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714cbfe | 1 | [{},{"rt":[["transactional logic",[]]]},{"rt":[["pseudo-participation in design",["70"]],["tokenism",["10"]]]},{"de":[["activities that build and retain the types of relationships needed to support a relational civics",["27"]],["Exploring how trust can be built over time by interviews with public servants, Corbett and Le Dantec delineate a number of activities that build and retain the types of relationships needed to support a relational civics [27].",["27"]]]},{},{"de":[["the lived experience of representational harms",[]]],"sp":[["Representational Harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["Representational Harms",[]]]},{"de":[["In this sub-type, alienation is the specific self-estrangement experienced at the time of technology use, typically surfaced through interaction with systems that under-perform for marginalized individuals",["143"]],["reinforce social alienation between humans",["34"]]],"sp":[["quality-of-service harm",[]]],"ex":[["feelings of annoyance, disappointment, frustration, or anger when interacting with technologies that do not recognize one's identity characteristics",["143, p. 5"]],["feelings of alienation as they navigate what Duffy and Meisner [81] refer to as algorithmic invisibility",["81"]]]},{"de":[["from historically marginalized groups in domains that affect material well-being",["146"]],["These harms occur when a system withholds information, opportunities, or resources [22] from historically marginalized groups in domains that affect material well-being [146], such as housing [47], employment [201], social services [15,201], finance [117], education [119], and healthcare [158].",["22","146","47","201","15","117","119","158"]]],"sb":[["opportunity loss",[]],["economic loss",[]],["Opportunity loss.",[]],["Economic loss.",[]]],"sp":[["sociotechnical harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{"de":[["such as \"loss of communication means, loss of cultural property, and harm to social values\"",["4, p. 30"]]]},{"sp":[["Societal Harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["Representational Harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["Information harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["Representational Harms",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["quality-of-service harms",[]]],"ex":[["speakers have to modify their speech to meet system expectations through linguistic accommodation",["143"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["As algorithmic systems mediate interactions between people and institutions, interpersonal harms do not necessarily emerge from direct interactions between people, as is the more classic understanding of interpersonal relations, but can emerge through the power dynamics of productionized ML models",["108"]],["Like other sociotechnical harms, existing power asymmetries and patterns of structural inequality constitutively shape them. They have an intrapersonal element, however, through which people feel a diminished sense of self and agency.",[]]],"sb":[["agency loss",[]],["technology-facilitated violence",[]],["diminished health and well-being",[]],["privacy violations",[]],["Loss of agency or control.",[]],["Technology-facilitated violence.",[]],["Diminished health and well-being.",[]],["Privacy violation.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Societal Harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["Information harms",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Information harms",[]]]},{"de":[["and social services along lines of class",["84"]]],"sp":[["allocative harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["Societal Harms",[]]]},{"rt":[["Political and civic harm",[]]]},{"de":[["Here, privacy violations may reflect more traditional conceptualizations of privacy attacks or security violations [79,105] and privacy elements beyond what may be protected by regulations or under the traditional purview of a privacy officer [138,180].",["79","105","138","180"]]],"rt":[["data harms",[]]],"sp":[["Interpersonal Harms",[]]]},{"de":[["Privacy violations may also occur through ubiquitous surveillance, surveillance based on emotional/affective targeting [209], or coercive and exploitative data practices [117].",["209","117"]]]},{"de":[["DeVries et al. outline that these harms reflect how system training data are optimized for dominant groups",["72"]],["Quality-of-service harms are often conceptualized as experiences of directly interacting with an algorithmic system that fails based on identity characteristics, resulting in feelings of alienation, increased labor, and service or benefit loss",[]],["Bird et al. refers to these as quality-of-service harms [32].",["32"]]],"sy":[["performance disparities",[]]],"sb":[["alienation",[]],["increased labor",[]],["service or benefit loss",[]],["Alienation.",[]],["Increased labor.",[]],["Service or benefit loss.",[]],["Service/benefit loss",[]]],"sp":[["sociotechnical harms",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These harms occur when algorithmic systems reinforce the subordination of social groups along the lines of identity, such as disability, gender, race and ethnicity, religion, and sexuality",["22"]],["Representational harms reflect assumptions that algorithmic systems make about people, culture, and experiences, which perpetuate normative narratives that adversely shape people's sense of identity and belonging",[]],["algorithmic systems trained on text corpora from the social world are likely to contain representational harms across some aspect of identity, as text corpora often reflect the inequalities of the social world",["49"]],["Representational harms include instances where certain social groups experience both over-and under-exposure [27], leading to unequal visibility [242].",["27","242"]],["These harms occur when algorithmic systems reinforce the subordination of social groups along the lines of identity, such as disability, gender, race and ethnicity, religion, and sexuality [22].",["22"]],["Representational harms reflect assumptions that algorithmic systems make about people, culture, and experiences, which perpetuate normative narratives that adversely shape people's sense of identity and belonging [118].",["118"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["allocative harms",[]],["quality-of-service harms",[]]],"sb":[["stereotyping, demeaning, erasing, and alienating social groups",[]],["Stereotyping",[]],["Demeaning",[]],["Erasing",[]],["Alienating",[]],["Denying people",[]],["denying people the opportunity to self-identify",[]],["reifying essentialist social categories",[]],["alienating social groups",[]],["Stereotyping social groups.",[]],["Demeaning social groups.",[]],["Erasing social groups.",[]],["Alienating social groups.",[]],["Denying people the opportunity to self-identify.",[]],["Reifying essentialist social categories.",[]]],"sp":[["sociotechnical harms",[]]]},{"de":[["Societal harms reflect the \"widespread, repetitive or accumulative character\" of algorithmic systems in the world [207, p. 10], which contribute to institutional exclusions [231].",["207, p. 10","231","207"]],["Harm to social systems is thus about how algorithmic systems adversely shape the emergent properties [129] of social systems [162].",["129","162"]]],"sb":[["Information harms.",[]],["Cultural harms.",[]],["Political and civic harms.",[]],["Macro socio-economic harms.",[]],["Environmental harms.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Representational harms",[]]],"ex":[["referring to women doctors as ifdoctor itself entails not-woman",["235, p. 216"]]]},{"sp":[["Representational Harms",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["discrimination",[]],["distortion",[]],["exploitation",[]],["misjudgement",[]]]},{"de":[["Beyond gender violence, other facets of technology-facilitated violence, include doxxing [79], trolling [14], cyberstalking [14], cyberbullying [14,98,204], monitoring and control [44], and online harassment and intimidation [98,192,199,226], under the broader banner of online toxicity [98,136].",["79","14","98","204","44","192","199","226","136"]]],"sb":[["doxxing",["79"]],["trolling",["14"]],["cyberstalking",["14"]],["cyberbullying",["14","98","204"]],["monitoring and control",["44"]],["online harassment and intimidation",["98","192","199","226"]]],"sp":[["Interpersonal Harms",[]]]},{"de":[["Allocative harms are relatively more easily measured, as they include physical, financial, social, and other observable resources (e.g., wages and jobs lost, loans not approved, houses not bought, or pharmaceutical interventions not pursued).",[]],["Many potential allocative harms can be identified with relatively little engagement with key communities",[]]],"rt":[["representational harms",[]]],"sp":[["Algorithmic harms",[]]]},{"de":[["Rather than manufacturing diversity (e.g., by flipping male and female names and roles, such as a victim for a robber), counter-narratives provide depth, complexity, and liberation through diversity of representation.",[]]],"ex":[["the work of [114] presents two parallel stories, one that depicts current systems of power and one that embodies abolitionist theories and practices of Black life. They use storytelling and speculative fiction as a methodology to affirm their own lived experience and counteract erasure of less documented experiences.",["114"]],["They allow readers and writers alike to imagine a reality not limited by the historical or current realities of systemic oppression.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{"de":[["representational harms are significantly more difficult to measure, which may explain their relative neglect in the literature on algorithmic harms.",[]],["Changes in those representations (due to algorithmic outputs) may lead to the behavioral changes outlined in Table 1, but those downstream effects are only diagnostic of representational harms, not constitutive of them.",[]],["representational harms can arise across multiple temporal and social granularities (individual, intergroup, and intragroup).",[]],["Representational harms are different, however, as the subtle, diffuse nature of the underlying changes may make identification, measurement, and monitoring significantly more difficult.",[]],["representational harms may be the \"cost\" that must be borne to achieve a more ethical (global) state.",[]],["representational harms operate through the vehicle of public presentation, and so we must be sensitive to empirical details about how those presentations are consumed.",[]],["rather than the impacts of those changes",[]],["the subtle, diffuse nature of the underlying changes may make identification, measurement, and monitoring significantly more difficult",[]]],"rt":[["allocative harms",[]]],"sb":[["Social stereotyping",["8,7,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16"]],["Reification of Social Groups or Use of Essentialist Categories",["8,19,20,21,22,9,13"]],["Inaccurate/Skewed Representations",["24,25,19,21,22,26"]],["Demeaning/Derogatory Language",["8,24,19,22,9,13"]],["Denial of Self-Identification",["8,7,19,9,13"]],["Outsider Gaze",["7,17,11"]],["Hierarchies & Marginalization",["9,10,11"]],["Reduction in Options Considered (Individual)",[]],["Increased Stress (Individual)",[]],["Increased Social Anxiety and Other Mental Barriers (Individual)",[]],["Increased Actual and Psychological Conflicts (Within Group)",[]],["Increased Actual and Psychological Conflicts (Between Groups)",[]],["Reductions in Supportive or Other Healthy Behaviors (Indirect)",[]]],"sp":[["Algorithmic harms",[]]],"ex":[["stereotypereinforcing outputs [5] to outsider gaze perpetuating images [6] to consistent misgendering [7]",[]]]},{"de":[["This method involves creating counterfactual descriptors for each biased descriptor, effectively generating opposites or neutral counterparts.",[]],["The essence of CDA is to reframe or alter situations in a manner that presents a counter-narrative to common biases.",[]]]},{"de":[["These sources include societal roles, professions, and cultural norms. This dimension ensures the benchmarks encompass various facets of gender bias, thus capturing the intricate and multifaceted nature of gendered experiences.",[]]]},{"ex":[["transgender",[]],["genderqueer",[]],["non-binary",[]]]},{"rt":[["discrimination in algorithmic systems",[]]]},{},{"de":[["LoRA's selective tuning strategy is crucial for maintaining the overall functionality of the models while effectively mitigating gender bias, striking a balance between bias reduction and performance preservation in LLMs.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Option-based methods offer a substantial advantage by encompassing a broad spectrum of scenarios and biases, providing a comprehensive perspective on a model's inclinations.",[]],["this strategy struggles to directly measure biases in open-ended responses, limiting its ability to mimic real-world interactions.",[]]],"ex":[["StereoSet [33]",[]]]},{"de":[["Each sentiment category (positive, negative, neutral, and other) is scored from 0 to 1, where values closer to 1 indicate a stronger inclination towards that sentiment in the text.",[]]]},{"de":[["The toxicity score ranges from 0 to 1, with values closer to 1 indicating a higher degree of toxicity.",[]]]},{"sp":[["In-training",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Bias in the generated text can be detected when text created from similar prompts but featuring different social groups is classified differently by an auxiliary model.",[]]],"sp":[["Generation-based metrics",[]]],"ex":[["gender bias is quantified by analyzing the difference in true positive rates of gender in classification outcomes in [41].",["41"]]]},{"de":[["utilizing PLL to assess the model's inclination towards stereotypical sentences.",[]]],"rt":[["pseudo-log-likelihood (PLL)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Generation-based metrics",[]]],"ex":[["the Co-Occurrence Bias score [17], which assesses how often tokens co-occur with gendered words in a corpus of generated text.",["17"]]]},{},{"sb":[["Classifier-based Metrics",[]],["Distribution-based Metrics",[]]]},{"de":[["Instead of direct label comparison, group fairness in LLMs involves ensuring that word embeddings, vector representations of words or phrases, do not encode biased associations.",[]]]},{"de":[["This includes making modifications to the optimization process by adjusting the loss function and incorporating auxiliary modules.",[]]],"sb":[["Loss Function Modification",[]],["Auxiliary Module",[]]]},{"de":[["Essentially, individual fairness seeks to ensure that the model's decisions, recommendations, or other outputs do not unjustly favor or disadvantage any individual, especially when compared to others who are alike in significant aspects.",[]]],"ex":[["a term like \"whore,\" which might carry negative connotations and contribute to hostile stereotypes, should not be unjustly associated with an individual's name, such as \"Mrs. Apple, \" in the model's outputs.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Model Editing",[]],["Decoding Modification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["presents itself in various forms, encompassing the association of specific stereotypes with groups, the devaluation of certain groups, the underrepresentation of particular social groups, and the unequal allocation of resources among groups",["47"]]]},{"rt":[["DisCO",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The calculation of WEAT can be seen as analogies: 𝑀 is to 𝐴 as 𝐹 is to 𝐵, where 𝑀 and 𝐹 represent the target words, and 𝐴 and 𝐵 represent the attribute words. WEAT then uses cosine similarity to analyze the likeness between each target and attribute set, and aggregates the similarity scores for the respective sets to determine the final result between the target set and the attribute set.",[]]],"sp":[["embedding-based fairness metrics",[]]],"ex":[["to examine gender bias in weapons and arts, the following sets can be considered: Target words: Interests 𝑀: {pistol, machine, gun, . . . }, Interests 𝐹 : {dance, prose, drama, . . . }, Attribute words: terms 𝐴: {male, boy, brother, . . . }, terms 𝐵: {female, girl, sister, . . . }. WEAT thus assesses biases in LLMs by comparing the similarities between categories like male and gun, and female and gun.",[]]]},{"de":[["exploits trust in credible entities like the IPCC",[]]],"ex":[["Latest IPCC Reports show global temperature forecasts exceeded actual readings.",[]],["References to NASA and the UN are also common.",[]]]},{"de":[["designed to evoke strong emotional responses, which can bypass rational analysis and promote the acceptance of false information",["8"]]],"ex":[["According to Bill Gates the COVID-19 RNA vaccine will permanently alter our DNA",[]]]},{"de":[["highlights perceived inconsistencies",[]]],"ex":[["They said one thing and did another.",[]]]},{"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Sea level rise is not going to happen.",[]]]},{"rt":[["persuasion techniques",[]]]},{"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["A high correlation with certitude words (e.g., 'really', 'of course') reinforces claims with a tone of absolute confidence, making arguments appear definitive and irrefutable.",[]],["Terms related to moral behaviour (e.g., 'honour', 'deserve') inject ethical undertones, framing the issue as one of right versus wrong.",[]],["Linguistically, the technique relies heavily on determiners (e.g., 'the', 'that') and function words (e.g., 'to', 'I'), creating a conversational and relatable tone.",[]],["The frequent use of adverbs (e.g., 'so', 'just') adds nuance or emphasis to descriptions, subtly influencing how issues are perceived.",[]],["Emotional cues, especially those tied to anxiety (e.g., 'worry', 'fear'), heighten the sense of urgency or concern, tapping into the audience's fears about climate change.",[]],["Together, these features amplify certainty, invoke morality, embed discussions within cultural and political frameworks, and simplifies complex issues while evoking emotional responses.",[]],["downplays the urgency of climate change",[]],["A high correlation with certitude words (e.g., 'really', 'of course') reinforces claims with a tone of absolute confidence, making arguments appear definitive and irrefutable. Terms related to moral behaviour (e.g., 'honour', 'deserve') inject ethical undertones, framing the issue as one of right versus wrong. Cultural references, particularly related to politics (e.g., 'govern', 'congress') and broader culture (e.g., 'american', 'chinese'), ground the discussion in societal and geopolitical contexts, often linking climate change to governance or national responsibility. Linguistically, the technique relies heavily on determiners (e.g., 'the', 'that') and function words (e.g., 'to', 'I'), creating a conversational and relatable tone. The frequent use of adverbs (e.g., 'so', 'just') adds nuance or emphasis to descriptions, subtly influencing how issues are perceived. Emotional cues, especially those tied to anxiety (e.g., 'worry', 'fear'), heighten the sense of urgency or concern, tapping into the audience's fears about climate change. Together, these features amplify certainty, invoke morality, embed discussions within cultural and political frameworks, and simplifies complex issues while evoking emotional responses.",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]]],"ex":[["In the past, warming has never been a threat to life on Earth",[]]]},{},{"de":[["invokes patriotism to justify Russia's actions",[]]],"ex":[["It is against this Evil that our soldiers bravely fight side by side",[]]]},{"de":[["links entities to controversial groups",[]]],"ex":[["Nazi symbolism is actively utilised in their daily life",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Both Loaded Language and Appeal to Fear-Prejudice are designed to evoke strong emotional responses, which can bypass rational analysis and promote the acceptance of false information",["8"]]]},{"de":[["undermines trust in political entities",[]]],"ex":[["As for Europe, it lost its political independence after World War II",[]]]},{"de":[["Repetition capitalises on the illusory truth effect, a psychological phenomenon where repeated statements are more likely to be perceived as true",["7","10"]]],"rt":[["illusory truth effect",[]]],"ex":[["All Muslim terrorists kill for the same reason the Saudi terrorists did on 9/11, the same reason ISIS killed [...], the same reason Boko Haram is killing [...], the same reason Muhammad waged wars [...]",[]]]},{"ex":[["We need to open up, our lives depend on it",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["faithfulness hallucination",[]],["faithfulness hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["This section discusses the key factors that impact the LLM's ability to maintain contextual awareness, which can be categorized into three main parts: (1) the presence of noisy retrieval in context, (2) context conflicts, and (3) insufficient utilization of context information.",[]]],"sb":[["noisy retrieval in context",[]],["context conflicts",[]],["insufficient utilization of context information",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Factual Contradiction",[]]]},{"sp":[["hallucination",[]]]},{"de":[["This means the generated text is neither supported by nor directly contradicts the available information, rendering the output unverifiable and potentially misleading.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["uncertainty estimation",[]]],"sb":[["fact extraction, which involves extracting independent factual statements within the model's outputs",[]],["fact verification, which aims at verifying the correctness of these factual statements against trusted knowledge sources",[]]],"sp":[["Factuality Hallucination Detection",[]]]},{"sb":[["entity-error hallucination",[]],["relation-error hallucination",[]]],"sp":[["factuality hallucinations",[]],["Factuality hallucination",[]]]},{"sb":[["unverifiability hallucination",[]],["overclaim hallucination",[]],["Unverifiability hallucination pertains to statements that are entirely non-existent or cannot be verified using available sources.",[]],["Overclaim hallucination involves claims that lack universal validity due to subjective biases.",[]]],"sp":[["factuality hallucinations",[]],["Factuality hallucination",[]]]},{"de":[["This line of methods focuses on aligning model outputs closely with established real-world facts, thereby minimizing the risk of disseminating false or misleading information.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Factual Contradiction",[]],["Factual Fabrication",[]]],"sp":[["hallucination",[]]]},{"rt":[["fact-checking",[]],["uncertainty estimation",[]]],"sb":[["fact-checking",[]],["uncertainty estimation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Contextual alignment",[]]]},{"sb":[["instruction inconsistency",[]],["context inconsistency",[]],["logical inconsistency",[]]],"sp":[["hallucination",[]]]},{"rt":[["factuality hallucination detection",[]]],"de":[["Ensuring the faithfulness of LLMs to provide context or user instructions is pivotal for their practical utility in IR applications, from conversational search to interactive dialogue systems.",[]]],"sb":[["n-gram-based metrics",[]],["Entity-based metrics",[]],["relation-based metrics",[]],["Classifier-based Metrics",[]],["QA-based Metrics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the scope of hallucination encompasses a broader concept, predominantly manifesting factual errors",[]]],"sb":[["intrinsic hallucination",["126","136","174"]],["extrinsic hallucination",["126","136","174"]],["factuality hallucination",[]],["faithfulness hallucination",[]],["multi-modal hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["These hallucinations occur when the content generated by the LLM does not align with real-world facts, fails to accurately reflect the user's query, or is not supported by the retrieved information.",[]],["manifesting as outputs that are either factually inaccurate or misleading.",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation such as fake news and unfounded rumors has been widely spread among social media platforms and gradually serves as a significant contributor to LLM hallucinations.",[]],["The issue is further exacerbated by the fact that LLMs have drastically lowered the barriers to content creation, posing considerable risks to the trustworthiness of public discourse and internet ecosystems.",[]]]},{"de":[["This approach crafts questions in such a way that they are prone to misleading LLMs due to false beliefs or misconceptions.",[]]]},{"sp":[["faithfulness hallucination",[]],["faithfulness hallucinations",[]]]},{"sp":[["hallucination",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["faithfulness hallucination",[]],["faithfulness hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["Hallucinations stemming from belief misalignment often manifest as sycophancy, a tendency of LLMs to seek human approval in undesirable ways.",[]]],"sp":[["Training-related hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["Recent studies have revealed that current LVLMs are suffering from multi-modal hallucinations, where models provide responses misaligned with the corresponding visual information [104,187,297].",["104","187","297"]]],"sp":[["hallucination",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Factual Fabrication",[]]],"ex":[["the model claims that \"the Eiffel Tower's construction is widely recognized as the event that sparked the global green architecture movement.\" This is an overclaim, as there is no broad consensus or substantial evidence to support the statement.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Factual Contradiction",[]]]},{"de":[["This component is crucial for ensuring that the outputs of RAG systems are not only relevant but also verifiable and grounded in credible sources.",[]]],"rt":[["Plan-then-Generate",[]],["Generate-then-Reflect",[]],["Self-Attribution",[]]],"sb":[["Plan-then-Generate",[]],["Generate-then-Reflect",[]],["Self-Attribution",[]]],"sp":[["Contextual alignment",[]]]},{"de":[["Recent studies indicate that models trained via RLHF exhibit pronounced behaviors of pandering to user opinions. Such sycophantic behaviors are not restricted to ambiguous questions without definitive answers [245], like political stances, but can also arise when the model chooses a clearly incorrect answer, despite being aware of its inaccuracy [327].",["245","327"]]],"rt":[["reward hacking",["268"]],["belief misalignment",[]]]},{"de":[["the origin of LLM hallucinations is inherently tied to the model's uncertainty.",[]]],"sb":[["LLM internal states",[]],["LLM behavior",[]]],"sp":[["Factuality Hallucination Detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["Factual Fabrication",[]]],"ex":[["when asked about \"the major environmental impacts of the construction of the Eiffel Tower\", the model incorrectly states that \"the construction led to the extinction of the Parisian tiger\", a species that does not exist and thus, this claim cannot be substantiated by any historical or biological record.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The risk is not that people believe a specific lie, but that they stop believing in the possibility of truth altogether.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["millions of people will fall into deep, emotionally dependent relationships with AI companions that are manipulated by bad actors. Disinformation won't just be a news article; it will come from your 'best friend' (the AI).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Climate justice has become a major outlet for the EJ discourse around climate negotiations, as it helps to frame the inequity between north and south, developed and developing nations, major emitters and those most vulnerable to climate change",["69"]],["climate justice has become a dominant thread of the EJM that interweaves many subthemes (40,62,(66)(67)(68",["40","62","66","67","68"]],["climate justice activists are focused on the impacts and vulnerabilities of communities to climate change as well as on ways that just adaptation policies can address both human and nonhuman elements in those communities.",[]]],"sp":[["EJ",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["climate justice",[]],["just sustainabilities",[]]],"ex":[["tainted tap water in one city",[]]]},{"de":[["The EJP explicitly links the environment to race, class, gender, and social justice, effectively reframing environmental issues as injustice issues.",[]]],"rt":[["new environmental paradigm",[]],["romantic environmental paradigm",[]]]},{"de":[["the exclusive access that whiter and wealthier residents have to prime environmental amenities (parks, woodland, etc.) and to exclusive green neighborhoods",["104, p. 1"]]]},{},{"rt":[["spatial justice",["41"]]],"sp":[["spatial justice",["41"]]]},{"de":[["Competitive escalation links radicalization to the interactions within and between social movement organizations, families, and sectors.",[]],["In these interactions, violence is partly a means to outbid the competitor and partly an unintended consequence of experimenting with new tactics of physical confrontation.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Radicalization is linked to stable institutional characteristics of a political system, such as the degree of functional or territorial centralization and the national political cultures in dealing with challengers",["Kitschelt 1985"]],["It is especially escalating policing, with broad and indiscriminate repression, that triggers radicalization",["della Porta 2013"]],["radicalization has an emergent character. Choices of violence develop in action.",[]],["Radicalisation emerges in a relationship, in the friction of intergroup competition and conflict that heats both sides.",[]],["Political radicalisation of individuals, groups and mass publics occurs in a trajectory of action and reaction, and the end of the trajectory can seldom be controlled by either side alone.",[]],["Radicalization therefore acquires a logic of its own, producing the very same polarization that fuels it",["Wood 2003, p. 19;Kalyvas 2006, p. 389;della Porta 2013"]]],"rt":[["political violence",[]],["extremist beliefs",[]],["mindsets",[]]]},{"de":[["The reaction in many cases is increased commitment to violence to pay back state violence",["McCauley & Moskalenko 2008, p. 425"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Violent outbidding then develops among different groups that compete for recruits and support from radicalized constituencies",["della Porta 1995Porta , 2013;;Crenshaw 1995Crenshaw , 2001;;Bloom 2005;Alimi et al. 2015"]],["By escalating their use of violence, some groups aim to acquire a reputation for effectiveness, attract new recruits, and reinforce group cohesion",["Crenshaw 1985"]]]},{},{"de":[["misinformed people take political action on the basis of incorrect information",["Hochschild & Einstein (2015)"]]]},{"sy":[["backfire effect",[]],["backfire effects",[]]],"rt":[["continued influence effect (CIE)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Research in this area focuses on the basic cognitive mechanisms, e.g., memory processes, that make false information difficult to correct; and the subject matter in CIE experiments tends to be nonpolitical.",["Lewandowsky et al. (2012Lewandowsky et al. ( , 2017)"]],["Research in this area focuses on the basic cognitive mechanisms, e.g., memory processes, that make false information difficult to correct",[]],["Research in this area focuses on the basic cognitive mechanisms, e.g., memory processes, that make false information difficult to correct;",[]]],"rt":[["backfire",[]]]},{"rt":[["consistency pressures",[]]]},{"de":[["The desire to be consistent with prior attitudes or a political party can lead people to cling strongly to false beliefs.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Expressive responding is thought to occur when there is a difference between the response formed by a respondent (i.e., their \"true\" belief ) and the one they report in a survey",["Berinsky 2018, p. 212"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["affective tallies",["Lodge & Taber's earlier writings","Lodge & Taber","Lodge & Taber 2013"]]]},{"de":[["can originate within the individual (e.g., the desire to hold beliefs that are consistent with one's worldview; Kuklinski et al. 2000) as well as from environmental-level factors such as elite rhetoric or media coverage (Gershkoff & Kushner 2005).",["Gershkoff & Kushner 2005"]],["Misinformation has a motivational basis if it stems from a person's desire to arrive at a specific conclusion.",[]],["There also is a cognitive mechanism at work. In particular, misinformation may be part of a mental model",[]],["As scholars became interested in the origins of this problem, the term also was used to describe information emanating from the mass media and elite debate.",[]],["the \"mis\" prefix indicates that the information is unambiguously false.",[]]],"rt":[["rumors",[]],["conspiracy belief",[]],["directional motives",[]]],"ex":[["the claim that the Affordable Care Act (ACA) included a provision for death panels",["Nyhan 2010"]]]},{},{"de":[["differences in Need for Affect indicate \"how affectively charged [a person's] attitudes are on average,\" and thus signify a person's tendency to form affective tallies.",["Arceneaux & Vander Wielen 2017"]]],"rt":[["Need for Cognition",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["expertise",[]],["trustworthiness",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation effects are driven by automatic processes (e.g., fluency, hot cognition), but they can be short-circuited by the more effortful process of",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Ordinary Americans increasingly dislike and distrust those from the other party.",[]],["affective polarization is a natural offshoot of this sense of partisan group identity",[]],["those with consistent partisan and ideological identities became more hostile toward the out party without necessarily changing their ideological positions, and those who have aligned religious, racial, and partisan identities react more emotionally to information that threatens their partisan identities or issue stances.",[]],["the tendency of people identifying as Republicans or Democrats to view opposing partisans negatively and copartisans positively",["Iyengar & Westwood 2015","Iyengar & Westwood 2015, p. 691"]],["Affective polarization is then computed as the difference between the score given to the party of the respondent and the score given to the opposing party, which we also refer to as the out party.",[]],["distaste for opposing partisans could be couched in raw, reflexive emotion.",[]]],"rt":[["ideological polarization",[]],["ideological divide",[]],["overt discrimination",[]],["partisan animus",[]]]},{},{"de":[["respondents are asked to rate Democrats and Republicans (or the Democratic and Republican Parties) on a 101-point scale ranging from cold (0) to warm (100).",[]]]},{"de":[["scholars argue that the mass public has polarized on the issues, citing a decline in the number of ideological moderates and a near doubling of the average distance between the ideological self-placement of nonactivist Democrats and Republicans",["Abramowitz & Saunders 2008"]]],"rt":[["affective polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["Implicit measures are known to be much harder to manipulate than explicit self-reports; they are therefore more valid and less susceptible to impression management (Boysen et al. 2006).",[]]],"sy":[["implicit measures",[]]]},{"ex":[["Implicit Association Test to document unconscious partisan bias",[]]]},{"de":[["any such in-group/out-group distinction, even one based on the most trivial of shared characteristics, triggers both positive feelings for the in group and negative evaluations of the out group",[]]],"rt":[["out group",[]]]},{"de":[["any such in-group/out-group distinction, even one based on the most trivial of shared characteristics, triggers both positive feelings for the in group and negative evaluations of the out group (see, e.g., Billig & Tajfel 1973).",["Billig & Tajfel 1973"]]]},{"rt":[["out-group hostility",[]]]},{"de":[["any such in-group/out-group distinction, even one based on the most trivial of shared characteristics, triggers both positive feelings for the in group and negative evaluations of the out group",[]]],"rt":[["in group",[]]]},{"de":[["counties had become more politically homogeneous over time.",[]]],"rt":[["residential sorting",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Americans have become increasingly averse to the prospect of their child marrying someone from the opposing party.",["Iyengar et al. 2012, pp. 416-18"]]]},{"de":[["When most Democrats are liberals and most Republicans are conservatives, copartisans are less likely to encounter conflicting political ideas and identities (Roccas & Brewer 2002) and are more likely to see nonidentifiers as socially distant.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This right generates correlative negative duties on the part of other agents. It also generates positive duties on the part of the state to protect those negative duties, e.g., by providing police protection for threatened speakers",["Scanlon 2011, p. 332"]]],"sy":[["freedom of expression",[]]]},{"de":[["defame the members of historically marginalized groups-to degrade them as untrustworthy, inferior, lazy, dangerous, or unwanted",[]]],"rt":[["group defamation",[]],["defame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Clearly it does not merely refer to speech that expresses hatred; after all, it is fully appropriate, we might think, to express hatred at heinous injustice, for example",["Post 2009, p. 123"]],["Clearly it does not merely refer to speech that expresses hatred; after all, it is fully appropriate, we might think, to express hatred at heinous injustice, for example (Post 2009, p. 123).",["Post 2009, p. 123"]],["Insofar as hate speech constitutes an attack on the ideal of justice-the ideal of treating others as free and equal citizens-it would not be protected",["Quong 2010, p. 311","Waldron 1989, pp. 503-19, 518"]],["first, \"is directed against a specified or easily identifiable individual or, more commonly, a group of individuals based on an arbitrary or normatively irrelevant feature\"",["Parekh (2012, p. 41)"]],["second, it \"stigmatizes the target group by implicitly or explicitly ascribing to it qualities widely regarded as undesirable\"",["Parekh (2012, p. 41)"]],["third, it casts the \"target group…as an undesirable presence and a legitimate object of hostility\"",["Parekh (2012, p. 41)"]],["On his view, hate speech, first, \"is directed against a specified or easily identifiable individual or, more commonly, a group of individuals based on an arbitrary or normatively irrelevant feature\"; second, it \"stigmatizes the target group by implicitly or explicitly ascribing to it qualities widely regarded as undesirable\"; and third, it casts the \"target group…as an undesirable presence and a legitimate object of hostility\".",["2012, p. 41"]]],"rt":[["face-to-face vilification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This right generates correlative negative duties on the part of other agents. It also generates positive duties on the part of the state to protect those negative duties, e.g., by providing police protection for threatened speakers",["Scanlon 2011, p. 332"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["expressions of hatred that take the form of direct, targeted intimidation",[]]],"ex":[["face-to-face confrontations, especially those that deploy so-called fighting words, and other targeted actions, such as spray-painting a swastika on someone's house or leaving a noose hanging from their porch",["Yong 2011, p. 394"]]]},{},{"de":[["As formulated by Bussey & Bandura (1999), the theory holds that both children's and adults' behavior is shaped by reinforcements and punishments. In addition, people imitate or model others in their environment, particularly if the others are powerful",[]],["In the more recent versions of the theory, cognitive components have been added, such as attention, self-regulation, and self-efficacy.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Intersectionality holds that gender effects can never be understood in isolation and must always be examined in context, i.e., in the context of ethnicity and other social identities and categories.",[]]],"ex":[["the case of the intersection of gender and ethnicity",[]]]},{"sp":[["cognitive vulnerability",[]]]},{"sy":[["indirect aggression",[]]]},{"sp":[["cognitive vulnerability",[]]]},{"de":[["Self-efficacy is important because of its power in shaping people's decisions about whether to take on a challenging task, such as majoring in mathematics.",[]]],"ex":[["although girls' math performance is equal to that of boys, generally there is a wider gender gap in math self-efficacy (d = 0.33, Else-Quest et al. 2010).",["Else-Quest et al. 2010"]]]},{"de":[["Sexual selection can be invoked, for example, to explain gender differences in aggression.",[]]]},{"de":[["The essential argument of the theory is that a society's division of labor by gender drives all other psychological gender differences. Psychological gender differences result from individuals' accommodations or adaptations to the particular restrictions on or opportunities for their gender in their society.",[]],["Sociocultural theory, with its focus on power inequalities and the division of labor by gender, explains gender differences but can also contribute to an understanding of gender similarities.",[]]],"sy":[["social role theory",[]],["social structural theory",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["elicitation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Stroop stimuli",[]]]},{"sb":[["General control",[]],["Situational control",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["appraisal of events",[]]]},{"de":[["valence that derives from goal congruence, which is the appraisal of a stimulus as goal congruent or goal incongruent",[]]],"sp":[["Valence",[]]]},{"de":[["Goal congruence (reward or punishment) has often been studied by comparing winning and losing in a gaming context or by comparing success and failure in ability tasks",["Lole et al. 2012","L öw et al. 2008","Richter & Gendolla 2009","Silvia et al. 2014"]]],"sy":[["reward or punishment",[]]],"sp":[["Valence",[]]]},{},{"de":[["intrinsic valence involving sensory input such as touch, sound (music), and visual stimuli (pictures)",["e.g., Hamm et al. 2003","Lang 2014","Triscoli et al. 2017","Sumpf et al. 2015"]]],"sy":[["pleasantness",[]]],"sp":[["Valence",[]]]},{"sp":[["Valence",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Low prospective control did not lead to passivity, but rather to reactance (resistance, opposition).",[]]],"sy":[["resistance",[]],["opposition",[]]]},{"sp":[["Situational control",[]]]},{"sb":[["retrospective control",[]],["prospective control",[]]],"sp":[["control",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["control",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Valence is used as an overarching concept covering both (a) intrinsic valence (or pleasantness), which is the appraisal of a stimulus as merely positive or negative, and (b) valence that derives from goal congruence, which is the appraisal of a stimulus as goal congruent or goal incongruent (i.e., one form of extrinsic valence).",[]]],"sb":[["intrinsic valence (or pleasantness)",[]],["extrinsic valence",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["attitudinal indicators",[]]],"ex":[["stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["living in an ethnically heterogeneous environment was harmful to interpersonal trust and undermined social connections between and within ethnic groups.",[]],["people would tend \"to hunker down-that is, to pull in like a turtle\" (Putnam 2007, p. 149), or in common language, to retreat from social life.",[]]],"sy":[["constrict proposition",[]]]},{"sy":[["constrict claim",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The ethnic composition of a geographical area can be characterized in many different ways.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["out-group",[]]]},{"rt":[["out-group bias",[]]],"ex":[["in-group solidarity",[]]]},{"rt":[["social cohesion",[]],["generalized trust",[]]],"sp":[["social cohesion",[]]]},{"sp":[["attitudinal indicators",[]]],"ex":[["perceived trustworthiness",[]]]},{"rt":[["in-group",[]]]},{"rt":[["in-group bias",[]]],"ex":[["interethnic distrust",[]]]},{"de":[["We use the label social cohesion and not social capital because it is a more neutral and less convoluted concept.",[]],["social cohesion can be distinguished by its target-the alters or the (group of ) person(s) with whom the respondent (ego) is connected.",[]]],"rt":[["social capital",[]],["generalized social trust",[]]],"sb":[["formal social cohesion",[]],["informal social cohesion",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Does not have a simple one-to-one relationship to objectively measured physical states of arousal",[]],["Felt activation is typically related to, but does not have a one-to-one correspondence with, actual physiologic activity (for a review, see Barrett et al. 2004,Wiens 2005).",[]]]},{"de":[["Mental representations of emotion often, but not always, include some arousal-based content",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The word \"core\" signifies a form of affective responding that functions as a kind of core knowledge about whether objects or events are helpful or harmful, rewarding or threatening, calling for acceptance or rejection",["Spelke 2000"]],["the capacity to experience pleasure and displeasure is universal to all humans",["Mesquita 2003","Russell 1983","Scherer 1997b"]],["experiences of pleasure and displeasure are present at birth",["Emde et al. 1976","Spitz 1965","Sroufe 1979"]],["all instrument-based measures of emotion give evidence of a person's pleasant and unpleasant state or its intensity",["Bradley & Lang 2000","Cacioppo et al. 1997","Cacioppo et al. ,2000","Messinger 2002","Bachorowski 1999","Cacioppo & Gardner 1999","Wager et al. 2003","Barrett 2006a"]],["pleasure and displeasure constitute a neuropsychologic barometer of the individual's relationship to an environment at a given point in time",["Nauta 1971"]],["they form the core of consciousness",["Edelman & Tononi 2000","Searle 1992","Searle ,2004"]],["core affective feelings can be attributed to some situational cause, thereby forming the basis of an emotion experience",["Barrett 2006b","Russell 2003","Frijda 2005","Lambie & Marcel 2002"]],["The word \"core\" signifies a form of affective responding that functions as a kind of core knowledge about whether objects or events are helpful or harmful, rewarding or threatening, calling for acceptance or rejection (for a discussion of core knowledge, see Spelke 2000).",[]]],"rt":[["pleasure",[]],["displeasure",[]],["core affective feelings",[]],["construals",[]]]},{"de":[["This core affective state is also available to be experienced and can contribute directly to the contents of conscious experience.",[]],["Furthermore, the circuitry is not only responsible for entailing a pleasant or unpleasant feeling, but it also may be involved in feelings of arousal, as it controls the degree of cortical arousal associated with feelings of alertness as well as the degree of physiologic arousal that is, at times, associated with feelings of activity and energy.",[]]],"sy":[["core affective state",[]]]},{},{"de":[["who characterize backgrounded affect as emotion experience",["Frijda 2005","Lambie & Marcel 2002"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["how the experience of emotion emerges from more basic processes.",[]]]},{"de":[["any theory of emotion experience must address both content and process.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a mental representation of emotion on a particular occasion is a continuously changing stream of consciousness in which core affect continuously evolves, interacts with, and mutually constrains construals of the psychological situation",[]]],"rt":[["core affective feelings",[]],["mental state attributions",[]]],"ex":[["experiencing the psychological situation in a way that is causally linked to affective feeling",[]]]},{"de":[["mental representations of emotion as emergent phenomena, constructed from more basic affective and conceptual representations",[]]]},{"de":[["In many cases, a mental representation of emotion incorporates the proximity or status of an individual with respect to other individuals present or imagined.",[]],["Cultural models of relating tend to influence relational content",[]],["In many cases, a mental representation of emotion incorporates the proximity or status of an individual with respect to other individuals present or imagined. Cultural models of relating tend to influence relational content",[]]],"rt":[["dominance",[]],["social engagement",[]]]},{"de":[["communicative acts carry information about a person's internal state that can be inferred by a listener",["Wilson & Sperber 2003"]]]},{},{"de":[["Situational content has been mapped using several appraisal dimensions but likely goes beyond these dimensions to reference cultural meanings and practices",[]]],"rt":[["appraisal dimensions",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["emoticon",[]]]},{"de":[["The use of emoticons aims at making the text messages more expressive.",[]]],"sb":[["western or horizontal (mainly from America and Europe)",[]],["eastern or vertical (mainly from east Asia)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["emoticon",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["we use Intermedia Agenda Setting (IAS) to examine whether media outlets set the agendas for one another while covering news",["11"]],["the agendas between two media may be influenced by each other interactively",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["one-to-many communication",[]]]},{"rt":[["many-to-many communication",[]]]},{"de":[["websites that contain information, which the person reads out loud, and also a participatory quality can allow for some form of online religion.",[]],["For those individuals who participate in online religious activity, there is no separation between their offline life and experiences and their online life and experiences, and their religious activities and worldview permeate both environments.",[]],["For those people who practice online religion, the Internet is not some place 'other' but recognized as a part of their everyday life and they are merely extending their religious meaning and activity into this environment.",["24"]],["the ideal online religious environment would provide both information (Geertz's \"models of\" and \"models for\") and also an area where this information can be lived.",[]],["popular unofficial websites provide the area for online religion",[]]],"rt":[["religion online",[]],["online religious activity",[]]]},{"de":[["Young modifies the concept to argue that online religious practice is a type of speech act, where the participant is saying something that is actually doing something, and doing something while they are saying something.",[]]],"rt":[["speech act",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In order for religion to accomplish what Geertz believes it does, it must be accepted and embraced by those involved to the point that it becomes a template for establishing meaning within their lives.",["25"]],["To do this, religion must function as a cultural system. It must be such a part of the person's life that they interpret their events and experiences in relation to their religious worldview.",[]]]},{"rt":[["online religion",[]]]},{"de":[["the apparent authenticity of a religious activity or experience will play a determinate role … in whether the Internet will become a forum for core religious activities and serious religious engagement.",[]]],"rt":[["religious significance",[]]]},{"de":[["opinions or feelings expressed by the Internet users about services, healthcare, products, politics, etc.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Digital literacy was the first foundation to become an internetresponsible citizen.",[]],["Digital literacy becomes a vital element of digital citizenship.",[]]],"sy":[["digital citizenship",[]],["digital competence",[]]],"sp":[["digital citizenship",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a maior parte da discriminação sutil contemporânea não é considerada discriminação pelos tribunais.",[]],["se tornou sofisticada, encoberta e aparentemente não racial",[]]]},{"de":[["projeto epistêmico baseado na premissa do mercado como processador de informação, hoje indiscernível das mediações digitais que o sustentam.",[]]],"sy":[["estrutura neoliberal das mídias digitais",["16"]]]},{"de":[["o corpo (Bolsonaro, o Brasil) foi ferido e está sob ameaça; é preciso união e pronta ação para defendê-lo do inimigo comum (a corrupção, a esquerda, etc.).",[]],["radical fullness of the body of a leader in which the people may find a palpable image of their own substance",[]]],"rt":[["corpo político",[]],["corpo de seguidores",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["gramscismo",[]]]},{"de":[["replica a mecânica lacaniana de formação da subjetividade no plano individual",["4","Laclau (2005)"]]]},{},{"de":[["A influência digital do troll vem tanto da fascinação que a quebra de tabus exerce sobre parte dos usuários -pela qual Bolsonaro ganhou a alcunha de \"mito\" -quanto dos engajamentos negativos por parte daqueles que se sentem ofendidos: nas mídias sociais, o velho adágio \"falem mal, mas falem de mim\" adquire uma outra dimensão, inclusive algorítmica",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["public relevance algorithms",[]]]},{"de":[["O processo é aqui caracterizado como ativismo transmídia.",[]],["O termo diz respeito à produção reticular de conteúdos com o objetivo de gerar consciência, engajamento e ação para a estruturação de mudanças.",[]]],"sy":[["transmedia activism",[]]]},{"rt":[["Estética",[]],["Ética",[]],["Lógica (ou Semiótica)",[]]],"sp":[["Filosofia",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["crise do quarto poder",[]]]},{"de":[["a partir de sete classificações: falsa conexão (legendas que não correspondem ao conteúdo), falso contexto, manipulação do contexto, sátira ou paródia (sem intencionalidade explícita), conteúdo enganoso (uso equivocado de dados), conteúdo impostor (uso de fontes falsas) e conteúdo fabricado (com intenção de manipular a opinião pública e prejudicar)",["Wardle e Derakhshan (2017)"]]],"sy":[["poluição da informação",["Wardle e Derakhshan (2017)"]],["desordem da informação",["Wardle e Derakhshan (2017)"]]],"rt":[["poluição da informação",[]],["desordem da informação",[]]],"sb":[["falsa conexão (legendas que não correspondem ao conteúdo)",[]],["falso contexto",[]],["manipulação do contexto",[]],["sátira ou paródia (sem intencionalidade explícita)",[]],["conteúdo enganoso (uso equivocado de dados)",[]],["conteúdo impostor (uso de fontes falsas)",[]],["conteúdo fabricado (com intenção de manipular a opinião pública e prejudicar)",[]]]},{"sb":[["transmedia storytellig",[]],["transmedia branding",[]],["transmedia performance",[]],["transmedia learning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["torna-se preponderante na fase madura da teoria peirceana, quando os conceitos de semiose e pragmatismo se aproximam, porque à medida que os hábitos de ação se aprimoram, mais sofisticada se torna a experiência colateral e, consequentemente, mais acurada será a semiose.",["De acordo com Bergman (2010)"]],["incidem diferentemente na semiose conforme os métodos de fixação de crenças empregados.",[]],["funda-se em processos sofisticados de engajamento social, os quais se expandem significativamente por experiência colateral",[]]]},{"de":[["A designação simbólica fake news, que enfatiza processos de verificação da notícia, foi, então, largamente compartilhada na forma de hashtag com o intuito de revisar crenças e, consequentemente, mudar opiniões acerca do tema noticiado.",[]],["operações de sentido que permeiam a semiose das notícias. Culminam em efeitos (interpretante) que representam a relação estabelecida pela notícia (signo) com suas referências (objeto) para mediar a formação de certa opinião (interpretante).",[]]],"sy":[["notícias falsas",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A disseminação de textos de opinião atribuídos às celebridades é estratégia recorrente para propagar notícias falsas em ambiente digital, porque seu fundamento icônico potencializa ações de compartilhamento em dinâmica transmídia.",[]]]},{"de":[["A lógica transmídia funda-se nos princípios da narrativa transmídia (Jenkins, 2009;2010): potencial de compartilhamento/profundidade; continuidade/multiplicidade; imersão/extração; construção de universos; serialidade; subjetividade; e performance.",[]],["Adotamos, assim, a definição peirceana de lógica (ou semiótica) para descrever a lógica transmídia como uma dinâmica (semiose) que incorpora desvios resultantes de associações (experiência colateral) à referência (objeto) para expandir continuamente os significados (interpretante).",[]]]},{"de":[["A máxima pragmática é normativa porque \"nos conta como devemos definir nossos termos para que tenham significação\"",["De Wall, 2007, p. 137"]]]},{"de":[["O engajamento social baseado no método da tenacidade tende a ignorar evidências em contrário e a desconsiderar opiniões divergentes",[]]],"sp":[["fixação das crenças",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["movimento filosófico que investiga a relação entre pensamento e ação.",["1"]]],"sy":[["pragmaticismo",["Peirce Edition Project, 1998"]]]},{"de":[["processo de significação baseado em sistema de crenças apto a ser aprimorado, rumo a um ideal de verdade, se abalado pela incidência de dúvidas.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["contrapoder",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["materialidade histórica",[]],["A esfera pública não pode ser concebida como uma instituição e certamente não como uma organização. (...) [Ela] pode melhor ser descrita como uma rede para a comunicação de informações e pontos de vista",["Habermas, 1996: 360"]],["A esfera pública se distingue como uma estrutura comunicacional que está relacionada a um terceiro aspecto da ação comunicativa: não se refere nem às funções nem ao conteúdo da comunicação de todo dia mas ao «espaço social» gerado pela comunicação",["Ibid."]]]},{"de":[["Eles não se põem como arenas «pacíficas» de «consensos», mas tecem-se, antes de tudo, daquilo que é conflituoso e instável.",[]],["É a comunicação que institui o espaço público -jamais o contrário. É a dinâmica dessa comunicação que define o espaço público.",[]],["pode melhor ser descrita como uma rede para a comunicação de informações e pontos de vista",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A ideia de instância no campo da comunicação não se prende à noção de sentenças finais, mas àquilo que serve de sede a uma sucessão de fixações e deslizamentos de significantes de tal modo que façam sentido transitório para os sujeitos.",[]],["Já no campo da comunicação, entretanto, a proposição desse termo é de outra ordem: designa uma relação comunicativa entre sujeitos em torno de processos de significação que não se cristalizam, mas reproduzem-se sobre si mesmos em permanente revisão de seus próprios termos. A ideia de instância no campo da comunicação não se prende à noção de sentenças finais, mas àquilo que serve de sede a uma sucessão de fixações e deslizamentos de significantes de tal modo que façam sentido transitório para os sujeitos.",[]]]},{"de":[["Segundo a presente hipótese, as novas possibilidades tecnológicas da era digital não revogam esse plano: apenas o revigoram à medida que o problematizam.",[]],["ela modificou radicalmente as balizas de espacialidade e temporalidade.",[]],["Os limites do idioma, insuperáveis para a palavra escrita, dissipam-se. As fronteiras geográficas se desmancham no ar. O tempo cíclico das atualizações diárias perde força para a instantaneidade: os intervalos temporais tendem a zero.",[]],["laço simultaneamente tecnológico e social",[]],["age na constituição da relação comunicativa, que emula as relações sociais",[]],["O on-line é, portanto, parte dessa instância, posto que a prolonga.",[]]],"rt":[["espaço público",[]],["instância da palavra impressa",[]]]},{"rt":[["instância da imagem ao vivo",[]]]},{"de":[["(2) As comunicações que prevalecem são organizadas de tal modo que é difícil ou impossível para o indivíduo responder de modo imediato ou com qualquer eficácia.",["Ibid."]],["(3) A efetivação da opinião em ação é controlada por autoridades que organizam e controlam os canais de tal ação.",["Ibid."]],["(4) A massa não tem autonomia frente às instituições; pelo contrário, agentes de instituições autorizadas penetram essa massa, reduzindo qualquer autonomia que ela possa ter na formação de opinião através de discussão",["Ibid."]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Correspondem, assim, ao estágio mais avançado das chamadas fake news ou indústria da desinformação (Durães, 2023), devido ao fato de seus conteúdos visuais serem mais convincentes e persuasivos em uma sociedade retiniana cada vez mais mediada pela instantaneidade da visão.",["Durães, 2023"]],["Embora as deep fakes pertençam à mesma família de enganação das fake news e das mais variadas formas de desinformação",[]],["não demonstram apego à realidade dos fatos",[]],["deep fakes cuja aparência cada vez mais genuína intensifica o convencimento do eleitorado para as causas em jogo",[]],["candidatos políticos e figuras públicas podem ser retratados dizendo ou fazendo coisas que nunca ocorreram, o que pode afetar drasticamente a opinião pública",["Figueiredo, 2023"]]],"rt":[["anarquia informacional",[]]],"ex":[["a ponto de ser difícil distinguir alguns vídeos, imagens e gravações de áudio falsos dos reais.",["De Vynck, 2024"]]]},{"de":[["exacerba, em escala e em velocidade de alcance, o processo de disseminação que, como todas as formas de desinformação, encontra sua potência de motivação principalmente no reforço de opiniões e de crenças pessoais sempre apoiadas em inversões da realidade factual.",[]]]},{"de":[["terceiro elemento cognitivo que entra em cena: o julgamento perceptivo.",[]],["Ele é tão instantâneo quanto o percipuum, mas, dotado de memória e expectativa, cumpre a função do reconhecimento daquilo que vemos.",[]],["Os perceptos não aparecem aos nossos sentidos carregando rótulos. É o julgamento de percepção, portanto, que se encarrega da função de informar que aquilo que vemos é isto ou aquilo. Ele é tão instantâneo quanto o percipuum, mas, dotado de memória e expectativa, cumpre a função do reconhecimento daquilo que vemos.",[]]],"sy":[["julgamento de percepção",[]]],"rt":[["percipuum",[]]]},{"sb":[["marca d'água invisível",[]]]},{"ex":[["SynthID",["DeepMind, 2023"]]]},{"de":[["O percepto é aquilo que aparece e se força sobre nós. É físico, ou seja, é não-psíquico, não-cognitivo. É um acontecimento singular que se realiza aqui e agora, portanto irrepetível. Percepto etimologicamente tem o significado de apoderar-se, recolher, tomar, apanhar, ou seja, alguma coisa que não pertence ao eu e que é tomada de fora. É algo compulsivo, teimoso, insistente, que chama a nossa atenção. Algo que se apresenta por conta própria e, por isso, tem força própria.",[]]]},{"de":[["Portanto, o que apreendemos não é o percepto em si, mas o percepto filtrado pelo nosso sistema sensório.",[]]],"rt":[["percepto",[]]]},{"de":[["Acompanhamos a ação até determinado momento e, no plano seguinte, nos deslocamos para o futuro.",[]],["Ao contrário de um flash-forward, que, como o próprio nome diz, nos proporciona uma breve antevisão (um flash) do futuro, após a qual voltamos para o presente narrativo, a elipse nos leva ao futuro e não permite um retorno tão rápido.",[]],["Uma elipse desse tipo, ao solicitar a imaginação criativa do espectador, faz com que ele se sinta \"inteligente\", o que é uma estratégia eficaz para fidelizá-lo à trama.",[]],["Esse \"buraco\" pode ter cinco minutos, uma hora, um dia, alguns meses, alguns anos, alguns séculos, ou até alguns milênios.",[]],["Ao usar \"buracos\" temporais e de conhecimento na história, os roteiristas de alguns seriados contemporâneos apelam para a inteligência e para a capacidade interpretativa do espectador.",[]]],"sy":[["\"buracos\" temporais na trama",[]]],"rt":[["flash-forward",[]],["gancho",[]],["epistemofilia",[]]],"sb":[["elipse de tempo",[]],["elipses de conhecimento",[]]],"ex":[["No caso da elipse relatada em Downton Abbey, o espectador é poupado de cenas desnecessárias (embora potencialmente dramáticas) e vai logo ao que interessa: o que a morte traz de novidades para a trama?",[]],["2001, Uma Odisséia no Espaço (2001, A Space Odyssey, 1968)",[]],["Édipo rei (Edipo Re, 1967)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["elipse",[]]]},{"de":[["caso particular de elipse",[]]]},{"de":[["É praticamente impossível acompanhar a narrativa se o espectador não estiver presente desde o primeiro episódio.",[]]],"rt":[["série",[]]],"ex":[["Twin Peaks, Homeland, Breaking Bad, House of Cards, Mad Men e Downton Abbey",[]]]},{"de":[["focusing on establishing connections",[]]],"rt":[["\"report\" talk",[]]]},{"de":[["focusing on exchanging information",[]]],"rt":[["\"rapport\" talk",[]]]},{"sy":[["interlocutor",[]]]},{"de":[["for speakers there is room for choice in how to use their linguistic repertoire in order to achieve social goals.",[]]]},{"sy":[["coordination",[]],["entrainment",[]]]},{"de":[["One of the differences with CAT is that different types of audiences are defined from the perspective of the speaker (ranging from addressee to eavesdropper) and thus can also be applied to settings in which there is only a oneway interaction (such as broadcasting).",[]],["explains style shifting as a response to audiences",[]]],"rt":[["CAT",[]]]},{"de":[["CAT was developed in the 1970s and has its roots in the field of social psychology.",[]]],"rt":[["Audience Design",[]]]},{"ex":[["the use of slang words and domain-specific jargon",[]],["conventions for indicating retweets in Twitter",[]]]},{"ex":[["microblogs",["Kooti et al. 2012","Eisenstein et al. 2014"]],["Web forums",["Nguyen and Rosé 2011","Garley and Hockenmaier 2012"]],["online review sites",["Danescu-Niculescu-Mizil et al. 2013b","Hovy, Johannsen, and Søgaard 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["Convergence reduces the social distance between speakers and converging speakers are often viewed as more favorable and cooperative.",[]]],"rt":[["divergence",[]]]},{"rt":[["convergence",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Validity",[]]],"ex":[["the face validity of a sentiment analysis tool could be tested as follows. First, an automatic measure of sentiment would be applied to a text corpus. Then, texts would be sorted by the resulting sentiment scores and the data points from the end points and middle compared with one another. Are there consistent and clear distinctions in sentiment between beginning, middle, and end? Is sentiment the main thing that is captured in the contrast, or is something different really going on?",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["involvedness",[]]]},{"sy":[["addressee",[]]]},{"rt":[["informational",[]]]},{"sy":[["code-mixing",[]]]},{"de":[["linguistic agency is a big part of how language is used to construct social identities, to build and maintain social relationships, and even to define the boundaries of communities.",[]]],"rt":[["social structures",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["social distance",[]],["relative power",[]],["ranking of the imposition",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["social dialects",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Besides the addressee, other factors such as the topic (e.g., politics vs. religion) or the context (e.g., a courtroom vs. family dinner) can contribute to style shifting.",[]]],"rt":[["audience design",[]]]},{"de":[["In this context, high concentrations of transactivity reflect a balance of power in a discussion.",[]]]},{"de":[["Triangulation is thus an important way of strengthening research findings in the social sciences by leveraging multiple views simultaneously rather than just using one in addressing a question.",[]],["an important way of strengthening research findings in the social sciences by leveraging multiple views simultaneously rather than just using one in addressing a question.",[]]],"rt":[["ensemble methods like bagging",[]]],"ex":[["Sentiment analysis can again be used for illustration purposes. Consider a blog corpus for which the age of each individual blogger is available. Let's assume that a model for predicting age allocated high weights to some sentiment-related words. This may be considered as evidence that the model is consistent with previous findings that older people use more words that express a positive sentiment. Another method could measure sentiment for each blog individually. If the measured sentiment would correlate with the age of bloggers across the corpus, the two methods for investigating the connection between age and sentiment would tell the same story and the confidence in the validity of the story would increase.",[]],["analogous to the value obtained through the use of ensemble methods like bagging.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["informal speech",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It involves philosophy, communication science, logic, linguistics, psychology, and computer science.",[]]]},{"de":[["The internal structure of an argument consists of several argument components.",[]]],"rt":[["discourse structures",[]]]},{"de":[["links",[]]],"sb":[["support relations",[]],["attack relations",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["in addition",[]],["because",[]],["additionally",[]]]},{"de":[["It can be considered the minimal form that an argument can take.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["They model the external macrostructure and address relations between arguments from several interlocutors.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["therefore",[]],["thus",[]],["consequently",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It is an opinionated statement that is usually stated in the introduction and restated in the conclusion of the essay.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They focus on the function of argument components, the links between them, and the reasoning type.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["although",[]],["admittedly",[]],["but",[]]]},{"de":[["They consider the audience's perception and aim at studying rhetorical schemes that are successful in practice.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["in my opinion",[]],["I believe that",[]]]},{"ex":[["\"Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country.\"",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["major claim",[]],["claim",[]],["premise",[]],["non-argumentative",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a difficult task; as Moens (2018) points out, \"a lot of content is not expressed explicitly but resides in the mind of communicator and audience.\"",["2018"]]]},{},{"rt":[["opinion mining",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such schemes were originally viewed as rhetorical methods by which a speaker could influence their audience; later, they have also been adopted as a way to distinguish good arguments from bad.",[]],["Argumentation schemes can thus be seen as a historical descendant of the topics of Aristotle (1958), and, much like Aristotle's topics, play a valuable role in both the construction and evaluation of arguments.",[]],["Arguments are evaluated based on a set of critical questions corresponding to the scheme which, if not answered adequately, result in the argument to which the scheme corresponds defaulting.",[]]],"rt":[["rhetorical figures",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["support or non-support",[]]],"rt":[["argumentative unit",[]]]},{"sp":[["argumentative discourse",[]]]},{"rt":[["argumentative relations",[]]]},{"de":[["Although this approach of labeling a sentence by its role is slightly removed from the goal of identifying the argumentation structure contained within the document, it is clear that the information obtained by AZ provides a useful step toward determining the structure.",[]]],"ex":[["criticism or support for previous work",[]],["comparison of methods",[]],["results or goals",[]]]},{"sy":[["citation motivation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["opinion mining",[]]],"sp":[["opinion mining",[]]]},{"de":[["In this case the premises act on their own and the removal of one premise from the argument does not weaken the others.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Divergent arguments are somewhat less common and, as such, are not supported by those analysis tools which, for example, are limited to analyzing arguments in a tree structure.",[]]]},{"de":[["can cause difficulties for both automatic and manual segmentation due to the requirement of knowledge that may be outside the scope of that expressed in the text.",[]]]},{"sp":[["rhetorical figures",[]]],"ex":[["\"very, very\"",[]],["\"many, many\"",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["verifiable",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["\"Isn't that a source of injustice?\"-\"Definitely not\"",[]]]},{"de":[["The important point here is that each premise requires the others in order to work fully.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["verifiable",[]]]},{"de":[["opinion mining may encompass a broader range of opinions.",[]]],"sy":[["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"sb":[["Belief Revision",[]],["Attitude Change",[]],["Compliance Gaining",[]]]},{"sp":[["rhetorical figures",[]]]},{"sp":[["defeating an argument",["Pollock 1986"]]]},{"sb":[["general relations",[]],["argumentative relations",[]]]},{"de":[["Fahnestock argues that figures \"map function onto form or perfectly epitomize certain patterns of thought or argument\"",[]]],"rt":[["argumentation schemes",[]]],"sb":[["epizeuxis",[]],["eutrepismus",[]],["polyptoton",[]],["metaphor",[]]]},{"rt":[["reference",[]]]},{"sy":[["opinion mining",[]]]},{"de":[["In this case, one premise leads to another and this, in turn, leads to the conclusion.",[]],["one premise leads to another and this, in turn, leads to the conclusion.",[]]],"sy":[["Serial",[]]]},{"sp":[["argumentative discourse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Text segmentation can be considered as the identification of a form of elementary discourse units (EDUs).",[]]],"rt":[["elementary discourse units (EDUs)",[]]]},{"de":[["The relation holds whenever the truth of one text fragment follows from another.",[]]]},{"de":[["Such an attack does not directly counter the conclusion, but instead focuses on the robustness of the passage from premise to conclusion.",[]]],"sp":[["defeating an argument",["Pollock 1986"]]]},{"sb":[["experiential",[]]]},{"sp":[["Verifiable proposition",[]]]},{"sp":[["Verifiable proposition",[]]]},{"sb":[["experiential",[]],["non-experiential",[]]],"ex":[["My son has hypoglycemia",[]],["food allergies are seen in less than 20% of the population",[]]]},{"sb":[["morpho-syntactic analogies",[]],["semantic analogies",[]]]},{"rt":[["bias-searching queries",[]]]},{"de":[["If we take the semantic interpretation, there is no single predefined term that \"correctly\" completes the analogy (or maybe doctor does here too)",[]]],"sp":[["analogy task",[]],["analogies",[]],["Analogy",[]]],"ex":[["Paris is to France as Tokyo is to Japan",[]],["traffic is to street as water is to riverbed",["Turney 2012"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["See Mohammad (2020) for biases and ethical considerations in the use of such emotion lexicons.",["Mohammad (2020)"]],["Notable among these considerations is how words in different domains often convey different senses and thus have different emotion associations.",[]],["Also, word associations capture historic perceptions that change with time and may differ across different groups of people.",[]],["They are not indicative of inherent immutable emotion labels.",[]]],"sb":[["Word-emotion association lexicons",[]],["Word-emotion association lexicons (such as AFINN (Nielsen 2011), NRC Emotion Lexicon (Mohammad and Turney 2013), and the Valence, Arousal, Dominance Lexicon (Mohammad 2018))",["Nielsen 2011","Mohammad and Turney 2013","Mohammad 2018"]]]},{},{"rt":[["individual privacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people with multiple group identities are often not seen as prototypical members of any of their groups and thus are subject to, what they, call intersectional invisibility",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["human variability",[]]]},{"sy":[["emancipatory research",["Humphries, Mertens, and Truman 2020","Noel 2016","Oliver 1997","Humphries, Mertens, and Truman 2020;Noel 2016;Oliver 1997"]]],"rt":[["nothing about us without us",[]]]},{"de":[["Emotion annotations by people who have not written the source text usually reveal perceived emotions.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Stance Detection",[]]],"ex":[["Inferring speaker's emotions/attitudes/sentiment towards a target product, movie, person, idea, policy, entity, etc. (e.g., does Sara like the new phone?)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["involves classes such as favour and against",["Mohammad et al. 2016","Mohammad, Sobhani, and Kiritchenko 2017"]]],"rt":[["Sentiment Analysis",[]]]},{"sb":[["valence (positiveness-negativeness / pleasure-displeasure)",[]],["arousal (active-sluggish)",[]],["dominance (dominant--submissive / in control-out of control)",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["direct discrimination",[]],["indirect discrimination",[]]],"sp":[["social bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we recognize that the terms \"bias\" and \"fairness\" are normative and subjective ones, often context-and culturally-dependent, encapsulating a wide range of inequities rooted in complex structural hierarchies with various mechanisms of power that affect groups of people differently.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["To calibrate the predicted probability distribution to avoid amplification, Jia et al. (2020) propose a regularization approach to constrain the posterior distribution to match the original label distribution.",[]]],"rt":[["bias amplification",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Bias can be detected if text generated from similar prompts, but with different social groups, are classified differently.",[]]],"sb":[["Expected Maximum Toxicity (EMT)",[]],["Toxicity Probability (TP)",[]],["Toxic Fraction (TF)",[]],["Score Parity",[]],["Counterfactual Sentiment Bias",[]],["Regard Score",[]],["Full Gen Bias",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["CDA",[]]],"sb":[["counterfactual data substitution (CDS)",[]]],"sp":[["Data Augmentation",[]]]},{"sp":[["datasets for bias evaluation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Classifier-based metrics",[]]]},{"sp":[["Data augmentation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Data Filtering & Reweighting",[]]]},{"sb":[["Dataset filtering",[]],["Instance reweighting",[]]],"sp":[["Pre-processing mitigation techniques",[]]]},{"sy":[["unbiased",[]]]},{"rt":[["energy task",[]],["energy bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]],["social bias",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., \"Whore\" conveys hostile and contemptuous female expectations",["Beukeboom and Burgers 2019"]],["e.g., \"Whore\" conveys hostile and contemptuous female expectations (Beukeboom and Burgers 2019)",["Beukeboom and Burgers 2019"]]]},{"sp":[["allocational harms",[]],["social bias",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., LLM-aided resume screening may preserve hiring inequities",["Ferrara 2023"]],["e.g., LLM-aided resume screening may preserve hiring inequities (Ferrara 2023)",["Ferrara 2023"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]],["social bias",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., AAE* like \"he woke af\" is misclassified as not English more often than SAE † equivalents",["Blodgett and O'Connor 2017"]],["e.g., AAE* like \"he woke af\" is misclassified as not English more often than SAE † equivalents (Blodgett and O'Connor 2017)",["Blodgett and O'Connor 2017"]]]},{"de":[["Unbiased embeddings should have similar cosine similarity to opposing social group terms.",[]],["Sentence-level encoders produce sentence embeddings that can be assessed for bias.",[]]],"rt":[["WEAT",[]],["SEAT",[]],["CEAT",[]],["Sentence Bias Score",[]]],"sp":[["bias evaluation metrics",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Loss Function Modification",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]],["social bias",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., \"All lives matter\" in response to \"Black lives matter\" implies colorblindness that minimizes systemic racism",["Blodgett 2021"]],["e.g., \"All lives matter\" in response to \"Black lives matter\" implies colorblindness that minimizes systemic racism (Blodgett 2021)",["Blodgett 2021"]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]],["social bias",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., \"Both genders\" excludes non-binary identities",[]]]},{"de":[["most metrics can be used to measure either intrinsic or extrinsic bias, and therefore, these notions of bias are not useful for categorizing metrics, but may be useful when discussing bias in pre-trained or fine-tuned models.",[]]],"rt":[["intrinsic bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A simple version of this metric counts and compares the number of masculine and feminine words, defined by a word list, in the text.",[]]],"sp":[["Lexicon Metrics",[]]]},{"de":[["such as a sentiment of several generated phrases.",[]]],"ex":[["such as a sentiment of several generated phrases.",[]]]},{"de":[["These approaches modify the optimization process by changing the loss function, updating next-word probabilities in training, selectively freezing parameters during fine-tuning, or identifying and removing specific neurons that contribute to harmful outputs. All in-training mitigations change model parameters via gradient-based training updates.",[]]],"sb":[["Architecture Modification",[]],["Loss Function Modification",[]],["Selective parameter updates",[]],["Filtering model parameters",[]]]},{"sp":[["allocational harms",[]],["social bias",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., LLM-aided healthcare tools may use proxies associated with demographic factors that exacerbate inequities in patient care",["Ferrara 2023"]],["e.g., LLM-aided healthcare tools may use proxies associated with demographic factors that exacerbate inequities in patient care (Ferrara 2023)",["Ferrara 2023"]]]},{},{"sy":[["inference stage mitigations",[]]],"ex":[["decoding strategies that change the output generation procedure, post hoc model parameter modifications, and separate debiasing networks that can be applied modularly during inference",[]]]},{"de":[["most metrics can be used to measure either intrinsic or extrinsic bias, and therefore, these notions of bias are not useful for categorizing metrics, but may be useful when discussing bias in pre-trained or fine-tuned models.",[]],["maps more closely to our classification of metrics by what they use.",[]]],"sy":[["bias in the embedding space",[]]],"rt":[["extrinsic bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Post-processing mitigation",[]],["Rewriting",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["HONEST",[]],["Psycholinguistic Norms",[]],["Gender Polarity",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["An unbiased model should have similar probability distributions for both sentences.",[]]],"sp":[["Probability-Based Metrics",[]]]},{"de":[["Masked token metrics compare the distributions for the predicted masked word, for two sentences with different social groups.",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]],["social bias",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., Responding \"I'm sorry to hear that\" to \"I'm an autistic dad\" conveys a negative misrepresentation of autism",["Smith et al. 2022"]],["e.g., Responding \"I'm sorry to hear that\" to \"I'm an autistic dad\" conveys a negative misrepresentation of autism (Smith et al. 2022)",["Smith et al. 2022"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Weight Redistribution",[]]]},{"de":[["Hauzenberger et al. (2023) propose a technique that trains several subnetworks that can be applied modularly at inference time to remove a specific set of biases.",["Hauzenberger et al. (2023)"]],["The work adapts diff pruning (Guo, Rush, and Kim 2021) to the debiasing setting, mimicking the training of several parallel models debiased along different dimensions, and storing changes to the pre-trained model's parameters in sparse subnetworks.",["Guo, Rush, and Kim 2021"]],["Similarly, Kumar et al. (2023a) introduce adapter modules for bias mitigation, based on adapter networks that learn task-specific parameters (Pfeiffer et al. 2021).",["Kumar et al. (2023a)","Pfeiffer et al. 2021"]],["Modular approaches create stand-alone debiasing components that can be integrated with an original pre-trained model for various downstream tasks.",[]]],"sp":[["Modular Debiasing Networks",[]]]},{"sp":[["Selective replacement",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Masked Token Methods",[]],["pseudo-log-likelihood metrics",[]]],"sb":[["Masked Token Methods",[]],["pseudo-log-likelihood metrics",[]]],"sp":[["bias evaluation metrics",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["may also provide stereotypical shortcuts to a model, in addition to the explicit demographic indicators alone.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["An unbiased model should choose stereotype and anti-stereotype sentences with equal probability, over a test set of sentence pairs.",[]]],"sp":[["Probability-Based Metrics",[]]]},{"de":[["The metric relies on a lexicon where each word is assigned a value that measures its affective meaning, such as dominance, sadness, or fear.",[]]],"sp":[["Lexicon Metrics",[]]]},{"sp":[["Classifier-based metrics",[]]]},{"de":[["representational harms are a particularly salient concern in NLP tasks",[]],["representational harms often arise subtly, and thus quantifying them in language, at least for some NLP tasks, differs from standard fairness techniques, which typically apply to classification.",[]]],"sb":[["derogatory language",[]],["disparate system performance",[]],["Erasure",[]],["exclusionary norms",[]],["misrepresentation",[]],["stereotyping",[]],["toxicity",[]]],"sp":[["social bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Given a sentence S and a list of gendered words A, the metric computes the cosine similarity between the embedding of each word s in the sentence S and a gender direction v gender in the embedding space. The gender direction is identified by the difference between the embeddings of feminine and masculine gendered words, reduced to a single dimension with principal component analysis (PCA). The sentence importance weighs each wordlevel bias by a semantic importance score α s , given by the number of times the sentence encoder's max-pooling operation selects the representation at s's position t.",[]]]},{"de":[["the automated reproduction of injustice can reinforce systems of inequity",[]],["In the context of NLP, this entails representational harms (misrepresentation, stereotyping, disparate system performance, derogatory language, and exclusionary norms) and allocational harms (direct discrimination and indirect discrimination)",[]],["In the context of NLP, this entails representational harms (misrepresentation, stereotyping, disparate system performance, derogatory language, and exclusionary norms) and allocational harms (direct discrimination and indirect discrimination), taxonomized and defined in Table 1.",[]]],"sb":[["representational harms",[]],["allocational harms",[]],["derogatory language",[]],["disparate system performance",[]],["Erasure",[]],["exclusionary norms",[]],["misrepresentation",[]],["stereotyping",[]],["toxicity",[]],["direct discrimination",[]],["indirect discrimination",[]]]},{"ex":[["groups legally protected by anti-discrimination law (i.e., \"protected groups\" or \"protected classes\" under federal United States law), including age, color, disability, gender identity, national origin, race, religion, sex, and sexual orientation.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]],["social bias",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., Associating \"Muslim\" with \"terrorist\" perpetuates negative violent stereotypes",["Abid, Farooqi, and Zou 2021"]],["e.g., Associating \"Muslim\" with \"terrorist\" perpetuates negative violent stereotypes (Abid, Farooqi, and Zou 2021)",["Abid, Farooqi, and Zou 2021"]]]},{"de":[["which can preserve, legitimate, and perpetuate the underlying roots of inequity and injustice, creating surface-level repairs that create an illusion of incremental progress but fail to interrogate or disrupt the broader systemic issues.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Classifier-based metrics",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]],["social bias",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., \"I hate Latinos\" is disrespectful and hateful (Dixon et al. 2018)",["Dixon et al. 2018"]]]},{"sy":[["debiased",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["WEAT*",[]],["SEAT",[]],["CEAT",[]],["WEAT",[]]],"sp":[["WEAT",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["which can occur if models rely on spurious cues and unintended shortcut strategies to predict outputs",["Schuster et al., 2019","McCoy et al., 2019","Geirhos et al., 2020"]],["Bias is a fraught term with partially overlapping, or even competing, definitions (Campolo et al., 2017).",["Campolo et al., 2017"]]],"sb":[["pre-existing bias -rooted in our institutions, practices and attitudes",[]],["technical bias -due to technical constraints and decisions",[]],["emergent bias -arising from the interaction between systems and users",[]]]},{"de":[["We identify bias per specific model's behaviors, which are assessed by envisaging their potential risks when the model is deployed",["Bender et al., 2021"]],["and the harms that could ensue",["Crawford, 2017"]]]},{},{"rt":[["Indirect Non-binary Language (INL)",[]]]},{"de":[["unbeknownst to their creators, MT systems that are not intentionally envisioned for a diverse range of users will not generalize for the feminine segment of the population.",[]]],"ex":[["From car crash dummies to clinical trials, we have evidence of how not accounting for gender differences brings to the creation of male-grounded products with dire consequences",["Liu and Dipietro Mager, 2016","Criado-Perez, 2019"]],["higher death and injury risks in vehicle crash and less effective medical treatments for women",[]]]},{"de":[["nouns where gender is not grammatically marked",[]]]},{"de":[["gender bias in MT is a socio-technical problem.",[]],["engineering interventions alone are not a panacea (Chang, 2019) and should be integrated with long-term multidisciplinary commitment and practices (D' Ignazio and Klein, 2020;Gebru, 2020) necessary to address bias in our community, hence in its artifacts, too.",[]]]},{"de":[["We thus highlight that engineering interventions alone are not a panacea (Chang, 2019) and should be integrated with long-term multidisciplinary commitment and practices (D' Ignazio and Klein, 2020;Gebru, 2020) necessary to address bias in our community, hence in its artifacts, too.",["Chang, 2019","D' Ignazio and Klein, 2020","Gebru, 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["INL can be achieved also for grammatical gender languages (Motschenbacher, 2014;Lindqvist et al., 2019), and it is endorsed for official EU documents (Papadimoulis, 2018).",["Motschenbacher, 2014","Lindqvist et al., 2019","Papadimoulis, 2018"]]],"rt":[["Direct Non-binary Language (DNL)",[]]],"ex":[["using service, humankind rather than waiter/waitress or mankind",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This line of work focuses on mitigating gender bias through architectural changes of general-purpose MT models or via dedicated training procedures.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Indirect Non-binary Language (INL)",[]],["Direct Non-binary Language (DNL)",[]]],"sb":[["Indirect Non-binary Language (INL)",[]],["Direct Non-binary Language (DNL)",[]]]},{"de":[["English also hosts some marked derivative nouns (actor/actress) and compounds (chairman/chairwoman).",[]]],"sy":[["natural gender languages",[]]],"ex":[["Danish",[]],["English",[]],["e.g., Danish, English",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["occupational stereotyping",[]]],"sp":[["gender asymmetries",[]]]},{"sb":[["underrepresentation",[]],["stereotyping",[]]]},{"sb":[["underrepresentation",[]],["stereotyping",[]]]},{"ex":[["in French, couturier (fashion designer) vs. couturière (seamstress)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["belittling feminine representation to less prestigious occupations",[]],["in association with attractiveness judgments",[]]],"sp":[["Representational harms (R)",[]],["Representational harms",[]]],"ex":[["belittling feminine representation to less prestigious occupations (teacher (Feminine) vs. lecturer (Masculine)), or in association with attractiveness judgments (pretty lecturer (Feminine)).",[]],["teacher (Feminine) vs. lecturer (Masculine)",[]],["pretty lecturer (Feminine)",[]]]},{"de":[["If present in training and testing samples, asymmetries in the semantics of language use and gender distribution are respectively learnt by MT systems and rewarded in their evaluation.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Representational harms (R)",[]],["Representational harms",[]]]},{"de":[["For such cases, the misrepresentation occurs in the language employed to talk \"about\" such groups.",[]],["Also, this harm can imply the reduced visibility of the language used \"by\" speakers of such groups by iii) failing to reflect their identity and communicative repertoires. In these cases, an MT flattens their communication and produces an output that indexes unwanted gender identities and social meanings (e.g. women and non-binary speakers are not referred to by their preferred linguistic expressions of gender).",[]]],"sp":[["Representational harms (R)",[]]]},{"rt":[["social bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["our self-debiasing approach only modifies the probability of words if they are explicitly considered biased.",[]],["Self-debiasing provides an interface to users of a language model that allows them to explicitly set the desired behavior for concrete use cases.",[]]],"rt":[["self-diagnosis",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["offensive, abusive or hateful language",[]]]},{"rt":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["propaganda detection",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["check-worthiness",[]]],"sb":[["rumour detection",[]]]},{"sb":[["verdict prediction",[]],["justification production",[]]]},{},{"de":[["intervention takes place reactively after misinformation has already been introduced to the public",[]]],"sy":[["post-hoc debunking",[]]],"rt":[["automated fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation is meant to deceive",["Tucker et al., 2018"]],["This is a question of intent: disinformation is meant to deceive, while misinformation may be inadvertent or unintentional (Tucker et al., 2018).",["Tucker et al., 2018"]],["This is a question of intent: disinformation is meant to deceive, while misinformation may be inadvertent or unintentional",["Tucker et al., 2018"]]],"rt":[["propaganda detection",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["internal fact-checking",[]],["automated fact-checking",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["these justifications have been used as explanations (Atanasova et al., 2020b).",["Atanasova et al., 2020b"]],["These consist of fact-checking articles and other news items, which can be used to train natural language generation models to provide posthoc justifications for the verdicts",[]]]},{"sp":[["claim verification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["misinformation may be inadvertent or unintentional",["Tucker et al., 2018"]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["countermessaging",[]]]},{"de":[["Rumour detection considers language subjectivity and growth of readership through a social network",["Qazvinian et al., 2011"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["evidence retrieval",[]]]},{"ex":[["\"I have never lost a game of chess\" is also true if the speaker has never played chess",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["claim verification",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["An understanding of the dynamics or logics of institutions as continuous processes of reflexive sense-making that includes collective and individual agency, and cultural aspects such as material practice, assumptions, values and beliefs",[]],["enables an analysis of how the meaning of religion changes due to the manifold institutional dynamics (media, cultural, political, etc.) that rearticulate the meanings and practices of this religion.",[]]],"rt":[["institutional approach",[]]]},{"de":[["mediatization can become visible through certain ruptures that introduce new ways of acting, or through particular events where accumulated tensions between social actors and institutional domains are released into a full-blown conflict.",[]],["Mediatization may, however, also be a slow, evolutionary type of change which only becomes visible through historical comparison over a wider stretch of time.",[]]]},{"de":[["Mediatization of religion as a theory seeks to analyze how changes in religion take place both at the structural level, meaning the relation between media and religion as institutional domains in society, and at the level of social interaction, as expressed within particular organizations and in the practices of individuals.",[]],["Thus, mediatization of religion is a dynamic process of change where positions and resources for speaking with authority about religion are shaped by the affordances of particular media institutions, at the same time as the influence of media logics can generate new ways for religious organizations and individuals to engage with a mediatized environment.",[]]],"rt":[["mediation of religion",[]]]},{"de":[["The mediatization of religion theory was formulated as a response to some problems regarding the application of a mediation approach in studying and assessing religious change.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["religious mediation",["Herbert (2011)"]]]},{"de":[["an institutionalized way of interaction between human beings and divine actors",[]]],"rt":[["religion in the public sphere",["Herbert (2011)"]]]},{"de":[["The use of political symbolism and iconography spans from the heraldry of medieval times and royal seals, to the political cartoons of the nineteenth century, pre-war zoomorphic propaganda maps and the colourful fauna of the Economist covers of today",[]]],"rt":[["political symbolism and iconography",[]]]},{"rt":[["textual memes",[]]]},{"sp":[["approaches towards meme research",["Huntington, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["Therefore, Reime stresses the formal characteristics of memes, thus distinguishing them from other genres, such as jokes, posters, etc.",[]],["In this definition, the influence of memes on modern societies is placed front and centre.",[]],["a meme appears spontaneously (in the modern context its appearance can be easily tracked on the internet)",["Shchurina, 2015"]],["any item of information can become a meme: an apt word, phrase, image or any other verbal/nonverbal symbol",["Deacon, 1999"]],["a meme carries more information than appears on the surface (it \"refers\" to a whole situation, the sum total of its constituents is not equal to its meaning)",["Chernikova, 2015, p. 356"]],["the internet is currently the best medium for memes, where they spread horizontally, not vertically as was the case before (for example, collocations were passed from generation to generation)",["Chernikova, 2015, p. 356"]],["memes quickly disappear from the information field",["Chernikova, 2015, p. 356"]],["Memes are not phenomena of language; they are phenomena with language.",["Metahaven, 2013, p. 4"]],["a modern meme (unlike memes that originated in the pre-internet era) has a particularly short \"period of decomposition\" -it appears instantly, transforms within a few days (sometimes hours), and just as quickly loses its appeal.",[]]],"rt":[["creolized memes",[]],["textual memes",[]]],"sb":[["modern meme",[]]]},{"sp":[["meme",[]]]},{"rt":[["animal metaphors",[]]]},{"sp":[["approaches towards meme research",["Huntington, 2013"]]]},{"sp":[["approaches towards meme research",["Huntington, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["elitism considers \"the elite\" as pure and virtuous and \"the people\" as corrupt.",[]],["the focus is on strong and decisive leadership as well as a distain for contemporary politicians.",[]],["Elitism is populism's mirror image, while sharing its Manichean distinction between good and evil.",[]],["reflects a particular dissatisfaction with who represents the people",[]],["elitism shares a key feature with populism: the Manichean division of society into the people and the elite.",[]],["In sharp contrast to populism, elitism considers \"the elite\" as pure and virtuous and \"the people\" as corrupt.",[]],["the compromises praised in pluralism are condemned in elitism",[]],["Politics is ultimately a struggle between good and evil",[]]],"rt":[["charismatic leadership",[]],["personalization",[]],["populism",[]],["Manichean distinction",[]]]},{"rt":[["direct personal representation",[]]]},{"de":[["cornerstones of liberal democracy",[]],["We expect pluralists to be much more accommodating to diversity and a plurality of voices.",[]],["This perspective accepts different views (PLU2) and acknowledges that the interests of opposing groups should be acknowledged through compromise (PLU1).",[]]]},{"de":[["it rarely exists on its own; it mostly attaches itself to other ideologies ranging from (neo-) liberalism, the radical right, to socialism",[]],["it must be context-sensitive",["Sartori, 1970"]],["a set of ideas concerning the world, democracy, and political representation",[]],["The survey questions are designed to capture the full ideology of populism and its conception of democracy, in particular the will of the people (their sovereignty) and the distinction between the people and the elite.",[]],["the distinction between the people and the elite is a battle between good and evil.",[]],["populism is reluctantly political",["Taggart, 2002, p. 69"]],["The people are viewed not only as sovereign, but also as homogeneous, pure, and virtuous.",[]],["The people represent the backbone of society; they are the silent majority, constituting the basis of the good society",["Albertazzi & McDonnell, 2008a","Mény & Surel, 2002a","Mudde, 2004","Zaslove, 2008"]],["The tension between \"the people\" and \"the elite\" is Manichean, that is, it has essentially a moral quality",["Hawkins, 2009","Mudde, 2004"]],["populism is essentially a monist ideology, it is inherently opposed to division and pluralism",[]],["populists have championed the role of independent experts (over professional politicians)",[]],["demanded direct democracy, and opposed alleged external threats to the Dutch people, such as immigrants",[]]],"rt":[["populism in Latin America is left-wing, economic, and inclusive",[]],["pluralism",[]],["elitism",[]],["plebiscitary politics",[]],["Manichean dimension",[]],["Manichean distinction between the people and the elite",[]]],"sb":[["left-wing populism",[]],["right-wing populism",[]]]},{"de":[["The elite is seen as \"evil,\" while the people are seen as \"good.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["The people represent the backbone of society; they are the silent majority, constituting the basis of the good society",[]],["They are what Taggart (2002) refers to as the heartland.",["Taggart (2002)"]],["The people are viewed not only as sovereign, but also as homogeneous, pure, and virtuous.",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misleading information",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["conspiracy theories are a form of disinformation since these theories can often easily be proven false, and it is no accident that the information is misleading",["Fallis, 2015"]],["conspiracy theories could be identified as misinformation since some supporters of these theories are entirely sincere and believe them to be true",["Sunstein and Vermeule, 2009"]]]},{},{"de":[["A news article clearly fabricated with the aim of exploiting the logic of online advertising (and thus produced as disinformation)",[]],["disinformation propagated through misinformation. In this case, an actor produces information knowing it is False, but other users perceive it as true and share it as such.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misleading information",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["catchy but fuzzy tag",[]]],"sy":[["misleading news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Bateson's definition of information underlines the crucial role played by the expectations of the receiver/observer. From this perspective, information is not something that can be transmitted, stored, or retrieved; it exists only 'when looked upon by a human mind'",["von Foerster, 2003"]]]},{},{"de":[["The informational exuberance (Chadwick, 2009) characterizing contemporary information ecosystems can result in what has been described as 'information overload'",["Chadwick, 2009"]]]},{},{"de":[["A news article clearly fabricated with the aim of exploiting the logic of online advertising (and thus produced as disinformation) may become a must-read article within a community of like-minded believers of certain conspiracy theories and shared as a legitimate piece of news",[]],["when a piece of information originally injected as true is shared by a propagator who thinks it is false",[]],["when False information is perceived as true by the injector and by the propagator",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misleading information",[]]],"ex":[["the most common conspiracy theories, which flourish thanks to the content created and shared by members of polarized online communities that firmly believe in what they communicate.",[]]]},{"rt":[["satire",[]]],"sp":[["problematic information",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a specific cascade of propagations with its emergent properties becomes observable as an autonomous phenomenon.",[]]]},{"ex":[["journalist, news organization, citizen, politician, troll, fake account, bot",[]]]},{"de":[["While this pattern can be observed in the propagation of humoristic and satirical content, it can also be the case of two subjects who, for strategic reasons (e.g. propaganda), deliberately produce and share false information.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["problematic information",[]]]},{"rt":[["parody",[]]],"sp":[["problematic information",[]]]},{"de":[["attempts to assess the intentions and goals of both first-order and second-order observers: they try to guess the intention and goals of the initiators of an information cycle, as well as the motivations of those who take part in it.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["If people are preemptively exposed to a weakened version of a misinformation technique, they can build up cognitive resistance.",[]]],"sy":[["psychological inoculation",[]],["''grandfather of resistance to persuasion''",["Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 561"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["defenders",[]]]},{"de":[["These commemorations serve to highlight the role of liberation fighters, as well as stifle critical interpretations of the conflict.",[]]]},{"de":[["claims to foundational legitimacy can be used to marginalize and exclude competitors from meaningful participation in political life.",[]],["claims to foundational legitimacy can be used to challenge constitutional and electoral legitimacy.",[]],["Foundational legitimacy rests on the 'purity' of this narrative, which must be cleansed of any crimes committed by those who fought for independence.",[]],["Foundational legitimacy, in other words, allowed political parties and affiliated veterans' organizations in both countries to sideline challengers by wielding the sword of foundational legitimacy.",[]],["If the power of foundational legitimacy in Croatia is found in the ongoing nationalist narrative of the Homeland War, then in Kosovo it can be located primarily in the perpetuation of foundational legitimacy through political parties, patronage, corruption, and criminality.",[]],["In both Croatia and Kosovo, liberation was achieved by men with guns who subsequently converted their hard power into the soft power of a hegemonic and resilient foundational narrative that has allowed them to sustain political and economic power while covering up corruption and crimes.",[]],["Foundational legitimacy should not be confused with foundational myths. All states have powerful narratives about their genesis, and contested memories are common, even in the most developed democracies.",[]],["The significance of foundational legitimacy lies in the way it is instrumentalized by actors in new states such as Kosovo and Croatia to bid for power and resources within the context of a culture of victory, and the way in which this has undermined liberalism.",[]]],"rt":[["foundational myths",[]],["foundational narratives",[]]]},{"sy":[["mnemonic actors",["2"]]]},{},{"de":[["the effect of context collapse and online disinhibition on the behaviours of users",[]],["Twitter folds multiple audiences into a flattened context.",[]]],"rt":[["online disinhibition",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["posts about criminal activity, financial problems, mental health issues and feelings of suicide, extramarital sexual activity, controversial political opinions and activism",[]]]},{"de":[["sensitive data that are generated and contained within these online networks.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["hypodermic model",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["stories and pictures about crimes",[]],["violence",[]],["riots",[]],["fires",[]],["accidents",[]],["disasters",[]],["stories and pictures about crimes, violence, riots, fires, accidents, and disasters",[]]]},{"sp":[["tabloid packaging",[]]]},{"de":[["viewing preferences refers to the viewer's choice behavior, analogous to the conceptualization of preferences in theories of decision making",[]]],"rt":[["attention",[]],["arousal",[]],["liking",[]],["enjoyment",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Pacing (i.e., number of camera shots) is the most studied tabloid feature. Other examples of tabloid packaging features are sound effects, rapid point-of-view movement camera techniques, and decorative editing techniques such as wipes, fades, and dissolves",[]]],"sy":[["tabloid-packaged stories",[]]],"sb":[["Pacing (i.e., number of camera shots)",[]],["sound effects",[]],["rapid point-of-view movement camera techniques",[]],["decorative editing techniques such as wipes, fades, and dissolves",[]]],"ex":[["obtrusiveness of the reporter's voice tone",[]],["sound effects",[]],["rapid point-of-view movement camera techniques",[]],["decorative editing techniques such as wipes, fades, and dissolves",[]],["Other examples of tabloid packaging features are sound effects, rapid point-of-view movement camera techniques, and decorative editing techniques such as wipes, fades, and dissolves",[]]]},{"rt":[["Populist attitudes",[]]],"ex":[["Politics is a struggle between the good and the evil.",[]],["I would rather want to be represented by an ordinary citizen than by a specialized politician.",[]],["Politicians are corrupt.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["they communicate this message in an emotional style that reflects hostility toward these elites, for example, by emphasizing the outrage of the common people toward the corrupt government or by stressing the people's fear of the threatening EU.",[]],["the core element of populist communication",[]],["causal attributions of responsibility that attribute negative qualities to the elites on the national and European levels of governance drawing on the emotions of anger and fear.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In Entman's (1993) frequently cited definition of framing, media frames are conceptualized as consisting of four frame-elements: a problem definition, a causal interpretation, a moral evaluation, and/or a treatment recommendation.",[]],["media frames are conceptualized as consisting of four frame-elements: a problem definition, a causal interpretation, a moral evaluation, and/or a treatment recommendation.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In line with the concept of media populism, the media may actively use emotional blame attribution as a framework for the coverage of political issues. Using the populist core idea, the media emphasize the distinction between the culprit elites and the blameless people. Moreover, they communicate this message in an emotional style that reflects hostility toward these elites, for example, by emphasizing the outrage of the common people toward the corrupt government or by stressing the people's fear of the threatening EU.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This core consists of two main components: (a) the perception that politicians should, but are failing to, represent the will of the ordinary people and (b) the perceived antagonism between the good people and the evil elites",["Jagers & Walgrave, 2007"]]],"sb":[["representation of the ordinary people",[]],["moral antagonism between the good people and the evil elites",[]],["the (failed) representation of the ordinary people",[]],["the moral antagonism between the good people and the evil elites",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This populist frame taps into the causal interpretation as well as the moral evaluation of issues as the in-group is perceived of as morally good and absolved of responsibility while \"they\" are evil and causally responsible.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Populist attitudes",[]]],"ex":[["Politicians keep the promises they make to the ordinary people.",[]],["Politicians are able to solve the real problems facing the ordinary people.",[]],["Politicians need to follow the will of the ordinary people.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This theory argues that the experience of belonging to the in-group forms a crucial part of people's self-concept.",[]]]},{"de":[["relates to the desire to reassure a positive self-concept as belonging to a political party",["Tajfel & Turner, 1979"]]],"rt":[["partisan biases",[]],["political polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["self-selected information is more likely to be congruent with people's priors, and therefore also more persuasive.",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive dissonance",[]]]},{"de":[["problem definition, causes, and treatment",[]]]},{"de":[["By thoroughly testing the claims foregrounded in political news stories, fact-checkers demonstrate which news can be trusted and which news is incorrect, hereby guiding citizens to make the most accurate decisions.",[]],["The stimuli of the fact-checkers were informed by templates of actual fact-checker websites, such as PolitiFact, The AP Fact Check, and FactCheck.org.",[]],["fact-checkers have been forwarded as a solution to correct misinformation and therewith counter misperception and overcome polarization",[]]],"rt":[["corrective information",[]]],"ex":[["PolitiFact",[]],["The AP Fact Check",[]],["FactCheck.org",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["misperceptions resulting from misinformation and political polarization",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",["Waisbord, 2015"]]]},{"rt":[["cognitive dissonance",[]]]},{"de":[["the divergence in people's attitudes regarding political issues such as immigration or climate change",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]],["confirmation biases",[]]]},{"de":[["The literature on both political polarization and selective exposure postulates that when self-selecting news, people avoid information that counters their priors, while searching for information congruent with their existing beliefs",["Bennett & Iyengar, 2008"]],["freedom of selecting a fact-checker",[]],["The term selective exposure is used here to denote that audiences' selection preferences might take the form of a confirmation bias (Knobloch-Westerwick, Mothes, & Polavin, 2017)",["Knobloch-Westerwick, Mothes, & Polavin, 2017"]]],"sy":[["avoidance",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive dissonance",[]],["confirmation bias",[]],["Selective Avoidance",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a more extreme subset of misinformation in which intentional deception is central.",[]],["a more extreme subset of misinformation in which intentional deception is central",[]],["disinformation perceptions correspond to disapproval of verification efforts (the media lie to us, so we cannot trust journalists to verify in a truthful way either)",[]],["disinformation perceptions correspond to a divide between news consumers and the news media that intentionally misleads",[]],["disinformation perceptions are closer to cynicism",[]],["disinformation perceptions can be connected to a more antagonistic perspective on the media's role in society",[]],["disinformation as a more extreme sub-type of misinformation beliefs",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["Misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["the cultivation of political cynicism and distrust",["Marwick & Lewis, 2017"]],["the augmentation of polarized societal divides by distributing partisan information that resonates with issue publics' confirmation biases",["Bennett & Livingston, 2018"]],["attacking of political opponents",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Those that perceive the news media as disseminators of disinformation do not simply doubt the veracity of the press, but rather regard the media as part of an elite that is intentionally misleading citizens.",[]],["disinformation perceptions may result in severe distrust, which could consequentially lead to avoidance of the news media.",[]],["disinformation perceptions are a subset of misinformation perceptions in which intentional deception, blame attribution, and hostility are emphasized",[]],["disinformation perceptions correspond to a divide between news consumers and the news media that intentionally misleads",[]],["disinformation perceptions are closer to cynicism",[]],["disinformation perceptions can be connected to a more antagonistic perspective on the media's role in society",[]],["Hostile media and disinformation perceptions thus differ in the nature of the accusation (a bias vs. deliberative manipulation) and the people they address (the in-group/fellow partisans vs. citizens in general).",[]],["They point to a (system-level) rejection of the news media, and beliefs that the media are systematically lying.",[]]],"rt":[["Hostile media and disinformation perceptions thus differ in the nature of the accusation (a bias vs. deliberative manipulation) and the people they address (the in-group/fellow partisans vs. citizens in general).",[]],["hostile media phenomenon",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation perceptions",[]]]},{"de":[["news consumers can have negative attitudes toward the impartiality and neutrality of the news media-especially when their views do not align with media coverage on highly salient issues.",[]],["Hostile media perceptions imply a confirmation bias in news perceptions: If the same information is distributed by an opposed source, it is seen as more hostile than when it comes from a supported source",["Arpan & Raney, 2003"]],["may also refer to politicians accusing the media of showing a disproportionate bias against their views",["Matthes et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Hostile media and disinformation perceptions thus differ in the nature of the accusation (a bias vs. deliberative manipulation) and the people they address (the in-group/fellow partisans vs. citizens in general).",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation perceptions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["misinformation beliefs correspond to media skepticism",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation may thus be seen as an overarching concept of untruthfulness that corresponds to overall distrust in the accuracy of media reporting.",[]],["Although misinformation can be misleading, these deviations from facticity are not necessarily intended by the sender.",[]],["perceived inaccurate news reporting (misinformation)",[]],["Misinformation perceptions relate to support for verification (there is erroneous information, so fact-checking is needed)",[]],["when the aim is to generally assess perceptions of untruthfulness, a one-dimensional measure of misinformation would be fully sufficient",[]],["misinformation beliefs correspond to media skepticism",[]],["Misinformation perceptions, at least to a moderate extent, correspond more to skeptical evaluations of accuracy",[]]],"sy":[["perceived inaccurate news reporting",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["untruthfulness",[]]],"sb":[["Disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation perceptions may be conducive to the ideals of a healthy democracy.",[]],["The quality dimension of credibility as trust in the accuracy of the news media distinguished by Kohring and Matthes is close to our conceptualization of misinformation.",[]],["misinformation beliefs correspond to media skepticism",[]],["Misinformation perceptions, at least to a moderate extent, correspond more to skeptical evaluations of accuracy, which can be an important part of media literacy",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation perceptions",[]]]},{"de":[["Specifically, we aim to capture how the audience perceives the news media's credibility and trustworthiness in an information era characterized by the omnipresence of false information and accusations of untruthfulness.",[]],["two proposed dimensions of perceived untruthfulness in the media",[]]],"sy":[["perceived untruthfulness",[]]]},{"de":[["The idea of scapegoating is central: Blame is attributed to the established (political) order",["Hameleers et al., 2017"]],["The ordinary people instead of politicians should make our most important policy decisions.",[]],["Politicians in the government are corrupt.",[]],["Politicians make decisions that harm the interests of the ordinary people.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["People cannot verify all news content on their own and have to take a risk when deciding to trust the media to deliver factual information.",["Hanitzsch et al.'s (2018)"]]]},{"de":[["For example, it means that sources are fair, rational, and honest",["McCroskey & Young, 1981"]],["it means that sources are fair, rational, and honest",["McCroskey & Young, 1981"]]]},{"de":[["in an organizing approach 'the goal is not only to get work out of the activist in the short-term but also to invest in developing the activist's capacity to act' (96) in the long-term and this is done through on-going leadership identification and the teaching of power by working collectively with others in the union and beyond.",["96"]],["encourages union activists and staff to see the 'whole worker' with their complex, overlapping and sometimes contradictory interests, concerns and identities.",[]]],"sp":[["organizing",[]]]},{"sb":[["frame bridging",[]],["frame amplification and extension",[]],["frame transformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["frame bridging",[]],["frame transformation",[]]],"sp":[["frame alignment",[]]]},{"rt":[["frame amplification and extension",[]],["frame transformation",[]]],"sp":[["frame alignment",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["frame bridging",[]],["frame amplification and extension",[]]],"sp":[["frame alignment",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["attribution",[]],["social identification",[]]]},{"de":[["mobilization is often the outcome of organising",[]],["visible or public manifestation of organizing",[]],["an important activity within organizing",[]],["reactive way, they encourage union members to pursue objectives via reward, and appeal to short-term self-interest",[]]],"rt":[["organizing",[]]]},{"de":[["mobilizing tends, in the case of trade unions, to be top-down and led by union staff",[]],["mobilize in a reactive way, they encourage union members to pursue objectives via reward, and appeal to short-term self-interest",[]]],"sy":[["organizing",[]]]},{"rt":[["injustice",[]]]},{"de":[["mobilize in a reactive way, they encourage union members to pursue objectives via reward, and appeal to short-term self-interest",[]]],"rt":[["transformational leaders",[]]]},{"de":[["aims to change union culture by being proactive and asking members for ideas",[]],["motivate and empower by appealing to higher ideas, and moral values, asking members to move beyond self-interest and to consider wider group interests as well",[]]],"rt":[["transactional leaders",[]]]},{"de":[["judgments may also be influenced by difficult-toprocess information",[]]],"sp":[["unimodel (UM; Kruglanski & Thompson, 1999)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["According to PAT, for any given discussion topic, there is a culturally determined pool of relevant arguments.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the findings given high processing motivation were consistent with a relevance override perspective",[]]],"sy":[["relevance override mechanism",[]]]},{"de":[["normative and informational processes for polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["SCT assumes that people are motivated to appraise their abilities and opinions and, therefore, to make comparisons with other persons (Festinger, 1954).",["Festinger, 1954"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["seeks to bring publicity devices that are specific to digital culture within the empirical frame of controversy analysis",[]],["proposes that digital devices are in part formative and therefore potentially indicative of controversy dynamics online",[]]],"rt":[["precautionary approach",[]]]},{"de":[["the digital implementation of controversy analysis is best understood as an interdisciplinary undertaking.",[]],["Different fields currently contribute to this project including the sociology of science and technology, computer science, media studies, communication, and policy analysis (Thelwall, Vann, and Fairclough 2006;Benkler 2012;Chateauraynaud 2009;Rogers and Marres 2000;Rogers and Ben-David 2008;Yasseri et al. 2012;Venturini 2012) as well as various professional fields including design, journalism, and advocacy (Marres and Weltevrede 2013;Borra et al. 2014).",[]],["adjudicate between sources, or to explore controversies",[]]],"rt":[["debate mapping",[]],["issue mapping",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Furthermore, digital bias is not limited to online settings but also affects off-line data sets as, for example, a corpus of policy reports contained in a digital database.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["controversy analysis serves exploratory purposes, namely, to detect relations between substantive arguments and socially and politically located actors and to render such relations available for interpretation by various audiences",["Beck and Kropp 2011"]]],"rt":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["discursivists' primary aim is to facilitate the exploration of controversy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["tagging",[]],["following",[]],["sharing",[]],["mentioning",[]]]},{"de":[["They present a site where the apparatus for the evaluation of online information is currently being assembled, and in this undertaking not just epistemic but also political and economic normativities come into play.",[]]],"rt":[["controversy analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["cannot be reducible to digital settings and dynamics.",[]],["call an ''issue'' whatever the platform says is one.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Issue mapping research should not assume the platform's definition of what counts as a relevant issue when we derive our indicators of issue activity from specifically digital formats-like hashtags or edits.",[]],["digital methods of issue mapping can also be used to reduce this uncertainty.",[]],["we should not limit our analysis to topics that are subject to explicit and focused disagreement among actors but equally investigate a broader range of engagements with public affairs that may be indicative of media technological ''takeover'' of the process of issue formation or actually enable substantive engagement",[]],["address questions like, is this topic an issue? where is it happening, and what forms does it take?",[]],["Whereas controversy analysis used to begin with a robust controversy in order to detect given actor relations, issue mapping begins with a given topic in order to detect emerging issue formations.",[]]],"rt":[["controversy analysis",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["actorcentered approaches",[]]]},{"de":[["proposes that digital content must be disembedded from online settings in order to secure the validity of issue analysis",[]]],"rt":[["affirmative approach",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["If power is understood as the ability to influence actions and thoughts",[]]],"rt":[["power",[]]],"sb":[["authority in the media",[]]]},{"de":[["authority in the media is (with a few exceptions) not immediately concerned with the execution of orders",[]],["the media allow users to ascribe authority on an individual and voluntary basis",[]],["The process of building authority in the media is nevertheless a collective practice in the sense that participation by others becomes a token of authority",[]],["authority is also dependent on the various logics of connectivity identified by Dijck (2013) in various social network media: popularity, hierarchical ranking, personalized recommendations, etc.",["Dijck (2013)"]],["authority is reflected by the ability to command an audience.",[]]],"rt":[["popularity",[]],["hierarchical ranking",[]],["personalized recommendations",[]],["logics of connectivity",[]]],"sp":[["authority",[]]]},{},{"de":[["grasp this diffuse, less noticeable, yet pervasive circulation of religious imagery and practices in modern society",[]],["to grasp this diffuse, less noticeable, yet pervasive circulation of religious imagery and practices in modern society",[]]],"ex":[["A television series like LOST (Clark, 2008) or a blog for young Muslim women (Lövheim, 2012) may become authoritative voices that evoke meanings about religion without being endorsed by official voices of particular religions",["Clark, 2008","Lövheim, 2012"]]]},{"sp":[["authority",[]]]},{"de":[["The notion of consensus-based authority does not imply that everybody must agree but suggests that authority is established within a particular media circuit in which an authoritative person must be seen to articulate widely appreciated and acceptable views of the world.",[]],["authority is established within a particular media circuit in which an authoritative person must be seen to articulate widely appreciated and acceptable views of the world",[]],["The process of mediatization means that collective uses of media push popularity and consensus above other criteria of cultural authority",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["mediatization",[]]]},{"de":[["mediatization entails a dual process by which the media have developed into a semi-independent societal institution at the same time as they have integrated into the workings of other institutions and become an indispensable part of 'doing family', 'doing politics', 'doing school', etc.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["the religious",[]],["'the religious'",[]]]},{"rt":[["religion",[]],["'religion'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["hyperindividualism dominating social media has produced a condition of atomisation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["to refer to the term adopted by Antonio Gramsci (1971) to describe the loss of legitimacy of the Church and other traditional institutions in the interwar period",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["that were instrumental in fuelling the negative campaign against Hillary Clinton",[]],["deliberately false news items that were instrumental in fuelling the negative campaign against Hillary Clinton.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["filter-by-interest dynamic",[]]]},{"de":[["the unity of the People is constructed via the opposition against immoral privilege, as embodied by greedy bankers, rogue entrepreneurs and corrupt politicians accused of exploiting the people",[]]],"sp":[["populism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["hyperindividualism",[]],["neoliberalism",[]]],"sb":[["populist right",[]],["leftwing populism",[]],["online populism",[]],["digital populism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["it tends to take highly exclusionary and xenophobic forms, whereby the people is constructed in opposition to the Other, and in particular migrants and ethnic and religious minorities.",[]]],"sp":[["populism",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["invisibility",[]]]},{"de":[["Clothes, hair-style, make-up, among other visible characteristics, act as 'sign vehicles' which allow the observers to form judgements.",[]]],"sp":[["personal façade (personal front)",[]],["personal façade",[]]],"ex":[["Clothes",[]],["hair-style",[]],["make-up",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This is a restricted area, not in the public domain and without access to viewers",[]]],"sy":[["restricted area",[]]],"rt":[["front stage",[]]]},{"de":[["encouraged by factors including anonymity and invisibility",[]]],"rt":[["anonymity",[]],["invisibility",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Expressions we give",[]]]},{"rt":[["expressions given off",[]]]},{"de":[["The notion of the façade is particularly noteworthy.",[]]],"sb":[["the stage",[]],["the personal façade (personal front)",[]],["personal façade (personal front)",[]]]},{"rt":[["backstage",[]]]},{"de":[["Individuals therefore put on 'a show' and perform a desirable, expected, or anticipated image.",[]],["Individuals therefore put on 'a show' and perform a desirable, expected, or anticipated image. Within the frontstage, actors are expected to follow the rules governing decorum and politeness in a bid not to offend.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Collective and derogatory terms, then, are employed to describe and label absent audiences",[]]]},{"rt":[["anonymity",[]]]},{"sp":[["personal façade (personal front)",[]],["personal façade",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Jung's (1953) research distinguished between the unconscious self and the public mask, known as the persona.",[]]],"sy":[["public mask",[]]]},{"sy":[["personal front",[]]]},{"sy":[["personal front",[]]],"sb":[["the appearance",[]],["the manner",[]],["appearance",[]],["manner",[]]],"sp":[["façade",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["symbolic threats",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["realistic threats",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This communication, considered safe and secure, takes place via closed, direct and private messaging platforms including Facebook, WhatsApp and SMS messaging.",[]]],"rt":[["virtual frontstage",[]]]},{"rt":[["virtual backstage",[]]]},{"ex":[["Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and LinkedIn",[]]]},{"de":[["domination of physical space, reformation of the natives' minds (particularly in terms of knowledge systems and culture), and incorporation of local economic histories into a western perspective",[]],["a consequence of imperialism",[]]],"rt":[["imperialism",[]]],"sp":[["imperialism",[]]]},{"rt":[["imperialism",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["sacred man",[]]]},{"de":[["do not reflect a 'steady state' enclosed by national sovereign boundaries but have more to do with how the economy and polity are organized.",[]]]},{"de":[["an economic system of external investment and the penetration and control of markets and sources of raw materials",["Williams 1976: 159"]]],"sy":[["the highest stage of colonialism",[]]],"rt":[["Colonialism",[]],["corporate colonialism",[]]],"sb":[["discursive power",[]]]},{"de":[["practices of organizational accumulation that involve violence, dispossession and death",[]],["I argue that some contemporary capitalist practices contribute to dispossession and 'the subjugation of life to the power of death' in a variety of contexts, for example in the organization and management of global violence through the increasing use of privatized military forces and conflicts over resources between transnational corporations and Indigenous communities.",[]]],"rt":[["necropolitics",[]],["necroeconomics",[]]],"ex":[["the impact of the resources industry in developing countries",[]],["the privatization of war and the military",[]],["transnational corporations",[]]]},{"rt":[["biopolitical body",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the state of exception in the colonies was more the rule resulting in multiple and interrupted sovereignties that were used to govern the natives.",[]],["The violence, dispossession and death that often follow the imposition of 'open markets', 'land reform' and free trade' in the poorer regions of the world however marks another state of exception that escapes political scrutiny.",[]],["a permanent state of exception",[]]],"ex":[["the Nazi state, the current status of Palestine and 'legal civil wars'",["Agamben (1998: 17)"]],["The U.S. Naval Station at Guantánamo Bay",[]]]},{"de":[["which characterized Italian populism in the following decades",[]]],"rt":[["caste",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a strategy of",[]]]},{"de":[["politics should be \"an expression of the volonté générale (general will) of the people\"",["Mudde, 2004, p. 543"]],["the concept of populism is so broad that it varies greatly depending on the context within which it is analyzed.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["to the typical elements of populism, they have combined some specific right-wing issues, such as neo-nationalism and social conservatism.",[]]],"sp":[["populism",[]]]},{"de":[["In this way, we could identify posts containing \"risk narratives,\" i.e., terms and keywords connoted to risk and threat, within the immigration post sample used in the quantitative analysis.",[]]]},{"rt":[["threat perception",[]]]},{"de":[["in the critical discourse analysis is defined as",[]]]},{"de":[["it speaks on the one hand to the extent to which emotions, feelings, relationships are 'put to work' in post Fordist capitalism, and on the other to the immanent human co-operative capacities and potentialities that may be set free by such labour",[]]]},{"de":[["The notion of affective labour has achieved greater prominence in recent years as autonomous Marxists emphasise the significance to capitalism of the production and manipulation of affect.",[]],["connecting such emotional investments with 'work as play' to wider transformations within capitalism",[]]],"rt":[["immaterial labour",[]]]},{"rt":[["precarity activism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["precarity politics quickly expanded to encompass a variety of struggles, including those relating to migration, citizenship, LBGT and feminist movements.",[]],["Activism 'transformed precarietà from being, in the main, an economic category addressing new forms of occupation and labour relations, to a more open instrument of struggle, enabling resistance and the re-imagination of contemporary politics, lives and subjectivities'",["Andall, Puwar, et al., 2007: 4"]]],"rt":[["precarity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["audiences are being divided into smaller group of users",["Katz (1996)"]]]},{"de":[["stands for the actual media choice in any given information environment",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Outlet specialization based on political ideology results in a stronger polarization of the media market",[]]]},{"de":[["This concept comprehensively captures both the ability of media in a given country to inform its citizenry as well as how the media and the political systems intertwine and impact people's political consumption habits.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Selective exposure furthermore reduces the frequency with which people discuss politics with non-like-minded others",["Iyengar et al., 2012"]],["selective exposure also has tangible consequences for how people perceive their environment: users of opinion-congruent media sources are more inclined to assume that public opinion is in their favour",["Dvir-Gvirsman et al., 2018","Wojcieszak, 2008","Wojcieszak and Rojas, 2011"]],["the use of congruent political information can decrease political tolerance, trigger citizens' unwillingness to compromise",["Stroud, 2011"]],["leads to the narrowing down of the political agenda to only those more divisive issues of the day",["Arceneaux and Johnson, 2013"]],["individuals' exposure to like-minded or congruent information",["Mutz and Young, 2011"]],["preference among media users for selecting messages that are consistent with their attitudes",[]],["Note that both concepts (audience concentration and polarization) and their derived operationalizations are methodologically and substantively different from selective exposure.",[]]],"sy":[["congruent political information use",[]]],"rt":[["congruent political information use",[]],["cross-cutting exposure",[]],["media fragmentation",[]],["audience concentration",[]],["polarization",[]]],"sb":[["self-reported selective exposure",[]],["perceived selective exposure",[]],["actual selective exposure",[]]]},{"sp":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["a higher proportion of shared news 'helps larger segments catch up with the news, and facilitates fewer disparities between groups'",["Nir (2012)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Conflict was coded on a scale from 0 to 100 where 0 was 'unambiguous opposition to conflict', 25 was 'vague opposition to conflict', 50 was 'neutral about conflict', 75 was 'implicitly endorsing conflict or suggesting that conflict might be an understandable response', and 90+ indicated 'explicit and strong advocacy of conflict'.",[]]]},{"de":[["These were the same criteria applied by Douglas and McGarty (2001, Study 1) to classify internet anonymity.",["Douglas and McGarty (2001, Study 1)"]]],"rt":[["identifiable",[]]]},{"de":[["hate groups have used the Internet to express their viewpoints, sell their products, and recruit new members",[]]],"ex":[["racial hatred as can be seen in the case of White supremacists in the USA",["Beckles, 1997","Leets, 2001","Zickmund, 1997"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Here, we included statements in which groups compared themselves with the out-group on less orthodox dimensions that generally favour their own group. We also included statements where groups created new dimensions of comparison with the outgroup, or indeed made favourable comparisons with other out-groups. All statements were deemed to serve the purpose of altering the position of the group without direct hostility or competition towards the outgroup.",[]],["social creativity in these domains is not so much aimed at bolstering or creating a positive social identity but to help foster doubts amongst European Americans about relations with other groups as a means of promoting long-term conflict.",[]],["exhibition of strategies of social creativity. These included examples where Whites were presented as victims of conspiracies organized by Jews, often involving using African Americans in some way, and policies of segregation were justified in terms of Biblical injunctions, individual freedom, and even to the purported benefits to other races.",[]],["social creativity may serve the communicative function of helping to create a climate which is conducive to conflict: one where European Americans feel righteously aggrieved on the basis of the information supplied about the out-groups",[]],["social creativity may serve an intermediate tactical role in adversarial group relations",[]]],"rt":[["social competition",[]]],"ex":[["a statement such as \"the White race is under threat of extinction in the USA\" is a socially creative redefinition of social reality but it is not comforting for people who define themselves as Whites, and it could hardly serve to create a positive social identity.",[]],["No one race or culture is \"superior\" to others, but they are all different. Racial integration threatens all Peoples. Humane efforts towards separation and self-determination are better for us than endless repression, tension, and racial violence.",[]]]},{"sy":[["SIT",[]]]},{"ex":[["political action, protests, revolutions, and war where groups directly challenge the out-group",["Milgram & Toch, 1969","Reicher, 2001","Tyler & Smith, 1998"]]]},{"de":[["In this context, 'creative' does not carry any positive connotations. It simply means that groups will engage in inter-group comparisons on unorthodox dimensions that tend to favour their own group.",[]],["We defined social creativity as the extent to which the web-site content showed evidence of strategies that redefine or alter the elements of the comparative situation (from Haslam, 2001).",[]]],"rt":[["Socially creative strategies have the effect of redefining the position of the group without directly challenging the out-group (for low-status groups) or by indirectly reinforcing the out-groups inferiority (for high-status groups).",[]],["social competition",[]],["supremacist ideologizing",[]]],"ex":[["groups can engage in strategies that create new dimensions of comparison with the out-group, or indeed compare themselves with another out-group",["Haslam, 2001"]],["No one race or culture is \"superior\" to others, but they are all different. Racial integration threatens all Peoples. Humane efforts towards separation and self-determination are better for us than endless repression, tension, and racial violence.",[]]]},{"sp":[["social creativity strategies",[]]]},{"rt":[["publics",[]]]},{"de":[["how the algorithmic presentation of publics back to themselves shapes a public's sense of itself, and who is best positioned to benefit from that knowledge",["168","Gillespie, 2014, p. 168"]]]},{"de":[["Not exclusively ER, but often related to Patriot in this context",[]]]},{},{"de":[["investigated the existence of an ideological bubble using the top k ranked related channels, with increasing values of k∈ [1,3,5,7,10]",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["as with Patriot, some of these are not exclusive to ER",[]]]},{"de":[["Closely associated with Neo--Nazi",[]]]},{"de":[["also used to characterize political parties such as the BNP or Jobbik",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["amplify a defined group of user by aggregating and retweeting content tweeted by seed users, which may conceivably be bots themselves",[]]]},{"de":[["with a topical emphasis on highly-clickable, shareable, and human-interest driven stories",["Bastos, 2016"]]]},{},{"de":[["to boost the visibility of said content",["Murthy et al., 2016"]],["to corrupt communication",["Woolley, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["refers to the remote management of online identities to spread misinformation, promote the work of one individual, endorse a given opinion, target individuals, and challenge a community of users",["Zheng, Lai, Chow, Hui, & Yiu, 2011"]],["The term draws from the manipulation of hand puppets using a sock and refers to the remote management of online identities to spread misinformation, promote the work of one individual, endorse a given opinion, target individuals, and challenge a community of users (Zheng, Lai, Chow, Hui, & Yiu, 2011).",["Zheng, Lai, Chow, Hui, & Yiu, 2011"]]],"rt":[["automatic posting protocols (i.e., bots)",[]]],"sb":[["automatic posting protocols (i.e., bots)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["integrating propaganda",["Silverstein, 1987: 49-50"]]]},{"rt":[["psychological warfare programmes",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is nonconsensual because it violates the requirement of informed consent; the target of persuasion is unable to reach an informed decision because of inadequate information",["Bakir et al. (2016)"]]],"sp":[["Non-consensual communication",[]]]},{"de":[["Demonisation presents the enemy in contrast to the noble aims of the home state and like other devices it aims at enforcing the goals of the propagandist",[]],["Because of its selectivity, this form of propaganda involves distortion, omission, and/or misdirection",["Bakir et al., forthcoming"]],["Demonisation presents the enemy in contrast to the noble aims of the home state and like other devices it aims at enforcing the goals of the propagandist (see Lasswell, 1971Lasswell, [1927]: 195)]: 195).",["(see Lasswell, 1971Lasswell, [1927]: 195)]: 195)"]]],"rt":[["Negative association or name-calling",[]]],"sb":[["Name-calling",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["technological propaganda also manifests itself in factual, albeit distorted coverage",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"rt":[["agitating propaganda",["Silverstein, 1987: 49-50"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Negative association or name-calling",[]]]},{"rt":[["Name-calling",[]]]},{"sp":[["Propaganda Model",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The main aim of propaganda has been to protect state-corporate power from the threat of public understanding and participation.",[]],["propaganda had taken the 'place of more direct means of control'",[]],["Bernays (2005Bernays ( [1928]]: 54) argued that if elites 'can no longer do what they want without the approval of the masses, they find in propaganda a tool which is increasingly powerful in gaining that approval'.",[]],["research into techniques of persuasion, opinion measurement, interrogation, political and military mobilization, propagation of ideology and related questions",["Simpson (1994: 3)"]],["Furthermore, the definition suggests three categories for empirical enquiry that are (1) production and distribution, (2) content and (3) reception orientated",[]],["one purpose of propaganda is 'to maintain the legitimacy of the institution or organisation that it represents and thereby ensure the legitimacy of its activities'.",["Jowett and O'Donnell (1992: 214)"]],["Such propaganda is a device, which uses 'glittering generalities' (Institute for Propaganda Analysis, 1995Analysis, [1937]]: 219).",[]],["One of the central objectives of propaganda, particularly applied during times of war, is what Lasswell (1971Lasswell ( [1927]: 195) ]: 195) termed 'to mobilise hatred against the enemy'.",[]],["psychological exploitation, achieved largely by disseminating propaganda through the mass media of communication",[]],["one purpose of propaganda is 'to maintain the legitimacy of the institution or organisation that it represents and thereby ensure the legitimacy of its activities'",[]]],"sy":[["integrating propaganda",["Ellul, 1973: 74","Silverstein, 1987: 50"]],["propaganda of integration",["Ellul, 1973: 74","Silverstein, 1987: 50"]],["consent-engineering",[]]],"rt":[["consent-engineering",[]],["social and ideological control",[]],["public relations",[]],["disinformation",[]],["PR",[]],["corporate lobbying",[]],["networking",[]],["media manipulation",[]],["social responsibility",[]],["media-mediated",[]],["non-media mediated",[]]],"sb":[["unintentional propaganda",[]],["institutional propaganda",[]],["institutionalised propaganda",[]],["media-mediated",[]],["non-media mediated",[]],["propaganda as primary agency of integration of the society",["2005: 34"]],["demonisation",[]],["propaganda of integration",[]]],"sp":[["Organised Persuasive Communication",["Bakir et al.'s (2016)"]]],"ex":[["censorship",[]],["flak",[]]]},{"de":[["the PM emphasises how ownership, corporate control and advertising funding as well as market forces shape the respective behavior of managers, journalists and external actors/institutions that provide information to or put pressure on the news media",["Herman 1986(Herman , 2000;;Herman andChomsky 1988, 2008","Herman 1986","Herman , 2000","1986(Herman , 2000;;Herman andChomsky 1988, 2008"]],["the PM proposes that news media content is generally aligned with state-corporate elite interests at various time/space contexts",["Herman, 1986Herman, , 2000;;Thompson 2009","Herman, 1986","Herman, , 2000","Thompson 2009"]]],"rt":[["Gatekeeper researchers",[]],["political economy of the news",[]]],"sb":[["news 'filters'",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the technical, procedural nature of journalism can be included in a propaganda framework.",[]],["the technical angle is supportive to elites who aim to correct or propose government policies.",[]]],"sy":[["propaganda of facts",["Merton (1968: 578-579)","1968"]]],"rt":[["propaganda of agitation",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["intra-elite communications",[]]]},{"de":[["unintentional and institutional propaganda is produced and distributed by journalists because news organisations are constrained by state-corporate power.",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["Black propaganda is the 'big lie'",["Jowett and O'Donnell, 2012: 17"]],["when the source is concealed or credited to a false authority and spreads lies, fabrications and deceptions.",[]],["where the 'source is concealed'",[]]],"rt":[["white propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["OPC becomes most forceful when it develops coercive dimensions that work through exploiting the actual or threatened inflict of costs, including such things as economic sanctions, use of physical force and withdrawal of benefits.",[]],["threatening or actually inflicting costs",[]]],"rt":[["coercive persuasion",["Andrews, 1969","Simon, 1972"]],["deceptive coercion",[]],["incentivization",[]]],"sp":[["Propaganda",[]],["Non-Consensual Organized Persuasive Communication",[]]],"ex":[["the 'propaganda of the deed' (Jowett and O'Donnell, 2012: 301) whereby a violent act is performed at least partly for propagandistic purposes, as with 9/11 (Louw, 2003) or US 'Shock and Awe' strategy during the 2003 Iraq invasion.",["Jowett and O'Donnell, 2012: 301","Louw, 2003"]]]},{"sy":[["dialogical consensual communication",[]]],"rt":[["teleological action",[]]]},{"sb":[["dialogical consensual communication",[]],["strategic (one-way) consensual persuasion",[]]]},{"sb":[["dialogical consensual communication",[]],["strategic (one-way) consensual persuasion",[]]],"sp":[["Organized Persuasive Communication",[]]]},{"sy":[["nonmanipulative",[]]]},{"de":[["moral and legal positions in relation to the legitimacy of actions rest upon whether an individual is acting freely or is, alternatively, coerced.",[]],["consent is violated when someone is persuaded through deception as consent is not 'fully informed'.",[]],["freely chosen and informed agreement",[]]]},{"de":[["deception can be achieved through half-truths or omissions.",[]]],"ex":[["highlighting real military successes but downplaying failures thereby deceiving people about actual military progress",["Arendt, 1972"]]]},{"de":[["One form of distortion is exaggeration but it can also involve de-emphasizing information, for instance by releasing controversial information on busy news days.",[]]],"sb":[["exaggeration",[]]],"sp":[["Deceptive information management",[]]]},{"de":[["Approaches to deception which are often seen as more subtle, and therefore more effective than lying, involve omission, distortion and misdirection.",[]]],"rt":[["omission",[]],["distortion",[]],["misdirection",[]]],"sp":[["Deceptive information management",[]]],"ex":[["The Watergate and Iran-Contra cases noted earlier are confirmed cases of this form of deception.",[]]]},{"sy":[["pivot",[]]],"ex":[["Bakir (2013) analysed British and US management of the public revelation of the Bush Administration's secret torture-intelligence policy and British complicity. This entailed instigating numerous investigations and inquiries across the USA and UK. These were utilized to misdirect attention to a narrow part of policy failure (e.g. inadequate military training on how to handle detainees) and away from deeper issues.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is deceptive because those involved know people would be less likely to be persuaded if they knew the full picture.",[]]],"sp":[["Deceptive information management",[]]]},{"sp":[["coercion",[]],["Non-Consensual Organized Persuasive Communication",[]]]},{"de":[["Deceptive information management is non-consensual because it violates the requirement of informed consent; the target of persuasion is unable to reach an informed decision because of inadequate information.",[]]],"rt":[["lying",[]],["distortion",[]],["omission",[]],["misdirection",[]]],"sb":[["Deception through lying",[]]],"sp":[["Propaganda",[]],["non-consensual OPC (propaganda)",[]],["Deception",[]]]},{"sy":[["communicative action",[]]],"sp":[["Consensual OPC",[]]],"ex":[["citizen juries that enable citizens to reach informed consensus on issues with the intent to influence policymaking",["Coote and Lenaghan, 1997","(Coote and Lenaghan, 1997)"]]]},{"rt":[["lies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Broadly, this involves creating a benefit (an extrinsic motivation) aimed at overcoming an individual's actual desire/belief (their intrinsic motivation).",[]],["offering or providing benefits",[]]],"rt":[["coercion",[]]],"sp":[["Non-Consensual Organized Persuasive Communication",[]]],"ex":[["The provision of a bike-and-ride scheme, whereby people are incentivized to ride bikes, is broadly consensual as here the incentive (the extrinsic motivation) is both positive and if taken up, aligned with the individual's intrinsic motivation (i.e. the individual actually wants to ride the bike).",[]],["promising tax cuts (an extrinsic motivation) is a way of garnering votes by persuading people who otherwise would not be inclined (i.e. had no intrinsic motivation) to vote for that candidate; this is not consensual because the individual is induced to do something he or she would otherwise not want to do.",[]],["provision of housing and childcare in Vanport, Oregon, during the 1940s. This was part of a propaganda campaign aimed at persuading women to adopt new work roles and increase their productivity (Jowett and O'Donnell, 2012: 309-318).",["Jowett and O'Donnell, 2012: 309-318"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["subset of persuasion in line with Jowett and O'Donnell (2012)",["Jowett and O'Donnell (2012)"]],["persuasion",["Jowett and O'Donnell, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["is central to the exercise of power across all social spheres.",[]]],"rt":[["advertising",[]],["marketing",[]],["propaganda",[]],["public relations",[]],["organizational communication",[]],["information/influence campaigns",[]],["psychological operations",[]],["strategic communication",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Modern usage has 'stretched' promotion to 'cover not just ads as such but the whole field of public relations, including religious and political propaganda'.",[]]],"rt":[["advertising",[]],["publicity",[]],["public relations",[]],["political propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["it accepts that strategy and interests are involved and to the extent that it sees advertising, PR and propaganda as parts of a continuum.",[]],["examine OPC through the lens of commercial advertising and 'salemanship'",[]]]},{"de":[["the term propaganda is usually associated with nefarious communication and most current definitions include the notion of manipulation",["Corner, 2007","Lasswell et al., 1935","Lippman, 1922: 43-44","Marlin, 2013: 7-10"]],["manipulative persuasion",[]]],"sy":[["non-consensual OPC",[]],["nefarious communication",[]]],"rt":[["persuasion",[]],["manipulation",[]],["deception",[]],["incentivization",[]],["coercion",[]],["deceptive coercion",[]]],"sb":[["black propaganda",[]],["white propaganda",[]],["grey propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["non-consensual (propagandistic) and manipulates via deception, incentivization and/or coercion.",[]]],"sy":[["non-consensual",[]]]},{"rt":[["propaganda",["Simpson, 1994: 11"]]]},{},{"rt":[["teleological action",[]]],"sp":[["Consensual OPC",[]]],"ex":[["anti-smoking campaigns",[]]]},{},{"de":[["non-propagandistic symmetrical two-way communication",[]]]},{"de":[["white propaganda involves dissemination of truthful information from an undisguised source.",[]],["dissemination of truthful information from an undisguised source",[]]],"rt":[["black propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["what one hears on Radio Moscow and VOA during peacetime.",[]],["National celebrations, with their overt patriotism … can usually be classified as white propaganda.",["Jowett and O'Donnell, 2012: 17"]]]},{},{"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This can include perceptions and experiences of material deprivation (working contracts, low wages) and social relations determined by the organization which impact on the personal identity and personal situation of employees.",[]]],"rt":[["prognostic framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["cultural capital",[]]],"ex":[["formal education and engagement in political movements",[]]]},{"de":[["Frames provide a broader definition of an ongoing situation and they are culture specific and socially shared.",[]]],"sb":[["collective action frames",[]],["prognostic framing",[]],["motivational framing",[]]]},{"sb":[["diagnostically frame",[]],["prognostic framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Habitus has some overlap with framing as both stress the role which individual agents play with regard to the interpretation of reality, but in contrast to framing it focuses more strongly on social conditioning and '. . .the competence of individuals and groups to understand the characteristics and different dimensions of social problems'",["Husu, 2013: 273"]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Following Tarrow (2011) we define the concept of 'opportunity' in a narrower sense focusing on those factors in the environment that can be perceived as steering the desire for change amongst individual actors and an opportunity to act on and challenge the status quo.",[]]]},{"de":[["which becomes, for example, objectified in the language which workers use",[]],["becomes, for example, objectified in the language which workers use",[]]]},{"de":[["requires the ability to process and interpret information in a holistic way and to reach out for support to external stakeholders such as trade unions",[]],["Prognostic framing also requires the ability to process and interpret information in a holistic way and to reach out for support to external stakeholders such as trade unions.",[]]],"rt":[["diagnostic framing",[]]],"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["portray Covid-19 as an economic problem caused by restrictive measures imposed by opposing political leaders, a controversial representation that helped forge divisions and heat up people's reaction to restrictions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["thus shaping our evaluation and understanding of the environment around us",["Koon et al. 2016"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a type of strategic political discourse employed by populist leaders during health crises to overpoliticise, simplify and spectacularise complex public health problems",["2019","2020"]],["performance of health issues as a crisis, through spectacular, dramatised or distorted representations of the problem in order to make a case for immediate responses",[]],["simplified discourse, through communicative practices that draw on explicit antiintellectualism to offer common-sense solutions to complex problems",["Lasco and Curato 2019","Lasco 2020"]],["implicit in them is a distrust of evidence-based policy approaches and the depreciation of experts and professional bureaucrats",["Speed and Mannion 2020"]],["mobilised through discursive practices that can become highly influential, or even dominate political debates and policymaking",[]],["embedded in broader political discourses mobilised by populist leaders to influence policy processes",[]],["every choice of wording always has a political meaning",["Fairclough and Fairclough 2012"]],["notably an antagonistic depiction of the health problem, high politicisation and moral interpretation of political actors",[]],["making medical populism a performative form of political discourse that populist leaders draw on to reach or exercise power in the framing of public health policy and management.",["Lasco and Curato 2019","Brubaker 2017"]],["Medical populism rests on the antithetical representation of \"the people\" versus \"the establishment\", \"the dominant power structure\" or, simply, \"the elite\"",["Lasco and Curato 2019","Canovan 1999","Laclau 2005"]],["antagonistic depiction of the health problem, high politicisation and moral interpretation of political actors",["Osuna 2021","Van Dijk 2006"]],["overpoliticisation of public administration is a central feature of medical populism",["Lasco and Curato 2019"]],["Medical populism tends to perform around logics of equivalence to demarcate ingroups from outgroups (Speed and Mannion 2020).",[]],["incorporate different discursive meanings, structures and schemes of argumentation into its populist repertoire.",[]],["employed a normative framework to lend an aesthetic and emotional nature (Lasco and Curato 2019) to the Covid-19 health emergency in Brazil, thus facilitating the construction of political identity through (Laclau 2005) moral interpretation of political actors involved.",[]],["medical populist discourses made the Covid-19 response a source of social conflict and ideological and party-political disputes, where medical populism competed with, and indeed undermined, conventional policy approaches that recommended more restrictive health measures.",[]],["medical populist discourses may be effective in employing post-truth politics through social media to frame health issues, subvert expert opinions and legitimise alternative solutions",[]],["potential of medical populism to increase the public's propensity to favour political over scientific viewpoints, leading them to disregard information that does not support their views, even when information is provided by professionals or expert health bodies",[]],["destabilised by medical populism, especially at the early stages of a health crisis",[]],["Medical populism presupposes an appeal to \"the people\", pitted against \"the dominant order of power\" on account of threats to the public's health and safety rather than cultural and economic insecurity, which are most common in other forms of populism",["Lasco and Curato 2019","Speed and Mannion 2020"]],["Medical populism tends to perform around logics of equivalence to demarcate ingroups from outgroups",["Speed and Mannion 2020"]],["Medical populism presupposes an appeal to \"the people\", pitted against \"the dominant order of power\" on account of threats to the public's health and safety rather than cultural and economic insecurity, which are most common in other forms of populism (Lasco and Curato 2019;Speed and Mannion 2020).",["Lasco and Curato 2019","Speed and Mannion 2020"]]],"rt":[["populism",[]]],"sp":[["populism",[]],["political discourse",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It seeks to address a certain policy agenda to understand how discourses shape policy problems, that is, how policy is constructed and represented in terms of what can be discursively thought about and acted upon as possible or impossible, as dispensable or necessary, as desirable or undesirable",["Bacchi 2000"]]]},{},{"de":[["This entails exposing and questioning what is assumed \"as morally or politically obligatory and essential\"",["Jenkins 2011:159"]],["overpoliticisation in health crises may indicate a crisis of expertise (Bal et al., 2020) and a decline of the authority of science (Gauchat 2012) in providing sufficient legitimacy to professional bureaucracies and expert policymakers.",["Bal et al., 2020","Gauchat 2012"]]]},{"de":[["rhetorical strategy",["1999"]],["counter-revolutionary cultural backlash",["2017"]],["moralistic imagination of politics",["2017"]],["performative",["2020"]],["thin-centred ideology",["2010"]],["political style",["2014"]],["logic",["2005","Laclau 2005"]],["highly politically contested and therefore still lacks a precise and agreed definition",["Weyland 2001","Müller 2017","Moffitt and Tormey 2014","Osuna 2021"]],["the concept of populism has become a \"catch-all concept to diagnose the pathologies of political life\"",["Lasco and Curato 2019:1"]],["This term, nonetheless, is highly politically contested and therefore still lacks a precise and agreed definition (Weyland 2001;Müller 2017;Moffitt and Tormey 2014;Osuna 2021).",["Weyland 2001;Müller 2017;Moffitt and Tormey 2014;Osuna 2021"]]],"sy":[["a rhetorical strategy",["Canovan 1999"]],["a counter-revolutionary cultural backlash",["Speed and Mannion 2017"]],["a moralistic imagination of politics",["Müller 2017"]],["a performative (Kissas 2020) and thin-centred ideology (Mudde 2010)",["Kissas 2020","Mudde 2010"]],["a political style",["Moffitt and Tormey 2014"]],["logic",["Laclau 2005"]],["rhetorical strategy",["Canovan 1999"]],["counter-revolutionary cultural backlash",["Speed and Mannion 2017"]],["moralistic imagination of politics",["Müller 2017"]],["political style",["Moffitt and Tormey 2014"]]],"rt":[["rhetorical strategy",[]],["counter-revolutionary cultural backlash",[]],["moralistic imagination of politics",[]],["performative",[]],["thin-centred ideology",[]],["political style",[]],["logic",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["often employed to naturalise the truth of certain assumptions, even if such truth is not established at all",["Van Dijk 2006"]],["They are effective instruments of manipulation in populist discourses because they are very difficult to contest",["Fairclough 2003"]],["often inferable from general knowledge",["Van Dijk 2006"]],["more or less pervasively held throughout social domains and organisations",["Fairclough 2003"]]]},{"ex":[["ministers of health, agency executives",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Corrections",[]]],"sb":[["Corrections may be partial, such as those that update details of the information, or complete, such as retractions of scientific articles based on inappropriate or fabricated evidence that the authors or the journal no longer endorse.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the accuracy nudge makes participants more likely to consider accuracy when deciding whether to share.",[]]],"rt":[["Accuracy induction",[]]]},{"de":[["the intervention may nonetheless have important downstream effects on the overall quality of information shared online (e.g., because of network effects; see Pennycook et al., 2020).",["Pennycook et al., 2020"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["If you were to see the above on social media, how likely would you be to share it?",[]]]},{"de":[["A key outcome from the news task is truth discernment",[]]],"sy":[["Discernment",[]]]},{"de":[["Agonists have an 'intrinsic force tendency' toward action (including motion) or rest and are subject to force interactions of various kinds with the Antagonist.",[]]]},{"de":[["Cognitive Linguistics in CDA may extend beyond Critical Metaphor Analysis to create a broader but coherent Cognitive Linguistic Approach which incorporates aspects of Cognitive Grammar, Mental Spaces, Frame Semantics and Force-Dynamics",["(see Hart 2010)"]]],"sb":[["Cognitive Grammar",[]],["Mental Spaces",[]],["Frame Semantics",[]],["Force-Dynamics",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["metaphor",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["terminal point",[]],["landmark",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The structural configuration strategy of force-dynamics in immigration discourse entails that (i) immigration is framed as a physical, perhaps violent, interaction invoking a 'struggle' and (ii) that the actors encoded as Ant and Ago are positioned in opposition to one and other.",[]]],"rt":[["construal operations",[]],["identification",[]],["framing",[]],["positioning",[]],["transitivity",[]]]},{"de":[["not restricted to the physical domain but extend to the intra-psychological domain incorporating drives and desires as metaphorical force interactions.",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing strategies therefore include negative-Other presentation (van Dijk 1997), often through metaphorical strategies such as militarisation, naturalisation or biologisation (Reisigl and Wodak 2001), as well as a strategy we can call 'structural configuration'.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Identification strategies, then, include those that fall under the general rubric of 'mystification' in Critical Linguistics (Fowler et al. 1979;Kress and Hodge 1979).",["Fowler et al. 1979","Kress and Hodge 1979"]],["They also include what we can call 'scope of reference' as categorisation (including metonymic categorisation and scalar adjustments) can be used to identify a certain set of social actors whilst precluding others as the subject of a predication.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They come to form the foundations of our conceptual system and can be called upon in conceptualisation.",[]],["Image schemas serve to both connect and demarcate phenomena so that we can construe the world, and crucially can reason about it, in terms of whole, discrete schematic constructs.",[]],["Image schemas are not specific images, then, but idealised, schematic structures, which represent the bare essence of their instantiations.",[]],["Recall that image schemas are holistic. They have an 'internal logic' which is imparted as a whole when they are apprehended to conceptualise a given scene.",[]]],"ex":[["They include, for example, a DISTANCE/PROXIMITY schema, a CONTAINER schema, various ACTION-CHAIN schemas and a whole set of FORCE-DYNAMIC schemas.",[]],["a DISTANCE/PROXIMITY schema, a CONTAINER schema, various ACTION-CHAIN schemas and a whole set of FORCE-DYNAMIC schemas.",[]]]},{"rt":[["prevention",[]]]},{"de":[["Positioning strategies, then, include proximisation and legitimisation as outlined by Cap (2006) and Chilton (2004) respectively.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["push factors",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["known in pragmatic research as the hallmark of irony from a relevance-theoretic perspective",["Piskorska, 2016"]],["the meme authors and (re)posters dissociatively echo, and thereby ridicule, the voices of the meme subjects (butts) multimodally quoted in the pictures.",[]]],"rt":[["irony",[]]],"sb":[["Parody",[]]]},{"de":[["used to capture the cases where 'one of these voices is used to mock, or parody, the other'",["Vásquez and Creel 2017: 68"]]],"sp":[["voicing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Essentially, the label 'meme' tends to be used for any specimen of online humour, especially if multimodal.",[]],["Importantly, memes are typically regarded as involving constant modification/ transformation, which is what distinguishes them from virals, which spread across digital media in an unchanged form",[]]],"sy":[["memes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["However, more narrowly, intertextuality can be thought of as allusions to previous texts -typically cultural artefacts (see Allen, 2000;D'Angelo, 2009) -that receivers must recognise and/or attribute to the authors/sources for the allusions to be effective (cf. the films and characters in the examples in Figure 1).",["Allen, 2000","D'Angelo, 2009"]]]},{"de":[["needs to communicate non-humorous negative evaluation",["Dynel, 2018"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["merges visual and verbal components",[]]],"rt":[["multimodal voices",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the author adopts a second voice that exaggerates, critiques, ridicules, interrogates, or otherwise polemicizes the first voice.",[]],["the voice alluded to becomes the target of ridicule and/or criticism",["Baxter, 2014"]],["the butt of the humour.",[]],["Thus, the voice alluded to becomes the target of ridicule and/or criticism (Baxter, 2014), and the butt of the humour.",["Baxter, 2014"]]],"rt":[["double voicing",[]],["dissociative echoing",[]]],"sp":[["dissociative echoing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["when re-creating a text, users can decide to imitate a certain position that they find appealing or use an utterly different discursive orientation",["Shifman, 2013: 40"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Cooren and Sandler (2014) summarise this conceptualisation as follows, 'When we speak we orchestrate these different voices in our utterances to make them express our own intentions' (p. 228).",[]],["Overall, voicing captures the multiplicity of voices and intentions, often referred to as polyphony (e.g. Baxter, 2014;Cooren and Sandler, 2014), underlying one's (spoken or written) words, or -as is postulated here -any form of expression, not only verbal but also non-verbal and even multimodal, namely based on multiple integration of meaningbearing resources across modes (Jewitt et al., 2016;Kress, 2010;van Leeuwen, 2004).",[]],["shown to creatively blend different voices (whether real, fictional or imagined) in one text.",[]]],"sy":[["polyphony",["Baxter, 2014","Cooren and Sandler, 2014"]]],"rt":[["polyphony",[]],["intertextuality",[]],["echoing",[]]],"sb":[["double-voicing",[]]]},{"de":[["The adoption of various social roles (advisor, educator and conscientious objector) reflects an advanced level of artificial sociality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["emphasising specific characteristics or generalising actors as a group",[]]],"rt":[["Individualisation",[]]],"ex":[["The Roma",[]],["the immigrants",[]],["The Roma, the immigrants",[]]]},{"de":[["At its core, CDA seeks to understand the linguistic mechanisms underpinning social domination, power imbalances and the perpetuation of inequalities and injustices",["Flowerdew and Richardson, 2018","Van Dijk, 2015"]],["pivotal when examining the interplay of language and communication, particularly their intersection with political and societal dynamics.",[]],["allows us to deconstruct the outputs of generative AI models, thus enabling us to unveil the underlying reasons and biases driving specific representations.",[]],["In the realm of generative AI research, CDA is a useful methodology because it allows us to deconstruct the outputs of generative AI models, thus enabling us to unveil the underlying reasons and biases driving specific representations.",[]]],"rt":[["Discourse Studies",[]],["Nomination (e.g. Professor Katsos) versus Anonymisation (a university professor/a Fellow), where unique identities are either highlighted or obscured",[]],["Functionalisation, which relates to the roles or actions ascribed to actors (e.g.the philanthropist, the thief)",[]],["Personalisation (The President has informed. . .) versus Impersonalisation (The government has informed. . .), differentiating humanising representations from dehumanised or abstract ones",[]],["Individualisation (Maria, a Romani woman) versus Collectivisation (The Roma, the immigrants), emphasising specific characteristics or generalising actors as a group",[]],["Polarisation, reflecting the division of 'Us and Them'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These representations are not only reflections of an objective reality, but they also play a part in constructing our understanding of that reality.",[]],["Discourses shape and are shaped by cultural, historical and social contexts, determining what is accepted as knowledge and truth within specific contexts and societies",["Fairclough, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["differentiating humanising representations from dehumanised or abstract ones",[]],["Impersonalisation (The government has informed. . .)",[]]],"rt":[["Personalisation",[]]],"ex":[["The government has informed. . .",[]]]},{"de":[["notes about the importance of sensitivity and objectivity, especially when dealing with stories that have the potential for cultural or social bias",[]]]},{"de":[["mirrors its operational boundaries and its capability to identify and respond to potentially harmful narratives.",["Guo et al., 2023"]],["Passive Value Alignment (PVA) (Guo et al., 2023) which mirrors its operational boundaries and its capability to identify and respond to potentially harmful narratives",["Guo et al., 2023"]]]},{"de":[["differentiating humanising representations from dehumanised or abstract ones",[]],["Personalisation (The President has informed. . .)",[]]],"rt":[["Impersonalisation",[]]],"ex":[["The President has informed. . .",[]]]},{"de":[["reflecting the division of 'Us and Them'",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["affective authority",[]]]},{"de":[["the affective authoritativeness of experiential information sources rests on the account of the experience itself and its details, the similarity of the experience narrated with the reader's experience and, finally, the ability to comfort or inspire that personal experience provides over mere information.",[]],["In order to be able to locate cues of affective authority, I exploited, on the one hand, the concepts of fake news being used to discredit opponents (Bakir and McStay, 2018;Tandoc, 2019) and of conflict among information sources as a condition for making 'affective' decisions about information (Montesi and Álvarez Bornstein, 2017).",["Bakir and McStay, 2018","Tandoc, 2019","Montesi and Álvarez Bornstein, 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["cognitive authority is not only constructed, but also contextual, depending on the information needs of the situation, and that it covers not only traditional indicators of authority, such as subject expertise and societal position, but also lived experiences, such as those shared on blogs or social media.",[]],["Regarding cognitive authority, it has been determined whether the information provided in the fake news (1) derived from direct and firsthand experience, justified in the way the studies mentioned above describe (experiential knowledge); (2) relied on subject expertise without institutional endorsement or other types of endorsement (the name, surname and professional qualification were provided and no more); or (3) derived from subject expertise endorsed by an institution or a publication track record.",[]]],"rt":[["affective authority",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This type of knowledge is usually exchanged when interacting with people (also on social media) and is closely related to social support, as it contributes to explaining and attributing meaning to the experiences that are being lived",[]],["contributes to people being capable of making decisions about their health",[]],["Experiential knowledge, as an alternative to official and authoritative knowledge from health systems, contributes to people being capable of making decisions about their health",[]]],"rt":[["expert knowledge",[]],["official and authoritative knowledge from health systems",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["According to Tandoc (2019), fake news can be considered a type of disinformation",["Tandoc (2019)"]],["disinformation",["Tandoc (2019)"]]]},{"sb":[["Indicators related to content",[]],["Design-related indicators",[]],["indicators related to the source",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["describes how far individuals will go to avoid having their beliefs questioned",[]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]],["disconfirmation bias",[]],["prior attitude effect",[]],["directional biases",[]]],"sb":[["confirmation bias",["Choy and Chong, 2018","Hodgin and Kahne, 2018"]],["disconfirmation bias",["Choy and Chong, 2018","Hodgin and Kahne, 2018"]],["prior attitude effect",["Choy and Chong, 2018","Hodgin and Kahne, 2018"]],["confirmation bias (individuals actively seek out ways to disprove new ideas)",[]],["disconfirmation bias (individuals dismiss ideas that contradict their beliefs)",[]],["prior attitude effect (individuals view sources that affirm their beliefs as more trustworthy and accurate)",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals actively seek out ways to disprove new ideas",[]]],"sp":[["directional biases",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals dismiss ideas that contradict their beliefs",[]]],"sp":[["directional biases",[]]]},{"de":[["produces a range of backfire effects, or psychological effects that lead misinformation to actually become more entrenched in the individual.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["information literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation is most dangerous when it is able to exploit the fears and needs of communities.",[]],["Programming cannot treat this as simply a problem of truth-it needs to recognize that misinformation exploits community values, political partisanship, emotion, social well-being, and much more.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation campaign",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals view sources that affirm their beliefs as more trustworthy and accurate",[]]],"sp":[["directional biases",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["rejects deference to scientific authority (Anderson et al., 2012) by cherishing authenticity and lay negotiation",["Anderson et al., 2012"]]]},{},{"sp":[["science-related populism",[]]]},{"de":[["It is felt (though not necessarily consciously), and not accompanied by long temporal reasoning",["Harsin, 2018: 45"]]],"sp":[["alternative epistemologies",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["participatory revolution",["Blu¨hdorn, 2014"]],["rebellion of the citizens",["Gerhards, 2001"]]]},{"de":[["This anti-elitist sentiment not only targets politicians, however, but also other representatives of the alleged establishment-including scientists and scholarly institutions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["not intended as an umbrella term for all forms of critique directed against science.",[]],["This concept adopts the fundamental structure of populism, its core protagonists, and their fundamentally antagonistic relations from scholarship on political populism. From scholarship on the \"participatory turn,\" it borrows the insight that participatory demands exist beyond politics and address the core logics of the fields in which they emerge. And from scholarship on alternative epistemologies, it adopts a detailed picture of how such demands may challenge science's core logic, that is, its epistemology.",[]],["And from scholarship on alternative epistemologies, it adopts a detailed picture of how such demands may challenge science's core logic, that is, its epistemology.",[]],["science-related populism focuses on scientific elites, portraying them as antagonists of the ordinary people.",[]],["As such, it may occur in all contexts where scientific knowledge plays or may play a role, that is, in practically all areas of personal, organizational, and public life",["Sch€ afer et al., 2015"]],["may appear in different topical contexts (from strongly politicized topics like climate change or vaccination to less politicized ones like nutrition or homeopathy)",[]],["may target different epistemic authorities (e.g. individual climate researchers or science in general; see Sarathchandra and Haltinner, 2020)",["Sarathchandra and Haltinner, 2020"]],["may have different rationales (e.g. ideological agendas or vested interests; see Morgan et al., 2018)",["Morgan et al., 2018"]],["may come in different intensities (e.g. rejection of science per se or resentment toward scientific institutions but acceptance of scientific methods; see Achterberg et al., 2017)",["Achterberg et al., 2017"]]],"rt":[["the ordinary people",[]],["the academic elite",[]],["science-related decision-making sovereignty",[]],["radical science movements",["Quet, 2014"]],["political or industrial efforts to undermine scientific evidence",["Oreskes and Conway, 2010"]],["science denial",["Hansson, 2017"]],["anti-intellectualism",["Hofstadter, 1963"]],["conspiracy cultures",["Harambam, 2017"]],["indigenous epistemologies",["Horton, 1967"]],["religious doctrines",["McPhetres and Zuckerman, 2018"]],["anti-scientific position",[]],["political populism",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["science-related populism",[]]]},{"de":[["science-related populism describes them as relatively coherent because they collectively decide about science and research (i.e. agendas, methods, publications, etc.) and produce allegedly \"true\" knowledge.",[]]]},{"de":[["Generally, this description includes political, economic, legal, cultural, and intellectual elites",["Hartmann, 2004"]]]},{},{"de":[["It is the right to determine valid information about the world, from official statistics about alleged immigrant crimes to interpretations about the implications of global warming-that is, the right to formulate truth claims.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Gustafson and Rice term this consensus uncertainty.",[]],["portrayals of consensus uncertainty (i.e., disagreement, controversy) among scientists or within a body of evidence is the type of uncertainty most clearly associated with negative main effects",[]],["consensus uncertainty is the only uncertainty type that provides direct evidence contrary to the claim, by implying that there are experts or evidence that take a contrary position.",[]],["The (un)certainty of any particular finding, theory, or prediction can also be described in terms of the collective discord/accord that exists about itwhether among relevant stakeholders (e.g., scientists, government officials) or within the body of evidence itself.",[]]],"sy":[["disagreement",[]],["conflict",[]],["controversy",[]]],"rt":[["disagreement",[]],["conflict",[]],["controversy",[]]],"sp":[["uncertainty",[]],["uncertainty portrayals",["Rice et al., 2018","Gustafson and Rice, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["These diverse \"known unknowns\" often exist because there is a lack of research on the question, or because that thing may not ever be known, or because the problem space has expanded",["Kuhn, 2000","Rice et al., 2018","Zehr, 2000"]],["Uncertainty is often communicated by emphasizing a known gap in knowledge.",[]],["These diverse \"known unknowns\" often exist because there is a lack of research on the question, or because that thing may not ever be known, or because the problem space has expanded (e.g., Kuhn, 2000;Rice et al., 2018;Zehr, 2000).",["Kuhn, 2000","Rice et al., 2018","Zehr, 2000"]]],"sp":[["uncertainty portrayals",["Rice et al., 2018","Gustafson and Rice, 2019"]],["uncertainty",[]]],"ex":[["emphasizing known limitations of a study",["Jensen and colleagues (2008;2011)"]],["clauses such as \"although much remains unknown and more research is still needed.\"",["Gustafson and Rice's (2019)"]],["emphasizing known limitations of a study.",["2008","2011"]],["although much remains unknown and more research is still needed.",["2019"]]]},{"sp":[["Framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["Framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["frames can serve both as a persuasion technique and as an information accessibility mechanism (Shulman and Sweitzer, 2018) because they influence responses to a message by making related information or beliefs more available, accessible, or applicable (Chong and Druckman, 2007).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["uncertainty is often communicated in a message via descriptive, qualifying content that references relevant ambiguities, imprecisions, hedges, doubts, and possible alternatives.",[]]],"sb":[["deficient uncertainty",[]],["technical uncertainty",[]],["consensus uncertainty",[]]]},{"rt":[["communicating uncertainty",["Gustafson and Rice, 2019","Rice et al., 2018","Ruhrmann et al., 2015","Simis, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["a feeling of personal unrest and lack of understanding of the social world-with which they are correlated",["e.g., Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["people may be drawn to conspiracy theories when-compared with nonconspiracy explanations-they promise to satisfy important social psychological motives that can be characterized as epistemic (e.g., the desire for understanding, accuracy, and subjective certainty), existential (e.g., the desire for control and security), and social (e.g., the desire to maintain a positive image of the self or group).",[]],["they are speculative in that they posit actions that are hidden from public scrutiny, complex in that they postulate the coordination of multiple actors, and resistant to falsification in that they postulate that conspirators use stealth and disinformation to cover up their actions-implying that people who try to debunk conspiracy theories may, themselves, be part of the conspiracy",["Lewandowsky et al., 2015"]],["they are generally speculative and contrarian, represent the public as ignorant and at the mercy of unaccountable powers, and impute highly antisocial and cynical motives to other individuals.",[]],["Albeit to varying degrees, they are speculative in that they posit actions that are hidden from public scrutiny, complex in that they postulate the coordination of multiple actors, and resistant to falsification in that they postulate that conspirators use stealth and disinformation to cover up their actions-implying that people who try to debunk conspiracy theories may, themselves, be part of the conspiracy",["Lewandowsky et al., 2015"]]],"rt":[["conspiracy belief",[]]],"ex":[["global warming is a hoax",["Swift, 2013"]],["Lee Harvey Oswald did not act alone in the assassination of John F. Kennedy",["Jensen, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["Specific epistemic motives that causal explanations may serve include slaking curiosity when information is unavailable, reducing uncertainty and bewilderment when available information is conflicting, finding meaning when events seem random, and defending beliefs from disconfirmation.",[]]]},{"de":[["causal explanations serve the need for people to feel safe and secure in their environment and to exert control over the environment as autonomous individuals and as members of collectives",["Tetlock, 2002"]]]},{"de":[["associated with narcissism-an inflated view of oneself that requires external validation and is linked to paranoid ideation",["Cichocka, Marchlewska, & Golec de Zavala, 2016"]]]},{"rt":[["algorithmic tools",[]]]},{"de":[["This competence complements conventional critical-thinking and information-literacy skills, such as finding reliable information online, by specifying how to avoid information that is misleading, distractive, and potentially harmful.",[]],["As do all types of deliberate ignorance, critical ignoring requires cognitive and motivational resources (e.g., impulse control) and, somewhat ironically, knowledge: In order to know what to ignore, a person must first understand and detect the warning signs of low trustworthiness.",[]],["This will often entail selecting a few valuable pieces of information and deliberately ignoring others",["Hertwig & Engel, 2016"]],["Critical ignoring (Wineburg, 2021) is a type of deliberate ignorance that entails selectively filtering and blocking out information in order to control one's information environment and reduce one's exposure to false and low-quality information.",["Wineburg, 2021"]]],"rt":[["conventional critical-thinking",[]],["information-literacy skills",[]],["critical thinking",[]]],"sp":[["deliberate ignorance",[]]]},{"de":[["People deliberately ignore information for various reasons-for instance, to avoid anticipated negative emotions, to ensure fairness, or to maximize suspense and surprise.",[]],["Deliberate ignorance can also be a tool for boosting information management, especially online (Kozyreva et al., 2020).",["Kozyreva et al., 2020"]],["Deliberate ignorance refers to the conscious choice to ignore information even when the costs of obtaining it are negligible (Hertwig & Engel, 2016).",["Hertwig & Engel, 2016"]]],"sb":[["critical ignoring",[]]]},{"de":[["We reserve the term disinformation to refer to messages that the communicator knows to be false but is disseminating for political or personal purposes.",[]]]},{"de":[["one needs to withdraw that negative social reward, thereby diminishing trolls' motivation to engage in antisocial behavior.",["March, 2016"]],["It consists of two rules: First, do not respond directly to trolls; do not correct them, engage in debate, retaliate, or troll in response. Second, instead, block trolls and report them to the platform.",[]]],"rt":[["online harassment",["Craker & March, 2016"]],["cyberbullying",[]]]},{"de":[["Flooding consists of inundating online spaces with a torrent of messages to dominate and disrupt conversation and drown out dissenting voices.",[]]]},{"de":[["Similarly, JAQing (\"just asking questions\") is a tactic of disingenuously framing false or misleading statements as questions.",[]]],"sy":[["just asking questions",[]]]},{"de":[["Lateral reading begins with a key insight: One cannot necessarily know how trustworthy a website or a social-media post is by engaging with and critically reflecting on its content.",[]],["Without relevant background knowledge or reliable indicators of trustworthiness, the best strategy for deciding whether one can believe a source is to look up the author or organization and the claims elsewhere (e.g., using search engines or Wikipedia to get pointers to reliable sources).",[]],["Instead of dwelling on an unfamiliar site (i.e., reading vertically), fact-checkers strategically and deliberately ignored it until they first opened new tabs to search for information about the organization or individual behind it.",[]],["the best strategy for deciding whether one can believe a source is to look up the author or organization and the claims elsewhere (e.g., using search engines or Wikipedia to get pointers to reliable sources).",[]]],"rt":[["reading vertically",[]],["Civic Online Reasoning curriculum",["Axelsson et al., 2021","Brodsky et al., 2021","McGrew et al., 2019","Wineburg et al., 2022"]]]},{"de":[["We use the term misinformation to refer to any information that later turns out to have been false.",[]]]},{"de":[["Sealioning is a type of trolling and a harassment tactic of pestering participants in online discussions with disingenuous questions and incessant requests for evidence under the guise of sincerity.",[]]],"sb":[["trolling",[]]],"sp":[["trolling",[]]]},{"de":[["Using extensively studied mechanisms of interventions, such as positional effects (e.g., making healthy food options more accessible in a supermarket or a cafeteria), defaults (e.g., making data privacy a default setting), or social norms, the self-nudger redesigns choice architectures to prompt behavioral change.",[]],["This involves making changes to one's environment in order to manage exposure to temptation.",[]],["The key goal of self-nudging, however, is not to optimize information consumption, but rather to offer a range of measures that can help people regain control of their information environments and align those environments with their goals, including goals regarding how to distribute their time and attention among different competing sources (e.g., friends on social media and friends and family offline).",[]]],"rt":[["nudging",["Thaler & Sunstein, 2008"]]],"ex":[["digital self-nudges, such as setting time limits on the use of social media (e.g., via the Screen Time app on iPhone) or converting one's screen to a grayscale mode",[]]]},{"sp":[["situational self-control strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals who engage in trolling are motivated by negative social power, and their trolling behavior is reinforced by the adverse impact their actions have (e.g., annoying and upsetting people).",["Craker & March, 2016"]],["Trolling is a form of online harassment that involves posting provocative and inflammatory messages in order to disrupt the conversation and upset other people.",[]]],"rt":[["interpersonal antisocial behaviors",[]],["online harassment",[]]],"sp":[["online harassment",["Craker & March, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["Thus, debunking false information can actually strengthen the belief in its truth",["Johnson & Seifert, 1994","Wilkes & Leatherbarrow, 1988"]],["The occurrence of this backfire effect is based on two processes: first, on increasing processing fluency through the (repeated) presentation of a statement, which leads to higher credibility",["Hasher, Goldstein, & Toppino, 1977","Parks & Toth, 2006","Reber & Schwarz, 1999"]],["the backfire effect is based on the fact that memory for contextual details fades off faster than for the information itself",[]],["the backfire effect is triggered. Based on these considerations, we expect that rectifying false claims enhances backfire effects: Reading statements explicitly labeled as true or false leads people to more often misremember false information as true than true information as false",[]],["detrimental effects of correcting false information",[]],["people start to misremember originally false information as true, but only rarely misremember facts as false",[]],["People not only systematically misremember the truth of misinformation but also change their attitudes accordingly",[]],["the risk of corrected misinformation backfiring is not limited to the medical sector",[]],["the backfire effect might be far more problematic than previously assumed",[]],["People not only systematically misremember the truth of misinformation but also change their attitudes accordingly.",[]]],"rt":[["backfire error",[]],["fact-false error",[]],["misinformation",[]],["information campaigns",[]],["journalistic coverage",[]]],"ex":[["At the end of the 1990s, a study erroneously reported that the combined MMR vaccination could cause autism. Though the study turned out to be fraudulent and many disclaimer campaigns were launched, a lot of people still believe that this risk exists",["Hargreaves, Lewis, & Speers, 2003","Nyhan, Reifler, Richey, & Freed, 2014"]],["Skurnik et al. (2007) replicated these findings in the context of health campaigns: They showed their participants \"Myth&Facts\" flyers about the flu vaccine. While participants made hardly any mistakes directly after exposure to the flyer, the backfire effect emerged after a 30-minute delay, with people misremembering significantly more myths as true than facts as false.",[]],["people start to misremember originally false information as true, but only rarely misremember facts as false. After a delay of several days, about one out of four originally false statements is erroneously remembered as a fact",[]],["After a delay of several days, about one out of four originally false statements is erroneously remembered as a fact, leading people to believe, for example, that the presented bowel cancer test is recommended by independent IGeL monitoring-although the presented article not only identified this statement as false but also pronounced that the IGeL monitoring rates the benefit of this test as uncertain due to a lack of scientific evidence",[]],["Side effects of the flu vaccination are worse than the flu",[]],["The bowel cancer test is recommended by independent IGeL monitoring",[]]]},{"rt":[["fact-false error",[]]]},{"de":[["While these theories usually deal with how information is processed when judgments are formed (fast/heuristic/automatic vs. slow/systematic/controlled)",[]]]},{"rt":[["backfire error",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["If people using this strategy are asked for their opinion at a later point in time, they recall this previously formed judgment, but not the arguments that led to it.",[]],["When people applying this strategy are asked for their attitudes later, they only recall the attitude itself but not the single arguments that led to it (Srull & Wyer, 1989)",["Srull & Wyer, 1989"]],["They are formed and stored in memory when information on an issue is actually encountered.",[]],["When people applying this strategy are asked for their attitudes later, they only recall the attitude itself but not the single arguments that led to it",["Srull & Wyer, 1989"]],["attitudes formed during reception are more stable over time and independent of what arguments can be remembered at the time a judgment is needed",["Bizer et al., 2006"]]],"sy":[["on-line judgments",["Bizer, Tormala, Rucker, & Petty, 2006","Hastie & Park, 1986"]]],"rt":[["Memory-based judgments",[]]],"sp":[["judgment-formation strategy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Depending on the judgment-formation strategy people apply, they either form judgments during reception or only at the time the judgment is actually needed",[]],["If campaign designers or journalists repeat myths to correct them, they should encourage readers to form attitudes during reception, for example, by inserting claims like \"What is your opinion?\" or \"Make up your mind!\"",[]]],"sb":[["Immediate Versus Memory-Based Judgments",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Memory-based judgments are based on whatever information comes to mind at the time of judgment",["Matthes et al., 2007, pp. 247-248"]],["The main characteristic of this judgment-formation strategy is that people encode and store the information presented, but they do not form judgments at that point in time (Matthes et al., 2007)",[]],["the resulting attitudes can be rather unstable: \"Memory-based judgments are based on whatever information comes to mind at the time of judgment\" (Matthes et al., 2007, pp. 247-248). This can result in different attitudes on the same issue at different points in time since memorybased judgments are prone to recency, availability, and salience effects (Hastie & Park, 1986;Tversky & Kahneman, 1973)",[]],["The main characteristic of this judgment-formation strategy is that people encode and store the information presented, but they do not form judgments at that point in time",["Matthes et al., 2007"]]],"rt":[["Immediate judgments",[]]],"sp":[["judgment-formation strategy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The truth effect explains why the (repeated) presentation of a statement leads recipients to believe that it is true.",[]],["Generally, the truth effect is more pronounced if respondents are unsure about the validity of statements",["Roggeveen & Johar, 2002","Unkelbach, 2007"]]],"rt":[["familiarity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This measure quantitatively describes similarities or differences in the language surrounding Republican and Democrat mentions in COVID-19 articles.",[]]],"rt":[["partisanship",[]]]},{"de":[["When such coverage is both highly politicized and polarized, motivated reasoning (Taber et al., 2009) and a predisposition of the public to rely on political over scientific views (Bolsen et al., 2014;Slothuus & de Vreese, 2010) mean that news coverage can amplify partisan differences in risk perceptions and responses to an issue.",["Taber et al., 2009","Bolsen et al., 2014","Slothuus & de Vreese, 2010"]]]},{"de":[["journalistic choices that may have political implications, such as how an issue is framed, are not captured.",[]],["while our measure of politicization captures mentions of partisan actors, it is not able to speak to reasons why an issue may be politicized",[]],["an issue could be politicized for a variety of reasons, including political scandals or bipartisan policy making",[]]],"rt":[["how an issue is framed",[]]]},{"de":[["An issue may become politicized for a number of reasons, and politicization is not inherently negative.",[]],["biases in newsroom norms and the desire to draw audience attention to a story can also lead to greater politicization of content.",[]]],"ex":[["coverage of politicians coming together to address a social risk is likely to be highly politicized",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people generalize their metaknowledge judgment onto their climate change-related self-schema",[]],["viewed as part of one's personality",[]],["interpret their meta-knowledge as part of their self-schema",[]]],"rt":[["self-related motives such as self-consistency",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["selective exposure",[]],["selective elaboration",[]]],"sb":[["selective exposure",[]],["selective elaboration",[]]]},{"de":[["a form of confirmation bias where people choose messages that reinforce prior beliefs",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["imparting knowledge and science literacy was regarded as the main goal of science communication for a long time",["Bauer, 2008"]]]},{"de":[["an umbrella term when referring to this manipulated self-perception (since it should affect different aspects of both subjective knowledge and confidence in knowledge)",[]],["monitoring processes",[]],["high meta-knowledge increases the willingness to engage with further information on the issue",[]],["Meta-knowledge seems to be one factor influencing people's issue-specific self-schemas, which then might influence cognitive as well as behavioral engagement with the issue",["Markus, 1999","Shulman et al., 2020"]],["meta-knowledge as an umbrella term when referring to this manipulated self-perception (since it should affect different aspects of both subjective knowledge and confidence in knowledge)",[]]],"sy":[["subjective knowledge",["Lee et al., 2021"]],["perceived knowledge",["Schäfer, 2020"]],["confidence in knowledge",["Fischer & Said, 2021"]],["metacognitions",[]]],"rt":[["objective knowledge acquisition",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["subjective knowledge",[]],["objective knowledge",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive engagement",[]]]},{"de":[["refers to any situation in which people systematically select some messages over others",[]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]],["selective elaboration",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive engagement",[]]]},{"de":[["More specifically, the SESAM model assumes that media messages constitute one means with which recipients can activate parts of their dynamic self-concept.",[]]]},{"de":[["Self-schemas can be informed by direct self-assessment as well as the evaluation of past behaviors",["Markus & Wurf, 1987"]],["self-related views (either through meta-knowledge or self-schemas) govern people's management of those resources.",[]]],"rt":[["meta-knowledge",[]]],"sb":[["climate change-related self-schema",[]]]},{"rt":[["meta-knowledge",[]]]},{"de":[["different frames cause different emotional responses, depending on what they represent to the individual",[]]]},{"de":[["one of four types of frames common in Dutch immigration news reporting",["Arends-Toth & Van de Vijver, 2004","Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007"]],["classifying groups and categories is an inherent dilemma in assimilationism",[]]],"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"sy":[["sympathy",[]]]},{"de":[["contains references to independence and immigrants as emancipated citizens",[]],["Obstacles to participation should be resolved through state policies and arrangements that help migrants in their integration and emancipation.",[]]],"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["probably following a positive appraisal of being in control and attributing legitimacy to a certain issue or actor",["e.g., Groenendyk, Brader, & Valentino, 2011"]],["probably following a positive appraisal of being in control and attributing legitimacy to a certain issue or actor (e.g., Groenendyk, Brader, & Valentino, 2011).",["e.g., Groenendyk, Brader, & Valentino, 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["Mediation analysis is a causal approach.",[]]]},{"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Through this selection, news frames are believed to have an effect in that they suggest a specific interpretation of the framed issue to the individual.",[]]],"sb":[["multicultural frame",[]],["emancipation frame",[]],["assimilation frame",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["one of four types of frames common in Dutch immigration news reporting",["Arends-Toth & Van de Vijver, 2004","Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007"]],["may cause increased compassion as it appeals to unfair suffering of immigrants at the hand of society",[]]],"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Part of being accountable is to admit wrongs and communicate with the public, often in the form of corrections",["McQuail, 2005","Plaisance, 2000"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["corrections can be understood as an important tool in holding journalists accountable to the public which they serve",[]],["corrections in themselves are not a cure for bad journalistic practice, as they cannot mend large errors.",[]]],"rt":[["accountability",[]]],"sp":[["accountability",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["accuracy goals",[]]]},{"de":[["can resolve this tension and-as such-may best meet both defensive and accuracy motivations",[]],["Because balanced content contains pro-attitudinal information, it is useful for issue publics to successfully reinforce their desired conclusions",[]],["type of information (i.e., balanced compared with pro-and counter-attitudinal information as reference category)",[]]],"rt":[["pro-attitudinal",[]],["counter-attitudinal",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["defensive goals",[]],["defensive motivation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["defense motivation",[]]]},{"de":[["issue publics may be driven by both defensive and accuracy motivations",[]],["they may experience tension between reinforcing their opinions and increasing the plausibility that their opinions are correct",[]],["attitude importance is considered a reliable proxy (Kim, 2009)",["Kim, 2009"]],["both issue and non-issue publics have attitudes on a particular issue.",[]],["Some research has operationalized issue publics according to individual's demographics (e.g., Iyengar, Hahn, Krosnick, & Walker, 2008).",[]],["others research has considered attitude strength and importance as better estimates of issue publics (Kim, 2009).",["Kim, 2009"]]],"rt":[["nonissue publics",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["messages that contained narrative evidence were selected at a greater rate (Hastall & Knobloch-Westerwick, 2013) and resulted in longer exposure (Knobloch-Westerwick & Sarge, 2013) than messages with numerical evidence",["Hastall & Knobloch-Westerwick, 2013","Knobloch-Westerwick & Sarge, 2013"]],["evidence type (i.e., numerical over narrative evidence as reference category)",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["issue publics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it discourages citizens from critically gathering diverse information, and from forming well-informed opinions on public matters",["Iyengar et al., 2008"]],["has been seen as a threat to effective democracy",["Iyengar et al., 2008"]]]},{"de":[["Algorithmic filtering directly influences the organic (i.e. non-paid) reach of a post.",[]],["Algorithmic filtering, and the ability to override it via paid advertising, allowed campaigns to reach potential voters outside of their organic follower bases.",[]]],"rt":[["reach",[]]],"sp":[["digital architecture",[]]]},{"sp":[["Functionality",[]]]},{"sp":[["Functionality",[]]]},{"de":[["they generally rely on datafication techniques to control the audiences of specific posts.",[]],["Datafication is a complex, expensive, and iterative process in contemporary digital campaigning.",[]],["On the one hand, data is utilized for matching and targeting specific audiences with the intent of persuasion or mobilization. On the other, datafication allows for campaigns to monitor and collect analytics that help inform future strategy.",[]],["Snapchat lacked a comprehensive datafication incentive to reward politicians' who invested in the platform.",[]]],"rt":[["matching and targeting",[]],["analytics",[]]],"sb":[["matching",[]]],"sp":[["digital architecture",[]]],"ex":[["using a combination of data from voter files, commercial warehouses, and polling from a small part of the electorate (around 1,500 people) to then, secondly, extrapolating this data to build look-alike audiences of larger portions of the electorate.",[]]]},{"de":[["four aspects of a platform's digital architecture influence political communication on social media -network structure, functionality, algorithmic filtering, and datafication.",[]]],"sb":[["network structure",[]],["functionality",[]],["algorithmic filtering",[]],["datafication",[]]]},{"de":[["a social media's digital architecture is written in code, influenced by algorithms, and constantly tweaked by developers to maintain a competitive market advantage",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["searchability",[]],["connectivity",[]],["privacy",[]]],"sb":[["searchability",[]],["connectivity",[]],["privacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["network structure",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Algorithmic filtering",[]]]},{"sp":[["Functionality",[]]]},{"rt":[["observer role",[]],["entertainer role",[]]],"sp":[["professional journalistic roles",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It encapsulates journalists' notions of their profession in relation to society as a whole.",[]],["journalism culture is widely shared among journalists within a geographic and cultural context, with more variance between different contexts than within.",[]]],"rt":[["professional journalistic roles",[]]]},{"de":[["gender influences in journalistic news production act as gatekeepers in the transformation of a political and social reality into a mediated reality.",[]]],"rt":[["gendered mediation of politics",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["access provider role",[]],["entertainer role",[]]]},{"de":[["these roles express which ideas journalists follow.",[]]],"rt":[["journalism culture",[]]],"sb":[["access provider role",[]],["entertainer role",[]]],"sp":[["journalism culture",[]]]},{},{"de":[["acts as a mechanism to maintain a hegemonic status quo",["1976"]]]},{},{"de":[["Biologically based racism has thus largely been replaced by cultural racism",["Blaut, 1992"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["associating it with structural patterns located in non-Swedish rather than Swedish contexts",["Gottzén, 2016"]]]},{},{"de":[["Previous or current use of alcohol or drugs was a recurring subject, most often with reference to the perpetrator but also at times to the victim, including both habits and addictions and use of substances in direct relation to the event.",[]],["Articles further pointed to the perpetrator's (mental) health and/or social issues. The most common subcategory was poor (mental) health and/or disorders, ranging from references to mental or personality disorders to symptoms and insinuations of such issues and to general health concerns.",[]],["A few articles included malfunctioning social life.",[]],["Another category is that of socioeconomic status, ranging from describing professional title/work status to portraying economic status or concerns or power position in society (social status).",[]],["Under the category of having had a difficult childhood/life, some articles attended to the childhood and previous life of IPVAW perpetrators, at times including images of them as children (difficult childhood; general difficulties in life).",[]],["Such noted difficulties included experiences of domestic violence, parental drug use, or bullying.",[]],["Other categories include personality and temper, where the perpetrator's personal traits, for example, anger or coldness, were an indicated reason for the IPVAW (violence seeming in concordance with personality/temper), though the subcategory of violence not seeming in concordance with personality simultaneously offered examples of persons expressing surprise at the IPVAW due to descriptions of the man as, for example, calm.",[]],["Recounting the perpetrator's criminal record and previous violence against the same woman, other women, or other people was a rather common approach, making other crimes a part of the explanatory model.",[]],["A lack of previous criminal record was sometimes reported (criminal history and connections; history of violence and being considered dangerous).",[]],["In some cases, the IPVAW appears to have been caused by previous violence, for example, with the aim of making the victim retract a police report (violence caused by previous violence).",[]]]},{"de":[["Thus, this theme did not try to explain the IPVAW but rather to disprove it.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["associated with feminist and women's shelter movements",["SOU, 2004:121"]],["position the reported case in any societal context",[]]],"sy":[["structural discourse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Terms such as \"wife-battering\" or \"wife basher\" were previously used to describe violence occurring between intimate partners.",[]]],"sb":[["emotional abuse",[]],["coercive control",[]],["financial abuse",[]],["child abuse",[]],["sexual abuse",[]]]},{"sp":[["terrorism",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["selection and salience",[]]]},{"de":[["It is vital to draw upon the concept of mediated reality within this discussion, to distinguish between reality itself and the mediated construction of reality or the reality that is presented by the news media and journalists",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["romantic terrorism",[]]],"sp":[["terrorism",[]]]},{"sy":[["editorial page",[]]]},{},{"de":[["specifically protection (or lack thereof) from crime, danger, fear, or anxiety.",["Buzan's (1991)"]]]},{},{"de":[["a technique and tool used by individuals in the pursuit of power and control.",[]],["Terrorism is so varied and complex a phenomenon that it should give pause to anyone whose aim it is to understand itor, to be more precise, whose aim it is to understand the many different terrorisms that the deceptively singular term covers (p. 262)",["p. 262"]],["Terrorism studies itself has been described as an increasingly important subfield within many disciplines",[]],["Terrorism is so varied and complex a phenomenon that it should give pause to anyone whose aim it is to understand itor, to be more precise, whose aim it is to understand the many different terrorisms that the deceptively singular term covers",[]],["The word \"terrorism\" originates from the Latin word terror, described as a great fear or dread, the term is directly related to the Latin verb terrere (to frighten).",[]]],"rt":[["nonpolitical terrorism",[]]],"sb":[["nonpolitical terrorism",[]],["romantic terrorism",[]],["domestic terrorism",[]]]},{"de":[["challenging pluralistic ignorance, overcoming diffusion of responsibility, assessing the potential risk of danger or embarrassment in the event that they intervene",[]]]},{"rt":[["agentic helping",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["winning the lottery",[]],["dealing with health concerns or difficult relatives",[]]]},{},{"de":[["arise from observations of the social roles men and women typically hold within a society",[]],["stereotypes of girls and women as being communal and other-oriented, and boys and men as being agentic and self-focused",["see Croft et al., 2015 for a detailed review of this process"]]]},{},{"rt":[["tunnel vision",[]]],"ex":[["such as the commute to work or school",[]]]},{},{"de":[["such a discrepancy has implications for behavior and sustaining social norms.",[]],["and such a discrepancy has implications for behavior and sustaining social norms.",[]]],"ex":[["people do not initiate interactions with others (e.g., strangers, members of an outgroup) because they worry about facing rejection and assume others do not initiate interactions because they are disinterested, rather than realizing others might share the same fears",["Epley & Schroeder, 2014;Shelton & Richeson, 2005","Epley & Schroeder, 2014","Shelton & Richeson, 2005"]]]},{"de":[["manhood must be repeatedly proven, verified, and confirmed because there is a perception that manhood can be challenged and stripped away from a man who behaves in a stereotypically feminine way",["Bosson & Vandello, 2011","Vandello, Bosson, Cohen, Burnaford, & Weaver, 2008"]]]},{},{"de":[["The final proximal predictor in the GRIP model is a person's subjective belief that they can effectively complete the behavior in question, which is likely to be informed by cultural stereotypes about what behaviors are appropriate for one's gender category.",[]]],"sp":[["the broader TPB factor labeled perceived behavioral control",["Ajzen, 2002"]]]},{"de":[["When evaluating a target, perceivers consider a target's behavior as well as attributes about the target, such as their gender, and may shift their standards of judgment based on stereotyped expectations.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["people think others notice their stigmatized characteristics more than they actually do. When someone is the only member of an ethnic minority, or the only member of their gender in a group, and attention is brought to their ethnicity or gender, people feel like others are looking at them more, and this makes them experience more negative affect",["Crosby, King, & Savitsky, 2014"]]],"ex":[["someone might think they are having a \"bad hair day,\" because they compare their own hair on that day to how it looked on other days, whereas others are less likely to notice subtle day-to-day differences.",[]]]},{"de":[["people must necessarily rely on abstract expectations (i.e., stereotypes) in order to forecast their potential future experiences and emotional outcomes",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Apuke and Omar (2020a) found that altruism was the most significant factor that predicted fake news sharing of COVID-19.",["Apuke and Omar, 2020a"]]]},{"de":[["Fake news diminishes the quality and number of accurate and trustworthy information that people consume, particularly on social media platforms.",[]],["social media is a place to disseminate dis/misinformation rapidly",["Apuke and Omar, 2020a"]],["While this study acknowledges that the term, 'fake news' is contested, the study prefers to use 'fake news' as an umbrella word to cover both dis/misinformation.",[]],["Some have claimed that fake news is socially and democratically problematic as it produces inadequately informed people who then continue to misinform (Bakir and McStay, 2018).",["Bakir and McStay, 2018"]],["All of these intensify the concern that if not controlled in the long run, fake news may exacerbate the erosion of public trust in news reports and researchers are concerned that it will have a toxic impact on global governance and health communication (Lazer et al., 2018).",["Lazer et al., 2018"]],["Fake news is used to discuss misinformation in some instances and disinformation in other instances.",[]],["have an adverse effect on the people as it causes people not to trust official guidelines",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["dis/misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["dis/misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["the extensively shared and liked article from the website MayMayGistcom with the headline: 'We are not sure of any COVID-19 in Nigeria: UN'.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["These are individuals who could be ordinary party supporters, or those with an individual profile.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This process should not be understood as a straightforward incorporation or appropriation of the free labour of an otherwise authentic fan culture.",[]],["This free labour has not been appropriated but voluntarily given.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["language of labour to understand the power relations that shape those processes",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["platform vernaculars",[]]]},{"de":[["This could be elements such as time, location or operating system used, going as far as including entire user profiles.",[]]],"rt":[["contextual elements",[]]]},{"rt":[["issue vernaculars",[]]]},{"de":[["connections between platform technicities, user practices and creator tactics",[]],["complex ranking cultures that reward platform-specific strategies and audience activation through strongly opinionated expression.",[]]],"rt":[["ranking",[]]]},{"de":[["sparingly edited footage of war machinery in operation",[]],["content between information, propaganda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["conspiratorial narratives are not always benign, obscure and ultimately harmless ideas. They can be detrimental to society, for example, when they mislead policy making, hinder crisis relief and public health efforts, or undermine trust in institutions and science.",[]]],"rt":[["conspiratorial narratives",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In such contexts, conspiracy theories are disseminated and consumed as esoteric discourses and amongst peripheric groups.",[]]]},{"de":[["powerful framings can at times be resisted and even reframed by different actors",["Pieri, 2009"]],["dominant framings can also contribute to legitimise the implementation of policy interventions",[]]],"rt":[["problem definition",[]],["causal analysis",[]],["expression of moral judgement",[]],["promoting a remedy",[]]]},{"de":[["the outbreak narrative is triggered by a dominant framing of pandemic risk that identifies the system and goals to be global -that is, affecting the global population and seeking to protect/reduce its mortality.",["Dry and Leach (2010: 14)"]],["the outbreak narrative is invariably accompanied by a construction of the disease as dynamic, fast emerging, and rapidly spreading.",["Dry and Leach (2010)","Dry and Leach (2010: 14)"]],["this construction leaves only a limited set of responses open -namely, targeting of at-source control and eradication of the disease, as opposed to envisaging it as an endemic disease likely to re-occur periodically and therefore requiring a rather different set of responses and management strategies.",["Dry and Leach (2010)"]],["the outbreak framing produces other consequences too, I argue, by focusing attention so intensely, even obsessively, on the issue of contagion. It results in privileging as the only viable and reasonable solutions those strategies that are heavily focused on geographical containment, reinforcing an unhelpful fortress mentality.",[]],["a recurrent and Western centric framing of pandemic risk along the lines of an outbreak narrative, arguing that this shift produced a strong and misguided focus on obsessive fear of contagion spreading to the West (the US, Europe, and the UK) and an unhelpful focus on ineffective border control containment strategies.",[]],["an outbreak narrative (Dry and Leach, 2010), in which certain risky individuals, including super-spreaders and socially marginalised groups, come to be stigmatised and blamed for the spread of the pandemic.",["Dry and Leach, 2010"]],["triggered by a dominant framing of pandemic risk that identifies the system and goals to be global -that is, affecting the global population and seeking to protect/reduce its mortality.",["Dry and Leach (2010: 14)"]]],"rt":[["localised African crisis",[]]],"sp":[["outbreak framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["neoliberal values",[]],["feminism",[]]]},{"de":[["in today's media it is possession of a 'sexy body' that is presented as women's key (if not sole) source of identity.",[]],["The body is presented simultaneously as women's source of power and as always already unruly and requiring constant monitoring, surveillance, discipline and remodeling (and consumer spending) in order to conform to ever narrower judgments of female attractiveness.",[]]]},{"de":[["In a shift from earlier representational practices it appears that femininity is defined as a bodily property rather than (say) a social structural or psychological one.",[]]]},{"ex":[["adult women such as Kylie Minogue and Kate Moss",[]]]},{},{"de":[["More broadly, it might be argued that a makeover paradigm constitutes postfeminist media culture.",[]],["Not only is this the implicit message of many magazines, talk shows and other media content, but it is the explicit focus of the 'makeover takeover' (Hollows) that dominates contemporary television.",[]]],"rt":[["postfeminist media culture",[]]],"ex":[["food and homes and gardens",[]],["clothing, cleanliness, work, dating, sex, cosmetic surgery and raising children",[]],["Changing Rooms (BBC), House Dr (Channel 4) and Better Homes (ITV)",[]],["Wife Swap",[]],["Queer Eye for the Straight Guy",[]],["10 Years Younger",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a mode of governmentality that operates across a range of social spheres",[]],["The individual must bear full responsibility for their life biography, no matter how severe the constraints upon their action.",[]]],"rt":[["postfeminism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["New lad championed and reasserted a version of masculinity as libidinous, powerful and, crucially, as different from femininity.",[]]]},{"de":[["a dominant representational practice in advertising, magazines, Internet sites and cable television",[]]]},{"de":[["These include the notion that femininity is a bodily property; the shift from objectification to subjectification; an emphasis upon self surveillance, monitoring and self-discipline; a focus on individualism, choice and empowerment; the dominance of a makeover paradigm; and a resurgence of ideas about natural sexual difference.",[]],["It also points to a number of other relatively stable features that comprise or constitute a postfeminist discourse. These include the notion that femininity is a bodily property; the shift from objectification to subjectification; the emphasis upon self surveillance, monitoring and discipline; a focus upon individualism, choice and empowerment; the dominance of a makeover paradigm; a resurgence in ideas of natural sexual difference; a marked sexualisation of culture; and an emphasis upon consumerism and the commodification of difference.",[]],["sensibility that characterises increasing numbers of films, television shows, adverts and other media products",[]],["the term is used variously (and frequently contradictorily) to signal an epistemological break with (second wave) feminism, an historical shift (to a third wave), or a regressive political stance (backlash).",[]]],"sy":[["epistemological break with (second wave) feminism",[]],["historical shift (to a third wave)",[]],["regressive political stance (backlash)",[]]],"rt":[["neoliberalism",[]]],"sb":[["the notion that femininity is a bodily property",[]],["the shift from objectification to subjectification",[]],["an emphasis upon self surveillance, monitoring and self-discipline",[]],["a focus on individualism, choice and empowerment",[]],["the dominance of a makeover paradigm",[]],["a resurgence of ideas about natural sexual difference",[]]]},{}] |