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714cbfe | 1 | [{"de":[["informed by postmodernist and constructionist perspectives and seeks to examine what is distinctive about contemporary articulations of gender in the media.",[]],["This new notion emphasises the contradictory nature of postfeminist discourses and the entanglement of both feminist and anti-feminist themes within them. It also points to a number of other relatively stable features that comprise or constitute a postfeminist discourse. These include the notion that femininity is a bodily property; the shift from objectification to subjectification; the emphasis upon self surveillance, monitoring and discipline; a focus upon individualism, choice and empowerment; the dominance of a makeover paradigm; a resurgence in ideas of natural sexual difference; a marked sexualisation of culture; and an emphasis upon consumerism and the commodification of difference.",[]]]},{"de":[["postfeminism construct an articulation or suture between femininist and antifeminist ideas, and second that this is effected entirely through a grammar of individualism that fits perfectly with neoliberalism.",[]],["What makes a postfeminist sensibility quite different from both prefeminist constructions of gender or feminist ones is that it is clearly a response to feminism.",[]],["precisely because of its tendency to entangle feminist and antifeminist discourses. Feminist ideas are both articulated and repudiated, expressed and disavowed.",[]],["Its constructions of contemporary gender relations are profoundly contradictory.",[]],["notions of autonomy, choice and self-improvement sit side-by-side with surveillance, discipline and the vilification of those who make the 'wrong' 'choices' (e.g. become too fat, too thin, or have the audacity or bad judgment to grow older).",[]]],"rt":[["feminism",[]],["anti-feminist",[]],["neoliberalism",[]],["feminist",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Newspapers' use of rape stories as part of a package of titillating material is well documented, and in news media all women's bodies are available to be coded sexually-whether they are politicians, foreign correspondents or serious news anchors.",[]],["In the 'lad mags' sex is discussed through a vocabulary of youthful, unselfconscious pleasure-seeking, whilst in magazines targeted at teenage girls and young women it is constructed as something requiring constant attention, discipline, self surveillance and emotional labour.",[]],["Girls and women are interpellated as the monitors of all sexual and emotional relationships, responsible for producing themselves as desirable heterosexual subjects, as well as for pleasing men sexually, protecting against pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections, defending their own sexual reputations, and taking care of men's self-esteem.",[]]],"rt":[["striptease culture",[]]],"sb":[["the deliberate sexualisation of children (girls)",[]]],"ex":[["clothing companies target girls as young as 5 with thongs (G strings), belly tops, and T-shirts bearing sexually provocative slogans e.g. 'when I'm bad I'm very, very bad, but when I'm in bed I'm better'.",[]],["The use of the Playboy bunny icon on clothing, stationery and pencils aimed at the preteen market is but one example of the deliberate sexualisation of children (girls).",[]]]},{"rt":[["striptease culture",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Postfeminist culture, I will argue, increasingly 'favours' happiness and 'positive mental attitude', systematically outlawing other emotional states, including anger and insecurity.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["one example of the way that postfeminism increasingly works upon subjectivity or psychic life.",[]]]},{"de":[["offer up powerful messages of hope and possibility, wrapped in a vaguely defiant sense of self-belief that communicates a postfeminist sentiment of entitlement -in this case to happiness",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["an attempt at 'post-ing' that precisely mirrors postfeminist and post-race arguments",[]]],"ex":[["the proliferation of TV lesbian weddings, for example, an attempt at 'post-ing'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a taken-for-granted common-sense that operates as a kind of gendered neoliberalism",[]],["the way it increasingly sets up norms and polices the kinds of feelings and emotions that are permissible, indeed intelligible (Butler, 1997)",[]],["It may be best thought of as a distinctive kind of gendered neoliberalism.",[]],["its ability to change and mutate in relation to new ideas",[]],["postfeminist logics currently operate through a celebration of (a certain kind of) feminism, rather than its repudiation",[]],["it instantiates a common sense that operates as a kind of gendered neoliberalism.",[]],["Some of these core features of postfeminism, discussed in many books and articles, include the emphasis upon individualism, choice and agency; the disappearance -or at least muting -of vocabularies for talking about both structural inequalities and cultural influence (Kelan, 2009) the 'deterritorialisation' of patriarchy and its 'reterritorialisation' (McRobbie, 2009) in women's bodies and the beauty industrial complex (Elias, Gill & Scharff, 2017); the intensified surveillance of women (Winch, 2013); calls to work on, monitor and discipline the self (Ouellette, 2016) and the central significance of a 'makeover paradigm' (Heller, 2007;Weber, 2009) that extends beyond the surface of the body to an incitement to 'makeover' one's interior life, developing a new, 'upgraded' postfeminist subjectivity.",["Kelan, 2009","McRobbie, 2009","Elias, Gill & Scharff, 2017","Winch, 2013","Ouellette, 2016","Heller, 2007;Weber, 2009"]],["emphasis upon individualism, choice and agency; the disappearance -or at least muting -of vocabularies for talking about both structural inequalities and cultural influence (Kelan, 2009) the 'deterritorialisation' of patriarchy and its 'reterritorialisation' (McRobbie, 2009) in women's bodies and the beauty industrial complex (Elias, Gill & Scharff, 2017); the intensified surveillance of women (Winch, 2013); calls to work on, monitor and discipline the self (Ouellette, 2016) and the central significance of a 'makeover paradigm' (Heller, 2007;Weber, 2009) that extends beyond the surface of the body to an incitement to 'makeover' one's interior life, developing a new, 'upgraded' postfeminist subjectivity.",[]]],"sy":[["postfeminist sensibility",[]],["gendered neoliberalism",[]]],"rt":[["feminism",[]],["neoliberalism",[]],["gendered neoliberalism",[]]],"sb":[["postfeminist biologism",["Favaro, 2015"]],["recessionary postfeminism",["Nathanson, 2013","Genz, 2017"]],["Transnational postfeminism",[]]],"ex":[["Sex and the City, Ally McBeal and Bridget Jones",["Moseley & Read, 2002;Arthurs, 2003;McRobbie, 2004;Hermes, 2006"]]]},{},{"rt":[["postfeminism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["breaks both with the historical linearity which assumes that postfeminism must follow feminism in an invariant sequence as well as with the geographical centring of what Stuart Hall dubbed 'the West and the Rest'.",[]]],"rt":[["postfeminism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This is marked by modesty about one's own success, the importance of luck in explaining professional careers and the unstatedness, or downplaying, of individual agency 'in the dice game which is held to determine one's prospects in life'",["Miles and Savage, 2012: 597","Miles and Savage, 2012"]],["a means of resisting classification and quantification in a modernity marked by audit and measurement.",[]],["allowing our interviewees at once to recognise the problems of inequality in CCIs but still leave those issues as unspeakable thanks to the 'luck' that explains their success.",[]],["marked by modesty about one's own success, the importance of luck in explaining professional careers and the unstatedness, or downplaying, of individual agency 'in the dice game which is held to determine one's prospects in life'",["Miles and Savage, 2012: 597"]]],"sy":[["gentlemanly mode of discourse",[]]],"rt":[["gentlemanly repertoire of luck",[]]],"sp":[["mode of discourse",[]]]},{"ex":[["informal dress",[]],["informal modes of communication",[]],["cultural and media omnivorousness",[]]]},{"de":[["an important new discourse for understanding how, despite the public proclamations and sincere intentions of senior men, the current settlement excluding women, ethnic minorities and those from working-class origins (O'Brien et al., 2016), may persist.",["O'Brien et al., 2016"]],["how this inequality talk was not deployed to explain individual career success, rather, gentlemanly narratives of luck were the frame for explaining working life",[]],["an important discourse for men in positions of power in CCIs.",[]],["knowledge of structural inequalities added force to the sense that they, as individuals, had little capacity or power to effect change, despite being in hiring, commissioning, or otherwise crucial decision-making positions.",[]],["In effect, their, in some cases detailed, knowledge of structural inequalities added force to the sense that they, as individuals, had little capacity or power to effect change, despite being in hiring, commissioning, or otherwise crucial decision-making positions.",[]],["what we describe as 'inequality talk' is at once a discursive strategy important for continued success in CCIs, and a way of distancing from the continued 'unspeakablness' of inequalities in our respondents' own narratives of their careers.",[]],["This manifested in three ways, as an analysis of problems in the interviewee's industry, for example Robert's discussion of the inequalities marking the publishing industry (and his frustration and disappointment about that fact)",[]],["He was more explicit in feeling the need to try to challenge and change the inequalities he saw in both the television and publishing industries",[]],["the distance between their 'inequality talk' about the CCIs, and their understandings of their own lives and careers.",[]],["This new mode of 'inequality talk' may contribute to slow or even prevent change.",[]],["At worst, we might see 'inequality talk' as a means of marginalising experiences of inequality, as those in positions of power insist they understand the problem",["Littler, 2018"]],["This 'inequality talk' is thus an important new discourse for understanding how, despite the public proclamations and sincere intentions of senior men, the current settlement excluding women, ethnic minorities and those from working-class origins (O'Brien et al., 2016), may persist.",[]]],"rt":[["structural inequalities",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The rhetorical commitment to diversity stands both in place of formal action, and, more worryingly, as a set of techniques for upholding the existing, exclusionary, settlement.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["is common",["Barkun (2006)"]]]},{"rt":[["epistemic strategies",[]]]},{"rt":[["World-Systems Analysis",[]]]},{"rt":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{"de":[["have been an important source of epistemic authority in various historical religious traditions, but are also used by contemporary 'prophets' in today's market of New Age spiritualities",["Heelas, 1996"]]]},{"sy":[["super conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"de":[["such theories expanded into large master schemes of deceit where 'everything is connected'",[]]],"sy":[["all-encompassing narratives of deceit",[]],["all-encompassing super conspiracy theories",[]]],"ex":[["once separate suspicions are welded into Grand Unified Theories of Everything",["p. 204"]]]},{"sy":[["meaningful coincidences",[]]]},{"rt":[["epistemological strategy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["understands urban encounters as an assemblage of cognition, affect and embodiment.",[]],["points to both the symbolic and the material conditions of reflexivity, as these relate to the experience of urban life.",[]],["a convivial reflexivity that understands embodied encounters as an assemblage of cognition, affect and embodiment.",[]],["while embodied reflexivity might reveal a politics of solidarity and mutual understanding, media reflexivity points at socio-cultural separation.",[]],["It is worth emphasizing that the embodied and mediated encounter do not always overlap, and while they are complementary (in the sense that the embodied encounter is shaped by the mediated one), they are not interchangeable.",[]],["understands embodied encounters as an assemblage of cognition, affect and embodiment.",[]]],"rt":[["reflexivity",[]],["identity-making",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the ways they are realized and negotiated, and the limits on the adaptability of politics of difference.",[]]],"rt":[["mediated encounter",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a site of possibilities for the realisation of the networked commons",[]],["It is constituted as a space that is shared horizontally and where intercultural exchange and mutual learning take place online and offline.",[]],["networked commons, which grant both citizens and non-citizens co-ownership (Amin and Howell, 2016) of the landscape of the city",["Amin and Howell, 2016"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["A common feature of blogs facilitates these conversations: the ability users have to send in 'comments', which are published alongside the blogger's original 'post'.",[]],["a popular mechanism for eliciting reader contributions",[]]],"sy":[["weblogs",[]],["online journal",[]],["column",[]],["colour piece",[]]]},{"de":[["Online, self published current affairs journalism and news publications built on a preponderance of reader contributions are starting to offer alternatives to established news providers.",[]],["Online, self published current affairs journalism and news publications built on a preponderance of reader contributions",[]]],"sy":[["'citizen' journalism",[]],["grassroots",[]]],"rt":[["grassroots",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["are often inflected with racial meanings",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["MartinLutherKing. org",["Daniels, 2009b"]],["California Latino Water Coalition",[]]]},{"rt":[["social movement organizations",[]]],"ex":[["flash mob",[]],["Jena 6 protest",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["when there are gross inequalities of power, these inequities are sustained by 'the spectacle of the Other,' that is gazing at representations of racialized others.",[]]],"rt":[["imagined community",[]]]},{},{"de":[["similar to the way Black barber shops and beauty salons allowed private spaces for identity discourses between Black men and women, and also opens these formerly private spaces to non-Blacks, who contribute to the articulation of Black identity online",["Brock, 2009","Hughey, 2008"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["journalistic gatekeeper",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["gatekeeper",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This expanded user role, facilitated by technology and enabled by digital news editors, includes assessment of contributions by other users; communication of the perceived value or quality of user-and journalist-produced content; and selective re-dissemination of that content.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["social bookmarking sites such as Digg, which typically display lists of clickable headlines based on user recommendations, are examples of aggregated user-generated visibility.",[]],["Users now have the capability to make and implement what essentially are editorial judgments about what is worthy and what is less so, about what others should read and what they might as well ignore.",[]]],"rt":[["framework of mediation",["1291"]]],"ex":[["social bookmarking sites such as Digg",[]]]},{"de":[["This process is largely determined by audience metrics.",[]]],"rt":[["gatekeeping",[]]]},{"de":[["It refers to the rules of the game.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It describes the news selection process that operates under several layers of influences-from the individual to the routine, organizational, social institution, and social system levels (Shoemaker and Vos, 2009).",["Shoemaker and Vos, 2009"]]]},{"de":[["Interpretation is reduced in terms of clicks and page views.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["journalistic doxa",[]]]},{"sp":[["capital",[]]],"ex":[["A journalist's social media network is a form of social capital.",[]]]},{"de":[["that comes in the form of credibility or good reputation",[]]],"sp":[["capital",[]]]},{"de":[["Through new audience information systems, such as web analytics, the influence of the audience on the news construction process is increasing.",[]],["Through web analytics, news organizations can collect and analyze the footprints that news users leave behind, offering immediate access to an unprecedented wealth of information about audience behavior.",[]],["Web analytics programs provide a range of audience metrics, such as number of page views, amount of viewing time, site referrals, among others",[]],["paid web analytics programs",[]],["quantifiable and immediate feedback from the audience",[]],["quantifiable measure of popularity equated with audience preference",[]]],"rt":[["audience metrics",[]]]},{"de":[["are assumed to induce less social connection to and relevance of the victims compared to attacks against specific individuals",[]]]},{"rt":[["intervention by professionals",[]]]},{"de":[["users indeed interpret flagging as a means to indicate violations of usage policies and as an expression of a need for consistent sanctions.",[]]],"rt":[["bystander intervention",[]]]},{"rt":[["incivility",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the collapse of delimited social environments",[]],["the flattening of multiple audiences into one (Marwick and boyd, 2011)",["Marwick and boyd, 2011"]]],"sy":[["collapsed context",["boyd, 2002"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["affordance",[]]]},{"rt":[["affordance",[]]]},{"de":[["They are the results of social and material enablement.",[]],["As such, they are not fixed and stable properties but are implicated in different ongoing processes of constitution, which may radically vary across social and cultural contexts.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The disruption of the public/private in YouTube comment spaces is suggestive of an 'affective economy' (Ahmed, 2004) of racialized expression.",["Ahmed, 2004"]]],"rt":[["racialized expression",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This account pays attention to the expectations of communication technologies, and the complex sociotechnical relationships between mediation, materiality and affect.",[]]]},{"de":[["highlights a 'meso' level analysis which stresses the interactions between individual agency and social structures",["Reid, Sutton, & Hunter, 2010"]],["focuses an approach that dwells in the 'middle space', between the 'micro' (individual racist talk) and macro (societal racism)",["Stengers et al., 2008"]]]},{"de":[["This interstitial space enables a persistence of inflammatory discourse that regularly spreads hostility across the video network like a contagion.",[]]],"sy":[["interstitial space",[]]]},{"de":[["composed of a range of behaviors, by different groups, with discrepant motivations",["Shepherd et al., 2015"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["rather than 'thinning' data down for convenience.",[]]]},{"de":[["Trolling behaviors are generally seen as being facilitated by anonymity (Hardaker, 2010), enabling users to post offensive comments that they know will provoke.",["Hardaker, 2010"]]],"ex":[["hostile flaming, mockery, sarcasm, the 'lulz'",[]]]},{"de":[["Its mainstreaming has led to interactions on social media platforms becoming influenced by a range of trolling practices focused around creating flashpoints.",[]],["As Phillips contends, trolling behaviors need to be considered as emblematic of the wider dominant culture and vociferate its abject 'values'.",[]],["Thus, it is not incidental that trolling has 'weaponized' language, 'existing tropes and cultural sensitivities'",["Phillips, 2012"]]],"ex":[["hostile flaming",[]],["mockery",[]],["sarcasm",[]],["the 'lulz'",[]]]},{"de":[["allow it to be parsed by search engines and other algorithmic mediators.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Every PolitiFact article exists as both a reported narrative and a defined set of data points, highlighted in a rectangular badge at the top of every story: the name and photograph of the speaker, the statement being checked, the date, and the verdict.",[]]],"rt":[["database-driven journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["structured journalism arguably represents the vanguard of computational practice in the newsroom, proposing to fundamentally redefine newswork in a way that marries journalistic and computational thinking.",[]],["reimagines the news story and breaks it into component parts, giving more flexibility to journalist and reader",[]],["a discourse that bridges editorial and programming communities",[]]],"rt":[["data journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["research originally investigated why people (or bystanders, respectively) do or do not provide help when they observe emergencies, such as violent attacks and accidents",["Fischer et al., 2011"]]]},{"de":[["Groups that perform collective action vary in their aims and formal organization, but many of their underlying psychological mechanisms and motivations are similar (Van Zomeren et al., 2008) and include the perception of a social grievance or injustice, a shared social identity, and a sense of collective efficacy to change society for the better (Kelly and Kelly, 1994;Postmes and Brunsting, 2002)",[]],["Groups that perform collective action vary in their aims and formal organization, but many of their underlying psychological mechanisms and motivations are similar (Van Zomeren et al., 2008) and include the perception of a social grievance or injustice, a shared social identity, and a sense of collective efficacy to change society for the better (Kelly and Kelly, 1994;Postmes and Brunsting, 2002).",[]],["include the perception of a social grievance or injustice, a shared social identity, and a sense of collective efficacy to change society for the better",["Kelly and Kelly, 1994;Postmes and Brunsting, 2002"]]],"rt":[["social grievance",[]],["shared social identity",[]],["collective efficacy",[]],["perceived group efficacy",[]],["perceived collective benefits",[]],["knowledge of the formal rules and structures of the social movement",["Bimber et al., 2005","Brunsting and Postmes, 2002","Kelly and Kelly, 1994"]]]},{"de":[["They describe how likely group members think that the overarching collective goal of the social movement (in the case of #ibh: a civil and deliberative discussion culture) will be achieved and how much they value this goal.",[]],["Collective benefits or motives can be seen as a complement to individual benefits of engaging in collective action (Brunsting and Postmes, 2002;Klandermans, 1984;Simon et al., 1998).",["Brunsting and Postmes, 2002","Klandermans, 1984","Simon et al., 1998"]]],"rt":[["individual benefits",[]]],"ex":[["I will contribute to a more balanced public opinion in our society",[]]]},{"de":[["sharing alternative opinions or information",["Bernhard and Dohle, 2015","Golan and Lim, 2016"]],["engaging in online discussions to correct biases",["Lim and Golan, 2011","Rojas, 2010"]],["user-initiated forms of corrective action that may complement institutionalized regulation and journalistic moderation of online discussions.",[]],["It describes actions that are reactive to (media) content perceived as harmful and that seek to influence the public sphere and counterbalance the negative influences of the content",["Lim, 2017;Rojas, 2010"]],["Recent empirical research on corrective action online includes sharing alternative opinions or information",["Bernhard and Dohle, 2015","Golan and Lim, 2016","Bernhard and Dohle, 2015;Golan and Lim, 2016"]]],"rt":[["political participation",["Rojas, 2010: 347","Gil de Zúñiga et al., 2012"]]],"sp":[["political participation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Previous research has demonstrated that members of social movements are more likely to engage in collective action when they perceive their group as capable of transforming social grievances through unified efforts (Postmes and Brunsting, 2002;Van Zomeren et al., 2008).",["Postmes and Brunsting, 2002","Van Zomeren et al., 2008"]],["Group efficacy can be considered a complement to individual skills and abilities on the collective level.",[]],["Group efficacy can be considered a complement to individual skills and abilities on the collective level. The more able the group is perceived in reaching its goal and the more the members share the belief that they are more powerful together, the more motivated they are to engage.",[]]],"rt":[["collective action",[]]]},{"de":[["individual perceptions of civil and uncivil communication",["Chen, 2017","Herbst, 2010"]],["the phenomena that are subsumed under this concept (e.g. name-calling) are known phenomena in Germany, too.",[]],["These comments included (1) name-calling/ impoliteness, (2) lies, (3) threats, (4) antagonistic stereotypes, or (5) pejorative speech.",[]],["These features include name-calling, aspersion, lying, vulgarity, and pejorative speech",["Coe et al., 2014"]]],"sy":[["harmful discussions",[]],["harmful comments",[]]],"rt":[["undemocratic speech",["Chen, 2017"]],["undemocratic and aggravatingly disrespectful opinion expressions",["Ley, 2018"]]],"sb":[["name-calling/ impoliteness",[]],["lies",[]],["threats",[]],["antagonistic stereotypes",[]],["pejorative speech",[]]],"ex":[["name-calling, aspersion, lying, vulgarity, and pejorative speech",["Coe et al., 2014"]],["racist or sexist terms",["Chen, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["It is closely related to other concepts that predict political participation and activism, such as political knowledge (Jung et al., 2011;Kenski and Stroud, 2006).",["Jung et al., 2011","Kenski and Stroud, 2006"]]],"sy":[["internal political efficacy",[]]],"rt":[["political knowledge",["Jung et al., 2011","Kenski and Stroud, 2006"]]]},{"rt":[["political knowledge",["Jung et al., 2011;Kenski and Stroud, 2006"]]]},{"de":[["the reputational costs associated with being wrong are higher than the reputational benefits of being right",["Yaniv & Kleinberger, 2000"]]],"rt":[["trust asymmetry",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["epistemic reputation must be lost more easily than it is gained.",[]],["the reputational costs associated with being wrong are higher than the reputational benefits of being right (Yaniv & Kleinberger, 2000).",["Yaniv & Kleinberger, 2000"]]]},{},{"de":[["uncertainties about the science related to COVID-19 and public health responses were exacerbated by the risks of an emerging climate of misinformation (Krause et al., 2020), contributing to public confusion about what was true and false, possibly compounding already-existing anxieties about the virus (Wiederhold, 2020).",["Krause et al., 2020","Wiederhold, 2020"]],["anxiety may cause people to withdraw and avoid risk",["Hasell and Weeks, 2016: 646"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Even in the absence of malintent, audiences may still perceive claims to be malicious, and perception may matter more than reality when looking at individual-level processing of claims about a deadly risk.",[]],["our definition is agnostic to intent",[]],["Misinformation is a multidimensional concept (Scheufele and Krause, 2019).",["Scheufele and Krause, 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["As a set of skills, the social media competency of analysis includes the abilities to monitor and observe one's social media use behavior, motivations, and outcomes.",[]],["As social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1997) describes, self-regulation processes necessitate quality (e.g. accuracy, regularity) in the monitoring of one's behavior and pertinent facets.",["Bandura, 1997"]],["As a set of skills, the social media competency of analysis includes the abilities to monitor and observe one's social media use behavior, motivations, and outcomes. The target of observation ranges from the frequency and duration of social media use to the abilities to discern, classify, and make connections among the choices of content one makes and the kinds of networks one has, including their composition (e.g. homogeneity, diversity) and ties (strength, weakness).",[]]],"sp":[["competency dimensions",[]],["social media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["contribution differs from production in that the former involves civic goal orientation.",[]],["Through civic-orientation, people should be committed to the greater common good by using their agency to participate in sociocultural and political discourse on social media (Mihailidis, 2018).",["Mihailidis, 2018"]]],"rt":[["production",[]]],"sp":[["competency dimensions",[]],["social media literacy",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["competency dimensions",[]],["social media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["perceived realism",[]]]},{"de":[["Construction of a self-centric content filter is one of the motivations of using social media",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This content is independent of the self as it was created by media institutions and professionals, and it represents the values of the institutions and their advertisers, funders, and supporters.",[]]]},{"de":[["Media literacy is a concept and practice necessary to help citizens be informed and empowered in a world increasingly populated with diverse media and messages.",[]],["In this definition, media literacy comprises the competencies necessary to become informed consumers of the media.",[]]],"rt":[["social media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["perceived realism",[]]]},{"de":[["These dimensions include factuality, plausibility, and typicality, which concern the proximity of media content to the actual world; on the other hand, the dimension of narrative consistency focuses on whether components of a story come together to \"ring true\" (Fisher, 1984;Hall, 2003).",["Fisher, 1984;Hall, 2003","Fisher, 1984","Hall, 2003"]]],"sb":[["factuality",[]],["plausibility",[]],["typicality",[]],["narrative consistency",[]]]},{"sp":[["perceived realism",[]]]},{"de":[["In (mass) media literacy education, production often took the form of classroom posters.",[]],["Mass media did not allow the educators to consider the dissemination of these messages and their impact outside of the classroom.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the content comprises the self, the medium, and the reality.",[]],["The foci of analysis in SoMeLit, therefore, are one's selections and values that influence and are influenced by the construction of one's reality on social media; and the evolving characteristics of social media platforms that set the boundaries of one's social media reality construction.",[]],["Social media literacy, therefore, requires an emphasis on the self and a willingness and ability to examine the social media self in the analysis and evaluation of media content",[]],["SoMeLit proposes three content dimensions of social media literacy: the self, the medium, and the reality.",[]],["SoMeLit recognizes the dynamic interactions among the self, the media, and the reality on social media and identifies them as the core content dimensions of social media literacy.",[]],["Content refers to the awareness, understanding, and knowledge necessary to attain social media literacy.",[]],["Competencies are the skills and abilities for demonstrating social media literacy.",[]],["The social media literate person is cognizant that realism judgments are multifaceted and that each is made with limitations. The social media literate person is also aware that the personal and emotional resonance of information on social media may not always make it real, representative, or a fact.",[]],["Together with mass media literacy, social media literacy comprise a more comprehensive framework of media literacy in the 21st century.",[]]],"sy":[["SoMeLit",[]]],"rt":[["analysis",[]],["evaluation",[]],["contribution",[]]],"sb":[["The self",[]],["The medium",[]],["The Reality",[]],["analysis",[]],["evaluation",[]],["contribution",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["A factor making a social media message ring true may be the resonance between personal experience, values, and perspectives and the information at hand (Cho et al., 2014(Cho et al., , 2019)).",["Cho et al., 2014","Cho et al., , 2019"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["we use the term \"medium\" following Meyrowitz (1998Meyrowitz ( , 2009) ) to denote this construct's focus on particular characteristics of the (social media) platforms and modifiable features within each.",[]],["Medium theory (Meyrowitz, 2009) contends the nature of the medium impacts social, individual, and societal processes.",[]]],"sp":[["social media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["social media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["This entails an awareness of the self's motivations, choices, networks, and the resulting mediated social worlds they construct and manage.",[]]],"sp":[["social media literacy",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["perceived realism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["that make production of news on a daily basis a more possible task.",[]],["the guiding confines embodied by, for example, assumptions about newsworthiness and what readers want or about appropriate presentational formats or standard practices for newsgathering",[]]]},{"de":[["a much easier way to bring readers in than focusing on, say, technological trends or industry structure or gearing histories",[]]]},{"de":[["news coverage often leans more in the direction of 'infotainment' centered around actors, events and intrigues that happen to be situated in the realm of business and finance.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Typically, one of the main drivers underlying choice of stories is whether a lay audience (i.e. a mixed readership including many who are not investors) will recognize the players involved.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["The Daily Show often focused on international stories that could be told through 'cheap framing'",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["soft news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["reports stressing the public or social relevance or consequences of an event and reports stressing personal or private aspects and consequences",[]]],"rt":[["topic dimension",[]]],"sb":[["thematic or episodic framing",[]]],"ex":[["public vs private frame",["Patterson, 2000"]],["policy-or non-policy frame",["Patterson, 2000"]],["news you can use",["Patterson, 2000"]],["episodic or thematic",["Patterson, 2000"]],["human interest frame",["Patterson, 2000"]]]},{"de":[["The terms have been used to classify both individual news reports and media formats.",[]],["Information about these events is presumably important to citizens' ability to understand and respond to the world of public affairs",[]],["If a crime story was reported in a way that contextualized and linked the issue to the public good -for example, if the report referred to penal policies or to the general causes or consequences of crime -it was judged to be a hard news story assimilated to public affairs.",[]],["hard news as being important, usually more interesting to men than women, or news that people should know when they want to understand public affairs.",[]],["thematic framing and the concentration on societal-level consequences of an event are regarded as indicators for hard news",[]],["regarded as hard news",["De Swert, 2007"]],["hard news is characterized as being timely, needing urgent dissemination or by the type of scheduling",[]],["a factual, text-oriented style is regarded as indicating hard news",["Patterson, 2000"]]],"rt":[["soft news",[]],["tabloidization",[]],["infotainment",[]],["sensationalism",[]],["harder",[]]],"sp":[["different types of news",[]]]},{"de":[["collective ambiguity (Sartori, 1984) that is first of all caused by homonymia",[]]]},{"sy":[["Market-centered journalism",["Patterson (2000: 2-3)"]],["Soft news",[]]],"rt":[["hard news",[]],["soft news",[]],["tabloidization",[]],["sensationalism",[]]]},{"sy":[["Infotainment",["Patterson (2000: 2-3)"]],["Soft news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Four aspects are distinguished that indicate the degree of political relevance of a news item: (1) societal actors, (2) decision-making authorities, (3) policy plan and (4) actors concerned.",[]]]},{"ex":[["accidents, disasters, crime",["Van Aelst and De Swert (2009)"]]]},{"de":[["The terms have been used to classify both individual news reports and media formats.",[]],["If, however, the main focus of the report was the crime itself, with details concerning the perpetrators and victims, but with no reference to the larger context or implications for public policies, the news item was judged to be soft.",[]],["a personalized, visually oriented style is regarded as indicative of soft news (Patterson, 2000).",["Patterson, 2000"]],["episodic framing and addressing the individual-level significance indicate soft news (Baum, 2002;Patterson, 2000).",["Baum, 2002","Patterson, 2000"]],["episodic framing and addressing the individual-level significance indicate soft news",[]],["a personalized, visually oriented style is regarded as indicative of soft news",["Patterson, 2000"]],["soft news is described as more entertaining, interesting or personally useful",[]]],"sy":[["Infotainment",[]],["Market-centered journalism",[]]],"rt":[["hard news",[]],["tabloidization",[]],["infotainment",[]],["sensationalism",[]],["softer",[]]],"sp":[["different types of news",[]]],"ex":[["sports, celebrities, royal families, crime, scandals and service",["De Swert, 2007"]]]},{"sy":[["tabloidization",[]],["growing infotainment",[]]],"rt":[["tabloidization",[]]]},{"de":[["One group of indicators measures whether journalists' subjective impressions or opinions are apparent in a report.",[]],["A second group of indicators refers to story ambiance",[]],["reports that include explicit expressions of journalists' personal impressions, interpretations or opinions and others that do not include such personal views. In addition, we distinguish between reports that include verbal and/or visual emotion-arousing elements and reports that do not include such elements.",[]]],"rt":[["topic dimension",[]]],"ex":[["detached way",["Boczkowski and Peer, 2008","Patterson, 2000"]],["news analysis",["Boczkowski and Peer, 2008","Patterson, 2000"]],["feature style",["Boczkowski and Peer, 2008","Patterson, 2000"]],["commentary",["Boczkowski and Peer, 2008","Patterson, 2000"]],["serious vs light-hearted",["Patterson, 2000"]],["a sensational presentation which describes events as 'earthshaking/ unsettling/remarkable'",["Patterson, 2000"]],["a more informal and colloquial vocabulary",["Patterson, 2000"]]]},{"rt":[["hard news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["felt urgency of dissemination",[]]]},{"de":[["the topic dimension is the foundation on which the focus and style dimension are grounded.",[]]],"sy":[["topics/events dimension",[]]],"rt":[["focus dimension",[]],["style dimension",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the argument often put forward to separate PR practitioners from journalists is that 'their text is a form of advocacy, intended to persuade rather than inform '",[]],["a reporter provides a vehicle for that support or argument through the selective process of creating stories.",[]],["Even unwittingly, the simple inclusion of a comment or perspective from a source by the reporter may inject a degree of advocacy to a story.",[]],["elements of advocacy are present in all works of journalism, whether intentional or not.",[]],["The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) defines it as 'verbal support or argument for a cause, policy, etc. The function of an advocate' (OED, 1997: 20).",["OED, 1997: 20"]]],"rt":[["advocacy reporting",[]],["advocacy journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["overt and intentional displays of 'advocacy journalism' on the part of the reporter or proprietor",[]]],"sy":[["'muckraking'",[]],["'crusading'",[]],["'alternative'",[]],["'activist'",[]],["'peace journalism'",[]],["'civic' advocacy journalism",[]],["'interpretive' journalism",[]]],"rt":[["muckraking",[]],["crusading",[]],["alternative",[]],["activist",[]],["peace journalism",[]],["civic",[]],["interpretive",[]]],"sb":[["Muckraking",[]],["crusading",[]],["interpretive journalism",[]],["alternative",[]],["activist",[]],["peace journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["news frames",["Tewksbury et al. (2000)","2000"]]]},{},{"de":[["belonging to the campaign or movement for which they write or broadcast",["Forde (2011)"]]],"rt":[["belonging to the campaign or movement for which they write or broadcast",["Forde (2011)"]]],"sp":[["advocacy journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["bias",[]]],"ex":[["Those personal conflicting interests can include financial interests, such as share holdings, but they can also include loyalties, such as to an employer or a source, or a political party or other organization.",[]]]},{"de":[["Those personal conflicting interests can include financial interests, such as share holdings, but they can also include loyalties, such as to an employer or a source, or a political party or other organization.",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing biases",["Entman (2007)"]]],"sp":[["framing biases",["p. 163","Entman (2007)"]]]},{"de":[["provides a flexible framework to explain the varying presence of advocacy in journalism by accommodating the constantly changing contextual influences that can influence journalism production and the diversity of the individual practitioners engaged in that process.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["framing biases",["Entman (2007)"]]],"sp":[["framing biases",["p. 163","Entman (2007)"]]]},{"sb":[["content bias",[]],["decision making bias",[]],["gatekeeper bias",[]],["coverage bias",[]],["statement bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["advocacy journalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["advocacy journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["advocate frames",["Tewksbury et al. (2000)","2000"]]]},{"de":[["In choosing stories, editors are attempting to reflect the interests and concerns of the audience. Depending on the target demographic, certain stories are going to be given more prominence or ignored providing some voices and issues greater opportunities for advocacy than others.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["mission is to target particular types of issues, stories, angles and voices over others and thereby give non-mainstream perspectives an opportunity to present their views.",[]]],"rt":[["advocacy journalism",[]],["war journalism",[]],["peace PR",["Hanitzsch (2007)"]]],"sp":[["advocacy journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["peace journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["they provide both measures and criteria for discriminating valuable from redundant contributions.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["frames construct coherent meaning based on a selective representation of social reality",["Gamson and Modigliani, 1987"]],["the meaning constructed by frames is not neutral, but suggests specific evaluations and courses of action that serve some purposes better than others",["Benford and Snow, 2000","Entman, 1993"]],["frames are often strategically constructed to advocate specific political views and agendas",["Benford and Snow, 2000","Gerhards and Rucht, 1992"]]]},{"de":[["a frame's problem definition, causal explanation, and treatment recommendation jointly present a causal sequence that instantiates familiar ways in which issues are caused, and can be addressed",["Sibley et al., 2006"]],["frames draw upon those interactions recognized as meaningful within a repertoire.",[]],["frames are thus closely embedded into interpretative repertoires: they apply the assumptions underlying established, coherent ways of interpreting the world to concrete objects.",[]],["a frame is created based on the repertoire's assumptions about what kinds of objects and actors matter, how these primarily interact (as problem definitions, causal explanations, and treatment recommendations) and can be appraised (moral evaluation; Entman, 1993).",["Entman, 1993"]],["frames construct coherent meaning based on a selective representation of social reality",[]],["the meaning constructed by frames is not neutral, but suggests specific evaluations and courses of action that serve some purposes better than others",[]],["because they wield discursive power, frames are often strategically constructed to advocate specific political views and agendas",[]],["In doing so, frames refer to widely recognized repertoires (Donati, 1992;Fisher, 1997): a frame's problem definition, causal explanation, and treatment recommendation jointly present a causal sequence that instantiates familiar ways in which issues are caused, and can be addressed (Sibley et al., 2006).",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["inspired evaluations presume an action of believing or knowing.",[]]],"sp":[["logics of action",[]]]},{"sb":[["Believing",[]],["Desire",[]],["Compassion",[]],["Negotiation",[]],["Exchange",[]],["Technology",[]],["Life",[]]]},{"sb":[["Inspired",[]],["Popular",[]],["Moral",[]],["Civic",[]],["Economic",[]],["Functional",[]],["Ecological",[]]]},{"sb":[["inspired evaluations",[]],["functionality",[]],["ecologic sustainability",[]]]},{},{"de":[["assumptions made by different repertoires can overlap (e.g. sharing moral evaluation standards); they may be mutually compatible -either as elaborations upon one another (e.g. one repertoire assumes that individual action matters, another one assumes that ideas shape individual action), or as assumptions that are indifferent toward each other (e.g. one repertoire's assumption that economic desires are causes and another's assumption that a legal evaluation is appropriate); then, there are assumptions that collide, but are not strictly incompatible: repertoires may emphasize different logics or aspects without necessarily excluding others (e.g. political subsidies as solution do not exclude that financial market recovery might also be helpful); finally, we should not normally find contradictory or competing assumptions within one repertoire, which would by implication become incoherent. However, across different repertoires, we can investigate whether their assumptions are mutually supportive, passively compatible, competing, or contradictory.",[]]],"sp":[["viewpoint diversity",[]]]},{"de":[["this notion should focus on the content of offered interpretations, which is closest to the construct's theoretical and normative relevance, and able to inform operational measurement and assessment.",[]],["Viewpoints are more complex than mere endorsement/rejection of a given proposition, or a left-right-continuum, or even partyspecific narratives",[]]],"rt":[["political slant",[]],["diversity of speakers",[]],["ownership",[]],["newsrooms composition",[]],["covered topics",[]],["media formats",[]],["measures based on sources or slant, frames and constrained ideologies",[]],["viewpoint variability",[]],["viewpoint distinctness",[]]],"sb":[["viewpoint variability",[]],["viewpoint distinctness",[]]]},{"de":[["a repertoire wherein each 'slot' is uniquely assigned has lower viewpoint diversity than one allowing variable entries to be combined without breaking coherence.",[]]],"sp":[["viewpoint diversity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Authors have referred to this phenomenon by a multitude of terms, including social media, Web 2.0, participatory web, UGC, and others",[]],["The users contribute the content themselves; simply receiving or forwarding content and similar activities do not qualify.",[]],["In order (at least theoretically) to enable an overall discussion across society as a whole or within a group, it must be accessible to the public or a group (OECD, 2007).",["OECD, 2007"]],["Such contributions can consist of commenting within the framework of the existing services (e.g. online letters to the editor, user comments to online articles, or comments on blogs), researching and preparing information (e.g. Wikinews), and uploading individual text, images, and audio (e.g. blog posts, forum posts, and photo and video platforms).",[]],["UGC is highly dynamic in nature.",[]],["Lay producers contribute intermittently.",[]],["Furthermore, the content is reactive, personalized, and partly private.",[]],["The research on UGC produces findings on a phenomenon that is still relatively new compared to research on the traditional mass media content produced by professionals but has already had a decisive impact on the communication landscape.",[]]],"sy":[["social media",[]],["Web 2.0",[]],["participatory web",[]]],"rt":[["social networking service (SNS)",[]],["creative effort",["OECD (2007)"]],["traditional mass media content",[]]],"ex":[["commenting within the framework of the existing services (e.g. online letters to the editor, user comments to online articles, or comments on blogs)",[]],["researching and preparing information (e.g. Wikinews)",[]],["uploading individual text, images, and audio (e.g. blog posts, forum posts, and photo and video platforms)",[]],["online letters to the editor",[]],["user comments to online articles",[]],["comments on blogs",[]],["Wikinews",[]],["blog posts",[]],["forum posts",[]],["photo and video platforms",[]],["online comments",[]],["online letters to the editors",[]],["amateur reports",[]],["Discussion forums",[]],["Usenet",[]],["newsgroups",[]],["mailing lists",[]],["weblogs",[]],["Microblogging systems like Twitter",[]],["Wikis",[]],["Social networking applications",[]],["Photo and video communities",[]],["discussion forums",[]],["social networks",[]]]},{"de":[["these tend to cover a narrower range of subjects",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the application of computer algorithms programmed to generate news articles",[]]],"sy":[["robot journalism",["1"]]]},{"de":[["stories combining the work of computer and human journalists",[]],["it allows human journalists to enhance automated content with original opinions, different from data, which a computer cannot create",[]]]},{"de":[["results from evaluating multiple dimensions simultaneously",["Tseng and Fogg, 1999: 40"]],["It 'results from evaluating multiple dimensions simultaneously' (Tseng and Fogg, 1999: 40), such as bias and accuracy (Flanagin and Metzger, 2000;Meyer, 1988).",["Tseng and Fogg, 1999: 40","Flanagin and Metzger, 2000","Meyer, 1988"]],["It is therefore not an inherent, but an ascribed characteristic of a journalistic article (the message), an attributed author (the source), or a newspaper (the medium; Bentele, 1998;Vogel et al., 2015).",["Bentele, 1998","Vogel et al., 2015"]]],"rt":[["message credibility",[]],["source credibility",[]],["medium credibility",[]]],"sb":[["message credibility",[]],["source credibility",[]],["medium credibility",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["credibility",[]]],"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{"de":[["Following Clerwall (2014) and Van Der Kaa and Krahmer's (2014) research, these dimensions are operationalized on a 5-point Likert-type scale.",[]]],"rt":[["credibility",[]]],"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["automated journalism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Following Clerwall (2014) and Van Der Kaa and Krahmer's (2014) research, these dimensions are operationalized on a 5-point Likert-type scale.",[]]],"rt":[["credibility",[]]],"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["crime, sports and technology",[]],["public affairs, politics and economics",[]]]},{"rt":[["objectivity",[]],["realist, empirical, fact-based approach",[]]]},{"rt":[["field",[]]]},{"de":[["Editors are a marker of quality control which legitimises news journalism.",[]],["one who negotiates among four groups with distinct values: the audience, the organisation, journalism as practice, and society.",[]],["one of the key ingredients in the amalgam that constructs journalism as authoritative, credible and valued in society.",[]],["simultaneously a communicator and a manager and interfaces with the society they inform.",[]],["the editor is simultaneously a communicator and a manager and interfaces with the society they inform.",[]],["Editors are markers of quality control (Singer, 2010) which legitimises news.",["Singer, 2010"]],["They are gatekeepers (White, 1950;Janowitz, 1975;Shoemaker and Vos, 2009) who decide what passes through the gate and by that decision, legitimise the result.",["White, 1950","Janowitz, 1975","Shoemaker and Vos, 2009"]],["they lead a team and also decide what goes onto the page, broadcast or newsfeed.",[]],["they are in supervisory positions, they are likely to be aware of organisational level goals and policies, and are also concerned with audience-centric content selection.",[]]],"sy":[["producer",["often preferred in television news"]]],"rt":[["reporter",[]],["newsroom managers",[]],["news executives",[]]],"sb":[["editors of newspapers, magazines, broadcasts or websites",[]],["desk editors (sports, lifestyle, arts, health)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["That may involve generating original news items or curating from other news organisations, selecting stories based on both whether they are 'in the public interest' and whether they are 'of interest to the public'.",[]]]},{"de":[["Gatekeepers present a picture of the world for an audience to view.",[]]]},{"sy":[["journalist",[]]],"rt":[["news items",[]],["audience",[]]]},{},{"de":[["separates traditional journalism from user-generated media contributions which have not been looked at, judged and approved by an independent second pair of eyes with a view to informing debate in the public sphere.",[]],["non-journalistic, para-journalistic and quasi-journalistic activities",[]],["These include blogs, civic technologies that interface between state and citizen, NGOs and other interest groups, information delivered direct from commercial and political sources bypassing the mediating effect of the newsroom, user-generated content and citizen journalism either incorporated into the newsroom or distributed alongside it.",[]]],"rt":[["journalism",[]]],"ex":[["blogs, civic technologies that interface between state and citizen, NGOs and other interest groups, information delivered direct from commercial and political sources bypassing the mediating effect of the newsroom, user-generated content and citizen journalism either incorporated into the newsroom or distributed alongside it",[]],["bloggers (Singer, 2007)",["Singer, 2007"]],["user-generated content (Singer and Ashman, 2009;Robinson, 2010)",["Singer and Ashman, 2009","Robinson, 2010"]],["satire (Tenenboim-Weinblatt, 2009)",["Tenenboim-Weinblatt, 2009"]],["blogs",[]],["civic technologies that interface between state and citizen",[]],["NGOs and other interest groups",[]],["information delivered direct from commercial and political sources bypassing the mediating effect of the newsroom",[]],["user-generated content",[]],["citizen journalism either incorporated into the newsroom or distributed alongside it",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalism is essentially public facing",[]],["the editor plays a role on defining what is and is not journalism",[]]],"rt":[["non-journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["journalism",[]]],"ex":[["When a journalist gives a speech or writes a tweet, it is not journalism",[]],["when a minister's letter appears in a newspaper, it is also not journalism",[]]]},{"sy":[["editor",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["editor",[]]]},{"sp":[["analytical-deliberative",[]]]},{"sp":[["analytical-deliberative roles",[]]]},{"de":[["In journalists' vernacular, this role entails elements of hostility to power centers in society, and it is associated with notions of 'contesting', 'resisting', and 'opposing those in power', or with 'plaguing the powerful' and 'being a thorn in power's side'.",[]],["In journalists' vernacular, this role entails elements of hostility to power centers in society",[]]],"rt":[["contesting",[]],["resisting",[]],["opposing those in power",[]],["plaguing the powerful",[]],["being a thorn in power's side",[]]],"sp":[["Advocative-radical roles",[]],["advocative-radical",[]]]},{"sp":[["everyday life",[]]]},{"sp":[["Roles in the domain of everyday life",[]]]},{"de":[["In such a capacity, they may act on behalf of their audience, generally 'stand with the socially vulnerable' or, more specifically, 'defend the interest of local communities' and 'support NGOs'.",[]]],"sp":[["Advocative-radical roles",[]],["advocative-radical",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists of this kind do not consider themselves as 'neutral' and 'objective' observers but as participants in political life who bring a certain ideological bias to bear on their reporting -as adversaries of the powerful or as advocates of particular values and groups",[]]],"sb":[["adversary",[]],["advocate",[]],["missionary",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists embracing this role thus aspire to 'form', 'set', 'create', or even 'dictate' the public agenda, or sometimes to 'promote an alternative agenda'.",[]]],"sp":[["analytical-deliberative function of journalism",[]],["analytical-deliberative",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists who embrace this role would act as 'an alarm system' pointing out imminent danger to the public.",[]]],"sp":[["advocative-radical",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists who embrace this role would act as 'an alarm system' pointing out imminent danger to the public.",[]]],"sp":[["Advocative-radical roles",[]]],"ex":[["act as 'an alarm system' pointing out imminent danger to the public",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists define these two roles, the analyst and the commentator, from within a content-related perspective according to which journalism should emphasize analysis and commentary in the news.",[]]],"rt":[["commentator",[]]],"sp":[["analytical-deliberative function of journalism",[]],["analytical-deliberative",[]]]},{"sb":[["analyst",[]],["access provider",[]],["mobilizer",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists have framed this role in terms of being an 'agent' or a 'catalyst for change'; 'participating in social reforms'; and in terms of 'supporting', 'promoting', or 'calling for change'.",[]]],"rt":[["social intervention role",[]]],"sp":[["developmental-educative",[]]]},{"sp":[["Informational-instructive roles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In such a role, journalists may be defensive of authorities and routinely engage in self -censorship, and they tend to exhibit a paternalistic attitude toward 'the people'.",[]]],"sb":[["facilitators",[]],["collaborators",[]],["mouthpiece",[]]]},{"de":[["Based on the idea that, as public communicators, journalists are not distinct from but part of the state apparatus, journalists aim to act as 'propagandists', 'government mouthpiece', 'advocate of the government', and as 'the eyes and ears of the party' by 'providing a loyal service for the party'.",[]]],"sp":[["collaborative-facilitative",[]]]},{"sy":[["propagandists",[]],["government mouthpiece",[]],["advocate of the government",[]],["the eyes and ears of the party",[]]],"sp":[["Collaborative-facilitative roles",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists define these two roles, the analyst and the commentator, from within a content-related perspective according to which journalism should emphasize analysis and commentary in the news.",[]]],"rt":[["analyst",[]]],"sp":[["analytical-deliberative function of journalism",[]],["analytical-deliberative",[]]]},{"sp":[["Informational-instructive roles",[]]]},{"sp":[["Informational-instructive roles",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["critical-monitorial roles",[]]]},{"sp":[["critical-monitorial roles",[]],["critical-monitorial",[]]]},{"sb":[["monitor",[]],["detective",[]],["watchdog",[]]]},{"sp":[["analytical-deliberative",[]]]},{"sp":[["analytical-deliberative roles",[]]]},{"sp":[["critical-monitorial function of journalism",[]],["critical-monitorial roles",[]],["critical-monitorial",[]]]},{},{"de":[["However, the developmental-educative dimension takes this intervention beyond the discursive realm by actively promoting real-world change and by contributing to public education, social harmony, and other goals that journalists share with their audiences",[]]],"sb":[["change agent",[]],["educator",[]],["mediator",[]]]},{"rt":[["interpreter",[]],["adversarial",[]],["populist mobilizer",[]]],"sp":[["journalistic roles",[]],["Informational-instructive roles",[]]]},{"de":[["In the interviewed journalists' own words, the educator role is about 'teaching' or 'instructing' audiences, and about 'making people smarter' and 'wiser'.",[]],["In a somewhat more paternalistic tone, this role is also associated with being 'the schoolmaster of the people'.",[]]],"sy":[["teaching",[]],["instructing",[]],["making people smarter",[]],["wiser",[]],["the schoolmaster of the people",[]]],"sp":[["Developmental-educative roles",[]],["developmental-educative",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the interviewed journalists' own terms, this role was primarily about 'providing entertainment', 'distracting', and 'relaxing the audience'.",[]]],"sy":[["providing entertainment",[]],["distracting",[]],["relaxing the audience",[]]],"sp":[["Roles in the domain of everyday life",[]],["everyday life",[]]]},{"de":[["The explainer role is about helping people understand complex questions or issues without necessarily acting in the capacity of an educator",[]]],"sp":[["Informational-instructive roles",[]]]},{"de":[["In the journalists' own words, this role is about 'explaining' events, 'helping readers understand', or 'making the world/society comprehensible'.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this role, journalists may not explicitly support particular political actors but the general aims and goals they share with them.",[]],["This approach typically emphasizes the advancement of social and economic development of the country as well as nation-building and the preservation of national unity.",[]],["Journalists who embrace this role often voluntarily collaborate with authorities, which are seen as offering unity and stability.",[]]],"sp":[["collaborative-facilitative",[]]]},{"sy":[["educating the people on government policies",[]],["bridging between government and people",[]],["promoting national unity",[]]],"sp":[["Collaborative-facilitative roles",[]]]},{"sp":[["Informational-instructive roles",[]]]},{"de":[["Central to this function is an understanding of journalism as an exercise of information transmission, information (re-)packaging, and storytelling.",[]]],"sb":[["disseminator",[]],["curator",[]],["storyteller",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists expressed that role through a relatively coherent canon of expressions, such as 'to inform', 'to bring news/facts/information', or 'to keep people informed'.",[]]],"sp":[["Informational-instructive roles",[]]]},{"de":[["In this role, journalists provide inspiration for new lifestyles and products, and they tie them to a positive attitude toward life.",[]]],"sp":[["Roles in the domain of everyday life",[]],["everyday life",[]]],"ex":[["leisure, food, health, travel, and lifestyle",[]]]},{"de":[["This normative impetus is typically indicated through a wide range of terms referring to proactive practices of researching and investigating facts, such as to 'chase', 'dig up', 'discover', 'ferret out', or 'delve into' the truth or even to act as 'whistle-blower'.",[]]],"sp":[["critical-monitorial function of journalism",[]],["critical-monitorial roles",[]],["critical-monitorial",[]]]},{"de":[["traces of discursive maneuvers that journalists regularly carry out, for example, in an effort to legitimize their profession and (re-)establish authority",["Carlson, 2016"]],["journalists' visions of journalism still remain tied to its contribution to the democratic process.",[]],["the roles typically discussed in journalism scholarship are also reflected in the journalists' own terms.",[]]],"sb":[["normative roles",[]],["cognitive",[]],["practices",[]],["narrated",[]],["informational-instructive",[]],["critical-monitorial",[]],["Developmental-educative",[]],["Everyday life",[]],["Analytical-deliberative",[]],["Advocative-radical",[]],["Collaborative-facilitative",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists typically frame this role in terms such as 'attracting consumers', 'serving advertisers', or 'being a brand ambassador'.",[]]],"sp":[["everyday life",[]]]},{"sy":[["attracting consumers",[]],["serving advertisers",[]],["being a brand ambassador",[]]],"sp":[["Roles in the domain of everyday life",[]]]},{"sp":[["developmental-educative",[]]]},{"sy":[["building connections",[]],["being an intermediary",[]]],"sp":[["Developmental-educative roles",[]]]},{"de":[["In this understanding, journalists should 'depict' or 'portray reality', 'hold a mirror', and provide a 'true reflection' of things happening on the ground.",[]]],"sp":[["Informational-instructive roles",[]]]},{"sp":[["Advocative-radical roles",[]],["advocative-radical",[]]]},{"sp":[["analytical-deliberative",[]]]},{"de":[["(e.g. through 'activating' and 'mobilizing the public' and through 'increasing' or 'stimulating participation').",[]]],"sp":[["analytical-deliberative roles",[]]]},{"sp":[["critical-monitorial roles",[]]]},{"sp":[["critical-monitorial roles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Normative roles should be distinguished from similar concepts, such as performed or enacted roles of journalists, which may not fully map onto journalistic norms",[]],["They speak to how journalists are expected to meet professional aspirations, cater to public needs, and, in so doing, contribute to society.",[]]]},{"de":[["They speak to how journalists are expected to meet professional aspirations, cater to public needs, and, in so doing, contribute to society.",[]],["These norms entail rules and standards that are intuitively understood by journalists as a professional community, and they guide and constrain their practice without the force of laws",[]]],"rt":[["performed or enacted roles of journalists",[]]]},{"sp":[["Informational-instructive roles",[]]]},{"de":[["This role lays particular emphasis on how the public thinks about a given issue.",[]]],"rt":[["analyst",[]],["commentator",[]]],"sp":[["analytical-deliberative function of journalism",[]],["analytical-deliberative",[]]]},{"de":[["The main difference between the two roles is that advocates would actively promote a certain cause, while journalists embracing the people's voice role try to make sure that marginalized groups get heard.",[]]],"rt":[["advocate",[]]],"sp":[["Advocative-radical roles",[]],["advocative-radical",[]]]},{"sb":[["informational-instructive",[]],["analytical-deliberative",[]],["critical-monitorial",[]],["advocative-radical",[]],["developmental-educative",[]],["collaborative-facilitative",[]]]},{"de":[["(by 'popularizing', 'simplifying', or by 'being a translator of complex issues').",[]]],"sp":[["Informational-instructive roles",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["informer",[]]],"sp":[["Informational-instructive roles",[]]]},{"sp":[["critical-monitorial roles",[]],["critical-monitorial",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists associate this role with practices of 'disclosing', 'uncovering', or 'unveiling the truth'.",[]]],"sp":[["critical-monitorial function of journalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["Roles in the domain of everyday life",[]]]},{"sp":[["Informational-instructive roles",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["critical-monitorial roles",[]]]},{"de":[["Today, the verifier role may actually assume greater centrality in journalistic discourse that it did at the time the interviews were conducted.",[]]],"sp":[["critical-monitorial function of journalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["critical-monitorial roles",[]]]},{"de":[["act as critic or watchdog to hold the government to account",[]],["Journalists see their roles as acting as the 'Fourth Estate' or 'guardian of democracy' by 'holding powers to account', 'being a corrective force', and 'examining authorities'.",[]]],"sp":[["journalistic roles",[]],["critical-monitorial roles",[]]]},{"sb":[["Agency, at the micro level, refers to people's abilities to act.",[]],["concerns events of which an individual is the perpetrator, in the sense that the individual could, at any phase in a given sequence of conduct, have acted differently",["Giddens, 1984: 9"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["characterization of news consumption that goes from completely intentional to completely incidental, with intermediate practices in the middle: creating an environment conductive to incidental news consumption, and encountering news incidentally but purposively seeking further information.",[]],["alternatively characterized as either a panacea for disenfranchised citizens (Baum, 2002;Prior, 2007;Valeriani and Vaccari, 2016) or as detrimental to the careful consideration of news content and political participation (Gil de Zúñiga et al., 2017;Kim et al., 2013)",[]],["Incidental news consumption has been alternatively characterized as either a panacea for disenfranchised citizens (Baum, 2002;Prior, 2007;Valeriani and Vaccari, 2016) or as detrimental to the careful consideration of news content and political participation (Gil de Zúñiga et al., 2017;Kim et al., 2013).",["Baum, 2002","Prior, 2007","Valeriani and Vaccari, 2016","Gil de Zúñiga et al., 2017","Kim et al., 2013"]]],"rt":[["purposeful information acquisition",[]],["intentional news consumption",[]]],"ex":[["News, well, it mainly happens when I check the weather report [on television] and I end up following news [that air before the weather report]",[]],["I don't go [on Facebook] with the goal of getting the news (…) but if I see a headline on Facebook that catches my attention I click on it and I read it",[]],["Without meaning to I [may bump into] something that gets me riled up",[]],["they may come across news incidentally as a by-product of other media use, such as browsing through their social media feeds or listening to music radio.",[]]]},{"de":[["This enables the study to propose a characterization of news consumption that goes from completely intentional to completely incidental, with intermediate practices in the middle: creating an environment conductive to incidental news consumption, and encountering news incidentally but purposively seeking further information.",[]]]},{"rt":[["incidental news consumption",[]]],"ex":[["I watch the news in the morning. Every morning I watch Channel 2 at five pm, at seven pm, then on Channel 10 (…) and then at eight pm Channel 2",[]],["every time I wake up I read [news site] La Nación online from my cellphone",[]],["there are still some very reputable news outlets out there like BBC and most of the established newspapers. And I follow all of them, so you know I'm always looking to see what they post",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["Structure, at the macro level, includes national legislation, information infrastructures, services and content provided by the media industries, and cultural norms",[]]]},{"de":[["which causes users to consume for long continuous periods fed by curiosity without being fully aware that they are doing so, similar to the effect of the YouTube recommendation algorithm optimized for viewing time (van Es, 2020).",["van Es, 2020"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["gatekeepers",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This social media logic modifies the processes of production, distribution and media usage (Klinger and Svensson, 2015), so that the media employs the news values and narrative techniques that work best on each platform",[]]],"sy":[["network media logic",["Klinger and Svensson, 2015"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Islamophobia is an example of this.",[]]]},{"de":[["through constant attentiveness to their potentially regressive behaviour, they are also contextualized by reminders of the other threat, to national security",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["reinforces the conflation of moderates and extremists and underpins a sense of Muslims' collective responsibility for extremism.",[]]],"sy":[["good/bad Muslim binary",[]]],"rt":[["good/bad Muslim binary",[]]],"ex":[["differentiates between those who appear to have liberal values (in line with Government policy and dominant norms) and dissenters, labelled 'extremists'.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Islamophobia (a subset of 'Orientalist' ideologies) which depend on strategies of western superiority, bringing into play, as Said (1978: 8) argues, 'a battery of desires, repression, investments and projections'.",["Said (1978: 8)"]]],"rt":[["Orientalist ideology",[]]],"sp":[["Orientalist ideology",[]]]},{"rt":[["media panic",[]]]},{"sb":[["Islamophobia",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the umbrella concept that incorporates the various formations of journalistic processes crossing borders of nation-states",[]],["Each definition could then, of course, be developed and refined in relation to different kinds of subthemes (ethics; agenda-setting; fieldwork, working conditions, etc.).",[]],["a central and connecting concept, thereby paving the way for international, foreign, global, and transnational journalism to be used as sub-concepts that can be combined in different constellations, as they de facto describe different aspects of cross-border reality.",[]]],"rt":[["foreign journalism",[]],["international journalism",[]],["global journalism",[]],["transnational journalism",[]],["foreign, international, global, and transnational journalism",[]]],"sb":[["international journalism",[]],["foreign journalism",[]],["global journalism",[]],["transnational journalism",[]]],"sp":[["modern journalism",[]]],"ex":[["China-USA competition",[]],["climate change",[]],["the refugee crisis",[]],["the power of tech companies such as Facebook and Microsoft",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the central position of the nation state is still highly relevant",[]],["implicitly make the country and national borders the reference point of journalistic work rather than questioning the interconnectedness of nation states",[]],["the samples of journalists/reporters are based on a traditional understanding of foreign journalism and consist primarily of elite journalists who are stationed abroad and report for their home country.",[]]],"rt":[["international journalism",[]],["cross-border journalism",[]]],"sp":[["cross-border journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["engages with forms of cross-border journalism that might not be located either at the international level, national dimension, or the domain of community neighborhood",["Reese, 2001"]],["the inclusion of the word \"global\" here is meant to convey ideas of transformation and fluidity.",[]],["the nation state is said to erode in journalistic importance",[]],["the interdependence of nations resulting from global journalism undermines the privileged position of any one nation state when it comes to setting patterns of news discourse",[]],["an emergent form of reporting that transgresses the traditional domestic-foreign dichotomy",[]],["convey ideas of transformation and fluidity.",[]]],"rt":[["transnational journalism",[]],["foreign journalism",[]],["international journalism",[]],["cross-border journalism",[]],["international reporting",["Ward, 2010"]]],"sp":[["cross-border journalism",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["international relations",[]],["foreign journalism",[]],["cross-border journalism",[]]],"sp":[["cross-border journalism",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["space",[]],["power",[]],["identity",[]]]},{"de":[["engages with forms of cross-border journalism that might not be located either at the international level, national dimension, or the domain of community neighborhood",["Archetti, 2019"]],["conceive of transnational journalism as a practice situated beyond traditional forms of journalism and elaborate on how transnational news organizations treat more than one nation as their home audience, which requires thinking about transnational journalism from an interconnectedness perspective as consisting of interdependent units.",[]],["transnational journalism as a practice situated beyond traditional forms of journalism and elaborate on how transnational news organizations treat more than one nation as their home audience",[]]],"rt":[["global journalism",[]],["foreign journalism",[]],["international journalism",[]],["cross-border journalism",[]]],"sp":[["cross-border journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["dialogue",["Ahva and Wiard (2018)"]],["deliberation",["Ahva and Wiard (2018)"]]]},{"sb":[["information (audiences provide ideas and information)",["Kammer (2013)"]],["collaboration (audiences undertake journalistic tasks in the production of news)",["Kammer (2013)"]],["conversation (audiences exchange with other users or with journalists)",["Kammer (2013)"]],["meta-communication (audiences reflect about the communication that the news constitutes)",["Kammer (2013)"]]]},{},{"de":[["Audiences have maximal power in the news-making process, as they are directly involved in the production of information up until the final validation and publication of the story.",[]]]},{"de":[["in theory, these preferences are supposed to have an impact (variable by case) on the news-making process.",[]],["This modality of inclusion therefore implies a certain release of editorial control since the audience's opinions are technically binding for journalists.",[]]],"sb":[["Readers' panels (type 17)",[]],["Vote on stories (type 18)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These initiatives can be considered as a legacy of participatory journalism in that they rely on audiences' contribution to the news-making process.",[]],["This category has the finest granularity as it includes a wide range of types of contribution, from the simple \"raw\" testimony to the edited column.",[]]],"rt":[["co-production",[]]],"sb":[["user generated content (type 12)",[]],["audiences' \"upstream\" contributions (type 13) (such as testimonies, questions, ideas)",[]],["polls on current issues (type 14)",[]],["audiences' reactions (type 16) on content published by a news organization (e.g. an invitation to share an opinion on a story, or to send letters to the editor)",[]]],"sp":[["Modalities of audience inclusion related to the news-making process",[]],["modalities related to the news-making process",[]]]},{"rt":[["access",["Ahva and Wiard (2018)"]],["dialogue",["Ahva and Wiard (2018)"]]]},{"de":[["Overall, audiences' influence on the news-making process remains limited but nevertheless more present than in the \"observation\" modality since the dialogue involves an exchange of audience views with journalists or editorial staff on topics related to news production.",[]]],"rt":[["access",["Ahva and Wiard (2018)"]],["deliberation",["Ahva and Wiard (2018)"]],["thematic conferences, debates, or discussions (type 5)",[]]],"sp":[["Modalities of audience inclusion related to the news-making process",[]],["modalities related to the news-making process",[]]],"ex":[["in 2019 many \"readers' cafes\" were organized by Swiss and French newspapers to foster dialogue between journalists and members of the audience, either on specific topics or current news.",[]]]},{"de":[["that attempt to include audiences in early stages of the news-making process while aiming to foster relationships rather than track audience metrics",["Schmidt and Lawrence 2020: 519"]]],"rt":[["engagement",[]]]},{"de":[["In these cases, audiences are given the power to make certain actions possible through their funding.",[]]],"sp":[["Modalities of audience inclusion not related to the news-making process",[]]],"ex":[["in 2019, the French newspaper La Marseillaise organized a crowdfunding campaign to redesign its website.",[]]]},{"de":[["Initiatives can have an editorial or non-editorial (social, marketing, sales, etc.) purpose. They are publicized on news organizations' websites, broadcasts, social media accounts, etc., usually with a brief description of the initiative, which allowed us to identify them.",[]]]},{"rt":[["participation",["Nico Carpentier (2011)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["corresponds to the lowest degree of audience inclusion, with audiences playing a passive role.",[]],["Although this category represents an effort to open the black box of news media, audiences remain in an exclusively passive position, whether as readers of content prepared and published by news media, visitors of news organizations' premises, or attendants of editorial meetings; the initiatives involve neither direct interaction with journalists nor collecting audience members' opinions.",[]]],"sb":[["In-person activities such as open editorial meetings (type 8) or guided tours of a news organization (type 7)",[]],["Behind-the-scenes content (type 9), that is, content created by editorial staff to explain or justify their editorial choices and journalistic approaches.",[]],["Behind-the-scenes content (type 9)",[]]],"sp":[["Modalities of audience inclusion related to the news-making process",[]],["Modalities of audience inclusion not related to the news-making process",[]]],"ex":[["a section of Courrier de l'Ouest's website lets audiences follow along with the making of reports.",[]]]},{"rt":[["access (citizens being present in news outlets and being allowed to provide feedback)",["Nico Carpentier (2011)"]],["interaction (the creation of socio-communicative relationships between journalists and citizens)",["Nico Carpentier (2011)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Panels are most often managed by the news organization's marketing and sales departments, so their impact on the news-making process is indirect and only loosely involves journalists.",[]]],"sp":[["Consultation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Modalities of audience inclusion not related to the news-making process",[]]],"ex":[["social gatherings (type 6), such as an invitation to brew beer with journalists of the French newspaper L'Union",[]]]},{"sp":[["Modalities of audience inclusion not related to the news-making process",[]]],"ex":[["fundraising and donations after disasters (bad weather, terrorist attacks, etc.) or mutual help groups for neighbors or to promote a local business in distress, grouped under \"mutual help action\" (type 4)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Consultation",[]]],"ex":[["Nice Matin was one of the first newspapers to systematically submit to audiences a list of topics to cover in their solutions journalism investigations and follow the audience's choice even if it went against the newsroom's wishes.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["employ disinformation to reinforce their in-group/out-group dynamics",["Mendonça & Caetano, 2020"]],["disinformation is a right-wing political strategy",[]]],"sb":[["online falsehoods",[]]]},{"de":[["It is not restricted to a specific dissemination medium. However, it may foremost occur on the Internet and social media.",[]]]},{"de":[["the emergence of fact-checking as a new business in journalism, with traditional newsrooms in Latin America embracing this genre",["Rodríguez-Pérez and Seibt (2022)"]],["Fact-checking comes into play after the information has gained social impact, reverberation in public debate, or online resonance (Rodríguez-Pérez & Seibt, 2022). Thus, fact-checkers do not determine what news is, but rather what is true in the public debate. In contrast to traditional journalism, fact-checkers place less emphasis on timeliness, originality and exclusivity (Graves, 2016).",["Rodríguez-Pérez & Seibt, 2022","Graves, 2016"]]],"rt":[["debunking",[]]],"sb":[["inspect claims stated by public figures to safeguard accountability and correctness in the public debate",[]]]},{"de":[["Their task involves scrutinizing the information published by third parties to 'purify' the public sphere",["ibid."]]],"rt":[["gatewatchers",[]]]},{"de":[["Both terms -'gatewatchers' and 'gatebouncers'refer to curating already published information circulating online.",[]]],"rt":[["gatewatchers",[]],["gatebouncers",[]]]},{"sy":[["content curators",[]]],"rt":[["gatebouncers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Brazilian fact-checking organizations operate within a 'liberal captured' media system",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["civic role",[]],["service role",[]],["infotainment role",[]]]},{"rt":[["infotainment role",[]],["service role",[]]],"sp":[["audience approach domain",[]],["Audience approach",[]],["journalistic role",[]]]},{"sp":[["journalistic voice domain",[]],["journalistic role",[]]]},{},{"de":[["audiences are being entertained",[]]],"rt":[["service role",[]],["civic role",[]]],"sp":[["audience approach domain",[]],["Audience approach",[]],["journalistic role",[]]]},{"sy":[["interventionist role",[]]]},{"de":[["the active use of journalists' voices does tend to be a prominent characteristic in certain national journalistic cultures",[]]],"sy":[["interventionism",[]]],"rt":[["Journalistic voice",[]]],"sp":[["journalistic voice domain",[]],["journalistic role",[]]]},{"sb":[["interventionist role",[]],["disseminator role",[]],["watchdog role",[]],["loyal-facilitator role",[]],["civic role",[]],["service role",[]],["infotainment role",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, role performance involves looking at the outcome of collective newsroom decisions, representing the level most likely to be observed publicly, that is, in the news story.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["interventionist role",[]]]},{"sb":[["interventionist role",[]],["disseminator role",[]]]},{"sp":[["power relations domain",[]],["journalistic role",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["watchdog role",[]],["loyal-facilitator role",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["infotainment role",[]],["civic role",[]]],"sp":[["audience approach domain",[]],["Audience approach",[]],["journalistic role",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["power relations domain",[]],["journalistic role",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This leads them to behave as if they were more comfortable than they actually are, and engage in behaviors with which they are not actually comfortable.",[]]],"rt":[["pluralistic ignorance effect",[]]]},{"rt":[["error management theory",["Haselton and Buss, 2000"]]]},{"rt":[["health promotion model",[]]],"ex":[["social norms marketing programs in reducing the PI surrounding alcohol use on campuses",[]]]},{"de":[["Counter narratives do not necessarily discredit the beliefs that have been previously established, but rather deconstruct the narratives on which they are based by offering a different way of thinking about the issues.",[]],["counter narratives usually aim to construct something new",[]],["Arts education can be utilised to create efficient counter narratives, which can provide space to support diverse viewpoints that can question hate speakers' simplified generalisations.",[]]],"rt":[["counter speech",[]],["one-sided narratives",[]]],"ex":[["counter narratives can provide alternative and accurate information against hate speech propaganda, and aim to deconstruct or delegitimise hate speech narratives by using humour, appealing to emotions on the topics involved, and offering different perspectives focusing on what we are for rather than against",[]],["A counter narrative campaign can be a counteractive community newsletter, an awareness program, a discussion workshop about the effects of hate speech, a workshop on writing replies and opinions to newspapers, producing radio or television advertisements or an online video, or creating community art projects",["Gelber, 2012"]],["Ana Teresa Fernández's artwork \"Borrando la Frontera\" (Erasing the Border)",[]],["graffiti-erasing is used as a way to counter hate speech",[]],["\"Wall of Hope\" was a 15 meters wide and 2 meters high art work made by artists EGS and Jani Leinonen at the World Village Festival 2017 in Finland",[]],["the Living Library is a participatory work meant to challenge prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination, by offering the possibility to borrow people, who can be, for example, victims of hate speech or activists in combating hate speech, instead of books.",[]],["the \"Wall of Art\", in a park in Helsinki in 2017, where people could imprint the figure of their hand with different colours.",[]],["In her \"Precious Baby Project\", photographer Angela Forker has photographed medically fragile babies, or babies with disabilities, in her home studio in Indiana, as a way to show strength, potential, and love.",[]],["a counteractive community newsletter, an awareness program, a discussion workshop about the effects of hate speech, a workshop on writing replies and opinions to newspapers, producing radio or television advertisements or an online video, or creating community art projects",["Gelber, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["counter speech can expose hate, deceit, abuse, and stereotypes by providing clarification, promoting counter narratives, and advancing counter-values, such as sharing experiences and uniting communities.",["Reagle (2015)","2015"]],["Waldron (2012) points out that counter speech alone is not a sufficient response to hate speech, because it legitimates the issue by suggesting that we should be engaged in conversation with hate speakers, trying to convince them and others that minorities should be treated as full and equal citizens.",[]],["Also, Coustick-Deal (2017) reminds us that counter speech is often defined by those who already have the privilege and freedom to exercise it without fear or harm.",[]],["counter speech is often defined by those who already have the privilege and freedom to exercise it without fear or harm.",["Coustick-Deal (2017)"]],["This requires a reconceptualization of freedom of expression in participatory terms, such as self-development, and understanding that speech is capable of doing both good and bad things for people.",[]]],"rt":[["counter narratives",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Many international courts do not define the term hate speech, which makes it difficult to state where and when emotions and incitements become hatred",["Mendel, 2012"]],["The problem in defining hate speech is not in the hateful thoughts, but in the concrete harm that follows from the publication and dissemination of hate speech.",[]]],"rt":[["insults (or offense)",[]],["punishable hate speech (or defamation)",[]]]},{"rt":[["punishable hate speech (or defamation)",["Feldman, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["speech must attack social aspects of an individual in a society, such as the status or reputation or dignity of the group, rather than effect how things feel to them",["Waldron, 2012"]]],"rt":[["insults (or offense)",[]]]},{"de":[["Instead of giving up their false beliefs as a result of a correction, people might embrace them",[]]],"rt":[["misperception correction",[]]]},{"de":[["In the US, from where much of the fact-checking literature originates, the evaluation is typically performed by journalists, based on various documented sources.",[]],["Fact-checking has become a staple part of US political journalism",["Graves, 2016"]],["tool for democracy-building",[]],["journalistic phenomenon",[]],["essential part of political journalism",[]],["scientific research topic",[]]],"rt":[["political fact-checking",[]],["computer-assisted fact-checking",[]],["journalistic practice of fact-checking",[]],["journalistic practices involved in fact-checking",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Data colonialism combines the predatory extractive practices of historical colonialism with the abstract quantification methods of computing.",[]],["the colonial appropriation of life in general and its annexation to capital, through various mechanisms of which one is the digital platform.",[]],["resource appropriation, ideology, and corporate concentration of profits",[]],["Human life itself is being progressively capitalized in new ways whose detail, extent and precision go far beyond earlier general predictions of the capitalization of life.",[]],["the audacious yet largely disguised corporate attempt to incorporate all of life, whether or not conceived by those doing it as 'production,' into an expanded process for the generation of surplus value",[]],["data practices invade the space of the self by making tracking a permanent feature of life, expanding and deepening the basis on which human beings can exploit each other.",[]],["the underlying rationality that enables continuous appropriation to seem natural, necessary and somehow an enhancement of, not a violence to, human development.",[]],["the claim to absolute universality that Quijano sees as characteristic of European modernity, and which we find reproduced in data colonialism, and its logics of universal data extraction and management of human beings through data.",[]],["The value of those extractive processes depends on the comprehensiveness of the data generated.",[]],["rejecting the form of resource appropriation and accompanying social order that most contemporary data practice represents.",[]]],"rt":[["data relations",[]]],"sp":[["colonialism",[]]]},{"de":[["In contemporary data relations, it is not even the uniquely identifiable individual who is the object of data tracking and nudging.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["data doubles are the building blocks for new 'social objects'",[]]],"rt":[["data doubles",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Algorithmic filtering and personalization are not inherently malicious technologies-on the contrary, they are helpful tools that allow people to navigate the overwhelming amount of information on the Internet.",[]],["These tools include personalized targeted advertising, personalized recommender systems, algorithmic filtering in search engines, and customized news feeds on social media",[]]],"sb":[["personalized targeted advertising",[]],["personalized recommender systems",[]],["algorithmic filtering in search engines",[]],["customized news feeds on social media",[]]],"ex":[["targeted advertising, personalized recommender systems, algorithmic filtering in search engines, personalized curation of news feeds on social media",[]],["personalized targeted advertising",[]],["personalized recommender systems",[]],["algorithmic filtering in search engines",[]],["customized news feeds on social media",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["boosts are probably the least paternalistic measures in the toolbox of public-policy makers and potentially the most resilient in the face of rapid technological change, in that they aim to foster lasting and generalizable competencies in users.",[]],["It responds to the challenge of rapidly changing digital environments by aiming to foster lasting and generalizable competencies in users",[]],["Boosts target individual cognitive and motivational competencies rather than immediate behavior (which is the target of nudges) and aim to empower people to make better decisions for themselves in accordance with their own goals and preferences.",[]],["They can target human cognition (e.g., decision strategies), the environment (e.g., information representation), or both (Hertwig & Grüne-Yanoff, 2017, p. 977).",[]],["Moreover, in contrast to nudges, boosts specifically aim not only to preserve but also to foster and extend human agency and autonomy.",[]],["Boosts are by necessity transparent because they require an individual's active cooperation.",[]],["However, boosting is rooted in a different view of human psychology: It views people not as cognitive misers full of biases who are unable to make good decisions on their own but rather as admittedly bounded decision makers who have, however, the ability to learn and to rely on simple cognitive strategies that can adapt to uncertain environments",["Hertwig et al., 2019"]],["boosts that aim to foster long-term competencies",[]]],"rt":[["nudges",[]]]},{"sp":[["False Information",[]]]},{"de":[["the design that mediates people's online experience",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Misdirection",[]]]},{"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]],["echo chambers",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["increasing individuals' perceived control over the release and access of private information can increase their willingness to disclose sensitive information",["Brandimarte et al., 2013"]]],"ex":[["For example, users can have a strong feeling of control on Facebook because they can change their default privacy settings and adjust who will see what type of information in their profiles.",[]]]},{"de":[["Cooling-off periods are known to affect people's willingness to engage in an activity (for the effect of cooling-off periods on gun violence in the United States, see, e.g., Luca et al., 2017).",["Luca et al., 2017"]]]},{"sp":[["Urgency",[]]]},{"de":[["which are meant to influence people's decision-making and voting behavior, by exploiting their psychological vulnerabilities and personal identities",["Matz et al., 2017"]]]},{"de":[["Strategic design of online environments and user interfaces that aims to affect people's choices and steer their online behavior in the service of commercial interests",[]],["manipulative and ethically questionable use of persuasive online architectures",[]]],"sb":[["misdirection",[]],["applying social pressure",[]],["sneaking items into the user's shopping basket",[]],["inciting a sense of urgency or scarcity",[]]],"ex":[["roach motel",[]],["forced continuity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["that are further deflating confidence in a shared reality.",[]]],"sp":[["False Information",[]]]},{"de":[["deliberate ignorance could be a mental device to boost cognitive sustainability and information management",["Hertwig and Engel (2016)"]],["the ability to allocate one's limited attentional resources reasonably",[]],["the ability to select a few valuable pieces of information and deliberately ignore others may become a core cultural competency to be taught in school like reading and writing.",[]],["deliberate ignorance (as conceptualized by Hertwig & Engel, 2020) requires cognitive and motivational resources (e.g., executive control, self-control).",["Hertwig & Engel, 2020"]],["Our emphasis on deliberate ignorance as a tool for information management focuses on its strategic use to shield oneself from the excesses, traps, and information disorders of the current digital environment.",[]],["A strategic way of selectively filtering and blocking out information in order to control one's information environment (e.g., e-mails, news feeds, instant messages) and reduce exposure to false and low-utility information.",[]],["deliberate ignorance can be used as one tool for information management (Hertwig & Engel, 2016, 2020).",["Hertwig & Engel, 2016, 2020"]]],"rt":[["information management device",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive tools",[]],["cognitive boosting tools",[]]],"ex":[["practice of blind auditioning for orchestras, in which candidates play behind a screen to hide their identities",[]],["a person who has been diagnosed with a serious illness decides to not ask about a prognosis",[]],["the practice of blind auditioning for orchestras, in which candidates play behind a screen to hide their identities.",["Goldin and Rouse's (2000)"]],["a person who has been diagnosed with a serious illness decides to not ask about a prognosis.",[]],["the practice of blind auditioning for orchestras, in which candidates play behind a screen to hide their identities",["Goldin and Rouse's (2000)"]]]},{},{"ex":[["accusing another party of dishonesty or \"fake news\" while the deflecting message itself is false",["Lewandowsky, 2020b"]]]},{"de":[["We use the term disinformation to refer to false and misleading information spread with malicious intent",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["False Information",[]],["information disorders",["16"]]]},{},{"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]],["filter bubbles",[]]]},{"de":[["these interventions involve some form of education, for instance in the form of additional information (e.g., the nutritional quality of foods or the risks of smoking; Sunstein, 2016aSunstein, , 2016b)).",[]],["In contrast to noneducative nudges, these interventions are transparent to people, engage their deliberate faculties, and preserve autonomy of choice-which may be why people prefer educative nudges.",[]],["these interventions involve some form of education, for instance in the form of additional information (e.g., the nutritional quality of foods or the risks of smoking; Sunstein, 2016aSunstein, , 2016b)). In contrast to noneducative nudges, these interventions are transparent to people, engage their deliberate faculties, and preserve autonomy of choice",[]],["these interventions involve some form of education, for instance in the form of additional information (e.g., the nutritional quality of foods or the risks of smoking; Sunstein, 2016aSunstein, , 2016b))",[]]],"sy":[["System 2 nudges",[]]],"sp":[["nudging",[]]],"ex":[["statistical information about the risks of smoking, educational campaigns demonstrating advantages of green energy",[]],["statistical information about the risks of smoking",[]],["educational campaigns demonstrating advantages of green energy",[]]]},{"rt":[["epistemic indulgence",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"sy":[["false news",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["majority illusion",["Lerman et al., 2016"]]]},{"rt":[["False or Fake News",[]],["Misinformation",[]],["False Rumors",[]],["Disinformation",[]],["Malinformation",[]]],"sb":[["False or Fake News",[]],["Misinformation",[]],["False Rumors",[]],["Disinformation",[]],["Malinformation",[]],["Deepfakes",[]],["Cheap fakes",[]],["Systemic Lies",[]],["Factitious Information Blends",[]],["Satire and Parody",[]],["Conspiracy Theories",[]],["false news",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["False Information",[]]]},{"sp":[["False Information",[]]]},{"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]],["echo chambers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["combination of algorithms and automation (e.g., bots) with human curation to flood social-media networks with misleading and polarizing content",["Bradshaw & Howard, 2019","Woolley & Howard, 2017","Bradshaw & Howard, 2019;Woolley & Howard, 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["For example, introducing some friction into the process of sharing information (i.e., increasing the investment in time, effort, or money required to access or spread information) can significantly decrease the likelihood of citizens engaging with the affected sources, as the Chinese government's attempt to manage and censor information shows (see Roberts, 2018).",["Roberts, 2018"]]]},{},{"ex":[["online platforms are often designed to make it difficult to discontinue personalized advertising or choose privacy-friendly settings.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Scarcity",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["trolling",[]]]},{"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Inoculation is preemptive: It aims to expose people to misleading or manipulative strategies and to neutralize their disruptive potential before people actually encounter them in the world",[]],["inoculation is intended to instill domain-general competence in recipients to enable them to see through attempts at manipulation",["Roozenbeek & van der Linden, 2019"]],["there are two components to inoculation: first, an explicit warning about a potential threat of disinformation or manipulation-for example, a warning about attempts to cast doubt on the scientific consensus on climate change that create a chimerical set of \"experts\" who disagree with the consensus. The second step refutes an anticipated argument, thus exposing the disinformation strategy and rendering its deceptive nature transparent.",[]],["it is an efficient strategy when it fits particular challenges in the environment and the cognitive competencies involved.",[]],["Inoculation interventions must be based on an understanding of the manipulative strategies being used online and how they work.",[]],["Another limitation of inoculation is that it is ineffective in the face of unexpected or novel deceptive techniques.",[]],["A preemptive intervention that boosts people's cognitive resistance to misinformation and online manipulation.",[]]],"sy":[["True or False? To Share or Not To Share?",[]],["prebunking",[]]],"rt":[["debunking",[]]],"sb":[["first, an explicit warning about a potential threat of disinformation or manipulation",[]],["The second step refutes an anticipated argument, thus exposing the disinformation strategy and rendering its deceptive nature transparent.",[]],["active type of inoculation",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive tools",[]],["cognitive boosting tools",[]]],"ex":[["showing participants the \"fake experts\" strategy used by the tobacco industry in the 1960s (a tobacco ad with the text \"20,679 Physicians say 'Luckies are less irritating'\")",[]],["The Oregon Petition denied human-caused effects on the Earth's atmosphere and was signed by 31,000 alleged experts, of whom 99% had no expertise in climate science.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it may not be the best strategy for reading trusted material that benefits from concentration and focus on one source.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Urgency",[]]]},{"de":[["the illusion that even extreme opinions are widespread",["(Lerman et al., 2016)"]]],"rt":[["false consensus",[]]]},{"sp":[["False Information",[]],["information disorders",["16"]]]},{"de":[["It neither persuades people nor deprives them of their options; instead, it exploits their vulnerabilities and cognitive shortcomings",["Susser et al., 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["switching attention between tasks instead of concentrating on one specific task",["Uncapher & Wagner, 2018"]]],"ex":[["TV, text messages, and websites",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which are meant to influence people's decision-making and voting behavior, by exploiting their psychological vulnerabilities and personal identities",["Matz et al., 2017"]]]},{"sb":[["Confirm Shaming",[]],["Visual Interference",[]],["Trick Questions",[]]]},{"de":[["we use misinformation for cases when the intent is unknown or irrelevant (as in Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017)",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["False Information",[]],["information disorders",["16"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Nudging is based on the insight that it is possible to change people's behavior-via their environment-without changing their minds.",[]],["Nudging does not block, fence off, or significantly burden choices (as laws can do); rather, it proposes interventions that are meant to be easy, reversible, and cheap to implement.",[]],["Nudging is based on the insight that it is possible to change people's behavior-via their environment-without changing their minds. Nudging does not block, fence off, or significantly burden choices (as laws can do); rather, it proposes interventions that are meant to be easy, reversible, and cheap to implement.",[]]],"sy":[["soft paternalism",[]],["libertarian paternalism",[]]],"rt":[["choice architectures",[]]],"sb":[["educative nudges",[]],["noneducative nudges",[]]],"sp":[["soft paternalism",[]]],"ex":[["automatic [default] privacy-respecting settings",[]],["varying the order in which options are presented",[]],["Rearranging food options in a cafeteria",[]],["The preselected default option",[]]]},{"sb":[["Hard To Cancel",[]]]},{"de":[["that is not seen offline",[]],["Online disinhibition can be both benign and toxic (Suler, 2004): It can inspire acts of generosity and help shy people socialize, but it can also lead to increased incivility in online conversations",["Suler, 2004"]]]},{"de":[["underlies persuasive choice architectures and commercial nudging",[]]],"rt":[["commercial nudging",[]]],"ex":[["notifications are red; the color incites a sense of urgency",[]],["The \"like\" button triggers a quick sense of social affirmation",[]],["The bottomless news feed, with no structural stop to scrolling (i.e., infinite scroll), prompts people to consume more without noticing",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Inoculation",[]]]},{"de":[["it is possible that it reflects how people trade off immediate advantages of service use versus future risks toward their data privacy",["Acquisti et al., 2015","Barth & De Jong, 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["Can be political or industrial (e.g., tobacco industry).",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["psychological principles behind nudges",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"sb":[["Low-Stock Message",[]],["High-Demand Message",[]]]},{"de":[["A wealth of information creates a poverty of attention and a need to allocate that attention efficiently among the overabundance of information sources that might consume it",["Simon, 1971, pp. 40-41"]]]},{},{"de":[["the anonymity afforded by online communication can enhance people's willingness to share",[]]]},{"de":[["Although nudging redesigns choice architectures to prompt a behavioral change, self-nudging empowers people to act as their own choice architects.",[]],["One class of behavioral intervention that focuses on engaging with one's proximate choice environment is self-nudging (Reijula & Hertwig, 2020).",["Reijula & Hertwig, 2020"]],["When the nudger and the nudged are . . . the same person, as in the case of self-nudging, autonomy and agency remain intact",["Hertwig, 2017, p. 155"]],["self-nudging interventions to enhance people's control over their digital environments and their privacy protection online",[]]],"rt":[["nudging",[]],["choice architecture",[]],["situational control",["Duckworth et al., 2016"]],["role of environment on habit formation",["Wood, 2019"]],["behavioral stimulus control",["Edinger et al., 2001; for online addiction, see also Griffiths et al., 2014"]]],"sp":[["cognitive tools",[]],["behavioral intervention",[]]],"ex":[["For example, one can choose to implement a nudge in one's own kitchen by moving tempting but undesirable foods to harder-to-reach places.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["cognitive tools",[]],["cognitive boosting tools",[]]]},{"de":[["frequent exposure to snack news can indirectly lead to the formation of strong convictions that are based on an illusory feeling of being informed",["Schäfer (2020)"]]]},{"sb":[["Sneak Into Basket",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["false information",[]]],"ex":[["fossil-fuel companies denying climate science",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Misdirection",[]]]},{"sp":[["online harassment",[]]]},{"sb":[["Countdown Timer",[]],["Limited-Time Message",[]]]},{"ex":[["social media",[]],["online gaming",[]]]},{"sp":[["Misdirection",[]]]},{},{"de":[["conspiracy theories have been directly adaptive for ancestral humans to navigate their social world, which was characterized by frequently recurring coalitional dangers.",[]],["it may have paid to be suspicious of powerful, potentially hostile coalitions.",[]],["it was adaptive to hold these beliefs.",[]],["Instead, conspiracy theories uniquely helped ancestral humans to navigate their social world better and anticipate and overcome imminent dangers in their environment.",[]]],"sy":[["adaptation hypothesis",[]]],"rt":[["pattern perception",[]],["agency detection",[]],["alliance detection",[]],["threat management",[]]]},{"de":[["Agency detection, as well as theory of mind, enabled ancestral humans to understand the (benevolent or hostile) motives behind each other's actions and thereby facilitated empathy with tribe members' mutual needs and desires, cooperation, and common norms of conduct.",[]],["people have a tendency to detect agency, which may sometimes be accurate and sometimes not.",[]]],"rt":[["pattern perception",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["avoidance-oriented responses",[]]]},{"sy":[["avoidance responses",[]]],"rt":[["approach-oriented reactions",[]]],"ex":[["social and political withdrawal behaviors",[]],["feelings of alienation from the government",["Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999","Goertzel, 1994"]],["avoiding contraceptives",["Thorburn & Bogart, 2005"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Conspiracy theories thereby often overestimate the power, evil intentions, and capacity of foresight among the alleged conspirators and underestimate the role of accidents, human error, and chance",["Shermer, 2011","e.g., Shermer, 2011"]],["the psychological processes underlying conspiracy theories are an integral part of an adaptive human coalitional psychology with the aim of detecting secret and dangerous coalitions and assessing the costs and benefits of particular strategies to counter such threats",["Tooby & Cosmides, 2010","(Tooby & Cosmides, 2010)"]],["conspiracy theories are the result of a basic sense-making process in uncertain or fearful circumstances",["Hofstadter, 1966","Bale, 2007"]],["these theories help citizens to make sense of such events by blaming them on the deliberate actions of enemy groups",[]],["conspiracy theories are reliably triggered by cues in the social environment that-directly or indirectly-suggest a heightened risk of coalitional aggression or exploitation.",[]]],"rt":[["pattern perception",[]],["agency detection",[]],["alliance detection",[]],["threat management",[]],["conspiracy detection system",[]]],"ex":[["allegations that a different tribe committed sorcery to harm their tribe",[]],["grandiose theories of how government agencies deceive the public",[]],["conspiracy theories about Jewish people among Muslims in Malaysia",[]],["specific conspiracy theories (e.g., about the Kennedy assassination, the United Nations, and the like)",[]]]},{"de":[["conspiracy theory contains at least five critical ingredients.",[]],["First, conspiracy theories make an assumption of how people, objects, or events are causally interconnected.",[]],["Second, conspiracy theories stipulate that the plans of alleged conspirators are deliberate.",[]],["Third, a conspiracy theory always involves a coalition, or group, of actors working in conjunction.",[]],["Fourth, conspiracy theories always contain an element of threat such that the alleged goals of the conspirators are harmful or deceptive",["Hofstadter, 1966"]],["Fifth, and finally, a conspiracy theory always carries an element of secrecy and is therefore often difficult to invalidate.",[]],["a conspiracy theory contains at least five critical ingredients. First, conspiracy theories make an assumption of how people, objects, or events are causally interconnected. Put differently, a conspiracy theory always involves a hypothesized pattern (see Shermer, 2011;Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). Second, conspiracy theories stipulate that the plans of alleged conspirators are deliberate. Conspiracy theories thus ascribe intentionality to the actions of conspirators, implying agency (Douglas, Sutton, Callan, Dawtry, & Harvey, 2016;Imhoff & Bruder, 2014). Third, a conspiracy theory always involves a coalition, or group, of actors working in conjunction. An act of one individual, a lone wolf, does not fit the definition of a conspiracy theory (van Prooijen & van Lange, 2014). Fourth, conspiracy theories always contain an element of threat such that the alleged goals of the conspirators are harmful or deceptive (Hofstadter, 1966). Sometimes, people may suspect others to conspire toward benevolent goals (e.g., secretly preparing a surprise party), but that is not how conspiracy theories are commonly conceptualized. Fifth, and finally, a conspiracy theory always carries an element of secrecy and is therefore often difficult to invalidate.",[]],["We argue that a conspiracy theory contains at least five critical ingredients. First, conspiracy theories make an assumption of how people, objects, or events are causally interconnected. Put differently, a conspiracy theory always involves a hypothesized pattern (see Shermer, 2011;Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). Second, conspiracy theories stipulate that the plans of alleged conspirators are deliberate. Conspiracy theories thus ascribe intentionality to the actions of conspirators, implying agency (Douglas, Sutton, Callan, Dawtry, & Harvey, 2016;Imhoff & Bruder, 2014). Third, a conspiracy theory always involves a coalition, or group, of actors working in conjunction. An act of one individual, a lone wolf, does not fit the definition of a conspiracy theory (van Prooijen & van Lange, 2014). Fourth, conspiracy theories always contain an element of threat such that the alleged goals of the conspirators are harmful or deceptive (Hofstadter, 1966). Sometimes, people may suspect others to conspire toward benevolent goals (e.g., secretly preparing a surprise party), but that is not how conspiracy theories are commonly conceptualized. Fifth, and finally, a conspiracy theory always carries an element of secrecy and is therefore often difficult to invalidate.",["Shermer, 2011","Whitson & Galinsky, 2008","Douglas, Sutton, Callan, Dawtry, & Harvey, 2016","Imhoff & Bruder, 2014","van Prooijen & van Lange, 2014","Hofstadter, 1966","Shermer, 2011;Whitson & Galinsky, 2008","Douglas, Sutton, Callan, Dawtry, & Harvey, 2016;Imhoff & Bruder, 2014"]]],"sy":[["conspiracy thinking",[]]],"rt":[["supernatural beliefs",[]]],"ex":[["Watergate",[]],["the Iran-Contra scandal",[]],["the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["war",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["intergroup hostility",[]]]},{"de":[["One key element of any conspiracy theory is pattern perception",[]],["The human mind is equipped to look for existing patterns because establishing the true causal relations between people, events, and other important stimuli is indispensable for survival.",[]]],"rt":[["agency detection",[]]]},{},{"de":[["conspiracy theories \"hold extremist groups together and push them in a more extreme and sometimes violent direction\" (p. 5).",["p. 5"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["superstition",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"de":[["Editors and journalists enjoy a large degree of freedom in deciding what is newsworthy and what is not, and their choices affect the perception of citizens as to what is relevant and the extent of such relevance",["Larcinese et al., 2011","McCombs, 2005"]]]},{},{"de":[["Does the story revolve around disagreement between parties, individuals, groups, countries?",[]],["Does the story refer to fights, riots, and confrontation between two or more parties, individuals, groups, countries?",[]],["Does the story refer to two sides or more than two sides of the problem?",[]],["Does the story refer to winners and losers?",[]]],"sp":[["generic frames",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Diagnostic framing involves assignment of blame or causality (the root of the problem)-adding context to a story.",[]]],"rt":[["prognostic framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Stressing the breadth of an event's impact makes the potential economic impact clear to the public, who can react accordingly.",[]]],"sp":[["generic frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["newspapers can still be viewed as the Fourth Estate",[]]]},{"de":[["framing revolves around how information is presented in public discourse.",[]],["By framing issues in a particular way, the media may shape the public opinion and with it, the public agenda",["De Vreese, 2005","d'Haenens, 2005"]]]},{},{"de":[["i.e., conflict, human interest, economic impact, morality, responsibility, and nationalization frame",[]]],"rt":[["issue-specific frames",[]]],"sb":[["the conflict",[]],["human interest",[]],["economic impact",[]],["morality",[]],["responsibility",[]],["nationalization frames",[]],["conflict frame",[]],["human interest frame",[]],["Economic consequences frame",[]],["morality frame",[]],["responsibility frame",[]],["nationalization frame",[]],["the conflict, human interest, economic impact, morality, responsibility, and nationalization frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Specific to this frame is an individual's story or an emphasis on emotions, which adds to the narrative quality of the news.",[]],["The issue is personalized and dramatized to create an emotional response in consumers based on their own experience",[]]],"sp":[["generic frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["generic frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Does the story contain any moral message?",[]],["Does the story make reference to morality, God, Allah, and other religious tenets?",[]],["Does the story offer specific social prescriptions about how to behave?",[]]],"sp":[["generic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["This frame highlights a connection between the topic and the country or ideas of national politicians, parties, and/or persons.",[]]],"sp":[["generic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["It shapes public understanding by assigning credit and blame.",[]],["whether the story suggests the problem requires urgent action",[]],["reflecting efforts to assign blame or seek solutions",[]]],"sp":[["generic frames",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["not regularly considered because it is anticipated that extensive deviant coverage increases the costs for journalists and news operations",[]]]},{"sy":[["themes",[]]]},{"rt":[["tactical/procedural issues",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["interest-linked perspectives",[]]]},{"de":[["As a consequence, and in further accord with 'indexing' (see Bennett 1990), all newspapers overrepresented the official explanatory theme.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["indexing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["cause",[]]]},{"de":[["Appraisal processes and the information that they use thus form the main causal determinants of the various components that together form the multicomponential response patterns called \"emotions\".",[]]]},{"de":[["The basic premise of appraisal theories is that emotions are adaptive responses, which reflect appraisals of features of the environment that are significant for the organism's well-being.",[]],["Contemporary appraisal theories define emotions as processes, rather than states.",[]],["Appraisal theories are componential theories in that they view an emotional episode as involving changes in a number of organismic subsystems or components.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["rule-based mechanism",[]],["associative mechanism",[]]],"sb":[["rule-based mechanism",[]],["associative mechanism",[]]]},{"sy":[["schematic mechanism",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["goal conduciveness",[]],["motive consistency",[]]],"rt":[["goal relevance",[]]]},{"rt":[["goal congruence",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["hybrid",[]],["liminal",[]]]},{"de":[["affects the topics that are considered relevant at a certain moment (the 'zeitgeist') and influences news coverage more subtly.",["Hermida 2014"]]],"rt":[["zeitgeist",[]]]},{"de":[["requires less resources and is therefore more cost-effective than seeking one's own leads.",[]]]},{"de":[["This 'co-orientation' between different news outlets has economical, as well as socio-psychological origins.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["ambient",[]],["liminal",[]]]},{"de":[["The assertion is that journalists tend to let their reporting decisions be guided by the coverage of their peers at other news outlets",[]],["how different media platforms in the contemporary media landscape are temporally interrelated",[]]]},{"rt":[["hybrid",[]],["ambient",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["allows to track precisely how specific news stories transfer between platforms",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The scale ranges between 0 and ten",[]]]},{"sy":[["race to the bottom",[]]]},{"de":[["using the standard deviation of political preference related to the above-mentioned four policy questions as a proxy",[]]]},{"de":[["polarization causes audience members to change their issue positions, ideological convictions, or partisan sentiments to represent less centrist, more sharply opposed politically relevant attitudes",["Prior 2013"]],["using the standard deviation of political preference related to the above-mentioned four policy questions as a proxy",[]],["a process taking place on the aggregate level",[]],["As a process, polarization causes audience members to change their issue positions, ideological convictions, or partisan sentiments to represent less centrist, more sharply opposed politically relevant attitudes (Prior 2013).",["Prior 2013"]]],"sy":[["attitude polarization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["trust in the news media",[]],["media trust is strongly influenced by factors emanating from the media system, political system, and political culture",["Müller 2013","Tsfati and Ariely 2014","Ariely 2015"]],["a form of institutional trust",[]],["For the purpose of this study, we therefore define media trust as a form of institutional trust; it is the willingness of the audience to be vulnerable to news content based on the expectation that the media will perform in a satisfactory manner.",[]]],"sy":[["trust in the media",[]]],"rt":[["political trust",[]]],"sp":[["institutional trust",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["trust in the press",[]]],"rt":[["trust in the press",[]],["trust in the news media",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This anti-elitism populism is rhetoric used in particular by outsiders, political actors who are trying to gain leverage in a political system and build up name recognition.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Populism",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Populism",[]]]},{"de":[["The reference to the people is the first defining feature. It is at the very core, the minimal defining element, also dubbed the \"empty populism\"",[]]],"sp":[["Populism",[]]]},{"sp":[["Populism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the communicative tools used for spreading populist ideas are just as central as the populist ideas themselves.",[]],["it becomes possible to determine degrees of populism. This makes it a gradual concept where the question of who is populist will be answered by empirical measures of an actor's communicative output.",[]],["With populism as an expression of political communication content and style, we zoom in on the functions and expressions that come into play when crafting and distributing messages, the fora in which these appear, and their potential effects.",[]],["populism is understood as features of political communication rather than characteristics of the actor sending the message.",[]],["a communication phenomenon",[]],["A political communication perspective holds that constructing a specific sense of social identity is at the heart of populism.",[]],["we should treat it as a continuum, and analyze and assess the degree to which, and conditions under which, elements of populist communication are used",[]]],"rt":[["political communication content",[]],["political communication style",[]],["battle against the \"corrupt\" elite",[]],["identification of an out-group",[]],["populist communication",[]]],"sb":[["Complete populism",[]],["Excluding populism",[]],["anti-elitist populism",[]],["empty populism",[]]]},{"rt":[["populism through the media",[]]]},{"rt":[["populism by the media",[]]]},{"de":[["the communication aspect is not only ubiquitous but also the way in which we can develop a language to talk about populism across its different configurations and across the different key actors",[]],["the communication aspect is not only ubiquitous but also the way in which we can develop a language to talk about populism across its different configurations and across the different key actors.",[]],["while the mother ideologies and political ideas that different actors use to pair up with populist communication are truly important, the communication aspect is not only ubiquitous but also the way in which we can develop a language to talk about populism across its different configurations and across the different key actors.",[]]],"rt":[["populism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a deepfake is qualitatively different from a photoshopped image: a deepfake deceives not just the eyes, but the ears as well.",[]],["In this sense, a deepfake is qualitatively different from a photoshopped image: a deepfake deceives not just the eyes, but the ears as well.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]],"sb":[["manipulated content",["Wardle and Derakhshan 2017: 5"]],["imposter content",["Wardle and Derakhshan 2017: 5"]],["fabricated content",["Wardle and Derakhshan 2017: 5"]]],"sp":[["False information",["Wardle and Derakhshan 2017"]]]},{"rt":[["deepfake",[]],["political scandals",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["False information",["Wardle and Derakhshan 2017"]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["False information",["Wardle and Derakhshan 2017"]]]},{},{"sy":[["political microtargeting",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["individualization in personalized visual communication as application of visual tools that highlight candidates in a rather formal way (e.g. settled image, official clothes etc.)",[]],["focus on the politicians' political work",[]]],"rt":[["personalization",[]]],"sp":[["personalization",[]]]},{"de":[["politicians intentionally highlight their personal characteristics rather than their parties'",[]],["personalization as a communication strategy",["Hermans & Vergeer, 2012"]]],"sb":[["individualization",[]],["privatization",[]]]},{"de":[["privatization as employing visual tools that help depict candidates informally (spontaneous images, casual clothes etc.).",[]],["focus on politicians' personality and personal background",[]]],"rt":[["personalization",[]]],"sp":[["personalization",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["what defines this broad frame are valanced claims made about what institutions are or are not accomplishing: positive or negative emphasis of the purported actions of public authorities.",[]],["visuals can help lend authority to a piece of misinformation by impersonating the markings of real institutions (see Figures 7 and 8), or by providing purported evidence for a claim about what that authority is doing.",[]]],"sp":[["Frame",[]]]},{"de":[["Such a move would \"collapse the distance between presentation and representation: the image is the presentation\" (Daston 2014: 320-21).",["Daston 2014: 320-21"]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["one post claims smoking may prevent COVID-19 infection. It includes what appears to be a stock image of a cigarette. This visual in isolation is neither false nor misleading (it is an image of a cigarette), but it is used to illustrate a piece of false and misleading misinformation.",[]],["one Facebook post claims that a worker in a restaurant in Hyderabad, India, had tested positive for and potentially spread the virus. The post was accompanied by a picture of the restaurant (Figure 1). Here, the visual does not serve as evidence for the claim made in the piece of misinformation, nor does it purport to support a claim the speaker is from some authoritative institution. However, by prominently displaying the name of the restaurant, the visual makes it more likely readers remember which restaurant is implicated.",[]]]},{"de":[["some visuals (9 percent) are used by producers of misinformation to impersonate authorities, such as governments or international health authorities.",[]]],"ex":[["a counterfeit document from March 2020 (falsely) claims that the Indian Ministry of Health and Family Welfare had declared a compulsory holiday for several states due to COVID-19",[]],["Another example falsely claims that the Philippine Department of Health had issued orders that people infected with COVID-19 would be turned away from medical clinics",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["how misinformation does not represent reality, how (mis)representations circulate, and whether they are convincing.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["finding that multimodal disinformation is considered slightly more credible than textual disinformation.",["Hameleers, Powell, et al. (2020)"]]],"rt":[["textual disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frame",[]]],"ex":[["one very popular social media post shows an image of a book published in 2008 by the psychic Sylvia Browne in which she predicted the emergence of a \"severe pneumonia-like illness . . . around 2020\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frame",[]]]},{"de":[["selects some aspects of a perceived reality and makes them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation",["p. 235"]]],"sp":[["framing analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["While bias inevitably results from this selection process, and is inextricable from reporting (Entman 2007), it has the potential to empower certain actors and their narratives relative to others (Eberl et al. 2017;Gentzkow et al. 2015).",["Entman 2007","Eberl et al. 2017","Gentzkow et al. 2015"]],["The resulting media content can alter audiences' understanding by favoring one party or outcome over the other (Eberl et al. 2017;Entman 2007).",["Eberl et al. 2017","Entman 2007"]],["While bias inevitably results from this selection process, and is inextricable from reporting (Entman 2007), it has the potential to empower certain actors and their narratives relative to others",["Eberl et al. 2017;Gentzkow et al. 2015"]]],"rt":[["Framing",[]]]},{"de":[["a strategy used to delegitimize enemies abroad",["Walker and Orttung 2014"]]],"rt":[["attribution of causal responsibility",[]]]},{"sb":[["protesters",[]],["U.S. government",[]],["Iranian government",[]],["other nations",[]]]},{"de":[["frames diagnose the causes of such problems",[]]]},{"de":[["The framing process involves selective representation, which influence how audiences think about, interpret, and judge issues (Entman 2007;Iyengar 1991).",["Entman 2007","Iyengar 1991"]],["The media use frames to control understanding and attitudes by selectively displaying information and elevating some meanings over others (Scheufele and Tewksbury 2007).",["Scheufele and Tewksbury 2007"]],["to analyze the framing of media content, Matthes and Kohring (2008) propose the use of Entman's (1993) definition based on clearly defined frame elements according to their functions",["Matthes and Kohring (2008)","Entman's (1993)"]],["The framing process involves selective representation, which influence how audiences think about, interpret, and judge issues",["Entman 2007","Iyengar 1991","Entman 2007;Iyengar 1991"]]],"rt":[["problem definition",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]]},{"de":[["news agencies are thought to exhibit the highest standards of objectivity and factuality",["Stenvall 2008"]],["rely heavily on them to supply reliable and ready to publish information",["Bielsa 2008"]]],"sy":[["newswires",[]]]},{"sb":[["positive",[]],["negative",[]],["neutral",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["economic hardship",[]],["unemployment",[]],["regime change",[]],["foreign policy",[]],["corruption",[]],["human rights abuses",[]],["social media",[]],["U.S. interference",[]]]},{"de":[["In problem identification, frames identify what constitutes a problem within any given situation.",[]]],"rt":[["problem definition",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]]},{"de":[["depicts protest in terms of spectacle, focuses on its disruptive aspects, and portrays protesters as deviants while failing to articulate their agenda",["Di Cicco 2010","McLeod 2007","Xu 2013"]],["media norms of reporting dissent",[]],["In this case, the protest paradigm appears to be evident in reporting by TASS and Xinhua, which ignored protesters as sources and evaluated the protests negatively.",[]]]},{"de":[["likely informed by media ownership and norms of democracy espoused by journalists in democratic nations",["Horvit 2006"]]],"sy":[["systematic differences in coverage patterns",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["U.S. government",[]],["Iranian government",[]],["other states",[]],["international organizations",[]],["protesters",[]]]},{"de":[["Sources can be used to frame issues and infuse reports with bias and influence how issues are interpreted and understood by audiences.",[]]]},{"de":[["frames promote certain responses and guide audiences to consider specific solutions",[]]],"sb":[["political change",[]],["status quo",[]],["none",[]]]},{"sy":[["persuasive appeals",[]]]},{"de":[["Yet thus far, this initial research has focused on so-called issue framing-that is, messages that highlight different considerations about an issue.",[]]],"ex":[["participants might read either an editorial that argues for allowing (vs. opposing) a KKK rally because it promotes free speech (vs. because it endangers public safety; Nelson et al., 1997)",["Nelson et al., 1997"]]]},{"de":[["humans show a presumably adaptive tendency to prioritize safety and potential negatives",[]],["people show enhanced attention to and memory for negative versus positive stimuli",["Fiske, 1980","Hansen & Hansen, 1988","Peeters & Czapinski, 1990","Pratto & John, 1991","Fiske, 1980;Hansen & Hansen, 1988;Peeters & Czapinski, 1990;Pratto & John, 1991"]],["tendency to prioritize safety and potential negatives",["Baumeister et al., 2001","Rozin & Royzman, 2001"]]],"rt":[["reframing effects",[]]]},{"de":[["simple party cue information (e.g., whether a proposed policy is endorsed by one's own political party versus the opposing political party)",[]]]},{"de":[["can override the actual objective content of a policy (e.g., whether a welfare program provides stringent or generous benefits) in determining whether people support the policy",["Cohen, 2003"]]]},{"sy":[["issue frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Yet we know much less about reframing effects-that is, what happens when an item that was initially framed one way gets reframed in a second way.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["As both RWA and SDO correspond to the right-wing ideology (Altemeyer, 1998), such personality dimensions should be positively correlated.",["Altemeyer, 1998"]]],"rt":[["social dominance orientation (SDO)",[]]]},{"de":[["As both RWA and SDO correspond to the right-wing ideology (Altemeyer, 1998), such personality dimensions should be positively correlated.",["Altemeyer, 1998"]]],"rt":[["right-wing authoritarianism (RWA)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Data politics asks questions about the ways in which data has become such an object of power and explores how to critically intervene in its deployment as an object of knowledge.",[]],["It is concerned with the conditions of possibility of data that involve things (infrastructures of servers, devices, and cables), language (code, programming, and algorithms), and people (scientists, entrepreneurs, engineers, information technologists, designers) that together create new worlds.",[]],["data politics is concerned with not only political struggles around data collection and its deployments, but how data is generative of new forms of power relations and politics at different and interconnected scales.",[]],["we approach data not as a representation (i.e., information collected, stored, and presented without interest) but as an object whose production interests those who exercise power.",[]],["data politics is a contribution to the tradition that intersects historical sociology and political sociology.",[]]],"rt":[["transversal relations and legal and political tensions",[]],["worlds, subjects, and rights",[]],["transformation of data subjects into data citizens",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["subject of data",[]]]},{"sp":[["extreme speech",[]]]},{"de":[["highlight moderation process as political praxis",[]],["In ethical scaling, the replicability of processes is conceived as a means to modulate data hunger and channel back the benefits of scaling toward protecting marginalized, vulnerable and historically disadvantaged communities.",[]],["It develops from a conception of AI that does not mirror the inhuman, logical reduction of personhood and the denial of personhood to the marginalized that comprise the ideological edifice of colonial modernity.",[]],["ethical scaling imagines articulation among different parts and components as geared towards advancing social justice agendas with critical attention to colonial structures of subjugation and the limits of liberal thinking, and recognizing that such articulation would mean applying breaks to content flows, investing resources for moderation, and embracing an inevitably messy process of handling diverse and contradictory inputs during annotation and model building.",[]]],"rt":[["political praxis",[]],["capitalist data hunger",[]]],"ex":[["applying breaks to content flows, investing resources for moderation, and embracing an inevitably messy process of handling diverse and contradictory inputs during annotation and model building",[]]]},{"de":[["It includes derogatory expressions not only about people but also about abstract categories or institutions that they identify targeted groups with.",[]]]},{"de":[["Expressions that do not conform to accepted norms of civility within specific regional/local/national contexts and target persons/groups based on racialized categories or protected characteristics (caste, ethnicity, gender, language group, national origin, religious affiliation, sexual orientation) as well as other groups holding power (state, media, politicians) (Udupa, 2018).",["Udupa, 2018"]]],"rt":[["derogatory speech",[]],["exclusionary extreme speech",[]],["dangerous speech",[]]],"sb":[["exclusionary extreme speech",[]],["dangerous speech",[]]]},{"de":[["the discourse of hate speech is inextricably tied to the state and its political economies of violence.",[]],["This is often rooted in, and generates, intolerance and hatred, and in certain contexts can be demeaning and divisive",["United Nations, 2020"]]],"rt":[["extreme speech",[]]]},{"de":[["the Sub-Saharan African philosophy of ubuntu",[]]]},{"de":[["moral injury is a different construct from DSM-defined trauma response syndromes, one that potentially comes with its own set of long-term maladaptive behaviours and adjustment problems.",[]],["Moral injury, on the other hand, does not have this physiological underpinning and is not a mental illness, but instead is linked to a moral conflict in which one's behaviour or the behaviour of others is thought to be at odds with long-held moral beliefs.",[]],["moral injury is not a mental disorder and as such does not require a threshold for diagnosis. Rather, it should be conceptualised as dimensional in which the individual's sense of having lost his or her moral compass can manifest as guilt, shame and self-defeating behaviours.",["27"]],["it should be conceptualised as dimensional in which the individual's sense of having lost his or her moral compass can manifest as guilt, shame and self-defeating behaviours.",["27"]],["Rather, it should be conceptualised as dimensional in which the individual's sense of having lost his or her moral compass can manifest as guilt, shame and self-defeating behaviours.",[]]],"rt":[["post-traumatic stress disorder",[]],["depression",[]],["guilt",[]],["shame",[]],["self-defeating behaviours",[]],["DSM-defined trauma response syndromes",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["open-mindedness",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Civility, then, goes beyond mere politeness to also offer an explicit affirmation of the value of the person (and ideas) with whom the speaker disagrees.",[]]],"rt":[["politeness",[]]]},{"de":[["shifts focus from the topic at hand to the impoliteness of the commenter.",[]]],"sp":[["incivility",[]]]},{"de":[["uncivil comments do not add anything of substance to the discussion",["p. 660"]],["An additional key part of this definition, as noted by Coe et al., is that incivility is viewed as unnecessary. This could manifest in comments that involve name-calling, lying, aspersion, vulgarity, or the use of pejoratives (Coe et al., 2014).",[]],["Coe et al. suggest that the key distinction lies within the relevance of information shared, stating, \"uncivil comments do not add anything of substance to the discussion\"",["p. 660"]],["This could manifest in comments that involve name-calling, lying, aspersion, vulgarity, or the use of pejoratives (Coe et al., 2014).",["Coe et al., 2014"]]],"sb":[["flaming",[]]]},{"de":[["ad hoc conversations, such as those in a newspaper comment section, contained both topical and metacommunicative content.",[]],["the potential for the presence of metacommunication to improve the civility of the discussion",[]]],"rt":[["civil discourse",[]],["incivility",[]]],"ex":[["Stop being so nasty",[]],["There is no need to name call",[]],["Yelling at each other won't do anything",[]]]},{},{"de":[["is so integral to the notion of civility that Coe et al. (2014) identify it as one of the defining factors in determining what is civil.",["2014"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a productive heuristic through which to see the disparities between contemporary rhetorics and structural realities of power in cultural production",[]],["The notion of glamor, they argue, is a productive heuristic through which to see the disparities between contemporary rhetorics and structural realities of power in cultural production",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["music streaming services",[]]],"ex":[["Bandcamp",[]],["SoundCloud",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Dezenformasyon",[]]],"sp":[["Sentetik Siyasi Videolar",[]]]},{"de":[["bu videolar daha sonra gerçek görüntülerden ayırt edilebilecek herhangi bir belirli işaret olmaksızın çevrimiçi olarak paylaşılabilmektedir.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["sinizm",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Appraisal analysis",[]]]},{"sb":[["Affect",[]],["Appreciation",[]],["Judgment",[]]]},{"sb":[["Affect",[]],["Appreciation",[]],["Judgment",[]]]},{"sp":[["Appraisal analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["blame makers use language to negatively evaluate a social actor, behavior, or outcome and argue more or less explicitly that a particular actor should be blamed for their bad character or (in)action.",[]],["the meaning of each utterance derives in part from what was said before.",["McKenna, 2012"]],["the systematic identification of specific strategies of blaming provides a more fine-grained understanding of persuasion, delegitimation, and protest in new media environments.",[]]],"sy":[["blaming someone for something",["Simion, 2021"]]],"rt":[["discursive strategies of blaming",[]],["delegitimation",[]],["attack politics",[]],["character",[]],["behavior",[]],["outcomes",[]]],"sb":[["character",[]],["behavior",[]],["outcomes",[]],["negations of positive traits",[]],["blame implicating metaphorical expressions",[]],["irrealis judgments",[]]]},{"sp":[["Foci of Blaming",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["blaming",[]]]},{"sb":[["inscribed",[]],["invoked",[]]]},{"rt":[["invoked",[]]],"sp":[["explicitness",[]]]},{"rt":[["invoked judgments",[]]]},{"rt":[["inscribed",[]]],"sp":[["explicitness",[]]]},{"de":[["The irrealis judgments that concern potential/future states or actions can be constructed through the use of tense and aspect and through the use of cause-effect relations.",[]]],"rt":[["realis",[]]]},{"de":[["The irrealis judgments that concern potential/future states or actions can be constructed through the use of tense and aspect and through the use of cause-effect relations.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Judgments of propriety",[]],["Judgments of veracity",[]],["Judgments of capacity",[]],["Judgments of tenacity",[]],["propriety",[]],["veracity",[]],["capacity",[]],["tenacity",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal analysis",[]],["Appraisal",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Judgment",[]]]},{"de":[["References to officeholders' lack of empathy, decency, or integrity (e.g., \"corrupt\")",[]],["Questioning moral standing via blame-implicating conditional sentences and presuppositions that imply immoral character",[]],["Framing the officeholder as a criminal deserving punishment",[]],["References to officeholders acting with a goal of private gain, indifference toward public interest or disloyalty to one's country, and breaking certain (written) rules of conduct",[]],["Calls for officeholders to act in a way that shows decency or acknowledges shame (\"do the honorable thing\")",[]],["Using presuppositions that suggest officeholders behave in an immoral manner",[]],["References to outcomes that imply corruption, such as \"payoff,\" \"cronyism\"",[]]],"rt":[["judgments of social sanction",[]]],"sp":[["Judgment",[]]]},{"sb":[["capacity",[]],["tenacity",[]]]},{"sb":[["propriety",[]],["veracity",[]]]},{"de":[["Using references that suggest the target is not taking things seriously when they should (e.g., \"buffoon\", \"joke\")",[]],["Negative attributions that suggest officeholders are cowards",[]],["References to dithering, acting too late, too slowly, postponing important tasks, inaction, making U-turns, acting in a disorganized manner",[]],["Calling for officeholders to act in a way that demonstrates greater courage",[]],["References to bad outcomes caused by indecision or actions taken too late",[]]],"rt":[["judgments of social esteem",[]]],"sp":[["Judgment",[]]]},{"de":[["Calling the target a liar, charlatan, bullshitter, traitor, etc.",[]],["Negation of positive character traits such as honesty and credibility",[]],["Calls for change in political leadership due to lack of credibility",[]],["References to lying, deceiving, betraying, incongruence between words and actions, not keeping promises, manipulation, officeholders' hidden intentions or insincere attempts at masking their failure (e.g., hypocrisy), officeholders having lost trust in the eyes of the public",[]],["Calls to act in an honest way (e.g., to tell the truth)",[]],["References to outcomes of betrayal, such as \"broken promises\"",[]]],"rt":[["judgments of social sanction",[]]],"sp":[["Judgment",[]]]},{"sp":[["evaluative bases of blaming",[]]],"ex":[["\"You lied on the Brexit bus, you haven't stopped lying since\" and \"You sold a lie to the British people.\"",[]],["\"Australian deal?! You've just made that bollocks up!\" and \"This is not what you campaigned on or promised.\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["evaluative bases of blaming",[]]]},{"sp":[["evaluative bases of blaming",[]]]},{"sp":[["evaluative bases of blaming",[]]],"ex":[["\"You are breathtakingly incompetent,\" \"You have lost the plot,\" and \"This inept #Government lurches from one disaster to another.\"",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Judgment",[]]]},{"rt":[["irrealis",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Judgment",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["it creates a corpus from the collected training data, while the dictionary uses predefined words. After the data collection stage, word frequencies are used as a feature for training a classifier.",[]],["A limitation of this approach is ignoring word sequence It ignores word sequences and its semantic and syntactic content, may lead misclassification to words used in various contexts.",[]]]},{"ex":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech is a complex phenomenon, and detecting whether a text contains hate speech is not a trivial task, even for humans.",[]],["A common theme is that hate speech is used against a specific targeted group or group members.",[]],["Besides, it has been seen by different sources as an attack or incitement to violence.",[]]],"sy":[["Hateful conduct",["Twitter (2020)"]]],"rt":[["abusive language",[]]],"sb":[["abusive language",[]]]},{"de":[["detection methods should not be vulnerable to imbalanced classes",[]]]},{"ex":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["It is scarce and often not readily available for external researchers; it might introduce bias in the model",[]],["Additional information from social media can help better understand the characteristics of the post-context and provide valuable data for hate speech detection. Social media platforms offer a wide variety of information that can be collected through APIs, such as user gender, demographics data, timestamp, user profiles, and network structures",[]]]},{"de":[["often defined as satirical",[]]],"ex":[["satirical",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The ''elements'' in this context can represent individuals, events, services, products, and topics.",[]]],"sy":[["opinion mining",["Serrano-Guerrero et al., 2015"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",["Schmidt & Wiegand, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["These so-called attitude roots (Hornsey & Fielding, 2017) are considered the fundamental psychological drivers of opposition to vaccination (Fasce et al., 2023).",["Hornsey & Fielding, 2017"]]],"sb":[["conspiracist ideation",[]],["unwarranted beliefs",[]],["religious concerns",[]]]},{"ex":[["conspiracist ideation (i.e., believing in conspiracies even if more plausible explanations exist)",["Fasce et al., 2023","Holford, Fasce, Costello et al., 2023"]],["unwarranted beliefs (i.e., believing in pseudoscience conceptions)",["Fasce et al., 2023","Holford, Fasce, Costello et al., 2023"]],["religious concerns (i.e., believing that vaccination is against one's own religious or spiritual codex)",["Fasce et al., 2023","Holford, Fasce, Costello et al., 2023"]]]},{"sp":[["attitude roots",[]]]},{"de":[["In contrast to rebuttal in mass communication contexts, ERI does not aim to overwhelm the arguments of other individuals (here: patients) with scientific evidence but focuses on understanding and valuing the concerns of the patient first. Similarly to MI, this is achieved by eliciting concerns with open questions and affirming the attitudes and beliefs of patients to the extent possible",["Holford et al., in press"]],["In contrast to rebuttal in mass communication contexts, ERI does not aim to overwhelm the arguments of other individuals (here: patients) with scientific evidence but focuses on understanding and valuing the concerns of the patient first.",[]]],"sp":[["Motivational interviewing (MI)",[]]]},{"de":[["This 50/50 presentation of positions can give the impression that the scientific evidence for and against vaccination is similarly distributed",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["More sophisticated psychological prevention measures against misinformation make use of the inoculation theory (McGuire, 1961;van der Linden et al., 2020).",["McGuire, 1961","van der Linden et al., 2020"]]],"sb":[["issue-based inoculation",[]],["technique-based inoculation",["Roozenbeek et al., 2022"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This form of debunking is often referred to as real-time rebuttal",["Schmid & Betsch, 2019","van der Linden et al., 2020"]]],"rt":[["debunking",[]]]},{"ex":[["if someone states that \"vaccines are unnatural and therefore bad,\" then this misleading message can be rebutted by pointing out that it is based on a logical fallacy known as \"appeal to nature\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["attitude roots",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is a form of individualized communication that has also been suggested as a key element for infodemic management",["Taguchi et al., 2023"]]]},{"sp":[["inoculation theory",[]]]},{"sp":[["inoculation theory",[]]]},{"sp":[["attitude roots",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["health literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["has emerged as one of the most important public health issues in this century.",[]],["health communication can contribute to all aspects of disease prevention and health promotion",[]]],"rt":[["risk communication",[]]]},{"rt":[["Health communication",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["health loss framing",[]]],"sp":[["risk framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["health gain framing",[]]],"sp":[["risk framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["Graphic Type",["(Saunders, 1994)"]]]},{"de":[["the nearly instantaneous spread of unverifiable health information",[]]],"sy":[["false information",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Graphic Type",["(Saunders, 1994)"]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["health loss framing",[]],["health gain framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["Graphic Type",["(Saunders, 1994)"]]]},{},{"de":[["FOMO is a mental health-related construct that may drive some negative emotion, but PTSD remains the dominant concept because it can drive both excessive Internet usage and misinformation.",[]],["This digital activity-driven flood of updates has given rise to a relatively new phenomenon known as FOMO [9,11,17].",["9","11","17"]]]},{"de":[["FOMO is a widespread phenomenon that can be detrimental to physical and mental health",["10"]],["It is not necessarily bad, as it can enhance the strength of social media connections and improve happiness in some",["11"]],["In most people, however, it seems to be associated with a maladaptive ruminative style of thinking that can cause negative outcomes such as increased anxiety.",[]]],"rt":[["Rumination",[]]]},{"de":[["FOMO is a widespread phenomenon that can be detrimental to physical and mental health",["10"]],["In most people, however, it seems to be associated with a maladaptive ruminative style of thinking that can cause negative outcomes such as increased anxiety.",[]],["FOMO is a mental health-related construct that may drive some negative emotion",[]],["FOMO is not always a bad thing, as it has a positive effect on happiness and indirectly affects the strength of social media connections",["11"]],["FOMO is skewed towards negative outcomes, which also explains depressive symptoms and PTSD respectively",["17"]],["In some cases of social isolation, people may experience frequent FOMO when they are away from their social environment because they are not seeing their friends, partners, or family members",["13"]],["FOMO is positively related to the intensity of online disinformation exposure and negatively related to social connections.",["11"]]],"ex":[["fake news videos have begun to emerge, which, due to their novelty and potent visual impact, increase the risk of anxiety, and FOMO was found to be a direct contributor to this situation",["19"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["cultural tax",[]]],"rt":[["URMM responsibility disparity",[]],["URMM faculty responsibility disparity",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["blacks, Latinos, and Native Americans/Alaskans",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In other words, and with reference to [21], agency requires an individual to be clearly distinguishable from its environment (and, therefore, identifiable), able to actively shape its environment instead of merely exchanging information, and able to evaluate its own behavior with regard to normative frameworks (desires, beliefs, attitudes), generated by itself.",["21"]]]},{},{"sy":[["group",["[53]: 36 f."]]],"rt":[["loose cluster",[]]],"ex":[["Participants in a public demonstration, for example, could be identified as a collective because they apparently share several values or even a worldview.",[]]]},{"de":[["the perception of the group of participants as a collective agent rather than a 'loose cluster' of individuals",[]],["a collective agent that actually has a voice of its own",[]],["a collective agent who is only expected to receive these pieces of information without being able to use it, because the agent ceases to exist at the end of the event.",[]],["if a public can be regarded as a collective agent, it can be regarded as having attitudes of its own",[]],["an entity with a voice of its own that need to be taken seriously",[]],["one collective entity",[]]],"rt":[["collective",[]],["public",[]],["collective agency",[]]]},{"de":[["not individual but collective recognition (which is a kind of collective intentionality) is necessary for an object to have a status function",[]]],"rt":[["collective recognition",[]]]},{},{"de":[["discursive representation, does not aim for representation of individuals or groups but rather of the usually smaller number of diverse views and experiences [39] or of relevant discourses on the issue at hand [17,40].",["39","17","40"]],["or of relevant discourses on the issue at hand",["17","40"]]],"rt":[["quantitative representation",[]]],"ex":[["there are examples of PIAs in BMRI which aim for discursive representation [11,41]",["11","41"]]]},{},{"ex":[["an example of such a cluster of representatives can be found in [35], where the results of a multi-staged study on the views of African immigrant community leaders on genomics and biobanking are reported.",["35"]]]},{},{"de":[["the concept of 'public' used in a PIA can increase or decrease the internal consistency of a PIA, depending on its usage in each of the PIA's different parts, such as its aims, its recruitment process, and the methods used in it.",[]]],"rt":[["collective agent",[]],["loose cluster",[]]]},{"sy":[["public engagement",["27","28"]],["public deliberation",["27","28"]],["public participation",["27","28"]]]},{"de":[["It is based on the assumption that participants with diverse socio-demographic characteristics entail different backgrounds and experiences and hence represent different views, experiences, and discourses.",[]]],"sy":[["diversity",[]]],"rt":[["societal cross-section",["43"]]]},{"de":[["As this type refers to the frequency of relevant characteristics in the sample and the population, respectively, we call it quantitative representation.",[]]],"sy":[["statistical representation",["18","37","38","18,37"]],["descriptive representation",["19"]],["'statistical representation'",["18","37"]],["'descriptive representation'",["19"]]],"ex":[["A typical PIA in BMRI that involved a quantitatively representative collective is reported in Menon and Stafinski [34].",["34"]]]},{"de":[["In this scenario, active individuals are perceived to represent inactive ones [18,19]. This notion of representation, for example, is applied when participants are invited by means of newspaper advertisements or via mailing lists or when they are recruited by means of a convenience sample.",["18","19"]]],"ex":[["One example of a PIA in BMRI that involved a self-selected group of participants is reported in [36]: this paper reports a set of practical exercises for laypeople that were designed for explaining the value of experiments on Drosophila melanogaster.",["36"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the crucial functions in question require collective intentionality.",[]]]},{"de":[["As like other decolonial feminist theories, nego-feminism opposes the presumed universalism of the female experience and emphasizes the importance of contexts in understanding women's oppression.",[]],["The framework strives for gender equality, but unlike Western feminism, which seeks to dismantle or deconstruct patriarchal oppression, it focuses on negotiation, compromise, and navigation around oppressive forces.",[]],["Nego-feminism relies on \"gives and takes\" with the dominant culture as a way to survive.",[]],["offering a practical solution to rapidly improve access to abortion",[]]],"sp":[["decolonial feminist theories",[]]]},{"de":[["It emerged in the 1980s, in response to the dominant rhetoric around abortion, mostly reflecting white middle-class women's experiences of choice. Reproductive justice places the contextual nature of women's lives at the center of reproductive rights. It recognizes the role of economic, social and political power dynamics in shaping reproductive autonomy",["5","13"]],["Reproductive justice places the contextual nature of women's lives at the center of reproductive rights.",[]],["It recognizes the role of economic, social and political power dynamics in shaping reproductive autonomy [5,13].",["5,13"]]]},{},{"sy":[["attributional spin",[]]]},{"sp":[["marketing bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["hard-wired bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["design bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["marketing-related features",[]],["internal marketing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["pose significant threats to information integrity and security",[]],["fake visual images, commonly called DeepFakes",[]],["a new form of disinformation",[]],["various forms of deepfakes",[]]],"sy":[["Deep fake videos",[]],["fake visual images",[]],["DeepFake",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["identity theft",[]],["cybercrime",[]]],"ex":[["impersonation",[]],["trait or expression mimicking",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["NML",[]],["new media literacy (NML)",[]]]},{"sp":[["literacy",["Buckingham, 2003"]]]},{},{"sp":[["NML",[]],["new media literacy (NML)",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, CT can help individuals to make true and reasonable decisions about their actions or on the accuracy of information.",[]],["CT leads to more accurate and systematic processing of ideas, arguments, and information (Ruggerio, 1988) in which the quality and accuracy of them are examined and evaluated (Lewis & Smith, 1993) and after this careful and logical examination process, they decide to believe or support them.",["Ruggerio, 1988","Lewis & Smith, 1993"]],["Therefore, it can be said that CT works as armor that protects individuals against fake information",["Epstein & Kernberger, 2012"]],["An adequate critical thinker is \"habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, fair-minded in evaluation, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, and focused in inquiry\"",["Facione, 1990, p. 2"]],["CT can help individuals to make true and reasonable decisions about their actions or on the accuracy of information.",[]],["CT dispositions equip individuals with the necessary skills to examine and evaluate the quality and accuracy of ideas, claims, and judgments as well as of their source.",[]],["individuals with high CT dispositions are open to new ideas and they are willing to modify their ideas and arguments when a piece of convincing evidence appears.",[]],["Therefore, individuals with high CT dispositions are skeptical of any information they encounter in their daily life and they habitually tend to evaluate the veracity of information itself as well as the source of this information.",[]]]},{"de":[["An adequate critical thinker is \"habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, fair-minded in evaluation, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, and focused in inquiry\"",["Facione, 1990, p. 2"]]],"sy":[["people who have high CT skills and dispositions at the same time",[]]]},{"de":[["Individuals wear CT as armor and protect themselves against fake information",["Epstein & Kernberger, 2012"]],["An adequate critical thinker tends to examine and evaluate the accuracy of the news they encounter on SM (Lewis & Smith, 1993) and they are unwilling to share this news with others until they make sure about the sensibility and accuracy of it (Mason, 2008).",["Lewis & Smith, 1993","Mason, 2008"]],["CT not only helps individuals not to fall into traps of FN but also works as a barrier against the dissemination of FN produced by others on SM which makes CT an important and effective weapon to combat FN",["Bronstein et al., 2019","Wilson, 2018"]],["CT dispositions equip individuals with the necessary skills to examine and evaluate the quality and accuracy of ideas, claims, and judgments as well as of their source.",[]],["individuals with high CT dispositions are open to new ideas and they are willing to modify their ideas and arguments when a piece of convincing evidence appears.",[]],["individuals with high CT dispositions are skeptical of any information they encounter in their daily life and they habitually tend to evaluate the veracity of information itself as well as the source of this information.",[]]]},{"de":[["FN-in other words, fabricated news-can be easily disseminated in the form of real news either on SM or through other conventional means of communication (Molina et al., 2021) and it does not have any objective evidence to show the authenticity of the information which it conveys (Pennycook & Rand, 2021).",["Molina et al., 2021","Pennycook & Rand, 2021"]],["FN attracts a lot more attention and spreads more quickly than real news and it mostly includes emotionally charged language",["Vosoughi et al., 2018"]],["FN is undesirable because it can influence people in a psychological and social way by distorting their beliefs resulting in misinformed and wrong decisions",["Zimmermann & Kohring, 2020"]],["Also, FN does not only negatively affect individuals, but it is also harmful to society in many ways. It can have many political, economic, social, and cultural consequences.",[]]],"sy":[["fabricated news",["Molina et al., 2021"]]]},{},{"sp":[["NML",[]],["new media literacy (NML)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["NML",[]],["new media literacy (NML)",[]]]},{"de":[["They can also make independent judgements about the veracity of these media content",["Buckingham, 2015","Leaning, 2017"]],["New media literate individuals tend to employ an active process in which they investigate, evaluate, and analyze the media content and its underlying messages instead of passively consuming it because they are aware of the way the media content is created, commercialized, and disseminated all over the world",["Thoman & Jolls, 2004"]],["NML equips individuals with the necessary skills to investigate and evaluate the credibility of the information or news and its source, verify the authenticity of them, and use them ethically.",[]],["NML is not only about consuming but also producing media content.",[]],["New media literate individuals are capable of consuming media content in a critical way.",[]],["They have the necessary skills to actively evaluate the credibility, accuracy, and usefulness of the media content and they can investigate it in terms of different perspectives such as cultural, political, social, and economic.",[]],["NML is about the capability of gaining access to created new media content, understanding the message it conveys, and (re)producing new media content.",[]],["They can also use different media platforms consciously, distinguish different media content, and investigate the media types.",[]]]},{"de":[["New media literate individuals tend to employ an active process in which they investigate, evaluate, and analyze the media content and its underlying messages instead of passively consuming it because they are aware of the way the media content is created, commercialized, and disseminated all over the world",["Thoman & Jolls, 2004"]],["NML equips individuals with the necessary skills to investigate and evaluate the credibility of the information or news and its source, verify the authenticity of them, and use them ethically.",[]],["Also, NML is about the capability of gaining access to created new media content, understanding the message it conveys, and (re)producing new media content.",[]],["It includes some important process skills like access, analysis, evaluation, critique, production, and participation in media content",["Hobbs & Jensen, 2009","Lee et al., 2015","Zhang et al., 2014"]],["It includes some important process skills like access, analysis, evaluation, critique, production, and participation in media content (Hobbs & Jensen, 2009;Lee et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2014).",[]]],"sy":[["NML",[]]],"rt":[["consuming literacies",[]],["producing skills",[]]],"sb":[["functional consuming literacy",[]],["functional prosuming literacy",[]],["critical consuming literacy",[]],["critical prosuming literacy",[]],["functional consuming",[]],["critical consuming",[]],["functional prosuming",[]],["critical prosuming",[]]]},{"de":[["NML increases the possibility that individuals take a critical standpoint toward FN (Kim et al., 2021) and it has an important effect on the degree of consumption and dissemination of FN on SM (Staksrud et al., 2013).",["Kim et al., 2021","Staksrud et al., 2013"]]],"rt":[["media and information literacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It is often utilised as a means of defining problems, diagnosing causes, identifying solutions and making moral judgements",["18"]],["Although audiences are able to choose their own constructs or opinions of issues, framing is particularly influential to audience perceptions of issues where the audience is not as well-informed or active participants of the issue being reported",["17","18","21"]],["It is often utilised as a means of defining problems, diagnosing causes, identifying solutions and making moral judgements [18].",["18"]]]},{"de":[["This can even be the case where a biased image is accompanying otherwise neutral content",["19","20"]],["Images can also be used to frame issues in a manner which may be deemed too controversial or may not be expressed in textual form, for example racial, gender or demographic profiling",["26"]],["Image framing can be particularly influential on public opinion as images are often accepted as reflective of reality, and news is reportedly better understood by the public through images and videos rather than written or audio content",["19"]]],"rt":[["news media framing",[]]],"sp":[["news media framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the retweet network reveals which users support similar interests, without looking into the actual content",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["measures of influence of a Twitter user",["21"]]]},{"sp":[["measures of influence of a Twitter user",["21"]]]},{"de":[["Opinion polls are usually designed to represent the opinions of a population by conducting a series of questions and then extrapolating generalities in ratio or within confidence intervals.",[]],["A sample is drawn from a large panel of volunteers, and the results are weighted to reflect the demographics of the population of interest.",[]]]},{"sp":[["measures of influence of a Twitter user",["21"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It depends on the type and strength of relations, network distances, properties of individuals, etc.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The target may be a person, an organization, a government policy, a movement, a product, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["As generative AI tools are not designed to assess accuracy or authenticity of content, they are prone to produce fabricated content when trained on large amounts of unsupervised data, as is the case of ChatGPT.",[]],["Consequently, when asked to write medical abstracts, case reports, or research proposals, these generative AI tools frequently include inaccurate statements or fabricated content fueled by false sources of data",["13","14","15"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",["5"]],["bias",["5"]]]},{"de":[["Left unchecked, this may result in a snowball effect",[]]],"rt":[["plagiarism",["5","6"]]]},{"de":[["it is known to impair memory (e.g., Craik, Govoni, Naveh-Benjamin, & Anderson, 1996), and, in particular, more strategic memory processes rather than more automatic processes such as familiarity (e.g., Hicks & Marsh, 2000).",["(e.g., Craik, Govoni, Naveh-Benjamin, & Anderson, 1996)","(e.g., Hicks & Marsh, 2000)"]],["Cognitive load may also specifically impair the processing of corrections (Ecker et al., 2010) such that the primary effect of a correction may be to boost the familiarity of the retracted claim.",["Ecker et al., 2010"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the boost in familiarity associated with the repetition of misinformation within a correction could be so detrimental that it could ironically increase belief in the corrected misinformation",["Schwarz et al., 2007"]],["a familiarity backfire effect should arise only with a delayed test, not an immediate test, when recollection of the correction will still be strong enough to avoid ironic correction effects.",[]],["acceptance of false claims can be driven by claim familiarity, in particular when the ability to recollect the correction is reduced (e.g., due to delay-related forgetting or cognitive load).",[]],["corrections of novel misinformation could elicit a familiarity-driven backfire effect, which may ironically strengthen misconceptions and spread misinformation to new audiences",[]],["the familiarity boost effected by exposure to a false claim within a correction may be sufficient to offset the corrective effect of a mere fact-check after a 1-week delay (thus resulting in the observed null effect), but not sufficient to cause ironic misconception-strengthening effects.",[]],["mere exposure to a correction could familiarize people with a novel piece of misinformation such that it would negatively affect their reasoning and beliefs",[]]],"rt":[["continued influence effect",[]],["familiarity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["negative emotions may be associated with accommodative processing",["Fiedler and Beier 2014","Bohn-Gettler 2019"]]]},{"de":[["positive emotions may facilitate assimilative processing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["By this account, individuals engaging in reasoning and reflection are less likely to mistake fake news as accurate.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["By this account, people reason like lawyers rather than scientists, using their reasoning abilities to protect their identities and ideological commitments rather than to uncover the truth",["Kahan 2013"]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["lateral reading",[]]]},{"rt":[["non-epistemic judgments",[]]]},{"de":[["In journalism, this process occurs internally before publication as well as externally via articles evaluating the accuracy of publicly available information",["Graves & Amazeen, 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["lateral reading instruction emphasizes that students need to assemble a collection of documents in order to be able to assess information credibility, identify biases, and corroborate facts.",[]],["Lateral reading offers a way for students to act on awareness and skepticism fostered through media and news literacy interventions by leaving the original messages in order to investigate sources and verify claims.",[]],["Lateral reading offers one means of investigating the authority of a source, including its potential biases",["Faix & Fyn, 2020"]],["to correctly assess the trustworthiness of online content",[]],["checking information with another source or finding out more about the author of the information",[]],["by checking information with another source or finding out more about the author of the information",[]]],"rt":[["click restraint",[]],["media, news, and information literacy instruction",[]]],"sp":[["civic online reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["Media literacy interventions can increase students' awareness of factors that may affect the credibility of media messages, specifically that media content is created for a specific audience, is subject to bias and multiple interpretations, and does not always reflect reality",["Hobbs & Jensen, 2009;Jeong et al., 2012"]]]},{},{"rt":[["epistemic judgments",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it is typically thought to occur because repetition increases processing fluency.",[]],["the effect does not depend upon the source of the statements",[]],["occurs even when participants are explicitly told that the source of the statements is unreliable",[]],["the effect does not depend upon the source of the statements (Begg et al. 1992) and occurs even when participants are explicitly told that the source of the statements is unreliable (Henkel and Mattson 2011) or when the initial statement had a qualifier that cast doubt on the statement's validity (Stanley et al. 2019).",["Begg et al. 1992","Henkel and Mattson 2011","Stanley et al. 2019"]],["the illusory truth effect even occurs when the repeated statements are highly implausible (e.g., The earth is a perfect square; Fazio et al. 2019) or when the repeated statements directly contradict participants' prior knowledge (e.g., The fastest land animal is the leopard; Fazio et al. 2015).",["Fazio et al. 2019","Fazio et al. 2015"]],["the more often information is repeated, the more likely it is to be believed",[]],["it helps explain why advertisements and propaganda work, and also why people believe fake news to be true.",[]]],"sy":[["repetition truth effect",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["processing fluency",[]]],"ex":[["trivia statements",[]],["fake news headlines",["Pennycook et al. 2018"]],["product claims",["Johar and Roggeveen 2007"]],["opinion statements",["Arkes et al. 1989"]],["rumors",["DiFonzo et al. 2016"]],["misinformation about observed events",["Zaragoza and Mitchell 1996"]],["The earth is a perfect square",["Fazio et al. 2019"]],["The fastest land animal is the leopard",["Fazio et al. 2015"]]]},{"de":[["this is thought to reflect repetition-related increases processing fluency",["Reber and Schwarz 2001","Reber et al. 1998"]]]},{"de":[["According to the processing fluency account, when information is repeated, it is processed more fluently and is consequently perceived to be more truthful (e.g., Unkelbach 2007; Unkelbach and Stahl 2009).",[]]],"rt":[["illusory truth effect",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["processing fluency",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Continued Influence Effect (CIE)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["fluid intelligence",[]]]},{"rt":[["selective retrieval account",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Individuals with a high NFC prefer complex and intellectually challenging to simple problems, while individuals with a low NFC tend to avoid tasks that require deliberation and mental effort",["Cacioppo et al., 1996","Petty et al., 2009"]]],"rt":[["need for closure",[]]]},{"rt":[["integration account",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["cultural identity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["new media like the Internet possess at least three attributes of data not commonly associated with traditional media: interactivity, demassification, and asynchroneity.",[]],["Demassification is the ability of the media user to select from a wide menu.",[]],["Chamberlain (1994) argued that we have entered an era of demassification in which the individual media user is able, through newer technologies, to pick from a large selection of media, previously shared only with other individuals as mass media.",["(Chamberlain, 1994)"]]],"rt":[["interactivity",[]],["asynchroneity",[]],["selectivity characteristics",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["expectancy value theory",["1975"]]]},{"rt":[["social utility",[]],["personal identity",[]],["surveillance",[]]],"sp":[["motivations for media use",[]]]},{"de":[["television programming is primarily homogeneous in gratifying a time-filling behavior",["(McQuail, Blumler, & Brown, 1972)","McQuail, Blumler, & Brown, 1972"]]]},{"de":[["provides the \"means-ends orientation [for the perspective and] opens up a world of opportunities for studying mediated communication as a functional process that is purposive and leads to specific psychological or social consequences\"",["1996"]]]},{"de":[["Every reader lays his own trail in the text whilst reading. Or rather, every reader composes the object he reads through the active selection of the links provided. The individual reception perspective determines the succession of text building blocks. Reading is no longer a passive process of reception, but rather becomes a process of creative interaction between reader, author, and text.",[]],["Reading is no longer a passive process of reception, but rather becomes a process of creative interaction between reader, author, and text. (p. 2)",["p. 2"]]]},{"sp":[["expectancy value theory",["1975"]]]},{"sp":[["expectancy value theory",["1975"]]]},{"rt":[["ritualized viewing",[]]]},{"de":[["new media like the Internet possess at least three attributes of data not commonly associated with traditional media: interactivity, demassification, and asynchroneity.",[]],["interactive media obscure the line between the sender and receiver of mediated messages",[]],["interactive media obscure the line between the sender and receiver of mediated messages (Singer, 1998).",[]],["Heeter (1989) also defined interactivity as a multidimensional concept: amount of choice provided to users, amount of effort a user must exert to access information, how actively responsive a medium is to users, potential to monitor system use, degree to which users can add information to the system that a mass undifferentiated audience can access, and degree to which a media system facilitates interpersonal communication between specific users.",["(1989)"]]],"rt":[["demassification",[]],["asynchroneity",[]],["threats (Markus, 1994), benefits (S. Ang & Cummings, 1994), sociability (Fulk, Flanagin, Kalman, Monge, & Ryan, 1996), isolation (Dorsher, 1996), involvement (Trevino & Webster, 1992), and inconvenience (Stolz, 1995;Thomas, 1995).",["Markus, 1994","S. Ang & Cummings, 1994","Fulk, Flanagin, Kalman, Monge, & Ryan, 1996","Dorsher, 1996","Trevino & Webster, 1992","Stolz, 1995","Thomas, 1995"]],["playfulness, choice, connectedness, information collection, and reciprocal communication",[]]],"sb":[["threats (Markus, 1994)",[]],["benefits (S. Ang & Cummings, 1994)",[]],["sociability (Fulk, Flanagin, Kalman, Monge, & Ryan, 1996)",[]],["isolation (Dorsher, 1996)",[]],["involvement (Trevino & Webster, 1992)",[]],["inconvenience (Stolz, 1995;Thomas, 1995)",[]],["playfulness",[]],["choice",[]],["connectedness",[]],["information collection",[]],["reciprocal communication",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["quiet observers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The individual's desire for information from the media is the primary variable in explaining why media messages have cognitive, affective, or variable effects.",[]]],"rt":[["dependency",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["diversion",[]],["social utility",[]],["surveillance",[]]],"sp":[["motivations for media use",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Instrumental viewing",[]]]},{"rt":[["diversion",[]],["personal identity",[]],["surveillance",[]]],"sp":[["motivations for media use",[]]]},{"rt":[["diversion",[]],["social utility",[]],["personal identity",[]]],"sp":[["motivations for media use",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["uses and gratifications has always provided a cutting-edge theoretical approach in the initial stages of each new mass communications medium: newspapers, radio and television, and now the Internet.",[]]],"sy":[["uses and gratifications approach",[]]],"sp":[["media effects research",["McQuail, 1994"]]]},{"sp":[["media effects research",["McQuail, 1994"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["mirror-image augmentation principle",["1971"]]]},{},{"rt":[["Should-Would Discrepancy Questionnaire",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The obstacle to using such base rates is not cognitive, but moral.",[]]],"rt":[["Base-rate utilization",[]]]},{"rt":[["discounting principle",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A new suite of psychological tests measures unconscious bias.",[]],["the IAT, for example, provides \"at best a relative measure of one target set against another.",[]],["the results of the IAT are often interpreted as reflecting an implicit prejudice for one group over another.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["having a negative attitude with an insufficient evidentiary basis",[]]],"sy":[["deficient judgment",[]]]},{},{"de":[["self-report scales designed to assess more indirect forms of hostility, such as resentment of welfare abuse and dislike of busing and affirmative action, and that can be justified by appeals to traditional American values such as self-reliance and individual responsibility",[]]]},{},{"de":[["presupposes an unwillingness to change one's opinion in response to new veridical information.",[]],["prejudice is a value-laden socio-political construct",[]],["presupposes an unwillingness to change one's opinion in response to new veridical information",[]]],"sy":[["prejudge",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The semantic relation between the prime and the target is the topic of interest to the investigator. To the extent the prime influences the response to the target the two stimuli are deemed to be associated.",[]]],"ex":[["Some primes facilitate the response to the target word, as when the prime is bread and the target is butter.",[]]]},{"ex":[["When deciding which of two foreign cities is larger, choose the one whose name one recognizes.",["Goldstein and Gigerenzer (2002)"]],["When deciding in which company to invest, one possible rule would be to choose companies one recognizes and avoid those one does not recognize.",["Goldstein and Gigerenzer (2002)"]]]},{"de":[["The standard explanation has been that people make subjective-likelihood judgments by relying on simple error-prone heuristics such as representativeness",["Kahneman & Tversky, 1972"]],["simple error-prone heuristics",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["stereotype knowledge",[]]]},{"sy":[["common knowledge",[]]],"rt":[["stereotype endorsement",[]]]},{"de":[["Ross (1977) stated that \"the Discounting Principle requires a 'psychologist' able to assess the role of various social pressures and situation forces\" (p. 181).",["Ross (1977)","Ross, 1977"]],["Kelley (1971) posited people to be intuitive scientists who use logically defensible rules, such as the discounting principle, in their efforts to master the causal structure of the interpersonal world.",["Kelley (1971)"]]],"rt":[["fundamental attribution error",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["the sensational packaging of an already sensational news topic",[]]]},{"de":[["exemplary information in a news story is more concrete than the general information in the story",["Aust & Zillmann, 1996","Brosius & Bathelt, 1994","Gan et al., 1996","Perry & Gonzenbach, 1997","Zillmann & Brosius, 2000"]]],"sb":[["personalization",[]]]},{"rt":[["dissolve",[]],["fade-out",[]],["fade-in",[]],["slow motion",[]],["repeated images",[]],["repeated sounds",[]]]},{"de":[["The score of dramatic pictures refers to the presence of one such picture in the item",[]]],"sy":[["compelling negative images",[]],["negative video",[]],["emotional pictures",[]]],"ex":[["pictures of riots, pursuits, fires, disasters, dead people, starved people, and havoc",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The score of dramatic subject refers to the presence of at least one dramatic category identified in the item",[]]],"ex":[["sex, violence, criminality, death, drugs, disasters, riots, fires, famines, and terrorism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["comments by laypersons may be considered more concrete than the comments made by politicians and experts that are often rather abstract",[]]],"sp":[["Concreteness",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Concreteness",[]]]},{"ex":[["A shot in close-up may be an obvious example of proximity",[]]]},{"de":[["expanding a recent conceptualization of sensationalism that is largely based on the limited capacity model of mediated messages",[]],["sensationalism in television news will both attract more viewers to the news and increase attentiveness during the viewing process.",[]],["unrestricted use of sensationalist devices (e.g., the sensational packaging of an already sensational news topic) might induce cognitive overload that will harm retention of the news messages",["Grabe et al., 2003","Lang, Bolls, Potter, & Kawahara, 1999","Lang, Potter, & Grabe, 2003"]],["the theoretical notions concerning vividness imply that vivid aspects of the news differentially draw attention to only parts of the informational content, which could lead to distorted comprehension and judgments",["Aust & Zillmann, 1996","Gan et al., 1996","Perry & Gonzenbach, 1997","Zillmann & Brosius, 2000"]],["notably its potential to be attention grabbing and emotionally arousing",["Grabe et al. (2001)","Grabe et al., 2001"]],["Traditionally, sensationalism in the news has been conceived mostly in terms of story content, such as stories about crime, violence, natural disasters, accidents, and fires (Adams, 1978;Slattery & Hakanen, 1994).",["Adams, 1978","Slattery & Hakanen, 1994"]],["a number of scholarly definitions of sensationalism focus on the effects on the human sensory system",["Grabe et al., 2001"]],["the concept of sensationalism is further extended to include not only aspects that are derived from the limited capacity model but also aspects that are derived from vividness theory.",[]]]},{"de":[["namely cuts, edits, movements of the camera (e.g., zooms, eyewitness camera), sound effects, the onset of background music, and so on.",[]],["By virtue of their attention-grabbing capacity, such features may be described as tabloid packaging (cf. Grabe et al., 2003).",["Grabe et al., 2003"]]],"rt":[["dramatic editing",[]]]},{"de":[["Nisbett and Ross argued that vivid information stimulates imagination, attracts and holds attention, and is better retained in memory than nonvivid (pallid) information.",[]]]},{"de":[["vivid information stimulates imagination, attracts and holds attention, and is better retained in memory than nonvivid (pallid) information.",[]]]},{"de":[["Information may be described as vivid, that is, as likely to attract and hold our attention and to excite the imagination to the extent that it is (a) emotionally interesting, (b) concrete and imagery-provoking, and (c) proximate in a sensory, temporal, or spatial way.",["Nisbett & Ross, 1980"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["demand treatment",[]]]},{"de":[["with < 0",[]]],"rt":[["complier",[]]]},{"de":[["the data are biased by an unobservable experimenter demand e↵ect.",[]],["respondents expecting to act in accord with some pattern, or attempting to provide answers to satisfy their perceptions of the experimenter's expectations",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A by-product of capture is that the media industry alienates viewers by producing uninformative political news.",[]]],"rt":[["the media being independent",[]],["media independence",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Fake news arises in equilibrium because it is cheaper to provide than precise signals, because consumers cannot costlessly infer accuracy, and because consumers may enjoy partisan news.",[]],["Fake news may generate utility for some consumers, but it also imposes private and social costs by making it more difficult for consumers to infer the true state of the world-for example, by making it more difficult for voters to infer which electoral candidate they prefer.",[]],["We focus on fake news articles that have political implications, with special attention to the 2016 US presidential elections.",[]],["Websites supplying fake news tend to be short-lived, and many that were important in the run-up to the 2016 election no longer exist.",[]]],"sy":[["false stories",[]],["distortion",[]]],"rt":[["unintentional reporting mistakes",[]],["rumors that do not originate from a particular news article",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["satire that is unlikely to be misconstrued as factual",[]],["false statements by politicians",[]],["distortion",[]],["filtering",[]],["reports that are slanted or misleading but not outright false",[]]],"sb":[["satirical sites contain articles that might be interpreted as factual when seen out of context",[]],["sites, such as endingthefed.com, print a mix between factual articles, often with a partisan slant, along with some false articles",[]]],"ex":[["intentionally fabricated news articles, such as a widely shared article from the now-defunct website denverguardian.com with the headline, \"FBI agent suspected in Hillary email leaks found dead in apparent murder-suicide.\"",[]],["articles that originate on satirical websites but could be misunderstood as factual, especially when viewed in isolation on Twitter or Facebook feeds. For example, in July 2016, the now-defunct website wtoe5news.com reported that Pope Francis had endorsed Donald Trump's presidential candidacy.",[]],["denverguardian.com",[]],["wtoe5news.com",[]],["endingthefed.com",[]],["a widely shared article from the now-defunct website denverguardian.com with the headline, \"FBI agent suspected in Hillary email leaks found dead in apparent murder-suicide.\"",[]],["the now-defunct website wtoe5news.com reported that Pope Francis had endorsed Donald Trump's presidential candidacy. The WTOE 5 News \"About\" page disclosed that it is \"a fantasy news website. Most articles on wtoe-5news.com are satire or pure fantasy,\" but this disclaimer was not included in the article.",[]]]},{"de":[["which could cause the survey measure to significantly overstate true exposure.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people might think that if a headline is plausible, they probably saw it reported somewhere.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["counterattitudinal corrective information",[]]]},{"de":[["many seem especially susceptible to misperceptions that are consistent with their beliefs, attitudes, or group identity. Their psychological motivation to believe one side of a factual question seems to overwhelm their motivation to hold an accurate belief",["Kunda 1990"]],["psychological motivation to believe one side of a factual question seems to overwhelm their motivation to hold an accurate belief",["Kunda 1990"]]],"ex":[["people who receive unwelcome medical news are more likely to question the result.",[]],["participants were more likely to counterargue when faced with contradictory arguments about affirmative action and gun control and were more likely to accept uncritically those that reinforced their views.",[]]]},{"de":[["Meta-analyses of the related literatures on corrective information and fact-checking find that they do generally increase the accuracy of people's beliefs and reduce belief in misperceptions, though these interventions do not fully offset the effect of exposure to misinformation and their effects may be reduced in conflictual political settings",["Chan et al. 2017","Walter and Murphy 2018","Walter et al. 2019"]]],"rt":[["corrective information",[]]],"ex":[["fact-checkers might seek to debunk false or misleading claims to which people have been exposed after a political debate or presidential address.",[]]]},{"de":[["Experimental studies suggest that even brief exposure to interventions that provide guidelines and recommendations for identifying accurate information can reduce belief in false claims and help people distinguish between false and mainstream news.",[]]],"ex":[["reading the \"tips\" for spotting untrustworthy news provided by Facebook and WhatsApp increased participant discernment between mainstream and false news headlines",["Guess et al. forthcoming"]]]},{"de":[["Unlike terms like \"lie\" and \"disinformation,\" this approach does not require knowledge of a speaker's intent in making claims, which can rarely be established with certainty",[]],["this approach does not require knowledge of a speaker's intent in making claims, which can rarely be established with certainty",[]],["focusing on both false and unsupported claims appropriately encompasses a great deal of dubious information-such as claims of hidden and unobserved conspiracies-that cannot be directly disproven and would be excluded by a strict insistence on falsity.",[]]],"sy":[["lie",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["lie",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["sockpupetting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["resulted in stronger effects",["p.361"]]],"rt":[["Pro-attitudinal fact-checking",[]]]},{"rt":[["Fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation can also be part of hybrid threat activities.",[]],["disinformation's impact on knowledge, attitudes/opinion and behavior",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the same news coverage of events will be perceived as hostile to their own positions by partisans",["Feldman, 2017, p. 2"]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["priming effects",[]]]},{"de":[["The priming phase is related to \"psychological interference\" and influence aiming \"to prime and by default gain something; information, positioning, testing information, learning or an advantage\"",["Ibid., p. 38, 40"]],["the intent of hostile actors \"is that the target will voluntarily make harmful choices and decisions\"",["Giannopoulos et al., 2021, p. 37"]]]},{"de":[["resulted in stronger effects",["p.361"]]],"rt":[["counter-attitudinal fact-checking",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The function of any border or film -from the membrane of a living cell to the biosphere as a film (according to Vernadsky) covering our planet, to the delimitation of the semiosphere -comes down to a limitation of penetration, filtering and the transformative processing of the external to the internal.",[]],["At the level of the semiosphere it represents the division of self from other, the filtration of external communications and the translation thereof into its own language, as well as the transformation of external non-communication into communications, i.e. the semiotization of incoming materials and the transformation of the latter into information.",[]],["the boundary unites two spheres of semiosis",[]],["The boundary has another function in the semiosphere: it is the area of accelerated semiotic processes, which always flow more actively on the periphery of cultural environments, seeking to affix them to the core structures, with a view to displacing them.",[]]],"sy":[["buffer mechanism",[]]],"rt":[["semiosphere",[]],["semiotic space",[]]],"ex":[["a person who, by virtue of particular talent (magicians) or type of employment (blacksmith, miller, executioner), belongs to two worlds, operates as a kind of interpreter, settling in the territorial periphery, on the boundary of cultural and mythological space",[]]]},{"de":[["The possibility of giving information in portions appears to be a general law of dialogic systems -from the distribution by dogs of odorous matter in the urine to the exchange of texts in human communication.",[]],["The possibility of giving information in portions appears to be a general law of dialogic systems",[]]],"rt":[["discreteness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Teadvus ei ole võimalik ilma kommunikatsioonita. Ses mõttes saab öelda, et dialoog eelneb keelele ja sünnitab keele.",[]]]},{"de":[["Such a relationship creates the kind of correlative difference that distinguishes both identity -rendering dialogue useless -and noncorrelative difference -rendering it impossible.",[]]]},{"de":[["The ensemble of semiotic formations functionally precedes the singular isolated language and becomes a condition for the existence of the latter. Without the semiosphere, language not only does not function, it does not exist.",[]],["all semiotic space may be regarded as a unified mechanism (if not organism)",[]],["The concept of semiosphere is linked to a definite semiotic homogeneity and individuality.",[]],["the semiosphere has a \"semiotic personality\" and combines within this property of personality both the empirically indisputable and intuitive manifestation of the concept and the difficulty of its formal definition.",[]],["Without the semiosphere, language not only does not function, it does not exist.",[]]],"rt":[["The division between the core and the periphery is a law of the internal organisation of the semiosphere.",[]],["The levels of the semiosphere comprise an inter-connected group of semiospheres, each of them being simultaneously both participant in the dialogue (as part of the semiosphere) and the space of dialogue (the semiosphere as a whole).",[]],["semiotic universe",[]],["semiotic space",[]]],"ex":[["Such a continuum we, by analogy with the concept of \"biosphere\" introduced by V. I. Vernadsky, will call the 'semiosphere'.",[]]]},{"de":[["the border points of the semiosphere may be likened to sensory receptors, which transfer external stimuli into the language of our nervous system, or a unit of translation, which adapts the external actor to a given semiotic sphere.",[]],["The border is a bilingual mechanism, translating external communications into the internal language of the semiosphere and vice versa.",[]]],"sy":[["boundary",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Alternative media, at least its ideal form, is produced outside mainstream media institutions and networks",[]]]},{"de":[["In vernacular web of the extreme right it functions as an additional code, originating from cultural memory, that re-organizes the primary semantics of the message. The ordinary meaning of the message will become quite irrelevant in the light of the antithesis. The antithesis evokes the so-called wider or more significant dimension of meaningfulness",[]],["In vernacular web of the extreme right it functions as an additional code, originating from cultural memory, that re-organizes the primary semantics of the message.",[]]]},{"de":[["explicate antithetical modelling as one of the dominants of hermetic autocommunication.",[]],["information is frequently created according to an antithetical model that separates the world into two camps in a binary opposition: moral and immoral, beneficial and harmful, friends and enemies.",[]]]},{"de":[["inwardly oriented communication which can be treated as autocommunication (i.e. I-I type of communication)",["Lotman 2000: 21"]],["autocommunication of semiotic unities as a mechanism which enables cultural innovation and allows subjects to establish their autonomy",["Ibrus 2010: 90","Ibrus, Torop 2015: 3","Schönle 2002: 432","Raudsepp, Ventsel 2015: 44-54","Ibrus 2010"]],["autocommunication as an identity-forming, auto-suggestive and/or therapeutic form of interaction which leads to the subject's self-organization and to clarification of essential objectives and values",["Han 2014: 527","Hartley 2015: 83","Kallio, Sandström 2009: 84-85","Lindström 2010: 363"]],["cultural autocommunication comprises in itself the reflection of an immediate identity or the habitual level but it also comprises the instructions for interpreting it, so I-I communication facilitates the creation of metalanguages and metatexts",["Torop 2013: 125"]],["this kind of enclosed meaning-making can be explained with the help of the concept of autocommunication.",[]],["It is looking for self-confirmation in normative texts, and in constant opposition to mainstream viewpoints.",[]],["autocommunicative processes foster the transformation of texts into meta-texts.",[]],["That kind of communication, oriented towards the \"correct\" texts, has a clearly autocommunicative nature because its meaning-making is encapsulated in formerly existing associations. It is looking for self-confirmation in normative texts, and in constant opposition to mainstream viewpoints.",[]]],"sy":[["self-communication",["Morris 1949"]],["intrapersonal communication",["Ruesch, Bateson 1951"]],["I-I type of communication",[]]],"rt":[["cultural communication",[]],["self-communication",["Morris 1949"]],["intrapersonal communication",["Ruesch, Bateson 1951"]]],"sb":[["polarized hermetic autocommunication",[]]]},{"de":[["such communication is organized by meaning templates and stereotypes that exist in the communal memory of the extreme-right community.",[]],["Continuous echo-chamber communication increases communal memory (including the repertoire of common references) and reinforces the rhetorical frames that enable justification of shared views.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["I-I communication",[]]]},{"de":[["an interaction between different viewpoints, conceptual horizons and various social languages",[]],["a form of meaning-making dominated by the referential and metalingual functions",[]]]},{"de":[["closed and hermetic communication of communities",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In this kind of interpretation the criterion of similarity is established quite loosely and it is often assumed that the meaning of a sign is actually indicating a hidden meaning.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["functioning as examples of the rule",["Lepik 2007: 91"]]]},{"de":[["autocommunicative processes foster the transformation of texts into meta-texts.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["antithesis",[]]]},{"de":[["In communication, dominated by antithetical modelling, the processes of naming acquire a specific form, i.e. the name of the objects must reflect their nature",[]]]},{"de":[["It enables a connection between topical daily events and the spiteful global and local state authorities, the biased mainstream media and various education institutions that are said to be contributing to the brainwashing of ordinary citizens",["Madisson, Ventsel 2016","Madisson 2016"]]]},{"rt":[["referential",[]],["metalingual",[]]]},{"de":[["Exchanging that kind of phatic information is significant because it indicates the potential acceptance of the interlocutor as a valuable communication partner",["Radovanovic, Ragnedda 2012: 12"]]],"sy":[["phatic information",[]]]},{"de":[["The precondition for a dialogue is that the interlocutors are familiar with the context that is referred to. The adjustment of the limits of an ongoing topic, the indication of the contradictions that occur in the partner's statements etc., help to move towards mutual understanding.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Although tradition is non-institutional, it always bears in itself a reference to authority as it determines a cluster of potential responses that permit individuals to make choices in everyday situations.",[]],["'vernacular' can dialectically be defined as something distinct from 'institutional'",["Howard 2011: 7-10"]],["it always bears in itself a reference to authority as it determines a cluster of potential responses that permit individuals to make choices in everyday situations.",["Howard 2011: 7-10"]],["In short, 'vernacular' can dialectically be defined as something distinct from 'institutional' (Howard 2011: 7-10).",["Howard 2011: 7-10"]]],"sy":[["vernacular",[]]],"rt":[["institutional authority",[]]]},{"de":[["one important characteristic of the vernacular web is that it is dominated by ideas that reproduce continuities and consistencies with the already existing values of the participants",[]]]},{},{"de":[["does not imply simple confl ict; instead, it hints at tensions resulting from the interaction of different social actors representing diverse social and cultural interests.",[]],["As a metaphorical image, friction reminds us that heterogeneous and unequal encounters can lead to new arrangements of culture and power",["35"]],["Friction-based relationships assume an uneven power balance (global and local) with regard to norms and universals, yet remain equally useful for the powerful and the powerless, for the elite and the marginalised.",["35"]],["Cultures are continually co-produced in the interactions I call 'friction': the awkward, unequal, unstable, and creative qualities of interconnection across difference […]. As a metaphorical image, friction reminds us that heterogeneous and unequal encounters can lead to new arrangements of culture and power",["34"]]],"rt":[["interconnection across difference",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["cascades",[]]]},{"de":[["Because such hashtags are less likely to have originated outside of Twitter, and because for the same reason they are less likely to migrate off of Twitter, these data are correspondingly less susceptible to any biases associated with off-channel diffusion.",[]]]},{"de":[["user-follower similarity",[]],["may lead connected users to post the same content independently in close temporal sequence, leading us to conflate similarity with influence",["Shalizi and Thomas 2011","Aral et al. 2009","Lyons 2011"]]],"sy":[["homophily",[]]]},{"de":[["quantifies the intuitive distinction between broadcast and viral diffusion and allows for interpolation between them.",[]],["Our metric ç4T 5 provides a continuous measure of structural virality, with higher values indicating that adopters are, on average, farther apart in the cascade, and thus suggesting an intuitively viral diffusion event.",[]],["higher values indicating that adopters are, on average, farther apart in the cascade, and thus suggesting an intuitively viral diffusion event.",[]],["increasing popularity corresponds to increasing structural virality only when it arises from \"viral\" spreading, not merely from larger broadcasts.",[]]],"rt":[["broadcast",[]],["viral diffusion",[]],["depth",[]],["average depth",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["distributed consensus algorithms",[]],["voter model",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["provides one way to assess the impact of a single node in a network in terms of its ability to shift opinions.",[]],["The shift in mean non-stubborn opinion caused by the bots",[]],["This is also equal to the shift in the mean non-stubborn opinions caused by i changing its opinion from zero to one because all other stubborn nodes have an opinion equal to zero.",[]]]},{"rt":[["homophily",[]]]},{"rt":[["heterophily",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Retweeting is an easy way to promote a tweet and expose it to a larger audience.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Studies have shown that stubborn users are likely to have very strong and extreme opinions",["Martins and Galam 2013"]],["Moussaïd et al. (2013) found that the majority of people will not change their opinion when their own confidence exceeds that of their partner.",["Moussaïd et al. (2013)"]],["These findings suggest that people with more extreme opinions are likely to be stubborn.",[]],["Studies have shown that stubborn users are likely to have very strong and extreme opinions (Martins and Galam 2013). Moussaïd et al. (2013) found that the majority of people will not change their opinion when their own confidence exceeds that of their partner. These findings suggest that people with more extreme opinions are likely to be stubborn.",["Martins and Galam 2013","Moussaïd et al. (2013)"]]]},{"rt":[["DeGroot model",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This feature helps us to further extract the motivation of the hoax which can be for black campaigns or not.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Os acontecimentos no mundo são significados na e pela linguagem.",[]],["na intersecção entre a \"atualidade e a memória\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["O corpus é também uma construção do próprio analista, que seleciona o material de acordo com os objetivos de sua análise, de sua pergunta discursiva, que organiza a relação que se estabelece entre sujeito e objeto de análise.",[]]]},{"de":[["Sua existência e materialidade dependem de uma postulação teórica, de uma construção e formação de um campo de análise diverso, em que o discurso se torna o centro das preocupações.",[]],["apreender o objeto do discurso corresponde a observar os processos de constituição dos saberes e dos significados, por definição sócio-históricos.",[]],["Seu sistema, portanto, se fecha num tripé entre sujeito, história e linguagem.",[]],["Seu sistema, portanto, se fecha num tripé entre sujeito, história e linguagem",[]]],"rt":[["sujeito",[]],["história",[]],["linguagem",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Os discursos se movimentam, há agitações nas redes de memória e nas identificações dos sujeitos, numa reconfiguração incessante.",[]],["a instabilidade dessas formações, sua permeabilidade e contradições que se formam em seu interior, que permitem a constituição de novos sentidos.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Dessa forma, os sentidos são sempre divididos, e esta divisão corresponde às relações de força presentes na sociedade, que possibilitam que um sentido seja dominante, se cristalize em detrimento de outros.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["formações discursivas",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["racism",[]],["Islamophobia",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Its continual circulation in public debate testifies to ways in which it hints at something that needs to be addressed.",[]],["a product of the articulation between Orientalism and racism",[]],["The range of activities covered by Islamophobia exceed its common formulations; rather it occurs as a response to the problematization of Muslim identity.",[]],["Islamophobia is then prized as the means by which to suggest a mechanism for the reduction of injustice directed at Muslims.",[]],["there is a series of overlapping elements that constitute a coherence based around a notion of what Wittgenstein described as a family resemblance.",[]],["The use of multiple examples of what is described as Islamophobia is a useful way of explaining (as opposed to just trying to define) this concept.",[]],["performative clusters of Islamophobia",[]],["repertoire of Islamophobia",[]],["The logic of Islamophobia in its various forms is a relationship of domination.",[]],["understand Islamophobia as belonging to the family of racism",[]],["Islamophobia posits a post-racial subject that is subjected to exclusionary practices",[]],["Islamophobia marks the transformation in the balance of power and anxieties generated by the de-centering of the West",[]],["Naming something 'Islamophobia' is a way of alerting us to the persistence of the racial in the post-racial",[]],["more than an expression of hatred or fear",[]],["a series of overlapping elements that constitute a coherence based around a notion of what Wittgenstein described as a family resemblance",[]],["a language game directed toward the undermining of a distinct Muslim identity.",[]],["regulation and disciplining of Muslims by reference to a Westernizing horizon",["Sayyid 2010, 15-17"]],["Islamophobia is not just idiosyncratic eruptions reflecting social or psychological profiles of the perpetrators, but rather its occurrence has to be seen in specific assemblages.",[]],["Islamophobia posits a post-racial subject that is subjected to exclusionary practices.",[]],["Islamophobia marks the transformation in the balance of power and anxieties generated by the de-centering of the West.",[]],["Naming something 'Islamophobia' is a way of alerting us to the persistence of the racial in the post-racial.",[]],["It is more than prejudice or ignorance; it is a series of interventions and classifications that affect the well-being of populations designated as Muslim.",[]],["Islamophobia is a language game directed toward the undermining of a distinct Muslim identity.",[]]],"sy":[["portmanteau expression",[]]],"rt":[["racism",[]],["anti-Semitism",[]],["Orientalism",[]],["racialized governmentality",[]]],"sb":[["manifestations of Islamophobia through attacks on persons perceived to be Muslims",[]],["Islamophobia in attacks on property considered to be linked to Muslims",[]],["Islamophobia represented by acts of intimidation",[]],["Islamophobia can be described as that which may occur in institutional settings, in which those perceived to be Muslims receive less favorable treatment than their peers in comparative positions within the same organizations",[]],["Islamophobia refers to incidents in which there is a sustained and systematic elaboration of comments in the public domain that disparage Muslims and/or Islam",[]],["physical destruction of Muslims, which would be genocide",[]],["de-Islamization, which would involve the erasure of a Muslim identity",[]]],"sp":[["the family of racism",[]],["racism",[]]],"ex":[["a gesture",[]],["a speech",[]],["a police action",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Racial marking does not arise from a distinct biology.",[]],["the category of 'race' (like most other categories) was implicated in social and cultural imaginaries.",[]]],"rt":[["Racialization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Racialization does not depend on biology. It is precisely the impossibility of biology to make races that makes it possible to see the construction of 'races' as collective identities produced by social processes.",[]],["Racial marking does not arise from a distinct biology. The process of forming a 'race' is not akin to the process of discovering new species of wildlife, races were not found but created. Racialization does not depend on biology.",[]]],"rt":[["race",[]]]},{"de":[["Racism emerges to account for the application of colonial rule in the heartlands of Europe, while still maintaining the difference between West and non-West, which was constitutive of the colonial world order.",[]]],"rt":[["anti-Semitism",[]],["sexism",[]],["homophobia",[]],["Islamophobia",[]]]},{"rt":[["racial state",[]]]},{"de":[["Reading racism or anti-Semitism (and I would argue Islamophobia) is the skilled following of networks of associations and making arguments; in other words it is a rhetorical activity.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The difference between misinformation and disinformation would be intentionality",["Rubin, 2019"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news often resembles real news, and we believe we recognize a pattern.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["the coronavirus was genetically engineered in the bioweapons lab in Wuhan and then released worldwide",[]],["Sodium chlorite does not cure coronavirus, it's dangerous and illegal.",[]],["The European Union is not handing out food cards to all its citizens.",[]],["Eating pineapple, lemon, avocado or garlic does not protect against the coronavirus.",[]],["Holding your breath for ten seconds does not indicate that you are free of the virus.",[]],["Mosquitoes do not transmit coronavirus disease.",[]],["Young people are just as likely to get it as adults.",[]],["There is no evidence that the spread of the coronavirus was intentional or that the virus was created in a Chinese laboratory.",[]],["Drinking bleach does not kill the virus; on the contrary, it causes poisoning in humans.",[]],["\"Do not go out on the balcony\" is not included among the recommendations and prevention measures of the World Health Organization.",[]],["Consuming hot drinks such as infusions, broths or hot water does not eliminate the virus, as it has not been proven that the virus cannot withstand high temperatures.",[]],["The coronavirus does not die when exposed to the sun, nor does drinking a lot of water stop the coronavirus.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it could even accelerate the process of the epidemic by influencing and fragmenting the response",["Kim et al., 2019"]]]},{"de":[["The difference between misinformation and disinformation would be intentionality",["Rubin, 2019"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation is misleading information that systematically benefits the source",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["many of the people who disseminate conspiracy theories (for example, that the president was not born in the United States or that the US government was behind the 9/11 terrorist attacks) believe that what they are saying is true. Thus, they do not intend to mislead anyone, or foresee that anyone will be misled, by what they say. Even so, just as with prototypical instances of disinformation, these false claims can mislead people, and it is no accident that people are misled. There is a mechanism that reinforces the dissemination of these false claims. By promoting such false claims, certain websites and media outlets are able to attract more readers and viewers who find these claims convincing.",[]]]},{"de":[["altruistic disinformation does not pose the same risk of harm to the recipient that prototypical instances of disinformation do; but like prototypical instances, altruistic disinformation can be intentionally misleading",[]],["altruistic disinformation does not pose the same risk of harm to the recipient that prototypical instances of disinformation do; but like prototypical instances, altruistic disinformation can be intentionally misleading.",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["when a friend asks you how he or she looks, you might very well say \"You look great!\" in order to spare his or her feelings, even if it is not true.",[]],["when a friend asks you how he or she looks, you might very well say \"You look great!\" in order to spare his or her feelings, even if it is not true",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation is a particularly problematic form of misinformation because it is no accident that people are misled.",[]],["disinformation comes from someone who is actively engaged in an attempt to mislead",["Fetzer, 2004","Piper, 2002, pp. 8-9"]],["disinformation can harm people indirectly by eroding trust and thereby inhibiting our ability to effectively share information with one another.",[]],["disinformation can potentially have harmful consequences by virtue of misleading people; if a piece of information is not likely to create false beliefs, then it is not really a serious threat to information quality.",[]],["because it has the propensity to mislead, disinformation always puts people at risk of suffering harm (epistemic and otherwise).",[]],["disinformation can sometimes be accurate",[]],["disinformation is always misleading",[]],["such true disinformation is intentionally misleading and poses a similar risk of harm to the recipient",["9"]],["since Fallis explicitly requires that disinformation be misleading, implausible lies do not count as disinformation",[]],["since Fallis does not require that disinformation be inaccurate, true disinformation counts as disinformation",[]],["the source of the information merely has to foresee that it is likely to mislead",[]],["disinformation need not always impose a cost on the recipient; in fact, it is sometimes intended to benefit the recipient",[]],["Most forms of disinformation, such as lies and propaganda, are misleading because the source intends the information to be misleading.",[]],["But other forms of disinformation, such as conspiracy theories and fake alarm calls, are misleading simply because the source systematically benefits from their being misleading.",[]],["the fact that a piece of information has the function of misleading does not mean that it had that function as soon as it was created or first disseminated.",[]],["if she/he has an opportunity to set the record straight and fails to do so, it is no longer an accident that people are misled.",[]],["it is more standard to use the term misinformation to refer to inaccurate information in general (Fox, 1983, p. 201), and to treat disinformation as a proper subset of misinformation (Floridi, 2011, p. 260;Skyrms, 2010, p. 80).",["Fox, 1983, p. 201","Floridi, 2011, p. 260","Skyrms, 2010, p. 80"]],["The source of such detrimental disinformation may not even be aware that the information is misleading.",[]],["a function is \"the action for which a person or thing is particularly fitted or employed\"",["14"]],["disinformation be likely to create false beliefs or prevent true beliefs (and have the function of doing so)",[]],["According to this analysis, the distinguishing feature of disinformation is that its function is to mislead people.",[]]],"sy":[["deceptive signal",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["deception",[]],["lying",[]],["linguistic disinformation",[]],["visual disinformation",[]],["true disinformation",[]],["side-effect disinformation",[]],["misleading information",[]],["deceptive signaling",[]]],"sb":[["true disinformation",[]],["visual disinformation",[]],["side-effect disinformation",[]],["adaptive disinformation",[]],["linguistic disinformation",[]],["altruistic disinformation",[]],["lies and propaganda",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["fake alarm calls",[]],["side effect disinformation",[]],["lies",[]],["spin",[]],["bullshit",[]],["detrimental disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",["Floridi, 2011, p. 260;Skyrms, 2010, p. 80"]]],"ex":[["deceptive advertising (in business and in politics), government propaganda, doctored photographs, forged documents, fake maps, internet frauds, fake websites, and manipulated Wikipedia entries.",[]],["Operation Bodyguard, a World War II disinformation campaign intended to conceal the planned location of the D-Day invasion.",[]],["doctored photographs and falsified maps",[]],["a photograph was circulated that appeared to show John Kerry and Jane Fonda sharing the stage at an anti-Vietnam War rally, while it was really a composite of two separate photographs taken at two separate events",["Farid, 2009, p. 98"]],["Soviets deliberately falsified maps in an attempt to fool their enemies about where important sites were located",["Monmonier, 1991, pp. 115-118"]],["a television commercial that pitted Black Flag Roach Killer against another leading brand misled viewers about the effectiveness of Black Flag without showing anything that was literally false",[]],["politicians often use spin to mislead the public-that is, they selectively emphasize only certain facts",[]],["the Allies were presumably justified in using disinformation to prevent Nazi world domination.",[]],["the hacker who placed false stories on Yahoo! News apparently did so in order to expose the security weaknesses of the website so that they could be fixed.",[]],["lies, spin, and even bullshit",["Mearsheimer, 2011"]],["lies and propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, it is something that has semantic (or representational) content",[]]],"rt":[["representations",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["telling a student that electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom like a little solar system.",[]],["telling a student that electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom like a little solar system",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["inaccurate information",[]],["misleading information",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["deception",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["honest mistakes",[]],["overly subtle satire",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["politicians often use spin to mislead the public-that is, they selectively emphasize only certain facts",[]],["There is less of a social stigma against simply misleading people than there is against out-and-out lying to them. Also, if you do not actually say anything false, it is more difficult to prove that you were trying to mislead anyone.",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["a photograph has evidential value independent of the intentions of the person who produced it",["Moran, 2005, pp. 8-11"]],["Misleading images",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["could be more accurately qualified as a narrative effect.",[]],["could be more accurately qualified as a narrative effect",[]]],"rt":[["narrative effect",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Narratives, especially on new media such as social media, have the capacity to make people relive a lived experience by inducing in the audience a state of attention that confers a mental immediacy to the narrated events (implying a specific engagement in the story and a focus on emotional responses; Romele 2014).",["Romele 2014"]],["To put it differently, the second function of narrative is to arouse in its audience a state of immersion, a cognitive plunge in a space-time not present at the moment of the narration.",[]]],"rt":[["narrative effects",[]]]},{"de":[["here, of violence, but of course also to transform our systemic knowledge of the situation",[]]]},{"de":[["because human mental dispositions and capacities are optimally suited for navigating situations and events that are encountered at a particular spatiotemporal scale or degree of resolution",["Herman 2013: 77"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the plotting function seems to convey more of an \"experiential\" knowledge.",[]],["we could reasonably link experiential knowledge with monophonic narratives, because the presence of a single voice is often analyzed as intensifying adherence and immersion within a perspective, and thus a possible experience from which to evaluate one's own.",[]],["They might also sequence events in a limited space and time, because experiential knowledge is frequently described as a type of knowledge valid in a specific set of events (a specific scenario).",[]],["the plotting function seems to be intensified in the narration of individual stories, possibly those of a small group of individuals, with few protagonists overall, placing its mimetic stakes \"on a human scale\"",[]]],"rt":[["experiential knowledge",[]],["monophonic narratives",[]]]},{"sy":[["ethos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Misinterpretation of the press release or news items could overestimate the treatment beneficial effect or underestimate the treatment effect.",[]]],"ex":[["an overestimation of the treatment beneficial effect in the press release or news items occurred when reading the published article led to rating the trial results as neutral, whereas reading the press release or new items led to rating the experimental treatment as beneficial.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These short communications, which are posted on online databases such as EurekAlert! and sent directly to journalists, are prepared by researchers or more often by the drug companies, funding bodies, or institutions supporting the clinical research and are designed to attract favorable media attention to newly published research results.",[]]]},{"de":[["We considered ''spin'' as being a focus on statistically significant results (within-group comparison, secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, modified population of analyses); an interpretation of statistically nonsignificant results for the primary outcomes as showing treatment equivalence or comparable effectiveness; or any inadequate claim of safety or emphasis of the beneficial effect of the treatment.",[]],["reporting that emphasizes the beneficial effects of the experimental (new) treatment",[]],["The types of distorted presentation or ''spin'' are diverse, with, for example, a particular focus on statistically significant results (within-group comparison, subgroup analyses, and secondary outcomes) or an inadequate interpretation of nonstatistically significant differences as demonstrating equivalence in treatment effectiveness or lack of difference in adverse events.",[]]],"sy":[["distorted presentation",[]]],"ex":[["a journal article may interpret nonstatistically significant differences as showing the equivalence of two treatments although such results actually indicate a lack of evidence for the superiority of either treatment",[]]]},{"de":[["While the associative learning hypothesis would have predicted an effect for the aspirational images, it would have predicted no effect (or perhaps even a negative aversion effect) for the non-aspirational images of very over/underweight women.",[]]]},{"de":[["The 'visual diet' mechanism represents a cognitive adaptation effect, where changes in preferences are induced by visual exposure to a certain variety of a given stimulus.",[]],["change in visual diet due to media saturation of low-BMI bodies",[]],["differences between populations may reflect their 'visual diet' as a cognitive byproduct of mere exposure.",[]]]},{"de":[["presentation of a series of thin models during the manipulation phase had the effect of increasing participants' preference for thinness, while presentation of large models had the opposite effect, for both aspirational and non-aspirational images",[]],["As predicted by the visual diet hypothesis, there was a significant interaction between test phase and model size (F 1,52 = 23.397, p,0.001, partial eta 2 = 0.310) such that preference for thinness increased from pre-to post-test in those shown thin models during the manipulation phase, while preference for thinness decreased in those shown large models during the manipulation.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["propensity score adjustment approach",[]]]},{"de":[["rejection of science is suffused by conspiracist ideation",[]],["One cognitive style that has been repeatedly implicated in science denial",[]],["because conspiracist ideation need not conform to the criteria of consistency and coherence that characterize scientific reasoning [30], its explanatory reach is necessarily greater than that of competing (scientific) theories [31]",["30","31"]],["Conspiracist ideation is also typically immune to falsification because contradictory evidence (e.g., climate scientists being exonerated of accusations) can be accommodated by broadening the scope of the conspiracy (exonerations are a whitewash), often with considerable creativity [32]",["32"]],["its analysis can reveal why it is antithetical to scientific reasoning in several ways.",[]],["For example, whereas coherence is a hallmark of most scientific theories, the simultaneous belief in mutually contradictory theories-e.g., that Princess Diana was murdered but faked her own death-is a notable aspect of conspiracist ideation [30].",["30"]],["Second, conspiracy theories rely on isolated morsels of evidence inconsistent with an official account [31] (e.g., that Timothy McVeigh fled the Oklahoma City bombing in a car without licence plates) while ignoring overwhelming evidence to the contrary (e.g., the full documented history leading up to the bombing).",["31"]],["Accordingly, antivaccination activists ignore overwhelming statistical evidence while focusing on anecdotes or information that has been shown to be false [49].",["49"]],["Finally, in a reversal of conventional scientific reasoning, evidence against conspiracy theories is often construed as evidence for them, because the evidence is interpreted as arising from the conspiracy in question.",[]],["whereas coherence is a hallmark of most scientific theories, the simultaneous belief in mutually contradictory theories-e.g., that Princess Diana was murdered but faked her own death-is a notable aspect of conspiracist ideation",["30"]],["conspiracy theories rely on isolated morsels of evidence inconsistent with an official account",["31"]],["evidence against conspiracy theories is often construed as evidence for them, because the evidence is interpreted as arising from the conspiracy in question.",["31","32"]],["conspiracist ideation need not conform to the criteria of consistency and coherence that characterize scientific reasoning",["30"]],["Conspiracist ideation is also typically immune to falsification because contradictory evidence (e.g., climate scientists being exonerated of accusations) can be accommodated by broadening the scope of the conspiracy (exonerations are a whitewash), often with considerable creativity",["32"]]],"sy":[["conspiratorial thinking",["18","19","20","21"]],["conspiracist style",[]],["conspiratorial cognitive style",[]]],"sb":[["general conspiracies",[]],["specific scientific conspiracies",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive style",[]],["personality attribute",[]]],"ex":[["that Princess Diana was murdered but faked her own death",["30"]],["that Timothy McVeigh fled the Oklahoma City bombing in a car without licence plates",[]],["the very fact that the no-plane theory was false was weaved into a larger 9/11 conspiracy",["32"]]]},{"de":[["In the context of science denial, the present study and related precedents [2][3][4][5][6][7][18][19][20][21]27] have identified worldviews and conspiracist ideation as two vehicles with which such motivated reasoning is exercised.",["2","3","4","5","6","7","18","19","20","21","27"]]],"rt":[["cultural worldviews",[]],["conspiracist ideation",[]]]},{"de":[["the driving psychological force that is underlying the rejection of science",["42","43"]],["scientific findings are rejected by people high in system justification when the evidence challenges the status quo",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Therefore, high confidence is an indicator of accuracy when judgments are independent but becomes an indicator of consensus when social influence takes place [43,44].",["43,44"]]]},{},{"de":[["The final convergence point may be determined by a dense cluster of low confidence individuals, as illustrated by Example 2 (majority effect), or by a few very confident individuals as in Example 3 (expert effect).",[]],["induced by the presence of a highly confident individual",[]],["the expert effect-induced by the presence of a highly confident individual",[]]],"rt":[["majority effect",[]]],"sp":[["attractors of opinion",[]]]},{},{"de":[["when such a cluster of individuals is initially present in the system-either by chance or because individuals share a common bias-the rest of the crowd tends to converge toward it",[]],["The final convergence point may be determined by a dense cluster of low confidence individuals, as illustrated by Example 2 (majority effect), or by a few very confident individuals as in Example 3 (expert effect).",[]],["induced by a critical mass of low-confidence individuals sharing similar opinions",[]]],"rt":[["large number of people sharing the same opinion have a strong social influence on others",[]],["expert effect",[]]],"sp":[["attractors of opinion",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In our strongly interconnected society, social influence plays a prominent role in many self-organized phenomena such as herding in cultural markets, the spread of ideas and innovations, and the amplification of fears during epidemics.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Research has documented perspective-taking's numerous social benefits, including reducing stereotyping, prejudice, and intergroup bias towards the target and the target's group",["19","29","30","31","32"]],["perspective-taking is an approach-oriented strategy that is geared towards creating and maintaining social bonds",["28"]],["perspective-taking's effects result from a cognitive merging of self and other mental representations",["28"]],["reduces negative, prejudicial evaluations of the target and target group",["29"]],["perspective-taking effects tend to be group-specific, with perspective-taking decreasing prejudice towards the target group but not towards other groups",["31","32"]],["perspective-taking is approach-based",["28","42"]],["perspective-taking's effects on decreasing stereotyping and prejudice extend from a target to the target's group",["19","29","40"]],["social strategy that is geared towards approach tendencies as well as building and maintaining social bonds",["28","42"]],["perspective-taking is an approach-oriented strategy that is geared towards creating and maintaining social bonds [28]",["28"]],["During perspective-taking, the self is applied to the other and this self-other overlap mediates decreased stereotyping [19] and increased helping [39].",["19","39"]],["perspective-taking has been shown to immediately decrease prejudicial thoughts [19,29]",["19,29"]]],"rt":[["intergroup contact",[]],["stereotyping",[]],["prejudice",[]],["cognitive merging of self and other mental representations",["28"]]],"ex":[["taking the perspective of a homeless man",[]],["taking the perspective of one stereotyped group",[]]]},{"de":[["One intuitively-appealing strategy for navigating one's diverse social world is to suppress prejudicial thoughts.",[]],["suppression can allow individuals to momentarily decrease the expression of prejudicial thought, post-suppression rebound effects ironically increase both the activation of prejudicial thoughts and avoidance behavior [19][20][21][22].",["19","20","21","22"]],["Although suppression can allow individuals to momentarily decrease the expression of prejudicial thought, post-suppression rebound effects ironically increase both the activation of prejudicial thoughts and avoidance behavior [19][20][21][22].",["19","20","21","22"]]]},{"de":[["Previous research has noted that our impressions and evaluations of others are consistently biased by stereotypic preconceptions.",["20"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["These posts are clearly unsubstantiated claims",[]]],"ex":[["the undisclosed news that infinite energy has been finally discovered",[]],["a new lamp made of actinides (e.g. plutonium and uranium) might solve problems of energy gathering with less impact on the environment",[]],["the chemical analysis revealed that chem-trails contains sildenafil citratum (the active ingredient of Viagra TM )",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["the link between vaccines and autism, the global warming induced by chem-trails or the secret alien government",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The hypothesis posits that repeated exposures to an idea are particularly crucial for adopting the idea",["43","44"]],["the exposure hypothesis focuses on the probability of retweeting other users' tweets",[]]]},{"de":[["Many attributes were used to measure user similarity.",[]]],"sy":[["assortativity",["29"]]],"ex":[["users are more likely to follow other users (reciprocally) within closer time zones",["5"]],["the reciprocal ties are more inclined to occur between users with similar degree popularity.",[]]]},{"de":[["the dominant framework is the influential hypothesis",[]]]},{"rt":[["clustering coefficient",["28"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Conspiracy theories create a climate of disengagement from mainstream society and from officially recommended practices [19] e.g. vaccinations, diet, etc.",["19"]]],"rt":[["conspiracy-like narratives",[]]]},{"de":[["provide an unprecedented opportunity to study the dynamics of narratives' emergence, production, and popularity",[]]]},{"de":[["-changing the way users get informed, debate, and shape their opinions",["4","5","6","7","8"]],["changing the way users get informed, debate, and shape their opinions",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Aggressive Actions displayed no correlation with the adaptive strategies",[]],["two of them reflect approach behavior (i.e., Dysfunctional Thoughts and Aggression)",["23"]],["the approach factors can be further categorized as reflecting cognitive (i.e., Dysfunctional Thoughts) and behavioral (i.e., Aggression) emotion regulation",["25"]]],"sb":[["Aggressive Actions",[]]],"sp":[["Maladaptive Emotion Regulation",[]]]},{"de":[["Withdrawal and Giving up displayed a negative correlation with the adaptive strategies",[]],["one reflects avoidance behavior (i.e., Avoidance)",[]]],"sb":[["Withdrawal",[]],["Giving Up",[]]],"sp":[["Maladaptive Emotion Regulation",[]]]},{"rt":[["Humor Enhancement",[]]],"sp":[["Adaptive Emotion Regulation",[]]],"ex":[["I do something fun",[]]]},{"de":[["Rumination and Self-Devaluation displayed a positive correlation with the adaptive strategies",[]],["two of them reflect approach behavior (i.e., Dysfunctional Thoughts and Aggression)",["23"]],["the approach factors can be further categorized as reflecting cognitive (i.e., Dysfunctional Thoughts) and behavioral (i.e., Aggression) emotion regulation",["25"]]],"sb":[["Rumination",[]],["Self-Devaluation",[]]],"sp":[["Maladaptive Emotion Regulation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["confirmation bias can strongly facilitate cyclical dynamics.",[]]]},{"sy":[["imitate the majority",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["cognitive shortcuts",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The way social learning is modelled explicitly considers that individuals are rational agents maximizing their payoff.",[]]]},{"de":[["a vaccine scare could lead to a decrease in vaccination coverage",["27","39"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["any attribute that is correlated with degree will produce a paradox",[]],["can ultimately be traced to the power of high degree nodes to skew the observations of many others.",["13","14","19","23"]],["has its origins in the heterogeneous degree distribution [14], and is more pronounced in networks with larger degree heterogeneity σ k",["14"]]],"rt":[["generalized friendship paradox",["13"]]],"ex":[["your coauthors are cited more often than you",[]],["the people you follow on Twitter post more frequently than you do",[]]]},{"de":[["These differences result in nodes perceiving that, not only are their neighbors better connected [14], on average, but that they also have more of some attribute than they themselves have [19].",["14","19"]]],"rt":[["friendship paradox",["13"]]]},{"de":[["the configuration of initial adopters on a network can systematically skew the observations people make of their friends' behavior. This can make some behavior appear much more popular than it is, thus creating conditions for its spread.",[]],["In a social network, this illusion may cause people to reach wrong conclusions about how common a behavior is, leading them to accept as a norm a behavior that is globally rare.",[]],["If the attribute represents an opinion, under some conditions, even a minority opinion can appear to be extremely popular locally.",[]],["this illusion may cause people to reach wrong conclusions about how common a behavior is, leading them to accept as a norm a behavior that is globally rare.",[]]],"rt":[["friendship paradox",[]]],"sp":[["friendship paradox",[]],["class size bias effect",[]]],"ex":[["how global outbreaks can be triggered by very few initial adopters",[]],["why people overestimate how much their friends engage in risky behaviors, such as alcohol and drug use",[]],["apparently sudden shifts in public attitudes witnessed during the Arab Spring and on the question of gay marriage",[]]]},{"de":[["In some cases, behaviors will spread from a small number of initial adopters to a large portion of the population, resulting in fads, hit songs, successful political campaigns, epidemics, and social norms.",[]]],"ex":[["fads, hit songs, successful political campaigns, epidemics, and social norms",[]]]},{"sb":[["Vaccination conspiracy",[]]],"ex":[["NASA Moon-landing conspiracy",[]],["Climate change conspiracy",[]],["Cancer cure conspiracy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["While the modern usage of conspiracy theory is often derogatory (pertaining to an exceptionally paranoid and ill-founded world-view) the definition we will use does not a priori dismiss all such theories as inherently false.",[]]],"rt":[["conspiratorial beliefs",[]],["conspiratorial thinking",[]]]},{"sy":[["conspiratorial ideation",[]]],"rt":[["conspiratorial ideation",[]],["conspiratorial thinking",[]]],"ex":[["the moonlandings were faked",[]],["climate-change is a hoax",[]],["vaccination is dangerous",[]],["a cure for cancer is being suppressed by vested interests",[]]]},{"de":[["Many of these ostensibly explanatory conjectures are non-falsifiable, lacking in evidence or demonstrably false, yet public acceptance remains high.",[]]],"rt":[["conspiratorial beliefs",[]],["conspiratorial thinking",[]]]},{"de":[["may be deeply invested in a particular narrative and closed off to other sources of information",["61"]]]},{"de":[["the parameter p, the probability of an intrinsic leak or failure, is extremely important; if p were zero, absolute conspiracy would be maintained, only resolvable by extrinsic analysis.",[]]]},{"de":[["With regard to attitude as predictor Z, this term and its values represent a measure for the size and direction of an attitudinal evaluation bias at a certain polarity score a.",[]],["Sign, size, and significance of the influence of attitude on the persuasiveness ratings for each argument for each of the four studies.",[]]],"rt":[["evaluation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["we will use the term evaluation bias here for referring to the influence of attitudinal effects on ratings of the arguments in which we were interested.",[]],["Inspection of the evaluation bias (the assigning of higher ratings to attitude-consistent and lower ratings to attitude-inconsistent arguments) revealed significant positive attitudinal bias effects on the evaluation of all three pro-arguments in both groups and for both topics.",[]],["overvaluing of attitude-consistent information while devaluing or even rejecting attitude-inconsistent information",["6"]]],"sy":[["attitudinal evaluation bias",[]]],"rt":[["attitudinal evaluation bias",[]],["selective exposure bias",[]],["motivated reasoning",["10"]],["biased assimilation",["2","11","12"]],["boomerang/contrast effects",["2","13"]],["confirmation bias",["14","15"]],["congeniality bias",["3"]],["disconfirmation bias",["6","16"]],["myside bias",["17","18"]],["partisan bias",["6","19"]],["prior attitude/belief effect",["6","16"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["dominance can be defined in terms of feelings of control over an event as opposed to a feeling of being controlled by a situation",[]]]},{"de":[["it has been found to be a better predictor of verbal performance than frequency",["48"]]],"rt":[["word frequency",[]]]},{"de":[["Sensory experience is a recently developed concept",[]]],"sy":[["SERs",[]]],"rt":[["imageability",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["internal efficacy",[]],["external efficacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["that the U.S. government is responsive to public calls for action on climate change",[]],["These items were adapted from established measures of external political efficacy [30,39] to the specific context of climate change.",["30","39"]]],"rt":[["internal efficacy",[]],["response efficacy",[]]],"sp":[["political efficacy",[]],["efficacy",[]]]},{"de":[["The respective answers were then averaged into a single internal efficacy scale (Cronbach's alpha = .92, M = 4.48, SD = 1.38).",[]],["the ability of individuals to take specific actions",[]]],"rt":[["response efficacy",[]],["self-efficacy",[]]],"sp":[["political efficacy",[]],["efficacy",[]]]},{"de":[["internal political efficacy in the realm of climate change requires confidence in one's understanding of politics in general, one's understanding of politics as it applies to climate change specifically, and one's understanding of climate change itself, as well as in one's ability to effectively participate on the issue of climate change.",[]]],"rt":[["internal efficacy",[]]]},{"de":[["selfefficacy, which refers to one's ability to carry out the recommended behavior change",[]]],"rt":[["perceived behavioral control is similar to selfefficacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["By this, they gain a sense of mastery over their thoughts and emotions and feel able to perceive them as transient mental events, rather than to identify with them or to believe that thoughts and emotions are accurate reflections of the self or reality.",[]],["Therefore, decentering aids in disengaging from selfcriticism, rumination, and anxiety that can arise when reacting to negative thinking patterns",["31"]]]},{},{"de":[["as opposed to Boredom",[]],["involves tenacity applied to understanding things one does not already understand and ideas different from one's own",[]]],"rt":[["Boredom",[]]],"sp":[["intellectual humility",[]]]},{},{"de":[["reflects a tendency to be unjustifiably confident about the scope of one's knowledge",[]]],"rt":[["Open-mindedness",[]]]},{"de":[["captures cognitive, affective, behavioral, and motivational components of the construct",[]],["This multi-track trait leads the intellectually humble person to revise her beliefs in light of her recognition of her limitations, to try to overcome or quarantine the bad effects of her limitations, to desire to embody fewer and less severe limitations, and to display fitting emotions towards her limitations.",[]],["intellectual humility operates more widely, fine-tuning the cognitive agent's credences and inquiries whether or not other people disagree.",[]],["If you say or even think that you are humble, it's unlikely that you are humble. If you are humble, it's unlikely that you'll think so, and even more unlikely that you'll say so.",[]],["Intellectual humility isn't just a matter of what you think about yourself.",[]],["The characteristic manifestations of this disposition are often social (e.g., when and how someone responds to peer disagreement or intellectual criticism).",[]],["intellectual humility should increase one's ability to reform one's beliefs appropriately when encountering new information",[]],["Though not what we predicted, beneficial intellectual outcomes such as increased familiarity with a number of topics feasibly could be a consequence of having intellectual humility, as intellectual humility should increase one's ability to reform one's beliefs appropriately when encountering new information.",[]],["the broad outlines of intellectual humility appear similar in English and German.",[]],["humility is very close in meaning to qualities denoting a lack of healthy self-esteem, such as meekness and subservience [10]",["10"]],["This scale captures cognitive, affective, behavioral, and motivational components of the construct that have been identified by various philosophers",[]]],"rt":[["humility as such",[]],["openness to experience",[]],["need for cognition",[]],["the underrated other",[]],["the underrated self",[]],["the overrated self",[]],["Curiosity",[]],["Big Six model of personality",[]],["humility",[]]],"sb":[["Openmindedness (versus Arrogance)",[]],["Intellectual Modesty (versus Vanity)",[]],["Corrigibility (versus Fragility)",[]],["Engagement (versus Boredom)",[]],["the sensible self",[]],["the discreet self",[]],["the inquisitive self",[]],["Open-mindedness",[]],["Intellectual Modesty",[]],["Engagement",[]],["Corrigibility",[]],["Intellectual Uniqueness",[]],["Intellectual Machiavellianism",[]],["Intellectual Kleptomania",[]],["Modesty",[]],["Curiosity",[]],["Open-mindedness/Aufgescholossenheit",[]],["Openmindedness",[]]],"ex":[["intellectually humble people would promote the epistemic flourishing of their collaborators (perhaps even at an epistemic cost to themselves) in problem-solving social contexts",[]]]},{"sp":[["intellectual humility",[]]]},{"sp":[["intellectual humility",[]]]},{"de":[["the Intellectual Modesty scale reflects the extent to which one is preoccupied with how one is perceived by others",[]],["as opposed to Intellectual Vanity",[]],["negative pole: Intellectual Vanity",[]],["reflects the extent to which one is preoccupied with how one is perceived by others",[]]],"rt":[["Intellectual Vanity",[]]],"sp":[["intellectual humility",[]]],"ex":[["I want people to know I am an unusually intelligent person",[]],["I like to be the smartest person in the room",[]]]},{"sp":[["intellectual humility",[]]]},{"de":[["as opposed to Intellectual Arrogance",[]],["negative pole: Intellectual Arrogance",[]],["captures a lack of regard for the status that may come with intellectual accomplishment",[]]],"rt":[["Intellectual Arrogance",[]]],"sb":[["Intellectual Arrogance",[]]],"sp":[["intellectual humility",[]]]},{"rt":[["Open-mindedness",[]],["Over-claiming Bias",[]]],"sp":[["intellectual humility",[]]],"ex":[["Over-claiming one's knowledge",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the media signal in our model is independent of the size of the outbreak",[]]]},{"de":[["Boosters consist of adverbs and adverbials (e.g. evidently, certainly), reporting verbs (e.g. demonstrate, indicate, show), certainty modals (must, have to), attitude stance markers (e.g. remarkably, interestingly), emphatic adverbs (e.g. clearly, absolutely obviously), intensifiers (extremely, very, crucial, essential), adjectives (obvious, apparent, evident) and verbs such as 'will'",["4","17"]]],"rt":[["metadiscoursal features",[]]],"ex":[["Boosters consist of adverbs and adverbials (e.g. evidently, certainly), reporting verbs (e.g. demonstrate, indicate, show), certainty modals (must, have to), attitude stance markers (e.g. remarkably, interestingly), emphatic adverbs (e.g. clearly, absolutely obviously), intensifiers (extremely, very, crucial, essential), adjectives (obvious, apparent, evident) and verbs such as 'will' [4,17].",["4","17"]],["adverbs and adverbials (e.g. evidently, certainly), reporting verbs (e.g. demonstrate, indicate, show), certainty modals (must, have to), attitude stance markers (e.g. remarkably, interestingly), emphatic adverbs (e.g. clearly, absolutely obviously), intensifiers (extremely, very, crucial, essential), adjectives (obvious, apparent, evident) and verbs such as 'will' [4,17]",["4","17"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["thus strengthening the perception of science as an impersonal discipline.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["problematic for democracy as they engender political polarization",["3"]],["reinforce individual views and preferences",["4"]],["foreclose deliberation",["5"]],["censor, disallow, or underrepresent competing views by enforcing social homogeneity much in line with the bandwagon effect predicted by the homophily model",["14"]],["We operationalize echo chambers as a function of the identified campaign affiliation.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The definition of hate speech is neither universally accepted nor are individual facets of the definition fully agreed upon.",[]],["the line between hate speech and appropriate free expression is blurry",[]],["Fortuna et al.'s definition specifically calls out variations in language style and subtleties.",[]],["in some of the definitions above, a necessary condition is that it is directed to a group. This differs from the Encyclopedia of the American Constitution definition, where an attack on an individual can be considered hate speech.",[]]],"sy":[["Hateful conduct",["6"]]],"rt":[["protected characteristics",[]],["attack",[]]]},{"rt":[["Hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["By using an ontology or dictionary, text that contain potentially hateful keywords are identified.",[]]]},{"de":[["consisting mainly of fellow smokers who reinforce each other's pro-smoking biases [4,[41][42][43][44]",["4,[41][42][43][44"]]],"sy":[["echo chambers",["39","40"]]]},{"de":[["Within this metaphor, a variety of mappings can be identified, including: the diseased cells are enemy combatants, medical professionals are the army of allies, the body is the battlefield, medical tools are weapons, and applying a treatment is fighting.",["19"]]],"sy":[["TREATING DISEASE IS WAGING WAR",["19"]]]},{"de":[["A topic operationalized by topic modelling, in this sense, corresponds to the first of these two components of a frame, that is, a list of semantically coherent words used as framing devices",[]]],"rt":[["figurative and literal communicative frames",[]],["framing devices",[]],["reasoning devices",[]]]},{},{"de":[["is used to talk about specific topics, such as the virus treatment, but not others, such as the effects of social distancing on the population",[]],["a highly conventional one, is the frame used most frequently",[]],["hereby investigated by means of automated methods (topic modelling) applied to real-world data",[]],["All these words carry a very negative valence and denote aspects of the war that relate to actions and events.",[]],["using war- related words is a communicative phenomenon that we use to express aspects of the Covid-19 epidemic related to the measures needed to oppose (fight!) the virus.",[]],["this frame is used to talk about specific aspects of the current epidemic, such as its treatment and diagnostics.",[]],["The WAR frame, like any other frame, is useful and apt to talk about some aspects of the pandemic, such as the treatment of the virus and the operations performed by doctors and nurses in hospitals, but not to talk about other aspects, such as the need to feel our family close to us, while respecting the social distancing measures, or the collaborative efforts that we should undertake in order to #flattenthecurve, that is, diluting the spreading of the virus over a longer period of time, so that hospital ICU departments can work efficiently without getting saturated by incoming patients.",[]]],"sy":[["WAR framing",[]]],"rt":[["figurative frames",[]],["military metaphor",[]],["literal frame",[]]],"sp":[["frame",[]]],"ex":[["virus treatment",[]],["effects of social distancing on the population",[]],["it is the discourse around the disease treatment and its diagnostics that are likely to be framed figuratively in terms of a war",[]]]},{"de":[["provokes anxiety and a sense of helplessness that can have negative implications for cancer patients",[]],["war metaphors are pervasive in public discourse and span a wide range of topics because they provide a very effective structural framework for communicating and thinking about abstract and complex topics",[]],["this frame is characterized by a strong negative emotional valence",[]],["the metaphor can be formalized as DIS-EASE TREATMENT IS WAR, or TREATING DISEASE IS WAGING WAR",[]],["draws on basic knowledge that everyone has",[]],["this frame expressed in an exemplary way the urgency associated with a very negative situation, and the necessity for actions to be taken, in order to achieve a final outcome quickly",[]],["The outcome can be either positive or negative, in a rather categorical way",[]],["The inner structure of the frame is also relatively simple, with opposing forces clearly labelled as in-groups and out-groups, or allies and enemies",[]]],"sy":[["military metaphor",[]],["war narrative",[]]],"ex":[["the diseased cells are enemy combatants, medical professionals are the army of allies, the body is the battlefield, medical tools are weapons, and applying a treatment is fighting",[]]]},{"de":[["In the special case of the diseases, the war metaphor is typically used to frame the situation relatively to the treatment of the disease.",[]]]},{"de":[["a smaller fraction of profiles",[]]],"rt":[["echo chamber",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["openness to the communication of knowledge could be characterized by the three possible strategies of Trust, Mistrust and Credulity.",[]],["overvaluing of the communication of others at the expense of epistemic self-agency",[]]],"rt":[["Trust",[]],["Mistrust",[]]],"sp":[["Epistemic trust",[]]]},{"sy":[["Credulity",[]]],"rt":[["Epistemic trust",[]],["Epistemic mistrust",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic stance",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Mistrust",[]]],"rt":[["Epistemic trust",[]],["Epistemic credulity",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic stance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the stance to trust socially transmitted information is rooted in developmental experiences such as attachment security, childhood adversity and the associated capacity to reflect on mental states (i.e., mentalizing).",[]],["positions in relation to (socially transmitted) knowledge and not interpersonal dispositions",[]]],"sb":[["Trust",[]],["Mistrust",[]],["Credulity",[]],["epistemic trust",[]],["Epistemic mistrust",[]],["Epistemic credulity",[]]]},{"rt":[["social-cognitive processes",["7","8","9"]],["Epistemic mistrust",[]],["Epistemic credulity",[]],["Mistrust",[]],["Credulity",[]]],"de":[["can also reflect a trait-like tendency to trust others, which underpins resilience to psychopathology",[]],["openness to the communication of knowledge could be characterized by the three possible strategies of Trust, Mistrust and Credulity.",[]],["The concept of ET does not just concern an open stance to trust any given information or general trust [16], but rather a more complex process which depends on the individual's (the addressee's) ability to take into account the reliability of the source of information, the information's relevance to the addressee, and the quality of the information itself [7].",["16","7"]]],"sy":[["Trust",[]]],"sb":[["Mistrust",[]],["Credulity",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic stance",[]]]},{"de":[["Addressees search for information that is relevant to them \"by answering a question they had in mind, improving their knowledge on a certain topic, settling a doubt, confirming a suspicion, or correcting a mistaken impression\" [18, p. 607] and exclude interpretations that seem irrelevant, overly obvious, or false.",["18"]],["the adaptiveness of epistemic vigilance in order to protect oneself from misinformation",[]],["adaptiveness of epistemic vigilance in order to protect oneself from misinformation",["1"]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Epistemic trust",[]]]},{"de":[["ostensive cues trigger a pedagogic stance which opens a channel for communication of cultural knowledge, leading the recipient to encode what they are being told as relevant to them, generalizable and therefore should be remembered",["15"]]],"rt":[["pedagogic stance",["15"]]]},{"rt":[["natural language processing (NLP)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Employees may access a range of information from ESM technology-such as content, and information references-allowing them to understand the importance of the information provided by ESM, thereby gratifying their need for information",["23","30"]]],"rt":[["Social gratification",[]],["Hedonic gratification",[]]]},{"de":[["According to Wurman [61], information overload causes individuals to feel depressed, uneasy, and emotionally exhausted.",["61"]],["Zhang, Zhao [59] also found that a high volume of information may contribute to social network exhaustion as the rapid production and dissemination of information on ESM has negative effects such as fear, frustration, and anxiety.",["59"]],["the visibility it facilitates causes an intensifying of demands, creating a feeling of overload and fatigue",[]],["This scale measured the overall information load with excessive use of ESM.",[]]],"rt":[["work overload",["46"]],["system-feature overload",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The basic assumption of UGT is that people are not automatically attracted to media content but instead utilize media to satisfy their different hedonic, emotional, and psychological needs",["25"]]],"rt":[["Social gratification",[]],["Information gratification",[]],["Hedonic gratification",[]]]},{"ex":[["intelligent, rude",[]]]},{"ex":[["republican, antifa",[]]]},{"de":[["includes seemingly positive stereotypes about women",["17"]],["more nuanced gender biases",[]],["higher sentiment towards female subjects",["22","33","53"]]],"sy":[["finer forms of bias",[]]]},{"ex":[["nose, beautiful",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We answer this question by comparing the relative coverage of male and female politicians.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["childless, pregnant",[]]]}] |