equipment was captured but as with Roberts's drive against Kruger at the same time, these losses were of relatively little consequence, as the hardcore of the Boer armies and their most determined and active leaders remained at large.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nFrom the Basin, Christiaan De Wet headed west. Although hounded by British columns, he succeeded in crossing the Vaal into western Transvaal, to allow Steyn to travel to meet the Transvaal leaders.\nThere was much sympathy for the Boers on mainland Europe and in October, President Kruger and members of the Transvaal government left Portuguese East Africa on the Dutch warship De Gelderland, sent by the Queen of the Netherlands Wilhelmina, who had simply ignored the British naval blockade of South Africa.\nPaul Kruger's wife, however, was too ill to travel and remained in South Africa where she died on 20 July 1901 without seeing her husband again. President Kruger first went to Marseille and then on to The Netherlands where he stayed for a while before moving finally to Clarens, Switzerland, where he died in exile on 14 July 1904.\nPOWs sent overseas","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe first sizeable batch of Boer prisoners of war taken by the British consisted of those captured at the Battle of Elandslaagte on 21 October 1899. At first, many were put on ships, but as numbers grew, the British decided they did not want them kept locally. The capture of 400 POWs in February 1900 was a key event, which made the British realise they could not accommodate all POWs in South Africa.[38] The British feared they could be freed by sympathetic locals. Moreover, they already had trouble supplying their own troops in South Africa, and did not want the added burden of sending supplies for the POWs. Britain therefore chose to send many POWs overseas.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe first overseas (off African mainland) camps were opened in Saint Helena, which ultimately received about 5,000 POWs. About 5,000 POWs were sent to Ceylon.[39] Other POWs were sent to Bermuda and India. No evidence exists of Boer POWs being sent to the Dominions of the British Empire such as Australia, Canada or New Zealand.[38]","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nIn all, about 26,000 POWs were sent overseas.[40]\nThird phase: Guerrilla war (September 1900 – May 1902)","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nBy September 1900, the British were nominally in control of both Republics, with the exception of the northern part of Transvaal. However, they soon discovered that they only controlled the territory their columns physically occupied. The Boer commanders adopted guerrilla warfare tactics, primarily conducting raids against infrastructure, resource and supply targets, all aimed at disrupting the operational capacity of the British army.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nEach Boer commando unit was sent to the district from which its members had been recruited, which meant that they could rely on local support and personal knowledge of the terrain and the towns within the district thereby enabling them to live off the land. Their orders were simply to act against the British whenever possible. Their tactics were to strike fast and hard causing as much damage to the enemy as possible, and then to withdraw and vanish before enemy reinforcements could arrive. The vast distances of the Republics allowed the Boer commandos considerable freedom to move about and made it impossible for the 250,000 British troops to control the territory effectively using columns alone. As soon as a British column left a town or district, British control of that area faded away.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe Boer commandos were especially effective during the initial guerrilla phase of the war because Roberts had assumed that the war would end with the capture of the Boer capitals and the dispersal of the main Boer armies. Many British troops were therefore redeployed out of the area, and had been replaced by lower-quality contingents of Imperial Yeomanry and locally raised irregular corps.\nFrom late May 1900, the first successes of the Boer strategy were at Lindley (where 500 Yeomanry surrendered), and at Heilbron (where a large convoy and its escort were captured) and other skirmishes resulting in 1,500 British casualties in less than ten days. In December 1900, De la Rey and Christiaan Beyers mauled a British brigade at Nooitgedacht. As a result of these and other Boer successes, the British, led by Lord Kitchener, mounted three extensive searches for De Wet, but without success. However, by its very nature the guerrilla war was sporadic, poorly planned and with little overall objective in mind except to harass the British. This led to a disorganised pattern of scattered engagements throughout the region.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nBritish response","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe British were forced to quickly revise their tactics. They concentrated on restricting the freedom of movement of the Boer commandos and depriving them of local support. The railway lines had provided vital lines of communication and supply, and as the British had advanced across South Africa, they had used armoured trains and had established fortified blockhouses at key points.[41] They now built additional blockhouses (each housing 6–8 soldiers) and fortified these to protect supply routes against Boer raiders. Eventually some 8,000 such blockhouses were built across the two South African republics, radiating from the larger towns. Each blockhouse cost between £800 to £1,000 and took about three months to build. However, they proved very effective. Not one bridge where one of these blockhouses was sited and manned was blown.[41]\nThe blockhouse system required an enormous number of troops to maintain. Well over 50,000 British troops, or 50 battalions, were involved in blockhouse duty, greater than the approximately 30,000 Boers in the field during the guerrilla phase.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nIn addition, up to 16,000 Africans were used both as armed guards and to patrol the line at night.[41] The Army linked the blockhouses with barbed wire fences to parcel up the wide veld into smaller areas. \"New Model\" drives were mounted under which a continuous line of troops could sweep an area of veld bounded by blockhouse lines, unlike the earlier inefficient scouring of the countryside by scattered columns. The British also implemented a \"scorched earth\" policy under which they targeted everything within the controlled areas that could give sustenance to the Boer guerrillas with a view to making it harder and harder for the Boers to survive.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAs British troops swept the countryside, they systematically destroyed crops, burned homesteads and farms, poisoned wells, and interned Boer and African women, children and workers in concentration camps. Finally, the British also established their own mounted raiding columns in support of the sweeper columns. These were used to rapidly follow and relentlessly harass the Boers with a view to delaying them and cutting off escape, while the sweeper units caught up. Many of the 90 or so mobile columns formed by the British to participate in such drives were a mixture of British and colonial troops, but they also had a large minority of armed Africans. The total number of armed Africans serving with these columns has been estimated at approximately 20,000.\nThe British Army also made use of Boer auxiliaries who had been persuaded to change sides and enlist as \"National Scouts\". Serving under the command of General Andries Cronje, the National Scouts were despised as hensoppers (collaborators) but came to number a fifth of the fighting Afrikaners by the end of the War.[42]","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe British utilised armoured trains throughout the War to deliver rapid reaction forces much more quickly to incidents (such as Boer attacks on blockhouses and columns) or to drop them off ahead of retreating Boer columns.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nConcentration camps (1900–1902)\nThe term \"concentration camp\" was used to describe camps operated by the British in South Africa during this conflict, and the term grew in prominence during this period.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe camps had originally been set up by the British army as \"refugee camps\" to provide refuge for civilian families who had been forced to abandon their homes for whatever reason related to the war. However, when Kitchener succeeded Roberts as commander-in-chief in South Africa on 29 November 1900, the British army introduced new tactics in an attempt to break the guerrilla campaign and the influx of civilians grew dramatically as a result. Kitchener initiated plans to flush out guerrillas in a series of systematic drives, organised like a sporting shoot, with success defined in a weekly 'bag' of killed, captured and wounded, and to sweep the country bare of everything that could give sustenance to the guerrillas, including women and children.... It was the clearance of civilians—uprooting a whole nation—that would come to dominate the last phase of the war.[45]","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAs Boer farms were destroyed by the British under their \"Scorched Earth\" policy—including the systematic destruction of crops and slaughtering of livestock, the burning down of homesteads and farms, and the poisoning of wells and salting of fields—to prevent the Boers from resupplying from a home base many tens of thousands of women and children were forcibly moved into the concentration camps. This was not the first appearance of internment camps. The Spanish had used internment in the Ten Years' War that led to the Spanish-American War, and the United States had used them to devastate guerrilla forces during the Philippine-American War. But the Boer War concentration camp system was the first time that a whole nation had been systematically targeted, and the first in which some whole regions had been depopulated.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nEventually, there were a total of 45 tented camps built for Boer internees and 64 for black Africans. Of the 28,000 Boer men captured as prisoners of war, 25,630 were sent overseas. The vast majority of Boers remaining in the local camps were women and children. Over 26,000 women and children were to perish in these concentration camps.[46]\nThe camps were poorly administered from the outset and became increasingly overcrowded when Kitchener's troops implemented the internment strategy on a vast scale. Conditions were terrible for the health of the internees, mainly due to neglect, poor hygiene and bad sanitation. The supply of all items was unreliable, partly because of the constant disruption of communication lines by the Boers. The food rations were meager and there was a two-tier allocation policy, whereby families of men who were still fighting were routinely given smaller rations than others. The inadequate shelter, poor diet, inadequate hygiene and overcrowding led to malnutrition and endemic contagious diseases such as measles, typhoid and dysentery to which the children were particularly vulnerable.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAs the war raged across their farms and their homes were destroyed, many Africans became refugees and they, like the Boers, moved to the towns where the British army hastily created internment camps. Subsequently, the \"Scorched Earth\" policy was ruthlessly applied to both Boers and Africans. Although most black Africans were not considered by the British to be hostile, many tens of thousands were also forcibly removed from Boer areas and also placed in concentration camps. Africans were held separately from Boer internees. Eventually there were a total of 64 tented camps for Africans. Conditions were as bad as in the camps for the Boers, but even though, after the Fawcett Commission report, conditions improved in the Boer camps, \"improvements were much slower in coming to the black camps.\"\nPublic opinion and political opposition","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAlthough the 1900 UK general election, also known as the \"Khaki election,\" had resulted in a victory for the Conservative government on the back of recent British victories against the Boers, public support quickly waned as it became apparent that the war would not be easy and further unease developed following reports about the treatment by the British army of the Boer civilians. Public and political opposition to government policies in South Africa regarding Boer civilians was first expressed in Parliament in February, 1901 in the form of an attack on the policy, the government, and the army by the radical Liberal MP David Lloyd George. Emily Hobhouse, a delegate of the South African Women and Children's Distress Fund, visited some of the camps in the Orange Free State from January, 1901, and in May, 1901 she returned to England on board the ship, the Saxon.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nAlfred Milner, High Commissioner in South Africa, also boarded the Saxon for holiday in England but, unfortunately for both the camp internees and the British government, he had no time for Miss Hobhouse, regarding her as a Boer sympathiser and \"trouble maker.\"[48] On her return, Emily Hobhouse did much to publicise the distress of the camp inmates. She managed to speak to the Liberal Party leader, Henry Campbell-Bannerman who professed to be suitably outraged but was disinclined to press the matter, as his party was split between the imperialists and the pro-Boer factions.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe more radical Liberals however such as David Lloyd George and John Ellis were prepared to raise the matter in Parliament and to harass the government on the issue, which they duly did. St John Brodrick, the Conservative secretary of state for war, first defended the government's policy by arguing that the camps were purely \"voluntary\" and that the interned Boers were \"contented and comfortable,\" but was somewhat undermined as he had no firm statistics to back up his argument, so when his \"voluntary\" argument proved untenable, he resorted to the \"military necessity\" argument and stated that everything possible was being done to ensure satisfactory conditions in the camps. Hobhouse published a report in June, 1901 that contradicted Brodrick's claim, and Lloyd George then openly accused the government of \"a policy of extermination\" directed against the Boer population. In June, 1901, Liberal opposition party leader Campbell-Bannerman took up the assault and answered the rhetorical question \"When is a war not a war?\" with his own rhetorical answer \"When it is carried on by methods of barbarism in South Africa,\" referring to those same camps and the policies that created them.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe Hobhouse report caused uproar both domestically and in the international community. It should be noted however that there was very little public sympathy for the highly reactionary Boer president Kruger. The end of the war\nTowards the end of the war, British tactics of containment, denial, and harassment began to yield results against the guerrillas. The sourcing and coordination of intelligence became increasingly efficient with regular reporting from observers in the blockhouses , from units patrolling the fences and conducting \"sweeper\" operations, and from native Africans in rural areas who increasingly supplied intelligence, as the Scorched Earth policy took effect and they found themselves competing with the Boers for food supplies. Kitchener's forces at last began to seriously affect the Boers' fighting strength and freedom of manoeuvre, and made it harder for the Boers and their families to survive. The last of the Boers surrendered in May, 1902 and the war ended with the Treaty of Vereeniging signed on 31 May 1902. Although the British had won, this came at a cost; the Boers were given £3,000,000 for reconstruction and were promised eventual limited self-government, which was granted in 1906 and 1907.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nThe treaty ended the existence of the South African Republic and the Orange Free State as independent Boer republics and placed them within the British Empire . The Union of South Africa was established as a member of the Commonwealth in 1910. In all, the war had cost around 75,000 lives; 22,000 British and allied soldiers (7,792 killed in battle, the rest through disease), between 6,000 and 7,000 Boer fighters, and, mainly in the concentration camps, between 20,000 to 28,000 Boer civilians (mainly women and children) and perhaps 20,000 black Africans (both on the battlefield and in the concentration camps).","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nNotes\n ^ Military History Journal, Vol 11 No 3/4 (October, 1999). Huw M Jones, \"Neutrality compromised: Swaziland and the Anglo-Boer War, 1899 – 1902\"\n ^ Two Rhodesian units, the Rhodesia Regiment and the Southern Rhodesia Volunteers, served in the war, contributing around 1,000 men. See Keppel-Jones, Arthur (1983). Rhodes and Rhodesia: The White Conquest of Zimbabwe, 1884–1902. Montreal, Quebec and Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 590–599. ISBN 978-0-7735-0534-6. ^ a b c http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/555806/South-African-War\n ^ \"Caring for the soldiers health\". Nash's war manual. Eveleigh Nash. 1914. p. 309. Retrieved 22 August 2009. ^ \"The Commissariat – The Red Cross – The Hague Court\". Europe at war. Doubleday, Page & Company. 1914. pp. 183 (n198). Retrieved 22 August 2009. ^ Davenport & Saunders 2000, p. 228\n ^ Die ontplooiing van die Engelse Oorlog 1899–1900 at Google Books\n ^ Pakenham 1979, p. xxi\n ^ a b Morris, Michael & John Linnegar (2004). Every Step of the Way: The Journey to Freedom in South Africa. Ministry of Education. pp. 58–95. ISBN 0-7969-2061-3. ^ a b Pakenham 1979, pp. 1–5\n ^ Pakenham 1979, pp. 493–495\n ^ Wessels, p. 97\n ^ M. Nathan, Paul Kruger: His Life And Times, Knox, Durban, 1941. ^ cited in, T.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nPakenham, The Boer War, Part 1, 'Milner's War'\n ^ R. Bester, Boer Rifles and Carbines of the Anglo-Boer War, War Museum of the Boer Republics, Bloemfontein, 1994 (See also Wessels 2000, p. 80). ^ a b Wessels 2000, p. 80\n ^ C.N. Connolly, 'Manufacturing Spontaneity'\n ^ Steele 2000, p. 7\n ^ Steele 2000, p. 6\n ^ Brian Inglis, Roger Casement (London: Coronet Books, 1974), pp.53–5. Quoted in Keith Jeffery, \"The Irish Soldier in the Boer War,\" in The Boer War, ed. by John Gooch (London: Cass, 2000), p.145. ^ Keith Surridge, 'Lansdowne at the War Office', in The Boer War, ed. by John Gooch (London: Cass, 2000), p.24\n ^ Steele 2000, p. 4\n ^ Pakenham 1979, p. 56\n ^ Wessels 2000, p. 74\n ^ Fransjohan Pretorius, 'The Experience of the Bitter-Ender Boer,' in The Boer War',' ed. by John Gooch (London: Cass, 2000), p.179. ^ Pakenham 1979, p. 30\n ^ Wessels 2000, pp. 82–85\n ^ Field Marshal Lord Carver, The Boer War, pp. 259–262\n ^ 'Historical Overview' in Antony O'Brien, Bye-Bye Dolly Gray\n ^ From the \"Battle of Magersfontein,\" verse by Private Smith of the Black Watch December 1899. (Quoted in Pakenham 1979, p. 115)\n ^ Steele 2000, p. 12\n ^ A. B.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\n\"Banjo\" Patterson,From the Front (see Australian references). ^ Wilcox, Australia's Boer War, pp. 84–85. ^ N. G. Speed, Born to Fight\n ^ a b Anglo-Boer War Philatelic Society: Collecting Interests\n ^ Ango-Boer War Museum\n ^ a b c Jones 1996\n ^ Thomas Pakenham, page 571 The Boer War, ISBN 0-7474-0976-5\n ^ Parkenham, p. 402\n ^ Professor J.C. de Villiers, MD FRCS (June 1984). \"The Medical Aspect of the Anglo-Boer War, 1899–1902 Part ll\". Military History Journal 6 (3). ^ Pakenham 1979[page needed]\n ^ A Century of Postgraduate Anglo Boer War Studies at Google Books\n ^ The Boer War / Denis Judd & Keith Surridge (2003) ISBN 1-4039-6150-6\n ^ Pakenham 1979, pp. 531–32, 536+\nTaken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Boer_War [11.10.2012]\nThe Boer War (1900-1902) Timeline\n1899\n31 May – 5 June: Bloemfontein Conference between British high commissioner Milner and Transvaal President Kruger fails to reach agreement. 28 July: British colonial secretary Chamberlain informs Parliament that Britain intends to enforce supremacy in southern Africa. 28 August: British government informs Transvaal government of its refusal to abandon claims to sovereignty over all of southern Africa. 8 September: British cabinet decides to send another 10 000 troops to Natal.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\n26 September: British send troops to Dundee under General Penn Symons. 27 September: Kruger orders mobilisation of Transvaal commandos. 29 September: British cabinet approves preparations for army mobilisation. 30 September: Irish Transvaal Committee established in Dublin to mobilise Irish support for Boer republics. 2 October: President Steyn orders mobilisation of Free State commandos in support of the Transvaal. 7 October: British mobilise 1st Army Corps; General White lands at Durban with reinforcements. 9 October: Kruger sends ultimatum to British government to withdraw reinforcements within 2 days or face war. 10 October: British leadership exultant over Transvaal ultimatum; Cecil Rhodes arrives in Kimberley in attempt to take over town’s defence from British army. 11 October: Ultimatum expires – war officially begins. 12 October: Boer commandos invade Natal and Cape Colony. 14-16 October: Boer forces commence sieges of Mafeking and Kimberley. 20 October: Battle of Talana Hill – Commandant Moller surrenders to Penn Symons. First troopships sail from Southampton for Cape Town. 21 October: Battle of Elandslaagte – Boers attacked by General French’s lancers. 23 October: Battle of Dundee – Boers defeat British brigade, Penn Symons killed. 24 October: Battle of Rietfontein. 26 October: Transvaal and Free State commandos link up near Ladysmith.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\n30 October: Battle of Modderspruit – General Joubert defeats White; Carleton surrenders at Nicholson’s Nek. 31 October: General Buller lands at Cape Town with leading units of 1st Army Corps. 1 November: Free State commandos cross the Orange River to raid Cape Colony. 2 November: Boer forces lay siege to Ladysmith – 12 000 British troops under White trapped. 14 November: Boer force crosses the Tugela River, heading towards Pietermaritzburg. 15 November: General Botha’s commando wrecks armoured train between Frere and Chieveley, captures 60 prisoners including journalist Winston Churchill. 20 November: General Methuen’s force of 8 000 troops cross the Orange to relieve Kimberley. 22/3 November: Battle of Willow Grange. 23 November: Battle of Belmont – Methuen advances. Boer raids southward into Natal end. 25 November: Battle of Graspan – Methuen advances further. 26 November: British-African force force attacks Boer laager at Derdepoort. 28 November: Battle of Modder River – Methuen’s attack on Boer positions halted. 10 December: Battle of Stormberg – Boers defeat General Gatacre’s assault, 600 British captured. Beginning of ‘Black Week’ for British. 11 December: Battle of Magersfontein – General De la Rey’s Boer force defeats Methuen’s Scottish regiments, nearly 1 000 casualties, General Wauchope killed.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\n13 December: Buller launches 2 days of artillery bombardment across the Tugela. 15 December: Battle of Colenso – Buller’s attempt to cross the Tugela repulsed by Botha’s Boer force, with over 1 000 casualties and 10 field guns abandoned. 17 December: ‘Black Week’ ends – total British losses 700 killed, 3 000 wounded, 2 000 taken prisoner; Boer losses minimal. 18 December: British cabinet appoints Field Marshal Roberts as C-in-C South Africa with General Kitchener as Chief of Staff, and calls out army reserve. 23 December: Roberts and Kitchener sail from England. 26 December: Boers repulse Baden-Powell’s attack on Game Tree Fort. 29 December: Royal Navy seizes German mail-steamer Bundesrath. 1900\n6 January: Boers attack British positions at Ladysmith. 10 January: Roberts and Kitchener land at Cape Town. 20 January: Buller crosses the Tugela with 26 500 men. 25 January: Battle of Spioenkop – Warren’s attack repulsed by Boer force, 1 200 British losses: worst defeat since Crimean War. 5 February: Battle of Vaalkrans – Buller agains fails to break through Boer lines. 7 February: Vaalkrans evacuated by Boers. 11 February: Roberts’ force commences march to the north to relieve Kimberley. 15 February: Kimberley relieved by Gen French’s cavalry.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\n18 February: Battle of Paardeberg begins – Kitchener orders attack on Boer lines. 19 February: British commence siege of Boers at Paardeberg. 27 February: Gen Cronje surrenders at Paardeberg with 4 000 men. 28 February: Ladysmith relieved by Buller. 7 March: Battle of Poplar Grove – Kruger narrowly escapes capture. 10 March: Battle of Driefontein. 13 March: Bloemfontein captured by Roberts’ force. 15 March: Roberts proclaims amnesty except for Boer leaders. 17 March: Boer war council at Kroonstad. 27 March: Death of Commandant General Joubert. 31 March: Battle of Sannaspos – Gen de Wet ambushes Gen Broadwood, captures 400 British troops and 80 supply wagons. 1 April: Almost 1 000 British troops already died of typhus in Bloemfontein. 4 April: De Wet attacks British garrison at Reddersburg, captures 600 troops. 3 May: Roberts resumes march northwards from Bloemfontein. 11 May: Buller resumes march northwards into Transvaal. 12 May: Roberts’ force occupies Kroonstad. 14 May: Buller outmanoeuvres Boers from Biggarsberg. 17 May: Mafeking relieved by Colonels Mahon and Plumer. 19 May: Kruger leaves Pretoria. 27 May: Roberts’ force crosses the Vaal River at Vereeniging. 28 May: British proclaim annexation of Orange Free State. 31 May: Johannesburg captured by Roberts’ force.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\nBattle of Lindley – Spragge and Irish Yeomanry captured by Piet de Wet. 5 June: Pretoria captured by Roberts. 7 June: Battle of Roodewal. 11/12 June: Battle of Diamond Hill – Botha driven off by Buller. 12 June: Volksrust occupied by Buller’s force. 4 July: Roberts and Buller link up. 11 July: Battle of Silkaatsnek – Scots Greys surrender to Boers. 15 July: Steyn and De Wet escape from Brandwater Basin. 21 July: Roberts commence march eastwards to Komati Poort. 25 July: Lloyd George warns in Parliament that South African war is becoming war of extermination against Boer people. 31 July: Commandant Prinsloo surrenders with 4 000 men to General Hunter in Brandwater Basin. 14 August: De Wet again escapes capture. 27 August: Battle of Dalmanutha – Buller defeats Botha. 30 August: Last British prisoners released at Nooitgedacht. 2 September: Roberts offers large payments to Botha and De la Rey if they surrendered. 6 September: Lydenburg captured by Buller’s force. 11 September: Kruger leaves the Transvaal for Europe. 25 September: British reach Mozambique border at Komati Poort. 8 October: Milner appointed administrator of newly annexed territories. 19 October: Kruger sails for France from Lourenco Marques on board the Gelderland. 24 October: Buller returns to England.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\n25 October: British proclaim annexation of the Transvaal. 6 November: Battle of Bothaville – De Wet defeated, Le Gallais killed. 16 November: De Wet attempts to invade the Cape Colony. 23 November: De Wet captures Dewetsdorp. 29 November: Kitchener succeeds Roberts as C-in-C South Africa. 13 December: Surprise attack by Generals De la Rey and Smuts on Clements at Nooitgedacht. 5 December: De Wet driven back into the Free State. 11 December: Roberts returns to England. 14 December: De Wet and Steyn again escapes capture. 16 December: Boer commandos under Kritzinger and Hertzog invade the Cape Colony. 20 December: British proclaim martial law in the Northern Cape. 21 December: Kitchener orders removal of Boer and black civilians from countryside to concentration camps – beginning of British war against South African civilians. 29 December: Helvetia post captured. 1901\n1 January: Colonial Defence Force called out in the Cape Colony. 4-31 January: Attacks by De la Rey, Beyers, De Wet and Smuts on British positions throughout Transvaal and Free State. 27 January: French launches drive in Eastern Transvaal. 31 January: Smuts captures Modderfontein. 7 February: British send additional 30 000 mounted troops to South Africa. 10 February: De Wet leads raid into Cape Colony.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\n13 February: Kitchener proposes peace meeting to Botha. 19 February: De Wet driven back into the Free State. 28 February: Middelburg peace talks between Botha and Kitchener begins. 16 March: Botha refuses Kitchener’s peace terms. 10 April: First British drive in Northern Free State begins under General Elliot. 18 July: British commence first drive in Cape Colony northwards. 7 August: Kitchener proclaims banishment for Boer leaders captured armed after 15 September. 12 August: Kritzinger’s force driven out of Cape Colony. 3 September: Smuts leads Boer invasion of Cape Colony at Klaarwater. 5 September: Lotter’s commando captured by Scobell. 7 September: Battle of Elands River Poort – Smuts defeats 17th Lancers; Botha attempts invasion of Natal. 17 September: Battle of Blood River Poort – Botha defeats Gough’s force. 26 September: Botha’s force attacks Forts Itala and Prospect. 6 October: Botha escapes northwards. 9 October: Martial law extended in the Cape Colony. 11 October: British execute Commandant Lotter, capture Commandant Scheepers. 30 October: Battle of Bakenlaagte – Benson killed. 7 November: Hamilton appointed Kitchener’s Chief of Staff. 29 November: De Wet attacks convoy near Speyfontein. 7 December: Pro-British National Scouts inaugurated. 16 December: Kritzinger captured. 17 December: Johannesburg Stock Exchange reopened.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\n23 December: Blockhouse line between Kroonstad and Lindley completed. 25 December: Battle of Tweefontein – De Wet captures Yeomanry. 1902\n4 January: Defeat of British near Ermelo. 10 January: German Chancellor makes anti-British speech in Reichstag. 17 January: Scheepers executed by British at Graaff-Reinet. 29 January: British government refuses Dutch government’s offer to mediate. 5 February: Boers capture British convoy near Beaufort West. 6 February: British launch new drive in Eastern Free State. 7 February: De Wet breaks through blockhouse line. 13 February: Renewed British drive in Eastern Free State. 7 March: Battle of Tweebosch – De la Rey captures wounded Methuen. 20 March: Botha agrees to British request for peace talks. 24 March: British commence first drive in Western Transvaal. 26 Rhodes: Death of Cecil Rhodes in Cape Town. 4 April: Smuts begins siege of Okiep. 9 April: Boer peace delegates meet at Klerksdorp. 11 April: Battle of Rooiwal – nearly 50 Boers killed in failed attack under General Kemp. 12-18 April: First meeting of Boer peace delegates with Kitchener at Pretoria. 1-10 May: Last British drives in North-eastern Free state. 3 May: Siege of Okiep ends. 6 May: Zulus attack sleeping Boers at Holkrans, kill 59.","This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\n\n11 May: Hamilton’s last drive in Western Transvaal ends. 15 May: First meeting of 60 Boer delegates at Vereeniging. 18 May: Boer delegates meet Kitchener and Milner at Pretoria. 31 May: Terms of surrender signed at Pretoria; war formally over. Posted by Juan Nel at"],"string":"[\n \"Boer War begins in South Africa - Oct 11, 1899 - History.com\\n\\nBoer War begins in South Africa - Oct 11, 1899 - HISTORY.com\\nBoer War begins in South Africa\\nShare this:\\nBoer War begins in South Africa\\nAuthor\\nBoer War begins in South Africa\\nURL\\nPublisher\\nA+E Networks\\nThe South African Boer War begins between the British Empire and the Boers of the Transvaal and Orange Free State. The Boers, also known as Afrikaners, were the descendants of the original Dutch settlers of southern Africa. Britain took possession of the Dutch Cape colony in 1806 during the Napoleonic wars, sparking resistance from the independence-minded Boers, who resented the Anglicization of South Africa and Britain’s anti-slavery policies. In 1833, the Boers began an exodus into African tribal territory, where they founded the republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The two new republics lived peaceably with their British neighbors until 1867, when the discovery of diamonds and gold in the region made conflict between the Boer states and Britain inevitable. Minor fighting with Britain began in the 1890s, and in October 1899 full-scale war ensued.\",\n \"Boer War begins in South Africa - Oct 11, 1899 - History.com\\n\\nBy mid June 1900, British forces had captured most major Boer cities and formally annexed their territories, but the Boers launched a guerrilla war that frustrated the British occupiers. Beginning in 1901, the British began a strategy of systematically searching out and destroying these guerrilla units, while herding the families of the Boer soldiers into concentration camps. By 1902, the British had crushed the Boer resistance, and on May 31 of that year the Peace of Vereeniging was signed, ending hostilities. The treaty recognized the British military administration over Transvaal and the Orange Free State and authorized a general amnesty for Boer forces. In 1910, the autonomous Union of South Africa was established by the British. It included Transvaal, the Orange Free State, the Cape of Good Hope, and Natal as provinces. Related Videos\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nThe Boer War Remembered\\nThe Boer War Remembered\\nBy Mark Weber\\nThe Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 was more than the first major military clash of the 20th century. Pitting as it did the might of the globe-girdling British Empire, backed by international finance, against a small pioneering nation of independent-minded farmers, ranchers and merchants in southern Africa who lived by the Bible and the rifle, its legacy continues to resonate today. The Boers' recourse to irregular warfare, and Britain's response in herding a hundred thousand women and children into concentration camps foreshadowed the horrors of guerilla warfare and mass detention of innocents that have become emblematic of the 20th century. The Dutch, Huguenot and German ancestors of the Boers first settled the Cape area of South Africa in 1652. After several attempts, Britain took control of it in 1814. Refusing to submit to foreign colonial rule, 10,000 Boers left the Cape area in the Great Trek of 1835-1842. The trekkers moved northwards, first to Natal and then to the interior highlands where they set up two independent republics, the Orange Free State and the South African (Transvaal) Republic.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nThe Boers (Dutch: \\\"farmers\\\") worked hard to build a new life for themselves. But they also had to fight to keep their fledgling republics free of British encroachment and safe from native African attacks. Their great leader was Paul Kruger, an imposing, passionate and deeply religious man. The bearded, patriarchal figure was beloved by his people, who affectionately referred to him as \\\"Oom Paul\\\" (Uncle Paul). Born into a relatively well-to-do Cape colony farming family in 1825, he took part as a boy in the Great Trek. He married at the age of 17, became a widower at 21, remarried twice, and fathered 16 children. With just a few months of schooling, his reading was confined almost entirely to the Bible. He was an avid hunter, an expert horseman, and an able swimmer and diver. Over his lifetime, Kruger repeatedly proved his courage and resourcefulness in numerous pitched military engagements. When he was 14 he fought in his first battle, a commando raid against Matabele regiments, and also shot his first lion. While in his twenties he took part in two major battles against native black forces. Four times he was elected President of the Transvaal republic.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nHis courage, honesty and devotion helped greatly to sustain the morale of his people during the hard years of conflict. A contemporary observer described Kruger as a \\\"natural orator; rugged in speech, lacking in measured phrase and in logical balance; but passionate and convincing in the unaffected pleading of his earnestness.\\\" note 1\\nGold and Diamonds\\nThe discovery of gold at Witwatersrand in the Transvaal in 1886 ended Boer seclusion, and brought a mortal threat to the young nation's dream of freedom from alien rule. Like a magnet, the land's rich gold deposits drew waves of foreign adventurers and speculators, whom the Boers called \\\"uitlanders\\\" (\\\"outlanders\\\"). By 1896 the population of Johannesburg had grown to more than a hundred thousand. Of the 50,000c white residents, only 6,205 were citizens. note 2\\nAs often happens in history, important aspects of the Anglo-Boer conflict came to light only years after the fighting had ended. In a masterful 1979 study, The Boer War, British historian Thomas Pakenham revealed previously unknown details about the conspiracy of British colonial officials and Jewish financiers to plunge South Africa into war.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nThe men who flocked to South Africa in search of wealth included Cecil Rhodes, the renowned English capitalist and imperial visionary, and a collection of ambitious Jews who, together with him, were to play a decisive role in fomenting the Boer war. (Click on map to enlarge)\\nBarney Barnato, a dapper, vulgar fellow from London's East End (born Barnett Isaacs), was one of the first of many Jews who have played a major role in South African affairs. Through pluck and shrewd maneuvering, by 1887 he presided over an enormous South African financial-business empire of diamonds and gold. In 1888 he joined with his chief rival, Cecil Rhodes, who was backed by the Rothschild family of European financiers, in running the De Beers empire, which controlled all South African diamond production, and thereby 90 percent of the world's diamond output, as well as a large share of the world's gold production. note 3 (In the 20th century, the De Beers diamond cartel came under the control of a German-Jewish dynasty, the Oppenheimers, who also controlled its gold-mining twin, the Anglo-American Corporation.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nWith its virtual world monopoly on diamond production and distribution, and grip on a large part of the world's gold production, the billionaire family has ruled a financial empire of unmatched global importance. It also controlled influential newspapers in South Africa. So great was the Oppenheimers' power and influence in South Africa that it rivaled that of the formal government.) note 4\\nIn the 1890s the most powerful South African financial house was Wernher, Beit & Co., which was controlled and run by a Jewish speculator from Germany named Alfred Beit. Rhodes relied heavily on support from Beit, whose close ties to the Rothschilds and the Dresdner Bank made it possible for the ambitious Englishman to acquire and consolidate his great financial-business empire. note 5\\nAs historian Pakenham has noted, the \\\"secret allies\\\" of Alfred Milner, the British High Commissioner for South Africa, were \\\"the London 'gold-bugs' -- especially the financiers of the largest of all the Rand mining houses, Wernher-Beit.\\\" Pakenham continued: \\\"Alfred Beit was the giant -- a giant who bestrode the world's gold market like a gnome.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nHe was short, plump and bald, with large, pale, luminous eyes and a nervous way of tugging at his grey moustache.\\\" note 6\\nBeit and Lionel Phillips, a Jewish millionaire from England, together controlled H. Eckstein & Co., the largest South African mining syndicate. Of the six largest mining companies, four were controlled by Jews. note 7\\nBy 1894, Beit and Phillips were conspiring behind the backs of Briton and Boer alike to \\\"improve\\\" the Transvaal Volksraad (parliament) with tens of thousands of pounds in bribe money. In one case, Beit and Phillips spent 25,000 pounds to arrange settlement of an important issue before the assembly. note 8\\nThe Jameson Raid\\nOn December 29, 1895, a band of 500 British adventurers forcibly tried to seize control of the Boer republics in an \\\"unofficial\\\" armed takeover. Rhodes, who was then also prime minister of the British-ruled Cape Colony, organized the venture, which Alfred Beit financed to the tune of 200,000 pounds. Phillips also joined the conspiracy.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nAccording to their plan, raiders led by Sir Leander Starr Jameson, a close personal friend of Rhodes, would dash from neighboring British territory into Johannesburg to \\\"defend\\\" the British \\\"outlanders\\\" there who, by secret prior arrangement, would simultaneously seize control of the city in the name of the \\\"oppressed\\\" aliens, and proclaim themselves the new government of Transvaal. In a letter about the plan written four months before the raid, Rhodes confided to Beit: \\\"Johannesburg is ready ... [this is] the big idea which makes England dominant in Africa, in fact gives England the African continent.\\\" note 9\\nPaul Kruger, Boer leader and President of the Transvaal Republic. Rhodes, Beit and Jameson counted on the secret backing in London of the new Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain (father of future Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain). Upon taking office in the administration of Prime Minister Salisbury, Chamberlain proudly proclaimed his arch-imperialist sentiments: \\\"I believe in the British Empire, and I believe in the British race.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nI believe that the British race is the greatest of governing races that the world has ever seen.\\\" Clandestinely Chamberlain provided the conspirators with rifles, and made available to them a tract of land as a staging area for the attack. note 10\\nAfter 21 men lost their lives in the takeover attempt, Jameson and his fellow raiders were captured and put on trial. In Johannesburg, Transvaal authorities arrested Phillips for his part in organizing the raid. They found incriminating secret correspondence between him and co-conspirators Beit and Rhodes, which encouraged Phillips to confess his guilt. A Transvaal court leniently sentenced Jameson to 15 months imprisonment. Phillips was sentenced to death, but this was quickly commuted to a fine of 25,000 pounds. (Later, after returning to Britain, the financier was knighted for his services to the Empire, and during the First World War was given a high post in the Ministry of Munitions.)\\nAlthough it proved a fiasco, the Jameson raid convinced the Boers that the British were determined, even at the cost of human lives, to rob them of their hard-won freedom.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nThe blood of those who died in the abortive raid also figuratively baptized the alliance of Jewish finance and British imperialism. note 11\\nJan Christiann Smuts, the brilliant young Boer leader who would one day be Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa, later reflected: \\\"The Jameson Raid was the real declaration of war in the Great Anglo-Boer conflict ... And that is so in spite of the four years truce that followed ... [the] aggressors consolidated their alliance ... the defenders on the other hand silently and grimly prepared for the inevitable.\\\" note 12\\nPreparing for War\\nUndaunted by the Jameson Raid disaster, British High Commissioner Milner, with crucial \\\"gold bug\\\" backing, began secretly to foment a full-scale war to drag the Boer lands into the Empire. While publicly preparing to \\\"negotiate\\\" with President Kruger over the status of the \\\"uitlanders,\\\" Milner was secretly confiding his intention to \\\"screw\\\" the Boers. At their May-June 1899 meeting, he demanded of Kruger an \\\"immediate voice\\\" for the flood of foreigners who had poured into the Transvaal republic in recent years.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nAs the talks inevitably broke down, Kruger angrily declared: \\\"It is our country you want!\\\"\\nEven as the \\\"negotiations\\\" were underway, Wernher, Beit & Co. was secretly financing an \\\"outlander\\\" army of 1,500, which eventually grew to 10,000. As Thomas Pakenham has noted: \\\"The gold-bugs, contrary to the accepted view of later historians, were thus active partners with Milner in the making of the war.\\\" note 13\\nHoratio Herbert Kitchener, the illustrious warlord who commanded British forces in South Africa, 1900-1902, later privately acknowledged that a major factor in the conflict was that the Boers were \\\"afraid of getting into the hands of certain Jews who no doubt wield great influence in the country.\\\" note 14\\nFor Britain's leaders, bringing the Boer republics under imperial rule seemed entirely logical and virtually pre-ordained. On the prevailing mind-set in London, historian Pakenham has written: note 15\\nThe independence of a Boer republic, bursting with gold and bristling with imported rifles, threatened Britain's status as a \\\"paramount\\\" power. British paramountcy (alias supremacy) was not a concept in international law. But most of the British thought it made practical sense ... Boer independence seemed worse than absurd; it was dangerous for world peace ...\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nThe solution seemed to be to wrap the whole of South Africa in the Union Jack, the make the whole country a British dominion ... Barney Barnato\\nMost of Britain's leading newspapers pushed for war. This was especially true of the Jewish-owned or Jewish-controlled press, which included the influential conservative organ, The Daily Telegraph, owned by Lord Burnham (born Edward Levy), Oppenheim's Daily News, Marks' Evening News, and Steinkopf's St. James Gazette. note 16\\nReflecting the official consensus in London, on August 26, 1899, Chamberlain delivered an uncompromising speech directed against the Boers, and two days later sent a threatening dispatch to Kruger. The British Colonial Secretary was, in effect, asking the Boers to surrender their sovereignty. In preparation for war against the republics, the Salisbury government resolved on September 8 to send an additional 10,000 troops to South Africa. When the Boer leaders learned a short time later that London was preparing a force of 47,000 men to invade the their lands, the two republics jointly began in earnest to ready their own troops and weapons for battle. With war now imminent, and Boer patience now exhausted, Kruger and his government issued an ultimatum on October 9, 1899.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nTantamount to a declaration of war, it demanded the withdrawal of British forces and the arbitration of all points of disagreement. Two days later, after Britain had let the ultimatum expire, the war was on. A People's War\\nBoer men were citizen-soldiers. By law, all males in the two republics between the ages of 16 and 60 were eligible for war service. In the Transvaal, every male burgher was required to have a rifle and ammunition. At a military parade held in Pretoria, the Transvaal capital, on October 10, 1899, in honor of Kruger's 74th birthday, ranchers from the bushveld, clerks and solicitors from the cities, and other battle-ready citizens rode or marched past their leader. Joining them were foreign volunteer fighters who had rallied to the Boer cause, including a thousand Dutchmen and Germans, and a contingent of a hundred Irishmen (including a youthful John MacBride, who was executed 17 years later for his role in the Dublin Easter Uprising). note 17\\nEven as they prepared to face the might of the world's foremost imperial power, the Boers were confident and determined. Although outnumbered, their morale was good.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nThey were fighting for their land, their freedom and their way of life -- and on familiar home territory. As British historian Phillip Knightley has written: note 18\\nThe Boer, neither completely civilian nor completely a soldier, alternating between tending his farm and fighting the British, lightly armed with an accurate repeating rifle, mobile, able to live for long periods on strips of dried meat and a little water, drawing on the hidden support of his countrymen, unafraid to flee when the battle was not in his favor, choosing his ground and his time for attack, was more than a match for any regular army, no matter what his strength. Boers fighters were also chivalrous in combat. A few years after the end of the war, when passions had cooled somewhat, the London Times' history of the war conceded: note 19\\nIn the moment of their triumph the Boers behaved with the same unaffected kindheartedness ... which they displayed after most of their victories. Although exultant they were not insulting. They fetched water and blankets for the wounded and treated prisoners with every consideration.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nCecil Rhodes (left) and Alfred Beit: the \\\"gold-bugs.\\\"\\nAlthough the Boers scored some impressive initial battlefield victories, the numerically superior British forces soon gained the upper hand. But even the capture of their main towns and rail lines did not bring the Boers to capitulate. Boer \\\"commandos,\\\" outnumbered about four to one but supported by the people, launched a guerilla campaign against the invaders. Striking without warning, they kept the enemy from totally subjugating the land and its people. Mounted on horseback, the Boer \\\"commando\\\" fighter didn't look anything like a typical soldier. Usually with a long beard, he wore rough farming clothes and a wide-brimmed hat, and slung belts of bullets over both shoulders. 'Methods of Barbarism'\\nLord Kitchener, the new British commander, adopted tactics to \\\"clean up\\\" a war that many in Britain had considered already won. In waging ruthless war against an entire people, he ordered his troops to destroy livestock and crops, burn down farms, and herd women and children into \\\"camps of refuge.\\\" Reports about these grim internment centers, which were soon called concentration camps, shocked the western world.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nBritain's new style of waging war was summarized in a report made in January 1902 by Jan Smuts, the 31-year-old Boer general (and future South African prime minister):\\nLord Kitchener has begun to carry out a policy in both [Boer] republics of unbelievable barbarism and gruesomeness which violates the most elementary principles of the international rules of war. Almost all farmsteads and villages in both republics have been burned down and destroyed. All crops have been destroyed. All livestock which has fallen into the hands of the enemy has been killed or slaughtered. The basic principle behind Lord Kitchener's tactics has been to win, not so much through direct operations against fighting commandos, but rather indirectly by bringing the pressure of war against defenseless women and children. ... This violation of every international law is really very characteristic of the nation which always plays the role of chosen judge over the customs and behavior of all other nations. Shooting Prisoners\\nBoer guerilla leader General Jan Smuts with his commando unit while operating against the British in the Cape Colony. Smuts later became prime minister of unified South Africa.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nJohn Dillon, an Irish nationalist Member of Parliament, spoke out against the British policy of shooting Boer prisoners of war. On February 26, 1901, he made public a letter by a British officer in the field:\\nThe orders in this district from Lord Kitchener are to burn and destroy all provisions, forage, etc., and seize cattle, horses, and stock of all sorts wherever found, and to leave no food in the houses of the inhabitants. And the word has been passed round privately that no prisoners are to be taken. That is, all the men found fighting are to be shot. This order was given to me personally by a general, one of the highest in rank in South Africa. So there is no mistake about it. The instructions given to the columns closing round De Wet north of the Orange River are that all men are to be shot so that no tales may be told. Also, the troops are told to loot freely from every house, whether the men belonging to the house are fighting or not.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nDillon read from another letter by a soldier that had been published in the Liverpool Courier: \\\"Lord Kitchener has issued orders that no man has to bring in any Boer prisoners. If he does, he has to give him half his rations for the prisoner's keep.\\\" Dillon quoted a third letter by a soldier serving with the Royal Welsh Regiment and published in the Wolverhampton Express and Star: \\\"We take no prisoners now ... There happened to be a few wounded Boers left. We put them through the mill. Every one was killed.\\\"\\nOn January 20, 1902, John Dillon once again expressed his outrage in the House of Commons against Britain's \\\"wholesale violation of one of the best recognized usages of modern war, which forbids you to desolate or devastate the country of the enemy and destroy the food supply on such a scale as to reduce non-combatants to starvation.\\\" \\\"What would have been said by civilized mankind,\\\" Dillon asked, \\\"if Germany on her march on Paris [in 1870] had turned the whole country into a howling wilderness and concentrated the French women and children into camps where they died in thousands?\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nAll civilized Europe would have rushed in to the rescue.\\\" note 20\\nArming the Natives\\nBritish Commander-in-Chief Herbert Kitchener's \\\"scorched earth\\\" policies against the Boers included burning their farmsteads, destruction of their crops and livestock, and herding their women and children into concentration camps. Defying the prevailing racial sensibilities of the period, General Kitchener supplied rifles to native black Africans to fight the white Boers. Eventually the British armed at least 10,000 blacks, although the policy was kept secret for fear of offending white public opinion, especially back home. As it happens, the blacks proved to be poor soldiers, and in many cases they murdered defenseless Boer women and children across the countryside. The fate of the Boer women and children who escaped the hell of the internment camps was therefore often more terrible than that of those who did not. In his January 1902 report, General Smuts described how the British recruited black Africans:\\nIn the Cape Colony the uncivilized Blacks have been told that if the Boers win, slavery will be brought back in the Cape Colony.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nThey have been promised Boer property and farmsteads if they will join the English; that the Boers will have to work for the Blacks, and that they will be able to marry Boer women. Arming the blacks, Smuts said, \\\"represents the greatest crime which has ever been perpetrated against the White race in South Africa.\\\" Boer commando leader Jan Kemp similarly complained that the war was being fought \\\"contrary to civilized warfare on account of it being carried on in a great measure with Kaffirs.\\\" note 21 The arming of native blacks was a major reason cited by the Boer leaders for finally giving up the struggle: note 22\\n... The Kaffir tribes, within and without the frontiers of the territories of the two republics, are mostly armed and are taking part in the war against us, and through the committing of murders and all sorts of cruelties have caused and unbearable condition of affairs in many districts of both republics. Concentration Camps\\nBritain's internment centers in South Africa soon became known as concentration camps, a term adapted from the reconcentrado camps that Spanish authorities in Cuba had set up to hold insurgents.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nnote 23\\nA crusading 41-year-old English spinster, Emily Hobhouse, visited the South Africa camps and, armed with this first-hand knowledge, alerted the world to their horrors. She told of internees \\\"... deprived of clothes ... the semi-starvation in the camps ... the fever-stricken children lying... upon the bare earth ... the appalling mortality.\\\" She also reported seeing open trucks full of women and children, exposed to the icy rain of the plains, sometimes left on railroad siding for days at a time, without food or shelter. \\\"In some camps,\\\" Hobhouse told lecture audiences and newspaper readers back in England, \\\"two and sometimes three different families live in one tent. Ten and even twelve persons are forced into a single tent.\\\" Most had to sleep on the ground. \\\"These people will never ever forget what has happened,\\\" She also declared. \\\"The children have been the hardest hit. They wither in the terrible heat and as a result of insufficient and improper nourishment ... To maintain this kind of camp means nothing less than murdering children.\\\" note 24\\nIn a report to members of Parliament, Hobhouse described conditions in one camp she had visited: note 25\\n...\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nA six month old baby [is] gasping its life out on its mother's knee. Next [tent]: a child recovering from measles sent back from hospital before it could walk, stretched on the ground white and wan. Next a girl of 21 lay dying on a stretcher. The father ... kneeling beside her, while his wife was watching a child of six also dying and one of about five drooping. Already this couple had lost three children. Emily Hobhouse\\nHobhouse found that none of their hardships would shake the Boer women's determination, not even seeing their own hungry children die before their eyes. They \\\"never express,\\\" she wrote, \\\"a wish that their men must give way. It must be fought out now, they think, to the bitter end.\\\"\\nDeadly epidemics -- typhoid, dysentery and (for children) measles -- broke out in the camps and spread rapidly. During one three week period, an epidemic at the camp at Brandfort killed nearly a tenth of the entire inmate population. In the Mafeking camp, at one point there were 400 deaths a month, most of them caused by typhoid, which worked out to an annual death rate of 173 percent.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nAltogether the British held 116,572 Boers in their South African internment camps -- that is, about a fourth of the entire Boer population -- nearly all of them women and children. After the war, an official government report concluded that 27,927 Boers had died in the camps -- victims of disease, undernourishment and exposure. Of these, 26,251 were women and children, of whom 22,074 were children under the age of 16. Among the nearly 115,000 black Africans who were also interned in the British camps, nearly all of whom were tenant workers and servants of the better-off Boers, it is estimated that more than 12,000 died. note 26\\nAfter meeting with Hobhouse, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, leader of the Liberal Party opposition (and future Prime Minister), publicly declared: \\\"When is a war not a war? When it is waged by methods of barbarism in South Africa.\\\" This memorable phrase -- \\\"methods of barbarism\\\" -- quickly became widely quoted, provoking both warm praise and angry condemnation. note 27\\nMost Englishmen, who supported their government's war policy, did not wish to hear such talk.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nEchoing the widespread sentiment in favor of the war, the London Times editorialized that Campbell-Bannerman's remarks were irresponsible, if not subversive. The influential paper's reasoning reflected the prevailing \\\"my country, right or wrong\\\" attitude. \\\"When a nation is committed to a serious struggle in which its position in the world is at stake,\\\" the Times told its readers, \\\"it is the duty of every citizen, no matter what his opinion about the political quarrel, to abstain at the very least from hampering and impeding the policy of his country, if he cannot lend his active support.\\\" note 28\\nDavid Lloyd George, an MP who would later serve as his country's Prime Minister during the First World War, accused the British authorities of pursuing \\\"a policy of extermination\\\" against women and children. Granted, it was not a direct policy, he said, but it was one that was having that effect. \\\"... The war is an outrage perpetrated in the name of human freedom,\\\" Lloyd George protested.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nHe also expressed concern over the impact of these cruel policies on Britain's long-term interests: note 29\\nWhen children are being treated in this way and dying, we are simply ranging the deepest passions of the human heart against British rule in Africa.... It will always be remembered that this is the way British rule started there [in the Boer republics], and this is the method by which it was brought about.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nDuring a speech in Parliament on February 18, 1901, David Lloyd George quoted from a letter by a British officer: \\\"We move from valley to valley, lifting cattle and sheep, burning and looting, and turning out women and children to weep in despair beside the ruin of their once beautiful homesteads.\\\" Lloyd George commented: \\\"It is a war not against men, but against women and children.\\\" note 30\\n\\\"The conscience of Britain,\\\" historian Thomas Pakenham later observed, \\\"was stirred by the holocaust in the camps, just as the conscience of America was stirred by the holocaust in Vietnam.\\\" It was largely as a result of public outrage in Britain over conditions in the camps -- for which Emily Hobhouse deserves much of the credit -- that measures were eventually taken that sharply reduced the death rate. note 31\\nPropaganda\\nIn this war, as in so many others, propagandists churned out a stream of malicious lies to generate popular backing for the aggression and killing. British newspapers, churchmen and war correspondents invented hundreds of fake atrocity stories that portrayed the Boers as treacherous and arrogant brutes.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nThese included numerous shocking claims alleging that Boer soldiers massacred pro-British civilians, that Boer civilians murdered British soldiers, and that Boers executed fellow-Boers who wanted to surrender. \\\"There was virtually no limit to such invention,\\\" historian Phillip Knightley has noted. A widely shown newsreel film purported to show Boers attacking a Red Cross tent while British doctors and nurses treat the wounded. Actually this fake had been shot with actors on Hampstead Heath, a suburb of London. note 32\\nExposing the War-Makers\\nCourtroom scene from the 1980 Australian film \\\"Breaker Morant,\\\" which highlighted the British policy of shooting Boer prisoners during the war in South Africa. The film dramatized the case of several Australians serving with the Bush Veldt Carbineers, a special \\\"anti-commando\\\" unit, who were tried and executed in February 1902 for having shot twelve Boer prisoners. In the award-winning film, Edward Woodward played the role of Lt. \\\"Breaker\\\" Morant. In the United States, as in most of Europe, public interest in the conflict was keen. Although public sentiment in these countries was largely pro-Boer and anti-British, the government leaders -- fearful of the adverse consequences of defying Britain -- were publicly pro-British, or at least studiously neutral.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nWilliam Jennings Bryan, Andrew Carnegie and many other Americans were embarrassed by the striking parallel between US and British policy of the day: just as Britain was forcibly subduing the Boers in southern Africa, American troops were brutally suppressing native fighters for independence in the newly-acquired Philippines. Echoing a widespread American sentiment of the day, Mark Twain declared: \\\"I think that England sinned when she got herself into a war in South Africa which she could have avoided, just as we have sinned in getting into a similar war in the Philippines.\\\" In spite of such sentiment, the government of President McKinley and the jingoistic newspapers of William Randolph Hearst sided with Britain. note 33\\nBut even in Britain itself, there was considerable opposition to the war. In the House of Commons, Liberal MP Philip Stanhope (later Baron Weardale) introduced a resolution expressing disapproval of Britain's military campaign against the Boer republics. In tracing the war's origins, he said: note 34\\nAccordingly, the [pro-British] South African League was formed, and Mr. Rhodes and his associates -- generally of the German Jew extraction -- found money in thousands for its propaganda.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nBy this league in [British] South Africa and here [in Britain] they have poisoned the wells of public knowledge. Money has been lavished in the London world and in the press, and the result has been that little by little public opinion has been wrought up and inflamed, and now, instead of finding the English people dealing with this matter in a truly English spirit, we are dealing with it in a spirit which generations to come will condemn ... Opposition in Britain to the war came especially from the political left. The Social Democratic Federation (SDF), led by Henry M. Hyndman, was especially outspoken.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nJustice, the SDF weekly, had already warned its readers in 1896 that \\\"Beit, Barnato and their fellow-Jews\\\" were aiming for \\\"an Anglo-Hebraic Empire in Africa stretching from Egypt to Cape Colony, designed to swell their \\\"overgrown fortunes.\\\" Since 1890, the SDF had repeatedly cautioned against the pernicious influence of \\\"capitalist Jews on the London press.\\\" When war broke out in 1899, Justice declared that the \\\"Semitic lords of the press\\\" had successfully propagandized Britain into a \\\"criminal war of aggression.\\\" note 35\\nDavid Lloyd George, an influential Member of Parliament who would later serve as his country's Prime Minister during the First World War, accused Britain of waging a \\\"war of extermination\\\" against Boer women and children. Opposition to the war was similarly strong in the British labor movement. In September 1900, the Trades Union Congress passed a resolution condemning the Anglo-Boer war as one designed \\\"to secure the gold fields of South Africa for cosmopolitan Jews, most of whom had no patriotism and no country.\\\" note 36\\nNo member of the House of Commons spoke out more vigorously against the war than John Burns, Labour MP for Battersea.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nThe former SDF member had gained national prominence as a staunch defender of the British workingman during his leadership of the dockworkers' strike of 1889. \\\"Wherever we examine, there is the financial Jew,\\\" Burns declared in the House on February 6, 1900, \\\"operating, directing, inspiring the agencies that have led to this war.\\\"\\n\\\"The trail of the financial serpent is over this war from beginning to end.\\\" The British army, Burns said, had traditionally been the \\\"Sir Galahad of History.\\\" But in Africa it had become the \\\"janissary of the Jews.\\\" note 37\\nBurns was a legendary fighter for the rights of the British worker, a tireless champion of environmental reform, women's rights and improved municipal services. Even Cecil Rhodes had referred to him as \\\"the most eloquent leader of the British democracy.\\\" It was not merely the Jewish role in Capitalism that alarmed Burns. To his diary he once confided that \\\"the undoing of England is within the confines of our afternoon journey amongst the Jews\\\" of East London.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nnote 38\\nIrish nationalist Members of Parliament had special reason to sympathize with the Boers, whom they regarded -- like the people of Ireland -- as fellow victims of British duplicity and oppression. One Irish MP, Michael Davitt, even resigned his seat in the House of Commons in \\\"personal and political protest against a war which I believe to be the greatest infamy of the nineteenth century.\\\" note 39\\nAt the age of 23, Cecil Rhodes wrote of his great goal: \\\"Why should we not form a secret society with but one object, the furtherance of the British Empire and the bringing of the whole uncivilized world under British rule, for the recovery of the United States, for the making the Anglo-Saxon race but one Empire? What a dream, but yet it is probable, it is possible,\\\" (Source: A. Thomas, \\\"Rhodes,\\\" 1997, p. 6.)\\nOne of the most influential campaigners against the \\\"Jew-imperialist design\\\" in South Africa was John A. Hobson (1858-1940), a prominent journalist and economist. note 40 In 1899 the Manchester Guardian sent him to South Africa to report first-hand for its readers on the situation there.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nDuring his three month investigation, Hobson became convinced that a small group of Jewish \\\"Randlords\\\" was essentially responsible for the strife and conflict. note 41\\nIn a Guardian article dispatched from Johannesburg just a few weeks before the outbreak of the war, he told readers of the influential liberal daily: note 42\\nIn Johannesburg the Boer population is a mere handful of officials and their families, some five thousand of the population; the rest is about evenly divided between white settlers, mostly from Great Britain, and the [native black] Kaffirs, who are everywhere in White Man's Africa the hewers of wood and the drawers of water. The town is in some respects dominantly and even aggressively British, but British with a difference which it takes some little time to understand. That difference is due to the Jewish factor. If one takes the recent figures of the census, there appears to be less than seven thousand Jews in Johannesburg, but the experience of the street rapidly exposes this fallacy of figures.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nThe shop fronts and business houses, the market place, the saloons, the \\\"stoops\\\" of the smart suburban houses and sufficient to convince one of the large presence of the chosen people. If any doubt remains, a walk outside the Exchange, where in the streets, \\\"between the chains,\\\" the financial side of the gold business is transacted, will dispel it. So far as wealth and power and even numbers are concerned Johannesburg is essentially a Jewish town. Most of these Jews figure as British subjects, though many are in fact German and Russian Jews who have come to Africa after a brief sojourn in England. The rich, rigorous, and energetic financial and commercial families are chiefly English Jews, not a few of whom here, as elsewhere, have Anglicised their names after true parasitic fashion. I lay stress on this fact because, though everyone knows the Jews are strong, their real strength here is much underestimated. Though figures are so misleading, it is worth while to mention that the directory of Johannesburg shows 68 Cohens against 21 Joneses and 53 Browns. The Jews take little active part in the Outlander agitation; they let others do that sort of work.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nBut since half of the land and nine-tenths of the wealth of the Transvaal claimed for the Outlander are chiefly theirs, they will be chief gainers by an settlement advantageous to the Outlander. In an influential book published in 1900, The War in South Africa, Hobson warned and admonished his fellow countrymen: note\\n43\\nWe are fighting in order to place a small international oligarchy of mine-owners and speculators in power at Pretoria. Englishmen will surely do well to recognize that the economic and political destinies of South Africa are, and seem likely to remain, in the hands of men most of whom are foreigners by origin, whose trade is finance, and whose trade interests are not chiefly British. Anti-imperialist and working-class circles acclaimed Hobson's widely read work. Commenting on it, the weekly Labour Leader, semi-official organ of the Independent Labour Party, noted: \\\"Modern imperialism is really run by half a dozen financial houses, many of them Jewish, to whom politics is a counter in the game of buying and selling securities.\\\" note 44 In a January 1900 essay, Labour Leader editor (and MP) J.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nKeir Hardie told readers: note 45\\nThe war is a capitalist' war, begotten by capitalists' money, lied into being by a perjured mercenary capitalist press, and fathered by unscrupulous politicians, themselves the merest tools of the capitalists ... As Socialists, our sympathies are bound to be with the Boers. Their Republican form of Government bespeaks freedom, and is thus hateful to tyrants ... Defeat\\nAs the year 1900 drew to a close, British forces held the major Boer towns, including the capitals of the two republics, as well as the main Boer railway lines. Paul Kruger, the man who personified his people's resistance to alien rule, had been forced into exile. By the end of 1901, the Boers' military forces had been reduced to some 25,000 men in the field, deployed in scattered and largely un-coordinated commando units. The hard-pressed defenders had only a shadow of a central government. In the spring of 1902, with their land almost entirely under enemy occupation, and their remaining fighters threatened with annihilation and militarily outnumbered six to one, the Boers sued for peace.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nOn May 31, 1902, their leaders concluded 33 months of heroic struggle against greatly superior forces by signing a treaty that recognized King Edward VII as their sovereign. President Kruger learned of the surrender while living in European exile, far from his beloved homeland. After devoting his life to his cherished dream of a self-reliant white people's republic, he died in 1904 in Switzerland, a blind and broken man. Conclusion\\nSir Alfred Milner, British High Commissioner for South Africa. When the fighting began in October 1899, the British confidently expected their troops to victoriously conclude the conflict by Christmas. But this actually proved to be the longest, costliest, bloodiest and most humiliating war fought by Britain between 1815 and 1914. Even though the military forces mobilized in South Africa by the world's greatest imperial power outnumbered the Boer fighters by nearly five to one, they required almost three years to completely subdue the tough pioneer people of fewer than half a million. Britain deployed some 336,000 imperial and 83,000 colonial troops -- or 448,000 altogether. Of this force, 22,000 found a grave in South Africa, 14,000 of them succumbing to sickness.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nFor their part, the two Boer republics were able to mobilize 87,360 fighters, a force that included 2,120 foreign volunteers and 13,300 Boer-related Afrikaners from the British-ruled Cape and Natal provinces. In addition to the more than 7,000 Boer fighters who lost their lives, some 28,000 Boers perished in the British concentration camps -- nearly all of them women and children. note 46\\nThe war's non-human costs were similarly appalling. As part of Kitchener's \\\"scorched-earth\\\" campaign, British troops wrought terrible destruction throughout the rural Boer areas, especially in the Orange Free State. Outside of the largest towns, hardly a building was left intact. Perhaps a tenth of the prewar horses, cows and other farm stock remained. In much of the Boer lands, no crops had been sown for two years. note 47\\nEven by the standards of the time (and certainly by those of today), British political and military leaders committed frightful war crimes and crimes against humanity against the Boers of South Africa -- crimes for which no one was ever brought to account.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nGeneral Kitchener, for one, was never punished for introducing measures that even a future prime minister called \\\"methods of barbarism.\\\" To the contrary, after concluding his South African service he was named a viscount and a field marshal, and then, at the outbreak of the First World War, was appointed Secretary of War. Upon his death in 1916, he was remembered not as a criminal, but rather idolized as a personification of British virtue and rectitude. note\\n48\\nIn a sense, the Anglo-Boer conflict was less a war between combatants than a military campaign against civilians. The number of Boer women and children who perished in the concentration camps was four times as large as the number of Boer fighting men who died (of all causes) during the war. In fact, more children under the age of 16 perished in the British camps than men were killed in action on both sides. The boundless greed of the Jewish \\\"gold bugs\\\" coincided with the imperialistic aims of British Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, the dreams of gold and diamond baron Cecil Rhodes, and the political ambitions of Alfred Milner.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nOn the altar of their avarice and ambition, they sacrificed the lives of some 30,000 people who wanted only to live in freedom, as well as 22,000 young men of Britain and her dominions. At its core, Britain's leaders were willing to sacrifice the lives of many of her own sons, and to kill men, women and children in a far-away continent, to add to the wealth and power of an already immensely wealthy and powerful worldwide empire. Few wars during the past one hundred years were as avoidable, or as patently crass in motivation as was the South African War of 1899-1902.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nNotes\\n1. M. Davitt, The Boer Fight For Freedom, p. 425. See also: A. Thomas, Rhodes, pp. 143-144; F. Welsh, South Africa: A Narrative History, p. 303; \\\"Kruger, Stephanus Johannes Paulus,\\\" Encyclopaedia Britannica (Chicago), 1957 edition, vol. 13, pp. 506-507. 2. F. Welsh, South Africa: A Narrative History, p. 302. 3. A. Thomas, Rhodes, pp. 172-181; Reader's Digest Association, Illustrated History of South Africa, p. 174; See also S. Kanfer, The Last Empire, esp. pp. 96, 101-111. 4. See S. Kanfer, The Last Empire. 5. J. Flint, Cecil Rhodes, pp. 86-93. See also: P. Emden, Randlords (1935). 6. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 86-87. 7. G. Saron and L. Hotz, eds., The Jews in South Africa, pp. 193-194. 8. Report of the Select Committee of the Cape of Good Hope House of Assembly on the Jameson Raid (1897), pp. 165, 167. 9. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. xxv, 87, 121; A. Thomas, Rhodes, p. 284. 10. A. Thomas, Rhodes, pp. 284-304; S. Kanfer, The Last Empire, pp. 129-131; Chamberlain's speech of Nov. 11, 1895, is also quoted in: Robin W. Winks, ed., British Imperialism (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967), p. 80. 11. G. Saron & L. Hotz, eds., The Jews in South Africa (1955), pp.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\n193-194; Second Report from the Select Committee on British South Africa (1897), p. vii. 12. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 1. Also quoted in: A. Thomas, Rhodes, p. 337. 13. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 88. 14. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 518. 15. T. Pakenham, Scramble, p. 558. 16. Claire Hirshfield, \\\"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility\\\" (1978), p. 4. 17. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 90-92, 103, 104, 107. 18. P. Knightley, The First Casualty (1976), pp. 77-78. 19. Quoted in: Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty, p. 75. 20. W. Ziegler, ed., Ein Dokumentenwerk Über die Englische Humanität (1940), p. 199. 21. Reader's Digest Association, Illustrated History of South Africa, p. 246. 22. Reader's Digest Association, Illustrated History of South Africa, p. 246. 23. During the American Civil War, Union forces rounded up large numbers of civilians who were considered hostile to Federal authority and interned them in \\\"posts.\\\" President Truman's grandmother, with six of her children, was held in one such \\\"post,\\\" which Truman said was really a \\\"concentration camp.\\\" Source: Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman (New York: 1974), pp. 78-79. See also: M.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nWeber \\\"The Civil War Concentration Camps,\\\" The Journal of Historical Review, Summer 1981, p. 143. In September 1918, the fledgling Soviet government issued a decree that ordered: \\\"It is essential to protect the Soviet Republic from class enemies by isolating them in concentration camps.\\\" Sources: D. Volkogonov, Lenin: A New Biography (New York: 1994), p. 234; M. Heller & A. Nekrich, Utopia in Power (New York: 1986), p. 66. 24. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 533-539; T. Pakenham, Scramble, pp. 578; A rather detailed report by Hobhouse about the camps is in: S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, pp. 198-207. 25. P. Knightley, The First Casualty, pp. 75-76. Source cited: UK Public Record Office, W.O. 32/8061. 26. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 607; T. Pakenham, Scramble, pp. 578-579; Reader's Digest Association, Illustrated History of South Africa, p. 256. 27. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 534, 540-541; S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, pp. 216, 238. 28. S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, pp. 238-239 (note)\\n29. P. Knightley, The First Casualty, p. 72; T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 539-540. 30. In a speech on Nov. 27, 1899, Lloyd George said that the Uitlanders on whose behalf Britain had presumably gone to war were German Jews.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nRight or wrong, the Boers were better than the people Britain was defending in South Africa. And in a speech on July 25, 1900, Lloyd George said: \\\"... A war of annexation, however, against a proud people must be a war of extermination, and that is unfortunately what it seems we are committing ourselves to -- burning homesteads and turning women and children out of their homes.\\\" Source: Bentley Brinkerhoff Gilbert, David Lloyd George: A Political Life (Ohio State Univ. Press, 1987), pp. 183, 191. 31. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 547-548. 32. P. Knightley, The First Casualty, pp. 72, 73, 75. 33. Byron Farwell, \\\"Taking Sides in the Boer War,\\\" American Heritage, April 1976, pp. 22, 24, 25. 34. Speech of October 18, 1899. S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, p. 43. 35. C. Hirshfield, \\\"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility\\\" (1978), pp. 5, 15; Robert S. Wistrich, Antisemitism (1992), p. 105-106, p. 281 (n. 10, 11). Source cited: C. Hirshfield, \\\"The British Left and the 'Jewish Conspiracy',\\\" Jewish Social Studies, Spring 1981, pp. 105-107. 36. C. Hirshfield, \\\"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility,\\\" pp. 11, 20; Also quoted in: Robert S. Wistrich, Antisemitism (1992), p. 281 (n. 11). Source cited: C.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nHirshfield, \\\"The British Left and the 'Jewish Conspiracy',\\\" Jewish Social Studies, Spring 1981, pp. 106-107. 37. C. Hirshfield, \\\"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility,\\\" pp. 10, 20. Burns' speech of Feb. 6, 1990, is also quoted in part in S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, pp. 94-95. It is also quoted (although not entirely accurately) in: R. S. Wistrich, Antisemitism (1992), p. 281 (n. 11). Source cited: C. Hirshfield, \\\"The British Left and the 'Jewish Conspiracy',\\\" Jewish Social Studies, Spring 1981, p. 105. 38. C. Hirshfield, \\\"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility,\\\" pp. 10, 20. 39. An excerpt of Davitt's speech of October 17, 1899, is given in: S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, pp. 33-34. Davitt also wrote a book, The Boer Fight For Freedom, published in 1902. 40. Hobson is perhaps best known as the author of Imperialism: A Study, a classic treatise on the subject first published in 1902. 41. C. Hirshfield, \\\"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility,\\\" pp. 13, 23; J. A. Hobson, The War in South Africa: Its Causes and Effects (1900 and 1969), p. 189. 42. J. A. Hobson, \\\"Johannesburg Today,\\\" Manchester Guardian, Sept. 28, 1899. Reprinted in: S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, pp. 26-27. 43. J. A.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nHobson, The War in South Africa, p. 197. 44. C. Hirshfield, \\\"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility,\\\" pp. 13, 23. 45. S. Koss, The Pro-Boers, p. 54. 46. T. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 607-608; T. Pakenham, Scramble, p. 581. 47. F. Welsh, South Africa: A Narrative History (1999), p. 343. 48. In his honor, the city of Berlin in Ontario province, Canada, was renamed Kitchener in 1916, a move that reflected the anti-German hysteria of the day. Bibliography\\nBarbary, James. The Boer War. New York: 1969. Davitt, Michael. The Boer Fight For Freedom. New York: 1902 and 1972. Emden, Paul. Randlords, London: 1935. Farwell, Byron. The Great Anglo-Boer War. New York & London: 1976. Farwell, Byron. \\\"Taking Sides in the Boer War,\\\" American Heritage, April 1976, pp. 20-25, 92-97. Flint, John. Cecil Rhodes. Boston: 1974. Hirshfield, Claire. \\\"The Boer War and the Issue of Jewish Responsibility.\\\" Pennsylvania State University, Ogontz Campus, 1978. Unpublished manuscript, provided by the author. A revised version was scheduled for 1980 publication in The Journal of Contemporary History. A version of this paper was published in the Spring 1981 issue of Jewish Social Studies under the title \\\"The British Left and the 'Jewish Conspiracy': A Case Study of Modern Anti-Semitism.\\\"\\nHobson, John A.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nThe War in South Africa: Its Causes and Effects. New York: 1900 and 1969. Kanfer, Stefan. The Last Empire: De Beers, Diamonds and the World. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1993. Knightley, Phillip. The First Casualty. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. Koss, Stephen. The Pro-Boers: The Anatomy of an Antiwar Movement. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973. Reader's Digest Association [Dougie Oakes, ed.]. Illustrated History of South Africa: The Real Story. Pleasantville, New York: Reader's Digest, 1988. Ogden, J. J. The War Against the Dutch Republics in South Africa: Its Origin, Progress and Results. Manchester: 1901. Pakenham, Thomas. The Boer War. New York: Random House, 1979. Pakenham, Thomas. The Scramble for Africa. New York: Random House, 1991. Report of the Select Committee of the Cape of Good Hope House of Assembly on the Jameson Raid. London: 1897. Rhoodie, Denys O. Conspirators in Conflict. Capetown: 1967. Saron, Gustav and Louis Hotz, eds. The Jews in South Africa. Oxford: 1955. Second Report from the Select Committee on British South Africa. London: 1897. Spies, S. B. Methods of Barbarism?: Roberts and Kitchener and Civilians in the Boer Republics. Cape Town: 1977. Thomas, Anthony. Rhodes: The Race for Africa. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997. Welsh, Frank. South Africa: A Narrative History. New York: Kondansha, 1999. Wistrich, Robert S.\",\n \"The Boer War Remembered - Institute for Historical Review\\n\\nAntisemitism: The Longest Hatred. New York: Pantheon, 1992. Ziegler, Wilhelm, ed., Ein Dokumentenwerk Über die Englische Humanität. Berlin, 1940. From The Journal of Historical Review, May-June 1999 (Vol. 18, No. 3), pages 14-27. This essay is a revision and expansion of an essay that was first published in the Fall 1980 issue of The Journal of Historical Review.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nDinge en Goete (Things and Stuff): This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War begins in South Africa\\nBackground\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe southern part of the African continent was dominated in the 19th century by a set of struggles to create within it a single unified state. While the Berlin Conference of 1884–5 sought to draw boundaries between the European powers' African possessions, it also set the stage for further scrambles. The British attempted to annexe first the South African Republic in 1880, and then, in 1899, both the South African Republic and the Orange Free State. In 1868, the British annexed Basutoland in the Drakensberg Mountains following an appeal from Moshesh, the leader of a mixed group of African refugees from the Zulu wars, who sought British protection against the Boers.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nIn the 1880s, Bechuanaland (modern Botswana, located north of the Orange River) became the object of a dispute between the Germans to the west, the Boers to the east, and the British Cape Colony to the south. Although Bechuanaland had no economic value, the \\\"Missionaries Road\\\" passed through it towards territory farther north. After the Germans annexed Damaraland and Namaqualand (modern Namibia) in 1884, the British annexed Bechuanaland in 1885.\\nIn the First Boer War of 1880–81 the Boers of the Transvaal Republic had proved skilful fighters in resisting the British attempt at annexation, in causing in a series of British defeats. The British government of William Ewart Gladstone had been unwilling to become bemired in a distant war, which required substantial troop reinforcement and expense, for what was at the time perceived to be a minimal return. An armistice followed, ending the war, and subsequently a peace treaty was signed with the Transvaal President Paul Kruger.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nHowever, when, in 1886, a major gold field was discovered at an outcrop on a large ridge some sixty kilometres south of the Boer capital at Pretoria, it reignited British imperial interests. The ridge, known locally as the \\\"Witwatersrand\\\" (literally \\\"white water ridge\\\"–a watershed) contained the world's largest deposit of gold-bearing ore. Although it was not as rich as gold finds in Canada and Australia, its consistency made it especially well-suited to industrial mining methods. With the 1886 discovery of gold in the Transvaal, the resulting gold rush brought thousands of British and other prospectors and settlers from across the globe and over the border from the Cape Colony (under British control since 1806).\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe city of Johannesburg sprang up as a shanty town nearly overnight as the uitlanders (\\\"foreigners,\\\" meaning non-Boer whites) poured in and settled around the mines. The influx was such that the uitlanders quickly outnumbered the Boers in Johannesburg and along the Rand, although they remained a minority in the Transvaal as a whole. The Boers, nervous and resentful of the uitlanders' growing presence, sought to contain their influence through requiring lengthy residential qualifying periods before voting rights could be obtained, by imposing taxes on the gold industry, and by introducing controls through licensing, tariffs and administrative requirements. Among the issues giving rise to tension between the Transvaal government on the one hand, and the Uitlanders and British interests on the other, were\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\n(a) Established uitlanders, including the mining magnates, wanted political, social, and economic control over their lives. These rights included a stable constitution, a fair franchise law, an independent judiciary, and a better educational system. The Boers, for their part, recognised that the more concessions they made to the uitlanders the greater the likelihood–with approximately 30,000 white male Boer voters and potentially 60,000 white male uitlanders–that their independent control of the Transvaal would be lost and the territory absorbed into the British Empire.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\n(b) The uitlanders resented the taxes levied by the Transvaal government, particularly when this money was not spent on Johannesburg or uitlander interests, but diverted to projects elsewhere in the Transvaal. For example, as the gold-bearing ore sloped away from the outcrop underground to the south, more and more blasting was necessary for extraction, and mines consumed vast quantities of explosives. A box of dynamite costing five pounds included five shillings tax. Not only was this tax perceived as exorbitant, but British interests were offended when President Paul Kruger gave monopoly rights for the manufacture of the explosive to a non-British branch of the Nobel company, which infuriated the British.[14] The so-called \\\"dynamite monopoly\\\" became a major pretext for war. (c) British imperial interests were alarmed when in 1894–95 Kruger proposed building a railway through Portuguese East Africa to Delagoa Bay, bypassing British controlled ports in Natal and Cape Town and avoiding British tariffs.[15] At the time the Prime Minister of the Cape Colony was Cecil Rhodes, a man driven by a vision of a British controlled Africa extending from Cape to Cairo.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nCertain self-appointed uitlanders representatives and British mine owners became increasingly angered and frustrated by their dealings with the Transvaal government. A Reform Committee (Transvaal) was formed to represent the uitlanders. Jameson Raid\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nIn 1895, a plan was hatched with the connivance of the Cape Prime Minister Cecil Rhodes, Johannesburg gold magnate Alfred Beit, and Sir Alfred Milner (British High Commissioner for South Africa and Lieutenant Governor of the Cape) to liberate Johannesburg from the control of the Transvaal government. A column of 600 armed men (mainly made up of his Rhodesian and Bechuanaland policemen) was led by Dr. Leander Starr Jameson (the Administrator in Rhodesia of the British South Africa Company (or \\\"Chartered Company\\\") of which Cecil Rhodes was the Chairman) over the border from Bechuanaland towards Johannesburg. The column was equipped with six Maxim machine guns, two 7-pounder mountain guns, and a 12½ pounder field piece. The plan was to make a three-day dash to Johannesburg before the Boer commandos could mobilise, and once there, trigger an uprising by the primarily British expatriate workers (uitlanders) organised by the Reform Committee. However, the Transvaal authorities had advance warning of the Jameson Raid and tracked it from the moment it crossed the border. Four days later, the weary and dispirited column was surrounded near Krugersdorp within sight of Johannesburg.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAfter a brief skirmish in which the column lost 65 killed and wounded—while the Boers lost but one man—Jameson's men surrendered and were arrested by the Boers.[10]\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe botched raid resulted in repercussions throughout southern Africa and in Europe. In Rhodesia, the departure of so many policemen enabled the Matabele and Mashona tribes to rise up against the Chartered Company, and the rebellion, known as the Second Matabele War, was suppressed only at great cost.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nA few days after the raid, the German Kaiser sent a telegram (\\\"Kruger telegram\\\") congratulating President Kruger and the government of the South African Republic on their success, and when the text of this telegram was disclosed in the British press, it generated a storm of anti-German feeling. In the baggage of the raiding column, to the great embarrassment of the British, the Boers found telegrams from Cecil Rhodes and the other plotters in Johannesburg. Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary, quickly moved to condemn the raid, despite previously having approved Rhodes' plans to send armed assistance in the case of a Johannesburg uprising. Subsequently, Rhodes was severely censured at the Cape inquiry and the London parliamentary inquiry, and forced to resign as Prime Minister of the Cape and as Chairman of the Chartered Company for having sponsored the failed coup d'état. The Boer government handed their raid prisoners over to the British for trial. Dr. Jameson was tried in England for leading the raid. However, the British press and London society inflamed by anti-Boer and anti-German feeling and in a frenzy of jingoism, lionised Dr. Jameson and treated him as a hero.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAlthough sentenced to 15 months imprisonment (which he served in Holloway), Jameson was later rewarded by being named Prime Minister of the Cape Colony (1904–08) and ultimately anointed as one of the founders of the Union of South Africa. For conspiring with Jameson, the uitlander members of the Reform Committee (Transvaal) were tried in the Transvaal courts and found guilty of high treason. The four leaders were sentenced to death by hanging, but this sentence was next day commuted to 15 years' imprisonment; and in June 1896, the other members of the Committee were released on payment of £2,000 each in fines, all of which were paid by Cecil Rhodes. One Reform Committee member, Frederick Gray, had committed suicide while in Pretoria gaol, on 16 May, and his death was a factor in softening the Transvaal government's attitude to the remaining prisoners. Jan C. Smuts wrote in 1906, \\\"The Jameson Raid was the real declaration of war. . . . And that is so in spite of the four years of truce that followed . . .[the] aggressors consolidated their alliance . . .\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nthe defenders on the other hand silently and grimly prepared for the inevitable.\\\"[16]\\nEscalation and war\\nThe Jameson Raid alienated many Cape Afrikaners from the British, and united the Transvaal Boers behind President Kruger and his government. It also had the effect of drawing the Transvaal and the Orange Free State (led by President Martinus Theunis Steyn) together in opposition to perceived British imperialism. In 1897, a military pact was concluded between the two republics. President Paul Kruger proceeded to re-equip the Transvaal army, and imported 37,000 of the latest magazine Mauser rifles, and some 40 to 50 million rounds of ammunition.[17] The best modern European artillery was also purchased. By October 1899 the Transvaal State Artillery had 73 guns, of which 59 of them were new, including four 155-mm Creusot fortress guns, and 25 37mm Maxim Nordenfeldt guns.[18] The Transvaal army had been transformed; approximately 25,000 men equipped with modern rifles and artillery could mobilise within two weeks. However, President Kruger's victory in the Jameson Raid incident did nothing to resolve the fundamental problem; the impossible dilemma continued, namely how to make concessions to the uitlanders without surrendering the independence of the Transvaal.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe failure to gain improved rights for uitlanders became a pretext for war and a justification for a major military buildup in the Cape Colony. The case for war was developed and espoused as far away as the Australian colonies.[19] Several key British colonial leaders favoured annexation of the independent Boer republics. These figures included Cape Colony Governor Sir Alfred Milner, Cape Prime Minister Cecil Rhodes, British Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, and mining syndicate owners or Randlords (nicknamed the gold bugs), such as Alfred Beit, Barney Barnato, and Lionel Phillips. Confident that the Boers would be quickly defeated, they planned and organised a short war, citing the uitlanders' grievances as the motivation for the conflict.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nTheir influence with the British government was, however, limited. Lord Salisbury, the Prime Minister, despised jingoism and jingoists. He also distrusted the abilities of the British army. Yet he led Britain into war for three main reasons: because he believed the British government had an obligation to British South Africans; because he thought that the Transvaal, the Orange Free State, and the Cape Boers aspired to a Dutch South Africa, and that the achievement of such a state would damage Britain's imperial prestige around the world; and because of the Boers' treatment of black South Africans.[20] (Salisbury had referred to the London Convention of 1884, after the British defeat, as an agreement 'really in the interest of slavery'.)[21] Salisbury was not alone in this concern over the treatment of black South Africans; Roger Casement, already well on the way to becoming an Irish Nationalist, was nevertheless happy to gather intelligence for the British against the Boers because of their treatment of black Africans.[22]\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nGiven this sense of caution among key members of the British cabinet and of the army, it is even harder to understand why the British government went against the advice of its generals (such as Wolsely) to send substantial reinforcements to South Africa before war broke out. One strong argument is that Lansdowne, Secretary of State for War, did not believe the Boers were preparing for war, and also believed that if Britain were to send large numbers of troops, it would strike too aggressive a posture and so prevent a negotiated settlement being reached or even encourage a Boer attack.[23]\\nPresident Steyn of the Orange Free State invited Milner and Kruger to attend a conference in Bloemfontein. The conference started on 30 May 1899, but negotiations quickly broke down, despite Kruger's offer of concessions. In September 1899, Chamberlain sent an ultimatum demanding full equality for British citizens resident in Transvaal. Kruger, seeing that war was inevitable, simultaneously issued his own ultimatum prior to receiving Chamberlain's. This gave the British 48 hours to withdraw all their troops from the border of Transvaal; otherwise the Transvaal, allied with the Orange Free State, would declare war.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nNews of the ultimatum reached London on the day it expired. Outrage and laughter were the main responses. The editor of the Times laughed out loud when he read it, saying 'an official document is seldom amusing and useful yet this was both.' The Times denounced the ultimatum as an 'extravagant farce.' The Globe denounced this 'trumpery little state.' Most editorials were similar to the Daily Telegraph, which declared: 'of course there can only be one answer to this grotesque challenge. Kruger has asked for war and war he must have!'\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nSuch views were far from those of the British government, and from those in the army. To most sensible observers, army reform had been a matter of pressing concern from the 1870s, constantly put off because the British public did not want the expense of a larger, more professional army, and because a large home army was not politically welcome. Lord Salisbury, the Prime Minister, had had to explain to a surprised Queen Victoria that: 'We have no army capable of meeting even a second-class Continental Power.'[24]\\nFirst phase: The Boer offensive (October – December 1899)\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nWar was declared on 11 October 1899 with a Boer offensive into the British-held Natal and Cape Colony areas. The Boers had no problems with mobilisation, since the fiercely independent Boers had no regular army units, apart from the Staatsartillerie (Afrikaans for 'States Artillery') of both republics. As with the First Boer War, since the Boers were civilian militia, each man wore what he wished, usually his everyday dark-grey, light-grey, neutral-coloured, or earthtone khaki farming clothes—often a jacket, trousers and slouch hat. Only the members of the Staatsartillerie wore light green uniforms.\\nWhen danger loomed, all the burghers (citizens) in a district would form a military unit called a commando and would elect officers. A full-time official titled a Veldkornet maintained muster rolls, but had no disciplinary powers. Each man brought his own weapon, usually a hunting rifle, and his own horse. Those who could not afford a gun were given one by the authorities.[18] (See also the arms procurement mentioned above.) The Presidents of the Transvaal and Orange Free State simply signed decrees to concentrate within a week and the Commandos could muster between 30,000–40,000 men.[25]\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe average Boer nevertheless was not thirsty for war. Many did not look forward to fighting against fellow Christians and, by and large, fellow Christian Protestants. Many may have had an overly optimistic sense of what the war would involve, imagining that victory could be won as easily as in the First South African War.[26] Many, including many generals, also had a sense that their cause was holy and just, and blessed by God.[27]\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nIt rapidly became clear that the Boer forces presented the British forces with a severe tactical challenge. What the Boers presented was a mobile and innovative approach to warfare, drawing on their experiences from the First Boer War. The average Boers who made up their Commandos were farmers who had spent almost all their working life in the saddle, both as farmers and hunters. They had to depend on the pot on their horse and their rifle and were skilled stalkers and marksmen. As hunters they had learned to fire from cover, from a prone position and to make the first shot count, knowing that if they missed, the game would either be long gone or could charge and potentially kill them.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAt community gatherings, target shooting was a major sport, and they practised shooting at targets such as hens' eggs perched on posts 100 metres (100 yd) away. They made expert mounted infantry, using every scrap of cover, from which they could pour in a destructive fire using their modern, smokeless, Mauser rifles. Furthermore, in preparation for hostilities, the Boers had acquired around one hundred of the latest Krupp field guns, all horse-drawn and dispersed among the various Commando groups, and several Le Creusot \\\"Long Tom\\\" siege guns. The Boers' skill in adapting themselves to becoming first-rate artillerymen shows them to have been a versatile adversary.[28] The Transvaal also had an intelligence service that stretched across South Africa, and of whose extent and efficiency the British were unaware.[29]\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe Boers struck first on 12 October at Kraaipan, an attack that heralded the invasion of the Cape Colony and Colony of Natal between October 1899 and January 1900. With elements of both speed and surprise the Boer drove quickly towards the major British garrison at Ladysmith and the smaller ones at Mafeking and Kimberley. The quick Boer mobilisation resulted in early military successes against the scattered British forces.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nSir George Stuart White, commanding the British division at Ladysmith, had unwisely allowed Major-General Penn Symons to throw a brigade forward to the coal-mining town of Dundee (also reported as Glencoe), which was surrounded by hills. This became the site of the first engagement of the war, the Battle of Talana Hill.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nBoer guns began shelling the British camp from the summit of Talana Hill at dawn on 20 October. Penn Symons immediately counter-attacked. His infantry drove the Boers from the hill, but at the cost of 446 British casualties including Penn Symons himself.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAnother Boer force occupied Elandslaagte, which lay between Ladysmith and Dundee. The British under Major General John French and Colonel Ian Hamilton attacked to clear the line of communications to Dundee. The resulting Battle of Elandslaagte was a clear-cut British tactical victory, but Sir George White feared that more Boers were about to attack his main position and ordered a chaotic retreat from Elandslaagte, throwing away any advantage gained. The detachment from Dundee was compelled to make an exhausting cross-country retreat to rejoin White's main force.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAs Boers surrounded Ladysmith and opened fire on the town with siege guns, White ordered a major sortie against the Boer artillery positions. The result was a disaster, with 140 men killed and over 1,000 captured. The Siege of Ladysmith began, and was to last several months.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nMeanwhile to the north-west at Mafeking, on the border with Transvaal, Colonel Robert Baden-Powell had raised two regiments of local forces amounting to some 1,200 men in order to attack and create diversions if things further south went amiss. Mafeking, being a railway junction, provided good supply facilities and was the obvious place for Baden-Powell to fortify in readiness for such attacks. However, instead of being the aggressor Baden-Powell and Mafeking were forced to defend when 6,000 Boer, commanded by Piet Cronje, attempted a determined assault on the town. But this quickly subsided into a desultory affair with the Boers prepared to starve the stronghold into submission, and so, on 13 October, began the 217-day Siege of Mafeking.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nLastly, over 360 kilometres (220 mi) to the south of Mafeking lay the diamond mining city of Kimberley, which was also subjected to a siege. Although not militarily significant, it nonetheless represented an enclave of British imperialism on the borders of the Orange Free State and was hence an important Boer objective. From early November about 7,500 Boer began their siege, again content to starve the town into submission. Despite Boer shelling, the 40,000 inhabitants, of which only 5,000 were armed, were under little threat as the town was well-stocked with provisions. The garrison was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Kekewich, although Cecil Rhodes was also a prominent figure in the defense.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nSiege life took its toll on both the defending soldiers and the civilians in the cities of Mafeking, Ladysmith, and Kimberley as food began to grow scarce after a few weeks. In Mafeking, Sol Plaatje wrote, \\\"I saw horseflesh for the first time being treated as a human foodstuff.\\\" The cities under siege also dealt with constant artillery bombardment, making the streets a dangerous place. Near the end of the siege of Kimberley, it was expected that the Boers would intensify their bombardment, so Rhodes displayed a notice encouraging people to go down into shafts of the Kimberley Mine for protection. The townspeople panicked, and people surged into the mine-shafts constantly for a 12-hour period. Although the bombardment never came, this did nothing to diminish the distress of the civilians. The most well-heeled of the townspeople, such as Cecil Rhodes, sheltered in the Sanatorium, site of the present-day McGregor Museum; the poorer residents, notably the black population, did not have any shelter from the shelling.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nIn retrospect, the Boer decision to commit themselves to sieges (Sitzkrieg) was a mistake, and one of the best illustrations of the Boers' lack of strategic vision. Historically, it had little in its favour. Of the seven sieges in the First Boer War, the Boers had won none. More importantly, it handed the initiative back to the British and allowed them time to recover, which they then did. Generally speaking, throughout the campaign, the Boers were too defensive and passive, wasting the opportunities they had for victory. Yet that passiveness also testified to the fact that they had no desire to conquer British territory, but only to preserve their ability to rule in their own territory.[30]\\nFirst British relief attempts\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nIt was at this point that General Sir Redvers Henry Buller, a much respected commander, arrived in South Africa with major British reinforcements (including an army corps of three divisions). Buller originally intended an offensive straight up the railway line leading from Cape Town through Bloemfontein to Pretoria. Finding on arrival that the British troops already in South Africa were under siege, he split his army corps into several widely spread detachments, to relieve the besieged garrisons. One division, led by Lieutenant General Lord Methuen, was to follow the Western Railway to the north and relieve Kimberley and Mafeking. A smaller force of about 3,000 led by Major General William Gatacre, was to push north toward the railway junction at Stormberg, to secure the Cape Midlands district from Boer raids and local rebellions by Boer inhabitants. Finally, Buller himself would lead the major part of the army corps to relieve Ladysmith to the east.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe initial results of this offensive were mixed, with Methuen winning several bloody skirmishes at Belmont on 23 November, at Graspan on 25 November, and at a larger conflict, Modder River on 28 November resulting in British losses of 71 dead and over 400 wounded. British commanders had trained on the lessons of the Crimean War, and were adept at battalion and regimental set pieces with columns manoeuvring in jungles, deserts and mountainous regions. What they entirely failed to comprehend, however, was both the impact of destructive fire from trench positions and the mobility of cavalry raids, both of which had been developed in the American Civil War. The British troops went to war with what would prove to be antiquated tactics, and in some cases antiquated weapons,[31] against the mobile Boer forces with the destructive fire of their modern Mausers, the latest Krupp field guns, and their innovative tactics.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe middle of December was disastrous for the British army. In a period known as Black Week (10 – 15 December 1899), the British suffered a series of losses on each of the three major fronts.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nOn 10 December, General Gatacre tried to recapture Stormberg railway junction about 50 miles (80 km) south of the Orange River. Gatacre's attack was marked by administrative and tactical blunders, and the Battle of Stormberg ended in a British defeat, with 135 killed and wounded, and two guns and over 600 troops captured.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAt the Battle of Magersfontein on 11 December, Methuen's 14,000 British troops attempted to capture a Boer position in a dawn attack to relieve Kimberley. This too turned into a disaster when the Highland Brigade became pinned down by accurate Boer fire. After suffering from intense heat and thirst for nine hours, they eventually broke in ill-disciplined retreat. The Boer commanders, Koos de la Rey and Piet Cronje, had ordered trenches to be dug in an unconventional place to fool the British and to give their riflemen a greater firing range. The plan worked and this tactic helped write the doctrine of the supremacy of the defensive position, using modern small arms and trench fortifications.[32] The British lost 120 killed and 690 wounded and were prevented from relieving Kimberley and Mafeking.\\nA British soldier encapsulated the soldiers' view of the defeat:\\n \\\"Such was the day for our regiment\\n Dread the revenge we will take.\\n Dearly we paid for the blunder -\\n A drawing-room General’s mistake.\\n Why weren’t we told of the trenches?\\n Why weren’t we told of the wire?\\n Why were we marched up in column,\\n May Tommy Atkins enquire….\\\" [33]\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nHowever, the nadir of Black Week was the Battle of Colenso on 15 December where 21,000 British troops commanded by Buller himself, attempted to cross the Tugela River to relieve Ladysmith where 8,000 Transvaal Boers, under the command of Louis Botha, were awaiting them. Through a combination of artillery and accurate rifle fire, and a better use of the ground, the Boers repelled all British attempts to cross the river. After his first attacks failed, Buller broke off the battle and ordered a retreat, abandoning many wounded men, several isolated units and ten field guns to be captured by Botha's men. Buller's forces lost 145 men killed and 1,200 missing or wounded. The Boers suffered 40 casualties, including only 8 killed.[34]\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nSecond phase: The British offensive of January to September 1900\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe British government took these defeats badly and with the sieges still continuing was compelled to send two more divisions plus large numbers of colonial volunteers. By January 1900 this would become the largest force Britain had ever sent overseas, amounting to some 180,000 men with further reinforcements being sought.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nWhile watching for these reinforcements, Buller made another bid to relieve Ladysmith by crossing the Tugela west of Colenso. Buller's subordinate, Major General Charles Warren, successfully crossed the river, but was then faced with a fresh defensive position centred on a prominent hill known as Spion Kop. In the resulting Battle of Spion Kop, British troops captured the summit by surprise during the early hours of 24 January 1900, but as the early morning fog lifted they realised too late that they were overlooked by Boer gun emplacements on the surrounding hills. The rest of the day resulted in a disaster caused by poor communication between Buller and his commanders. Between them they issued contradictory orders, on the one hand ordering men off the hill, while other officers ordered fresh reinforcements to defend it. The result was 350 men killed and nearly 1,000 wounded and a retreat back across the Tugela River into British territory. There were nearly 300 Boer casualties.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nBuller attacked Louis Botha again on 5 February at Vaal Krantz and was again defeated. Buller withdrew early when it appeared that the British would be isolated in an exposed bridgehead across the Tugela, and was nicknamed \\\"Sir Reverse\\\" by some of his officers.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nBy taking command in person in Natal, Buller had allowed the overall direction of the war to drift. Because of concerns about his performance and negative reports from the field, he was replaced as Commander in Chief by Field Marshal Lord Roberts. Like Buller, Roberts first intended to attack directly along the Cape Town – Pretoria railway but, again like Buller, was forced to relieve the beleaguered garrisons. Leaving Buller in command in Natal, Roberts massed his main force near the Orange River and along the Western Railway behind Methuen's force at the Modder River, and prepared to make a wide outflanking move to relieve Kimberley.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nExcept in Natal, the war had stagnated. Other than a single attempt to storm Ladysmith, the Boers made no attempt to capture the besieged towns. In the Cape Midlands, the Boers did not exploit the British defeat at Stormberg, and were prevented from capturing the railway junction at Colesberg. In the dry summer, the grazing on the veld became parched, weakening the Boers' horses and draught oxen, and many Boer families joined their menfolk in the siege lines and laagers (encampments), fatally encumbering Cronje's army.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nRoberts launched his main attack on 10 February 1900 and although hampered by a long supply route, managed to outflank the Boers defending Magersfontein. On 14 February, a cavalry division under Major General John French launched a major attack to relieve Kimberley. Although encountering severe fire, a massed cavalry charge split the Boer defences on 15 February, opening the way for French to enter Kimberley that evening, ending its 124 days’ siege.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nMeanwhile, Roberts pursued Piet Cronje’s 7,000-strong force, which had abandoned Magersfontein to head for Bloemfontein. General French’s cavalry was ordered to assist in the pursuit by embarking on an epic 30-mile drive towards Paardeberg where Cronje was attempting to cross the Modder River. At the Battle of Paardeberg from 18 to 27 February, Roberts then surrounded General Piet Cronje's retreating Boer army. On 17 February, a pincer movement involving both French’s cavalry and the main British force attempted to take the entrenched position, but the frontal attacks were uncoordinated and so were easily repulsed by the Boers. Finally, Roberts resorted to bombarding Cronje into submission, but it took a further ten precious days and with the British troops using the polluted Modder River as water supply, resulting in a typhoid epidemic killing many troops. General Cronje was forced to surrender at Surrender Hill with 4000 men. In Natal, the Battle of the Tugela Heights, which started on 14 February was Buller's fourth attempt to relieve Ladysmith. Despite reinforcements his progress was painfully slow against stiff opposition.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nHowever, on 26 February, after much deliberation, Buller used all his forces in one all-out attack for the first time and at last succeeded in forcing a crossing of the Tugela, and defeated Botha's outnumbered forces north of Colenso. After a siege lasting 118 days, the Relief of Ladysmith was effected, the day after Cronje surrendered, but at a total cost of 7,000 British casualties.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAfter a succession of defeats, the Boers realised that against such overwhelming superiority of troops, they had little chance of defeating the British and so became demoralised. Roberts then advanced into the Orange Free State from the west, putting the Boers to flight at the Battle of Poplar Grove and capturing Bloemfontein, the capital, unopposed on 13 March with the Boer defenders escaping and scattering. Meanwhile, he detached a small force to relieve Baden-Powell, and the Relief of Mafeking on 18 May 1900 provoked riotous celebrations in Britain.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nOn 28 May, the Orange Free State was annexed and renamed the Orange River Colony.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAfter being forced to delay for several weeks at Bloemfontein due to a shortage of supplies and enteric fever (caused by poor hygiene, drinking bad water at Paardeburg and appalling medical care),[35] Roberts resumed his advance. He was forced to halt again at Kroonstad for 10 days, due once again to the collapse of his medical and supply systems, but finally captured Johannesburg on 31 May and the capital of the Transvaal, Pretoria, on 5 June. The first into Pretoria, was Lt. William Watson of the New South Wales Mounted Rifles, who persuaded the Boers to surrender the capital.[36] (Before the war, the Boers had constructed several forts south of Pretoria, but the artillery had been removed from the forts for use in the field, and in the event the Boers abandoned Pretoria without a fight).\\nThis allowed the Roberts to declare the war over, having won the principal cities and so, on 3 September 1900, the South African Republic was formally annexed.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nBritish observers believed the war to be all but over after the capture of the two capital cities. However, the Boers had earlier met at the temporary new capital of the Orange Free State, Kroonstad, and planned a guerrilla campaign to hit the British supply and communication lines. The first engagement of this new form of warfare was at Sanna's Post on 31 March where 1,500 Boers under the command of Christiaan De Wet attacked Bloemfontein's waterworks about 23 miles (37 km) east of the city, and ambushed a heavily escorted convoy, which caused 155 British casualties and the capture of seven guns, 117 wagons, and 428 British troops.[37]\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAfter the fall of Pretoria, one of the last formal battles was at Diamond Hill on 11 – 12 June, where Roberts attempted to drive the remnants of the Boer field army beyond striking distance of Pretoria. Although Roberts drove the Boers from the hill, the Boer commander, Louis Botha, did not regard it as a defeat, for he inflicted more casualties on the British (totalling 162 men) while suffering around 50 casualties.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe set-piece period of the war now largely gave way to a mobile guerrilla war, but one final operation remained. President Kruger and what remained of the Transvaal government had retreated to eastern Transvaal. Roberts, joined by troops from Natal under Buller, advanced against them, and broke their last defensive position at Bergendal on 26 August. As Roberts and Buller followed up along the railway line to Komatipoort, Kruger sought asylum in Portuguese East Africa (modern Mozambique). Some dispirited Boers did likewise, and the British gathered up much war material. However, the core of the Boer fighters under Botha easily broke back through the Drakensberg mountains into the Transvaal highveld after riding north through the bushveld. Under the new conditions of the war, heavy equipment was no use to them, and therefore no great loss.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAs Roberts's army occupied Pretoria, the Boer fighters in the Orange Free State had been driven into a fertile area known as the Brandwater Basin in the north east of the Republic. This offered only temporary sanctuary, as the mountain passes leading to it could be occupied by the British, trapping the Boers. A force under General Archibald Hunter set out from Bloemfontein to achieve this in July 1900. The hard core of the Free State Boers under Christiaan De Wet, accompanied by President Steyn, left the basin early. Those remaining fell into confusion and most failed to break out before Hunter trapped them. 4,500 Boers surrendered and much equipment was captured but as with Roberts's drive against Kruger at the same time, these losses were of relatively little consequence, as the hardcore of the Boer armies and their most determined and active leaders remained at large.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nFrom the Basin, Christiaan De Wet headed west. Although hounded by British columns, he succeeded in crossing the Vaal into western Transvaal, to allow Steyn to travel to meet the Transvaal leaders.\\nThere was much sympathy for the Boers on mainland Europe and in October, President Kruger and members of the Transvaal government left Portuguese East Africa on the Dutch warship De Gelderland, sent by the Queen of the Netherlands Wilhelmina, who had simply ignored the British naval blockade of South Africa.\\nPaul Kruger's wife, however, was too ill to travel and remained in South Africa where she died on 20 July 1901 without seeing her husband again. President Kruger first went to Marseille and then on to The Netherlands where he stayed for a while before moving finally to Clarens, Switzerland, where he died in exile on 14 July 1904.\\nPOWs sent overseas\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe first sizeable batch of Boer prisoners of war taken by the British consisted of those captured at the Battle of Elandslaagte on 21 October 1899. At first, many were put on ships, but as numbers grew, the British decided they did not want them kept locally. The capture of 400 POWs in February 1900 was a key event, which made the British realise they could not accommodate all POWs in South Africa.[38] The British feared they could be freed by sympathetic locals. Moreover, they already had trouble supplying their own troops in South Africa, and did not want the added burden of sending supplies for the POWs. Britain therefore chose to send many POWs overseas.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe first overseas (off African mainland) camps were opened in Saint Helena, which ultimately received about 5,000 POWs. About 5,000 POWs were sent to Ceylon.[39] Other POWs were sent to Bermuda and India. No evidence exists of Boer POWs being sent to the Dominions of the British Empire such as Australia, Canada or New Zealand.[38]\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nIn all, about 26,000 POWs were sent overseas.[40]\\nThird phase: Guerrilla war (September 1900 – May 1902)\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nBy September 1900, the British were nominally in control of both Republics, with the exception of the northern part of Transvaal. However, they soon discovered that they only controlled the territory their columns physically occupied. The Boer commanders adopted guerrilla warfare tactics, primarily conducting raids against infrastructure, resource and supply targets, all aimed at disrupting the operational capacity of the British army.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nEach Boer commando unit was sent to the district from which its members had been recruited, which meant that they could rely on local support and personal knowledge of the terrain and the towns within the district thereby enabling them to live off the land. Their orders were simply to act against the British whenever possible. Their tactics were to strike fast and hard causing as much damage to the enemy as possible, and then to withdraw and vanish before enemy reinforcements could arrive. The vast distances of the Republics allowed the Boer commandos considerable freedom to move about and made it impossible for the 250,000 British troops to control the territory effectively using columns alone. As soon as a British column left a town or district, British control of that area faded away.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe Boer commandos were especially effective during the initial guerrilla phase of the war because Roberts had assumed that the war would end with the capture of the Boer capitals and the dispersal of the main Boer armies. Many British troops were therefore redeployed out of the area, and had been replaced by lower-quality contingents of Imperial Yeomanry and locally raised irregular corps.\\nFrom late May 1900, the first successes of the Boer strategy were at Lindley (where 500 Yeomanry surrendered), and at Heilbron (where a large convoy and its escort were captured) and other skirmishes resulting in 1,500 British casualties in less than ten days. In December 1900, De la Rey and Christiaan Beyers mauled a British brigade at Nooitgedacht. As a result of these and other Boer successes, the British, led by Lord Kitchener, mounted three extensive searches for De Wet, but without success. However, by its very nature the guerrilla war was sporadic, poorly planned and with little overall objective in mind except to harass the British. This led to a disorganised pattern of scattered engagements throughout the region.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nBritish response\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe British were forced to quickly revise their tactics. They concentrated on restricting the freedom of movement of the Boer commandos and depriving them of local support. The railway lines had provided vital lines of communication and supply, and as the British had advanced across South Africa, they had used armoured trains and had established fortified blockhouses at key points.[41] They now built additional blockhouses (each housing 6–8 soldiers) and fortified these to protect supply routes against Boer raiders. Eventually some 8,000 such blockhouses were built across the two South African republics, radiating from the larger towns. Each blockhouse cost between £800 to £1,000 and took about three months to build. However, they proved very effective. Not one bridge where one of these blockhouses was sited and manned was blown.[41]\\nThe blockhouse system required an enormous number of troops to maintain. Well over 50,000 British troops, or 50 battalions, were involved in blockhouse duty, greater than the approximately 30,000 Boers in the field during the guerrilla phase.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nIn addition, up to 16,000 Africans were used both as armed guards and to patrol the line at night.[41] The Army linked the blockhouses with barbed wire fences to parcel up the wide veld into smaller areas. \\\"New Model\\\" drives were mounted under which a continuous line of troops could sweep an area of veld bounded by blockhouse lines, unlike the earlier inefficient scouring of the countryside by scattered columns. The British also implemented a \\\"scorched earth\\\" policy under which they targeted everything within the controlled areas that could give sustenance to the Boer guerrillas with a view to making it harder and harder for the Boers to survive.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAs British troops swept the countryside, they systematically destroyed crops, burned homesteads and farms, poisoned wells, and interned Boer and African women, children and workers in concentration camps. Finally, the British also established their own mounted raiding columns in support of the sweeper columns. These were used to rapidly follow and relentlessly harass the Boers with a view to delaying them and cutting off escape, while the sweeper units caught up. Many of the 90 or so mobile columns formed by the British to participate in such drives were a mixture of British and colonial troops, but they also had a large minority of armed Africans. The total number of armed Africans serving with these columns has been estimated at approximately 20,000.\\nThe British Army also made use of Boer auxiliaries who had been persuaded to change sides and enlist as \\\"National Scouts\\\". Serving under the command of General Andries Cronje, the National Scouts were despised as hensoppers (collaborators) but came to number a fifth of the fighting Afrikaners by the end of the War.[42]\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe British utilised armoured trains throughout the War to deliver rapid reaction forces much more quickly to incidents (such as Boer attacks on blockhouses and columns) or to drop them off ahead of retreating Boer columns.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nConcentration camps (1900–1902)\\nThe term \\\"concentration camp\\\" was used to describe camps operated by the British in South Africa during this conflict, and the term grew in prominence during this period.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe camps had originally been set up by the British army as \\\"refugee camps\\\" to provide refuge for civilian families who had been forced to abandon their homes for whatever reason related to the war. However, when Kitchener succeeded Roberts as commander-in-chief in South Africa on 29 November 1900, the British army introduced new tactics in an attempt to break the guerrilla campaign and the influx of civilians grew dramatically as a result. Kitchener initiated plans to flush out guerrillas in a series of systematic drives, organised like a sporting shoot, with success defined in a weekly 'bag' of killed, captured and wounded, and to sweep the country bare of everything that could give sustenance to the guerrillas, including women and children.... It was the clearance of civilians—uprooting a whole nation—that would come to dominate the last phase of the war.[45]\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAs Boer farms were destroyed by the British under their \\\"Scorched Earth\\\" policy—including the systematic destruction of crops and slaughtering of livestock, the burning down of homesteads and farms, and the poisoning of wells and salting of fields—to prevent the Boers from resupplying from a home base many tens of thousands of women and children were forcibly moved into the concentration camps. This was not the first appearance of internment camps. The Spanish had used internment in the Ten Years' War that led to the Spanish-American War, and the United States had used them to devastate guerrilla forces during the Philippine-American War. But the Boer War concentration camp system was the first time that a whole nation had been systematically targeted, and the first in which some whole regions had been depopulated.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nEventually, there were a total of 45 tented camps built for Boer internees and 64 for black Africans. Of the 28,000 Boer men captured as prisoners of war, 25,630 were sent overseas. The vast majority of Boers remaining in the local camps were women and children. Over 26,000 women and children were to perish in these concentration camps.[46]\\nThe camps were poorly administered from the outset and became increasingly overcrowded when Kitchener's troops implemented the internment strategy on a vast scale. Conditions were terrible for the health of the internees, mainly due to neglect, poor hygiene and bad sanitation. The supply of all items was unreliable, partly because of the constant disruption of communication lines by the Boers. The food rations were meager and there was a two-tier allocation policy, whereby families of men who were still fighting were routinely given smaller rations than others. The inadequate shelter, poor diet, inadequate hygiene and overcrowding led to malnutrition and endemic contagious diseases such as measles, typhoid and dysentery to which the children were particularly vulnerable.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAs the war raged across their farms and their homes were destroyed, many Africans became refugees and they, like the Boers, moved to the towns where the British army hastily created internment camps. Subsequently, the \\\"Scorched Earth\\\" policy was ruthlessly applied to both Boers and Africans. Although most black Africans were not considered by the British to be hostile, many tens of thousands were also forcibly removed from Boer areas and also placed in concentration camps. Africans were held separately from Boer internees. Eventually there were a total of 64 tented camps for Africans. Conditions were as bad as in the camps for the Boers, but even though, after the Fawcett Commission report, conditions improved in the Boer camps, \\\"improvements were much slower in coming to the black camps.\\\"\\nPublic opinion and political opposition\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAlthough the 1900 UK general election, also known as the \\\"Khaki election,\\\" had resulted in a victory for the Conservative government on the back of recent British victories against the Boers, public support quickly waned as it became apparent that the war would not be easy and further unease developed following reports about the treatment by the British army of the Boer civilians. Public and political opposition to government policies in South Africa regarding Boer civilians was first expressed in Parliament in February, 1901 in the form of an attack on the policy, the government, and the army by the radical Liberal MP David Lloyd George. Emily Hobhouse, a delegate of the South African Women and Children's Distress Fund, visited some of the camps in the Orange Free State from January, 1901, and in May, 1901 she returned to England on board the ship, the Saxon.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nAlfred Milner, High Commissioner in South Africa, also boarded the Saxon for holiday in England but, unfortunately for both the camp internees and the British government, he had no time for Miss Hobhouse, regarding her as a Boer sympathiser and \\\"trouble maker.\\\"[48] On her return, Emily Hobhouse did much to publicise the distress of the camp inmates. She managed to speak to the Liberal Party leader, Henry Campbell-Bannerman who professed to be suitably outraged but was disinclined to press the matter, as his party was split between the imperialists and the pro-Boer factions.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe more radical Liberals however such as David Lloyd George and John Ellis were prepared to raise the matter in Parliament and to harass the government on the issue, which they duly did. St John Brodrick, the Conservative secretary of state for war, first defended the government's policy by arguing that the camps were purely \\\"voluntary\\\" and that the interned Boers were \\\"contented and comfortable,\\\" but was somewhat undermined as he had no firm statistics to back up his argument, so when his \\\"voluntary\\\" argument proved untenable, he resorted to the \\\"military necessity\\\" argument and stated that everything possible was being done to ensure satisfactory conditions in the camps. Hobhouse published a report in June, 1901 that contradicted Brodrick's claim, and Lloyd George then openly accused the government of \\\"a policy of extermination\\\" directed against the Boer population. In June, 1901, Liberal opposition party leader Campbell-Bannerman took up the assault and answered the rhetorical question \\\"When is a war not a war?\\\" with his own rhetorical answer \\\"When it is carried on by methods of barbarism in South Africa,\\\" referring to those same camps and the policies that created them.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe Hobhouse report caused uproar both domestically and in the international community. It should be noted however that there was very little public sympathy for the highly reactionary Boer president Kruger. The end of the war\\nTowards the end of the war, British tactics of containment, denial, and harassment began to yield results against the guerrillas. The sourcing and coordination of intelligence became increasingly efficient with regular reporting from observers in the blockhouses , from units patrolling the fences and conducting \\\"sweeper\\\" operations, and from native Africans in rural areas who increasingly supplied intelligence, as the Scorched Earth policy took effect and they found themselves competing with the Boers for food supplies. Kitchener's forces at last began to seriously affect the Boers' fighting strength and freedom of manoeuvre, and made it harder for the Boers and their families to survive. The last of the Boers surrendered in May, 1902 and the war ended with the Treaty of Vereeniging signed on 31 May 1902. Although the British had won, this came at a cost; the Boers were given £3,000,000 for reconstruction and were promised eventual limited self-government, which was granted in 1906 and 1907.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nThe treaty ended the existence of the South African Republic and the Orange Free State as independent Boer republics and placed them within the British Empire . The Union of South Africa was established as a member of the Commonwealth in 1910. In all, the war had cost around 75,000 lives; 22,000 British and allied soldiers (7,792 killed in battle, the rest through disease), between 6,000 and 7,000 Boer fighters, and, mainly in the concentration camps, between 20,000 to 28,000 Boer civilians (mainly women and children) and perhaps 20,000 black Africans (both on the battlefield and in the concentration camps).\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nNotes\\n ^ Military History Journal, Vol 11 No 3/4 (October, 1999). Huw M Jones, \\\"Neutrality compromised: Swaziland and the Anglo-Boer War, 1899 – 1902\\\"\\n ^ Two Rhodesian units, the Rhodesia Regiment and the Southern Rhodesia Volunteers, served in the war, contributing around 1,000 men. See Keppel-Jones, Arthur (1983). Rhodes and Rhodesia: The White Conquest of Zimbabwe, 1884–1902. Montreal, Quebec and Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 590–599. ISBN 978-0-7735-0534-6. ^ a b c http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/555806/South-African-War\\n ^ \\\"Caring for the soldiers health\\\". Nash's war manual. Eveleigh Nash. 1914. p. 309. Retrieved 22 August 2009. ^ \\\"The Commissariat – The Red Cross – The Hague Court\\\". Europe at war. Doubleday, Page & Company. 1914. pp. 183 (n198). Retrieved 22 August 2009. ^ Davenport & Saunders 2000, p. 228\\n ^ Die ontplooiing van die Engelse Oorlog 1899–1900 at Google Books\\n ^ Pakenham 1979, p. xxi\\n ^ a b Morris, Michael & John Linnegar (2004). Every Step of the Way: The Journey to Freedom in South Africa. Ministry of Education. pp. 58–95. ISBN 0-7969-2061-3. ^ a b Pakenham 1979, pp. 1–5\\n ^ Pakenham 1979, pp. 493–495\\n ^ Wessels, p. 97\\n ^ M. Nathan, Paul Kruger: His Life And Times, Knox, Durban, 1941. ^ cited in, T.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nPakenham, The Boer War, Part 1, 'Milner's War'\\n ^ R. Bester, Boer Rifles and Carbines of the Anglo-Boer War, War Museum of the Boer Republics, Bloemfontein, 1994 (See also Wessels 2000, p. 80). ^ a b Wessels 2000, p. 80\\n ^ C.N. Connolly, 'Manufacturing Spontaneity'\\n ^ Steele 2000, p. 7\\n ^ Steele 2000, p. 6\\n ^ Brian Inglis, Roger Casement (London: Coronet Books, 1974), pp.53–5. Quoted in Keith Jeffery, \\\"The Irish Soldier in the Boer War,\\\" in The Boer War, ed. by John Gooch (London: Cass, 2000), p.145. ^ Keith Surridge, 'Lansdowne at the War Office', in The Boer War, ed. by John Gooch (London: Cass, 2000), p.24\\n ^ Steele 2000, p. 4\\n ^ Pakenham 1979, p. 56\\n ^ Wessels 2000, p. 74\\n ^ Fransjohan Pretorius, 'The Experience of the Bitter-Ender Boer,' in The Boer War',' ed. by John Gooch (London: Cass, 2000), p.179. ^ Pakenham 1979, p. 30\\n ^ Wessels 2000, pp. 82–85\\n ^ Field Marshal Lord Carver, The Boer War, pp. 259–262\\n ^ 'Historical Overview' in Antony O'Brien, Bye-Bye Dolly Gray\\n ^ From the \\\"Battle of Magersfontein,\\\" verse by Private Smith of the Black Watch December 1899. (Quoted in Pakenham 1979, p. 115)\\n ^ Steele 2000, p. 12\\n ^ A. B.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\n\\\"Banjo\\\" Patterson,From the Front (see Australian references). ^ Wilcox, Australia's Boer War, pp. 84–85. ^ N. G. Speed, Born to Fight\\n ^ a b Anglo-Boer War Philatelic Society: Collecting Interests\\n ^ Ango-Boer War Museum\\n ^ a b c Jones 1996\\n ^ Thomas Pakenham, page 571 The Boer War, ISBN 0-7474-0976-5\\n ^ Parkenham, p. 402\\n ^ Professor J.C. de Villiers, MD FRCS (June 1984). \\\"The Medical Aspect of the Anglo-Boer War, 1899–1902 Part ll\\\". Military History Journal 6 (3). ^ Pakenham 1979[page needed]\\n ^ A Century of Postgraduate Anglo Boer War Studies at Google Books\\n ^ The Boer War / Denis Judd & Keith Surridge (2003) ISBN 1-4039-6150-6\\n ^ Pakenham 1979, pp. 531–32, 536+\\nTaken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Boer_War [11.10.2012]\\nThe Boer War (1900-1902) Timeline\\n1899\\n31 May – 5 June: Bloemfontein Conference between British high commissioner Milner and Transvaal President Kruger fails to reach agreement. 28 July: British colonial secretary Chamberlain informs Parliament that Britain intends to enforce supremacy in southern Africa. 28 August: British government informs Transvaal government of its refusal to abandon claims to sovereignty over all of southern Africa. 8 September: British cabinet decides to send another 10 000 troops to Natal.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\n26 September: British send troops to Dundee under General Penn Symons. 27 September: Kruger orders mobilisation of Transvaal commandos. 29 September: British cabinet approves preparations for army mobilisation. 30 September: Irish Transvaal Committee established in Dublin to mobilise Irish support for Boer republics. 2 October: President Steyn orders mobilisation of Free State commandos in support of the Transvaal. 7 October: British mobilise 1st Army Corps; General White lands at Durban with reinforcements. 9 October: Kruger sends ultimatum to British government to withdraw reinforcements within 2 days or face war. 10 October: British leadership exultant over Transvaal ultimatum; Cecil Rhodes arrives in Kimberley in attempt to take over town’s defence from British army. 11 October: Ultimatum expires – war officially begins. 12 October: Boer commandos invade Natal and Cape Colony. 14-16 October: Boer forces commence sieges of Mafeking and Kimberley. 20 October: Battle of Talana Hill – Commandant Moller surrenders to Penn Symons. First troopships sail from Southampton for Cape Town. 21 October: Battle of Elandslaagte – Boers attacked by General French’s lancers. 23 October: Battle of Dundee – Boers defeat British brigade, Penn Symons killed. 24 October: Battle of Rietfontein. 26 October: Transvaal and Free State commandos link up near Ladysmith.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\n30 October: Battle of Modderspruit – General Joubert defeats White; Carleton surrenders at Nicholson’s Nek. 31 October: General Buller lands at Cape Town with leading units of 1st Army Corps. 1 November: Free State commandos cross the Orange River to raid Cape Colony. 2 November: Boer forces lay siege to Ladysmith – 12 000 British troops under White trapped. 14 November: Boer force crosses the Tugela River, heading towards Pietermaritzburg. 15 November: General Botha’s commando wrecks armoured train between Frere and Chieveley, captures 60 prisoners including journalist Winston Churchill. 20 November: General Methuen’s force of 8 000 troops cross the Orange to relieve Kimberley. 22/3 November: Battle of Willow Grange. 23 November: Battle of Belmont – Methuen advances. Boer raids southward into Natal end. 25 November: Battle of Graspan – Methuen advances further. 26 November: British-African force force attacks Boer laager at Derdepoort. 28 November: Battle of Modder River – Methuen’s attack on Boer positions halted. 10 December: Battle of Stormberg – Boers defeat General Gatacre’s assault, 600 British captured. Beginning of ‘Black Week’ for British. 11 December: Battle of Magersfontein – General De la Rey’s Boer force defeats Methuen’s Scottish regiments, nearly 1 000 casualties, General Wauchope killed.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\n13 December: Buller launches 2 days of artillery bombardment across the Tugela. 15 December: Battle of Colenso – Buller’s attempt to cross the Tugela repulsed by Botha’s Boer force, with over 1 000 casualties and 10 field guns abandoned. 17 December: ‘Black Week’ ends – total British losses 700 killed, 3 000 wounded, 2 000 taken prisoner; Boer losses minimal. 18 December: British cabinet appoints Field Marshal Roberts as C-in-C South Africa with General Kitchener as Chief of Staff, and calls out army reserve. 23 December: Roberts and Kitchener sail from England. 26 December: Boers repulse Baden-Powell’s attack on Game Tree Fort. 29 December: Royal Navy seizes German mail-steamer Bundesrath. 1900\\n6 January: Boers attack British positions at Ladysmith. 10 January: Roberts and Kitchener land at Cape Town. 20 January: Buller crosses the Tugela with 26 500 men. 25 January: Battle of Spioenkop – Warren’s attack repulsed by Boer force, 1 200 British losses: worst defeat since Crimean War. 5 February: Battle of Vaalkrans – Buller agains fails to break through Boer lines. 7 February: Vaalkrans evacuated by Boers. 11 February: Roberts’ force commences march to the north to relieve Kimberley. 15 February: Kimberley relieved by Gen French’s cavalry.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\n18 February: Battle of Paardeberg begins – Kitchener orders attack on Boer lines. 19 February: British commence siege of Boers at Paardeberg. 27 February: Gen Cronje surrenders at Paardeberg with 4 000 men. 28 February: Ladysmith relieved by Buller. 7 March: Battle of Poplar Grove – Kruger narrowly escapes capture. 10 March: Battle of Driefontein. 13 March: Bloemfontein captured by Roberts’ force. 15 March: Roberts proclaims amnesty except for Boer leaders. 17 March: Boer war council at Kroonstad. 27 March: Death of Commandant General Joubert. 31 March: Battle of Sannaspos – Gen de Wet ambushes Gen Broadwood, captures 400 British troops and 80 supply wagons. 1 April: Almost 1 000 British troops already died of typhus in Bloemfontein. 4 April: De Wet attacks British garrison at Reddersburg, captures 600 troops. 3 May: Roberts resumes march northwards from Bloemfontein. 11 May: Buller resumes march northwards into Transvaal. 12 May: Roberts’ force occupies Kroonstad. 14 May: Buller outmanoeuvres Boers from Biggarsberg. 17 May: Mafeking relieved by Colonels Mahon and Plumer. 19 May: Kruger leaves Pretoria. 27 May: Roberts’ force crosses the Vaal River at Vereeniging. 28 May: British proclaim annexation of Orange Free State. 31 May: Johannesburg captured by Roberts’ force.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\nBattle of Lindley – Spragge and Irish Yeomanry captured by Piet de Wet. 5 June: Pretoria captured by Roberts. 7 June: Battle of Roodewal. 11/12 June: Battle of Diamond Hill – Botha driven off by Buller. 12 June: Volksrust occupied by Buller’s force. 4 July: Roberts and Buller link up. 11 July: Battle of Silkaatsnek – Scots Greys surrender to Boers. 15 July: Steyn and De Wet escape from Brandwater Basin. 21 July: Roberts commence march eastwards to Komati Poort. 25 July: Lloyd George warns in Parliament that South African war is becoming war of extermination against Boer people. 31 July: Commandant Prinsloo surrenders with 4 000 men to General Hunter in Brandwater Basin. 14 August: De Wet again escapes capture. 27 August: Battle of Dalmanutha – Buller defeats Botha. 30 August: Last British prisoners released at Nooitgedacht. 2 September: Roberts offers large payments to Botha and De la Rey if they surrendered. 6 September: Lydenburg captured by Buller’s force. 11 September: Kruger leaves the Transvaal for Europe. 25 September: British reach Mozambique border at Komati Poort. 8 October: Milner appointed administrator of newly annexed territories. 19 October: Kruger sails for France from Lourenco Marques on board the Gelderland. 24 October: Buller returns to England.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\n25 October: British proclaim annexation of the Transvaal. 6 November: Battle of Bothaville – De Wet defeated, Le Gallais killed. 16 November: De Wet attempts to invade the Cape Colony. 23 November: De Wet captures Dewetsdorp. 29 November: Kitchener succeeds Roberts as C-in-C South Africa. 13 December: Surprise attack by Generals De la Rey and Smuts on Clements at Nooitgedacht. 5 December: De Wet driven back into the Free State. 11 December: Roberts returns to England. 14 December: De Wet and Steyn again escapes capture. 16 December: Boer commandos under Kritzinger and Hertzog invade the Cape Colony. 20 December: British proclaim martial law in the Northern Cape. 21 December: Kitchener orders removal of Boer and black civilians from countryside to concentration camps – beginning of British war against South African civilians. 29 December: Helvetia post captured. 1901\\n1 January: Colonial Defence Force called out in the Cape Colony. 4-31 January: Attacks by De la Rey, Beyers, De Wet and Smuts on British positions throughout Transvaal and Free State. 27 January: French launches drive in Eastern Transvaal. 31 January: Smuts captures Modderfontein. 7 February: British send additional 30 000 mounted troops to South Africa. 10 February: De Wet leads raid into Cape Colony.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\n13 February: Kitchener proposes peace meeting to Botha. 19 February: De Wet driven back into the Free State. 28 February: Middelburg peace talks between Botha and Kitchener begins. 16 March: Botha refuses Kitchener’s peace terms. 10 April: First British drive in Northern Free State begins under General Elliot. 18 July: British commence first drive in Cape Colony northwards. 7 August: Kitchener proclaims banishment for Boer leaders captured armed after 15 September. 12 August: Kritzinger’s force driven out of Cape Colony. 3 September: Smuts leads Boer invasion of Cape Colony at Klaarwater. 5 September: Lotter’s commando captured by Scobell. 7 September: Battle of Elands River Poort – Smuts defeats 17th Lancers; Botha attempts invasion of Natal. 17 September: Battle of Blood River Poort – Botha defeats Gough’s force. 26 September: Botha’s force attacks Forts Itala and Prospect. 6 October: Botha escapes northwards. 9 October: Martial law extended in the Cape Colony. 11 October: British execute Commandant Lotter, capture Commandant Scheepers. 30 October: Battle of Bakenlaagte – Benson killed. 7 November: Hamilton appointed Kitchener’s Chief of Staff. 29 November: De Wet attacks convoy near Speyfontein. 7 December: Pro-British National Scouts inaugurated. 16 December: Kritzinger captured. 17 December: Johannesburg Stock Exchange reopened.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\n23 December: Blockhouse line between Kroonstad and Lindley completed. 25 December: Battle of Tweefontein – De Wet captures Yeomanry. 1902\\n4 January: Defeat of British near Ermelo. 10 January: German Chancellor makes anti-British speech in Reichstag. 17 January: Scheepers executed by British at Graaff-Reinet. 29 January: British government refuses Dutch government’s offer to mediate. 5 February: Boers capture British convoy near Beaufort West. 6 February: British launch new drive in Eastern Free State. 7 February: De Wet breaks through blockhouse line. 13 February: Renewed British drive in Eastern Free State. 7 March: Battle of Tweebosch – De la Rey captures wounded Methuen. 20 March: Botha agrees to British request for peace talks. 24 March: British commence first drive in Western Transvaal. 26 Rhodes: Death of Cecil Rhodes in Cape Town. 4 April: Smuts begins siege of Okiep. 9 April: Boer peace delegates meet at Klerksdorp. 11 April: Battle of Rooiwal – nearly 50 Boers killed in failed attack under General Kemp. 12-18 April: First meeting of Boer peace delegates with Kitchener at Pretoria. 1-10 May: Last British drives in North-eastern Free state. 3 May: Siege of Okiep ends. 6 May: Zulus attack sleeping Boers at Holkrans, kill 59.\",\n \"This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War ... - blogspot.com\\n\\n11 May: Hamilton’s last drive in Western Transvaal ends. 15 May: First meeting of 60 Boer delegates at Vereeniging. 18 May: Boer delegates meet Kitchener and Milner at Pretoria. 31 May: Terms of surrender signed at Pretoria; war formally over. Posted by Juan Nel at\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2096,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_45"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"The words Czar and Kaiser are both derived from which famous person in history?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Julius Caesar"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["commentaries of julius cæsar","gaius iulius gaii filius gaii nepos caesar","julius caesar roman","political career of julius caesar","ivlivs cæsar","caivs ivlivs caesar","julius caeser","imp•c•ivlivs•caesar•divvs","julias ceaser","conspiracy caesar","literary works of julius caesar","caesar julius","julius caesar assassination plot","caesar dictator","julius caesra","julius ceasar","juluis cesar","caesar","imp caesar","julis caesar","ivlivs caesar","imp cæsar","julius cæsar","i am republic","imp c ivlivs caesar divvs","julius caesar","julius ceaser","divvs ivlivs","divus iulius","caesar complex","iulius caesar","julius caesar quotes","caius iulius caesar","julius seizer","julias caesar","caesars death","gayus julius caesar","imperator gaius iulius caesar divus","julious caesar","c julius caesar","julius cesar","giulius caesar"],"string":"[\n \"commentaries of julius cæsar\",\n \"gaius iulius gaii filius gaii nepos caesar\",\n \"julius caesar roman\",\n \"political career of julius caesar\",\n \"ivlivs cæsar\",\n \"caivs ivlivs caesar\",\n \"julius caeser\",\n \"imp•c•ivlivs•caesar•divvs\",\n \"julias ceaser\",\n \"conspiracy caesar\",\n \"literary works of julius caesar\",\n \"caesar julius\",\n \"julius caesar assassination plot\",\n \"caesar dictator\",\n \"julius caesra\",\n \"julius ceasar\",\n \"juluis cesar\",\n \"caesar\",\n \"imp caesar\",\n \"julis caesar\",\n \"ivlivs caesar\",\n \"imp cæsar\",\n \"julius cæsar\",\n \"i am republic\",\n \"imp c ivlivs caesar divvs\",\n \"julius caesar\",\n \"julius ceaser\",\n \"divvs ivlivs\",\n \"divus iulius\",\n \"caesar complex\",\n \"iulius caesar\",\n \"julius caesar quotes\",\n \"caius iulius caesar\",\n \"julius seizer\",\n \"julias caesar\",\n \"caesars death\",\n \"gayus julius caesar\",\n \"imperator gaius iulius caesar divus\",\n \"julious caesar\",\n \"c julius caesar\",\n \"julius cesar\",\n \"giulius caesar\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Czar | Define Czar at Dictionary.com\n\nCzar | Define Czar at Dictionary.com\nczar\n(often initial capital letter) the former emperor of Russia. 3. an autocratic ruler or leader. 4. any person exercising great authority or power in a particular field:\na czar of industry. Expand\n1545-1555\n1545-55; < Russian tsar', Old Russian tsĭsarĭ emperor, king (akin to OCS tsěsarĭ) < Gothic kaisar emperor (< Greek or L); Greek kaîsar < Latin Caesar caesar\nDictionary.com Unabridged\nExamples from the Web for czar\nExpand\nContemporary Examples\nThe Republican reaction is starting to shift from calls for a czar to calls for a different czar. Obama's Dangerous Game in Egypt Andrew Roberts January 30, 2011\nHistorical Examples\nHe said he would do what the czar bade him, but that his wife should suffer for it all her life. British Dictionary definitions for czar\nExpand\na variant spelling (esp US) of tsar\nDerived Forms\nCollins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition\n© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins\nPublishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012\nWord Origin and History for czar\nExpand\nn. 1550s, from Russian tsar, from Old Slavic tsesari, from Gothic kaisar, from Greek kaisar, from Latin Caesar .","Czar | Define Czar at Dictionary.com\n\nFirst adopted by Russian emperor Ivan IV, 1547. The spelling with cz- is against the usage of all Slavonic languages; the word was so spelt by Herberstein, Rerum Moscovit. Commentarii, 1549, the chief early source of knowledge as to Russia in Western Europe, whence it passed into the Western Languages generally; in some of these it is now old-fashioned; the usual Ger. form is now zar; French adopted tsar during the 19th c. This also became frequent in English towards the end of that century, having been adopted by the Times newspaper as the most suitable English spelling. [OED]\nThe Germanic form of the word also is the source of Finnish keisari, Estonian keisar. The transferred sense of \"person with dictatorial powers\" is first recorded 1866, American English, initially in reference to President Andrew Johnson. The fem. czarina is 1717, from Italian czarina, from Ger. Zarin, fem. of Zar \"czar.\" The Russian fem. form is tsaritsa. His son is tsarevitch, his daughter is tsarevna. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper\nExpand\nczar [(zahr, tsahr)]\nThe title of rulers or emperors of Russia from the sixteenth century until the Russian Revolution .","Czar | Define Czar at Dictionary.com\n\nThe czars ruled as absolute monarchs (see absolute monarchy ) until the early twentieth century, when a parliament was established in Russia. Czar can also be spelled tsar. Note: The term czar is sometimes applied generally to a powerful leader or to a government administrator with wide-ranging powers. The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition\nCopyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slang definitions & phrases for czar\nExpand\nczar\nnoun\nA person appointed or elected to have great authority over a certain sport or other area; the commissioner of a sport or government department: baseball czar/ czar of boxing/ drug czar\n[1890s+; fr the title of the Russian emperors; used as the nickname of T B Reed (d. 1902), authoritarian Speaker of the House of Representatives]\nThe Dictionary of American Slang, Fourth Edition by Barbara Ann Kipfer, PhD. and Robert L. Chapman, Ph.D. Copyright (C) 2007 by HarperCollins Publishers.","Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar - Daily Writing Tips\n\nCaesar, Kaiser, and Czar\nCaesar, Kaiser, and Czar\nBy Maeve Maddox\nTo begin with, “Caesar” was a family name. Now, in various forms, it is a generic term for “ruler” or “emperor.”\nIn Roman naming practice, a newborn child was given three names (tria nomina). The praenomen was a name like Lucius or Marcus. The second name was the name of the tribe, clan, or gens, such as the Julii or Cornelii. The third name was the cognomen, a nickname that distinguished one branch of a gens from another. Sometimes an adult would adopt a fourth name called an agnomen. This was a nickname he had earned himself. Caesar was the cognomen of the family to which the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar was born.","Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar - Daily Writing Tips\n\nIts origin has been explained in various ways:\nThe cognomen “Caesar” originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by caesarian section (from the Latin verb to cut, caedo, caedere, cecidi, caesum).[5] The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin caesaries); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin oculis caesiis); or that he killed an elephant (caesai in Moorish) in battle.[6] Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favoured this interpretation of his name.[7] (Wikipeda)\nJulius Caesar himself had a receding hairline so another possible explanation is that his family may have carried the gene of male pattern baldness and the nickname “Caesar” (hairy) was ironic. When Julius Caesar was killed, his nephew, whom he adopted as his heir, took the name Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. The Octavianus was his birth name so he kept it. Later on the Senate gave him the agnomen Augustus. That’s the name by which he is known as the first Emperor of Rome. Augustus and his first four successors were related by blood so they all more or less had the right to the name Caesar.","Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar - Daily Writing Tips\n\nAfter the death of Nero, however, the Empire was up for grabs. In the chaotic “year of the four emperors” that followed Nero’s death, the name “Caesar” became a synonym for “ruler.” Galba was the first to assume it as a title. (He got to use it for about seven months.)\nSo famous was the title Caesar that it found its way into all the European languages. It was probably the first Latin word adopted by the Germanic languages to which English belongs. The Romans pronounced the word with a hard c and that’s how it came into the Germanic languages. If it hadn’t been for the immense influence of Norse and French on English during the Middle Ages, the modern English word for “caesar” would have developed into something like “coser.”\nDuring the time of the close relationship between the English and the Danes, however, the English replaced their own word with the Norse keiser (cayser, kaiser). Then, after the Norman Conquest, when French became the language of the ruling classes in Engand, the French word, with its soft c pronunciation, became the preferred form.","Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar - Daily Writing Tips\n\nLater on, the word Kaiser came into English again, this time as the title of the German rulers. The word Czar, which English speakers use to refer to the Russian emperors, entered the Russian language as Tsar, the Old Slavic version of Caesar: tsesari. The spelling Czar is a respelling of the Russian word with the letters of the Latin alphabet. The spelling with cz was common in European languages because that was how it was spelled the first time it appeared in a European book in 1549, but the French adopted the spelling tsar in the 19th century and the London Times prefers it. In German it is spelled Zar. In the U.S. the word czar is now used to refer to anyone who is in a position of some kind of control. Ex. “Drug Czar” (either a powerful drug dealer OR a government official supposed to combat drug trafficking); “Education Czar.”\nLittle Caesar (1931) is the title of an historically significant film in which Edward G. Robinson played a gangster and defined the cinematic crime genre. Such is the continuing charisma of the word that it continues to be used to suggest power and grandeur.","Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar - Daily Writing Tips\n\nThe word’s association with food is probably owing to its Italian origin. (Ex. Little Caesar’s Pizza.) A Caesar’s Salad, however, has nothing to do with the late dictator. According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the salad is named for Cesar Cardini, a restaurant owner in Tijuana, Mexico who is said to have served the first one in about 1924. Subscribe to Receive our Articles and Exercises via Email\nYou will improve your English in only 5 minutes per day, guaranteed! Subscribers get access to our exercise archives, writing courses, writing jobs and much more! You'll also get three bonus ebooks completely free! 12 Responses to “Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar”\nSharon\non January 25, 2008 12:17 pm\nAbsolutely fascinating, Maeve. This is just the kind of info that I love, so thanks for this post. Maeve\non January 25, 2008 2:47 pm\nThank you, Sharon. Coming from you that’s a special compliment. Deborah\non January 25, 2008 4:48 pm\nWow! Everything I hoped for and so much more. Thank you! Maeve\non January 25, 2008 4:56 pm\nDeborah,\non January 25, 2008 8:28 pm\nFascinating history, well told. Thanks very much.","Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar - Daily Writing Tips\n\nFarhat\non January 28, 2008 3:57 am\nExcellent info… hope you keep up the good work.. enlightining indeed.. all the best\nCory\non January 29, 2008 7:41 am\nYou are the Kaiser of Knowledge\nHeh\non January 30, 2008 4:40 pm\nI saw also a variation – Tzar. BTW, in Polish it’s spelled “car” 🙂\nTania\non February 27, 2008 11:30 am\nLoved it! Sorry to be pedantic, but here’s a thought on the origin of the Ceasar nickname – since the gene for male pattern baldness runs through the mother’s line, it seems unlikely that it could be linked to hereditary baldness traced to a distant male ancestor. (Incestuous unions in Roman times notwithstanding 😉\nI like Pliny’s explanation. CZARISBULGARIANNOTRUSSIAN\non June 09, 2010 11:42 am\nThe word czar was invented by the bulgarians in 9 century and the first czar was Simeon The Great the first slavic emperor\njen\non January 18, 2011 11:30 pm\nI love etymology! Thanks for this. Frank\non October 08, 2015 8:12 am\nI believe the Iranian word Shah also derives from Caesar.","What does “czar” mean in Russian and how did the word ...\n\nWhat does “czar” mean in Russian and how did the word originate? What does “czar” mean in Russian and how did the word originate? 2010.03.24\n| Filed Under: History Leave a Comment\nBoth czar or Tsar (Russia) and kaiser (Germany) were derived from the name of Julius Caesar, leader of ancient Rome. Czar is a title used to designate certain monarchs or rulers, and is a Slavic term with Bulgarian origins which is derived from the word Cæsar, meaning Emperor in the European medieval context. The first ruler in Bulgaria to adopt the title tsar was Simeon I. The last person to bear the title Tsar was the last Tsar of Bulgaria, Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. More recent use of the term in the U.S. include the title “czar” as a slang term for some high-level civil servants, such as the “drug czar” for the director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy. Read More\nAlso, any literature on baseball written in the 1800's does not credit Abner Doubleday with the invention either. But if my... 2016-12-28T23:28:08+00:00\nI'm not saying that whoever wrote this did not research this at all but I am saying this explanation of the origins of baseball...","What does “czar” mean in Russian and how did the word ...\n\n2016-12-28T23:19:30+00:00\nIT TOOK ME OVER WINTER BREAK 12 DAYS 3 HOURS 5 MINUTES AND 36 SECONDS. 2016-12-28T02:49:36+00:00\nThe math here is false. The fundation of how this was worked out is how long it takes to count to 100 in seconds; which is fine... 2016-11-08T22:41:08+00:00"],"string":"[\n \"Czar | Define Czar at Dictionary.com\\n\\nCzar | Define Czar at Dictionary.com\\nczar\\n(often initial capital letter) the former emperor of Russia. 3. an autocratic ruler or leader. 4. any person exercising great authority or power in a particular field:\\na czar of industry. Expand\\n1545-1555\\n1545-55; < Russian tsar', Old Russian tsĭsarĭ emperor, king (akin to OCS tsěsarĭ) < Gothic kaisar emperor (< Greek or L); Greek kaîsar < Latin Caesar caesar\\nDictionary.com Unabridged\\nExamples from the Web for czar\\nExpand\\nContemporary Examples\\nThe Republican reaction is starting to shift from calls for a czar to calls for a different czar. Obama's Dangerous Game in Egypt Andrew Roberts January 30, 2011\\nHistorical Examples\\nHe said he would do what the czar bade him, but that his wife should suffer for it all her life. British Dictionary definitions for czar\\nExpand\\na variant spelling (esp US) of tsar\\nDerived Forms\\nCollins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition\\n© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins\\nPublishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012\\nWord Origin and History for czar\\nExpand\\nn. 1550s, from Russian tsar, from Old Slavic tsesari, from Gothic kaisar, from Greek kaisar, from Latin Caesar .\",\n \"Czar | Define Czar at Dictionary.com\\n\\nFirst adopted by Russian emperor Ivan IV, 1547. The spelling with cz- is against the usage of all Slavonic languages; the word was so spelt by Herberstein, Rerum Moscovit. Commentarii, 1549, the chief early source of knowledge as to Russia in Western Europe, whence it passed into the Western Languages generally; in some of these it is now old-fashioned; the usual Ger. form is now zar; French adopted tsar during the 19th c. This also became frequent in English towards the end of that century, having been adopted by the Times newspaper as the most suitable English spelling. [OED]\\nThe Germanic form of the word also is the source of Finnish keisari, Estonian keisar. The transferred sense of \\\"person with dictatorial powers\\\" is first recorded 1866, American English, initially in reference to President Andrew Johnson. The fem. czarina is 1717, from Italian czarina, from Ger. Zarin, fem. of Zar \\\"czar.\\\" The Russian fem. form is tsaritsa. His son is tsarevitch, his daughter is tsarevna. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper\\nExpand\\nczar [(zahr, tsahr)]\\nThe title of rulers or emperors of Russia from the sixteenth century until the Russian Revolution .\",\n \"Czar | Define Czar at Dictionary.com\\n\\nThe czars ruled as absolute monarchs (see absolute monarchy ) until the early twentieth century, when a parliament was established in Russia. Czar can also be spelled tsar. Note: The term czar is sometimes applied generally to a powerful leader or to a government administrator with wide-ranging powers. The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition\\nCopyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slang definitions & phrases for czar\\nExpand\\nczar\\nnoun\\nA person appointed or elected to have great authority over a certain sport or other area; the commissioner of a sport or government department: baseball czar/ czar of boxing/ drug czar\\n[1890s+; fr the title of the Russian emperors; used as the nickname of T B Reed (d. 1902), authoritarian Speaker of the House of Representatives]\\nThe Dictionary of American Slang, Fourth Edition by Barbara Ann Kipfer, PhD. and Robert L. Chapman, Ph.D. Copyright (C) 2007 by HarperCollins Publishers.\",\n \"Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar - Daily Writing Tips\\n\\nCaesar, Kaiser, and Czar\\nCaesar, Kaiser, and Czar\\nBy Maeve Maddox\\nTo begin with, “Caesar” was a family name. Now, in various forms, it is a generic term for “ruler” or “emperor.”\\nIn Roman naming practice, a newborn child was given three names (tria nomina). The praenomen was a name like Lucius or Marcus. The second name was the name of the tribe, clan, or gens, such as the Julii or Cornelii. The third name was the cognomen, a nickname that distinguished one branch of a gens from another. Sometimes an adult would adopt a fourth name called an agnomen. This was a nickname he had earned himself. Caesar was the cognomen of the family to which the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar was born.\",\n \"Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar - Daily Writing Tips\\n\\nIts origin has been explained in various ways:\\nThe cognomen “Caesar” originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by caesarian section (from the Latin verb to cut, caedo, caedere, cecidi, caesum).[5] The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin caesaries); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin oculis caesiis); or that he killed an elephant (caesai in Moorish) in battle.[6] Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favoured this interpretation of his name.[7] (Wikipeda)\\nJulius Caesar himself had a receding hairline so another possible explanation is that his family may have carried the gene of male pattern baldness and the nickname “Caesar” (hairy) was ironic. When Julius Caesar was killed, his nephew, whom he adopted as his heir, took the name Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. The Octavianus was his birth name so he kept it. Later on the Senate gave him the agnomen Augustus. That’s the name by which he is known as the first Emperor of Rome. Augustus and his first four successors were related by blood so they all more or less had the right to the name Caesar.\",\n \"Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar - Daily Writing Tips\\n\\nAfter the death of Nero, however, the Empire was up for grabs. In the chaotic “year of the four emperors” that followed Nero’s death, the name “Caesar” became a synonym for “ruler.” Galba was the first to assume it as a title. (He got to use it for about seven months.)\\nSo famous was the title Caesar that it found its way into all the European languages. It was probably the first Latin word adopted by the Germanic languages to which English belongs. The Romans pronounced the word with a hard c and that’s how it came into the Germanic languages. If it hadn’t been for the immense influence of Norse and French on English during the Middle Ages, the modern English word for “caesar” would have developed into something like “coser.”\\nDuring the time of the close relationship between the English and the Danes, however, the English replaced their own word with the Norse keiser (cayser, kaiser). Then, after the Norman Conquest, when French became the language of the ruling classes in Engand, the French word, with its soft c pronunciation, became the preferred form.\",\n \"Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar - Daily Writing Tips\\n\\nLater on, the word Kaiser came into English again, this time as the title of the German rulers. The word Czar, which English speakers use to refer to the Russian emperors, entered the Russian language as Tsar, the Old Slavic version of Caesar: tsesari. The spelling Czar is a respelling of the Russian word with the letters of the Latin alphabet. The spelling with cz was common in European languages because that was how it was spelled the first time it appeared in a European book in 1549, but the French adopted the spelling tsar in the 19th century and the London Times prefers it. In German it is spelled Zar. In the U.S. the word czar is now used to refer to anyone who is in a position of some kind of control. Ex. “Drug Czar” (either a powerful drug dealer OR a government official supposed to combat drug trafficking); “Education Czar.”\\nLittle Caesar (1931) is the title of an historically significant film in which Edward G. Robinson played a gangster and defined the cinematic crime genre. Such is the continuing charisma of the word that it continues to be used to suggest power and grandeur.\",\n \"Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar - Daily Writing Tips\\n\\nThe word’s association with food is probably owing to its Italian origin. (Ex. Little Caesar’s Pizza.) A Caesar’s Salad, however, has nothing to do with the late dictator. According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the salad is named for Cesar Cardini, a restaurant owner in Tijuana, Mexico who is said to have served the first one in about 1924. Subscribe to Receive our Articles and Exercises via Email\\nYou will improve your English in only 5 minutes per day, guaranteed! Subscribers get access to our exercise archives, writing courses, writing jobs and much more! You'll also get three bonus ebooks completely free! 12 Responses to “Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar”\\nSharon\\non January 25, 2008 12:17 pm\\nAbsolutely fascinating, Maeve. This is just the kind of info that I love, so thanks for this post. Maeve\\non January 25, 2008 2:47 pm\\nThank you, Sharon. Coming from you that’s a special compliment. Deborah\\non January 25, 2008 4:48 pm\\nWow! Everything I hoped for and so much more. Thank you! Maeve\\non January 25, 2008 4:56 pm\\nDeborah,\\non January 25, 2008 8:28 pm\\nFascinating history, well told. Thanks very much.\",\n \"Caesar, Kaiser, and Czar - Daily Writing Tips\\n\\nFarhat\\non January 28, 2008 3:57 am\\nExcellent info… hope you keep up the good work.. enlightining indeed.. all the best\\nCory\\non January 29, 2008 7:41 am\\nYou are the Kaiser of Knowledge\\nHeh\\non January 30, 2008 4:40 pm\\nI saw also a variation – Tzar. BTW, in Polish it’s spelled “car” 🙂\\nTania\\non February 27, 2008 11:30 am\\nLoved it! Sorry to be pedantic, but here’s a thought on the origin of the Ceasar nickname – since the gene for male pattern baldness runs through the mother’s line, it seems unlikely that it could be linked to hereditary baldness traced to a distant male ancestor. (Incestuous unions in Roman times notwithstanding 😉\\nI like Pliny’s explanation. CZARISBULGARIANNOTRUSSIAN\\non June 09, 2010 11:42 am\\nThe word czar was invented by the bulgarians in 9 century and the first czar was Simeon The Great the first slavic emperor\\njen\\non January 18, 2011 11:30 pm\\nI love etymology! Thanks for this. Frank\\non October 08, 2015 8:12 am\\nI believe the Iranian word Shah also derives from Caesar.\",\n \"What does “czar” mean in Russian and how did the word ...\\n\\nWhat does “czar” mean in Russian and how did the word originate? What does “czar” mean in Russian and how did the word originate? 2010.03.24\\n| Filed Under: History Leave a Comment\\nBoth czar or Tsar (Russia) and kaiser (Germany) were derived from the name of Julius Caesar, leader of ancient Rome. Czar is a title used to designate certain monarchs or rulers, and is a Slavic term with Bulgarian origins which is derived from the word Cæsar, meaning Emperor in the European medieval context. The first ruler in Bulgaria to adopt the title tsar was Simeon I. The last person to bear the title Tsar was the last Tsar of Bulgaria, Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. More recent use of the term in the U.S. include the title “czar” as a slang term for some high-level civil servants, such as the “drug czar” for the director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy. Read More\\nAlso, any literature on baseball written in the 1800's does not credit Abner Doubleday with the invention either. But if my... 2016-12-28T23:28:08+00:00\\nI'm not saying that whoever wrote this did not research this at all but I am saying this explanation of the origins of baseball...\",\n \"What does “czar” mean in Russian and how did the word ...\\n\\n2016-12-28T23:19:30+00:00\\nIT TOOK ME OVER WINTER BREAK 12 DAYS 3 HOURS 5 MINUTES AND 36 SECONDS. 2016-12-28T02:49:36+00:00\\nThe math here is false. The fundation of how this was worked out is how long it takes to count to 100 in seconds; which is fine... 2016-11-08T22:41:08+00:00\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2097,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_46"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which British monarch was on the throne at the beginning of the 20th Century?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Queen Victoria"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["victoria queen of great britain","alexandrina victoria von wettin née hanover","queen victoria i","diamond jubilee of queen victoria","we are not amused","queen victoria i of united kingdom","victoria queen of england","victoria i of united kingdom","victoria of united kingdom","victoria of scotland","queen victoria of england","victoria regina","victoria of great britain and ireland","alexandrina victoria von wettin","victoria of great britain","queen victoria s diamond jubilee","alexandrina victoria von wettin nee hanover","grandmother of europe","alexandrina victoria","victoria wettin","victoria of united kingdom 1819 1901","victoria of britain","victoria queen","queen alexandrina victoria","queen victoria of united kingdom","william hamilton criminal","victoria of uk","her britannic majesty queen victoria","list of titles and honours of queen victoria","victoria queen of united kingdom","victoria of india","victoria i","queen victoria","wedding of queen victoria and prince albert of saxe coburg and gotha","victoria of england","queen victoria died 1901"],"string":"[\n \"victoria queen of great britain\",\n \"alexandrina victoria von wettin née hanover\",\n \"queen victoria i\",\n \"diamond jubilee of queen victoria\",\n \"we are not amused\",\n \"queen victoria i of united kingdom\",\n \"victoria queen of england\",\n \"victoria i of united kingdom\",\n \"victoria of united kingdom\",\n \"victoria of scotland\",\n \"queen victoria of england\",\n \"victoria regina\",\n \"victoria of great britain and ireland\",\n \"alexandrina victoria von wettin\",\n \"victoria of great britain\",\n \"queen victoria s diamond jubilee\",\n \"alexandrina victoria von wettin nee hanover\",\n \"grandmother of europe\",\n \"alexandrina victoria\",\n \"victoria wettin\",\n \"victoria of united kingdom 1819 1901\",\n \"victoria of britain\",\n \"victoria queen\",\n \"queen alexandrina victoria\",\n \"queen victoria of united kingdom\",\n \"william hamilton criminal\",\n \"victoria of uk\",\n \"her britannic majesty queen victoria\",\n \"list of titles and honours of queen victoria\",\n \"victoria queen of united kingdom\",\n \"victoria of india\",\n \"victoria i\",\n \"queen victoria\",\n \"wedding of queen victoria and prince albert of saxe coburg and gotha\",\n \"victoria of england\",\n \"queen victoria died 1901\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories. The monarch's title is \"King\" (male) or \"Queen\" (female). The current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic and representational duties. As the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is, by tradition, commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces. Though the ultimate formal executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch's royal prerogative, these powers may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament and, in practice, within the constraints of convention and precedent.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe British monarchy traces its origins from the petty kingdoms of early medieval Scotland and Anglo-Saxon England, which consolidated into the kingdoms of England and Scotland by the 10th century AD. In 1066, the last crowned Anglo-Saxon monarch, Harold II, was defeated and killed during the Norman conquest of England and the English monarchy passed to the Normans' victorious leader, William the Conqueror, and his descendants.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn the 13th century, Wales, as a principality, became a client state of the English kingdom, while Magna Carta began a process of reducing the English monarch's political powers.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nFrom 1603, when the Scottish monarch King James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Act of Settlement 1701, which is still in force, excluded Roman Catholics, or those who marry Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the world's surface at its greatest extent in 1921.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn the 1920s, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the Union as the Irish Free State, and the Balfour Declaration recognised the evolution of the dominions of the empire into separate, self-governing countries within a Commonwealth of Nations. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, effectively bringing the empire to an end. George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the same person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. The terms British monarchy and British monarch are frequently still employed in reference to the shared individual and institution; however, each country is sovereign and independent of the others, and the monarch has a different, specific, and official national title and style for each realm.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nConstitutional role","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch (otherwise referred to as the Sovereign or \"His/Her Majesty\", abbreviated H.M.) is the Head of State. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. God Save the Queen (or God Save the King) is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins and banknotes.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Monarch takes little direct part in Government. The decisions to exercise sovereign powers are delegated from the Monarch, either by statute or by convention, to Ministers or officers of the Crown, or other public bodies, exclusive of the Monarch personally. Thus the acts of state done in the name of the Crown, such as Crown Appointments, even if personally performed by the Monarch, such as the Queen's Speech and the State Opening of Parliament, depend upon decisions made elsewhere:\n* Legislative power is exercised by the Queen-in-Parliament, by and with the advice and consent of Parliament, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. * Executive power is exercised by Her Majesty's Government, which comprises Ministers, primarily the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, which is technically a committee of the Privy Council. They have the direction of the Armed Forces of the Crown, the Civil Service and other Crown Servants such as the Diplomatic and Secret Services (the Queen receives certain foreign intelligence reports before the Prime Minister does\"In London, the revelations from [1989 Soviet defector Vladimir] Pasechnik were summarized into a quick note for the Joint Intelligence Committee.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe first recipient of such reports is always Her Majesty, The Queen. The second is the prime minister, who at the time was Margaret Thatcher|[Margaret] Thatcher.\" Hoffman, David E. (Emanuel), The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy (N.Y.: Doubleday, 1st ed. [1st printing?] (ISBN 978-0-385-52437-7) 2009), p. 336 (author contributing editor & formerly U.S. White House, diplomatic, & Jerusalem correspondent, Moscow bureau chief, & foreign news asst. managing editor for The Wash. Post).). * Judicial power is vested in the Judiciary, who by constitution and statute have judicial independence of the Government. * The Church of England, of which the Monarch is the head, has its own legislative, judicial and executive structures. * Powers independent of government are legally granted to other public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council, Royal Commission or otherwise.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Sovereign's role as a constitutional monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours. This role has been recognised since the 19th century. The constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the \"dignified part\" rather than the \"efficient part\" of government.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAppointment of the Prime Minister","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nWhenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister (who by convention appoints and may dismiss every other Minister of the Crown, and thereby constitutes and controls the government). In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Sovereign must appoint an individual who commands the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of the party or coalition that has a majority in that House. The Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after \"kissing hands\" that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn a hung parliament where no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command the most support, though it would usually be the leader of the largest party. Since 1945, there have only been two hung parliaments. The first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilson's Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party. The second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives (the largest party) and Liberal Democrats (the third largest party) agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nDissolution of Parliament","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn 1950 the King's Private Secretary writing pseudonymously to The Times newspaper asserted a constitutional convention: according to the Lascelles Principles, if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse, and would do so under three conditions. When Prime Minister Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974, the Queen granted his request as Heath had already failed to form a coalition. The resulting general election gave Wilson a small majority. The monarch could in theory unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but a Prime Minister's term now comes to an end only by electoral defeat, death, or resignation. The last monarch to remove a Prime Minister was William IV, who dismissed Lord Melbourne in 1834. The Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 removed the monarch's authority to dissolve Parliament; the Act specifically retained the monarch's power of prorogation however, which is a regular feature of the parliamentary calendar.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nRoyal Prerogative","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nSome of the government's executive authority is theoretically and nominally vested in the Sovereign and is known as the royal prerogative. The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, exercising prerogative only on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament, often through the Prime Minister or Privy Council. In practice, prerogative powers are exercised only on the Prime Minister's advice – the Prime Minister, and not the Sovereign, has control. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister. No records of these audiences are taken and the proceedings remain fully confidential. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the decisions of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet (providing they command the support of the House). In Bagehot's words: \"the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights – the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn.\"","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAlthough the Royal Prerogative is extensive and parliamentary approval is not formally required for its exercise, it is limited. Many Crown prerogatives have fallen out of use or have been permanently transferred to Parliament. For example, the monarch cannot impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, \"The Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers\", and Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Royal Prerogative includes the powers to appoint and dismiss ministers, regulate the civil service, issue passports, declare war, make peace, direct the actions of the military, and negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The monarch is commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces (the Royal Navy, the British Army, and the Royal Air Force), accredits British High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives diplomats from foreign states.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIt is the prerogative of the monarch to summon and prorogue Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the monarch's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament, during which the Sovereign reads the Speech from the throne in the Chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term, and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Commons. A general election is normally held five years after the previous one under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, but can be held sooner if the Prime Minister loses a motion of confidence, or if two-thirds of the members of the House of Commons vote to hold an early election.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nBefore a bill passed by the legislative Houses can become law, the royal assent (the monarch's approval) is required. In theory, assent can either be granted (making the bill law) or withheld (vetoing the bill), but since 1707 assent has always been granted.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarch has a similar relationship with the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament, and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the National Assembly for Wales. In Scottish matters, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government. However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, in Welsh matters the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly, if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Sovereign is deemed the \"fount of justice\"; although the Sovereign does not personally rule in judicial cases, judicial functions are performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on the monarch's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown. The common law holds that the Sovereign \"can do no wrong\"; the monarch cannot be prosecuted for criminal offences. The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government), but not lawsuits against the monarch personally. The Sovereign exercises the \"prerogative of mercy\", which is used to pardon convicted offenders or reduce sentences.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarch is the \"fount of honour\", the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. The Crown creates all peerages, appoints members of the orders of chivalry, grants knighthoods and awards other honours. Although peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the Prime Minister, some honours are within the personal gift of the Sovereign, and are not granted on ministerial advice. The monarch alone appoints members of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of Merit.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nHistory","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nEnglish monarchy","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nFollowing Viking raids and settlement in the ninth century, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex, achieved dominance over western Mercia, and assumed the title \"King of the English\". His grandson Æthelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to the present borders of England, though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation. William, Duke of Normandy's conquest of England in 1066 was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in the Anglo-Saxon period, while the Feudal System continued to develop.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nWilliam I was succeeded by two of his sons: William II, then Henry I. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry's death in 1135, one of William I's grandsons, Stephen, laid claim to the throne and took power with the support of most of the barons. Matilda challenged his reign; as a result, England descended into a period of disorder known as the Anarchy. Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power, but agreed to a compromise under which Matilda's son Henry would succeed him. Henry accordingly became the first Angevin king of England and the first monarch of the Plantagenet dynasty as Henry II in 1154.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons, the future monarchs Richard I and John. Nevertheless, Henry managed to expand his kingdom, forming what is retrospectively known as the Angevin Empire. Upon Henry's death, his elder son Richard succeeded to the throne; he was absent from England for most of his reign, as he left to fight in the Crusades. He was killed besieging a castle, and John succeeded him.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nJohn's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, particularly over the limits of royal power. In 1215, the barons coerced the king into issuing Magna Carta (Latin for \"Great Charter\") to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon afterwards, further disagreements plunged England into a civil war known as the First Barons' War. The war came to an abrupt end after John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine-year-old son Henry III. Later in Henry's reign, Simon de Montfort led the barons in another rebellion, beginning the Second Barons' War. The war ended in a clear royalist victory and in the death of many rebels, but not before the king had agreed to summon a parliament in 1265.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe next monarch, Edward I (\"Edward Longshanks\"), was far more successful in maintaining royal power and responsible for the conquest of Wales. He attempted to establish English domination of Scotland. However, gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, Edward II, who also faced conflict with the nobility. In 1311, Edward II was forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of baronial \"ordainers\"; however, military victories helped him regain control in 1322. Nevertheless, in 1327, Edward was deposed and then murdered by his wife Isabella. His 14-year-old son became Edward III. Edward III claimed the French Crown, setting off the Hundred Years' War between England and France.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nHis campaigns conquered much French territory, but by 1374, all the gains had been lost. Edward's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses. In 1377, Edward III died, leaving the Crown to his 10-year-old grandson Richard II. Like many of his predecessors, Richard II conflicted with the nobles by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, while he was campaigning in Ireland, his cousin Henry Bolingbroke seized power. Richard was deposed, imprisoned, and eventually murdered, probably by starvation, and Henry became king as Henry IV.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nHenry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster; hence, his dynasty was known as the House of Lancaster. For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son, the future Henry V. Henry V's own reign, which began in 1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years' War in France. Although he was victorious, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son Henry VI on the throne and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe unpopularity of Henry VI's counsellors and his belligerent consort, Margaret of Anjou, as well as his own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York, so called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was Richard, Duke of York. Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460, his eldest son, Edward IV, led the Yorkists to victory in 1461. The Wars of the Roses, nevertheless, continued intermittently during his reign and those of his son Edward V and brother Richard III. Edward V disappeared, presumably murdered by Richard. Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch led by Henry Tudor, in 1485, when Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nNow King Henry VII, he neutralised the remaining Yorkist forces, partly by marrying Elizabeth of York, a Yorkist heir. Through skill and ability, Henry re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end. The reign of the second Tudor king, Henry VIII, was one of great political change. Religious upheaval and disputes with the Pope led the monarch to break from the Roman Catholic Church and to establish the Church of England (the Anglican Church).","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nWales – which had been conquered centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion – was annexed to England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Henry VIII's son and successor, the young Edward VI, continued with further religious reforms, but his early death in 1553 precipitated a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half-sister Mary to succeed, and therefore drew up a will designating Lady Jane Grey as his heiress. Jane's reign, however, lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her and declared herself the lawful sovereign. Mary I married Philip of Spain, who was declared king and co-ruler, pursued disastrous wars in France, and attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism, burning Protestants at the stake as heretics in the process. Upon her death in 1558, the pair were succeeded by her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth I. England returned to Protestantism and continued its growth into a major world power by building its navy and exploring the New World.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nScottish monarchy","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of the Roman empire from Britain in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts in the north east, the Britons in the south, including the Kingdom of Strathclyde, and the Gaels or Scotti (who would later give their name to Scotland), of the Irish petty kingdom of Dál Riata in the west. Kenneth MacAlpin is traditionally viewed as the first king of a united Scotland (known as Scotia to writers in Latin, or Alba to the Scots). The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were absorbed.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nEarly Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead the custom of tanistry was followed, where the monarchy alternated between different branches of the House of Alpin. As a result, however, the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. From 942 to 1005, seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle. In 1005, Malcolm II ascended the throne having killed many rivals. He continued to ruthlessly eliminate opposition, and when he died in 1034 he was succeeded by his grandson, Duncan I, instead of a cousin, as had been usual. In 1040, Duncan suffered defeat in battle at the hands of Macbeth, who was killed himself in 1057 by Duncan's son Malcolm. The following year, after killing Macbeth's stepson Lulach, Malcolm ascended the throne as Malcolm III.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nWith a further series of battles and deposings, five of Malcolm's sons as well as one of his brothers successively became king. Eventually, the Crown came to his youngest son, David. David was succeeded by his grandsons Malcolm IV, and then by William the Lion, the longest-reigning King of Scots before the Union of the Crowns. William participated in a rebellion against King Henry II of England but when the rebellion failed, William was captured by the English. In exchange for his release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades. William died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II. Alexander II, as well as his successor Alexander III, attempted to take over the Western Isles, which were still under the overlordship of Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing Treaty of Perth recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAlexander III's unexpected death in a riding accident in 1286 precipitated a major succession crisis. Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England for help in determining who was the rightful heir. Edward chose Alexander's three-year-old Norwegian granddaughter, Margaret. On her way to Scotland in 1290, however, Margaret died at sea, and Edward was again asked to adjudicate between 13 rival claimants to the throne. A court was set up and after two years of deliberation, it pronounced John Balliol to be king. However, Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal, and tried to exert influence over Scotland. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England, Edward I invaded. During the first ten years of the ensuing Wars of Scottish Independence, Scotland had no monarch, until Robert the Bruce declared himself king in 1306.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nRobert's efforts to control Scotland culminated in success, and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later, Robert died and was succeeded by his five-year-old son, David II. On the pretext of restoring John Balliol's rightful heir, Edward Balliol, the English again invaded in 1332. During the next four years, Balliol was crowned, deposed, restored, deposed, restored, and deposed until he eventually settled in England, and David remained king for the next 35 years.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nDavid II died childless in 1371 and was succeeded by his nephew Robert II of the House of Stuart. The reigns of both Robert II and his successor, Robert III, were marked by a general decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, regents had to rule the country; the monarch, Robert III's son James I, had been taken captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to Scotland in 1424; to restore his authority, he used ruthless measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. He was assassinated by a group of nobles. James II continued his father's policies by subduing influential noblemen but he was killed in an accident at the age of thirty, and a council of regents again assumed power. James III was defeated in a battle against rebellious Scottish earls in 1488, leading to another boy-king: James IV.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn 1513 James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met with disaster at Flodden Field; the King, many senior noblemen, and hundreds of soldiers were killed. As his son and successor, James V, was an infant, the government was again taken over by regents. James V led another disastrous war with the English in 1542, and his death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six-day-old daughter, Mary. Once again, a regency was established.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nMary, a Roman Catholic, reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. As a result of the efforts of reformers such as John Knox, a Protestant ascendancy was established. Mary caused alarm by marrying her Catholic cousin, Lord Darnley, in 1565. After Lord Darnley's assassination in 1567, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of Darnley's murder. The nobility rebelled against the Queen, forcing her to abdicate. She fled to England, and the Crown went to her infant son James VI, who was brought up as a Protestant. Mary was imprisoned and later executed by the English Queen Elizabeth I.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nPersonal union and republican phase","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nElizabeth's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England. Since she had no children, she was succeeded by the Scottish monarch James VI, who was the great-grandson of Henry VIII's older sister and hence Elizabeth's first cousin twice removed. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the \"Union of the Crowns\". Although England and Scotland were in personal union under one monarch – James I became the first monarch to style himself \"King of Great Britain and Ireland\" in 1604 – they remained separate kingdoms. James I's successor, Charles I, experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. He provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to 1640, unilaterally levying taxes and adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive to the Scottish Presbyterians and the English Puritans). His attempt to enforce Anglicanism led to organised rebellion in Scotland (the \"Bishops' Wars\") and ignited the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In 1642, the conflict between the King and English Parliament reached its climax and the English Civil War began.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Civil War culminated in the execution of the king in 1649, the overthrow of the English monarchy, and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England. Charles I's son, Charles II, was proclaimed King of Great Britain in Scotland, but he was forced to flee abroad after he invaded England and was defeated at the Battle of Worcester. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself Lord Protector (effectively becoming a military dictator, but refusing the title of king). Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing; he soon resigned. The lack of clear leadership led to civil and military unrest, and for a popular desire to restore the monarchy. In 1660, the monarchy was restored and Charles II returned to Britain.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nCharles II's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children, and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. A parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line of succession arose; the \"Petitioners\", who supported exclusion, became the Whig Party, whereas the \"Abhorrers\", who opposed exclusion, became the Tory Party. The Exclusion Bill failed; on several occasions, Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled without a Parliament until his death in 1685. When James succeeded Charles, he pursued a policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects. Many opposed James's decisions to maintain a large standing army, to appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices, and to imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his policies. As a result, a group of Protestants known as the Immortal Seven invited James II's daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange to depose the king. William obliged, arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great public support.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nFaced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials, James fled the realm and William and Mary (rather than James II's Catholic son) were declared joint Sovereigns of England, Scotland and Ireland.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nJames's overthrow, known as the Glorious Revolution, was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power. The Bill of Rights 1689 affirmed parliamentary supremacy, and declared that the English people held certain rights, including the freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of Rights required future monarchs to be Protestants, and provided that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary's sister Anne would inherit the Crown. Mary died childless in 1694, leaving William as the sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of Anne's children had died, leaving her as the only individual left in the line of succession. Parliament was afraid that the former James II or his supporters, known as Jacobites, might attempt to reclaim the throne. Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701, which excluded James and his Catholic relations from the succession and made William's nearest Protestant relations, the family of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, next in line to the throne after his sister-in-law Anne. Soon after the passage of the Act, William III died, leaving the Crown to Anne.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAfter the 1707 Acts of Union","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAfter Anne's accession, the problem of the succession re-emerged. The Scottish Parliament, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia's family as the next heirs, passed the Act of Security 1704, threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705, threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by restricting trade. The Scottish and English parliaments negotiated the Acts of Union 1707, under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with succession under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by her second cousin, and Sophia's son, George I, Elector of Hanover, who consolidated his position by defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719. The new monarch was less active in government than many of his British predecessors, but retained control over his German kingdoms, with which Britain was now in personal union. Power shifted towards George's ministers, especially to Sir Robert Walpole, who is often considered the first British prime minister, although the title was not then in use. The next monarch, George II, witnessed the final end of the Jacobite threat in 1746, when the Catholic Stuarts were completely defeated. During the long reign of his grandson, George III, Britain's American colonies were lost, the former colonies having formed the United States of America, but British influence elsewhere in the world continued to grow, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created by the Acts of Union 1800.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nFrom 1811 to 1820, George III suffered a severe bout of what is now believed to be porphyria, an illness rendering him incapable of ruling. His son, the future George IV, ruled in his stead as Prince Regent. During the Regency and his own reign, the power of the monarchy declined, and by the time of his successor, William IV, the monarch was no longer able to effectively interfere with parliamentary power. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, and appointed a Tory, Sir Robert Peel. In the ensuing elections, however, Peel lost. The king had no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. During William IV's reign, the Reform Act 1832, which reformed parliamentary representation, was passed. Together with others passed later in the century, the Act led to an expansion of the electoral franchise and the rise of the House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV's successor, Victoria. As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover, which only permitted succession in the male line, so the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The Victorian era was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over India, Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. However, her reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement, due in part to Victoria's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nVictoria's son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1901. In 1917, the next monarch, George V, changed \"Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\" to \"Windsor\" in response to the anti-German sympathies aroused by the First World War. George V's reign was marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom, and the Irish Free State, an independent nation, in 1922.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nShared monarchy","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nDuring the twentieth century, the Commonwealth of Nations evolved from the British Empire. Prior to 1926, the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively; the Dominions and Crown colonies were subordinate to the United Kingdom. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave complete self-government to the Dominions, effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion. The concept was solidified by the Statute of Westminster 1931, which has been likened to \"a treaty among the Commonwealth countries\".","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it is often still referred to as \"British\" for legal and historical reasons and for convenience. The monarch became separately monarch of the United Kingdom, monarch of Canada, monarch of Australia, and so forth. The independent states within the Commonwealth would share the same monarch in a relationship likened to a personal union.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nGeorge V's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of Edward VIII, who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry the divorced American Wallis Simpson, even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcées. Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to abdicate; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth countries granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were excluded from the line of succession, and the Crown went to his brother, George VI. George served as a rallying figure for the British people during World War II, making morale-boosting visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and to areas bombed by Nazi Germany. In June 1948 George VI relinquished the title Emperor of India, although remaining head of state of the Dominion of India.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAt first, every member of the Commonwealth retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, but when the Dominion of India became a republic in 1950, it would no longer share in a common monarchy. Instead, the British monarch was acknowledged as \"Head of the Commonwealth\" in all Commonwealth member states, whether they were realms or republics. The position is purely ceremonial, and is not inherited by the British monarch as of right but is vested in an individual chosen by the Commonwealth heads of government. Member states of the Commonwealth that share the same person as monarch are known as Commonwealth realms.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nMonarchy in Ireland","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn 1155 the only English pope, Pope Adrian IV, authorised King Henry II of England to take possession of Ireland as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship. The pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church into line with Rome, despite this process already underway in Ireland by 1155. An all-island kingship of Ireland had been created in 854 by Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid. His last successor was Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, who had become King of Ireland in early 1166, and exiled Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster. Diarmait asked Henry II for help, gaining a group of Anglo-Norman aristocrats and adventurers, led by Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, to help him regain his throne. Diarmait and his Anglo-Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again. De Clare married Diarmait's daughter, and when Diarmait died in 1171, de Clare became King of Leinster. Henry was afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman kingdom, so he took advantage of the papal bull and invaded, forcing de Clare and the other Anglo-Norman aristocrats in Ireland and the major Irish kings and lords to recognise him as their overlord.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nEnglish lords came close to colonising the entire island, but a Gaelic resurgence from the 1260s resulted in the island divided between Gaelic-Irish and Anglo-Irish lords by 1400. Many of the latter became completely Gaelicised, and did not recognise England's kings except perhaps nominally. Some, such as Manus O'Donnell and Conn O'Neill, 1st Earl of Tyrone, were kings themselves.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nBy 1541, King Henry VIII of England had broken with the Church of Rome and declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England. The pope's grant of Ireland to the English monarch became invalid, so Henry summoned a meeting of the Irish Parliament to change his title from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland. However much of the island was beyond English control, resulting in the extended Tudor conquest of Ireland that only made the Kingdom of Ireland a reality in 1603, at the conclusion of the Nine Years' War (Ireland). Nevertheless, Ireland retained its own parliament, becoming an independent state in 1642-1649 (Confederate Ireland), and again in 1688-91. Only warfare such as the Williamite War in Ireland and subsequent occupation enabled the English crown from 1692, and successive British states from 1707, to retain the country.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn 1800, as a result of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Act of Union merged the kingdom of Great Britain and the kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The whole island of Ireland continued to be a part of the United Kingdom until 1922, when what is now the Republic of Ireland won independence as the Irish Free State, a separate Dominion within the Commonwealth. The Irish Free State was renamed Éire (or \"Ireland\") in 1937, and in 1949 declared itself a republic, left the Commonwealth and severed all ties with the monarchy. Northern Ireland remained within the Union. In 1927, the United Kingdom changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, while the monarch's style for the next twenty years became \"of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India\".","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nModern status","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn the 1990s, Republicanism in the United Kingdom grew, partly on account of negative publicity associated with the Royal Family (for instance, immediately following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales). However, recent polls show that around 70–80% of the British public support the continuation of the monarchy.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nReligious role","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe sovereign is the Supreme Governor of the established Church of England. Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the monarch, on the advice of the Prime Minister, who chooses the appointee from a list of nominees prepared by a Church Commission. The Crown's role in the Church of England is titular; the most senior clergyman, the Archbishop of Canterbury, is the spiritual leader of the Church and of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The monarch takes an oath to preserve Church of Scotland and he or she holds the power to appoint the Lord High Commissioner to the Church's General Assembly, but otherwise plays no part in its governance, and enjoys no powers over it. The Sovereign plays no formal role in the disestablished Church in Wales or Church of Ireland.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nSuccession","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the laws governing succession to the shared throne requires the unanimous consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Acts of Union 1707. The rules of succession may only be changed by an Act of Parliament; it is not possible for an individual to renounce his or her right of succession. The Act of Settlement restricts the succession to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover (1630–1714), a granddaughter of James I.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nUpon the death of the Sovereign, his or her heir immediately and automatically succeeds (hence the phrase \"The king is dead, long live the king!\"), and the accession of the sovereign is publicly proclaimed by an Accession Council that meets at St James's Palace. The monarch is crowned in Westminster Abbey, normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury. A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign; indeed, the ceremony usually takes place many months after accession to allow sufficient time for its preparation and for a period of mourning.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAfter an individual ascends the throne, he or she reigns until death. The only voluntary abdication, that of Edward VIII, had to be authorised by a special Act of Parliament, His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was James VII and II, who fled into exile in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nRestrictions by gender and religion","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nSuccession was largely governed by male-preference cognatic primogeniture, under which sons inherit before daughters, and elder children inherit before younger ones of the same gender. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Cameron, announced at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 that all 16 Commonwealth realms, including the United Kingdom, had agreed to abolish the gender-preference rule for anyone born after the date of the meeting, 28 October 2011. They also agreed that future monarchs would no longer be prohibited from marrying a Roman Catholic – a law which dated from the Act of Settlement 1701. However, since the monarch is also the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, the law which prohibits a Roman Catholic from acceding to the throne remains. The necessary UK legislation making the changes received the royal assent on 25 April 2013 and was brought into force in March 2015 after the equivalent legislation was approved in all the other Commonwealth realms.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nOnly individuals who are Protestants may inherit the Crown. Roman Catholics are prohibited from succeeding. An individual thus disabled from inheriting the Crown is deemed \"naturally dead\" for succession purposes, and the disqualification does not extend to the individual's legitimate descendants.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nRegency","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Regency Acts allow for regencies in the event of a monarch who is a minor or who is physically or mentally incapacitated. When a regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line of succession automatically becomes regent, unless they themselves are a minor or incapacitated. Special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II by the Regency Act 1953, which stated that the Duke of Edinburgh (the Queen's husband) could act as regent in these circumstances.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nDuring a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom, the sovereign may temporarily delegate some of his or her functions to Counsellors of State, the monarch's spouse and the first four adults in the line of succession. The present Counsellors of State are: The Duke of Edinburgh, The Prince of Wales, The Duke of Cambridge, Prince Harry and The Duke of York.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nFinances","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nUntil 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, which included the profits of the Crown Estate (the royal property portfolio). King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List, and this arrangement persisted until 2012. An annual Property Services Grant-in-aid paid for the upkeep of the royal residences, and an annual Royal Travel Grant-in-Aid paid for travel. The Civil List covered most expenses, including those for staffing, state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment. Its size was fixed by Parliament every 10 years; any money saved was carried forward to the next 10-year period. From 2012 until 2020, the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid are to be replaced with a single Sovereign Grant, which will be set at 15% of the revenues generated by the Crown Estate.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Crown Estate is one of the largest property owners in the United Kingdom, with holdings of £7.3 billion in 2011. It is held in trust, and cannot be sold or owned by the Sovereign in a private capacity. In modern times, the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate to the Treasury have exceeded the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid. For example, the Crown Estate produced £200 million in the financial year 2007–8, whereas reported parliamentary funding for the monarch was £40 million during the same period.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nLike the Crown Estate, the land and assets of the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued at £383 million in 2011, are held in trust. The revenues of the Duchy form part of the Privy Purse, and are used for expenses not borne by the parliamentary grants. The Duchy of Cornwall is a similar estate held in trust to meet the expenses of the monarch's eldest son. The Royal Collection, which includes artworks and the Crown Jewels, is not owned by the Sovereign personally and is held in trust, as are the occupied palaces in the United Kingdom such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe sovereign is subject to indirect taxes such as value-added tax, and since 1993 the Queen has paid income tax and capital gains tax on personal income. Parliamentary grants to the Sovereign are not treated as income as they are solely for official expenditure. Republicans estimate that the real cost of the monarchy, including security and potential income not claimed by the state, such as profits from the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall and rent of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, is £334 million a year.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nEstimates of the Queen's wealth vary, depending on whether assets owned by her personally or held in trust for the nation are included. Forbes magazine estimated her wealth at US$450 million in 2010, but no official figure is available. In 1993, the Lord Chamberlain said estimates of £100 million were \"grossly overstated\". Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth in 1971 at £2 million (the equivalent of about £ today).","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nResidences","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Sovereign's official residence in London is Buckingham Palace. It is the site of most state banquets, investitures, royal christenings and other ceremonies. Another official residence is Windsor Castle, the largest occupied castle in the world, which is used principally at weekends, Easter and during Royal Ascot, an annual race meeting that is part of the social calendar. The Sovereign's official residence in Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh. The monarch stays at Holyrood for at least one week each year, and when visiting Scotland on state occasions.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nHistorically, the Palace of Westminster and the Tower of London were the main residences of the English Sovereign until Henry VIII acquired the Palace of Whitehall. Whitehall was destroyed by fire in 1698, leading to a shift to St James's Palace. Although replaced as the monarch's primary London residence by Buckingham Palace in 1837, St James's is still the senior palace and remains the ceremonial Royal residence. For example, foreign ambassadors are accredited to the Court of St James's, and the Palace is the site of the meeting of the Accession Council. It is also used by other members of the Royal Family.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nOther residences include Clarence House and Kensington Palace. The palaces belong to the Crown; they are held in trust for future rulers, and cannot be sold by the monarch. Sandringham House in Norfolk and Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire are privately owned by the Queen.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nStyle","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe present Sovereign's full style and title is \"Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith\". The title \"Head of the Commonwealth\" is held by the Queen personally, and is not vested in the British Crown. Pope Leo X first granted the title \"Defender of the Faith\" to King Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the Protestant Reformation, particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments. After Henry broke from the Roman Church, Pope Paul III revoked the grant, but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Sovereign is known as \"His Majesty\" or \"Her Majesty\". The form \"Britannic Majesty\" appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the British monarch from foreign rulers. The monarch chooses his or her regnal name, not necessarily his or her first name – King George VI, King Edward VII and Queen Victoria did not use their first names.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIf only one monarch has used a particular name, no ordinal is used; for example, Queen Victoria is not known as \"Victoria I\", and ordinals are not used for English monarchs who reigned before the Norman conquest of England. The question of whether numbering for British monarchs is based on previous English or Scottish monarchs was raised in 1953 when Scottish nationalists challenged the Queen's use of \"Elizabeth II\", on the grounds that there had never been an \"Elizabeth I\" in Scotland. In MacCormick v Lord Advocate, the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that the Queen's title was a matter of her own choice and prerogative. The Home Secretary told the House of Commons that monarchs since the Acts of Union had consistently used the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals, which in the applicable four cases has been the English ordinal. The Prime Minister confirmed this practice, but noted that \"neither The Queen nor her advisers could seek to bind their successors\". Future monarchs will apply this policy.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nTraditionally, the signature of the monarch includes their regnal name but not ordinal, followed by the letter R, which stands for rex or regina (Latin for king and queen, respectively). The present monarch's signature is \"Elizabeth R\". From 1877 until 1948 reigning monarchs added the letter I to their signatures, for imperator or imperatrix (emperor or empress in Latin), from their status as Emperor or Empress of India. For example, Queen Victoria signed as \"Victoria RI\" from 1877.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nArms","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom are \"Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or [for England]; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules [for Scotland]; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent [for Ireland]\". The supporters are the Lion and the Unicorn; the motto is \"Dieu et mon droit\" (French: \"God and my Right\"). Surrounding the shield is a representation of a Garter bearing the motto of the Chivalric order of the same name; \"Honi soit qui mal y pense\". (Old French: \"Shame be to him who thinks evil of it\"). In Scotland, the monarch uses an alternative form of the arms in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland, II England, and III Ireland. The mottoes are \"In Defens\" (an abbreviated form of the Scots \"In My Defens God Me Defend\") and the motto of the Order of the Thistle; \"Nemo me impune lacessit\". (Latin: \"No-one provokes me with impunity\"); the supporters are the unicorn and lion, who support both the escutcheon and lances, from which fly the flags of Scotland and England.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarch's official flag in the United Kingdom is the Royal Standard, which depicts the Royal Arms. It is flown only from buildings, vessels and vehicles in which the Sovereign is present. The Royal Standard is never flown at half-mast because there is always a sovereign: when one dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nWhen the monarch is not in residence, the Union Flag is flown at Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle and Sandringham House, whereas in Scotland the Royal Standard of Scotland is flown at Holyrood Palace and Balmoral Castle."],"string":"[\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories. The monarch's title is \\\"King\\\" (male) or \\\"Queen\\\" (female). The current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic and representational duties. As the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is, by tradition, commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces. Though the ultimate formal executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch's royal prerogative, these powers may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament and, in practice, within the constraints of convention and precedent.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe British monarchy traces its origins from the petty kingdoms of early medieval Scotland and Anglo-Saxon England, which consolidated into the kingdoms of England and Scotland by the 10th century AD. In 1066, the last crowned Anglo-Saxon monarch, Harold II, was defeated and killed during the Norman conquest of England and the English monarchy passed to the Normans' victorious leader, William the Conqueror, and his descendants.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn the 13th century, Wales, as a principality, became a client state of the English kingdom, while Magna Carta began a process of reducing the English monarch's political powers.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nFrom 1603, when the Scottish monarch King James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Act of Settlement 1701, which is still in force, excluded Roman Catholics, or those who marry Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the world's surface at its greatest extent in 1921.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn the 1920s, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the Union as the Irish Free State, and the Balfour Declaration recognised the evolution of the dominions of the empire into separate, self-governing countries within a Commonwealth of Nations. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, effectively bringing the empire to an end. George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the same person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. The terms British monarchy and British monarch are frequently still employed in reference to the shared individual and institution; however, each country is sovereign and independent of the others, and the monarch has a different, specific, and official national title and style for each realm.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nConstitutional role\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch (otherwise referred to as the Sovereign or \\\"His/Her Majesty\\\", abbreviated H.M.) is the Head of State. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. God Save the Queen (or God Save the King) is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins and banknotes.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Monarch takes little direct part in Government. The decisions to exercise sovereign powers are delegated from the Monarch, either by statute or by convention, to Ministers or officers of the Crown, or other public bodies, exclusive of the Monarch personally. Thus the acts of state done in the name of the Crown, such as Crown Appointments, even if personally performed by the Monarch, such as the Queen's Speech and the State Opening of Parliament, depend upon decisions made elsewhere:\\n* Legislative power is exercised by the Queen-in-Parliament, by and with the advice and consent of Parliament, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. * Executive power is exercised by Her Majesty's Government, which comprises Ministers, primarily the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, which is technically a committee of the Privy Council. They have the direction of the Armed Forces of the Crown, the Civil Service and other Crown Servants such as the Diplomatic and Secret Services (the Queen receives certain foreign intelligence reports before the Prime Minister does\\\"In London, the revelations from [1989 Soviet defector Vladimir] Pasechnik were summarized into a quick note for the Joint Intelligence Committee.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe first recipient of such reports is always Her Majesty, The Queen. The second is the prime minister, who at the time was Margaret Thatcher|[Margaret] Thatcher.\\\" Hoffman, David E. (Emanuel), The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy (N.Y.: Doubleday, 1st ed. [1st printing?] (ISBN 978-0-385-52437-7) 2009), p. 336 (author contributing editor & formerly U.S. White House, diplomatic, & Jerusalem correspondent, Moscow bureau chief, & foreign news asst. managing editor for The Wash. Post).). * Judicial power is vested in the Judiciary, who by constitution and statute have judicial independence of the Government. * The Church of England, of which the Monarch is the head, has its own legislative, judicial and executive structures. * Powers independent of government are legally granted to other public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council, Royal Commission or otherwise.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Sovereign's role as a constitutional monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours. This role has been recognised since the 19th century. The constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the \\\"dignified part\\\" rather than the \\\"efficient part\\\" of government.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAppointment of the Prime Minister\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nWhenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister (who by convention appoints and may dismiss every other Minister of the Crown, and thereby constitutes and controls the government). In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Sovereign must appoint an individual who commands the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of the party or coalition that has a majority in that House. The Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after \\\"kissing hands\\\" that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn a hung parliament where no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command the most support, though it would usually be the leader of the largest party. Since 1945, there have only been two hung parliaments. The first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilson's Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party. The second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives (the largest party) and Liberal Democrats (the third largest party) agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nDissolution of Parliament\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn 1950 the King's Private Secretary writing pseudonymously to The Times newspaper asserted a constitutional convention: according to the Lascelles Principles, if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse, and would do so under three conditions. When Prime Minister Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974, the Queen granted his request as Heath had already failed to form a coalition. The resulting general election gave Wilson a small majority. The monarch could in theory unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but a Prime Minister's term now comes to an end only by electoral defeat, death, or resignation. The last monarch to remove a Prime Minister was William IV, who dismissed Lord Melbourne in 1834. The Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 removed the monarch's authority to dissolve Parliament; the Act specifically retained the monarch's power of prorogation however, which is a regular feature of the parliamentary calendar.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nRoyal Prerogative\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nSome of the government's executive authority is theoretically and nominally vested in the Sovereign and is known as the royal prerogative. The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, exercising prerogative only on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament, often through the Prime Minister or Privy Council. In practice, prerogative powers are exercised only on the Prime Minister's advice – the Prime Minister, and not the Sovereign, has control. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister. No records of these audiences are taken and the proceedings remain fully confidential. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the decisions of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet (providing they command the support of the House). In Bagehot's words: \\\"the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights – the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn.\\\"\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAlthough the Royal Prerogative is extensive and parliamentary approval is not formally required for its exercise, it is limited. Many Crown prerogatives have fallen out of use or have been permanently transferred to Parliament. For example, the monarch cannot impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, \\\"The Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers\\\", and Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Royal Prerogative includes the powers to appoint and dismiss ministers, regulate the civil service, issue passports, declare war, make peace, direct the actions of the military, and negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The monarch is commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces (the Royal Navy, the British Army, and the Royal Air Force), accredits British High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives diplomats from foreign states.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIt is the prerogative of the monarch to summon and prorogue Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the monarch's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament, during which the Sovereign reads the Speech from the throne in the Chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term, and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Commons. A general election is normally held five years after the previous one under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, but can be held sooner if the Prime Minister loses a motion of confidence, or if two-thirds of the members of the House of Commons vote to hold an early election.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nBefore a bill passed by the legislative Houses can become law, the royal assent (the monarch's approval) is required. In theory, assent can either be granted (making the bill law) or withheld (vetoing the bill), but since 1707 assent has always been granted.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe monarch has a similar relationship with the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament, and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the National Assembly for Wales. In Scottish matters, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government. However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, in Welsh matters the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly, if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Sovereign is deemed the \\\"fount of justice\\\"; although the Sovereign does not personally rule in judicial cases, judicial functions are performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on the monarch's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown. The common law holds that the Sovereign \\\"can do no wrong\\\"; the monarch cannot be prosecuted for criminal offences. The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government), but not lawsuits against the monarch personally. The Sovereign exercises the \\\"prerogative of mercy\\\", which is used to pardon convicted offenders or reduce sentences.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe monarch is the \\\"fount of honour\\\", the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. The Crown creates all peerages, appoints members of the orders of chivalry, grants knighthoods and awards other honours. Although peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the Prime Minister, some honours are within the personal gift of the Sovereign, and are not granted on ministerial advice. The monarch alone appoints members of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of Merit.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nEnglish monarchy\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nFollowing Viking raids and settlement in the ninth century, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex, achieved dominance over western Mercia, and assumed the title \\\"King of the English\\\". His grandson Æthelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to the present borders of England, though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation. William, Duke of Normandy's conquest of England in 1066 was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in the Anglo-Saxon period, while the Feudal System continued to develop.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nWilliam I was succeeded by two of his sons: William II, then Henry I. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry's death in 1135, one of William I's grandsons, Stephen, laid claim to the throne and took power with the support of most of the barons. Matilda challenged his reign; as a result, England descended into a period of disorder known as the Anarchy. Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power, but agreed to a compromise under which Matilda's son Henry would succeed him. Henry accordingly became the first Angevin king of England and the first monarch of the Plantagenet dynasty as Henry II in 1154.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons, the future monarchs Richard I and John. Nevertheless, Henry managed to expand his kingdom, forming what is retrospectively known as the Angevin Empire. Upon Henry's death, his elder son Richard succeeded to the throne; he was absent from England for most of his reign, as he left to fight in the Crusades. He was killed besieging a castle, and John succeeded him.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nJohn's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, particularly over the limits of royal power. In 1215, the barons coerced the king into issuing Magna Carta (Latin for \\\"Great Charter\\\") to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon afterwards, further disagreements plunged England into a civil war known as the First Barons' War. The war came to an abrupt end after John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine-year-old son Henry III. Later in Henry's reign, Simon de Montfort led the barons in another rebellion, beginning the Second Barons' War. The war ended in a clear royalist victory and in the death of many rebels, but not before the king had agreed to summon a parliament in 1265.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe next monarch, Edward I (\\\"Edward Longshanks\\\"), was far more successful in maintaining royal power and responsible for the conquest of Wales. He attempted to establish English domination of Scotland. However, gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, Edward II, who also faced conflict with the nobility. In 1311, Edward II was forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of baronial \\\"ordainers\\\"; however, military victories helped him regain control in 1322. Nevertheless, in 1327, Edward was deposed and then murdered by his wife Isabella. His 14-year-old son became Edward III. Edward III claimed the French Crown, setting off the Hundred Years' War between England and France.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nHis campaigns conquered much French territory, but by 1374, all the gains had been lost. Edward's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses. In 1377, Edward III died, leaving the Crown to his 10-year-old grandson Richard II. Like many of his predecessors, Richard II conflicted with the nobles by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, while he was campaigning in Ireland, his cousin Henry Bolingbroke seized power. Richard was deposed, imprisoned, and eventually murdered, probably by starvation, and Henry became king as Henry IV.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nHenry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster; hence, his dynasty was known as the House of Lancaster. For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son, the future Henry V. Henry V's own reign, which began in 1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years' War in France. Although he was victorious, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son Henry VI on the throne and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe unpopularity of Henry VI's counsellors and his belligerent consort, Margaret of Anjou, as well as his own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York, so called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was Richard, Duke of York. Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460, his eldest son, Edward IV, led the Yorkists to victory in 1461. The Wars of the Roses, nevertheless, continued intermittently during his reign and those of his son Edward V and brother Richard III. Edward V disappeared, presumably murdered by Richard. Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch led by Henry Tudor, in 1485, when Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nNow King Henry VII, he neutralised the remaining Yorkist forces, partly by marrying Elizabeth of York, a Yorkist heir. Through skill and ability, Henry re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end. The reign of the second Tudor king, Henry VIII, was one of great political change. Religious upheaval and disputes with the Pope led the monarch to break from the Roman Catholic Church and to establish the Church of England (the Anglican Church).\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nWales – which had been conquered centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion – was annexed to England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Henry VIII's son and successor, the young Edward VI, continued with further religious reforms, but his early death in 1553 precipitated a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half-sister Mary to succeed, and therefore drew up a will designating Lady Jane Grey as his heiress. Jane's reign, however, lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her and declared herself the lawful sovereign. Mary I married Philip of Spain, who was declared king and co-ruler, pursued disastrous wars in France, and attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism, burning Protestants at the stake as heretics in the process. Upon her death in 1558, the pair were succeeded by her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth I. England returned to Protestantism and continued its growth into a major world power by building its navy and exploring the New World.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nScottish monarchy\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of the Roman empire from Britain in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts in the north east, the Britons in the south, including the Kingdom of Strathclyde, and the Gaels or Scotti (who would later give their name to Scotland), of the Irish petty kingdom of Dál Riata in the west. Kenneth MacAlpin is traditionally viewed as the first king of a united Scotland (known as Scotia to writers in Latin, or Alba to the Scots). The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were absorbed.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nEarly Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead the custom of tanistry was followed, where the monarchy alternated between different branches of the House of Alpin. As a result, however, the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. From 942 to 1005, seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle. In 1005, Malcolm II ascended the throne having killed many rivals. He continued to ruthlessly eliminate opposition, and when he died in 1034 he was succeeded by his grandson, Duncan I, instead of a cousin, as had been usual. In 1040, Duncan suffered defeat in battle at the hands of Macbeth, who was killed himself in 1057 by Duncan's son Malcolm. The following year, after killing Macbeth's stepson Lulach, Malcolm ascended the throne as Malcolm III.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nWith a further series of battles and deposings, five of Malcolm's sons as well as one of his brothers successively became king. Eventually, the Crown came to his youngest son, David. David was succeeded by his grandsons Malcolm IV, and then by William the Lion, the longest-reigning King of Scots before the Union of the Crowns. William participated in a rebellion against King Henry II of England but when the rebellion failed, William was captured by the English. In exchange for his release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades. William died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II. Alexander II, as well as his successor Alexander III, attempted to take over the Western Isles, which were still under the overlordship of Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing Treaty of Perth recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAlexander III's unexpected death in a riding accident in 1286 precipitated a major succession crisis. Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England for help in determining who was the rightful heir. Edward chose Alexander's three-year-old Norwegian granddaughter, Margaret. On her way to Scotland in 1290, however, Margaret died at sea, and Edward was again asked to adjudicate between 13 rival claimants to the throne. A court was set up and after two years of deliberation, it pronounced John Balliol to be king. However, Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal, and tried to exert influence over Scotland. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England, Edward I invaded. During the first ten years of the ensuing Wars of Scottish Independence, Scotland had no monarch, until Robert the Bruce declared himself king in 1306.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nRobert's efforts to control Scotland culminated in success, and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later, Robert died and was succeeded by his five-year-old son, David II. On the pretext of restoring John Balliol's rightful heir, Edward Balliol, the English again invaded in 1332. During the next four years, Balliol was crowned, deposed, restored, deposed, restored, and deposed until he eventually settled in England, and David remained king for the next 35 years.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nDavid II died childless in 1371 and was succeeded by his nephew Robert II of the House of Stuart. The reigns of both Robert II and his successor, Robert III, were marked by a general decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, regents had to rule the country; the monarch, Robert III's son James I, had been taken captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to Scotland in 1424; to restore his authority, he used ruthless measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. He was assassinated by a group of nobles. James II continued his father's policies by subduing influential noblemen but he was killed in an accident at the age of thirty, and a council of regents again assumed power. James III was defeated in a battle against rebellious Scottish earls in 1488, leading to another boy-king: James IV.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn 1513 James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met with disaster at Flodden Field; the King, many senior noblemen, and hundreds of soldiers were killed. As his son and successor, James V, was an infant, the government was again taken over by regents. James V led another disastrous war with the English in 1542, and his death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six-day-old daughter, Mary. Once again, a regency was established.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nMary, a Roman Catholic, reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. As a result of the efforts of reformers such as John Knox, a Protestant ascendancy was established. Mary caused alarm by marrying her Catholic cousin, Lord Darnley, in 1565. After Lord Darnley's assassination in 1567, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of Darnley's murder. The nobility rebelled against the Queen, forcing her to abdicate. She fled to England, and the Crown went to her infant son James VI, who was brought up as a Protestant. Mary was imprisoned and later executed by the English Queen Elizabeth I.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nPersonal union and republican phase\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nElizabeth's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England. Since she had no children, she was succeeded by the Scottish monarch James VI, who was the great-grandson of Henry VIII's older sister and hence Elizabeth's first cousin twice removed. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the \\\"Union of the Crowns\\\". Although England and Scotland were in personal union under one monarch – James I became the first monarch to style himself \\\"King of Great Britain and Ireland\\\" in 1604 – they remained separate kingdoms. James I's successor, Charles I, experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. He provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to 1640, unilaterally levying taxes and adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive to the Scottish Presbyterians and the English Puritans). His attempt to enforce Anglicanism led to organised rebellion in Scotland (the \\\"Bishops' Wars\\\") and ignited the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In 1642, the conflict between the King and English Parliament reached its climax and the English Civil War began.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Civil War culminated in the execution of the king in 1649, the overthrow of the English monarchy, and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England. Charles I's son, Charles II, was proclaimed King of Great Britain in Scotland, but he was forced to flee abroad after he invaded England and was defeated at the Battle of Worcester. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself Lord Protector (effectively becoming a military dictator, but refusing the title of king). Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing; he soon resigned. The lack of clear leadership led to civil and military unrest, and for a popular desire to restore the monarchy. In 1660, the monarchy was restored and Charles II returned to Britain.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nCharles II's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children, and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. A parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line of succession arose; the \\\"Petitioners\\\", who supported exclusion, became the Whig Party, whereas the \\\"Abhorrers\\\", who opposed exclusion, became the Tory Party. The Exclusion Bill failed; on several occasions, Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled without a Parliament until his death in 1685. When James succeeded Charles, he pursued a policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects. Many opposed James's decisions to maintain a large standing army, to appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices, and to imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his policies. As a result, a group of Protestants known as the Immortal Seven invited James II's daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange to depose the king. William obliged, arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great public support.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nFaced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials, James fled the realm and William and Mary (rather than James II's Catholic son) were declared joint Sovereigns of England, Scotland and Ireland.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nJames's overthrow, known as the Glorious Revolution, was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power. The Bill of Rights 1689 affirmed parliamentary supremacy, and declared that the English people held certain rights, including the freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of Rights required future monarchs to be Protestants, and provided that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary's sister Anne would inherit the Crown. Mary died childless in 1694, leaving William as the sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of Anne's children had died, leaving her as the only individual left in the line of succession. Parliament was afraid that the former James II or his supporters, known as Jacobites, might attempt to reclaim the throne. Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701, which excluded James and his Catholic relations from the succession and made William's nearest Protestant relations, the family of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, next in line to the throne after his sister-in-law Anne. Soon after the passage of the Act, William III died, leaving the Crown to Anne.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAfter the 1707 Acts of Union\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAfter Anne's accession, the problem of the succession re-emerged. The Scottish Parliament, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia's family as the next heirs, passed the Act of Security 1704, threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705, threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by restricting trade. The Scottish and English parliaments negotiated the Acts of Union 1707, under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with succession under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by her second cousin, and Sophia's son, George I, Elector of Hanover, who consolidated his position by defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719. The new monarch was less active in government than many of his British predecessors, but retained control over his German kingdoms, with which Britain was now in personal union. Power shifted towards George's ministers, especially to Sir Robert Walpole, who is often considered the first British prime minister, although the title was not then in use. The next monarch, George II, witnessed the final end of the Jacobite threat in 1746, when the Catholic Stuarts were completely defeated. During the long reign of his grandson, George III, Britain's American colonies were lost, the former colonies having formed the United States of America, but British influence elsewhere in the world continued to grow, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created by the Acts of Union 1800.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nFrom 1811 to 1820, George III suffered a severe bout of what is now believed to be porphyria, an illness rendering him incapable of ruling. His son, the future George IV, ruled in his stead as Prince Regent. During the Regency and his own reign, the power of the monarchy declined, and by the time of his successor, William IV, the monarch was no longer able to effectively interfere with parliamentary power. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, and appointed a Tory, Sir Robert Peel. In the ensuing elections, however, Peel lost. The king had no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. During William IV's reign, the Reform Act 1832, which reformed parliamentary representation, was passed. Together with others passed later in the century, the Act led to an expansion of the electoral franchise and the rise of the House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV's successor, Victoria. As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover, which only permitted succession in the male line, so the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The Victorian era was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over India, Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. However, her reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement, due in part to Victoria's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nVictoria's son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1901. In 1917, the next monarch, George V, changed \\\"Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\\\" to \\\"Windsor\\\" in response to the anti-German sympathies aroused by the First World War. George V's reign was marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom, and the Irish Free State, an independent nation, in 1922.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nShared monarchy\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nDuring the twentieth century, the Commonwealth of Nations evolved from the British Empire. Prior to 1926, the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively; the Dominions and Crown colonies were subordinate to the United Kingdom. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave complete self-government to the Dominions, effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion. The concept was solidified by the Statute of Westminster 1931, which has been likened to \\\"a treaty among the Commonwealth countries\\\".\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it is often still referred to as \\\"British\\\" for legal and historical reasons and for convenience. The monarch became separately monarch of the United Kingdom, monarch of Canada, monarch of Australia, and so forth. The independent states within the Commonwealth would share the same monarch in a relationship likened to a personal union.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nGeorge V's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of Edward VIII, who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry the divorced American Wallis Simpson, even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcées. Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to abdicate; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth countries granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were excluded from the line of succession, and the Crown went to his brother, George VI. George served as a rallying figure for the British people during World War II, making morale-boosting visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and to areas bombed by Nazi Germany. In June 1948 George VI relinquished the title Emperor of India, although remaining head of state of the Dominion of India.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAt first, every member of the Commonwealth retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, but when the Dominion of India became a republic in 1950, it would no longer share in a common monarchy. Instead, the British monarch was acknowledged as \\\"Head of the Commonwealth\\\" in all Commonwealth member states, whether they were realms or republics. The position is purely ceremonial, and is not inherited by the British monarch as of right but is vested in an individual chosen by the Commonwealth heads of government. Member states of the Commonwealth that share the same person as monarch are known as Commonwealth realms.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nMonarchy in Ireland\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn 1155 the only English pope, Pope Adrian IV, authorised King Henry II of England to take possession of Ireland as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship. The pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church into line with Rome, despite this process already underway in Ireland by 1155. An all-island kingship of Ireland had been created in 854 by Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid. His last successor was Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, who had become King of Ireland in early 1166, and exiled Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster. Diarmait asked Henry II for help, gaining a group of Anglo-Norman aristocrats and adventurers, led by Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, to help him regain his throne. Diarmait and his Anglo-Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again. De Clare married Diarmait's daughter, and when Diarmait died in 1171, de Clare became King of Leinster. Henry was afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman kingdom, so he took advantage of the papal bull and invaded, forcing de Clare and the other Anglo-Norman aristocrats in Ireland and the major Irish kings and lords to recognise him as their overlord.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nEnglish lords came close to colonising the entire island, but a Gaelic resurgence from the 1260s resulted in the island divided between Gaelic-Irish and Anglo-Irish lords by 1400. Many of the latter became completely Gaelicised, and did not recognise England's kings except perhaps nominally. Some, such as Manus O'Donnell and Conn O'Neill, 1st Earl of Tyrone, were kings themselves.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nBy 1541, King Henry VIII of England had broken with the Church of Rome and declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England. The pope's grant of Ireland to the English monarch became invalid, so Henry summoned a meeting of the Irish Parliament to change his title from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland. However much of the island was beyond English control, resulting in the extended Tudor conquest of Ireland that only made the Kingdom of Ireland a reality in 1603, at the conclusion of the Nine Years' War (Ireland). Nevertheless, Ireland retained its own parliament, becoming an independent state in 1642-1649 (Confederate Ireland), and again in 1688-91. Only warfare such as the Williamite War in Ireland and subsequent occupation enabled the English crown from 1692, and successive British states from 1707, to retain the country.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn 1800, as a result of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Act of Union merged the kingdom of Great Britain and the kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The whole island of Ireland continued to be a part of the United Kingdom until 1922, when what is now the Republic of Ireland won independence as the Irish Free State, a separate Dominion within the Commonwealth. The Irish Free State was renamed Éire (or \\\"Ireland\\\") in 1937, and in 1949 declared itself a republic, left the Commonwealth and severed all ties with the monarchy. Northern Ireland remained within the Union. In 1927, the United Kingdom changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, while the monarch's style for the next twenty years became \\\"of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India\\\".\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nModern status\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn the 1990s, Republicanism in the United Kingdom grew, partly on account of negative publicity associated with the Royal Family (for instance, immediately following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales). However, recent polls show that around 70–80% of the British public support the continuation of the monarchy.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nReligious role\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe sovereign is the Supreme Governor of the established Church of England. Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the monarch, on the advice of the Prime Minister, who chooses the appointee from a list of nominees prepared by a Church Commission. The Crown's role in the Church of England is titular; the most senior clergyman, the Archbishop of Canterbury, is the spiritual leader of the Church and of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The monarch takes an oath to preserve Church of Scotland and he or she holds the power to appoint the Lord High Commissioner to the Church's General Assembly, but otherwise plays no part in its governance, and enjoys no powers over it. The Sovereign plays no formal role in the disestablished Church in Wales or Church of Ireland.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nSuccession\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the laws governing succession to the shared throne requires the unanimous consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Acts of Union 1707. The rules of succession may only be changed by an Act of Parliament; it is not possible for an individual to renounce his or her right of succession. The Act of Settlement restricts the succession to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover (1630–1714), a granddaughter of James I.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nUpon the death of the Sovereign, his or her heir immediately and automatically succeeds (hence the phrase \\\"The king is dead, long live the king!\\\"), and the accession of the sovereign is publicly proclaimed by an Accession Council that meets at St James's Palace. The monarch is crowned in Westminster Abbey, normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury. A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign; indeed, the ceremony usually takes place many months after accession to allow sufficient time for its preparation and for a period of mourning.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAfter an individual ascends the throne, he or she reigns until death. The only voluntary abdication, that of Edward VIII, had to be authorised by a special Act of Parliament, His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was James VII and II, who fled into exile in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nRestrictions by gender and religion\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nSuccession was largely governed by male-preference cognatic primogeniture, under which sons inherit before daughters, and elder children inherit before younger ones of the same gender. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Cameron, announced at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 that all 16 Commonwealth realms, including the United Kingdom, had agreed to abolish the gender-preference rule for anyone born after the date of the meeting, 28 October 2011. They also agreed that future monarchs would no longer be prohibited from marrying a Roman Catholic – a law which dated from the Act of Settlement 1701. However, since the monarch is also the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, the law which prohibits a Roman Catholic from acceding to the throne remains. The necessary UK legislation making the changes received the royal assent on 25 April 2013 and was brought into force in March 2015 after the equivalent legislation was approved in all the other Commonwealth realms.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nOnly individuals who are Protestants may inherit the Crown. Roman Catholics are prohibited from succeeding. An individual thus disabled from inheriting the Crown is deemed \\\"naturally dead\\\" for succession purposes, and the disqualification does not extend to the individual's legitimate descendants.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nRegency\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Regency Acts allow for regencies in the event of a monarch who is a minor or who is physically or mentally incapacitated. When a regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line of succession automatically becomes regent, unless they themselves are a minor or incapacitated. Special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II by the Regency Act 1953, which stated that the Duke of Edinburgh (the Queen's husband) could act as regent in these circumstances.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nDuring a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom, the sovereign may temporarily delegate some of his or her functions to Counsellors of State, the monarch's spouse and the first four adults in the line of succession. The present Counsellors of State are: The Duke of Edinburgh, The Prince of Wales, The Duke of Cambridge, Prince Harry and The Duke of York.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nFinances\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nUntil 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, which included the profits of the Crown Estate (the royal property portfolio). King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List, and this arrangement persisted until 2012. An annual Property Services Grant-in-aid paid for the upkeep of the royal residences, and an annual Royal Travel Grant-in-Aid paid for travel. The Civil List covered most expenses, including those for staffing, state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment. Its size was fixed by Parliament every 10 years; any money saved was carried forward to the next 10-year period. From 2012 until 2020, the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid are to be replaced with a single Sovereign Grant, which will be set at 15% of the revenues generated by the Crown Estate.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Crown Estate is one of the largest property owners in the United Kingdom, with holdings of £7.3 billion in 2011. It is held in trust, and cannot be sold or owned by the Sovereign in a private capacity. In modern times, the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate to the Treasury have exceeded the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid. For example, the Crown Estate produced £200 million in the financial year 2007–8, whereas reported parliamentary funding for the monarch was £40 million during the same period.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nLike the Crown Estate, the land and assets of the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued at £383 million in 2011, are held in trust. The revenues of the Duchy form part of the Privy Purse, and are used for expenses not borne by the parliamentary grants. The Duchy of Cornwall is a similar estate held in trust to meet the expenses of the monarch's eldest son. The Royal Collection, which includes artworks and the Crown Jewels, is not owned by the Sovereign personally and is held in trust, as are the occupied palaces in the United Kingdom such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe sovereign is subject to indirect taxes such as value-added tax, and since 1993 the Queen has paid income tax and capital gains tax on personal income. Parliamentary grants to the Sovereign are not treated as income as they are solely for official expenditure. Republicans estimate that the real cost of the monarchy, including security and potential income not claimed by the state, such as profits from the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall and rent of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, is £334 million a year.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nEstimates of the Queen's wealth vary, depending on whether assets owned by her personally or held in trust for the nation are included. Forbes magazine estimated her wealth at US$450 million in 2010, but no official figure is available. In 1993, the Lord Chamberlain said estimates of £100 million were \\\"grossly overstated\\\". Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth in 1971 at £2 million (the equivalent of about £ today).\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nResidences\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Sovereign's official residence in London is Buckingham Palace. It is the site of most state banquets, investitures, royal christenings and other ceremonies. Another official residence is Windsor Castle, the largest occupied castle in the world, which is used principally at weekends, Easter and during Royal Ascot, an annual race meeting that is part of the social calendar. The Sovereign's official residence in Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh. The monarch stays at Holyrood for at least one week each year, and when visiting Scotland on state occasions.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nHistorically, the Palace of Westminster and the Tower of London were the main residences of the English Sovereign until Henry VIII acquired the Palace of Whitehall. Whitehall was destroyed by fire in 1698, leading to a shift to St James's Palace. Although replaced as the monarch's primary London residence by Buckingham Palace in 1837, St James's is still the senior palace and remains the ceremonial Royal residence. For example, foreign ambassadors are accredited to the Court of St James's, and the Palace is the site of the meeting of the Accession Council. It is also used by other members of the Royal Family.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nOther residences include Clarence House and Kensington Palace. The palaces belong to the Crown; they are held in trust for future rulers, and cannot be sold by the monarch. Sandringham House in Norfolk and Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire are privately owned by the Queen.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nStyle\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe present Sovereign's full style and title is \\\"Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith\\\". The title \\\"Head of the Commonwealth\\\" is held by the Queen personally, and is not vested in the British Crown. Pope Leo X first granted the title \\\"Defender of the Faith\\\" to King Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the Protestant Reformation, particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments. After Henry broke from the Roman Church, Pope Paul III revoked the grant, but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Sovereign is known as \\\"His Majesty\\\" or \\\"Her Majesty\\\". The form \\\"Britannic Majesty\\\" appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the British monarch from foreign rulers. The monarch chooses his or her regnal name, not necessarily his or her first name – King George VI, King Edward VII and Queen Victoria did not use their first names.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIf only one monarch has used a particular name, no ordinal is used; for example, Queen Victoria is not known as \\\"Victoria I\\\", and ordinals are not used for English monarchs who reigned before the Norman conquest of England. The question of whether numbering for British monarchs is based on previous English or Scottish monarchs was raised in 1953 when Scottish nationalists challenged the Queen's use of \\\"Elizabeth II\\\", on the grounds that there had never been an \\\"Elizabeth I\\\" in Scotland. In MacCormick v Lord Advocate, the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that the Queen's title was a matter of her own choice and prerogative. The Home Secretary told the House of Commons that monarchs since the Acts of Union had consistently used the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals, which in the applicable four cases has been the English ordinal. The Prime Minister confirmed this practice, but noted that \\\"neither The Queen nor her advisers could seek to bind their successors\\\". Future monarchs will apply this policy.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nTraditionally, the signature of the monarch includes their regnal name but not ordinal, followed by the letter R, which stands for rex or regina (Latin for king and queen, respectively). The present monarch's signature is \\\"Elizabeth R\\\". From 1877 until 1948 reigning monarchs added the letter I to their signatures, for imperator or imperatrix (emperor or empress in Latin), from their status as Emperor or Empress of India. For example, Queen Victoria signed as \\\"Victoria RI\\\" from 1877.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nArms\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom are \\\"Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or [for England]; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules [for Scotland]; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent [for Ireland]\\\". The supporters are the Lion and the Unicorn; the motto is \\\"Dieu et mon droit\\\" (French: \\\"God and my Right\\\"). Surrounding the shield is a representation of a Garter bearing the motto of the Chivalric order of the same name; \\\"Honi soit qui mal y pense\\\". (Old French: \\\"Shame be to him who thinks evil of it\\\"). In Scotland, the monarch uses an alternative form of the arms in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland, II England, and III Ireland. The mottoes are \\\"In Defens\\\" (an abbreviated form of the Scots \\\"In My Defens God Me Defend\\\") and the motto of the Order of the Thistle; \\\"Nemo me impune lacessit\\\". (Latin: \\\"No-one provokes me with impunity\\\"); the supporters are the unicorn and lion, who support both the escutcheon and lances, from which fly the flags of Scotland and England.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe monarch's official flag in the United Kingdom is the Royal Standard, which depicts the Royal Arms. It is flown only from buildings, vessels and vehicles in which the Sovereign is present. The Royal Standard is never flown at half-mast because there is always a sovereign: when one dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nWhen the monarch is not in residence, the Union Flag is flown at Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle and Sandringham House, whereas in Scotland the Royal Standard of Scotland is flown at Holyrood Palace and Balmoral Castle.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2098,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_48"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which American President ordered the dropping of the first atomic bomb?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Harry S Truman"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["harry solomon truman","presidency of harry s truman","harold truman","hary truman","mary jane truman","mr citizen","h truman","president harry truman","harry shipp truman","s truman","presidency of harry truman","president truman","harry truman","harry truman s","harry shippe truman","truman administration","harry s truman","hst president","33rd president of united states","h s truman"],"string":"[\n \"harry solomon truman\",\n \"presidency of harry s truman\",\n \"harold truman\",\n \"hary truman\",\n \"mary jane truman\",\n \"mr citizen\",\n \"h truman\",\n \"president harry truman\",\n \"harry shipp truman\",\n \"s truman\",\n \"presidency of harry truman\",\n \"president truman\",\n \"harry truman\",\n \"harry truman s\",\n \"harry shippe truman\",\n \"truman administration\",\n \"harry s truman\",\n \"hst president\",\n \"33rd president of united states\",\n \"h s truman\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["President of the United States\n\nThe President of the United States of America (POTUS) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.","President of the United States\n\nThe President of the United States is considered one of the world's most powerful people, leading the world's only contemporary superpower. The role includes being the commander-in-chief of the world's most expensive military with the largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by real and nominal GDP. The office of the president holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad.","President of the United States\n\nArticle II of the U.S. Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The power includes execution of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances. The president is largely responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is enrolled. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States. Since the founding of the United States, the power of the president and the federal government has grown substantially.","President of the United States\n\nThe president is indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a four-year term, and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers, the other being the Vice President of the United States. The Twenty-second Amendment, adopted in 1951, prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a third full term. It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as president, or acting president, for more than two years of another person's term as president. In all, 43 individuals have served 44 presidencies (counting Cleveland's two non-consecutive terms separately) spanning 56 full four-year terms. On January 20, 2009, Barack Obama became the 44th and current president. On November 6, 2012, he was re-elected and is currently serving the 57th term. The next presidential election is scheduled to take place on November 8, 2016; on January 20, 2017, the newly elected president will take office.","President of the United States\n\nOrigin","President of the United States\n\nIn 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, recognized the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British. Desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. As a central authority, Congress under the Articles was without any legislative power; it could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, nor any taxes or local commercial regulations enforceable upon citizens. This institutional design reflected the conception of how Americans believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion: a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress, while severally lodging the rest within their own respective state governments.","President of the United States\n\nOnly after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1, 1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them.","President of the United States\n\nIn 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak, their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another, witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates, and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest. Civil and political unrest loomed.","President of the United States\n\nFollowing the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 in Annapolis, Maryland, with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When the convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, the Annapolis delegates called for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring in Philadelphia. Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington's attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia.","President of the United States\n\nWhen the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance (Rhode Island did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature. New York offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter. It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S. Constitution emerged.","President of the United States\n\nPowers and duties","President of the United States\n\nArticle I legislative role","President of the United States\n\nThe first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto. The Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options:\n# Sign the legislation; the bill then becomes law.\n# Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections; the bill does not become law, unless each house of Congress votes to override the veto by a two-thirds vote.\n# Take no action. In this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation. After 10 days, not counting Sundays, two possible outcomes emerge:\n#* If Congress is still convened, the bill becomes law.\n#* If Congress has adjourned, thus preventing the return of the legislation, the bill does not become law. This latter outcome is known as the pocket veto.","President of the United States\n\nIn 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act. The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York, , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional.","President of the United States\n\nArticle II executive powers","President of the United States\n\nWar and foreign affairs powers","President of the United States\n\nPerhaps the most important of all presidential powers is the command of the United States Armed Forces as its commander-in-chief. While the power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, the president has ultimate responsibility for direction and disposition of the military. The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces (belonging to the Department of Defense) is normally exercised through the Secretary of Defense, with assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, to the Combatant Commands, as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP). The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explains this in Federalist No. 69: Congress, pursuant to the War Powers Resolution, must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual. Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation.","President of the United States\n\nWhile historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in 1903, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1990.","President of the United States\n\nAlong with the armed forces, the president also directs U.S. foreign policy. Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments, and negotiates treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds vote of the Senate.","President of the United States\n\nAlthough not constitutionally provided, presidents also sometimes employ \"executive agreements\" in foreign relations. These agreements frequently regard administrative policy choices germane to executive power; for example, the extent to which either country presents an armed presence in a given area, how each country will enforce copyright treaties, or how each country will process foreign mail. However, the 20th century witnessed a vast expansion of the use of executive agreements, and critics have challenged the extent of that use as supplanting the treaty process and removing constitutionally prescribed checks and balances over the executive in foreign relations. Supporters counter that the agreements offer a pragmatic solution when the need for swift, secret, and/or concerted action arises.","President of the United States\n\nAdministrative powers","President of the United States\n\nThe president is the head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to \"take care that the laws be faithfully executed.\" The executive branch has over four million employees, including members of the military.","President of the United States\n\nPresidents make numerous executive branch appointments: an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before taking office and 8,000 more while serving. Ambassadors, members of the Cabinet, and other federal officers, are all appointed by a president with the \"advice and consent\" of a majority of the Senate. When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days, the president may make recess appointments. Recess appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate.","President of the United States\n\nThe power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove purely executive officials at will. However, Congress can curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute.","President of the United States\n\nThe president additionally possesses the ability to direct much of the executive branch through executive orders that are grounded in federal law or constitutionally granted executive power. Executive orders are reviewable by federal courts and can be superseded by federal legislation.","President of the United States\n\nTo manage the growing federal bureaucracy, Presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States. Within the Executive Office, the President's innermost layer of aides (and their assistants) are located in the White House Office.","President of the United States\n\nJuridical powers","President of the United States\n\nThe president also has the power to nominate federal judges, including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these nominations do require Senate confirmation. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts, presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of Senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves, as is often done just before the end of a presidential term, not without controversy.","President of the United States\n\nHistorically, two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege, which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, or any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon, , that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When President Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones, , that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined.","President of the United States\n\nAdditionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees, but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.","President of the United States\n\nThe state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security. Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States , when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy. However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds , where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege. Before the September 11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency. Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc. Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions.","President of the United States\n\nLegislative facilitator","President of the United States\n\nThe Constitution's Ineligibility Clause prevents the President (and all other executive officers) from simultaneously being a member of Congress. Therefore, the president cannot directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress. However, the president can take an indirect role in shaping legislation, especially if the president's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress. For example, the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally mandated, periodic reports to Congress. These reports may be either written or oral, but today are given as the State of the Union address, which often outlines the president's legislative proposals for the coming year. Additionally, the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made.","President of the United States\n\nIn the 20th century critics began charging that too many legislative and budgetary powers have slid into the hands of presidents that should belong to Congress. As the head of the executive branch, presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a \"virtual army of 'czars' – each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House.\" Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it. This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional. Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an \"increasingly swollen executive branch\" and \"the eclipse of Congress.\"","President of the United States\n\nAccording to Article II, Section 3, Clause 2 of the Constitution, the president may convene either or both houses of Congress. If both houses cannot agree on a date of adjournment, the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn.","President of the United States\n\nCeremonial roles","President of the United States\n\nAs head of state, the president can fulfill traditions established by previous presidents. William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., on the Washington Senators' Opening Day. Every president since Taft, except for Jimmy Carter, threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the All-Star Game, or the World Series, usually with much fanfare.","President of the United States\n\nThe President of the United States has served as the honorary president of the Boy Scouts of America since the founding of the organization.","President of the United States\n\nOther presidential traditions are associated with American holidays. Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children. Beginning in 1947 during the Harry S. Truman administration, every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual national thanksgiving turkey presentation held at the White House. Since 1989, when the custom of \"pardoning\" the turkey was formalized by George H. W. Bush, the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life.","President of the United States\n\nPresidential traditions also involve the president's role as head of government. Many outgoing presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the presidential transition. Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president.","President of the United States\n\nDuring a state visit by a foreign head of state, the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn, a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961. This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening.","President of the United States\n\nThe modern presidency holds the president as one of the nation's premier celebrities. Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves. One critic described the presidency as \"propagandized leadership\" which has a \"mesmerizing power surrounding the office.\" Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo-ops of smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras. One critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as carefully framed \"in rich detail\" which \"drew on the power of myth\" regarding the incident of PT 109 and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions. As a result, some political commentators have opined that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents: voters expect a president to \"drive the economy, vanquish enemies, lead the free world, comfort tornado victims, heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees.\"","President of the United States\n\nCritics of presidency's evolution","President of the United States\n\nMost of the nation's Founding Fathers expected the Congress, which was the first branch of government described in the Constitution, to be the dominant branch of government; they did not expect a strong executive. However, presidential power has shifted over time, which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful, unchecked, unbalanced, and \"monarchist\" in nature. Critic Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards \"undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies.\" She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for expanding \"the many existing uncheckable executive powers – such as executive orders, decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing statements – that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid, interference or consent from Congress.\" Activist Bill Wilson opined that the expanded presidency was \"the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule.\"","President of the United States\n\nSelection process","President of the United States\n\nEligibility","President of the United States\n\nArticle II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the following qualifications for holding the presidency:\n* be a natural-born citizen of the United States;Foreign-born American citizens who met the age and residency requirements at the time the Constitution was adopted were also eligible for the presidency. However, this allowance has since become obsolete.\n* be at least thirty-five years old;\n* be a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years.","President of the United States\n\nThe Twelfth Amendment precludes anyone ineligible to being the president from becoming the vice president.","President of the United States\n\nA person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:\n* Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no person can be elected president more than twice. The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president, the former can only be elected president once. Scholars disagree over whether a person precluded by the Twenty-second Amendment to being elected president is also precluded to being vice president. \n* Under Article I, Section 3, Clause 7, upon conviction in impeachment cases, the Senate has the option of disqualifying convicted individuals from holding federal office, including that of president. \n* Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, can become president. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.","President of the United States\n\nCampaigns and nomination","President of the United States\n\nThe modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections, which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions, where the most successful candidate is made the party's nominee for president. Typically, the party's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice is rubber-stamped by the convention. The most common previous profession by U.S. presidents is lawyer.","President of the United States\n\nNominees participate in nationally televised debates, and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees, third party candidates may be invited, such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views, convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives.","President of the United States\n\nElection and oath","President of the United States\n\nThe president is elected indirectly. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.","President of the United States\n\nThe winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president—acting in that role's capacity as President of the Senate—and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.","President of the United States\n\nPursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and the vice president. Before executing the powers of the office, a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath:","President of the United States\n\nAlthough not required, presidents have traditionally palmed a Bible while swearing the oath and have added, \"So help me God!\" to the end of the oath. Further, although the oath may be administered by any person authorized by law to administer oaths, presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States.","President of the United States\n\nTenure and term limits","President of the United States\n\nThe term of office for president and vice president is four years. George Washington, the first president, set an unofficial precedent of serving only two terms, which subsequent presidents followed until 1940. Before Franklin D. Roosevelt, attempts at a third term were encouraged by supporters of Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt; neither of these attempts succeeded. In 1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt declined to seek a third term, but allowed his political party to \"draft\" him as its presidential candidate and was subsequently elected to a third term. In 1941, the United States entered World War II, leading voters to elect Roosevelt to a fourth term in 1944. But Roosevelt died only 82 days after taking office for the fourth term on 12 April 1945.","President of the United States\n\nAfter the war, and in response to Roosevelt being elected to third and fourth terms, the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice, or once if that person served more than half of another president's term. Harry S. Truman, president when this amendment was adopted, was exempted from its limitations and briefly sought a third (a second full) term before withdrawing from the 1952 election.","President of the United States\n\nSince the amendment's adoption, four presidents have served two full terms: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Barack Obama has been elected to a second term, and will complete his term on 20 January 2017, if he does not die or resign before that date. Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush sought a second term, but were defeated. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term, but resigned before completing it. Lyndon B. Johnson was the only president under the amendment to be eligible to serve more than two terms in total, having served for only fourteen months following John F. Kennedy's assassination. However, Johnson withdrew from the 1968 Democratic Primary, surprising many Americans. Gerald Ford sought a full term, after serving out the last two years and five months of Nixon's second term, but was not elected.","President of the United States\n\nVacancy or disability","President of the United States\n\nVacancies in the office of President may arise under several possible circumstances: death, resignation and removal from office.","President of the United States\n\nArticle II, Section 4 of the Constitution allows the House of Representatives to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for \"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\" Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 gives the Senate the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. The House has thus far impeached two presidents: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Neither was subsequently convicted by the Senate; however, Johnson was acquitted by just one vote.","President of the United States\n\nUnder Section 3 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes acting president, by transmitting a statement to the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for the transfer. The president resumes the discharge of the presidential powers and duties upon transmitting, to those two officials, a written declaration stating that resumption. This transfer of power may occur for any reason the president considers appropriate; in 2002 and again in 2007, President George W. Bush briefly transferred presidential authority to Vice President Dick Cheney. In both cases, this was done to accommodate a medical procedure which required Bush to be sedated; both times, Bush returned to duty later the same day.","President of the United States\n\nUnder Section 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the vice president, in conjunction with a majority of the Cabinet, may transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate that the president is unable to discharge the presidential powers and duties. If this occurs, then the vice president will assume the presidential powers and duties as acting president; however, the president can declare that no such inability exists and resume the discharge of the presidential powers and duties. If the vice president and Cabinet contest this claim, it is up to Congress, which must meet within two days if not already in session, to decide the merit of the claim.","President of the United States\n\nThe United States Constitution mentions the resignation of the president, but does not regulate its form or the conditions for its validity. Pursuant to federal law, the only valid evidence of the president's resignation is a written instrument to that effect, signed by the president and delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. This has only occurred once, when Richard Nixon delivered a letter to Henry Kissinger to that effect.","President of the United States\n\nSection 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment states that the vice president becomes president upon the removal from office, death or resignation of the preceding president. The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 provides that if the offices of President and Vice President are each either vacant or are held by a disabled person, the next officer in the presidential line of succession, the Speaker of the House, becomes acting president. The line then extends to the President pro tempore of the Senate, followed by every member of the Cabinet. These persons must fulfill all eligibility requirements of the office of President to be eligible to become acting president; ineligible individuals are skipped. There has never been a special election for the office of President.","President of the United States\n\nCompensation","President of the United States\n\nSince 2001, the president has earned a $400,000 annual salary, along with a $50,000 annual expense account, a $100,000 nontaxable travel account, and $19,000 for entertainment. The most recent raise in salary was approved by Congress and President Bill Clinton in 1999 and went into effect in 2001.","President of the United States\n\nThe White House in Washington, D.C., serves as the official place of residence for the president. As well as access to the White House staff, facilities available to the president include medical care, recreation, housekeeping, and security services. The government pays for state dinners and other official functions, but the president pays for personal, family and guest dry cleaning and food; the high food bill often amazes new residents. Naval Support Facility Thurmont, popularly known as Camp David, is a mountain-based military camp in Frederick County, Maryland, used as a country retreat and for high alert protection of the president and guests. Blair House, located next to the Eisenhower Executive Office Building at the White House Complex and Lafayette Park, is a complex of four connected townhouses exceeding 70000 sqft of floor space which serves as the president's official guest house and as a secondary residence for the president if needed.","President of the United States\n\nFor ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armored limousine built on a heavily modified Cadillac-based chassis.[http://www.secretservice.gov/press/GPA02-09_Limo.pdf New Presidential Limousine enters Secret Service Fleet] U.S. Secret Service Press Release (January 14, 2009) Retrieved on January 20, 2009. One of two identical Boeing VC-25 aircraft, which are extensively modified versions of Boeing 747-200B airliners, serve as long distance travel for the president and are referred to as Air Force One while the president is on board (although any U.S. Air Force aircraft the President is aboard is designated as \"Air Force One\" for the duration of the flight). In-country trips are typically handled with just one of the two planes while overseas trips are handled with both, one primary and one backup. Any civilian aircraft the President is aboard is designated Executive One for the flight. The president also has access to a fleet of thirty-five U.S. Marine Corps helicopters of varying models, designated Marine One when the president is aboard any particular one in the fleet.","President of the United States\n\nFlights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the President is actually aboard to any would-be threats.","President of the United States\n\nThe U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the sitting president and the first family. As part of their protection, presidents, first ladies, their children and other immediate family members, and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret Service codenames. The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted; today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity, and tradition.","President of the United States\n\nFile:White House lawn (1).tif|The White House","President of the United States\n\nFile:Camp David 1959.jpg|Camp David\nFile:Blair House daylight.jpg|Blair House\nFile:GPA02-09 US SecretService press release 2009 Limousine Page 3 Image.jpg|State car\nFile:Air Force One over Mt. Rushmore.jpg|Air Force One\nFile:Marine One (1970).jpg|Marine One","President of the United States\n\nPost-presidency","President of the United States\n\nBeginning in 1959, all living former presidents were granted a pension, an office, and a staff. The pension has increased numerous times with Congressional approval. Retired presidents now receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration's cabinet secretaries, which was $199,700 each year in 2012. Former presidents who served in Congress may also collect congressional pensions. The Former Presidents Act, as amended, also provides former presidents with travel funds and franking privileges. Prior to 1997, all former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by the Secret Service until the president's death. In 1997, Congress passed legislation limiting secret service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office. On January 10, 2013, President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime secret service protection for him, George W. Bush, and all subsequent presidents. A spouse who remarries is no longer eligible for secret service protection.","President of the United States\n\nSome presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples include William Howard Taft's tenure as Chief Justice of the United States and Herbert Hoover's work on government reorganization after World War II. Grover Cleveland, whose bid for reelection failed in 1888, was elected president again four years later in 1892. Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House: John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of Representatives, serving there for seventeen years, and Andrew Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875. John Tyler served in the provisional Congress of the Confederate States during the Civil War and was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives, but died before that body first met.","President of the United States\n\nPresidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events. Richard Nixon made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman. Jimmy Carter has become a global human rights campaigner, international arbiter, and election monitor, as well as a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. Bill Clinton has also worked as an informal ambassador, most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two American journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee, from North Korea. Clinton has also been active politically since his presidential term ended, working with his wife Hillary on her 2008 and 2016 presidential bids and President Obama on his reelection campaign.","President of the United States\n\nFile:Carter 2k14.tif|Jimmy Carter39th (1977–81)\nFile:President George H. W.tif|George H. W. Bush41st (1989–93)\nFile:Clinton 2k15.tif|Bill Clinton42nd (1993–2001)\nFile:Bush 2k14.tif|George W. Bush43rd (2001–09)","President of the United States\n\nPresidential libraries","President of the United States\n\nSince Herbert Hoover, each president has created a repository known as a presidential library for preserving and making available his papers, records and other documents and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private, non-federal sources. There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations and Universities of Higher Education, such as the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the State of Illinois, the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by Texas A&M University and the Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the University of Texas at Austin.","President of the United States\n\nAs many presidents live for many years after leaving office, several of them have personally overseen the building and opening of their own presidential libraries, some even making arrangements for their own burial at the site. Several presidential libraries therefore contain the graves of the president they document, such as the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California and the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. The graves are viewable by the general public visiting these libraries.","President of the United States\n\nTimeline of Presidents"],"string":"[\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe President of the United States of America (POTUS) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe President of the United States is considered one of the world's most powerful people, leading the world's only contemporary superpower. The role includes being the commander-in-chief of the world's most expensive military with the largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by real and nominal GDP. The office of the president holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nArticle II of the U.S. Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The power includes execution of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances. The president is largely responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is enrolled. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States. Since the founding of the United States, the power of the president and the federal government has grown substantially.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe president is indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a four-year term, and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers, the other being the Vice President of the United States. The Twenty-second Amendment, adopted in 1951, prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a third full term. It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as president, or acting president, for more than two years of another person's term as president. In all, 43 individuals have served 44 presidencies (counting Cleveland's two non-consecutive terms separately) spanning 56 full four-year terms. On January 20, 2009, Barack Obama became the 44th and current president. On November 6, 2012, he was re-elected and is currently serving the 57th term. The next presidential election is scheduled to take place on November 8, 2016; on January 20, 2017, the newly elected president will take office.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nOrigin\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nIn 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, recognized the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British. Desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. As a central authority, Congress under the Articles was without any legislative power; it could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, nor any taxes or local commercial regulations enforceable upon citizens. This institutional design reflected the conception of how Americans believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion: a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress, while severally lodging the rest within their own respective state governments.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nOnly after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1, 1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nIn 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak, their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another, witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates, and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest. Civil and political unrest loomed.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nFollowing the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 in Annapolis, Maryland, with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When the convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, the Annapolis delegates called for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring in Philadelphia. Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington's attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nWhen the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance (Rhode Island did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature. New York offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter. It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S. Constitution emerged.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPowers and duties\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nArticle I legislative role\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto. The Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options:\\n# Sign the legislation; the bill then becomes law.\\n# Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections; the bill does not become law, unless each house of Congress votes to override the veto by a two-thirds vote.\\n# Take no action. In this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation. After 10 days, not counting Sundays, two possible outcomes emerge:\\n#* If Congress is still convened, the bill becomes law.\\n#* If Congress has adjourned, thus preventing the return of the legislation, the bill does not become law. This latter outcome is known as the pocket veto.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nIn 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act. The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York, , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nArticle II executive powers\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nWar and foreign affairs powers\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPerhaps the most important of all presidential powers is the command of the United States Armed Forces as its commander-in-chief. While the power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, the president has ultimate responsibility for direction and disposition of the military. The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces (belonging to the Department of Defense) is normally exercised through the Secretary of Defense, with assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, to the Combatant Commands, as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP). The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explains this in Federalist No. 69: Congress, pursuant to the War Powers Resolution, must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual. Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nWhile historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in 1903, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1990.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAlong with the armed forces, the president also directs U.S. foreign policy. Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments, and negotiates treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds vote of the Senate.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAlthough not constitutionally provided, presidents also sometimes employ \\\"executive agreements\\\" in foreign relations. These agreements frequently regard administrative policy choices germane to executive power; for example, the extent to which either country presents an armed presence in a given area, how each country will enforce copyright treaties, or how each country will process foreign mail. However, the 20th century witnessed a vast expansion of the use of executive agreements, and critics have challenged the extent of that use as supplanting the treaty process and removing constitutionally prescribed checks and balances over the executive in foreign relations. Supporters counter that the agreements offer a pragmatic solution when the need for swift, secret, and/or concerted action arises.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAdministrative powers\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe president is the head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to \\\"take care that the laws be faithfully executed.\\\" The executive branch has over four million employees, including members of the military.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPresidents make numerous executive branch appointments: an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before taking office and 8,000 more while serving. Ambassadors, members of the Cabinet, and other federal officers, are all appointed by a president with the \\\"advice and consent\\\" of a majority of the Senate. When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days, the president may make recess appointments. Recess appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove purely executive officials at will. However, Congress can curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe president additionally possesses the ability to direct much of the executive branch through executive orders that are grounded in federal law or constitutionally granted executive power. Executive orders are reviewable by federal courts and can be superseded by federal legislation.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nTo manage the growing federal bureaucracy, Presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States. Within the Executive Office, the President's innermost layer of aides (and their assistants) are located in the White House Office.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nJuridical powers\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe president also has the power to nominate federal judges, including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these nominations do require Senate confirmation. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts, presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of Senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves, as is often done just before the end of a presidential term, not without controversy.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nHistorically, two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege, which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, or any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon, , that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When President Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones, , that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAdditionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees, but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security. Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States , when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy. However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds , where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege. Before the September 11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency. Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc. Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nLegislative facilitator\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe Constitution's Ineligibility Clause prevents the President (and all other executive officers) from simultaneously being a member of Congress. Therefore, the president cannot directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress. However, the president can take an indirect role in shaping legislation, especially if the president's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress. For example, the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally mandated, periodic reports to Congress. These reports may be either written or oral, but today are given as the State of the Union address, which often outlines the president's legislative proposals for the coming year. Additionally, the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nIn the 20th century critics began charging that too many legislative and budgetary powers have slid into the hands of presidents that should belong to Congress. As the head of the executive branch, presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a \\\"virtual army of 'czars' – each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House.\\\" Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it. This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional. Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an \\\"increasingly swollen executive branch\\\" and \\\"the eclipse of Congress.\\\"\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAccording to Article II, Section 3, Clause 2 of the Constitution, the president may convene either or both houses of Congress. If both houses cannot agree on a date of adjournment, the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nCeremonial roles\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAs head of state, the president can fulfill traditions established by previous presidents. William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., on the Washington Senators' Opening Day. Every president since Taft, except for Jimmy Carter, threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the All-Star Game, or the World Series, usually with much fanfare.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe President of the United States has served as the honorary president of the Boy Scouts of America since the founding of the organization.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nOther presidential traditions are associated with American holidays. Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children. Beginning in 1947 during the Harry S. Truman administration, every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual national thanksgiving turkey presentation held at the White House. Since 1989, when the custom of \\\"pardoning\\\" the turkey was formalized by George H. W. Bush, the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPresidential traditions also involve the president's role as head of government. Many outgoing presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the presidential transition. Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nDuring a state visit by a foreign head of state, the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn, a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961. This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe modern presidency holds the president as one of the nation's premier celebrities. Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves. One critic described the presidency as \\\"propagandized leadership\\\" which has a \\\"mesmerizing power surrounding the office.\\\" Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo-ops of smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras. One critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as carefully framed \\\"in rich detail\\\" which \\\"drew on the power of myth\\\" regarding the incident of PT 109 and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions. As a result, some political commentators have opined that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents: voters expect a president to \\\"drive the economy, vanquish enemies, lead the free world, comfort tornado victims, heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees.\\\"\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nCritics of presidency's evolution\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nMost of the nation's Founding Fathers expected the Congress, which was the first branch of government described in the Constitution, to be the dominant branch of government; they did not expect a strong executive. However, presidential power has shifted over time, which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful, unchecked, unbalanced, and \\\"monarchist\\\" in nature. Critic Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards \\\"undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies.\\\" She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for expanding \\\"the many existing uncheckable executive powers – such as executive orders, decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing statements – that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid, interference or consent from Congress.\\\" Activist Bill Wilson opined that the expanded presidency was \\\"the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule.\\\"\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nSelection process\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nEligibility\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nArticle II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the following qualifications for holding the presidency:\\n* be a natural-born citizen of the United States;Foreign-born American citizens who met the age and residency requirements at the time the Constitution was adopted were also eligible for the presidency. However, this allowance has since become obsolete.\\n* be at least thirty-five years old;\\n* be a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe Twelfth Amendment precludes anyone ineligible to being the president from becoming the vice president.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nA person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:\\n* Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no person can be elected president more than twice. The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president, the former can only be elected president once. Scholars disagree over whether a person precluded by the Twenty-second Amendment to being elected president is also precluded to being vice president. \\n* Under Article I, Section 3, Clause 7, upon conviction in impeachment cases, the Senate has the option of disqualifying convicted individuals from holding federal office, including that of president. \\n* Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, can become president. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nCampaigns and nomination\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections, which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions, where the most successful candidate is made the party's nominee for president. Typically, the party's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice is rubber-stamped by the convention. The most common previous profession by U.S. presidents is lawyer.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nNominees participate in nationally televised debates, and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees, third party candidates may be invited, such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views, convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nElection and oath\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe president is elected indirectly. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president—acting in that role's capacity as President of the Senate—and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and the vice president. Before executing the powers of the office, a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath:\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAlthough not required, presidents have traditionally palmed a Bible while swearing the oath and have added, \\\"So help me God!\\\" to the end of the oath. Further, although the oath may be administered by any person authorized by law to administer oaths, presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nTenure and term limits\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe term of office for president and vice president is four years. George Washington, the first president, set an unofficial precedent of serving only two terms, which subsequent presidents followed until 1940. Before Franklin D. Roosevelt, attempts at a third term were encouraged by supporters of Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt; neither of these attempts succeeded. In 1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt declined to seek a third term, but allowed his political party to \\\"draft\\\" him as its presidential candidate and was subsequently elected to a third term. In 1941, the United States entered World War II, leading voters to elect Roosevelt to a fourth term in 1944. But Roosevelt died only 82 days after taking office for the fourth term on 12 April 1945.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAfter the war, and in response to Roosevelt being elected to third and fourth terms, the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice, or once if that person served more than half of another president's term. Harry S. Truman, president when this amendment was adopted, was exempted from its limitations and briefly sought a third (a second full) term before withdrawing from the 1952 election.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nSince the amendment's adoption, four presidents have served two full terms: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Barack Obama has been elected to a second term, and will complete his term on 20 January 2017, if he does not die or resign before that date. Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush sought a second term, but were defeated. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term, but resigned before completing it. Lyndon B. Johnson was the only president under the amendment to be eligible to serve more than two terms in total, having served for only fourteen months following John F. Kennedy's assassination. However, Johnson withdrew from the 1968 Democratic Primary, surprising many Americans. Gerald Ford sought a full term, after serving out the last two years and five months of Nixon's second term, but was not elected.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nVacancy or disability\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nVacancies in the office of President may arise under several possible circumstances: death, resignation and removal from office.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nArticle II, Section 4 of the Constitution allows the House of Representatives to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for \\\"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\\\" Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 gives the Senate the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. The House has thus far impeached two presidents: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Neither was subsequently convicted by the Senate; however, Johnson was acquitted by just one vote.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nUnder Section 3 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes acting president, by transmitting a statement to the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for the transfer. The president resumes the discharge of the presidential powers and duties upon transmitting, to those two officials, a written declaration stating that resumption. This transfer of power may occur for any reason the president considers appropriate; in 2002 and again in 2007, President George W. Bush briefly transferred presidential authority to Vice President Dick Cheney. In both cases, this was done to accommodate a medical procedure which required Bush to be sedated; both times, Bush returned to duty later the same day.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nUnder Section 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the vice president, in conjunction with a majority of the Cabinet, may transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate that the president is unable to discharge the presidential powers and duties. If this occurs, then the vice president will assume the presidential powers and duties as acting president; however, the president can declare that no such inability exists and resume the discharge of the presidential powers and duties. If the vice president and Cabinet contest this claim, it is up to Congress, which must meet within two days if not already in session, to decide the merit of the claim.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe United States Constitution mentions the resignation of the president, but does not regulate its form or the conditions for its validity. Pursuant to federal law, the only valid evidence of the president's resignation is a written instrument to that effect, signed by the president and delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. This has only occurred once, when Richard Nixon delivered a letter to Henry Kissinger to that effect.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nSection 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment states that the vice president becomes president upon the removal from office, death or resignation of the preceding president. The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 provides that if the offices of President and Vice President are each either vacant or are held by a disabled person, the next officer in the presidential line of succession, the Speaker of the House, becomes acting president. The line then extends to the President pro tempore of the Senate, followed by every member of the Cabinet. These persons must fulfill all eligibility requirements of the office of President to be eligible to become acting president; ineligible individuals are skipped. There has never been a special election for the office of President.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nCompensation\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nSince 2001, the president has earned a $400,000 annual salary, along with a $50,000 annual expense account, a $100,000 nontaxable travel account, and $19,000 for entertainment. The most recent raise in salary was approved by Congress and President Bill Clinton in 1999 and went into effect in 2001.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe White House in Washington, D.C., serves as the official place of residence for the president. As well as access to the White House staff, facilities available to the president include medical care, recreation, housekeeping, and security services. The government pays for state dinners and other official functions, but the president pays for personal, family and guest dry cleaning and food; the high food bill often amazes new residents. Naval Support Facility Thurmont, popularly known as Camp David, is a mountain-based military camp in Frederick County, Maryland, used as a country retreat and for high alert protection of the president and guests. Blair House, located next to the Eisenhower Executive Office Building at the White House Complex and Lafayette Park, is a complex of four connected townhouses exceeding 70000 sqft of floor space which serves as the president's official guest house and as a secondary residence for the president if needed.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nFor ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armored limousine built on a heavily modified Cadillac-based chassis.[http://www.secretservice.gov/press/GPA02-09_Limo.pdf New Presidential Limousine enters Secret Service Fleet] U.S. Secret Service Press Release (January 14, 2009) Retrieved on January 20, 2009. One of two identical Boeing VC-25 aircraft, which are extensively modified versions of Boeing 747-200B airliners, serve as long distance travel for the president and are referred to as Air Force One while the president is on board (although any U.S. Air Force aircraft the President is aboard is designated as \\\"Air Force One\\\" for the duration of the flight). In-country trips are typically handled with just one of the two planes while overseas trips are handled with both, one primary and one backup. Any civilian aircraft the President is aboard is designated Executive One for the flight. The president also has access to a fleet of thirty-five U.S. Marine Corps helicopters of varying models, designated Marine One when the president is aboard any particular one in the fleet.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nFlights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the President is actually aboard to any would-be threats.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the sitting president and the first family. As part of their protection, presidents, first ladies, their children and other immediate family members, and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret Service codenames. The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted; today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity, and tradition.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nFile:White House lawn (1).tif|The White House\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nFile:Camp David 1959.jpg|Camp David\\nFile:Blair House daylight.jpg|Blair House\\nFile:GPA02-09 US SecretService press release 2009 Limousine Page 3 Image.jpg|State car\\nFile:Air Force One over Mt. Rushmore.jpg|Air Force One\\nFile:Marine One (1970).jpg|Marine One\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPost-presidency\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nBeginning in 1959, all living former presidents were granted a pension, an office, and a staff. The pension has increased numerous times with Congressional approval. Retired presidents now receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration's cabinet secretaries, which was $199,700 each year in 2012. Former presidents who served in Congress may also collect congressional pensions. The Former Presidents Act, as amended, also provides former presidents with travel funds and franking privileges. Prior to 1997, all former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by the Secret Service until the president's death. In 1997, Congress passed legislation limiting secret service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office. On January 10, 2013, President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime secret service protection for him, George W. Bush, and all subsequent presidents. A spouse who remarries is no longer eligible for secret service protection.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nSome presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples include William Howard Taft's tenure as Chief Justice of the United States and Herbert Hoover's work on government reorganization after World War II. Grover Cleveland, whose bid for reelection failed in 1888, was elected president again four years later in 1892. Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House: John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of Representatives, serving there for seventeen years, and Andrew Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875. John Tyler served in the provisional Congress of the Confederate States during the Civil War and was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives, but died before that body first met.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPresidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events. Richard Nixon made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman. Jimmy Carter has become a global human rights campaigner, international arbiter, and election monitor, as well as a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. Bill Clinton has also worked as an informal ambassador, most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two American journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee, from North Korea. Clinton has also been active politically since his presidential term ended, working with his wife Hillary on her 2008 and 2016 presidential bids and President Obama on his reelection campaign.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nFile:Carter 2k14.tif|Jimmy Carter39th (1977–81)\\nFile:President George H. W.tif|George H. W. Bush41st (1989–93)\\nFile:Clinton 2k15.tif|Bill Clinton42nd (1993–2001)\\nFile:Bush 2k14.tif|George W. Bush43rd (2001–09)\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPresidential libraries\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nSince Herbert Hoover, each president has created a repository known as a presidential library for preserving and making available his papers, records and other documents and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private, non-federal sources. There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations and Universities of Higher Education, such as the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the State of Illinois, the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by Texas A&M University and the Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the University of Texas at Austin.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAs many presidents live for many years after leaving office, several of them have personally overseen the building and opening of their own presidential libraries, some even making arrangements for their own burial at the site. Several presidential libraries therefore contain the graves of the president they document, such as the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California and the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. The graves are viewable by the general public visiting these libraries.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nTimeline of Presidents\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":2099,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qz_49"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Florence Nightingale was a nurse during which war?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"The Crimean War"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["russian war","war of crimea","crimean expedition","crimea war","cremean war","baltic theatre of crimean war","baltic campaign of 1854","crimean war 1853","oriental war","eastern war","paris peace conference 1856","russo turkish war 1853 1856","crimean war","russo turkish war 1853 56","crimean struggle","crim war"],"string":"[\n \"russian war\",\n \"war of crimea\",\n \"crimean expedition\",\n \"crimea war\",\n \"cremean war\",\n \"baltic theatre of crimean war\",\n \"baltic campaign of 1854\",\n \"crimean war 1853\",\n \"oriental war\",\n \"eastern war\",\n \"paris peace conference 1856\",\n \"russo turkish war 1853 1856\",\n \"crimean war\",\n \"russo turkish war 1853 56\",\n \"crimean struggle\",\n \"crim war\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Florence Nightingale\n\nFlorence Nightingale, (; 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910) was a celebrated English social reformer and statistician, and the founder of modern nursing.","Florence Nightingale\n\nShe came to prominence while serving as a manager of nurses trained by her during the Crimean War, where she organised the tending to wounded soldiers. She gave nursing a highly favourable reputation and became an icon of Victorian culture, especially in the persona of \"The Lady with the Lamp\" making rounds of wounded soldiers at night.","Florence Nightingale\n\nSome recent commentators have asserted Nightingale's achievements in the Crimean War were exaggerated by the media at the time, to satisfy the public's need for a hero. Nevertheless, critics agree on the decisive importance of her follow-up achievements in professionalising nursing roles for women. In 1860, Nightingale laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her nursing school at St Thomas' Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world, now part of King's College London. In recognition of her pioneering work in nursing, the Nightingale Pledge taken by new nurses, and the Florence Nightingale Medal, the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve, were named in her honour, and the annual International Nurses Day is celebrated around the world on her birthday. Her social reforms include improving healthcare for all sections of British society, advocating better hunger relief in India, helping to abolish prostitution laws that were over-harsh to women, and expanding the acceptable forms of female participation in the workforce.","Florence Nightingale\n\nNightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her published work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills. She also helped popularise the graphical presentation of statistical data. Much of her writing, including her extensive work on religion and mysticism, has only been published posthumously.","Florence Nightingale\n\nEarly life","Florence Nightingale\n\nFlorence Nightingale was born on 12 May 1820 into a rich, upper-class, well-connected British family at the Villa Colombaia, in Florence, Italy, and was named after the city of her birth. Florence's older sister Frances Parthenope had similarly been named after her place of birth, Parthenope, a Greek settlement now part of the city of Naples. The family moved back to England in 1821, with Nightingale being brought up in the family's homes at Embley, Hampshire and\nLea Hurst, Derbyshire.","Florence Nightingale\n\nHer parents were William Edward Nightingale, born William Edward Shore (1794–1874) and Frances (\"Fanny\") Nightingale née Smith (1789–1880). William's mother Mary née Evans was the niece of Peter Nightingale, under the terms of whose will William inherited his estate at Lea Hurst, and assumed the name and arms of Nightingale. Fanny's father (Florence's maternal grandfather) was the abolitionist and Unitarian William Smith. Nightingale's father educated her.","Florence Nightingale\n\nIn 1838, her father took the family on a tour in Europe where he was introduced to the English-born Parisian hostess Mary Clarke, with whom Florence bonded. She recorded that \"Clarkey\" was a stimulating hostess who did not care for her appearance, and while her ideas did not always agree with those of her guests, \"she was incapable of boring anyone.\" Her behaviour was said to be exasperating and eccentric and she had no respect for upper-class British women, whom she regarded generally as inconsequential. She said that if given the choice between being a woman or a galley slave, then she would choose the freedom of the galleys. She generally rejected female company and spent her time with male intellectuals. However, Clarkey made an exception in the case of the Nightingale family and Florence in particular. She and Florence were to remain close friends for 40 years despite their 27-year age difference. Clarke demonstrated that women could be equals to men, an idea that Florence had not obtained from her mother.","Florence Nightingale\n\nNightingale underwent the first of several experiences that she believed were calls from God in February 1837 while at Embley Park, prompting a strong desire to devote her life to the service of others. In her youth she was respectful of her family's opposition to her working as a nurse, only announcing her decision to enter the field in 1844. Despite the intense anger and distress of her mother and sister, she rebelled against the expected role for a woman of her status to become a wife and mother. Nightingale worked hard to educate herself in the art and science of nursing, in the face of opposition from her family and the restrictive social code for affluent young English women.","Florence Nightingale\n\nAs a young woman, Nightingale was described as attractive, slender and graceful. While her demeanour was often severe, she was said to be very charming and possess a radiant smile. Her most persistent suitor was the politician and poet Richard Monckton Milnes, but after a nine-year courtship she rejected him, convinced that marriage would interfere with her ability to follow her calling to nursing.","Florence Nightingale\n\nIn Rome in 1847, she met Sidney Herbert, a politician who had been Secretary at War (1845–1846) who was on his honeymoon. He and Nightingale became lifelong close friends. Herbert would be Secretary of War again during the Crimean War, when he and his wife would be instrumental in facilitating Nightingale's nursing work in the Crimea. She became Herbert's key adviser throughout his political career, though she was accused by some of having hastened Herbert's death from Bright's Disease in 1861 because of the pressure her programme of reform placed on him. Nightingale also much later had strong relations with academic Benjamin Jowett, who may have wanted to marry her.","Florence Nightingale\n\nNightingale continued her travels (now with Charles and Selina Bracebridge) as far as Greece and Egypt. Her writings on Egypt in particular are testimony to her learning, literary skill and philosophy of life. Sailing up the Nile as far as Abu Simbel in January 1850, she wrote of the Abu Simbel temples, \"Sublime in the highest style of intellectual beauty, intellect without effort, without suffering … not a feature is correct—but the whole effect is more expressive of spiritual grandeur than anything I could have imagined. It makes the impression upon one that thousands of voices do, uniting in one unanimous simultaneous feeling of enthusiasm or emotion, which is said to overcome the strongest man.\"","Florence Nightingale\n\nAt Thebes, she wrote of being \"called to God\", while a week later near Cairo she wrote in her diary (as distinct from her far longer letters that her elder sister Parthenope was to print after her return): \"God called me in the morning and asked me would I do good for him alone without reputation.\" Later in 1850, she visited the Lutheran religious community at Kaiserswerth-am-Rhein in Germany, where she observed Pastor Theodor Fliedner and the deaconesses working for the sick and the deprived. She regarded the experience as a turning point in her life, and issued her findings anonymously in 1851; The Institution of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, for the Practical Training of Deaconesses, etc. was her first published work. She also received four months of medical training at the institute, which formed the basis for her later care.","Florence Nightingale\n\nOn 22 August 1853, Nightingale took the post of superintendent at the Institute for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen in Upper Harley Street, London, a position she held until October 1854.[http://www.harleystreetguide.co.uk/about/history/ History of Harley Street] at Harley Street Guide (commercial website) Her father had given her an annual income of £500 (roughly £40,000/US$65,000 in present terms), which allowed her to live comfortably and to pursue her career.","Florence Nightingale\n\nCrimean War","Florence Nightingale\n\nFlorence Nightingale's most famous contribution came during the Crimean War, which became her central focus when reports got back to Britain about the horrific conditions for the wounded. On 21 October 1854, she and the staff of 38 women volunteer nurses that she trained, including her aunt Mai Smith, and 15 Catholic nuns (mobilised by Henry Edward Manning) were sent (under the authorisation of Sidney Herbert) to the Ottoman Empire. Nightingale was assisted in Paris by her friend Mary Clarke. They were deployed about 295 nmi across the Black Sea from Balaklava in the Crimea, where the main British camp was based.","Florence Nightingale\n\nNightingale arrived early in November 1854 at Selimiye Barracks in Scutari (modern-day Üsküdar in Istanbul). Her team found that poor care for wounded soldiers was being delivered by overworked medical staff in the face of official indifference. Medicines were in short supply, hygiene was being neglected, and mass infections were common, many of them fatal. There was no equipment to process food for the patients.","Florence Nightingale\n\nAfter Nightingale sent a plea to The Times for a government solution to the poor condition of the facilities, the British Government commissioned Isambard Kingdom Brunel to design a prefabricated hospital that could be built in England and shipped to the Dardanelles. The result was Renkioi Hospital, a civilian facility that, under the management of Dr Edmund Alexander Parkes, had a death rate less than 1/10th that of Scutari.","Florence Nightingale\n\nStephen Paget in the Dictionary of National Biography asserted that Nightingale reduced the death rate from 42% to 2%, either by making improvements in hygiene herself, or by calling for the Sanitary Commission. For example, Nightingale implemented handwashing and other hygiene practices in the war hospital in which she worked.","Florence Nightingale\n\nDuring her first winter at Scutari, 4,077 soldiers died there. Ten times more soldiers died from illnesses such as typhus, typhoid, cholera and dysentery than from battle wounds. With overcrowding, defective sewers and lack of ventilation, the Sanitary Commission had to be sent out by the British government to Scutari in March 1855, almost six months after Nightingale had arrived. The commission flushed out the sewers and improved ventilation. Death rates were sharply reduced, but she never claimed credit for helping to reduce the death rate. In 2001 and 2008 the BBC released documentaries that were critical of Nightingale's performance in the Crimean War, as were some follow-up articles published in The Guardian and the Sunday Times. Nightingale scholar Lynn McDonald has dismissed these criticisms as \"often preposterous\", arguing they are not supported by the primary sources.","Florence Nightingale\n\nNightingale still believed that the death rates were due to poor nutrition, lack of supplies, stale air and overworking of the soldiers. After she returned to Britain and began collecting evidence before the Royal Commission on the Health of the Army, she came to believe that most of the soldiers at the hospital were killed by poor living conditions. This experience influenced her later career, when she advocated sanitary living conditions as of great importance. Consequently, she reduced peacetime deaths in the army and turned her attention to the sanitary design of hospitals and the introduction of sanitation in working-class homes (see Statistics and Sanitary Reform, below).","Florence Nightingale\n\nThe Lady with the Lamp","Florence Nightingale\n\nDuring the Crimean war, Nightingale gained the nickname \"The Lady with the Lamp\" from a phrase in a report in The Times:\nShe is a \"ministering angel\" without any exaggeration in these hospitals, and as her slender form glides quietly along each corridor, every poor fellow's face softens with gratitude at the sight of her. When all the medical officers have retired for the night and silence and darkness have settled down upon those miles of prostrate sick, she may be observed alone, with a little lamp in her hand, making her solitary rounds.","Florence Nightingale\n\nThe phrase was further popularised by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's 1857 poem \"Santa Filomena\":","Florence Nightingale\n\nLo! in that house of misery\nA lady with a lamp I see\nPass through the glimmering gloom,\nAnd flit from room to room.","Florence Nightingale\n\nLater career","Florence Nightingale\n\nIn the Crimea on 29 November 1855, the Nightingale Fund was established for the training of nurses during a public meeting to recognise Nightingale for her work in the war. There was an outpouring of generous donations. Sidney Herbert served as honorary secretary of the fund and the Duke of Cambridge was chairman. Nightingale was considered a pioneer in the concept of medical tourism as well, based on her 1856 letters describing spas in the Ottoman Empire. She detailed the health conditions, physical descriptions, dietary information, and other vital details of patients whom she directed there. The treatment there was significantly less expensive than in Switzerland.","Florence Nightingale\n\nNightingale had £45,000 at her disposal from the Nightingale Fund to set up the Nightingale Training School at St. Thomas' Hospital on 9 July 1860. The first trained Nightingale nurses began work on 16 May 1865 at the Liverpool Workhouse Infirmary. Now called the Florence Nightingale School of Nursing and Midwifery, the school is part of King's College London. She also campaigned and raised funds for the Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital in Aylesbury near her sister's home, Claydon House.","Florence Nightingale\n\nNightingale wrote Notes on Nursing (1859). The book served as the cornerstone of the curriculum at the Nightingale School and other nursing schools, though it was written specifically for the education of those nursing at home. Nightingale wrote \"Every day sanitary knowledge, or the knowledge of nursing, or in other words, of how to put the constitution in such a state as that it will have no disease, or that it can recover from disease, takes a higher place. It is recognised as the knowledge which every one ought to have – distinct from medical knowledge, which only a profession can have\".","Florence Nightingale\n\nNotes on Nursing also sold well to the general reading public and is considered a classic introduction to nursing. Nightingale spent the rest of her life promoting and organising the nursing profession. In the introduction to the 1974 edition, Joan Quixley of the Nightingale School of Nursing wrote: \"The book was the first of its kind ever to be written. It appeared at a time when the simple rules of health were only beginning to be known, when its topics were of vital importance not only for the well-being and recovery of patients, when hospitals were riddled with infection, when nurses were still mainly regarded as ignorant, uneducated persons. The book has, inevitably, its place in the history of nursing, for it was written by the founder of modern nursing\".","Florence Nightingale\n\nAs Mark Bostridge has demonstrated, one of Nightingale's signal achievements was the introduction of trained nurses into the workhouse system in Britain from the 1860s onwards. This meant that sick paupers were no longer being cared for by other, able-bodied paupers, but by properly trained nursing staff. In the first half of the 19th century, nurses were usually former servants or widows who found no other job and therefore were forced to earn their living by this work. Charles Dickens caricatured the standard of care in his 1842-1843 published novel Martin Chuzzlewit in the figure of Sarah Gamp as being incompetent, negligent, alcoholic and corrupt. According to Caroline Worthington, director of the Florence Nightingale Museum, “When she [Nightingale] started out there was no such thing as nursing. The Dickens character Sarah Gamp, who was more interested in drinking gin than looking after her patients, was only a mild exaggeration. Hospitals were places of last resort where the floors were laid with straw to soak up the blood. Florence transformed nursing when she got back [from Crimea]. She had access to people in high places and she used it to get things done.","Florence Nightingale\n\nFlorence was stubborn, opinionated and forthright but she had to be those things in order to achieve all that she did.\"","Florence Nightingale\n\nThough Nightingale is sometimes said to have denied the theory of infection for her entire life, a 2008 biography disagrees, saying that she was simply opposed to a precursor of germ theory known as contagionism. This theory held that diseases could only be transmitted by touch. Before the experiments of the mid-1860s by Pasteur and Lister, hardly anyone took germ theory seriously; even afterwards, many medical practitioners were unconvinced. Bostridge points out that in the early 1880s Nightingale wrote an article for a textbook in which she advocated strict precautions designed, she said, to kill germs. Nightingale's work served as an inspiration for nurses in the American Civil War. The Union government approached her for advice in organising field medicine. Her ideas inspired the volunteer body of the United States Sanitary Commission.","Florence Nightingale\n\nIn the 1870s, Nightingale mentored Linda Richards, \"America's first trained nurse\", and enabled her to return to the United States with adequate training and knowledge to establish high-quality nursing schools. Richards went on to become a nursing pioneer in the US and Japan.","Florence Nightingale\n\nBy 1882, several Nightingale nurses had become matrons at several leading hospitals, including, in London (St Mary's Hospital, Westminster Hospital, St Marylebone Workhouse Infirmary and the Hospital for Incurables at Putney) and throughout Britain (Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley; Edinburgh Royal Infirmary; Cumberland Infirmary and Liverpool Royal Infirmary), as well as at Sydney Hospital in New South Wales, Australia.","Florence Nightingale\n\nIn 1883, Nightingale was awarded the Royal Red Cross by Queen Victoria. In 1904, she was appointed a Lady of Grace of the Order of St John (LGStJ). In 1907, she became the first woman to be awarded the Order of Merit. In the following year she was given the Honorary Freedom of the City of London. Her birthday is now celebrated as International CFS Awareness Day.","Florence Nightingale\n\nFrom 1857 onwards, Nightingale was intermittently bedridden and suffered from depression. A recent biography cites brucellosis and associated spondylitis as the cause. Most authorities today accept that Nightingale suffered from a particularly extreme form of brucellosis, the effects of which only began to lift in the early 1880s. Despite her symptoms, she remained phenomenally productive in social reform. During her bedridden years, she also did pioneering work in the field of hospital planning, and her work propagated quickly across Britain and the world. Nightingale's output slowed down considerably in her last decade. She wrote very little during that period due to blindness and declining mental abilities, though she still retained an interest in current affairs.","Florence Nightingale\n\nRelationships","Florence Nightingale\n\nAlthough much of Nightingale's work improved the lot of women everywhere, Nightingale was of the opinion that women craved sympathy and were not as capable as men. She criticised early women's rights activists for decrying an alleged lack of careers for women at the same time that lucrative medical positions, under the supervision of Nightingale and others, went perpetually unfilled. She preferred the friendship of powerful men, insisting they had done more than women to help her attain her goals, writing: \"I have never found one woman who has altered her life by one iota for me or my opinions.\"The same 1861 letter published in She often referred to herself in the masculine, as for example \"a man of action\" and \"a man of business\".","Florence Nightingale\n\nHowever, she did have several important and long-lasting friendships with women. Later in life, she kept up a prolonged correspondence with Irish nun Sister Mary Clare Moore, with whom she had worked in Crimea. Her most beloved confidante was Mary Clarke, an Englishwoman she met in 1837 and kept in touch with throughout her life.","Florence Nightingale\n\nSome scholars of Nightingale's life believe that she remained chaste for her entire life, perhaps because she felt a religious calling to her career.","Florence Nightingale\n\nDeath","Florence Nightingale\n\nOn 13 August 1910, at the age of 90, she died peacefully in her sleep in her room at 10 South Street, Mayfair, London. The offer of burial in Westminster Abbey was declined by her relatives and she is buried in the graveyard at St Margaret's Church in East Wellow, Hampshire, near Embley Park. She left a large body of work, including several hundred notes that were previously unpublished.Kelly, Heather (1998). [http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/126/ Florence Nightingale's autobiographical notes: A critical edition of BL Add. 45844 (England)] (M.A. thesis) Wilfrid Laurier University A memorial monument to Nightingale was created in Carrara marble by Francis William Sargant in 1913 and placed in the cloister of the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence.","Florence Nightingale\n\nContributions","Florence Nightingale\n\nStatistics and sanitary reform","Florence Nightingale\n\nFlorence Nightingale exhibited a gift for mathematics from an early age and excelled in the subject under the tutorship of her father. Later, Nightingale became a pioneer in the visual presentation of information and statistical graphics. She used methods such as the pie chart, which had first been developed by William Playfair in 1801. While taken for granted now, it was at the time a relatively novel method of presenting data. (alternative pagination depending on country of sale: 98–107. Bibliography on p.114) [http://www.unc.edu/~nielsen/soci708/ online article – see documents link at left]","Florence Nightingale\n\nIndeed, Nightingale is described as \"a true pioneer in the graphical representation of statistics\", and is credited with developing a form of the pie chart now known as the polar area diagram,Cohen, I. Bernard (1984), p. 107. or occasionally the Nightingale rose diagram, equivalent to a modern circular histogram, to illustrate seasonal sources of patient mortality in the military field hospital she managed. Nightingale called a compilation of such diagrams a \"coxcomb\", but later that term would frequently be used for the individual diagrams. She made extensive use of coxcombs to present reports on the nature and magnitude of the conditions of medical care in the Crimean War to Members of Parliament and civil servants who would have been unlikely to read or understand traditional statistical reports. In 1859, Nightingale was elected the first female member of the Royal Statistical Society. She later became an honorary member of the American Statistical Association.","Florence Nightingale\n\nHer attention turned to the health of the British army in India and she demonstrated that bad drainage, contaminated water, overcrowding and poor ventilation were causing the high death rate. She concluded that the health of the army and the people of India had to go hand in hand and so campaigned to improve the sanitary conditions of the country as a whole.","Florence Nightingale\n\nNightingale made a comprehensive statistical study of sanitation in Indian rural life and was the leading figure in the introduction of improved medical care and public health service in India. In 1858 and 1859, she successfully lobbied for the establishment of a Royal Commission into the Indian situation. Two years later, she provided a report to the commission, which completed its own study in 1863. \"After 10 years of sanitary reform, in 1873, Nightingale reported that mortality among the soldiers in India had declined from 69 to 18 per 1,000\".","Florence Nightingale\n\nThe Royal Sanitary Commission of 1868–9 presented Nightingale with an opportunity to press for compulsory sanitation in private houses. She lobbied the minister responsible, James Stansfeld, to strengthen the proposed Public Health Bill to require owners of existing properties to pay for connection to mains drainage. The strengthened legislation was enacted in the Public Health Acts of 1874 and 1875. At the same time she combined with the retired sanitary reformer Edwin Chadwick to persuade Stansfeld to devolve powers to enforce the law to Local Authorities, eliminating central control by medical technocrats. Her Crimean War statistics had convinced her that non-medical approaches were more effective given the state of knowledge at the time. Historians now believe that both drainage and devolved enforcement played a crucial role in increasing average national life expectancy by 20 years between 1871 and the mid-1930s during which time medical science made no impact on the most fatal epidemic diseases.","Florence Nightingale\n\nLiterature and the women's movement","Florence Nightingale\n\nWhile better known for her contributions in the nursing and mathematical fields, Nightingale is also an important link in the study of English feminism. She wrote some 200 books, pamphlets and articles throughout her life. During 1850 and 1852, she was struggling with her self-definition and the expectations of an upper-class marriage from her family. As she sorted out her thoughts, she wrote Suggestions for Thought to Searchers after Religious Truth. This was an 829-page, three-volume work, which Nightingale had printed privately in 1860, but which until recently was never published in its entirety. An effort to correct this was made with a 2008 publication by Wilfrid Laurier University, as volume 11 Privately printed by Nightingale in 1860. of a 16 volume project, the Collected Works of Florence Nightingale. The best known of these essays, called \"Cassandra\", was previously published by Ray Strachey in 1928. Strachey included it in The Cause, a history of the women's movement. Apparently, the writing served its original purpose of sorting out thoughts; Nightingale left soon after to train at the Institute for deaconesses at Kaiserswerth.","Florence Nightingale\n\n\"Cassandra\" protests the over-feminisation of women into near helplessness, such as Nightingale saw in her mother's and older sister's lethargic lifestyle, despite their education. She rejected their life of thoughtless comfort for the world of social service. The work also reflects her fear of her ideas being ineffective, as were Cassandra's. Cassandra was a princess of Troy who served as a priestess in the temple of Apollo during the Trojan War. The god gave her the gift of prophecy; when she refused his advances, he cursed her so that her prophetic warnings would go unheeded. Elaine Showalter called Nightingale's writing \"a major text of English feminism, a link between Wollstonecraft and Woolf.\"","Florence Nightingale\n\nTheology","Florence Nightingale\n\nDespite being named as a Unitarian in several older sources, Nightingale's own rare references to conventional Unitarianism are mildly negative. She remained in the Church of England throughout her life, albeit with unorthodox views. Influenced from an early age by the Wesleyan tradition, Nightingale felt that genuine religion should manifest in active care and love for others. She wrote a work of theology: Suggestions for Thought, her own theodicy, which develops her heterodox ideas. Nightingale questioned the goodness of a God who would condemn souls to hell, and was a believer in universal reconciliation – the concept that even those who die without being saved will eventually make it to Heaven. She would sometimes comfort those in her care with this view. For example, a dying young prostitute being tended by Nightingale was concerned she was going to hell and said to her 'Pray God, that you may never be in the despair I am in at this time'. The nurse replied \"Oh, my girl, are you not now more merciful than the God you think you are going to? Yet the real God is far more merciful than any human creature ever was or can ever imagine.\"","Florence Nightingale\n\nDespite her intense personal devotion to Christ, Nightingale believed for much of her life that the pagan and eastern religions had also contained genuine revelation. She was a strong opponent of discrimination both against Christians of different denominations, and against those of non-Christian religions.\nNightingale believed religion helped provide people with the fortitude for arduous good work, and would ensure the nurses in her care attended religious services. However she was often critical of organised religion. She disliked the role the 19th century Church of England would sometimes play in worsening the oppression of the poor. Nightingale argued that secular hospitals usually provided better care than their religious counterparts. While she held that the ideal health professional should be inspired by a religious as well as professional motive, she said that in practice many religiously motivated health workers were concerned chiefly in securing their own salvation, and that this motivation was inferior to the professional desire to deliver the best possible care.","Florence Nightingale\n\nLegacy","Florence Nightingale\n\nNursing","Florence Nightingale\n\nNightingale's lasting contribution has been her role in founding the modern nursing profession. She set an example of compassion, commitment to patient care and diligent and thoughtful hospital administration. The first official nurses' training programme, her Nightingale School for Nurses, opened in 1860. In addition to the continued operation of the Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery at King's College London, the Nightingale Building in the School of Nursing and Midwifery at the University of Southampton is also named after her.","Florence Nightingale\n\nIn 1912, the International Committee of the Red Cross instituted the Florence Nightingale Medal, which is awarded every two years to nurses or nursing aides for outstanding service. It is the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve and is awarded to nurses or nursing aides for \"exceptional courage and devotion to the wounded, sick or disabled or to civilian victims of a conflict or disaster\" or \"exemplary services or a creative and pioneering spirit in the areas of public health or nursing education\". Since 1965, International Nurses Day has been celebrated on her birthday (12 May) each year. The President of India honours nursing professionals with the \"National Florence Nightingale Award\" every year on International Nurses Day. The award, established in 1973, is given in recognition of meritorious services of nursing professionals characterised by devotion, sincerity, dedication and compassion.","Florence Nightingale\n\nThe Nightingale Pledge is a modified version of the Hippocratic Oath which nurses have recited at their \"pinning\" ceremony which takes place at the end of their training. Created in 1893 and named after Nightingale as the founder of modern nursing, the pledge is a statement of the ethics and principles of the nursing profession.","Florence Nightingale\n\nThe Florence Nightingale Declaration Campaign, established by nursing leaders throughout the world through the Nightingale Initiative for Global Health (NIGH), aims to build a global grassroots movement to achieve two United Nations Resolutions for adoption by the UN General Assembly of 2008. They will declare: The International Year of the Nurse–2010 (the centennial of Nightingale's death); The UN Decade for a Healthy World–2011 to 2020 (the bicentennial of Nightingale's birth). NIGH also works to rekindle awareness about the important issues highlighted by Florence Nightingale, such as preventive medicine and holistic health. As of 2016, the Florence Nightingale Declaration has been signed by over 25,000 signatories from 106 countries.","Florence Nightingale\n\nDuring the Vietnam War, Nightingale inspired many US Army nurses, sparking a renewal of interest in her life and work. Her admirers include Country Joe of Country Joe and the Fish, who has assembled an extensive website in her honour.","Florence Nightingale\n\nThe Agostino Gemelli Medical School in Rome, the first university-based hospital in Italy and one of its most respected medical centres, honoured Nightingale's contribution to the nursing profession by giving the name \"Bedside Florence\" to a wireless computer system it developed to assist nursing.","Florence Nightingale\n\nHospitals","Florence Nightingale\n\nFour hospitals in Istanbul are named after Nightingale: Florence Nightingale Hospital in Şişli (the biggest private hospital in Turkey), Metropolitan Florence Nightingale Hospital in Gayrettepe, European Florence Nightingale Hospital in Mecidiyeköy, and Kızıltoprak Florence Nightingale Hospital in Kadiköy, all belonging to the Turkish Cardiology Foundation.","Florence Nightingale\n\nAn appeal is being considered for the former Derbyshire Royal Infirmary hospital in Derby, England to be named after Nightingale. The suggested new name will be either Nightingale Community Hospital or Florence Nightingale Community Hospital. The area in which the hospital lies in Derby has recently been referred to as the \"Nightingale Quarter\".","Florence Nightingale\n\nMuseums and monuments","Florence Nightingale\n\nA statue of Florence Nightingale stands in Waterloo Place, Westminster, London, just off The Mall. There are three statues of Nightingale in Derby – one outside the London Road Community Hospital formerly known as the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary (DRI), one in St Peter's Street, and one above the Nightingale-Macmillan Continuing Care Unit opposite the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary. A public house named after her stands close to the DRI. The Nightingale-Macmillan continuing care unit is now at the Royal Derby Hospital, formerly known as The City Hospital, Derby.","Florence Nightingale\n\nA stained glass window was commissioned for inclusion in the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary chapel in the late 1950s. When the chapel was demolished the window was removed and installed in the replacement chapel. At the closure of the DRI the window was again removed and stored. In October 2010, £6,000 was raised to reposition the window in St Peter's Church, Derby. The work features nine panels, of the original ten, depicting scenes of hospital life, Derby townscapes and Nightingale herself. Some of the work was damaged and the tenth panel was dismantled for the glass to be used in repair of the remaining panels. All the figures, who are said to be modelled on prominent Derby town figures of the early sixties, surround and praise a central pane of the triumphant Christ. A nurse who posed for the top right panel in 1959 attended the rededication service in October 2010.","Florence Nightingale\n\nThe Florence Nightingale Museum at St Thomas' Hospital in London reopened in May 2010 in time for the centenary of Nightingale's death. Another museum devoted to her is at her sister's family home, Claydon House, now a property of the National Trust.","Florence Nightingale\n\nUpon the centenary of Nightingale's death in 2010, and to commemorate her connection with Malvern, the Malvern Museum held a Florence Nightingale exhibit with a school poster competition to promote some events.","Florence Nightingale\n\nIn Istanbul, the northernmost tower of the Selimiye Barracks building is now the Florence Nightingale Museum. and in several of its rooms, relics and reproductions related to Florence Nightingale and her nurses are on exhibition.","Florence Nightingale\n\nWhen Nightingale moved on to the Crimea itself in May 1855, she often travelled on horseback to make hospital inspections. She later transferred to a mule cart and was reported to have escaped serious injury when the cart was toppled in an accident. Following this, she used a solid Russian-built carriage, with a waterproof hood and curtains. The carriage was returned to England by Alexis Soyer after the war and subsequently given to the Nightingale training school. The carriage was damaged when the hospital was bombed during the Second World War. It was restored and transferred to the Army Medical Services Museum, now in Mytchett, Surrey, near Aldershot.","Florence Nightingale\n\nA bronze plaque, attached to the plinth of the Crimean Memorial in the Haydarpaşa Cemetery, Istanbul, Turkey and unveiled on Empire Day, 1954, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of her nursing service in that region, bears the inscription: \"To Florence Nightingale, whose work near this Cemetery a century ago relieved much human suffering and laid the foundations for the nursing profession.\" Other monuments of Nightingale include a statue at Chiba University in Chiba, Japan, and a bust at Tarlac State University, Tarlac City, Philippines.","Florence Nightingale\n\nAudio","Florence Nightingale\n\nFlorence Nightingale's voice was saved for posterity in a phonograph recording from 1890 preserved in the British Library Sound Archive. The recording, made in aid of the Light Brigade Relief Fund and available to hear online, says:","Florence Nightingale\n\nWhen I am no longer even a memory, just a name, I hope my voice may perpetuate the great work of my life. God bless my dear old comrades of Balaclava and bring them safe to shore. Florence Nightingale.","Florence Nightingale\n\nTheatre","Florence Nightingale\n\nThe first theatrical representation of Nightingale was Reginald Berkeley's The Lady with the Lamp, premiering in London in 1929 with Edith Evans in the title role. It did not portray her as an entirely sympathetic character and draws much characterisation from Lytton Strachey's biography of her in Eminent Victorians. It was adapted as a film of the same name in 1951. In 2009, a stage musical play representation of Nightingale entitled The Voyage of the Lass was produced by the Association of Nursing Service Administrators of the Philippines.","Florence Nightingale\n\nFilm","Florence Nightingale\n\nIn 1912, a biographical silent film titled The Victoria Cross, starring Julia Swayne Gordon as Nightingale, was released, followed in 1915 by another silent film, Florence Nightingale, featuring Elisabeth Risdon. In 1936, Kay Francis played Nightingale in the film titled The White Angel. In 1951, The Lady With the Lamp starred Anna Neagle.","Florence Nightingale\n\nTelevision","Florence Nightingale\n\nPortrayals of Nightingale on television, in documentary as in fiction, vary – the BBC's 2008 Florence Nightingale emphasised her independence and feeling of religious calling, but in Channel 4's 2006 Mary Seacole: The Real Angel of the Crimea she is portrayed as narrow-minded and opposed to Seacole's efforts. In 1985, a TV biopic Florence Nightingale, starring Jaclyn Smith, was produced.","Florence Nightingale\n\nBanknotes","Florence Nightingale\n\nFlorence Nightingale's image appeared on the reverse of £10 Series D banknotes issued by the Bank of England from 1975 until 1994. As well as a standing portrait, she was depicted on the notes in a field hospital, holding her lamp.","Florence Nightingale\n\nPhotographs","Florence Nightingale\n\nNightingale had a principled objection to having photographs taken or her portrait painted. An extremely rare photograph of her, taken at Embley on a visit to her family home in May 1858, was discovered in 2006 and is now at the Florence Nightingale Museum in London. A black-and-white photograph taken in about 1907 by Lizzie Caswall Smith at Nightingale's London home in South Street, Park Lane, was auctioned on 19 November 2008 by Dreweatts auction house in Newbury, Berkshire, England, for £5,500.","Florence Nightingale\n\nBiographies","Florence Nightingale\n\nThe first biography of Nightingale was published in England in 1855. In 1911, Edward Tyas Cook was authorised by Nightingale's executors to write the official life, published in two volumes in 1913. Lytton Strachey based much of his chapter on Nightingale in Eminent Victorians on Cook, and Cecil Woodham-Smith also relied heavily on Cook's Life in her 1950 biography, though she did have access to new family material preserved at Claydon. In 2008, Mark Bostridge published a major new life of Nightingale, almost exclusively based on unpublished material from the Verney Collections at Claydon and from archival documents from about 200 archives around the world, some of which had been published by Lynn McDonald in her projected sixteen-volume edition of the Collected Works of Florence Nightingale (2001 to date).","Florence Nightingale\n\nAncestry","Florence Nightingale\n\nOther","Florence Nightingale\n\nIn 2002, Nightingale was ranked #52 in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote.","Florence Nightingale\n\nSeveral churches in the Anglican Communion commemorate Nightingale with a feast day on their liturgical calendars. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America commemorates her as a Renewer of society with Clara Maass on 13 August.","Florence Nightingale\n\nWashington National Cathedral celebrates Nightingale's accomplishments with a double-lancet stained glass window featuring six scenes from her life, designed by artist Joseph G. Reynolds and installed in 1983.","Florence Nightingale\n\nBeginning in 1968, the US Air Force operated a fleet of 20 C-9A \"Nightingale\" aeromedical evacuation aircraft, based on the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 platform. The last of these planes was retired from service in 2005.","Florence Nightingale\n\nA KLM McDonnell-Douglas MD-11 (registration PH-KCD) was also named in her honour. Nightingale has appeared on international postage stamps, including, the UK, Australia, Belgium, Dominica, Hungary (showing the Florence Nightingale medal awarded by the International Red Cross), and Germany.","Florence Nightingale\n\nFile:Balaklava sick 2.jpg|A tinted lithograph by William Simpson illustrating conditions of the sick and injured in Balaklava\nFile:Items belonging to Florence Nightingale, Nelson and Livingstone. (9663810240).jpg|Nightingale's moccasins that she wore in the Crimean War\nFile:'One of the wards in the hospital at Scutari'. Wellcome M0007724 - restoration, cropped.jpg|A ward of the hospital at Scutari where Nightingale worked, from an 1856 lithograph by William Simpson\nFile:Nightingale receiving the Wounded at Scutari by Jerry Barrett.jpg|\"Nightingale receiving the Wounded at Scutari\", a portrait by Jerry Barrett\nFile:Flornce Nightingale exhibit.jpg|Florence Nightingale exhibit at Malvern Museum 2010","Florence Nightingale\n\nWorks","Florence Nightingale\n\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n* Privately printed by Nightingale in 1860.\n*\n* The Family, a critical essay in Fraser's Magazine (1870)\n*\n* Note: First few pages missing. Title page is present.\n*. See also 2005 publication by Diggory Press, ISBN 978-1-905363-22-3\n* Letters from Egypt: A Journey on the Nile 1849–1850 (1987) ISBN 1-55584-204-6\n*","Nursing\n\nNursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life.","Nursing\n\nNurses may be differentiated from other health care providers by their approach to patient care, training, and scope of practice. Nurses practice in a wide diversity of practice areas with a different scope of practice and level of prescriber authority in each. Many nurses provide care within the ordering scope of physicians, and this traditional role has come to shape the historic public image of nurses as care providers. However, nurses are permitted by most jurisdictions to practice independently in a variety of settings depending on training level. In the postwar period, nurse education has undergone a process of diversification towards advanced and specialized credentials, and many of the traditional regulations and provider roles are changing.","Nursing\n\nNurses develop a plan of care, working collaboratively with physicians, therapists, the patient, the patient's family and other team members, that focuses on treating illness to improve quality of life. In the U.S. (and increasingly the United Kingdom), advanced practice nurses, such as clinical nurse specialists and nurse practitioners, diagnose health problems and prescribe medications and other therapies, depending on individual state regulations. Nurses may help coordinate the patient care performed by other members of an interdisciplinary health care team such as therapists, medical practitioners and dietitians. Nurses provide care both interdependently, for example, with physicians, and independently as nursing professionals.","Nursing\n\nHistory","Nursing\n\nTraditional","Nursing\n\nNursing historians face the challenge of determining whether care provided to the sick or injured in antiquity was nursing care. In the fifth century BC, for example, the Hippocratic Collection in places describes skilled care and observation of patients by male \"attendants\", who may have been early nurses.","Nursing\n\nBefore the foundation of modern nursing, members of religious orders such as nuns and monks often provided nursing-like care. Examples exist in Christian, Islamic and Buddhist traditions amongst others. Phoebe, mentioned in Romans 16 has been described in many sources as \"the first visiting nurse\". These traditions were influential in the development of the ethos of modern nursing. The religious roots of modern nursing remain in evidence today in many countries. One example in the United Kingdom is the use of the honorific \"sister\" to refer to a senior nurse.","Nursing\n\nDuring the Reformation of the 16th century, Protestant reformers shut down the monasteries and convents, allowing a few hundred municipal hospices to remain in operation in northern Europe. Those nuns who had been serving as nurses were given pensions or told to get married and stay home. Nursing care went to the inexperienced as traditional caretakers, rooted in the Roman Catholic Church, were removed from their positions. The nursing profession suffered a major setback for approximately 200 years.","Nursing\n\n19th century","Nursing\n\nFlorence Nightingale laid the foundations of professional nursing during the Crimean War. Her Notes on Nursing became popular. The Nightingale model of professional education, having set up the first school of nursing that is connected to a continuously operating hospital and medical school, spread widely in Europe and North America after 1870.","Nursing\n\nOther important nurses in the development of the profession include: \n*Agnes Hunt from Shropshire was the first orthopedic nurse and was pivotal in the emergence of the orthopedic hospital The Robert Jones & Agnes Hunt Hospital in Oswestry, Shropshire.\n*Agnes Elizabeth Jones and Linda Richards, who established quality nursing schools in the USA and Japan; Linda Richards was officially America's first professionally trained nurse, graduating in 1873 from the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Boston\n*Clarissa Harlowe \"Clara\" Barton, a pioneer American teacher, patent clerk, nurse, and humanitarian, and the founder of the American Red Cross.\n* Saint Marianne Cope, a Sister of St Francis who opened and operated some of the first general hospitals in the United States, instituting cleanliness standards which influenced the development of America's modern hospital system.","Nursing\n\nCatholic orders such as Little Sisters of the Poor, Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of St. Mary, St. Francis Health Services, Inc. and Sisters of Charity built hospitals and provided nursing services during this period. In turn, the modern deaconess movement began in Germany in 1836. Within a half century there were over 5,000 deaconesses in Europe.","Nursing\n\nFormal use of nurses in the modern military began in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Nurses saw active duty in the First Boer War, the Egyptian Campaign (1882) and the Sudan Campaign (1883).","Nursing\n\n20th century","Nursing\n\nHospital-based training came to the fore in the early 1900s, with an emphasis on practical experience. The Nightingale-style school began to disappear. Hospitals and physicians saw women in nursing as a source of free or inexpensive labor. Exploitation of nurses was not uncommon by employers, physicians and educational providers.","Nursing\n\nMany nurses saw active duty in World War I, but the profession was transformed during the second World War. British nurses of the Army Nursing Service were part of every overseas campaign. More nurses volunteered for service in the US Army and Navy than any other occupation. The Nazis had their own Brown Nurses, 40,000 strong. Two dozen German Red Cross nurses were awarded the Iron Cross for heroism under fire.","Nursing\n\nThe modern era saw the development of undergraduate and post-graduate nursing degrees. Advancement of nursing research and a desire for association and organization led to the formation of a wide variety of professional organizations and academic journals. Growing recognition of nursing as a distinct academic discipline was accompanied by an awareness of the need to define the theoretical basis for practice.","Nursing\n\nIn the 19th and early 20th century, nursing was considered a women's profession, just as doctoring was a men's profession. With increasing expectations of workplace equality during the late 20th century, nursing became an officially gender-neutral profession, though in practice the percentage of male nurses remains well below that of female physicians in the early 21st century.","Nursing\n\nDefinition","Nursing\n\nAlthough nursing practice varies both through its various specialties and countries, these nursing organizations offer the following definitions:","Nursing\n\nAs a profession","Nursing\n\nThe authority for the practice of nursing is based upon a social contract that delineates professional rights and responsibilities as well as mechanisms for public accountability. In almost all countries, nursing practice is defined and governed by law, and entrance to the profession is regulated at the national or state level.","Nursing\n\nThe aim of the nursing community worldwide is for its professionals to ensure quality care for all, while maintaining their credentials, code of ethics, standards, and competencies, and continuing their education. There are a number of educational paths to becoming a professional nurse, which vary greatly worldwide; all involve extensive study of nursing theory and practice as well as training in clinical skills.","Nursing\n\nNurses care for individuals of all ages and cultural backgrounds who are healthy and ill in a holistic manner based on the individual's physical, emotional, psychological, intellectual, social, and spiritual needs. The profession combines physical science, social science, nursing theory, and technology in caring for those individuals.","Nursing\n\nTo work in the nursing profession, all nurses hold one or more credentials depending on their scope of practice and education. A licensed practical nurse (LPN) (also referred to as a licensed vocational nurse, registered practical nurse, enrolled nurse, and state enrolled nurse) works independently or with a registered nurse (RN). The most significant differentiation between an LPN and RN is found in the requirements for entry to practice, which determines entitlement for their scope of practice. For example, Canada requires a bachelor's degree for the RN and a two-year diploma for the LPN. A registered nurse provides scientific, psychological, and technological knowledge in the care of patients and families in many health care settings. Registered nurses may earn additional credentials or degrees.","Nursing\n\nIn the USA, multiple educational paths will qualify a candidate to sit for the licensure examination as a registered nurse. The Associate Degree in Nursing (ADN) is awarded to the nurse who has completed a two-year undergraduate academic degree awarded by community colleges, junior colleges, technical colleges, and bachelor's degree-granting colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study usually lasting two years. It is also referred to as Associate in Nursing (AN), Associate of Applied Science in Nursing (AAS), or Associate of Science in Nursing (ASN). The Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) is awarded to the nurse who has earned an American four-year academic degree in the science and principles of nursing, granted by a tertiary education university or similarly accredited school. After completing either the LPN or either RN education programs in the USA, graduates are eligible to sit for a licensing examination to become a nurse, the passing of which is required for the nursing license. The National Licensure Examination (NCLEX) test is a multiple choice exam nurses take to become licensed. It costs two-hundred dollars to take the NCLEX. It examines a nurses ability to properly care for a client.","Nursing\n\nStudy books and practice tests are available to purchase.","Nursing\n\nNurses may follow their personal and professional interests by working with any group of people, in any setting, at any time. Some nurses follow the traditional role of working in a hospital setting. Other options include: Pediatrics, Neonatal, Maternity, OBGYN, Geriatrics, Ambulatory, or Nurse Anesthetists. There are many other options nurses can explore depending on the type of degree and education acquired. RNs may also pursue different roles as advanced practice registered nurses.","Nursing\n\nNurses are not truly doctor's assistants. This is possible in certain situations, but nurses more often are independently caring for their patients or assisting other nurses. Registered Nurses treat patients, record their medical history, provide emotional support, and provide follow-up care. Nurses also help doctors perform diagnostic tests. Nurses are almost always working on their own or with other nurses. Nurses will assist doctors in the emergency room or in trauma care when help is needed.","Nursing\n\nGender issues","Nursing\n\nDespite equal opportunity legislation, nursing has continued to be a female-dominated profession. For instance, the male-to-female ratio of nurses is approximately 1:19 in Canada and the United States. This ratio is represented around the world. Notable exceptions include Francophone Africa, which includes the countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Guinea, Gabon, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, and Togo, which all have more male than female nurses. In Europe, in countries such as Spain, Portugal, Czechoslovakia and Italy, over 20% of nurses are male.","Nursing\n\nThere are many myths about nursing, including the profession and the people that work as a nurse. One of the most common myths is that all nurses are females. The nursing industry is dominated by females, but there are male nurses in the profession as well. A study in 2011 shows that 91% of all nurses in the United States were female, and 9% were male. Although females are more common, male nurses receive more pay. In the same survey, male nurses average $60,700 per year and female nurses average $51,100 per year. Male nurses have the highest percentage as nurse anesthetists, rating at 41%.","Nursing\n\nTheory and process","Nursing\n\nNursing practice is the actual provision of nursing care. In providing care, nurses implement the nursing care plan using the nursing process. This is based around a specific nursing theory which is selected based on the care setting and population served. In providing nursing care, the nurse uses both nursing theory and best practice derived from nursing research.","Nursing\n\nIn general terms, the nursing process is the method used to assess and diagnose needs, plan outcomes and interventions, implement interventions, and evaluate the outcomes of the care provided. Like other disciplines, the profession has developed different theories derived from sometimes diverse philosophical beliefs and paradigms or worldviews to help nurses direct their activities to accomplish specific goals.","Nursing\n\nScope of activities","Nursing\n\nActivities of daily living assistance","Nursing\n\nAssisting in activities of daily living (ADL) are skills required in nursing as well as other professions such as nursing assistants. This includes assisting in patient mobility, such as moving an activity intolerant patient within bed. For hygiene, this often involves bed baths and assisting with urinary and bowel elimination.","Nursing\n\nMedication","Nursing\n\nNurses do not have the authority to prescribe medications, with few exceptions. All medications administered by nurses must be from a medication order from a licensed practitioner. Nurses are legally responsible for the drugs they administer and there may be legal implications when there is an error in a drug order and the nurse could be expected to have noted and reported error. In the United States, nurses have the right to refuse any medication administration that they deem to be harmful to the patient.","Nursing\n\nPatient education","Nursing\n\nThe patient's family is often involved in the education. Effective patient education leads to fewer complications and hospital visits.","Nursing\n\nSpecialities","Nursing\n\nNursing is the most diverse of all healthcare professions. Nurses practice in a wide range of settings but generally nursing is divided depending on the needs of the person being nursed.","Nursing\n\nThe major populations are:\n*communities/public\n*family/individual across the lifespan\n*adult-gerontology\n*pediatrics\n*neonatal\n*women's health/gender-related\n*psych/mental health","Nursing\n\nThere are also specialist areas such as cardiac nursing, orthopedic nursing, palliative care, perioperative nursing, obstetrical nursing, oncology nursing, nursing informatics, telenursing.","Nursing\n\nPractice settings","Nursing\n\nNurses practice in a wide range of settings, from hospitals to visiting people in their homes and caring for them in schools to research in pharmaceutical companies. Nurses work in occupational health settings (also called industrial health settings), free-standing clinics and physician offices, nurse-led clinics, long-term care facilities and camps. They also work on cruise ships and in military service. Nurses act as advisers and consultants to the health care and insurance industries. Many nurses also work in the health advocacy and patient advocacy fields at companies such as Health Advocate, Inc. helping in a variety of clinical and administrative issues. Some are attorneys and others work with attorneys as legal nurse consultants, reviewing patient records to assure that adequate care was provided and testifying in court. Nurses can work on a temporary basis, which involves doing shifts without a contract in a variety of settings, sometimes known as per diem nursing, agency nursing or travel nursing. Nurses work as researchers in laboratories, universities, and research institutions. Nurses have also been delving into the world of informatics, acting as consultants to the creation of computerized charting programs and other software.","Nursing\n\nOccupational hazards","Nursing\n\nInternationally, there is a serious shortage of nurses. One reason for this shortage is due to the work environment in which nurses practice. In a recent review of the empirical human factors and ergonomic literature specific to nursing performance, nurses were found to work in generally poor environmental conditions. Some countries and states have passed legislation regarding acceptable nurse-to-patient ratios.","Nursing\n\nThe fast-paced and unpredictable nature of health care places nurses at risk for injuries and illnesses, including high occupational stress. Nursing is a particularly stressful profession, and nurses consistently identify stress as a major work-related concern and have among the highest levels of occupational stress when compared to other professions. This stress is caused by the environment, psychosocial stressors, and the demands of nursing, including new technology that must be mastered, the emotional labor involved in nursing, physical labor, shift work, and high workload. This stress puts nurses at risk for short-term and long-term health problems, including sleep disorders, depression, mortality, psychiatric disorders, stress-related illnesses, and illness in general. Nurses are at risk of developing compassion fatigue and moral distress, which can worsen mental health. They also have very high rates of occupational burnout (40%) and emotional exhaustion (43.2%). Burnout and exhaustion increase the risk for illness, medical error, and suboptimal care provision.","Nursing\n\nIn the United States, the Occupational Health Safety Network (OHSN) is an electronic surveillance system developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to address health and safety risks among health care personnel, including nurses. It focuses on three high risk and preventable events: musculoskeletal injuries from patient handling activities; slips, trips, and falls; and workplace violence. Hospitals and other healthcare facilities can upload the occupational injury data they already collect for analysis and benchmarking with other de-identified facilities, in order to identify and implement timely and targeted interventions.","Nursing\n\nNurses are also at risk for violence and abuse in the workplace. Violence is typically perpetrated by non-staff (e.g. patients or family), whereas abuse is typically perpetrated by other hospital personnel. 57% of American nurses reported in 2011 that they had been threatened at work; 17% were physically assaulted.","Nursing\n\nPrevention","Nursing\n\nThere are a number of interventions that can mitigate the occupational hazards of nursing. They can be individual-focused or organization-focused. Individual-focused interventions include stress management programs, which can be customized to individuals. Stress management programs can reduce anxiety, sleep disorders, and other symptoms of stress. Organizational interventions focus on reducing stressful aspects of the work environment by defining stressful characteristics and developing solutions to them. Using organizational and individual interventions together is most effective at reducing stress on nurses.","Nursing\n\nWorldwide","Nursing\n\nAustralia","Nursing\n\nCatholic religious institutes were influential in the development of Australian nursing, founding many of Australia's hospitals - the Irish Sisters of Charity were first to arrive in 1838 and established St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney in 1857 as a free hospital for the poor. They and other orders like the Sisters of Mercy, and in aged care the Sisters of the Little Company of Mary and Little Sisters of the Poor founded hospitals, hospices, research institutes and aged care facilities around Australia.","Nursing\n\nA census in the 1800s found several hundred nurses working in Western Australia during the colonial period of history, this included Aboriginal female servants who cared for the infirm.","Nursing\n\nThe state nursing licensing bodies amalgamated in Australia in 2011 under the federal body AHPRA (Australian Health Practitioner Registration Authority). Several divisions of nursing license is available and recognized around the country. \n*Enrolled nurses may initiate some oral medication orders with a specific competency now included in national curricula but variable in application by agency.\n*Registered nurses hold a university degree (enrolled nurses can progress to registered nurse status and do get credit for previous study)\n*Nurse practitioners have started emerging from postgraduate programs and work in private practice.\n*Mental health nurses must complete further training as advanced mental health practitioners in order to administer client referrals under the Mental Health Act.","Nursing\n\nAustralia enjoys the luxury of a national curriculum for vocational nurses, trained at TAFE colleges or private RTO. Enrolled and registered nurses are identified by the department of immigration as an occupational area of need, although registered nurses are always in shorter supply, and this increases in proportion with specialization.","Nursing\n\nIn 1986 there were a number of rolling industrial actions around the country, culminating when five thousand Victorian nurses went on strike for eighteen days. The hospitals were able to function by hiring casual staff from each other's striking members, but the increased cost forced a decision in the nurses' favor","Nursing\n\nEuropean Union","Nursing\n\nIn the European Union, the profession of nurse is regulated. A profession is said to be regulated when access and exercise is subject to the possession of a specific professional qualification. The regulated professions database contains a list of regulated professions for nurse[http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/qualifications/regprof/index.cfm?actionprofession&id_profession\n12402&tab=countries Generic name of profession - Nurse] in the EU member states, EEA countries and Switzerland. This list is covered by the Directive 2005/36/EC .","Nursing\n\nIran","Nursing\n\nNursing educational program in Iran is similar to the nursing educational program in other countries from some aspects. Holding secondary school diploma and passing the entrance exam is necessary for the admission in this course. Entrance exam to governmental universities and Azad University is held on separate basis. Duration of associate degree course of operating room and anesthesia is 2 years, bachelor’s degree in nursing is 4 years and master's degree in nursing is 2- 2.5 years and PhD degree in nursing is 4–5 years.","Nursing\n\nIn the beginning, nursing educational program was the part of medical educational program. On the basis of this structure, the nurse follows the instruction of physician without any question. Nowadays, nursing educational program in Iran has been progressed and after the year 1992 considering the community base care, the nursing educational program also has changed. At present nursing education is held in 43 governmental nursing colleges and 63 nursing colleges of Azad University. Governmental universities' students do not have to pay tuition fee, but in Azad University which is a private university, the students have to pay necessary expenses. PhD degree program is held only in governmental universities under the supervision of Ministry of Health and Ministry of Sciences.","Nursing\n\nIn bachelor's degree program, nursing students start the clinical work from 2nd term and pass till the completion of 6th term simultaneously with theoretical subjects. 7th and 8th terms are allocated for training program. At present nursing educational program in throughout Iran is the same and is compiled under the supervision of Supreme Council of Ministry of Health, Treatment and Medical Education. Nursing students take the theoretical subjects, training and internship courses in various sections of educational hospitals and hospitals that affiliated to universities. Students’ learning, in clinical sections is performed under the direct supervision and guidance of nursing instructors, but in the final year, activities of students mainly performs under the supervision of nursing personnel and alternate supervision of nursing instructors.","Nursing\n\nStudents, during the years of study have opportunity to create relation with patients in the various sections especially intensive care units and to achieve experiences. Students' progress in clinical environments is from simple issues toward harder issues. At present practical nursing degree and associate degree Nursing Program has been canceled and Iranian nurses must hold bachelor's degree in order to work in Iran from accredited universities confirmed by the Ministry of Health.","Nursing\n\nNursing Groups in Iran","Nursing\n\n*Nurse\nNurse is a person who is holding four years university degree and executes works relating to nursing profession including taking care of patients, perform health and medical services, educational, research and managerial affairs. At present annually 6000 persons are graduated in the bachelor's degree program in nursing. * Practical Nurse\nA person who is holding secondary school diploma in nursing and have completed 2 years program in nursing and cooperate in activities of nurses in medical sections under the supervision of nurses. * Nursing Assistant\nA person who is holding secondary school diploma and passing short term program for the execution of initial cares of patients under the supervision of nurses. * Operating Room Technician\nThese persons after obtaining secondary school diploma and passing university’s entrance exam and completing 2 years program are in charge of performing professional duties in operation room for preparing patients for surgery and necessary cooperation with surgeons at the time of surgery. These persons by passing the exam are eligible to continue uncontinuous bachelor's degree course in nursing.","Nursing\n\n* Anesthesia Technician \nThese persons after obtaining secondary school diploma and passing university’s entrance exam and completing 2 years program in Anesthesia, are in charge of performing profession duties in the operating room in the filed of anesthesia including preparing the patients for anesthesia and necessary cooperation with anesthesiologists at the time of operation. These persons by passing exam are eligible to continue uncontinuous bachelor's degree course in nursing. * Emergency medical technician\nThese persons after obtaining secondary school diploma and passing entrance exam of university and obtaining technician diploma are in change of performing affairs including rendering first aid services to the patients and emergency victims resulting from accidents with motor vehicles, explosion, debris, falling from height, fractures, burns, poisonings, cuts, drowning, industrial accidents (cutting of limbs), patients with heart diseases and baby delivering. * Master in Nursing\nNurses after obtaining bachelor's degree and passing the entrance exam are eligible to continue their study in pediatric nursing, medical surgical nursing, community health nursing, psychiatric nursing and nursing education. These persons after graduation mainly become in charge of nurses’ education or management of medical sections. Duration of this program is 2.5 years.","Nursing\n\nAt present annually 150 persons are graduated in master's degree program in nursing. * PhD in Nursing\nNurses by holding master's degree after passing entrance exam, are eligible to continue their study in PhD in the field of Nursing. Duration of this program is 4 years and the graduates mainly will work in educational and research sections. At present annually 20 persons are graduated in this program.","Nursing\n\nNursing jobs in Iran","Nursing\n\nAccording to the censes at present approximately 120,000 nurses are working in Iran in various sections. Most of them are working in hospitals and health centers belong to Ministry of Health, Treatment & Medical Education. Also, nurses are working in the hospitals affiliated to social security organization, armed forces, private sector and charity sector.","Nursing\n\nWithin the last years of independence, nurses’ activities are established in offices of consultancy and rendering nursing services at home. Nurses by establishment these centers can render consultant and care services to the client.","Nursing\n\nAt present to work as a nurse only holding accredited academic degree is sufficient, but there are programs for nurses to take RN examination after graduation.","Nursing\n\nAlso, upon the approval and execution of continuous educational act, the Iranian nurses should obtain score of 15 every year in various educational courses held by the Ministry of Health of Universities, Scientific Associations and Nursing organization.","Nursing\n\nIranian Nursing Organization (INO)","Nursing\n\nHaving an independent organization which can defend the rights of nurses and to follow up nurses' problems was the long time wishes of Iranian nurses. Before Islamic revolution in 1979, some efforts were taken in this respect which finally results to establishment of Iranian Nurses Association and activities were taken in this respect. After the victory of Islamic revolution, this association also canceled its activities and after that, number of associations mainly with political and professional formation was established, but the main problem of nurses was still present. Gradually in the year 1994 with the efforts of numbers of persons mostly nursing students and faculty member, the preliminary step was taken for the establishment of nursing organization. This preliminary nucleus started its work in the name of Nursing Coordination council with the instruction of students.","Nursing\n\nThis council had correspondences with the president, speaker of parliament, ministry of health, treatment and medical education in connection with problems of nursing society. Also this organization had correspondence with nursing colleges for unity throughout the country.","Nursing\n\nAfter this date till March 2001, number of state seminars were held in various cities and finally on March 5.2001, generalities of formation of Nursing Organization which was in the agenda of Islamic Consultative Assembly and approved, was finally approved in an open session on Aug.12.2001. Finally with the procurement of comments of Guardian’s Organization in Jan.2002, Establishment Act of Nursing Organization was approved by the parliament.","Nursing\n\nThe first election of board of directors throughout the country was performed on Sept.20.2002 and members of 85 boards of directors of districts were elected throughout the country with the direct vote of nurses. The board of directors of the first Supreme of Organization, was elected on Dec.8.2002.","Nursing\n\nUnited Kingdom","Nursing\n\nTo practice lawfully as a registered nurse in the United Kingdom, the practitioner must hold a current and valid registration with the Nursing and Midwifery Council. The title \"Registered Nurse\" can only be granted to those holding such registration. This protected title is laid down in the Nurses, Midwives and Health Visitors Act, 1997.","Nursing\n\nFirst and second level","Nursing\n\nFirst-level nurses make up the bulk of the registered nurses in the UK. They were previously known by titles such as RGN (registered general nurse), RSCN (registered sick children's nurse), RMN (registered mental nurse) and RNMS (registered nurse (for the) mentally subnormal). The titles used now are similar, including RNA (registered nurse adult), RNC (registered nurse child), RNMH (registered nurse mental health) and RNLD (registered nurse learning disabilities).","Nursing\n\nSecond-level nurse training is no longer provided, however they are still legally able to practice in the United Kingdom as a registered nurse. Many have now either retired or undertaken conversion courses to become first-level nurses. They are entitled to refer to themselves as registered nurses as their registration is on the Nursing & Midwifery Council register of nurses, although most refer to themselves as ENs or SENs.","Nursing\n\nAdvanced practice","Nursing\n\n* Nurse practitioners – Most of these nurses obtain a minimum of a master's degree, and a desired post grad certificate. They often perform roles similar to those of physicians and physician assistants. They can prescribe medications as independent or supplementary prescribers, although are still legally regulated, unlike physician's assistants. Most NPs have referral and admission rights to hospital specialties. They commonly work in primary care (e.g. GP surgeries), A&E departments, or pediatrics although they are increasingly being seen in other areas of practice. In the UK, the title \"nurse practitioner\" is legally protected.\n* Specialist community public health nurses – traditionally district nurses and health visitors, this group of research and publication activities.\n* Lecturer-practitioners (also called practice education facilitators) – these nurses work both in the NHS, and in universities. They typically work for 2–3 days per week in each setting. In university, they train pre-registration student nurses (see below), and often teach on specialist courses for post-registration nurses\n* Lecturers – these nurses are not employed by the NHS. Instead they work full-time in universities, both teaching and performing research.","Nursing\n\nManagers","Nursing\n\nMany nurses who have worked in clinical settings for a long time choose to leave clinical nursing and join the ranks of the NHS management. This used to be seen as a natural career progression for those who had reached ward management positions, however with the advent of specialist nursing roles (see above), this has become a less attractive option.","Nursing\n\nNonetheless, many nurses fill positions in the senior management structure of NHS organizations, some even as board members. Others choose to stay a little closer to their clinical roots by becoming clinical nurse managers or modern matrons.","Nursing\n\nNurse education","Nursing\n\nPre-registration","Nursing\n\nIn order to become a registered nurse, one must complete a program recognized by the Nursing and Midwifery Council. Currently, this involves completing a degree, available from a range of universities offering these courses, in the chosen branch specialty (see below), leading to both an academic award and professional registration as a 1st level registered nurse. Such a course is a 50/50 split of learning in university (i.e. through lectures, assignments and examinations) and in practice (i.e. supervised patient care within a hospital or community setting).","Nursing\n\nThese courses are three (occasionally four) years' long. The first year is known as the common foundation program (CFP), and teaches the basic knowledge and skills required of all nurses. Skills included in the CFP may include communication, taking observations, administering medication and providing personal care to patients. The remainder of the program consists of training specific to the student's chosen branch of nursing. These are:","Nursing\n\n* Adult nursing.\n* Child nursing.\n* Mental health nursing.\n* Learning disabilities nursing.","Nursing\n\nAs of 2013, the Nursing and Midwifery Council will require all new nurses qualifying in the UK to hold a degree qualification. However, those nurses who hold a diploma, or even a certificate in nursing are still able to legally practice in the UK, although they are able to undertake university modules to obtain enough credits to top up to a degree.","Nursing\n\nMidwifery training is similar in length and structure, but is sufficiently different that it is not considered a branch of nursing. There are shortened (18 month) programs to allow nurses already qualified in the adult branch to hold dual registration as a nurse and a midwife. Shortened courses lasting 2 years also exist for graduates of other disciplines to train as nurses. This is achieved by more intense study and a shortening of the common foundation program.","Nursing\n\nStudent nurses currently receive a bursary from the government to support them during their nurse training, and may also be eligible for a student loan.","Nursing\n\nBefore Project 2000, nurse education was the responsibility of hospitals and was not based in universities; hence many nurses who qualified prior to these reforms do not hold an academic award.","Nursing\n\nPost-registration","Nursing\n\nAfter the point of initial registration, there is an expectation that all qualified nurses will continue to update their skills and knowledge. The Nursing and Midwifery Council insists on a minimum of 35 hours of education every three years, as part of its post registration education and practice (PREP) requirements.","Nursing\n\nThere are also opportunities for many nurses to gain additional clinical skills after qualification. Cannulation, venipuncture, intravenous drug therapy and male catheterization are the most common, although there are many others (such as advanced life support) which some nurses will undertake.","Nursing\n\nMany nurses who qualified with a diploma choose to upgrade their qualification to a degree by studying part-time. Many nurses prefer this option to gaining a degree initially, as there is often an opportunity to study in a specialist field as a part of this upgrading. Financially, in England, it was also much more lucrative, as diploma students get the full bursary during their initial training, and employers often pay for the degree course as well as the nurse's salary.","Nursing\n\nIn order to become specialist nurses (such as nurse consultants, nurse practitioners etc.) or nurse educators, some nurses undertake further training above bachelor's degree level. Master's degrees exist in various healthcare related topics, and some nurses choose to study for PhDs or other higher academic awards. District nurses and health visitors are also considered specialist nurses, and in order to become such they must undertake specialist training. This is a one-year full-time degree.","Nursing\n\nAll newly qualifying district nurses and health visitors are trained to prescribe from the Nurse Prescribers' Formulary, a list of medications and dressings typically useful to those carrying out these roles. Many of these (and other) nurses will also undertake training in independent and supplementary prescribing, which allows them (as of 1 May 2006) to prescribe almost any drug in the British National Formulary. This has been the cause of a great deal of debate in both medical and nursing circles.","Nursing\n\nCanada","Nursing\n\nHistory","Nursing\n\nCanadian nursing dates all the way back to 1639 in Quebec with the Augustine nuns. These nuns were trying to open up a mission that cared for the spiritual and physical needs of patients. The establishment of this mission created the first nursing apprenticeship training in North America. In the nineteenth century there were some Catholic orders of nursing that were trying to spread their message across Canada. Most nurses were female and only had an occasional consultation with a physician. Towards the end of the nineteenth century hospital care and medical services had been improved and expanded. Much of this was due to Nightingale's influence. In 1874 the first formal nursing training program was started at the General and Marine Hospital in St. Catharines in Ontario.","Nursing\n\nEducation","Nursing\n\nAll Canadian nurses and prospective nurses are heavily encouraged by the Canadian Nurses Association to continue their education to receive a baccalaureate degree. They believe that this is the best degree to work towards because it results in better patient outcomes. In addition to helping patients, nurses that have a baccalaureate degree will be less likely to make small errors because they have a higher level of education. A baccalaureate degree also gives a nurse a more critical opinion, which gives him or her more of an edge in the field. This ultimately saves the hospital money because they deal with less problematic incidents. All Canadian provinces and territories except for the Yukon and Quebec require that all nurses must have a baccalaureate degree. The basic length of time that it takes to obtain a baccalaureate degree is four years. However, Canada does have a condensed program that is two years long.","Nursing\n\nNursing specialty certification is available through the Canadian Nurses Association in nineteen practice areas. Some of those specialties are cardiovascular nursing, community health nursing, critical care nursing, emergency nursing, gerontological nursing, medical-surgical nursing, neuroscience nursing, oncology nursing, orthopedic nursing, psychiatric/mental health nursing, and rehabilitation nursing. Certification requires practice experience and passing a test that is based on competencies for that specialty.","Nursing\n\nPublic opinion","Nursing\n\nCanadian nurses hold a lot of responsibility in the medical field and are considered vital. According to the Canadian Nurses Association, \"They expect RNs to develop and implement multi-faceted plans for managing chronic disease, treating complex health conditions and assisting them in the transition from the hospital to the community. Canadians also look to RNs for health education and for strategies to improve their health. RNs assess the appropriateness of new research and technology for patients and adjust care plans accordingly\".","Nursing\n\nJapan","Nursing\n\nHistory","Nursing\n\nNursing was not an established part of Japan's healthcare system until 1899 with the Midwives Ordinance.[http://www.nurse.or.jp/jna/english/nursing/system.html Link text], additional text. From there the Registered Nurse Ordinance came into play in 1915. This established a legal substantiation to registered nurses all over Japan. A new law geared towards nurses was created during World War II. This law was titled the Public Health Nurse, Midwife and Nurse Law and it was established in 1948. It established educational requirements, standards and licensure. There has been a continued effort to improve nursing in Japan. In 1992 the Nursing Human Resource Law was passed. This law created the development of new university programs for nurses. Those programs were designed to raise the education level of the nurses so that they could be better suited for taking care of the public.","Nursing\n\nTypes of nurses","Nursing\n\nJapan only recognizes four types of nursing and they are Public Health Nursing, Midwifery, Registered Nursing and Assistant Nursing.","Nursing\n\nPublic health","Nursing\n\nThis type of nursing is designed to help the public and is also driven by the public's needs. The goals of public health nurses are to monitor the spread of disease, keep vigilant watch for environmental hazards, educate the community on how to care for and treat themselves, and train for community disasters.","Nursing\n\nMidwifery","Nursing\n\nNurses that are involved with midwifery are independent of any organization. A midwife takes care of a pregnant woman during labour and postpartum. They assist with things like breastfeeding and caring for the child.","Nursing\n\nNursing Assistant","Nursing\n\nIndividuals who are assistant nurses follow orders from a registered nurse. They report back to the licensed nurse about a patient's condition. Assistant nurses are always supervised by a licensed registered nurse.","Nursing\n\nEducation","Nursing\n\nIn 1952 Japan established the first nursing university in the country. An Associate Degree was the only level of certification for years. Soon people began to want nursing degrees at a higher level of education. Soon the Bachelor's degree in Nursing (BSN) was established. Currently Japan offers doctorate level degrees of nursing in a good number of its universities.","Nursing\n\nThere are three ways that an individual could become a registered nurse in Japan. After obtaining a high school degree the person could go to a nursing university for four years and earn a bachelor's degree, go to a junior nursing college for three years or go to a nursing school for three years. Regardless of where the individual attends school they must take the national exam. Those who attended a nursing university have a bit of an advantage over those who went to a nursing school. They can take the national exam to be a registered nurse, public health nurse or midwife. In the cases of become a midwife or a public health nurse, the student must take a one-year course in their desired field after attending a nursing university and passing the national exam to become a registered nurse. The nursing universities are the best route for someone who wants to become a nurse in Japan. They offer a wider range of general education classes and they also allow for a more rigid teaching style of nursing.","Nursing\n\nThese nursing universities train their students to be able to make critical and educated decisions when they are out in the field. Physicians are the ones who are teaching the potential nurses because there are not enough available nurses to teach students. This increases the dominance that physicians have over nurses.","Nursing\n\nStudents that attend a nursing college or just a nursing school receive the same degree that one would who graduated from a nursing university, but they do not have the same educational background. The classes offered at nursing colleges and nursing schools are focused on more practical aspects of nursing. These institutions do not offer many general education classes, so students who attend these schools will solely be focusing on their nursing educations while they are in school. Students who attend a nursing college or school do have the opportunity to become a midwife or a public health nurse. They have to go through a training institute for their desired field after graduating from the nursing school or college. Japanese nurses never have to renew their licenses. Once they have passed their exam, they have their license for life.","Nursing\n\nToday","Nursing\n\nLike the United States, Japan is in need of more nurses. The driving force behind this need this is the fact that country is aging and needs more medical care for its people. The country needs a rapid increase of nurses however things do not seem to be turning around. Some of the reasons that there is a shortage are poor working conditions, an increase in the number of hospital beds, the low social status of nurses, and the cultural idea that married women quit their jobs for family responsibilities.[http://www.nurse.or.jp/jna/english/nursing/employment.html Link text], additional text. On average, Japanese nurses will make around 280,000 yen a month, which is one of the higher paying jobs. however, physicians make twice the amount that nurses do in a year.[http://www.worldsalaries.org/professionalnurse.shtml Link text], additional text. Similar to other cultures, the Japanese people view nurses as subservient to physicians. They are considered lesser and oftentimes negative connotations are associated with nurses. According to the American Nurses Association article on Japan, \"nursing work has been described using negative terminology such as 'hard, dirty, dangerous, low salary, few holidays, minimal chance of marriage and family, and poor image'\".","Nursing\n\nSome nurses in Japan are trying to be advocates. They are promoting better nursing education as well as promoting the care of the elderly. There are some organizations that unite Japanese nurses like the Japanese Nursing Association (JNA). The JNA is not to be confused with a union, it is simply a professional organization for the nurses. Members of the JNA lobby politicians and produces publications about nursing. According to the American Nurses Association's article on Japan the JNA, \"works toward the improvement in nursing practice through many activities including the development of a policy research group to influence policy development, a code of ethics for nurses, and standards of nursing practice\". The JNA also provides certification for specialists in mental health, oncology and community health. The JNA is not the only nursing organization in Japan. There are other subgroups that are typically categorized by the nurses' specialty, like emergency nursing or disaster nursing. One of the older unions that relates to nursing is the Japanese Federation of Medical Workers Union which was created in 1957. It is a union that includes physicians as well as nurses. This organization was involved with the Nursing Human Resource Law.","Nursing\n\nTaiwan","Nursing\n\n*In Taiwan, the Ministry of Health and Welfare is in charge of the regulation of nursing. The Taiwan Union of Nurses Association (TUNA) is the union unit in Taiwan, fighting for nurses on payment and working time issues.","Nursing\n\nUnited States","Nursing\n\nIn the US, scope of practice is determined by the state or territory in which an RN is licensed. Each state has its own laws, rules, and regulations governing nursing care. Usually the making of such rules and regulations is delegated to a state board of nursing, which performs day-to-day administration of these rules, licenses nurses and nursing assistants, and makes decisions on nursing issues. It should be noted that in some states the terms \"nurse\" or \"nursing\" may only be used in conjunction with the practice of a registered nurse (RN) or licensed practical or vocational nurse (LPN/LVN).","Nursing\n\nIn the hospital setting, registered nurses often delegate tasks to LPNs and unlicensed assistive personnel.","Nursing\n\nRNs are not limited to employment as bedside nurses. They are employed by physicians, attorneys, insurance companies, governmental agencies, community/public health agencies, private industry, school districts, ambulatory surgery centers, among others. Some registered nurses are independent consultants who work for themselves, while others work for large manufacturers or chemical companies. Research nurses conduct or assist in the conduct of research or evaluation (outcome and process) in many areas such as biology, psychology, human development, and health care systems.","Nursing\n\nMany employers offer flexible work schedules, child care, educational benefits, and bonuses. About 21 percent of registered nurses are union members or covered by union contract.","Nursing\n\nEducational and licensure requirements","Nursing\n\nDiploma in Nursing","Nursing\n\nThe oldest method of nursing education is the hospital-based diploma program, which lasts approximately three years. Students take between 30 and 60 credit hours in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, nutrition, chemistry, and other subjects at a college or university, then move on to intensive nursing classes. Until 1996, most RNs in the US were initially educated in nursing by diploma programs. According to the Health Services Resources Administration's 2000 Survey of Nurses only six percent of nurses who graduated from nursing programs in the United States received their education at a Diploma School of Nursing.","Nursing\n\nAssociate Degree in Nursing","Nursing\n\nThe most common initial nursing education is a two-year Associate Degree in Nursing (Associate of Applied Science in Nursing, Associate of Science in Nursing, Associate Degree in Nursing), a two-year college degree referred to as an ADN. Some four-year colleges and universities also offer the ADN. Associate degree nursing programs have prerequisite and corequisite courses (which may include English, Math and Human Anatomy and Physiology) and ultimately stretch out the degree-acquiring process to about three years or greater.","Nursing\n\nBachelor of Science in Nursing","Nursing\n\nThe third method is to obtain a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN), a four-year degree that also prepares nurses for graduate-level education. For the first two years in a BSN program, students usually obtain general education requirements and spend the remaining time in nursing courses. Advocates for the ADN and diploma programs state that such programs have an on the job training approach to educating students, while the BSN is an academic degree that emphasizes research and nursing theory. Some states require a specific amount of clinical experience that is the same for both BSN and ADN students. A BSN degree qualifies its holder for administrative, research, consulting and teaching positions that would not usually be available to those with an ADN, but is not necessary for most patient care functions. Nursing schools may be accredited by either the Accreditation Commission for Education in Nursing (ACEN) or the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE).","Nursing\n\nGraduate education","Nursing\n\nAdvanced education in nursing is done at the master's and doctoral levels. It prepares the graduate for specialization as an advanced practice registered nurse (APRN) or for advanced roles in leadership, management, or education. The clinical nurse leader (CNL) is an advanced generalist who focuses on the improvement of quality and safety outcomes for patients or patient populations from an administrative and staff management focus. Doctoral programs in nursing prepare the student for work in nursing education, health care administration, clinical research, or advanced clinical practice. Most programs confer the PhD in nursing and Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP).","Nursing\n\nAdvanced Practice Registered Nurse (APRN)","Nursing\n\nAreas of advanced nursing practice include that of a nurse practitioner (NP), a certified nurse midwife (CNM), a certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA), or a clinical nurse specialist (CNS). Nurse practitioners and CNSs work assessing, diagnosing and treating patients in fields as diverse as family practice, women's health care, emergency nursing, acute/critical care, psychiatry, geriatrics, or pediatrics, additionally, a CNS usually works for a facility to improve patient care, do research, or as a staff educator.","Nursing\n\nLicensure examination","Nursing\n\nCompletion of any one of these three educational routes allows a graduate nurse to take the NCLEX-RN, the test for licensure as a registered nurse, and is accepted by every state as an adequate indicator of minimum competency for a new graduate. However, controversy exists over the appropriate entry-level preparation of RNs. Some professional organizations believe the BSN should be the sole method of RN preparation and ADN graduates should be licensed as \"technical nurses\" to work under the supervision of BSN graduates. Others feel the on-the-job experiences of diploma and ADN graduates makes up for any deficiency in theoretical preparation.","Nursing\n\nShortage in the United States","Nursing\n\nRNs are the largest group of health care workers in the United States, with about 2.7 million employed in 2011. It has been reported that the number of new graduates and foreign-trained nurses is insufficient to meet the demand for registered nurses; this is often referred to as the nursing shortage and is expected to increase for the foreseeable future. There are data to support the idea that the nursing shortage is a voluntary shortage. In other words, nurses are leaving nursing of their own volition. In 2006 it was estimated that approximately 1.8 million nurses chose not to work as a nurse. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that 296,900 healthcare jobs were created in 2011. RNs make up the majority of the healthcare work force, therefore these positions will be filled primarily by nurses. The BLS also states that by 2020, there will be 1.2 million nursing job openings due to an increase in the workforce, and replacements. (Rosseter, 2012).","Nursing\n\nCauses","Nursing\n\nThe International Council Of Nursing (ICN), the largest international health professional organization in the world, recognizes the shortage of nurses as a growing crisis in the world. This shortage impacts the healthcare of everyone worldwide. One of the many reasons is that nurses who pursue to become nurses do so very late in their lives. This leads to a non-lengthy employment time. A national survey prepared by the Federation of Nurses and Health Professionals in 2001 found that one in five nurses plans to leave the profession within five years because of unsatisfactory working conditions, including low pay, severe under staffing, high stress, physical demands, mandatory overtime, and irregular hours. Approximately 29.8 percent of all nursing jobs are found in hospitals. However, because of administrative cost cutting, increased nurse's workload, and rapid growth of outpatient services, hospital nursing jobs will experience slower than average growth. Employment in home care and nursing homes is expected to grow rapidly. Though more people are living well into their 80s and 90s, many need the kind of long-term care available at a nursing home.","Nursing\n\nMany nurses will also be needed to help staff the growing number of out-patient facilities, such as HMOs, group medical practices, and ambulatory surgery centers. Nursing specialties will be in great demand. There are, in addition, many part-time employment possibilities.","Nursing\n\nLevsey, Campbell, and Green voiced their concern about the shortage of nurses, citing Fang, Wilsey-Wisniewski, & Bednash, 2006 who state that over 40,000 qualified nursing applicants were turned away in the 2005-2006 academic year from baccalaureate nursing programs due to a lack of masters and doctoral qualified faculty, and that this number was increased over 9,000 from 32,000 qualified but rejected students from just two years earlier. Several strategies have been offered to mitigate this shortage including; Federal and private support for experienced nurses to enhance their education, incorporating more hybrid/blended nursing courses, and using simulation in lieu of clinical (hospital) training experiences.","Nursing\n\nFurthermore, there is a shortage of academically qualified instructors to teach at schools of nursing worldwide. The serious need for educational capacity is not being met, which is the underlying most important preparation resource for the nurses of tomorrow. The decrease in faculty everywhere is due to many factors including decrease in satisfaction with the workforce, poor salaries, and reduction in full-time equivalent. Throughout the span of 6 years the nursing faculty shortage has been written about an increasing amount. Unfortunately, there is no clear consensus or an organized plan on how to fix the ongoing issue.","Nursing\n\nContinuing education","Nursing\n\nWith health care knowledge growing steadily, nurses can stay ahead of the curve through continuing education. Continuing education classes and programs enable nurses to provide the best possible care to patients, advance nursing careers, and keep up with Board of Nursing requirements. The American Nurses Association and the American Nursing Credentialing Center are devoted to ensuring nurses have access to quality continuing education offerings. Continuing education classes are calibrated to provide enhanced learning for all levels of nurses. Many States also regulate Continuing Nursing Education. Nursing licensing boards requiring Continuing Nursing Education (CNE) as a condition for licensure, either initial or renewal, accept courses provided by organizations that are accredited by other state licensing boards, by the American Nursing Credentialing Center (ANCC), or by organizations that have been designated as an approver of continuing nursing education by ANCC. There are some exceptions to this rule including the state of California, Florida and Kentucky. National Healthcare Institute has created a list to assist nurses in determining their CNE credit hours requirements. While this list is not all inclusive, it offers details on how to contact nursing licensing boards directly.","Nursing\n\nBoard certification","Nursing\n\nProfessional nursing organizations, through their certification boards, have voluntary certification exams to demonstrate clinical competency in their particular specialty. Completion of the prerequisite work experience allows an RN to register for an examination, and passage gives an RN permission to use a professional designation after their name. For example, passage of the American Association of Critical-care Nurses specialty exam allows a nurse to use the initials 'CCRN' after his or her name. Other organizations and societies have similar procedures.","Nursing\n\nThe American Nurses Credentialing Center, the credentialing arm of the American Nurses Association, is the largest nursing credentialing organization and administers more than 30 specialty examinations.","Nursing\n\nPicture gallery","Nursing\n\nFile:Student enrolled nurse.jpg |Aboriginal nursing student 2010. File:US Navy 091129-N-8960W-064 Hospital Corpsman Michael Parke gives a vaccine to Lt. Carlos Lopez aboard the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz (CVN 68).jpg| A nurse in the US Navy \nFile:Staff Nurse Andrea writing up her notes.jpg|A British staff nurse in 2008. Image:2june 2007 484.jpg|Italian Red Cross volunteers nurses \"Crocerossine\" (they are not RN) June 2007. File:US Navy 030425-N-2382W-004 Lt. Bob Hawkins, Nurse-Anesthetist administers a local anesthetic to an injured Marine prior to surgery aboard USS Kearsarge (LHD 3).jpg|A Nurse-Anesthetist administers a local anesthetic to an injured Marine prior to surgery aboard USS Kearsarge\nImage:Nursing students.jpg|Czech nursing students 2006. File:Krankenschwester doku1.jpg|A German nurse in 2005. File:Army nurses rescued from Santo Tomas 1945h.jpg|American nurses who were rescued from Santo Tomas in 1945. File:Ann Agnes Bernatitus.jpg|American nurse Ann Agnes Bernatitus in 1942. File:MNHandWashingNurse.jpg|An American nurse from Minnesota, in 1930. File:Maria Valtorta4.jpg| The Italian nurse Maria Valtorta in 1918. File:Schoolgirl Into Nurse- Medical Training in Britain, 1942 D8770.jpg|Pre-nursing training in Britain during the Second World War. File:Nurses on Army Hospital Ship Relief, 1898.jpg|American nurses from 1898. Image:Georgina Pope.jpg|The Canadian nurse Georgina Pope in 1898.","Nursing\n\nImage:Stamp Ana Néri.jpg|Ana Néri, pioneer of nursing in Brazil, known for her efforts during the Paraguayan War. File:US Navy 031027-N-0000W-001 Family Nurse Practitioner Lt. Cmdr. Michael Service cares for a young girl at the U.S. Naval Hospital (USNH) Yokosuka.jpg|A nurse in the US Navy tending to a child. File:Tatiananursing.jpg|Empress Alexandra of Russia and her daughters nursing military patients (c.early 20th century). File:Newborn-incubator-toronto.jpg|Nurse cares for a premature baby in Toronto, Ontario (1955). Image:Navy Nurse.jpg|A U.S. Navy recruiting poster from World War II, showing a Naval nurse with a hospital ship"],"string":"[\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nFlorence Nightingale, (; 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910) was a celebrated English social reformer and statistician, and the founder of modern nursing.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nShe came to prominence while serving as a manager of nurses trained by her during the Crimean War, where she organised the tending to wounded soldiers. She gave nursing a highly favourable reputation and became an icon of Victorian culture, especially in the persona of \\\"The Lady with the Lamp\\\" making rounds of wounded soldiers at night.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nSome recent commentators have asserted Nightingale's achievements in the Crimean War were exaggerated by the media at the time, to satisfy the public's need for a hero. Nevertheless, critics agree on the decisive importance of her follow-up achievements in professionalising nursing roles for women. In 1860, Nightingale laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her nursing school at St Thomas' Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world, now part of King's College London. In recognition of her pioneering work in nursing, the Nightingale Pledge taken by new nurses, and the Florence Nightingale Medal, the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve, were named in her honour, and the annual International Nurses Day is celebrated around the world on her birthday. Her social reforms include improving healthcare for all sections of British society, advocating better hunger relief in India, helping to abolish prostitution laws that were over-harsh to women, and expanding the acceptable forms of female participation in the workforce.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nNightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her published work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills. She also helped popularise the graphical presentation of statistical data. Much of her writing, including her extensive work on religion and mysticism, has only been published posthumously.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nFlorence Nightingale was born on 12 May 1820 into a rich, upper-class, well-connected British family at the Villa Colombaia, in Florence, Italy, and was named after the city of her birth. Florence's older sister Frances Parthenope had similarly been named after her place of birth, Parthenope, a Greek settlement now part of the city of Naples. The family moved back to England in 1821, with Nightingale being brought up in the family's homes at Embley, Hampshire and\\nLea Hurst, Derbyshire.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nHer parents were William Edward Nightingale, born William Edward Shore (1794–1874) and Frances (\\\"Fanny\\\") Nightingale née Smith (1789–1880). William's mother Mary née Evans was the niece of Peter Nightingale, under the terms of whose will William inherited his estate at Lea Hurst, and assumed the name and arms of Nightingale. Fanny's father (Florence's maternal grandfather) was the abolitionist and Unitarian William Smith. Nightingale's father educated her.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nIn 1838, her father took the family on a tour in Europe where he was introduced to the English-born Parisian hostess Mary Clarke, with whom Florence bonded. She recorded that \\\"Clarkey\\\" was a stimulating hostess who did not care for her appearance, and while her ideas did not always agree with those of her guests, \\\"she was incapable of boring anyone.\\\" Her behaviour was said to be exasperating and eccentric and she had no respect for upper-class British women, whom she regarded generally as inconsequential. She said that if given the choice between being a woman or a galley slave, then she would choose the freedom of the galleys. She generally rejected female company and spent her time with male intellectuals. However, Clarkey made an exception in the case of the Nightingale family and Florence in particular. She and Florence were to remain close friends for 40 years despite their 27-year age difference. Clarke demonstrated that women could be equals to men, an idea that Florence had not obtained from her mother.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nNightingale underwent the first of several experiences that she believed were calls from God in February 1837 while at Embley Park, prompting a strong desire to devote her life to the service of others. In her youth she was respectful of her family's opposition to her working as a nurse, only announcing her decision to enter the field in 1844. Despite the intense anger and distress of her mother and sister, she rebelled against the expected role for a woman of her status to become a wife and mother. Nightingale worked hard to educate herself in the art and science of nursing, in the face of opposition from her family and the restrictive social code for affluent young English women.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nAs a young woman, Nightingale was described as attractive, slender and graceful. While her demeanour was often severe, she was said to be very charming and possess a radiant smile. Her most persistent suitor was the politician and poet Richard Monckton Milnes, but after a nine-year courtship she rejected him, convinced that marriage would interfere with her ability to follow her calling to nursing.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nIn Rome in 1847, she met Sidney Herbert, a politician who had been Secretary at War (1845–1846) who was on his honeymoon. He and Nightingale became lifelong close friends. Herbert would be Secretary of War again during the Crimean War, when he and his wife would be instrumental in facilitating Nightingale's nursing work in the Crimea. She became Herbert's key adviser throughout his political career, though she was accused by some of having hastened Herbert's death from Bright's Disease in 1861 because of the pressure her programme of reform placed on him. Nightingale also much later had strong relations with academic Benjamin Jowett, who may have wanted to marry her.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nNightingale continued her travels (now with Charles and Selina Bracebridge) as far as Greece and Egypt. Her writings on Egypt in particular are testimony to her learning, literary skill and philosophy of life. Sailing up the Nile as far as Abu Simbel in January 1850, she wrote of the Abu Simbel temples, \\\"Sublime in the highest style of intellectual beauty, intellect without effort, without suffering … not a feature is correct—but the whole effect is more expressive of spiritual grandeur than anything I could have imagined. It makes the impression upon one that thousands of voices do, uniting in one unanimous simultaneous feeling of enthusiasm or emotion, which is said to overcome the strongest man.\\\"\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nAt Thebes, she wrote of being \\\"called to God\\\", while a week later near Cairo she wrote in her diary (as distinct from her far longer letters that her elder sister Parthenope was to print after her return): \\\"God called me in the morning and asked me would I do good for him alone without reputation.\\\" Later in 1850, she visited the Lutheran religious community at Kaiserswerth-am-Rhein in Germany, where she observed Pastor Theodor Fliedner and the deaconesses working for the sick and the deprived. She regarded the experience as a turning point in her life, and issued her findings anonymously in 1851; The Institution of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, for the Practical Training of Deaconesses, etc. was her first published work. She also received four months of medical training at the institute, which formed the basis for her later care.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nOn 22 August 1853, Nightingale took the post of superintendent at the Institute for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen in Upper Harley Street, London, a position she held until October 1854.[http://www.harleystreetguide.co.uk/about/history/ History of Harley Street] at Harley Street Guide (commercial website) Her father had given her an annual income of £500 (roughly £40,000/US$65,000 in present terms), which allowed her to live comfortably and to pursue her career.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nCrimean War\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nFlorence Nightingale's most famous contribution came during the Crimean War, which became her central focus when reports got back to Britain about the horrific conditions for the wounded. On 21 October 1854, she and the staff of 38 women volunteer nurses that she trained, including her aunt Mai Smith, and 15 Catholic nuns (mobilised by Henry Edward Manning) were sent (under the authorisation of Sidney Herbert) to the Ottoman Empire. Nightingale was assisted in Paris by her friend Mary Clarke. They were deployed about 295 nmi across the Black Sea from Balaklava in the Crimea, where the main British camp was based.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nNightingale arrived early in November 1854 at Selimiye Barracks in Scutari (modern-day Üsküdar in Istanbul). Her team found that poor care for wounded soldiers was being delivered by overworked medical staff in the face of official indifference. Medicines were in short supply, hygiene was being neglected, and mass infections were common, many of them fatal. There was no equipment to process food for the patients.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nAfter Nightingale sent a plea to The Times for a government solution to the poor condition of the facilities, the British Government commissioned Isambard Kingdom Brunel to design a prefabricated hospital that could be built in England and shipped to the Dardanelles. The result was Renkioi Hospital, a civilian facility that, under the management of Dr Edmund Alexander Parkes, had a death rate less than 1/10th that of Scutari.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nStephen Paget in the Dictionary of National Biography asserted that Nightingale reduced the death rate from 42% to 2%, either by making improvements in hygiene herself, or by calling for the Sanitary Commission. For example, Nightingale implemented handwashing and other hygiene practices in the war hospital in which she worked.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nDuring her first winter at Scutari, 4,077 soldiers died there. Ten times more soldiers died from illnesses such as typhus, typhoid, cholera and dysentery than from battle wounds. With overcrowding, defective sewers and lack of ventilation, the Sanitary Commission had to be sent out by the British government to Scutari in March 1855, almost six months after Nightingale had arrived. The commission flushed out the sewers and improved ventilation. Death rates were sharply reduced, but she never claimed credit for helping to reduce the death rate. In 2001 and 2008 the BBC released documentaries that were critical of Nightingale's performance in the Crimean War, as were some follow-up articles published in The Guardian and the Sunday Times. Nightingale scholar Lynn McDonald has dismissed these criticisms as \\\"often preposterous\\\", arguing they are not supported by the primary sources.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nNightingale still believed that the death rates were due to poor nutrition, lack of supplies, stale air and overworking of the soldiers. After she returned to Britain and began collecting evidence before the Royal Commission on the Health of the Army, she came to believe that most of the soldiers at the hospital were killed by poor living conditions. This experience influenced her later career, when she advocated sanitary living conditions as of great importance. Consequently, she reduced peacetime deaths in the army and turned her attention to the sanitary design of hospitals and the introduction of sanitation in working-class homes (see Statistics and Sanitary Reform, below).\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nThe Lady with the Lamp\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nDuring the Crimean war, Nightingale gained the nickname \\\"The Lady with the Lamp\\\" from a phrase in a report in The Times:\\nShe is a \\\"ministering angel\\\" without any exaggeration in these hospitals, and as her slender form glides quietly along each corridor, every poor fellow's face softens with gratitude at the sight of her. When all the medical officers have retired for the night and silence and darkness have settled down upon those miles of prostrate sick, she may be observed alone, with a little lamp in her hand, making her solitary rounds.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nThe phrase was further popularised by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's 1857 poem \\\"Santa Filomena\\\":\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nLo! in that house of misery\\nA lady with a lamp I see\\nPass through the glimmering gloom,\\nAnd flit from room to room.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nLater career\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nIn the Crimea on 29 November 1855, the Nightingale Fund was established for the training of nurses during a public meeting to recognise Nightingale for her work in the war. There was an outpouring of generous donations. Sidney Herbert served as honorary secretary of the fund and the Duke of Cambridge was chairman. Nightingale was considered a pioneer in the concept of medical tourism as well, based on her 1856 letters describing spas in the Ottoman Empire. She detailed the health conditions, physical descriptions, dietary information, and other vital details of patients whom she directed there. The treatment there was significantly less expensive than in Switzerland.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nNightingale had £45,000 at her disposal from the Nightingale Fund to set up the Nightingale Training School at St. Thomas' Hospital on 9 July 1860. The first trained Nightingale nurses began work on 16 May 1865 at the Liverpool Workhouse Infirmary. Now called the Florence Nightingale School of Nursing and Midwifery, the school is part of King's College London. She also campaigned and raised funds for the Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital in Aylesbury near her sister's home, Claydon House.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nNightingale wrote Notes on Nursing (1859). The book served as the cornerstone of the curriculum at the Nightingale School and other nursing schools, though it was written specifically for the education of those nursing at home. Nightingale wrote \\\"Every day sanitary knowledge, or the knowledge of nursing, or in other words, of how to put the constitution in such a state as that it will have no disease, or that it can recover from disease, takes a higher place. It is recognised as the knowledge which every one ought to have – distinct from medical knowledge, which only a profession can have\\\".\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nNotes on Nursing also sold well to the general reading public and is considered a classic introduction to nursing. Nightingale spent the rest of her life promoting and organising the nursing profession. In the introduction to the 1974 edition, Joan Quixley of the Nightingale School of Nursing wrote: \\\"The book was the first of its kind ever to be written. It appeared at a time when the simple rules of health were only beginning to be known, when its topics were of vital importance not only for the well-being and recovery of patients, when hospitals were riddled with infection, when nurses were still mainly regarded as ignorant, uneducated persons. The book has, inevitably, its place in the history of nursing, for it was written by the founder of modern nursing\\\".\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nAs Mark Bostridge has demonstrated, one of Nightingale's signal achievements was the introduction of trained nurses into the workhouse system in Britain from the 1860s onwards. This meant that sick paupers were no longer being cared for by other, able-bodied paupers, but by properly trained nursing staff. In the first half of the 19th century, nurses were usually former servants or widows who found no other job and therefore were forced to earn their living by this work. Charles Dickens caricatured the standard of care in his 1842-1843 published novel Martin Chuzzlewit in the figure of Sarah Gamp as being incompetent, negligent, alcoholic and corrupt. According to Caroline Worthington, director of the Florence Nightingale Museum, “When she [Nightingale] started out there was no such thing as nursing. The Dickens character Sarah Gamp, who was more interested in drinking gin than looking after her patients, was only a mild exaggeration. Hospitals were places of last resort where the floors were laid with straw to soak up the blood. Florence transformed nursing when she got back [from Crimea]. She had access to people in high places and she used it to get things done.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nFlorence was stubborn, opinionated and forthright but she had to be those things in order to achieve all that she did.\\\"\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nThough Nightingale is sometimes said to have denied the theory of infection for her entire life, a 2008 biography disagrees, saying that she was simply opposed to a precursor of germ theory known as contagionism. This theory held that diseases could only be transmitted by touch. Before the experiments of the mid-1860s by Pasteur and Lister, hardly anyone took germ theory seriously; even afterwards, many medical practitioners were unconvinced. Bostridge points out that in the early 1880s Nightingale wrote an article for a textbook in which she advocated strict precautions designed, she said, to kill germs. Nightingale's work served as an inspiration for nurses in the American Civil War. The Union government approached her for advice in organising field medicine. Her ideas inspired the volunteer body of the United States Sanitary Commission.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nIn the 1870s, Nightingale mentored Linda Richards, \\\"America's first trained nurse\\\", and enabled her to return to the United States with adequate training and knowledge to establish high-quality nursing schools. Richards went on to become a nursing pioneer in the US and Japan.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nBy 1882, several Nightingale nurses had become matrons at several leading hospitals, including, in London (St Mary's Hospital, Westminster Hospital, St Marylebone Workhouse Infirmary and the Hospital for Incurables at Putney) and throughout Britain (Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley; Edinburgh Royal Infirmary; Cumberland Infirmary and Liverpool Royal Infirmary), as well as at Sydney Hospital in New South Wales, Australia.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nIn 1883, Nightingale was awarded the Royal Red Cross by Queen Victoria. In 1904, she was appointed a Lady of Grace of the Order of St John (LGStJ). In 1907, she became the first woman to be awarded the Order of Merit. In the following year she was given the Honorary Freedom of the City of London. Her birthday is now celebrated as International CFS Awareness Day.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nFrom 1857 onwards, Nightingale was intermittently bedridden and suffered from depression. A recent biography cites brucellosis and associated spondylitis as the cause. Most authorities today accept that Nightingale suffered from a particularly extreme form of brucellosis, the effects of which only began to lift in the early 1880s. Despite her symptoms, she remained phenomenally productive in social reform. During her bedridden years, she also did pioneering work in the field of hospital planning, and her work propagated quickly across Britain and the world. Nightingale's output slowed down considerably in her last decade. She wrote very little during that period due to blindness and declining mental abilities, though she still retained an interest in current affairs.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nRelationships\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nAlthough much of Nightingale's work improved the lot of women everywhere, Nightingale was of the opinion that women craved sympathy and were not as capable as men. She criticised early women's rights activists for decrying an alleged lack of careers for women at the same time that lucrative medical positions, under the supervision of Nightingale and others, went perpetually unfilled. She preferred the friendship of powerful men, insisting they had done more than women to help her attain her goals, writing: \\\"I have never found one woman who has altered her life by one iota for me or my opinions.\\\"The same 1861 letter published in She often referred to herself in the masculine, as for example \\\"a man of action\\\" and \\\"a man of business\\\".\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nHowever, she did have several important and long-lasting friendships with women. Later in life, she kept up a prolonged correspondence with Irish nun Sister Mary Clare Moore, with whom she had worked in Crimea. Her most beloved confidante was Mary Clarke, an Englishwoman she met in 1837 and kept in touch with throughout her life.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nSome scholars of Nightingale's life believe that she remained chaste for her entire life, perhaps because she felt a religious calling to her career.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nDeath\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nOn 13 August 1910, at the age of 90, she died peacefully in her sleep in her room at 10 South Street, Mayfair, London. The offer of burial in Westminster Abbey was declined by her relatives and she is buried in the graveyard at St Margaret's Church in East Wellow, Hampshire, near Embley Park. She left a large body of work, including several hundred notes that were previously unpublished.Kelly, Heather (1998). [http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/126/ Florence Nightingale's autobiographical notes: A critical edition of BL Add. 45844 (England)] (M.A. thesis) Wilfrid Laurier University A memorial monument to Nightingale was created in Carrara marble by Francis William Sargant in 1913 and placed in the cloister of the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nContributions\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nStatistics and sanitary reform\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nFlorence Nightingale exhibited a gift for mathematics from an early age and excelled in the subject under the tutorship of her father. Later, Nightingale became a pioneer in the visual presentation of information and statistical graphics. She used methods such as the pie chart, which had first been developed by William Playfair in 1801. While taken for granted now, it was at the time a relatively novel method of presenting data. (alternative pagination depending on country of sale: 98–107. Bibliography on p.114) [http://www.unc.edu/~nielsen/soci708/ online article – see documents link at left]\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nIndeed, Nightingale is described as \\\"a true pioneer in the graphical representation of statistics\\\", and is credited with developing a form of the pie chart now known as the polar area diagram,Cohen, I. Bernard (1984), p. 107. or occasionally the Nightingale rose diagram, equivalent to a modern circular histogram, to illustrate seasonal sources of patient mortality in the military field hospital she managed. Nightingale called a compilation of such diagrams a \\\"coxcomb\\\", but later that term would frequently be used for the individual diagrams. She made extensive use of coxcombs to present reports on the nature and magnitude of the conditions of medical care in the Crimean War to Members of Parliament and civil servants who would have been unlikely to read or understand traditional statistical reports. In 1859, Nightingale was elected the first female member of the Royal Statistical Society. She later became an honorary member of the American Statistical Association.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nHer attention turned to the health of the British army in India and she demonstrated that bad drainage, contaminated water, overcrowding and poor ventilation were causing the high death rate. She concluded that the health of the army and the people of India had to go hand in hand and so campaigned to improve the sanitary conditions of the country as a whole.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nNightingale made a comprehensive statistical study of sanitation in Indian rural life and was the leading figure in the introduction of improved medical care and public health service in India. In 1858 and 1859, she successfully lobbied for the establishment of a Royal Commission into the Indian situation. Two years later, she provided a report to the commission, which completed its own study in 1863. \\\"After 10 years of sanitary reform, in 1873, Nightingale reported that mortality among the soldiers in India had declined from 69 to 18 per 1,000\\\".\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nThe Royal Sanitary Commission of 1868–9 presented Nightingale with an opportunity to press for compulsory sanitation in private houses. She lobbied the minister responsible, James Stansfeld, to strengthen the proposed Public Health Bill to require owners of existing properties to pay for connection to mains drainage. The strengthened legislation was enacted in the Public Health Acts of 1874 and 1875. At the same time she combined with the retired sanitary reformer Edwin Chadwick to persuade Stansfeld to devolve powers to enforce the law to Local Authorities, eliminating central control by medical technocrats. Her Crimean War statistics had convinced her that non-medical approaches were more effective given the state of knowledge at the time. Historians now believe that both drainage and devolved enforcement played a crucial role in increasing average national life expectancy by 20 years between 1871 and the mid-1930s during which time medical science made no impact on the most fatal epidemic diseases.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nLiterature and the women's movement\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nWhile better known for her contributions in the nursing and mathematical fields, Nightingale is also an important link in the study of English feminism. She wrote some 200 books, pamphlets and articles throughout her life. During 1850 and 1852, she was struggling with her self-definition and the expectations of an upper-class marriage from her family. As she sorted out her thoughts, she wrote Suggestions for Thought to Searchers after Religious Truth. This was an 829-page, three-volume work, which Nightingale had printed privately in 1860, but which until recently was never published in its entirety. An effort to correct this was made with a 2008 publication by Wilfrid Laurier University, as volume 11 Privately printed by Nightingale in 1860. of a 16 volume project, the Collected Works of Florence Nightingale. The best known of these essays, called \\\"Cassandra\\\", was previously published by Ray Strachey in 1928. Strachey included it in The Cause, a history of the women's movement. Apparently, the writing served its original purpose of sorting out thoughts; Nightingale left soon after to train at the Institute for deaconesses at Kaiserswerth.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\n\\\"Cassandra\\\" protests the over-feminisation of women into near helplessness, such as Nightingale saw in her mother's and older sister's lethargic lifestyle, despite their education. She rejected their life of thoughtless comfort for the world of social service. The work also reflects her fear of her ideas being ineffective, as were Cassandra's. Cassandra was a princess of Troy who served as a priestess in the temple of Apollo during the Trojan War. The god gave her the gift of prophecy; when she refused his advances, he cursed her so that her prophetic warnings would go unheeded. Elaine Showalter called Nightingale's writing \\\"a major text of English feminism, a link between Wollstonecraft and Woolf.\\\"\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nTheology\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nDespite being named as a Unitarian in several older sources, Nightingale's own rare references to conventional Unitarianism are mildly negative. She remained in the Church of England throughout her life, albeit with unorthodox views. Influenced from an early age by the Wesleyan tradition, Nightingale felt that genuine religion should manifest in active care and love for others. She wrote a work of theology: Suggestions for Thought, her own theodicy, which develops her heterodox ideas. Nightingale questioned the goodness of a God who would condemn souls to hell, and was a believer in universal reconciliation – the concept that even those who die without being saved will eventually make it to Heaven. She would sometimes comfort those in her care with this view. For example, a dying young prostitute being tended by Nightingale was concerned she was going to hell and said to her 'Pray God, that you may never be in the despair I am in at this time'. The nurse replied \\\"Oh, my girl, are you not now more merciful than the God you think you are going to? Yet the real God is far more merciful than any human creature ever was or can ever imagine.\\\"\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nDespite her intense personal devotion to Christ, Nightingale believed for much of her life that the pagan and eastern religions had also contained genuine revelation. She was a strong opponent of discrimination both against Christians of different denominations, and against those of non-Christian religions.\\nNightingale believed religion helped provide people with the fortitude for arduous good work, and would ensure the nurses in her care attended religious services. However she was often critical of organised religion. She disliked the role the 19th century Church of England would sometimes play in worsening the oppression of the poor. Nightingale argued that secular hospitals usually provided better care than their religious counterparts. While she held that the ideal health professional should be inspired by a religious as well as professional motive, she said that in practice many religiously motivated health workers were concerned chiefly in securing their own salvation, and that this motivation was inferior to the professional desire to deliver the best possible care.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nNursing\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nNightingale's lasting contribution has been her role in founding the modern nursing profession. She set an example of compassion, commitment to patient care and diligent and thoughtful hospital administration. The first official nurses' training programme, her Nightingale School for Nurses, opened in 1860. In addition to the continued operation of the Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery at King's College London, the Nightingale Building in the School of Nursing and Midwifery at the University of Southampton is also named after her.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nIn 1912, the International Committee of the Red Cross instituted the Florence Nightingale Medal, which is awarded every two years to nurses or nursing aides for outstanding service. It is the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve and is awarded to nurses or nursing aides for \\\"exceptional courage and devotion to the wounded, sick or disabled or to civilian victims of a conflict or disaster\\\" or \\\"exemplary services or a creative and pioneering spirit in the areas of public health or nursing education\\\". Since 1965, International Nurses Day has been celebrated on her birthday (12 May) each year. The President of India honours nursing professionals with the \\\"National Florence Nightingale Award\\\" every year on International Nurses Day. The award, established in 1973, is given in recognition of meritorious services of nursing professionals characterised by devotion, sincerity, dedication and compassion.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nThe Nightingale Pledge is a modified version of the Hippocratic Oath which nurses have recited at their \\\"pinning\\\" ceremony which takes place at the end of their training. Created in 1893 and named after Nightingale as the founder of modern nursing, the pledge is a statement of the ethics and principles of the nursing profession.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nThe Florence Nightingale Declaration Campaign, established by nursing leaders throughout the world through the Nightingale Initiative for Global Health (NIGH), aims to build a global grassroots movement to achieve two United Nations Resolutions for adoption by the UN General Assembly of 2008. They will declare: The International Year of the Nurse–2010 (the centennial of Nightingale's death); The UN Decade for a Healthy World–2011 to 2020 (the bicentennial of Nightingale's birth). NIGH also works to rekindle awareness about the important issues highlighted by Florence Nightingale, such as preventive medicine and holistic health. As of 2016, the Florence Nightingale Declaration has been signed by over 25,000 signatories from 106 countries.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nDuring the Vietnam War, Nightingale inspired many US Army nurses, sparking a renewal of interest in her life and work. Her admirers include Country Joe of Country Joe and the Fish, who has assembled an extensive website in her honour.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nThe Agostino Gemelli Medical School in Rome, the first university-based hospital in Italy and one of its most respected medical centres, honoured Nightingale's contribution to the nursing profession by giving the name \\\"Bedside Florence\\\" to a wireless computer system it developed to assist nursing.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nHospitals\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nFour hospitals in Istanbul are named after Nightingale: Florence Nightingale Hospital in Şişli (the biggest private hospital in Turkey), Metropolitan Florence Nightingale Hospital in Gayrettepe, European Florence Nightingale Hospital in Mecidiyeköy, and Kızıltoprak Florence Nightingale Hospital in Kadiköy, all belonging to the Turkish Cardiology Foundation.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nAn appeal is being considered for the former Derbyshire Royal Infirmary hospital in Derby, England to be named after Nightingale. The suggested new name will be either Nightingale Community Hospital or Florence Nightingale Community Hospital. The area in which the hospital lies in Derby has recently been referred to as the \\\"Nightingale Quarter\\\".\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nMuseums and monuments\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nA statue of Florence Nightingale stands in Waterloo Place, Westminster, London, just off The Mall. There are three statues of Nightingale in Derby – one outside the London Road Community Hospital formerly known as the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary (DRI), one in St Peter's Street, and one above the Nightingale-Macmillan Continuing Care Unit opposite the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary. A public house named after her stands close to the DRI. The Nightingale-Macmillan continuing care unit is now at the Royal Derby Hospital, formerly known as The City Hospital, Derby.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nA stained glass window was commissioned for inclusion in the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary chapel in the late 1950s. When the chapel was demolished the window was removed and installed in the replacement chapel. At the closure of the DRI the window was again removed and stored. In October 2010, £6,000 was raised to reposition the window in St Peter's Church, Derby. The work features nine panels, of the original ten, depicting scenes of hospital life, Derby townscapes and Nightingale herself. Some of the work was damaged and the tenth panel was dismantled for the glass to be used in repair of the remaining panels. All the figures, who are said to be modelled on prominent Derby town figures of the early sixties, surround and praise a central pane of the triumphant Christ. A nurse who posed for the top right panel in 1959 attended the rededication service in October 2010.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nThe Florence Nightingale Museum at St Thomas' Hospital in London reopened in May 2010 in time for the centenary of Nightingale's death. Another museum devoted to her is at her sister's family home, Claydon House, now a property of the National Trust.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nUpon the centenary of Nightingale's death in 2010, and to commemorate her connection with Malvern, the Malvern Museum held a Florence Nightingale exhibit with a school poster competition to promote some events.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nIn Istanbul, the northernmost tower of the Selimiye Barracks building is now the Florence Nightingale Museum. and in several of its rooms, relics and reproductions related to Florence Nightingale and her nurses are on exhibition.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nWhen Nightingale moved on to the Crimea itself in May 1855, she often travelled on horseback to make hospital inspections. She later transferred to a mule cart and was reported to have escaped serious injury when the cart was toppled in an accident. Following this, she used a solid Russian-built carriage, with a waterproof hood and curtains. The carriage was returned to England by Alexis Soyer after the war and subsequently given to the Nightingale training school. The carriage was damaged when the hospital was bombed during the Second World War. It was restored and transferred to the Army Medical Services Museum, now in Mytchett, Surrey, near Aldershot.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nA bronze plaque, attached to the plinth of the Crimean Memorial in the Haydarpaşa Cemetery, Istanbul, Turkey and unveiled on Empire Day, 1954, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of her nursing service in that region, bears the inscription: \\\"To Florence Nightingale, whose work near this Cemetery a century ago relieved much human suffering and laid the foundations for the nursing profession.\\\" Other monuments of Nightingale include a statue at Chiba University in Chiba, Japan, and a bust at Tarlac State University, Tarlac City, Philippines.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nAudio\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nFlorence Nightingale's voice was saved for posterity in a phonograph recording from 1890 preserved in the British Library Sound Archive. The recording, made in aid of the Light Brigade Relief Fund and available to hear online, says:\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nWhen I am no longer even a memory, just a name, I hope my voice may perpetuate the great work of my life. God bless my dear old comrades of Balaclava and bring them safe to shore. Florence Nightingale.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nTheatre\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nThe first theatrical representation of Nightingale was Reginald Berkeley's The Lady with the Lamp, premiering in London in 1929 with Edith Evans in the title role. It did not portray her as an entirely sympathetic character and draws much characterisation from Lytton Strachey's biography of her in Eminent Victorians. It was adapted as a film of the same name in 1951. In 2009, a stage musical play representation of Nightingale entitled The Voyage of the Lass was produced by the Association of Nursing Service Administrators of the Philippines.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nFilm\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nIn 1912, a biographical silent film titled The Victoria Cross, starring Julia Swayne Gordon as Nightingale, was released, followed in 1915 by another silent film, Florence Nightingale, featuring Elisabeth Risdon. In 1936, Kay Francis played Nightingale in the film titled The White Angel. In 1951, The Lady With the Lamp starred Anna Neagle.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nTelevision\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nPortrayals of Nightingale on television, in documentary as in fiction, vary – the BBC's 2008 Florence Nightingale emphasised her independence and feeling of religious calling, but in Channel 4's 2006 Mary Seacole: The Real Angel of the Crimea she is portrayed as narrow-minded and opposed to Seacole's efforts. In 1985, a TV biopic Florence Nightingale, starring Jaclyn Smith, was produced.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nBanknotes\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nFlorence Nightingale's image appeared on the reverse of £10 Series D banknotes issued by the Bank of England from 1975 until 1994. As well as a standing portrait, she was depicted on the notes in a field hospital, holding her lamp.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nPhotographs\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nNightingale had a principled objection to having photographs taken or her portrait painted. An extremely rare photograph of her, taken at Embley on a visit to her family home in May 1858, was discovered in 2006 and is now at the Florence Nightingale Museum in London. A black-and-white photograph taken in about 1907 by Lizzie Caswall Smith at Nightingale's London home in South Street, Park Lane, was auctioned on 19 November 2008 by Dreweatts auction house in Newbury, Berkshire, England, for £5,500.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nBiographies\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nThe first biography of Nightingale was published in England in 1855. In 1911, Edward Tyas Cook was authorised by Nightingale's executors to write the official life, published in two volumes in 1913. Lytton Strachey based much of his chapter on Nightingale in Eminent Victorians on Cook, and Cecil Woodham-Smith also relied heavily on Cook's Life in her 1950 biography, though she did have access to new family material preserved at Claydon. In 2008, Mark Bostridge published a major new life of Nightingale, almost exclusively based on unpublished material from the Verney Collections at Claydon and from archival documents from about 200 archives around the world, some of which had been published by Lynn McDonald in her projected sixteen-volume edition of the Collected Works of Florence Nightingale (2001 to date).\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nAncestry\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nOther\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nIn 2002, Nightingale was ranked #52 in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nSeveral churches in the Anglican Communion commemorate Nightingale with a feast day on their liturgical calendars. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America commemorates her as a Renewer of society with Clara Maass on 13 August.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nWashington National Cathedral celebrates Nightingale's accomplishments with a double-lancet stained glass window featuring six scenes from her life, designed by artist Joseph G. Reynolds and installed in 1983.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nBeginning in 1968, the US Air Force operated a fleet of 20 C-9A \\\"Nightingale\\\" aeromedical evacuation aircraft, based on the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 platform. The last of these planes was retired from service in 2005.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nA KLM McDonnell-Douglas MD-11 (registration PH-KCD) was also named in her honour. Nightingale has appeared on international postage stamps, including, the UK, Australia, Belgium, Dominica, Hungary (showing the Florence Nightingale medal awarded by the International Red Cross), and Germany.\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nFile:Balaklava sick 2.jpg|A tinted lithograph by William Simpson illustrating conditions of the sick and injured in Balaklava\\nFile:Items belonging to Florence Nightingale, Nelson and Livingstone. (9663810240).jpg|Nightingale's moccasins that she wore in the Crimean War\\nFile:'One of the wards in the hospital at Scutari'. Wellcome M0007724 - restoration, cropped.jpg|A ward of the hospital at Scutari where Nightingale worked, from an 1856 lithograph by William Simpson\\nFile:Nightingale receiving the Wounded at Scutari by Jerry Barrett.jpg|\\\"Nightingale receiving the Wounded at Scutari\\\", a portrait by Jerry Barrett\\nFile:Flornce Nightingale exhibit.jpg|Florence Nightingale exhibit at Malvern Museum 2010\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\nWorks\",\n \"Florence Nightingale\\n\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n* Privately printed by Nightingale in 1860.\\n*\\n* The Family, a critical essay in Fraser's Magazine (1870)\\n*\\n* Note: First few pages missing. Title page is present.\\n*. See also 2005 publication by Diggory Press, ISBN 978-1-905363-22-3\\n* Letters from Egypt: A Journey on the Nile 1849–1850 (1987) ISBN 1-55584-204-6\\n*\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNurses may be differentiated from other health care providers by their approach to patient care, training, and scope of practice. Nurses practice in a wide diversity of practice areas with a different scope of practice and level of prescriber authority in each. Many nurses provide care within the ordering scope of physicians, and this traditional role has come to shape the historic public image of nurses as care providers. However, nurses are permitted by most jurisdictions to practice independently in a variety of settings depending on training level. In the postwar period, nurse education has undergone a process of diversification towards advanced and specialized credentials, and many of the traditional regulations and provider roles are changing.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNurses develop a plan of care, working collaboratively with physicians, therapists, the patient, the patient's family and other team members, that focuses on treating illness to improve quality of life. In the U.S. (and increasingly the United Kingdom), advanced practice nurses, such as clinical nurse specialists and nurse practitioners, diagnose health problems and prescribe medications and other therapies, depending on individual state regulations. Nurses may help coordinate the patient care performed by other members of an interdisciplinary health care team such as therapists, medical practitioners and dietitians. Nurses provide care both interdependently, for example, with physicians, and independently as nursing professionals.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nTraditional\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNursing historians face the challenge of determining whether care provided to the sick or injured in antiquity was nursing care. In the fifth century BC, for example, the Hippocratic Collection in places describes skilled care and observation of patients by male \\\"attendants\\\", who may have been early nurses.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nBefore the foundation of modern nursing, members of religious orders such as nuns and monks often provided nursing-like care. Examples exist in Christian, Islamic and Buddhist traditions amongst others. Phoebe, mentioned in Romans 16 has been described in many sources as \\\"the first visiting nurse\\\". These traditions were influential in the development of the ethos of modern nursing. The religious roots of modern nursing remain in evidence today in many countries. One example in the United Kingdom is the use of the honorific \\\"sister\\\" to refer to a senior nurse.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nDuring the Reformation of the 16th century, Protestant reformers shut down the monasteries and convents, allowing a few hundred municipal hospices to remain in operation in northern Europe. Those nuns who had been serving as nurses were given pensions or told to get married and stay home. Nursing care went to the inexperienced as traditional caretakers, rooted in the Roman Catholic Church, were removed from their positions. The nursing profession suffered a major setback for approximately 200 years.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\n19th century\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nFlorence Nightingale laid the foundations of professional nursing during the Crimean War. Her Notes on Nursing became popular. The Nightingale model of professional education, having set up the first school of nursing that is connected to a continuously operating hospital and medical school, spread widely in Europe and North America after 1870.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nOther important nurses in the development of the profession include: \\n*Agnes Hunt from Shropshire was the first orthopedic nurse and was pivotal in the emergence of the orthopedic hospital The Robert Jones & Agnes Hunt Hospital in Oswestry, Shropshire.\\n*Agnes Elizabeth Jones and Linda Richards, who established quality nursing schools in the USA and Japan; Linda Richards was officially America's first professionally trained nurse, graduating in 1873 from the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Boston\\n*Clarissa Harlowe \\\"Clara\\\" Barton, a pioneer American teacher, patent clerk, nurse, and humanitarian, and the founder of the American Red Cross.\\n* Saint Marianne Cope, a Sister of St Francis who opened and operated some of the first general hospitals in the United States, instituting cleanliness standards which influenced the development of America's modern hospital system.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nCatholic orders such as Little Sisters of the Poor, Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of St. Mary, St. Francis Health Services, Inc. and Sisters of Charity built hospitals and provided nursing services during this period. In turn, the modern deaconess movement began in Germany in 1836. Within a half century there were over 5,000 deaconesses in Europe.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nFormal use of nurses in the modern military began in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Nurses saw active duty in the First Boer War, the Egyptian Campaign (1882) and the Sudan Campaign (1883).\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\n20th century\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nHospital-based training came to the fore in the early 1900s, with an emphasis on practical experience. The Nightingale-style school began to disappear. Hospitals and physicians saw women in nursing as a source of free or inexpensive labor. Exploitation of nurses was not uncommon by employers, physicians and educational providers.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nMany nurses saw active duty in World War I, but the profession was transformed during the second World War. British nurses of the Army Nursing Service were part of every overseas campaign. More nurses volunteered for service in the US Army and Navy than any other occupation. The Nazis had their own Brown Nurses, 40,000 strong. Two dozen German Red Cross nurses were awarded the Iron Cross for heroism under fire.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe modern era saw the development of undergraduate and post-graduate nursing degrees. Advancement of nursing research and a desire for association and organization led to the formation of a wide variety of professional organizations and academic journals. Growing recognition of nursing as a distinct academic discipline was accompanied by an awareness of the need to define the theoretical basis for practice.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn the 19th and early 20th century, nursing was considered a women's profession, just as doctoring was a men's profession. With increasing expectations of workplace equality during the late 20th century, nursing became an officially gender-neutral profession, though in practice the percentage of male nurses remains well below that of female physicians in the early 21st century.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nDefinition\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAlthough nursing practice varies both through its various specialties and countries, these nursing organizations offer the following definitions:\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAs a profession\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe authority for the practice of nursing is based upon a social contract that delineates professional rights and responsibilities as well as mechanisms for public accountability. In almost all countries, nursing practice is defined and governed by law, and entrance to the profession is regulated at the national or state level.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe aim of the nursing community worldwide is for its professionals to ensure quality care for all, while maintaining their credentials, code of ethics, standards, and competencies, and continuing their education. There are a number of educational paths to becoming a professional nurse, which vary greatly worldwide; all involve extensive study of nursing theory and practice as well as training in clinical skills.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNurses care for individuals of all ages and cultural backgrounds who are healthy and ill in a holistic manner based on the individual's physical, emotional, psychological, intellectual, social, and spiritual needs. The profession combines physical science, social science, nursing theory, and technology in caring for those individuals.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nTo work in the nursing profession, all nurses hold one or more credentials depending on their scope of practice and education. A licensed practical nurse (LPN) (also referred to as a licensed vocational nurse, registered practical nurse, enrolled nurse, and state enrolled nurse) works independently or with a registered nurse (RN). The most significant differentiation between an LPN and RN is found in the requirements for entry to practice, which determines entitlement for their scope of practice. For example, Canada requires a bachelor's degree for the RN and a two-year diploma for the LPN. A registered nurse provides scientific, psychological, and technological knowledge in the care of patients and families in many health care settings. Registered nurses may earn additional credentials or degrees.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn the USA, multiple educational paths will qualify a candidate to sit for the licensure examination as a registered nurse. The Associate Degree in Nursing (ADN) is awarded to the nurse who has completed a two-year undergraduate academic degree awarded by community colleges, junior colleges, technical colleges, and bachelor's degree-granting colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study usually lasting two years. It is also referred to as Associate in Nursing (AN), Associate of Applied Science in Nursing (AAS), or Associate of Science in Nursing (ASN). The Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) is awarded to the nurse who has earned an American four-year academic degree in the science and principles of nursing, granted by a tertiary education university or similarly accredited school. After completing either the LPN or either RN education programs in the USA, graduates are eligible to sit for a licensing examination to become a nurse, the passing of which is required for the nursing license. The National Licensure Examination (NCLEX) test is a multiple choice exam nurses take to become licensed. It costs two-hundred dollars to take the NCLEX. It examines a nurses ability to properly care for a client.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nStudy books and practice tests are available to purchase.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNurses may follow their personal and professional interests by working with any group of people, in any setting, at any time. Some nurses follow the traditional role of working in a hospital setting. Other options include: Pediatrics, Neonatal, Maternity, OBGYN, Geriatrics, Ambulatory, or Nurse Anesthetists. There are many other options nurses can explore depending on the type of degree and education acquired. RNs may also pursue different roles as advanced practice registered nurses.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNurses are not truly doctor's assistants. This is possible in certain situations, but nurses more often are independently caring for their patients or assisting other nurses. Registered Nurses treat patients, record their medical history, provide emotional support, and provide follow-up care. Nurses also help doctors perform diagnostic tests. Nurses are almost always working on their own or with other nurses. Nurses will assist doctors in the emergency room or in trauma care when help is needed.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nGender issues\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nDespite equal opportunity legislation, nursing has continued to be a female-dominated profession. For instance, the male-to-female ratio of nurses is approximately 1:19 in Canada and the United States. This ratio is represented around the world. Notable exceptions include Francophone Africa, which includes the countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Guinea, Gabon, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, and Togo, which all have more male than female nurses. In Europe, in countries such as Spain, Portugal, Czechoslovakia and Italy, over 20% of nurses are male.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThere are many myths about nursing, including the profession and the people that work as a nurse. One of the most common myths is that all nurses are females. The nursing industry is dominated by females, but there are male nurses in the profession as well. A study in 2011 shows that 91% of all nurses in the United States were female, and 9% were male. Although females are more common, male nurses receive more pay. In the same survey, male nurses average $60,700 per year and female nurses average $51,100 per year. Male nurses have the highest percentage as nurse anesthetists, rating at 41%.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nTheory and process\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNursing practice is the actual provision of nursing care. In providing care, nurses implement the nursing care plan using the nursing process. This is based around a specific nursing theory which is selected based on the care setting and population served. In providing nursing care, the nurse uses both nursing theory and best practice derived from nursing research.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn general terms, the nursing process is the method used to assess and diagnose needs, plan outcomes and interventions, implement interventions, and evaluate the outcomes of the care provided. Like other disciplines, the profession has developed different theories derived from sometimes diverse philosophical beliefs and paradigms or worldviews to help nurses direct their activities to accomplish specific goals.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nScope of activities\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nActivities of daily living assistance\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAssisting in activities of daily living (ADL) are skills required in nursing as well as other professions such as nursing assistants. This includes assisting in patient mobility, such as moving an activity intolerant patient within bed. For hygiene, this often involves bed baths and assisting with urinary and bowel elimination.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nMedication\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNurses do not have the authority to prescribe medications, with few exceptions. All medications administered by nurses must be from a medication order from a licensed practitioner. Nurses are legally responsible for the drugs they administer and there may be legal implications when there is an error in a drug order and the nurse could be expected to have noted and reported error. In the United States, nurses have the right to refuse any medication administration that they deem to be harmful to the patient.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nPatient education\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe patient's family is often involved in the education. Effective patient education leads to fewer complications and hospital visits.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nSpecialities\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNursing is the most diverse of all healthcare professions. Nurses practice in a wide range of settings but generally nursing is divided depending on the needs of the person being nursed.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe major populations are:\\n*communities/public\\n*family/individual across the lifespan\\n*adult-gerontology\\n*pediatrics\\n*neonatal\\n*women's health/gender-related\\n*psych/mental health\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThere are also specialist areas such as cardiac nursing, orthopedic nursing, palliative care, perioperative nursing, obstetrical nursing, oncology nursing, nursing informatics, telenursing.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nPractice settings\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNurses practice in a wide range of settings, from hospitals to visiting people in their homes and caring for them in schools to research in pharmaceutical companies. Nurses work in occupational health settings (also called industrial health settings), free-standing clinics and physician offices, nurse-led clinics, long-term care facilities and camps. They also work on cruise ships and in military service. Nurses act as advisers and consultants to the health care and insurance industries. Many nurses also work in the health advocacy and patient advocacy fields at companies such as Health Advocate, Inc. helping in a variety of clinical and administrative issues. Some are attorneys and others work with attorneys as legal nurse consultants, reviewing patient records to assure that adequate care was provided and testifying in court. Nurses can work on a temporary basis, which involves doing shifts without a contract in a variety of settings, sometimes known as per diem nursing, agency nursing or travel nursing. Nurses work as researchers in laboratories, universities, and research institutions. Nurses have also been delving into the world of informatics, acting as consultants to the creation of computerized charting programs and other software.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nOccupational hazards\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nInternationally, there is a serious shortage of nurses. One reason for this shortage is due to the work environment in which nurses practice. In a recent review of the empirical human factors and ergonomic literature specific to nursing performance, nurses were found to work in generally poor environmental conditions. Some countries and states have passed legislation regarding acceptable nurse-to-patient ratios.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe fast-paced and unpredictable nature of health care places nurses at risk for injuries and illnesses, including high occupational stress. Nursing is a particularly stressful profession, and nurses consistently identify stress as a major work-related concern and have among the highest levels of occupational stress when compared to other professions. This stress is caused by the environment, psychosocial stressors, and the demands of nursing, including new technology that must be mastered, the emotional labor involved in nursing, physical labor, shift work, and high workload. This stress puts nurses at risk for short-term and long-term health problems, including sleep disorders, depression, mortality, psychiatric disorders, stress-related illnesses, and illness in general. Nurses are at risk of developing compassion fatigue and moral distress, which can worsen mental health. They also have very high rates of occupational burnout (40%) and emotional exhaustion (43.2%). Burnout and exhaustion increase the risk for illness, medical error, and suboptimal care provision.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn the United States, the Occupational Health Safety Network (OHSN) is an electronic surveillance system developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to address health and safety risks among health care personnel, including nurses. It focuses on three high risk and preventable events: musculoskeletal injuries from patient handling activities; slips, trips, and falls; and workplace violence. Hospitals and other healthcare facilities can upload the occupational injury data they already collect for analysis and benchmarking with other de-identified facilities, in order to identify and implement timely and targeted interventions.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNurses are also at risk for violence and abuse in the workplace. Violence is typically perpetrated by non-staff (e.g. patients or family), whereas abuse is typically perpetrated by other hospital personnel. 57% of American nurses reported in 2011 that they had been threatened at work; 17% were physically assaulted.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nPrevention\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThere are a number of interventions that can mitigate the occupational hazards of nursing. They can be individual-focused or organization-focused. Individual-focused interventions include stress management programs, which can be customized to individuals. Stress management programs can reduce anxiety, sleep disorders, and other symptoms of stress. Organizational interventions focus on reducing stressful aspects of the work environment by defining stressful characteristics and developing solutions to them. Using organizational and individual interventions together is most effective at reducing stress on nurses.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nWorldwide\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAustralia\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nCatholic religious institutes were influential in the development of Australian nursing, founding many of Australia's hospitals - the Irish Sisters of Charity were first to arrive in 1838 and established St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney in 1857 as a free hospital for the poor. They and other orders like the Sisters of Mercy, and in aged care the Sisters of the Little Company of Mary and Little Sisters of the Poor founded hospitals, hospices, research institutes and aged care facilities around Australia.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nA census in the 1800s found several hundred nurses working in Western Australia during the colonial period of history, this included Aboriginal female servants who cared for the infirm.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe state nursing licensing bodies amalgamated in Australia in 2011 under the federal body AHPRA (Australian Health Practitioner Registration Authority). Several divisions of nursing license is available and recognized around the country. \\n*Enrolled nurses may initiate some oral medication orders with a specific competency now included in national curricula but variable in application by agency.\\n*Registered nurses hold a university degree (enrolled nurses can progress to registered nurse status and do get credit for previous study)\\n*Nurse practitioners have started emerging from postgraduate programs and work in private practice.\\n*Mental health nurses must complete further training as advanced mental health practitioners in order to administer client referrals under the Mental Health Act.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAustralia enjoys the luxury of a national curriculum for vocational nurses, trained at TAFE colleges or private RTO. Enrolled and registered nurses are identified by the department of immigration as an occupational area of need, although registered nurses are always in shorter supply, and this increases in proportion with specialization.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn 1986 there were a number of rolling industrial actions around the country, culminating when five thousand Victorian nurses went on strike for eighteen days. The hospitals were able to function by hiring casual staff from each other's striking members, but the increased cost forced a decision in the nurses' favor\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nEuropean Union\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn the European Union, the profession of nurse is regulated. A profession is said to be regulated when access and exercise is subject to the possession of a specific professional qualification. The regulated professions database contains a list of regulated professions for nurse[http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/qualifications/regprof/index.cfm?actionprofession&id_profession\\n12402&tab=countries Generic name of profession - Nurse] in the EU member states, EEA countries and Switzerland. This list is covered by the Directive 2005/36/EC .\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIran\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNursing educational program in Iran is similar to the nursing educational program in other countries from some aspects. Holding secondary school diploma and passing the entrance exam is necessary for the admission in this course. Entrance exam to governmental universities and Azad University is held on separate basis. Duration of associate degree course of operating room and anesthesia is 2 years, bachelor’s degree in nursing is 4 years and master's degree in nursing is 2- 2.5 years and PhD degree in nursing is 4–5 years.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn the beginning, nursing educational program was the part of medical educational program. On the basis of this structure, the nurse follows the instruction of physician without any question. Nowadays, nursing educational program in Iran has been progressed and after the year 1992 considering the community base care, the nursing educational program also has changed. At present nursing education is held in 43 governmental nursing colleges and 63 nursing colleges of Azad University. Governmental universities' students do not have to pay tuition fee, but in Azad University which is a private university, the students have to pay necessary expenses. PhD degree program is held only in governmental universities under the supervision of Ministry of Health and Ministry of Sciences.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn bachelor's degree program, nursing students start the clinical work from 2nd term and pass till the completion of 6th term simultaneously with theoretical subjects. 7th and 8th terms are allocated for training program. At present nursing educational program in throughout Iran is the same and is compiled under the supervision of Supreme Council of Ministry of Health, Treatment and Medical Education. Nursing students take the theoretical subjects, training and internship courses in various sections of educational hospitals and hospitals that affiliated to universities. Students’ learning, in clinical sections is performed under the direct supervision and guidance of nursing instructors, but in the final year, activities of students mainly performs under the supervision of nursing personnel and alternate supervision of nursing instructors.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nStudents, during the years of study have opportunity to create relation with patients in the various sections especially intensive care units and to achieve experiences. Students' progress in clinical environments is from simple issues toward harder issues. At present practical nursing degree and associate degree Nursing Program has been canceled and Iranian nurses must hold bachelor's degree in order to work in Iran from accredited universities confirmed by the Ministry of Health.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNursing Groups in Iran\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\n*Nurse\\nNurse is a person who is holding four years university degree and executes works relating to nursing profession including taking care of patients, perform health and medical services, educational, research and managerial affairs. At present annually 6000 persons are graduated in the bachelor's degree program in nursing. * Practical Nurse\\nA person who is holding secondary school diploma in nursing and have completed 2 years program in nursing and cooperate in activities of nurses in medical sections under the supervision of nurses. * Nursing Assistant\\nA person who is holding secondary school diploma and passing short term program for the execution of initial cares of patients under the supervision of nurses. * Operating Room Technician\\nThese persons after obtaining secondary school diploma and passing university’s entrance exam and completing 2 years program are in charge of performing professional duties in operation room for preparing patients for surgery and necessary cooperation with surgeons at the time of surgery. These persons by passing the exam are eligible to continue uncontinuous bachelor's degree course in nursing.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\n* Anesthesia Technician \\nThese persons after obtaining secondary school diploma and passing university’s entrance exam and completing 2 years program in Anesthesia, are in charge of performing profession duties in the operating room in the filed of anesthesia including preparing the patients for anesthesia and necessary cooperation with anesthesiologists at the time of operation. These persons by passing exam are eligible to continue uncontinuous bachelor's degree course in nursing. * Emergency medical technician\\nThese persons after obtaining secondary school diploma and passing entrance exam of university and obtaining technician diploma are in change of performing affairs including rendering first aid services to the patients and emergency victims resulting from accidents with motor vehicles, explosion, debris, falling from height, fractures, burns, poisonings, cuts, drowning, industrial accidents (cutting of limbs), patients with heart diseases and baby delivering. * Master in Nursing\\nNurses after obtaining bachelor's degree and passing the entrance exam are eligible to continue their study in pediatric nursing, medical surgical nursing, community health nursing, psychiatric nursing and nursing education. These persons after graduation mainly become in charge of nurses’ education or management of medical sections. Duration of this program is 2.5 years.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAt present annually 150 persons are graduated in master's degree program in nursing. * PhD in Nursing\\nNurses by holding master's degree after passing entrance exam, are eligible to continue their study in PhD in the field of Nursing. Duration of this program is 4 years and the graduates mainly will work in educational and research sections. At present annually 20 persons are graduated in this program.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNursing jobs in Iran\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAccording to the censes at present approximately 120,000 nurses are working in Iran in various sections. Most of them are working in hospitals and health centers belong to Ministry of Health, Treatment & Medical Education. Also, nurses are working in the hospitals affiliated to social security organization, armed forces, private sector and charity sector.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nWithin the last years of independence, nurses’ activities are established in offices of consultancy and rendering nursing services at home. Nurses by establishment these centers can render consultant and care services to the client.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAt present to work as a nurse only holding accredited academic degree is sufficient, but there are programs for nurses to take RN examination after graduation.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAlso, upon the approval and execution of continuous educational act, the Iranian nurses should obtain score of 15 every year in various educational courses held by the Ministry of Health of Universities, Scientific Associations and Nursing organization.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIranian Nursing Organization (INO)\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nHaving an independent organization which can defend the rights of nurses and to follow up nurses' problems was the long time wishes of Iranian nurses. Before Islamic revolution in 1979, some efforts were taken in this respect which finally results to establishment of Iranian Nurses Association and activities were taken in this respect. After the victory of Islamic revolution, this association also canceled its activities and after that, number of associations mainly with political and professional formation was established, but the main problem of nurses was still present. Gradually in the year 1994 with the efforts of numbers of persons mostly nursing students and faculty member, the preliminary step was taken for the establishment of nursing organization. This preliminary nucleus started its work in the name of Nursing Coordination council with the instruction of students.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThis council had correspondences with the president, speaker of parliament, ministry of health, treatment and medical education in connection with problems of nursing society. Also this organization had correspondence with nursing colleges for unity throughout the country.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAfter this date till March 2001, number of state seminars were held in various cities and finally on March 5.2001, generalities of formation of Nursing Organization which was in the agenda of Islamic Consultative Assembly and approved, was finally approved in an open session on Aug.12.2001. Finally with the procurement of comments of Guardian’s Organization in Jan.2002, Establishment Act of Nursing Organization was approved by the parliament.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe first election of board of directors throughout the country was performed on Sept.20.2002 and members of 85 boards of directors of districts were elected throughout the country with the direct vote of nurses. The board of directors of the first Supreme of Organization, was elected on Dec.8.2002.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nUnited Kingdom\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nTo practice lawfully as a registered nurse in the United Kingdom, the practitioner must hold a current and valid registration with the Nursing and Midwifery Council. The title \\\"Registered Nurse\\\" can only be granted to those holding such registration. This protected title is laid down in the Nurses, Midwives and Health Visitors Act, 1997.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nFirst and second level\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nFirst-level nurses make up the bulk of the registered nurses in the UK. They were previously known by titles such as RGN (registered general nurse), RSCN (registered sick children's nurse), RMN (registered mental nurse) and RNMS (registered nurse (for the) mentally subnormal). The titles used now are similar, including RNA (registered nurse adult), RNC (registered nurse child), RNMH (registered nurse mental health) and RNLD (registered nurse learning disabilities).\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nSecond-level nurse training is no longer provided, however they are still legally able to practice in the United Kingdom as a registered nurse. Many have now either retired or undertaken conversion courses to become first-level nurses. They are entitled to refer to themselves as registered nurses as their registration is on the Nursing & Midwifery Council register of nurses, although most refer to themselves as ENs or SENs.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAdvanced practice\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\n* Nurse practitioners – Most of these nurses obtain a minimum of a master's degree, and a desired post grad certificate. They often perform roles similar to those of physicians and physician assistants. They can prescribe medications as independent or supplementary prescribers, although are still legally regulated, unlike physician's assistants. Most NPs have referral and admission rights to hospital specialties. They commonly work in primary care (e.g. GP surgeries), A&E departments, or pediatrics although they are increasingly being seen in other areas of practice. In the UK, the title \\\"nurse practitioner\\\" is legally protected.\\n* Specialist community public health nurses – traditionally district nurses and health visitors, this group of research and publication activities.\\n* Lecturer-practitioners (also called practice education facilitators) – these nurses work both in the NHS, and in universities. They typically work for 2–3 days per week in each setting. In university, they train pre-registration student nurses (see below), and often teach on specialist courses for post-registration nurses\\n* Lecturers – these nurses are not employed by the NHS. Instead they work full-time in universities, both teaching and performing research.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nManagers\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nMany nurses who have worked in clinical settings for a long time choose to leave clinical nursing and join the ranks of the NHS management. This used to be seen as a natural career progression for those who had reached ward management positions, however with the advent of specialist nursing roles (see above), this has become a less attractive option.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNonetheless, many nurses fill positions in the senior management structure of NHS organizations, some even as board members. Others choose to stay a little closer to their clinical roots by becoming clinical nurse managers or modern matrons.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNurse education\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nPre-registration\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn order to become a registered nurse, one must complete a program recognized by the Nursing and Midwifery Council. Currently, this involves completing a degree, available from a range of universities offering these courses, in the chosen branch specialty (see below), leading to both an academic award and professional registration as a 1st level registered nurse. Such a course is a 50/50 split of learning in university (i.e. through lectures, assignments and examinations) and in practice (i.e. supervised patient care within a hospital or community setting).\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThese courses are three (occasionally four) years' long. The first year is known as the common foundation program (CFP), and teaches the basic knowledge and skills required of all nurses. Skills included in the CFP may include communication, taking observations, administering medication and providing personal care to patients. The remainder of the program consists of training specific to the student's chosen branch of nursing. These are:\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\n* Adult nursing.\\n* Child nursing.\\n* Mental health nursing.\\n* Learning disabilities nursing.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAs of 2013, the Nursing and Midwifery Council will require all new nurses qualifying in the UK to hold a degree qualification. However, those nurses who hold a diploma, or even a certificate in nursing are still able to legally practice in the UK, although they are able to undertake university modules to obtain enough credits to top up to a degree.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nMidwifery training is similar in length and structure, but is sufficiently different that it is not considered a branch of nursing. There are shortened (18 month) programs to allow nurses already qualified in the adult branch to hold dual registration as a nurse and a midwife. Shortened courses lasting 2 years also exist for graduates of other disciplines to train as nurses. This is achieved by more intense study and a shortening of the common foundation program.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nStudent nurses currently receive a bursary from the government to support them during their nurse training, and may also be eligible for a student loan.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nBefore Project 2000, nurse education was the responsibility of hospitals and was not based in universities; hence many nurses who qualified prior to these reforms do not hold an academic award.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nPost-registration\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAfter the point of initial registration, there is an expectation that all qualified nurses will continue to update their skills and knowledge. The Nursing and Midwifery Council insists on a minimum of 35 hours of education every three years, as part of its post registration education and practice (PREP) requirements.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThere are also opportunities for many nurses to gain additional clinical skills after qualification. Cannulation, venipuncture, intravenous drug therapy and male catheterization are the most common, although there are many others (such as advanced life support) which some nurses will undertake.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nMany nurses who qualified with a diploma choose to upgrade their qualification to a degree by studying part-time. Many nurses prefer this option to gaining a degree initially, as there is often an opportunity to study in a specialist field as a part of this upgrading. Financially, in England, it was also much more lucrative, as diploma students get the full bursary during their initial training, and employers often pay for the degree course as well as the nurse's salary.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn order to become specialist nurses (such as nurse consultants, nurse practitioners etc.) or nurse educators, some nurses undertake further training above bachelor's degree level. Master's degrees exist in various healthcare related topics, and some nurses choose to study for PhDs or other higher academic awards. District nurses and health visitors are also considered specialist nurses, and in order to become such they must undertake specialist training. This is a one-year full-time degree.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAll newly qualifying district nurses and health visitors are trained to prescribe from the Nurse Prescribers' Formulary, a list of medications and dressings typically useful to those carrying out these roles. Many of these (and other) nurses will also undertake training in independent and supplementary prescribing, which allows them (as of 1 May 2006) to prescribe almost any drug in the British National Formulary. This has been the cause of a great deal of debate in both medical and nursing circles.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nCanada\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nCanadian nursing dates all the way back to 1639 in Quebec with the Augustine nuns. These nuns were trying to open up a mission that cared for the spiritual and physical needs of patients. The establishment of this mission created the first nursing apprenticeship training in North America. In the nineteenth century there were some Catholic orders of nursing that were trying to spread their message across Canada. Most nurses were female and only had an occasional consultation with a physician. Towards the end of the nineteenth century hospital care and medical services had been improved and expanded. Much of this was due to Nightingale's influence. In 1874 the first formal nursing training program was started at the General and Marine Hospital in St. Catharines in Ontario.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAll Canadian nurses and prospective nurses are heavily encouraged by the Canadian Nurses Association to continue their education to receive a baccalaureate degree. They believe that this is the best degree to work towards because it results in better patient outcomes. In addition to helping patients, nurses that have a baccalaureate degree will be less likely to make small errors because they have a higher level of education. A baccalaureate degree also gives a nurse a more critical opinion, which gives him or her more of an edge in the field. This ultimately saves the hospital money because they deal with less problematic incidents. All Canadian provinces and territories except for the Yukon and Quebec require that all nurses must have a baccalaureate degree. The basic length of time that it takes to obtain a baccalaureate degree is four years. However, Canada does have a condensed program that is two years long.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNursing specialty certification is available through the Canadian Nurses Association in nineteen practice areas. Some of those specialties are cardiovascular nursing, community health nursing, critical care nursing, emergency nursing, gerontological nursing, medical-surgical nursing, neuroscience nursing, oncology nursing, orthopedic nursing, psychiatric/mental health nursing, and rehabilitation nursing. Certification requires practice experience and passing a test that is based on competencies for that specialty.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nPublic opinion\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nCanadian nurses hold a lot of responsibility in the medical field and are considered vital. According to the Canadian Nurses Association, \\\"They expect RNs to develop and implement multi-faceted plans for managing chronic disease, treating complex health conditions and assisting them in the transition from the hospital to the community. Canadians also look to RNs for health education and for strategies to improve their health. RNs assess the appropriateness of new research and technology for patients and adjust care plans accordingly\\\".\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nJapan\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNursing was not an established part of Japan's healthcare system until 1899 with the Midwives Ordinance.[http://www.nurse.or.jp/jna/english/nursing/system.html Link text], additional text. From there the Registered Nurse Ordinance came into play in 1915. This established a legal substantiation to registered nurses all over Japan. A new law geared towards nurses was created during World War II. This law was titled the Public Health Nurse, Midwife and Nurse Law and it was established in 1948. It established educational requirements, standards and licensure. There has been a continued effort to improve nursing in Japan. In 1992 the Nursing Human Resource Law was passed. This law created the development of new university programs for nurses. Those programs were designed to raise the education level of the nurses so that they could be better suited for taking care of the public.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nTypes of nurses\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nJapan only recognizes four types of nursing and they are Public Health Nursing, Midwifery, Registered Nursing and Assistant Nursing.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nPublic health\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThis type of nursing is designed to help the public and is also driven by the public's needs. The goals of public health nurses are to monitor the spread of disease, keep vigilant watch for environmental hazards, educate the community on how to care for and treat themselves, and train for community disasters.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nMidwifery\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNurses that are involved with midwifery are independent of any organization. A midwife takes care of a pregnant woman during labour and postpartum. They assist with things like breastfeeding and caring for the child.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nNursing Assistant\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIndividuals who are assistant nurses follow orders from a registered nurse. They report back to the licensed nurse about a patient's condition. Assistant nurses are always supervised by a licensed registered nurse.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn 1952 Japan established the first nursing university in the country. An Associate Degree was the only level of certification for years. Soon people began to want nursing degrees at a higher level of education. Soon the Bachelor's degree in Nursing (BSN) was established. Currently Japan offers doctorate level degrees of nursing in a good number of its universities.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThere are three ways that an individual could become a registered nurse in Japan. After obtaining a high school degree the person could go to a nursing university for four years and earn a bachelor's degree, go to a junior nursing college for three years or go to a nursing school for three years. Regardless of where the individual attends school they must take the national exam. Those who attended a nursing university have a bit of an advantage over those who went to a nursing school. They can take the national exam to be a registered nurse, public health nurse or midwife. In the cases of become a midwife or a public health nurse, the student must take a one-year course in their desired field after attending a nursing university and passing the national exam to become a registered nurse. The nursing universities are the best route for someone who wants to become a nurse in Japan. They offer a wider range of general education classes and they also allow for a more rigid teaching style of nursing.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThese nursing universities train their students to be able to make critical and educated decisions when they are out in the field. Physicians are the ones who are teaching the potential nurses because there are not enough available nurses to teach students. This increases the dominance that physicians have over nurses.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nStudents that attend a nursing college or just a nursing school receive the same degree that one would who graduated from a nursing university, but they do not have the same educational background. The classes offered at nursing colleges and nursing schools are focused on more practical aspects of nursing. These institutions do not offer many general education classes, so students who attend these schools will solely be focusing on their nursing educations while they are in school. Students who attend a nursing college or school do have the opportunity to become a midwife or a public health nurse. They have to go through a training institute for their desired field after graduating from the nursing school or college. Japanese nurses never have to renew their licenses. Once they have passed their exam, they have their license for life.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nToday\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nLike the United States, Japan is in need of more nurses. The driving force behind this need this is the fact that country is aging and needs more medical care for its people. The country needs a rapid increase of nurses however things do not seem to be turning around. Some of the reasons that there is a shortage are poor working conditions, an increase in the number of hospital beds, the low social status of nurses, and the cultural idea that married women quit their jobs for family responsibilities.[http://www.nurse.or.jp/jna/english/nursing/employment.html Link text], additional text. On average, Japanese nurses will make around 280,000 yen a month, which is one of the higher paying jobs. however, physicians make twice the amount that nurses do in a year.[http://www.worldsalaries.org/professionalnurse.shtml Link text], additional text. Similar to other cultures, the Japanese people view nurses as subservient to physicians. They are considered lesser and oftentimes negative connotations are associated with nurses. According to the American Nurses Association article on Japan, \\\"nursing work has been described using negative terminology such as 'hard, dirty, dangerous, low salary, few holidays, minimal chance of marriage and family, and poor image'\\\".\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nSome nurses in Japan are trying to be advocates. They are promoting better nursing education as well as promoting the care of the elderly. There are some organizations that unite Japanese nurses like the Japanese Nursing Association (JNA). The JNA is not to be confused with a union, it is simply a professional organization for the nurses. Members of the JNA lobby politicians and produces publications about nursing. According to the American Nurses Association's article on Japan the JNA, \\\"works toward the improvement in nursing practice through many activities including the development of a policy research group to influence policy development, a code of ethics for nurses, and standards of nursing practice\\\". The JNA also provides certification for specialists in mental health, oncology and community health. The JNA is not the only nursing organization in Japan. There are other subgroups that are typically categorized by the nurses' specialty, like emergency nursing or disaster nursing. One of the older unions that relates to nursing is the Japanese Federation of Medical Workers Union which was created in 1957. It is a union that includes physicians as well as nurses. This organization was involved with the Nursing Human Resource Law.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nTaiwan\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\n*In Taiwan, the Ministry of Health and Welfare is in charge of the regulation of nursing. The Taiwan Union of Nurses Association (TUNA) is the union unit in Taiwan, fighting for nurses on payment and working time issues.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nUnited States\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn the US, scope of practice is determined by the state or territory in which an RN is licensed. Each state has its own laws, rules, and regulations governing nursing care. Usually the making of such rules and regulations is delegated to a state board of nursing, which performs day-to-day administration of these rules, licenses nurses and nursing assistants, and makes decisions on nursing issues. It should be noted that in some states the terms \\\"nurse\\\" or \\\"nursing\\\" may only be used in conjunction with the practice of a registered nurse (RN) or licensed practical or vocational nurse (LPN/LVN).\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nIn the hospital setting, registered nurses often delegate tasks to LPNs and unlicensed assistive personnel.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nRNs are not limited to employment as bedside nurses. They are employed by physicians, attorneys, insurance companies, governmental agencies, community/public health agencies, private industry, school districts, ambulatory surgery centers, among others. Some registered nurses are independent consultants who work for themselves, while others work for large manufacturers or chemical companies. Research nurses conduct or assist in the conduct of research or evaluation (outcome and process) in many areas such as biology, psychology, human development, and health care systems.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nMany employers offer flexible work schedules, child care, educational benefits, and bonuses. About 21 percent of registered nurses are union members or covered by union contract.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nEducational and licensure requirements\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nDiploma in Nursing\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe oldest method of nursing education is the hospital-based diploma program, which lasts approximately three years. Students take between 30 and 60 credit hours in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, nutrition, chemistry, and other subjects at a college or university, then move on to intensive nursing classes. Until 1996, most RNs in the US were initially educated in nursing by diploma programs. According to the Health Services Resources Administration's 2000 Survey of Nurses only six percent of nurses who graduated from nursing programs in the United States received their education at a Diploma School of Nursing.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAssociate Degree in Nursing\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe most common initial nursing education is a two-year Associate Degree in Nursing (Associate of Applied Science in Nursing, Associate of Science in Nursing, Associate Degree in Nursing), a two-year college degree referred to as an ADN. Some four-year colleges and universities also offer the ADN. Associate degree nursing programs have prerequisite and corequisite courses (which may include English, Math and Human Anatomy and Physiology) and ultimately stretch out the degree-acquiring process to about three years or greater.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nBachelor of Science in Nursing\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe third method is to obtain a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN), a four-year degree that also prepares nurses for graduate-level education. For the first two years in a BSN program, students usually obtain general education requirements and spend the remaining time in nursing courses. Advocates for the ADN and diploma programs state that such programs have an on the job training approach to educating students, while the BSN is an academic degree that emphasizes research and nursing theory. Some states require a specific amount of clinical experience that is the same for both BSN and ADN students. A BSN degree qualifies its holder for administrative, research, consulting and teaching positions that would not usually be available to those with an ADN, but is not necessary for most patient care functions. Nursing schools may be accredited by either the Accreditation Commission for Education in Nursing (ACEN) or the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE).\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nGraduate education\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAdvanced education in nursing is done at the master's and doctoral levels. It prepares the graduate for specialization as an advanced practice registered nurse (APRN) or for advanced roles in leadership, management, or education. The clinical nurse leader (CNL) is an advanced generalist who focuses on the improvement of quality and safety outcomes for patients or patient populations from an administrative and staff management focus. Doctoral programs in nursing prepare the student for work in nursing education, health care administration, clinical research, or advanced clinical practice. Most programs confer the PhD in nursing and Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP).\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAdvanced Practice Registered Nurse (APRN)\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nAreas of advanced nursing practice include that of a nurse practitioner (NP), a certified nurse midwife (CNM), a certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA), or a clinical nurse specialist (CNS). Nurse practitioners and CNSs work assessing, diagnosing and treating patients in fields as diverse as family practice, women's health care, emergency nursing, acute/critical care, psychiatry, geriatrics, or pediatrics, additionally, a CNS usually works for a facility to improve patient care, do research, or as a staff educator.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nLicensure examination\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nCompletion of any one of these three educational routes allows a graduate nurse to take the NCLEX-RN, the test for licensure as a registered nurse, and is accepted by every state as an adequate indicator of minimum competency for a new graduate. However, controversy exists over the appropriate entry-level preparation of RNs. Some professional organizations believe the BSN should be the sole method of RN preparation and ADN graduates should be licensed as \\\"technical nurses\\\" to work under the supervision of BSN graduates. Others feel the on-the-job experiences of diploma and ADN graduates makes up for any deficiency in theoretical preparation.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nShortage in the United States\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nRNs are the largest group of health care workers in the United States, with about 2.7 million employed in 2011. It has been reported that the number of new graduates and foreign-trained nurses is insufficient to meet the demand for registered nurses; this is often referred to as the nursing shortage and is expected to increase for the foreseeable future. There are data to support the idea that the nursing shortage is a voluntary shortage. In other words, nurses are leaving nursing of their own volition. In 2006 it was estimated that approximately 1.8 million nurses chose not to work as a nurse. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that 296,900 healthcare jobs were created in 2011. RNs make up the majority of the healthcare work force, therefore these positions will be filled primarily by nurses. The BLS also states that by 2020, there will be 1.2 million nursing job openings due to an increase in the workforce, and replacements. (Rosseter, 2012).\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nCauses\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe International Council Of Nursing (ICN), the largest international health professional organization in the world, recognizes the shortage of nurses as a growing crisis in the world. This shortage impacts the healthcare of everyone worldwide. One of the many reasons is that nurses who pursue to become nurses do so very late in their lives. This leads to a non-lengthy employment time. A national survey prepared by the Federation of Nurses and Health Professionals in 2001 found that one in five nurses plans to leave the profession within five years because of unsatisfactory working conditions, including low pay, severe under staffing, high stress, physical demands, mandatory overtime, and irregular hours. Approximately 29.8 percent of all nursing jobs are found in hospitals. However, because of administrative cost cutting, increased nurse's workload, and rapid growth of outpatient services, hospital nursing jobs will experience slower than average growth. Employment in home care and nursing homes is expected to grow rapidly. Though more people are living well into their 80s and 90s, many need the kind of long-term care available at a nursing home.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nMany nurses will also be needed to help staff the growing number of out-patient facilities, such as HMOs, group medical practices, and ambulatory surgery centers. Nursing specialties will be in great demand. There are, in addition, many part-time employment possibilities.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nLevsey, Campbell, and Green voiced their concern about the shortage of nurses, citing Fang, Wilsey-Wisniewski, & Bednash, 2006 who state that over 40,000 qualified nursing applicants were turned away in the 2005-2006 academic year from baccalaureate nursing programs due to a lack of masters and doctoral qualified faculty, and that this number was increased over 9,000 from 32,000 qualified but rejected students from just two years earlier. Several strategies have been offered to mitigate this shortage including; Federal and private support for experienced nurses to enhance their education, incorporating more hybrid/blended nursing courses, and using simulation in lieu of clinical (hospital) training experiences.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nFurthermore, there is a shortage of academically qualified instructors to teach at schools of nursing worldwide. The serious need for educational capacity is not being met, which is the underlying most important preparation resource for the nurses of tomorrow. The decrease in faculty everywhere is due to many factors including decrease in satisfaction with the workforce, poor salaries, and reduction in full-time equivalent. Throughout the span of 6 years the nursing faculty shortage has been written about an increasing amount. Unfortunately, there is no clear consensus or an organized plan on how to fix the ongoing issue.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nContinuing education\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nWith health care knowledge growing steadily, nurses can stay ahead of the curve through continuing education. Continuing education classes and programs enable nurses to provide the best possible care to patients, advance nursing careers, and keep up with Board of Nursing requirements. The American Nurses Association and the American Nursing Credentialing Center are devoted to ensuring nurses have access to quality continuing education offerings. Continuing education classes are calibrated to provide enhanced learning for all levels of nurses. Many States also regulate Continuing Nursing Education. Nursing licensing boards requiring Continuing Nursing Education (CNE) as a condition for licensure, either initial or renewal, accept courses provided by organizations that are accredited by other state licensing boards, by the American Nursing Credentialing Center (ANCC), or by organizations that have been designated as an approver of continuing nursing education by ANCC. There are some exceptions to this rule including the state of California, Florida and Kentucky. National Healthcare Institute has created a list to assist nurses in determining their CNE credit hours requirements. While this list is not all inclusive, it offers details on how to contact nursing licensing boards directly.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nBoard certification\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nProfessional nursing organizations, through their certification boards, have voluntary certification exams to demonstrate clinical competency in their particular specialty. Completion of the prerequisite work experience allows an RN to register for an examination, and passage gives an RN permission to use a professional designation after their name. For example, passage of the American Association of Critical-care Nurses specialty exam allows a nurse to use the initials 'CCRN' after his or her name. Other organizations and societies have similar procedures.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nThe American Nurses Credentialing Center, the credentialing arm of the American Nurses Association, is the largest nursing credentialing organization and administers more than 30 specialty examinations.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nPicture gallery\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nFile:Student enrolled nurse.jpg |Aboriginal nursing student 2010. File:US Navy 091129-N-8960W-064 Hospital Corpsman Michael Parke gives a vaccine to Lt. Carlos Lopez aboard the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz (CVN 68).jpg| A nurse in the US Navy \\nFile:Staff Nurse Andrea writing up her notes.jpg|A British staff nurse in 2008. Image:2june 2007 484.jpg|Italian Red Cross volunteers nurses \\\"Crocerossine\\\" (they are not RN) June 2007. File:US Navy 030425-N-2382W-004 Lt. Bob Hawkins, Nurse-Anesthetist administers a local anesthetic to an injured Marine prior to surgery aboard USS Kearsarge (LHD 3).jpg|A Nurse-Anesthetist administers a local anesthetic to an injured Marine prior to surgery aboard USS Kearsarge\\nImage:Nursing students.jpg|Czech nursing students 2006. File:Krankenschwester doku1.jpg|A German nurse in 2005. File:Army nurses rescued from Santo Tomas 1945h.jpg|American nurses who were rescued from Santo Tomas in 1945. File:Ann Agnes Bernatitus.jpg|American nurse Ann Agnes Bernatitus in 1942. File:MNHandWashingNurse.jpg|An American nurse from Minnesota, in 1930. File:Maria Valtorta4.jpg| The Italian nurse Maria Valtorta in 1918. File:Schoolgirl Into Nurse- Medical Training in Britain, 1942 D8770.jpg|Pre-nursing training in Britain during the Second World War. File:Nurses on Army Hospital Ship Relief, 1898.jpg|American nurses from 1898. Image:Georgina Pope.jpg|The Canadian nurse Georgina Pope in 1898.\",\n \"Nursing\\n\\nImage:Stamp Ana Néri.jpg|Ana Néri, pioneer of nursing in Brazil, known for her efforts during the Paraguayan War. File:US Navy 031027-N-0000W-001 Family Nurse Practitioner Lt. Cmdr. Michael Service cares for a young girl at the U.S. Naval Hospital (USNH) Yokosuka.jpg|A nurse in the US Navy tending to a child. File:Tatiananursing.jpg|Empress Alexandra of Russia and her daughters nursing military patients (c.early 20th century). File:Newborn-incubator-toronto.jpg|Nurse cares for a premature baby in Toronto, Ontario (1955). Image:Navy Nurse.jpg|A U.S. Navy recruiting poster from World War II, showing a Naval nurse with a hospital ship\"\n]","isConversational":false}}}],"truncated":false,"partial":false},"paginationData":{"pageIndex":20,"numItemsPerPage":100,"numTotalItems":138384,"offset":2000,"length":100}},"jwt":"eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSIsImtpZCI6IjVHZDBvd0g5MTM2eDZjc1FvbE1zcktNWUZoRVFoUm5PVVVybEpjOUhaUEEifQ.eyJyZWFkIjp0cnVlLCJwZXJtaXNzaW9ucyI6eyJyZXBvLmNvbnRlbnQucmVhZCI6dHJ1ZX0sImlhdCI6MTc5MDcwNjU1MywianRpIjoiODMxNjRhZDctZmQxYi00OWZhLTk0YjAtMTU1YzZiYTIxMDg0Iiwic3ViIjoiL2RhdGFzZXRzL01lbW9yeUFzTW9kYWxpdHkvVHJpdmlhUUEiLCJleHAiOjE3OTA3MTAxNTMsImlzcyI6Imh0dHBzOi8vaHVnZ2luZ2ZhY2UuY28ifQ.BVMde93nN5epRnXm7fKgHtllbI31uu1SGdMdzEoUcYFIFBvwiqreRSEgoURi35Xprq7l1da8bpwxEJvIA84IAQ","displayUrls":true,"splitSizeSummaries":[{"config":"default","split":"train","numRows":138384,"numBytesParquet":4149441207},{"config":"default","split":"validation","numRows":17944,"numBytesParquet":531588839},{"config":"default","split":"test","numRows":17210,"numBytesParquet":506953567}]},"discussionsStats":{"closed":0,"open":0,"total":0},"fullWidth":true,"hasGatedAccess":true,"hasFullAccess":true,"isEmbedded":false,"savedQueries":{"community":[],"user":[]}}">
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tc_3068 | How long does it take for the Earth to spin once on its axis? | One day | [
"one day"
] | [
"BBC - Schools Science Clips - Earth, sun and moon Offline ...\n\nBBC - Schools Science Clips - Earth, sun and moon Offline lesson plan\nOffline lesson plan\nObjectives\nUnderstand that it is the Earth that moves, not the Sun, and the Earth spins on its axis once every 24 hours\nKnow that it is daytime in the part ... |
tc_3069 | What is a very hard, naturally-occurring mineral, of which ruby and sapphire are gem quality varieties? | Corundum | [
"corundum structure",
"corrundum",
"tranparent alumina",
"corundum"
] | [
"Mineral\n\nA mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound. Most often, they are crystalline and abiogenic in origin. A mineral is different from a rock, which can be an aggregate of minerals or non-minerals and does not have a specific chemical composition. The exact definition of a mineral is under debate,... |
tc_3071 | Corundum is a mineral oxide of which metal? | Aluminum | [
"super purity aluminium",
"alliminuim",
"aluminum compounds",
"billeted aluminum",
"super purity aluminum",
"aluminium element",
"aluminium production",
"aluminium metal",
"billet aluminium",
"al element",
"alumine",
"alumnium",
"alumino",
"e173",
"aluminium ii",
"alluminum",
"alumin... | [
"Corundum\n\nCorundum is a crystalline form of aluminium oxide () typically containing traces of iron, titanium, vanadium and chromium. It is a rock-forming mineral. It is one of the naturally transparent materials, but can have different colors when impurities are present. Transparent specimens are used as gems, c... |
tc_3072 | What is the name of the force which keeps the planets in orbit around the sun? | Gravity | [
"vertical circular motion",
"gravitational attraction",
"gravitational pull",
"gravitated",
"physics gravity",
"gravitate",
"formulae of gravity",
"gravitationally",
"theories of gravitation",
"gravity and motion",
"gravitational force",
"acceleration of gravity",
"gravitational theory",
"... | [
"Orbit\n\nIn physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of an object about a point in space, for example the orbit of a planet about a star or a natural satellite around a planet. Orbits of planets are typically elliptical, and the central mass being orbited is at a focal point of the ellipse.",
"Orbi... |
tc_3074 | Which planet is named after the Roman god of war? | Mars | [
"fourth planet",
"mars",
"oblate mars",
"mars surface features",
"4th planet",
"marte planet",
"2003 opposition of mars",
"mars opposition",
"hydrology of mars",
"planet mars",
"sol e",
"opposition of mars",
"sun e",
"mars orbit",
"physical characteristics of mars",
"sol 4",
"mars pl... | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3075 | Which planet is closest to the sun? | Mercury | [
"merdcury",
"mercury album",
"mercury disambiguation",
"mercury",
"murcury"
] | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3076 | Which two planets take less time than Earth to orbit the sun? | Mercury and Venus | [
"mercury and venus"
] | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3077 | Which planet has a day which lasts eight months? | Venus | [
"venerian year",
"sol c",
"astronomy venus",
"venus",
"sun c",
"second planet",
"venus planet",
"venis",
"venus astronomy",
"kleinchen",
"sol 2",
"structure of venus",
"sol ii",
"2nd planet",
"planet venus",
"metal star",
"studies of venus",
"cytherocentric orbit",
"aitorma"
] | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3078 | What is the term for a natural satellite? | Moon | [
"moonless",
"earth and moon",
"lunar mass",
"luna satellite",
"🌛",
"earth s moon",
"☾",
"solar and lunar eclipses",
"terra i",
"moon earth",
"luna moon",
"moon like",
"🌙",
"earth i",
"moonlike",
"sol iiia",
"satellite of earth",
"moon moon",
"pictures on moon",
"natural earth... | [
"Natural satellite\n\nA natural satellite or moon is a celestial body that orbits another celestial body of greater mass (e.g. a planet, star, or dwarf planet), called its primary. For example, the Moon is a natural satellite of Earth, and Earth is a natural satellite of the Sun.",
"Natural satellite\n\nIn the ... |
tc_3079 | Who was the first man in space? | Yuri Gagarin | [
"youri gagarine",
"jurij gagarin",
"iurii gagarin",
"yury gagarin",
"valentina goryacheva",
"gagarin",
"ю́рий алексе́евич гага́рин",
"juri gagarin",
"first human in space",
"first person in space",
"yuri gagarin",
"yury alekseyevich gagarin",
"юрий гагарин",
"yuri gegarin",
"yuri aleksey... | [
"Yuri Gagarin\n\nYuri Alekseyevich Gagarin (; 9 March 1934 – 27 March 1968) was a Russian Soviet pilot and cosmonaut. He was the first human to journey into outer space, when his Vostok spacecraft completed an orbit of the Earth on 12 April 1961.",
"Yuri Gagarin\n\nGagarin became an international celebrity, and w... |
tc_3080 | Which was the first space probe to leave the solar system? | Pioneer 10 | [
"1972 012a",
"pioneer 10",
"pioneer f"
] | [
"Space probe\n\nA space probe is a robotic spacecraft that leaves Earth orbit and explores space. It may approach the Moon; enter interplanetary space; flyby, orbit, or land on other planetary bodies; or approach interstellar space.",
"Space probe\n\nSee List of active Solar System probes for a list of active pr... |
tc_3084 | What is almost halfway through its 10-billion-year life, will expand to become a red giant and then shrink to become a white dwarf? | The sun | [
"exploration of sun",
"solar diameter",
"solar atmosphere",
"🌞",
"parts of sun",
"solar glare",
"sun star",
"sun s orbit",
"sun song",
"sun astronomy",
"atmosphere of sun",
"sun",
"solar x ray astronomy",
"layers of sun",
"solar photosphere",
"local star",
"sun characteristics",
"... | [
"Red giant\n\nA red giant is a luminous giant star of low or intermediate mass (roughly 0.3–8 solar masses ()) in a late phase of stellar evolution. The outer atmosphere is inflated and tenuous, making the radius large and the surface temperature as low as 5,000 K and lower. The appearance of the red giant is from ... |
tc_3085 | Which planet orbits the Sun four times in the time it takes the Earth to go round once? | Mercury | [
"merdcury",
"mercury album",
"mercury disambiguation",
"mercury",
"murcury"
] | [
"How Long it Takes for Each Planet to Orbit the Sun\n\nHow Long it Takes for Each Planet to Orbit the Sun\nHow Long it Takes for Each Planet to Orbit the Sun\nHow Long it Takes for Each Planet to Orbit the Sun\nIf one was asked the questions, οΏ½How long is a day?οΏ½ and οΏ½How long is a year?οΏ½ they would probabl... |
tc_3087 | Which is the largest moon in the solar system? | Ganymede | [
"ganymedes",
"ganymede disambiguation",
"gandymede",
"ganymede"
] | [
"Solar System\n\nThe Solar SystemCapitalization of the name varies. The IAU, the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature, specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects, but uses mixed \"Solar System\" and \"solar system\" in their [http://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming/ na... |
tc_3089 | Where, theoretically, might one find objects squeezed to an infinite density? | Black Hole | [
"formation of black hole",
"history of black holes",
"black hole faq",
"black hol",
"central black hole",
"black whole",
"black holes",
"black hole",
"gravitationally completely collapsed star",
"blackholes",
"parts of black hole",
"cosmic vacuum cleaners",
"hypermass",
"blackhole",
"spa... | [
"Infinity\n\nInfinity (symbol: ) is an abstract concept describing something without any bound or larger than any number. Philosophers have speculated about the nature of the infinite, notably Zeno of Elea, who proposed many paradoxes involving infinity, and Eudoxus of Cnidus, who used the idea of infinitely small ... |
tc_3090 | Which is the largest moon of Saturn? | Titan | [
"titans television series",
"titan video game",
"titan disambiguation",
"titan novel",
"titan",
"titans tv series",
"titan television series",
"titans"
] | [
"Moon\n\nThe Moon is Earth's only permanent natural satellite. It is one of the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, and the largest among planetary satellites relative to the size of the planet that it orbits (its primary). It is the second-densest satellite among those whose densities are known (after ... |
tc_3093 | Which is the largest planet in the solar system? | Jupiter | [
"jupiter s",
"jupiter",
"mass of jupiter",
"jupiter astronomy",
"jovian diameter",
"jupiter radius",
"sun f",
"weight of jupiter",
"zenography",
"life on jupiter",
"♃",
"sol 5",
"jovian orbit",
"jupiter weight",
"wood star",
"planet jupiter",
"physical characteristics of jupiter",
... | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3094 | What is the smallest planet in the solar system? | Pluto | [
"sol j",
"134340 pluto",
"pluto debate",
"1930 bd",
"plutoing",
"♇",
"pluto",
"astronomy pluto",
"sun j",
"asteroid 134340",
"pluto astronomy",
"pluto dwarf planet",
"134340",
"pluto planetary status controversy",
"pluto planet day",
"dwarf planet pluto",
"physical characteristics of... | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3095 | Which is the brightest comet in the solar system? | Halley's comet | [
"c 1145 g1",
"c 607 h1",
"c 1909 r1",
"c 1378 s1",
"c 760 k1",
"hally comet",
"hayley s comet",
"c 1682 q1",
"c 1301 r1",
"c 1607 s1",
"haleys comet",
"halleys comet",
"c 1456 k1",
"c 989 n1",
"c 1758 y1",
"halley comet",
"c 374 e1",
"c 530 q1",
"c 837 f1",
"c 295 j1",
"c 86 ... | [
"Comet\n\nA comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, heats up and begins to outgas, displaying a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range f... |
tc_3096 | What would you find if you travelled to the centre of the solar system? | The Sun | [
"exploration of sun",
"solar diameter",
"solar atmosphere",
"🌞",
"parts of sun",
"solar glare",
"sun star",
"sun s orbit",
"sun song",
"sun astronomy",
"atmosphere of sun",
"sun",
"solar x ray astronomy",
"layers of sun",
"solar photosphere",
"local star",
"sun characteristics",
"... | [
"Solar System\n\nThe Solar SystemCapitalization of the name varies. The IAU, the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature, specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects, but uses mixed \"Solar System\" and \"solar system\" in their [http://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming/ na... |
tc_3097 | How many planets are there in the solar system? | Nine | [
"nine",
"9"
] | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3098 | Which planet is named after the Roman goddess of love? | Venus | [
"venerian year",
"sol c",
"astronomy venus",
"venus",
"sun c",
"second planet",
"venus planet",
"venis",
"venus astronomy",
"kleinchen",
"sol 2",
"structure of venus",
"sol ii",
"2nd planet",
"planet venus",
"metal star",
"studies of venus",
"cytherocentric orbit",
"aitorma"
] | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3099 | What kind of extraterrestrial objet has been named after the 17th-century astronomer Edmond Halley? | A Comet | [
"coma astronomy",
"dirty snowball",
"coma comet",
"dark comet",
"jupiter family comet",
"comet",
"plasma tail",
"halley type comet",
"☄",
"dirty snowball theory",
"comet tails",
"dirty snowball hypothesis",
"dirty snowball model",
"a1 comet",
"long period comet",
"black comets",
"sho... | [
"Astronomer\n\nAn astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who concentrates their studies on a specific question or field outside of the scope of Earth. They look at stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies, as well as many other celestial objects — either in observational astronomy, in analyzing the d... |
tc_3100 | What was the first artificial satellite? | Sputnik 1 | [
"спутник 1",
"sputnik",
"sputnik i",
"prosteyshiy sputnik 1",
"простейший спутник 1",
"sputnik 99",
"спутник",
"first artificial satellite",
"sputnik 1"
] | [
"Satellite\n\nIn the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earth's Moon.",
"Satellite\n\nThe world's first artificial satellite, the Spu... |
tc_3101 | What is the name of the space shuttle destroyed in midair 28 Jan 1986? | Challenger | [
"challenger",
"challengers",
"challenger disambiguation",
"challengers disambiguation",
"challenger album"
] | [
"Space Shuttle\n\nThe Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program name was Space Transportation System (STS), taken from a 1969 plan for a system of r... |
tc_3103 | What, ultimately, will the sun become? | A white dwarf | [
"white dwarf disambiguation",
"white dwarf"
] | [
"The Sun Will Eventually Engulf Earth--Maybe - Scientific ...\n\nThe Sun Will Eventually Engulf Earth--Maybe - Scientific American\nSpace\nThe Sun Will Eventually Engulf Earth--Maybe\nResearchers debate whether Earth will be swallowed by the sun as it expands into a red giant billions of years from now\nBy David Ap... |
tc_3104 | Which planet takes almost 30 Earth years to orbit the sun? | Saturn | [
"saturn planet",
"saturn astronomy",
"planet saturn",
"atmosphere of saturn",
"sol vi",
"sun g",
"saturn",
"sixth planet",
"sol g",
"♄",
"saturno planet",
"saturnus planet",
"6th planet",
"sol 6",
"weather of saturn",
"astronomy saturn",
"saturn s"
] | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3105 | What is the most distant object visible to the naked eye? | Andromeda galaxy | [
"ngc224",
"k79 1c",
"andromenda",
"2c 56",
"gin 801",
"pgc 2557",
"leda 2557",
"z 0040 0 4100",
"andromedea",
"messier object 31",
"andromeda galaxy",
"iras 00400 4059",
"messier 31",
"ugc 454",
"rafgl 104",
"irc 40013",
"z 535 17",
"andromeda astronomy",
"33 andromedae",
"mcg ... | [
"Naked eye\n\nNaked eye, also called bare eye or unaided eye, is the practice of engaging in visual perception unaided by a magnifying or light-collecting optical device, such as a telescope or microscope. Vision corrected to normal acuity using corrective lenses is considered \"naked\". In astronomy, the naked eye... |
tc_3106 | Which planet is the densest? | Earth | [
"world geography",
"terra planetry science",
"sol iii",
"earth word",
"formation of earth",
"sol prime",
"earth s mean density",
"earth sol",
"sun d",
"whole world",
"🌏",
"blue and green planet",
"eareth",
"etymology of word 22earth 22",
"sol d",
"🌍",
"surface area of earth",
"me... | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3107 | What is the name given to the super dense stars that sometimes result form a supernova? | Neutron Stars | [
"stellar spin down",
"neutron stars",
"nutron star",
"nuetron star",
"neutron star",
"binary neutron stars"
] | [
"Supernova\n\nA supernova is an astronomical event that occurs during the last stellar evolutionary stages of a massive star's life, whose dramatic and catastrophic destruction is marked by one final titanic explosion. For a short time, this causes the sudden appearance of a 'new' bright star, before slowly fading ... |
tc_3110 | What shape is the Milky Way? | Spiral | [
"spirally",
"spiraler",
"spiraled",
"spherical spiral",
"spiralers",
"spiral",
"spirals"
] | [
"Milky Way\n\nThe Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System. Its name \"milky\" is derived from its appearance as a dim glowing band arching across the night sky whose individual stars cannot be distinguished by the naked eye. The term \"Milky Way\" is a translation of the Latin ', from the Greek (', ... |
tc_3111 | When was the first Pioneer space probe launched? | 1958 | [
"one thousand nine hundred and fifty eight"
] | [
"Pioneer 10\n\nPioneer 10 (originally designated Pioneer F) is an American space probe, weighing 258 kg, that completed the first mission to the planet Jupiter. Thereafter, Pioneer 10 became the first spacecraft to achieve escape velocity from the Solar System. This space exploration project was conducted by the NA... |
tc_3112 | Which planet id named after the sky-god who was father of the Titans? | Uranus | [
"uranus astronomy",
"sao 158687",
"sol vii",
"sol 7",
"discovery of uranus",
"uranus planet",
"7th planet",
"magnetosphere of uranus",
"urano planet",
"hd 128598",
"georgium sidus",
"astronomy uranus",
"uranus",
"sol h",
"⛢",
"sun h",
"planet uranus",
"george s star",
"seventh pl... | [
"Titan (mythology)\n\nIn Classical Greek mythology, the Titans (Greek: Titán; plural: Titânes) and Titanesses (or Titanides; Greek: Titanís; plural: Titanídes) were members of the second order of divine beings, descending from the primordial deities and preceding the Olympian deities. Based on Mount Othrys, the... |
tc_3114 | Visible sunspots vary in number according to a cycle of how many years? | Eleven | [
"eleven",
"11"
] | [
"Sunspot\n\nSunspots are temporary phenomena on the photosphere of the Sun that appear as dark spots compared to surrounding regions. They are areas of reduced surface temperature caused by concentrations of magnetic field flux that inhibit convection. Sunspots usually appear in pairs of opposite magnetic polarity.... |
tc_3115 | Which planet is usually the furthest form the Sun, but sometimes is not? | Pluto | [
"sol j",
"134340 pluto",
"pluto debate",
"1930 bd",
"plutoing",
"♇",
"pluto",
"astronomy pluto",
"sun j",
"asteroid 134340",
"pluto astronomy",
"pluto dwarf planet",
"134340",
"pluto planetary status controversy",
"pluto planet day",
"dwarf planet pluto",
"physical characteristics of... | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3116 | What was the name of the American mission to land a man on the Moon? | Apollo project | [
"program apollo",
"apollo moon mission",
"apollo moon landing",
"apollo moon",
"apollo project",
"command module pilot",
"apollo program choosing mission mode",
"apollo mission",
"apollo landers",
"apollo space program",
"project apollo",
"apollo landings",
"apollo lunar missions",
"apollo... | [
"Apollo 11: First Men on the Moon - Space.com\n\nApollo 11: First Men on the Moon\nApollo 11: First Men on the Moon\nBy Nola Taylor Redd, Space.com Contributor |\nJuly 25, 2012 03:39pm ET\nMORE\nApollo 11 astronaut Edwin Aldrin photographed this iconic photo, a view of his footprint in the lunar soil, as part of a... |
tc_3117 | What was the name of the American space station? | Skylab | [
"skylab program",
"sky lab",
"skylab",
"skylab i",
"project skylab",
"skylab 5",
"skylab 1",
"skylab one"
] | [
"International Space Station\n\nThe International Space Station (ISS) is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest artificial body in orbit and can often be seen with the naked eye from Earth. The ISS c... |
tc_3118 | Which country built the Saturn V rocket? | USA | [
"u s of america",
"u–s–",
"estatos unitos",
"amarica",
"america united states of",
"v s amerika",
"states of america",
"amurika",
"unitesd states",
"estados unidos de america",
"america",
"united states of america oldpage",
"america us",
"nited states",
"etats unis d amerique",
"united... | [
"Saturn V\n\nThe Saturn V (spoken as \"Saturn five\") was an American human-rated expendable rocket used by NASA between 1966 and 1973. The three-stage liquid-fueled launch vehicle was developed to support the Apollo program for human exploration of the Moon, and was later used to launch Skylab, the first American... |
tc_3121 | Which objects in space emit energy in pulses? | Pulsars | [
"rotating neutron star",
"rotation powered pulsar",
"timing noise",
"pulsar",
"light cylinder",
"radio pulsar",
"pulsating radio sources",
"rotation powered pulsars",
"pulsating radio star",
"pulsars",
"radio pulsars"
] | [
"Pulsars - Celestial Objects on Sea and Sky\n\nPulsars - Celestial Objects on Sea and Sky\nPulsars\nPulsars\nCosmic Beacons\nPulsars are among the strangest objects in the universe. In 1967, at the Cambridge Observatory, Jocelyn Bell and Anthony Hewish were studying the stars when they stumbled on something quite e... |
tc_3122 | What travels around the Sun at an average speed of 185 miles per second. | The earth | [
"world geography",
"terra planetry science",
"sol iii",
"earth word",
"formation of earth",
"sol prime",
"earth s mean density",
"earth sol",
"sun d",
"whole world",
"🌏",
"blue and green planet",
"eareth",
"etymology of word 22earth 22",
"sol d",
"🌍",
"surface area of earth",
"me... | [
"Sun\n\nThe Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process. It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth. Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth, and ... |
tc_3123 | Which is the second lightest element in the universe? | Helium | [
"solid helium",
"helium ii",
"helium shortage",
"atcvet code qv03an03",
"two fluid model for helium",
"helium",
"helium gas",
"superfluid helium",
"element 2",
"atomic number 2",
"he element",
"balloon grade helium",
"inhaling helium",
"e939",
"atc code v03an03"
] | [
"Chemical element\n\nA chemical element or element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei (i.e. the same atomic number, Z). There are 118 elements that have been identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There ... |
tc_3125 | What is the name of the thousands of small bodies which orbit the Sun? | Asteroids | [
"asteroid",
"asteroids",
"primitive bodies",
"astaroid",
"atseroid",
"primative body",
"exploration of asteroids",
"asteriod",
"atsaroid",
"classification of asteroids",
"iceteroid",
"minor body"
] | [
"Small Solar System body\n\nA small Solar System body (SSSB) is an object in the Solar System that is neither a planet, nor a dwarf planet, nor a natural satellite. The term was first defined in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union.",
"Small Solar System body\n\nThis encompasses all comets and all minor p... |
tc_3128 | What can contract to give birth to a star? | A nebula | [
"bright nebulae",
"nebulæ",
"diffuse nebulae",
"nebulae",
"gaseous nebula",
"nebula",
"diffuse nebula",
"nebulis",
"nebulosity",
"bright nebula",
"bright nebulas",
"gaseous nebulas",
"gaseous nebulae",
"types of nebulae",
"diffuse nebulas",
"nebulas"
] | [
"Stars - NASA Science\n\nStars | Science Mission Directorate\nScience Mission Directorate\nExoplanets\nStars\nStars are the most widely recognized astronomical objects, and represent the most fundamental building blocks of galaxies. The age, distribution, and composition of the stars in a galaxy trace the history, ... |
tc_3131 | What is the name for the study of the structure of the universe? | Cosmology | [
"cosmic images",
"cosmology metaphysics",
"geomantiam",
"cosmological",
"cosmological theories",
"cosmologer",
"list of historical cosmologies",
"cosmologies",
"cosmologist",
"kosmology",
"metaphysical cosmology",
"uranology",
"models of universe",
"cosmological theory",
"history of cosm... | [
"Universe\n\nThe Universe is all of time and space and its contents. It includes planets, moons, minor planets, stars, galaxies, the contents of intergalactic space, and all matter and energy. The observable universe is about 28 e9pc in diameter. The size of the entire Universe is unknown, but there are many hypo... |
tc_3132 | What units are used for measuring distances in the universe? | Light years | [
"lightyears",
"light years",
"lightyear",
"mly",
"light year",
"light month"
] | [
"Universe\n\nThe Universe is all of time and space and its contents. It includes planets, moons, minor planets, stars, galaxies, the contents of intergalactic space, and all matter and energy. The observable universe is about 28 e9pc in diameter. The size of the entire Universe is unknown, but there are many hypo... |
tc_3133 | What is another name for a shooting or falling star? | Meteor | [
"meteoros",
"faxed star",
"meteors",
"🌠",
"meteoroids",
"high in air",
"meteorical",
"meteoro",
"dark flight astronomy",
"meteoric",
"meteōros",
"meteor",
"meteorically",
"shooting star astronomy",
"meteoroid",
"bolide impact",
"ionization trail",
"fireball meteor"
] | [
"What is a Shooting Star? - Universe Today\n\nWhat is a Shooting Star? - Universe Today\n Universe Today\nWhat is a Shooting Star? Article Updated: 24 Dec , 2015\nby Fraser Cain\nA shooting star is another name for a meteoroid that burns up as it passes through the Earth’s atmosphere. So, a shooting star isn’t a s... |
tc_3134 | What is the Latin name for the North Star? | Polaris | [
"1 ursae minoris",
"polaris borealis",
"stella polaris",
"polarus",
"ruccabah",
"α ursae minoris",
"alruccabah",
"hip 11767",
"α umi",
"polaris star",
"alpha ursae minoris",
"polaris",
"hōkūpa"
] | [
"Polaris\n\nPolaris ( Ursae Minoris, UMi, commonly the North Star or Pole Star) is the brightest star in the constellation Ursa Minor. It is very close to the north celestial pole, making it the current northern pole star. The revised Hipparcos parallax gives a distance to Polaris of about 433 light-years (133 p... |
tc_3135 | Scientists study the red shift to investigate which aspect of cosmology? | The expansion of the universe | [
"quantum radiation",
"metric expansion of space",
"universe s expansion",
"expansion of space in big bang theory",
"universe expansion",
"metric expansion of universe",
"space expansion",
"expanding universe",
"expansion of universe",
"metric expansion",
"cosmic expansion",
"expansion of space... | [
"Science\n\nScienceFrom Latin scientia, meaning \"knowledge\". \n* is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.\"... modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regula... |
tc_3136 | Which planet possesses the Galilean satellites? | Jupiter | [
"jupiter s",
"jupiter",
"mass of jupiter",
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"jovian diameter",
"jupiter radius",
"sun f",
"weight of jupiter",
"zenography",
"life on jupiter",
"♃",
"sol 5",
"jovian orbit",
"jupiter weight",
"wood star",
"planet jupiter",
"physical characteristics of jupiter",
... | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3137 | What is brighter than a hundred million suns? | A supernova | [
"type i supernova",
"supernova explosions",
"exploding stars",
"supernovas",
"type iia supernova",
"typr ib supernova",
"supanovae",
"type iin",
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"supernova light curve",
"supernove",
"type i supernovae",
"type iib supernova",
"little bang",
"sne",
"supernovae",
"superno... | [
"Brighter Than 200 Million Suns - Centauri Dreams\n\nBrighter Than 200 Million Suns\nImagining and Planning Interstellar Exploration\nBrighter Than 200 Million Suns\nby Paul Gilster on September 2, 2004\nIt looks bright enough to be a foreground star, but this supernova, called SN 2004dj, is 11 million light years ... |
tc_3138 | Who developed the 'aperture synthesis' method of radio astronomy? | Martin Ryle | [
"sir martin ryle",
"martin ryle"
] | [
"Aperture synthesis\n\nAperture synthesis or synthesis imaging is a type of interferometry that mixes signals from a collection of telescopes to produce images having the same angular resolution as an instrument the size of the entire collection. At each separation and orientation, the lobe-pattern of the interfero... |
tc_3141 | Saturn's ring has how many sections? | Three | [
"three",
"3"
] | [
"Rings of Saturn\n\nThe rings of Saturn are the most extensive planetary ring system of any planet in the Solar System. They consist of countless small particles, ranging in size from micrometres to metres, that orbit about Saturn. The ring particles are made almost entirely of water ice, with a trace component of... |
tc_3142 | What was the name of two space probes launched in 1977 which sent back remarkable pictures of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune? | voyager 1 and voyager 2 | [] | [
"Space probe\n\nA space probe is a robotic spacecraft that leaves Earth orbit and explores space. It may approach the Moon; enter interplanetary space; flyby, orbit, or land on other planetary bodies; or approach interstellar space.",
"Space probe\n\nSee List of active Solar System probes for a list of active pr... |
tc_3143 | Which planet has one moon called Charon? | Pluto | [
"sol j",
"134340 pluto",
"pluto debate",
"1930 bd",
"plutoing",
"♇",
"pluto",
"astronomy pluto",
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"asteroid 134340",
"pluto astronomy",
"pluto dwarf planet",
"134340",
"pluto planetary status controversy",
"pluto planet day",
"dwarf planet pluto",
"physical characteristics of... | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3144 | What are the clouds of interstellar dust, said to be the birthplace of stars? | Nebulae | [
"bright nebulae",
"nebulæ",
"diffuse nebulae",
"nebulae",
"gaseous nebula",
"nebula",
"diffuse nebula",
"nebulis",
"nebulosity",
"bright nebula",
"bright nebulas",
"gaseous nebulas",
"gaseous nebulae",
"types of nebulae",
"diffuse nebulas",
"nebulas"
] | [
"Cosmic dust\n\nCosmic dust is dust which exists in outer space. Most cosmic dust particles are between a few molecules to 0.1 µm in size. A smaller fraction of all dust in space consists of larger refractory minerals that condensed as matter left the stars. It is called \"stardust\" and is included in a separate ... |
tc_3147 | What is the astronomical unit equal to 32,616 light years? | Parsec | [
"secpar",
"parallax of one arc second",
"megaparsec",
"megaparsecs",
"kiloparsecs",
"parallax second",
"parsecs",
"kiloparsec",
"parsec",
"microparsec",
"㍶",
"gigaparsec",
"milliparsec"
] | [
"Astronomical unit\n\nThe astronomical unit (symbol au, AU or ua ) is a unit of length, roughly the distance from Earth to the Sun. However, that distance varies as Earth orbits the Sun, from a maximum (aphelion) to a minimum (perihelion) and back again once a year. Originally conceived as the average of Earth's... |
tc_3149 | Which is the second largest planet in the solar system? | Saturn | [
"saturn planet",
"saturn astronomy",
"planet saturn",
"atmosphere of saturn",
"sol vi",
"sun g",
"saturn",
"sixth planet",
"sol g",
"♄",
"saturno planet",
"saturnus planet",
"6th planet",
"sol 6",
"weather of saturn",
"astronomy saturn",
"saturn s"
] | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
tc_3150 | Which planet has been the focus of investigations for signs of life? | Mars | [
"fourth planet",
"mars",
"oblate mars",
"mars surface features",
"4th planet",
"marte planet",
"2003 opposition of mars",
"mars opposition",
"hydrology of mars",
"planet mars",
"sol e",
"opposition of mars",
"sun e",
"mars orbit",
"physical characteristics of mars",
"sol 4",
"mars pl... | [
"Earth\n\nEarth (otherwise known as the world, in Gaia, or in Latin: Terra ) is the third planet from the Sun, the densest planet in the Solar System, the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets, and the only astronomical object known to harbor life.",
"Earth\n\nAccording to radiometric dating and... |
tc_3151 | In the general theory of relativity what causes space-time to be modified? | Mass | [
"gravitational mass",
"mass properties",
"massives",
"gravitic mass",
"inertial mass",
"metric mass",
"maſs",
"massivenesses",
"massiveness",
"massingly",
"mass physics",
"active gravitational mass",
"metric unit of weight",
"imaginary mass",
"weight mass",
"unit of mass",
"massed",
... | [
"General relativity\n\nGeneral relativity (GR, also known as the general theory of relativity or GTR) is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern physics. General relativity generalizes special relativity and Newton's law of unive... |
tc_3152 | Which space probes failed to find life on Mars? | Viking probes | [
"project viking",
"viking project",
"viking programme",
"viking orbiter",
"viking mars probe",
"viking landers",
"viking probes",
"viking mission",
"program viking",
"viking lander",
"viking program",
"viking mars",
"viking spacecraft"
] | [
"Life on Mars\n\nFor centuries people have speculated about the possibility of life on Mars due to the planet's proximity and similarity to Earth. Although there has been much speculation, to date there has never been any proof of life existing on Mars. However, cumulative evidence is now building that Mars once wa... |
tc_3153 | Which type of celestial object emits bursts of energy at regular intervals? | Pulsar | [
"rotating neutron star",
"rotation powered pulsar",
"timing noise",
"pulsar",
"light cylinder",
"radio pulsar",
"pulsating radio sources",
"rotation powered pulsars",
"pulsating radio star",
"pulsars",
"radio pulsars"
] | [
"Astronomical Terms - Infoplease\n\nAstronomical Terms\nHealth and Science > Astronomy > Astronomical Measurement\nAstronomical Terms\nThe Milky Way, the galaxy containing our solar system, is about 100,000 light-years in diameter and about 10,000 light-years thick. Aphelion: see Orbit. Apogee: see Orbit. Black hol... |
tc_3157 | What is the defining feature of a neutron star? | Great density | [
"great density"
] | [
"Black hole\n\nA black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing—including particles and electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from inside it. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black ... |
qz_0 | Which country has the airline KLM? | The Netherlands | [
"capitals of holland",
"northern netherlands",
"nederlandia",
"pays bas",
"olanda",
"climate of netherlands",
"neatherlands",
"netherland",
"european netherlands",
"nyderlandai",
"administrative divisions of netherlands",
"dutch inhabitants",
"mainland netherlands",
"iso 3166 1 nl",
"sub... | [
"Airline\n\nAn airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating cer... |
qz_1 | What two letters are worth the most in a game of Scrabble? | Q and Z | [
"q and z"
] | [
"Scrabble\n\nScrabble is a word game in which two to four players score points by placing tiles, each bearing a single letter, onto a gameboard which is divided into a 15×15 grid of squares. The tiles must form words which, in crossword fashion, flow left to right in rows or downwards in columns. The words must be ... |
qz_3 | After how many years of marriage would you celebrate your ruby anniversary? | 40 | [
"forty"
] | [
"Wedding Anniversary List: Names by Years Married ...\n\nWedding Anniversary List: Names by Years Married - Disabled World\nWedding Anniversary List: Names by Years Married\nPrint\nPublished: 2011-06-27 (Rev. 2015-06-04) - Contact: Ian Langtree at Disabled World\nSynopsis: A list of wedding anniversaries by year th... |
qz_4 | Where would a troglodyte live? In a cave, up a tree or underwater? | In a cave | [
"in cave"
] | [
"New Feature: Title Field in Questions - Etudes\n\nNew Feature: Title Field in Questions - Etudes\nNew Feature: Title Field in Questions\nJune 11, 2015 by Etudes Admin\n0\nInstructors now have the ability to add a “Title” when authoring objective questions or essays (assignments) in the assessment engine of Etudes.... |
qz_5 | How many counters does each player have at the start of a game of backgammon? | 15 | [
"fifteen"
] | [
"Backgammon\n\nBackgammon is one of the oldest board games known. It is a two player game where playing pieces are moved according to the roll of dice, and a player wins by removing all of his pieces from the board before their opponent. Backgammon is a member of the tables family, one of the oldest classes of boar... |
qz_7 | How many centimetres make up a hand, the measurement used on horses? | 10 | [
"ten"
] | [
"Units of measurement\n\nA unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity, defined and adopted by convention or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same quantity. Any other value of that quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the unit of measurement.",
"Units of measur... |
qz_10 | In what year did the weather forecast appear in The Times newspaper for the first time? | 1860 | [
"one thousand eight hundred and sixty"
] | [
"History of the National Weather Service\n\nHistory of the National Weather Service\nHistory of the National Weather Service\nWeather.gov > History of the National Weather Service\nThe National Weather Service has its beginning in the early history of the United States. Weather always has been important to the citi... |
qz_11 | What is the largest of the West Indian islands? | Cuba | [
"cuba",
"people s republic of cuba",
"administrative divisions of cuba",
"cuban news agency",
"iso 3166 1 cu",
"etymology of cuba",
"isla juana",
"communist cuba",
"second republic of cuba",
"republic of cuba",
"república de cuba",
"cuba island",
"republica de cuba",
"prehistory of cuba",
... | [
"Caribbean\n\nThe Caribbean ( or; ; ; Caribbean Hindustani: कैरिबियन (Kairibiyana); or more commonly Antilles) is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean), and the surrounding coasts. The r... |
qz_12 | St Johnstown was once the capital city of Scotland. By what name is St Johnstown now known? | Perth | [
"perth wa",
"perth w",
"perth",
"perth western australia",
"perth city australia",
"perth west australia",
"perht",
"climate of perth",
"perth au wa",
"perth cultural history",
"perth australia",
"un locode auper",
"boorloo",
"australia perth"
] | [
"Scotland\n\nScotland (; Scots:; ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east and the North Channel and Irish Sea to t... |
qz_14 | What is the largest city in Switzerland? | Zurich | [
"sunrise tower",
"zürich switzerland",
"zurigo",
"stadtpolizei zürich",
"zurich zh",
"un locode chzrh",
"zrich",
"czurch",
"schutz und rettung zürich",
"zuerich",
"culture of zürich",
"culture of zurich",
"city of zurich",
"zueri",
"zürich",
"zercher",
"zuerich city",
"zuercher",
... | [
"Switzerland\n\nSwitzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation (, hence its abbreviation CH), is a federal republic in Europe. While still named the \"Swiss Confederation\" for historical reasons, modern Switzerland is a federal directorial republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal au... |
qz_15 | The Ural Mountains form a natural border between which two continents? | Asia and Europe | [
"asia and europe"
] | [
"Europe Landforms and Land Statistics - WorldAtlas.com\n\nEurope Landforms and Land Statistics - Europe Landforms, Land Statistics\nPrint this map\nAlps:\nLocated in south-central Europe, they extend for almost 700 miles from the coastline of southern France (near Monaco) into Switzerland , northern Italy and Austr... |
qz_16 | What is the capital of Iraq? | Baghdad | [
"baghdād iraq",
"bahgdad",
"baghdad administrative divisions",
"asia baghdad",
"bagdat",
"بغداد",
"baqdad",
"baghdād",
"baghdad iraq",
"89 official neighbourhoods",
"baghdad city",
"capital of iraq",
"bagdhad",
"mama ayser center",
"bhagdad",
"baġdād",
"baghdad"
] | [
"Iraq\n\nIraq (,, or; '), officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: ) is a country in Western Asia, bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Kuwait to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the southwest, and Syria to the west. The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic group... |
qz_17 | In which English County can you find 4 towns with the suffix Regis? | Dorset | [
"dorset england",
"county of dorset",
"dorsetshire",
"dorset",
"dorcet"
] | [
"Dorset\n\nDorset (or archaically, Dorsetshire) is a county in South West England on the English Channel coast. The ceremonial county comprises the non-metropolitan county, which is governed by Dorset County Council, and the unitary authority areas of Poole and Bournemouth. Covering an area of 2653 km2, Dorset bord... |
qz_18 | In which ocean is the island group the Maldives? | The Indian Ocean | [
"asian ocean",
"southern indian ocean",
"north indian ocean",
"india ocean",
"indian ocean",
"indian sea"
] | [
"Maldives\n\nThe Maldives (,, or), officially the Republic of Maldives (, Dhivehi Raa'jeyge Jumhooriyya), is an island country in the Indian Ocean. It lies southwest of India and Sri Lanka. The chain of twenty six atolls stretches from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to the Addu Atoll in the south. Comprising ... |
qz_19 | Which river runs through the Grand Canyon? | The Colorado | [
"colorado river crossing",
"colorado river system southwest u s",
"colorado river basin",
"colorado river colo mexico",
"colorado river us",
"colorado",
"colorado river u s",
"river colorado",
"río colorado",
"history of colorado river",
"colorado river united states",
"colorado river",
"gra... | [
"Grand Canyon\n\nThe Grand Canyon (Hopi: Ongtupqa; , Navajo: Tsékooh Hatsoh, Spanish: Gran Cañón) is a steep-sided canyon carved by the Colorado River in the state of Arizona in the United States. It is contained within and managed by Grand Canyon National Park, the Kaibab National Forest, Grand Canyon-Parashant N... |
qz_22 | What country had the Roman name Hibernia? | Ireland | [
"irlandia",
"erin s isle",
"héireann",
"airlann",
"ireland",
"irelanders",
"airlan",
"mikra britannia",
"irelander",
"population of ireland",
"west coast of ireland",
"scotia major",
"symbol of ireland",
"irland",
"auld sod",
"island of ireland",
"ireland region",
"irlanda",
"ire... | [
"Hibernia\n\nHibernia is the Classical Latin name for the island of Ireland. The name Hibernia was taken from Greek geographical accounts. During his exploration of northwest Europe (c. 320 BC), Pytheas of Massilia called the island Iérnē (written ). In his book Geographia (c. 150 AD), Claudius Ptolemaeus (\"Ptol... |
qz_24 | Which superhero has a butler named Alfred? | Batman | [
"brucewayne",
"batman handbook ultimate training manual",
"batman bruce wayne",
"bat man",
"caped crusader",
"silver age batman",
"batman",
"batmarine",
"fictional history of batman",
"bat embargo",
"batdude",
"golden age batman",
"skills and abilities of batman",
"skills abilities resourc... | [
"Superhero\n\nIn modern popular fiction, a superhero (sometimes rendered super-hero or super hero) is a type of costumed heroic character who possesses supernatural or superhuman powers and who is dedicated to fighting crime, protecting the public, and usually battling supervillains. A female superhero is sometimes... |
qz_25 | What is Hypnophobia the fear of? | Sleep | [
"active sleep",
"sleep",
"snoozing",
"waking up",
"sleeping place",
"sleeps",
"good sleep in bedroom",
"slumber",
"sleep pattern",
"sleep demand",
"sleep stage",
"human sleep",
"sleep human",
"sleep stages",
"💤",
"slept",
"sleep patterns",
"aſleep",
"stages of sleep",
"schlaf"... | [
"Hypnophobia\n\nHypnophobia, also termed clinophobia or somniphobia, is the often irrational and excessive fear of sleep. It may result from a feeling of control loss, or from repeating nightmares or anxiety over the loss of time that could be spent accomplishing tasks or maximizing leisure time instead of sleepin... |
qz_26 | What famous person has the real name of Eldrick Woods? | Tiger Woods | [
"tiger woods",
"woods tiger",
"eldrick t 22tiger 22 woods",
"jaimee grubbs",
"eldrick",
"tont",
"eldrick tont woods",
"cablinasian",
"tiger woods mistress",
"tigerwoods com",
"tiger wood",
"cablin asian",
"tigre woods",
"eldrick 22tiger 22 woods",
"eldrick woods",
"how i play golf",
... | [
"Tiger Woods\n\nEldrick Tont \"Tiger\" Woods (born December 30, 1975) is an American professional golfer who is among the most successful golfers of all time. He has been one of the highest-paid athletes in the world for several years.",
"Tiger Woods\n\nFollowing an outstanding amateur and two-year college golf ... |
qz_27 | What is Fred Flintstone's wife called? | Wilma | [
"wilma",
"wilma disambiguation"
] | [
"Fred Flintstone\n\nFrederick \"Fred\" Flintstone, also known as Fred W. Flintstone, or Frederick J. Flintstone is the protagonist of the animated sitcom The Flintstones, which aired during prime-time on ABC during the original series' run from 1960 to 1966. Fred is the husband of Wilma Flintstone and father of Pe... |
qz_28 | What is the collective noun for a group of monkeys? | A troop | [
"one horned diablo",
"troop"
] | [
"What is a group of monkeys called? - Research Maniacs\n\nWhat is a group of monkeys called?\nWhat is a group of monkeys called?\nCollective Noun for Monkeys\nThe collective noun for monkeys is the word you would use to describe a group of monkeys.\nWe have identified the following word(s) that you could call a gro... |
qz_29 | Which film about Vietnam won the best picture at the 1978 Oscars? | The Deer Hunter | [
"deer hunter",
"die durch die hoelle gehen",
"deerhunter",
"die durch die holle gehen",
"die durch die hölle gehen"
] | [
"Vietnam War\n\nThe Vietnam War (), also known as the Second Indochina War, and known in Vietnam as Resistance War Against America () or simply the American War, was a Cold War-era proxy war that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed... |
qz_30 | What became the tallest building in the world when it opened in 1931? | The Empire State Building | [
"350 fifth avenue",
"empty state building",
"empire state building run up",
"elvita adams",
"emperor state building",
"evelyn mchale",
"empire state building",
"empire state bldg"
] | [
"List of tallest buildings in New York City\n\nNew York City, the most populous city in the United States, is home to 6,154 completed high-rises, 112 of which are 600 ft or taller. The tallest building in New York is One World Trade Center, which rises 1776 ft. The 104-story skyscraper also stands as the tallest... |
qz_32 | In what year did Percy L. Spencer invent the microwave? | 1947 | [
"one thousand nine hundred and forty seven"
] | [
"Percy Spencer\n\nPercy Lebaron Spencer (July 19, 1894 – September 8, 1969) was an American physicist and inventor. He became known as the inventor of the microwave oven.",
"Percy Spencer\n\nEarly life",
"Percy Spencer\n\nSpencer was born in Howland, Maine. Eighteen months later, Spencer's father died, and his ... |
qz_33 | Which famous character was created by Michael Bond in a series of books for children? | Paddington Bear | [
"paddington bear",
"paddington brown",
"darkest peru",
"32 windsor gardens",
"bear called paddington"
] | [
"Michael Bond\n\nThomas Michael Bond, CBE (born 13 January 1926) is an English author, best known for his Paddington Bear series of books. Bond was awarded a CBE in the Queen's Birthday Honours 2015.",
"Michael Bond\n\nEarly life",
"Michael Bond\n\nBond was born in Newbury and raised in Reading, Berkshire, wher... |
qz_34 | Which of the Bronte sisters wrote Wuthering Heights? | Emily | [
"emily disambiguation",
"emily",
"emily song"
] | [
"Brontë family\n\nThe Brontës (, commonly ) were a nineteenth-century literary family associated with the village of Haworth in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. The sisters, Charlotte (1816–1855), Emily (1818–1848), and Anne (1820–1849), are well known as poets and novelists. Like many contemporary female wr... |
qz_36 | Becky Sharp is the name of a character in which famous novel, which is also the title of a famous magazine? | Vanity Fair | [
"vanity fair",
"vanity fair mini series",
"vanity fair disambiguation",
"vanity fair film"
] | [
"Becky Sharp\n\nBecky Sharp is a 1935 American historical drama film directed by Rouben Mamoulian and starring Miriam Hopkins. Other supporting cast were Frances Dee, Cedric Hardwicke, Billie Burke, Alison Skipworth, Nigel Bruce, and Alan Mowbray.",
"Becky Sharp\n\nThe film is based on the play of the same name b... |
qz_37 | In George Orwell's Animal Farm what type of animal was Napoleon? | A pig | [
"pigs album",
"pig disambiguation",
"pig game",
"pig film",
"pig mammalia",
"pigs film",
"pigs",
"pigs disambiguation",
"pig"
] | [
"Animal Farm\n\nAnimal Farm is an allegorical and dystopian novella by George Orwell, first published in England on 17 August 1945. According to Orwell, the book reflects events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and then on into the Stalinist era of the Soviet Union. Orwell, a democratic socialist, was... |
qz_38 | What rock did Graham Greene write about? | Brighton Rock | [
"brighton rock disambiguation",
"brighton rock film",
"brighton rock"
] | [
"Graham Greene\n\nHenry Graham Greene (2 October 1904 – 3 April 1991), better known by his pen name Graham Greene, was an English novelist and author regarded by some as one of the great writers of the 20th century. Combining literary acclaim with widespread popularity, Greene acquired a reputation early in his li... |
qz_40 | All children, except one, grow up is the opening line from which famous story? | Peter Pan | [
"peter pan literature character",
"peter pan",
"peter pan literary character",
"peter pan character",
"peter pan fictional character",
"peter pan lierature character",
"peter pan person"
] | [
"Peter and Wendy\n\nPeter Pan; or, the Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up or Peter and Wendy is J. M. Barrie's most famous work, in the form of a 1904 play and a 1911 novel. Both versions tell the story of Peter Pan, a mischievous yet innocent little boy who can fly, and has many adventures on the island of Neverland that i... |
qz_41 | Who wrote the novel The 39 Steps? | John Buchan | [
"buchan john",
"buchan john sir",
"sir john buchan",
"john scantlebury blenkiron",
"lord tweedsmuir",
"john buchan 1st baron tweedsmuir",
"john buchan",
"baron tweedsmuir of elsfield",
"john buchan baron tweedsmuir",
"john sir buchan",
"buchanesque",
"john s blenkiron",
"john blenkiron"
] | [
"The 39 Steps (1935 film)\n\nThe 39 Steps is a 1935 British thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock, starring Robert Donat and Madeleine Carroll. Very loosely based on the 1915 adventure novel The Thirty-Nine Steps by John Buchan, the film is about an everyman civilian in London, Richard Hannay, who becomes caug... |
qz_42 | Which famous book, published in 1816, is sub-titled The Modern Prometheus? | Frankenstein | [
"frankenstein novel",
"frankestein",
"frankinsteine",
"frankensteinian",
"modern prometheus",
"henry clerval",
"frankenstein or modern prometheus",
"lackington hughes harding mavor jones",
"frankenstein",
"frankenstein or modern prometheu",
"frankenstien",
"frankenstein book",
"doctor franke... | [
"Prometheus\n\nPrometheus ( ; , meaning \"forethought\") is a Titan in Greek mythology, best known as the deity in Greek mythology who was the creator of mankind and its greatest benefactor, who stole fire from Mount Olympus and gave it to mankind.",
"Prometheus\n\nAncient myths and legends relate at least four ... |
qz_43 | When was the nobel prize for literature first awarded? | 1901 | [
"one thousand nine hundred and one"
] | [
"Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nSince 1901, the Nobel Prize in Literature () has been awarded annually to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Alfred Nobel, produced \"in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction\" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen h... |
qz_44 | What major war began on 10 October, 1899? | The Boer War | [
"boer war",
"boer war 1914 film"
] | [
"Boer War begins in South Africa - Oct 11, 1899 - History.com\n\nBoer War begins in South Africa - Oct 11, 1899 - HISTORY.com\nBoer War begins in South Africa\nShare this:\nBoer War begins in South Africa\nAuthor\nBoer War begins in South Africa\nURL\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nThe South African Boer War begins betwe... |
qz_45 | The words Czar and Kaiser are both derived from which famous person in history? | Julius Caesar | [
"commentaries of julius cæsar",
"gaius iulius gaii filius gaii nepos caesar",
"julius caesar roman",
"political career of julius caesar",
"ivlivs cæsar",
"caivs ivlivs caesar",
"julius caeser",
"imp•c•ivlivs•caesar•divvs",
"julias ceaser",
"conspiracy caesar",
"literary works of julius caesar",
... | [
"Czar | Define Czar at Dictionary.com\n\nCzar | Define Czar at Dictionary.com\nczar\n(often initial capital letter) the former emperor of Russia. 3. an autocratic ruler or leader. 4. any person exercising great authority or power in a particular field:\na czar of industry. Expand\n1545-1555\n1545-55; < Russian tsar... |
qz_46 | Which British monarch was on the throne at the beginning of the 20th Century? | Queen Victoria | [
"victoria queen of great britain",
"alexandrina victoria von wettin née hanover",
"queen victoria i",
"diamond jubilee of queen victoria",
"we are not amused",
"queen victoria i of united kingdom",
"victoria queen of england",
"victoria i of united kingdom",
"victoria of united kingdom",
"victoria... | [
"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories. The monarch's title is \"King\" (male) or \"Queen\" (female). The current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth... |
qz_48 | Which American President ordered the dropping of the first atomic bomb? | Harry S Truman | [
"harry solomon truman",
"presidency of harry s truman",
"harold truman",
"hary truman",
"mary jane truman",
"mr citizen",
"h truman",
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"harry shipp truman",
"s truman",
"presidency of harry truman",
"president truman",
"harry truman",
"harry truman s",
"harry shi... | [
"President of the United States\n\nThe President of the United States of America (POTUS) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.",
"President of th... |
qz_49 | Florence Nightingale was a nurse during which war? | The Crimean War | [
"russian war",
"war of crimea",
"crimean expedition",
"crimea war",
"cremean war",
"baltic theatre of crimean war",
"baltic campaign of 1854",
"crimean war 1853",
"oriental war",
"eastern war",
"paris peace conference 1856",
"russo turkish war 1853 1856",
"crimean war",
"russo turkish war ... | [
"Florence Nightingale\n\nFlorence Nightingale, (; 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910) was a celebrated English social reformer and statistician, and the founder of modern nursing.",
"Florence Nightingale\n\nShe came to prominence while serving as a manager of nurses trained by her during the Crimean War, where she org... |
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