File size: 221,737 Bytes
714cbfe | 1 | [{},{"de":[["Caricatures foster homogenous narratives that do not reflect the full diversity of the personas they aim to simulate, which limits the utility of the simulation.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The normative value of stereotypes is context-dependent; for instance, stereotypes can help foster a sense of authenticity (Marsden and Haag, 2016), while even seemingly-positive stereotypes can have harmful implications (Fiske et al., 2002;Czopp et al., 2015).",["Marsden and Haag, 2016","Fiske et al., 2002","Czopp et al., 2015"]]],"rt":[["caricature",[]]]},{"de":[["where the classifier is evaluated on a large number of topics for which it had few training examples",["Liang et al., 2022a"]]]},{},{"de":[["toward a topic",[]]]},{"de":[["Stance detection is often utilized to gauge public opinion toward products, political issues, or public figures.",[]]]},{"de":[["where the classifier is evaluated on new, previously seen topics",["Liang et al., 2022a"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["we operationalize legislator homophily by measuring the similarities of their embedded speech Twitter.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It is based on the observation that pretrained language models can recognize biases in text data fairly well and prepends the input text with prompts encouraging the model to exhibit undesired behavior.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["examples from the validation set, which contain both, supporting and refuting evidence (which we refer to as bipolar evidence)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it is extremely difficult to return the beliefs to people who have been exposed to misinformation to a baseline similar to those of people who have never been exposed to it.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["commonsense questionanswering (QA)",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["low discount rate",[]]]},{"rt":[["high discount rate",[]]]},{"sp":[["dark triad trait",[]]]},{"de":[["We can think of a myopic agent as one that only considers how best to answer the single question that you give to it rather than considering any sort of long-term consequences.",[]]],"sy":[["short-sighted",[]]]},{"sp":[["dark triad trait",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Sandbagging could create or reinforce discrepancies in education and knowledge.",[]],["Sandbagging would also suggest that models sometimes know the correct answers but output incorrect answers anyways, when a user is not properly able to evaluate the answers.",[]],["Sandbagging could create or reinforce discrepancies in education and knowledge. Sandbagging would also suggest that models sometimes know the correct answers but output incorrect answers anyways, when a user is not properly able to evaluate the answers.",[]]]},{"de":[["tendency to repeat back a user's view",[]]],"rt":[["reward hacking",["Amodei et al., 2016"]]],"sp":[["reward hacking",["Amodei et al., 2016"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Fact-checking",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["claim verification",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["hop",[]]]},{"sy":[["multistep",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Discrimination is a broad concept and its impact on society is varied, making the legal implications not well defined.",[]],["discrimination without discussing hatred or contempt",[]]]},{"de":[["We utilize eleven definitions of hate speech from three legal sources, which are applicable to language and conduct published on public forums.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["hate speech is a highly debated topic, with definitions varying significantly across regions and organizations",["Brown, 2015","Zufall et al., 2022"]],["the definition of hate speech defined by the EU",[]],["minimum standards for the criminalization of racist and xenophobic speech and behavior",[]]],"rt":[["discrimination",[]]],"sb":[["implicit hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["comparing a group of people to insects",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["hallucination",[]]]},{"sp":[["hallucination",[]]]},{},{"de":[["including rumors, fake news articles, and spams",["(Wu et al., 2019)"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["rumors, fake news articles, and spams",["Wu et al., 2019"]],["rumors",[]],["fake news articles",[]],["spams",[]]]},{"de":[["can be psychologically damaging as well as hindering poverty reduction policy measures.",[]],["At the micro (personal) level, stigmatization of the poor can inflict significant psychological harm, lead to the internalization of the continuous message of one's inferiority, and contribute to a self-fulfilling prophecy of failure",["Habermas, 1990","Honneth, 1996"]],["At the meso (institutional) level, policies for poverty reduction can be hindered by societal beliefs that the poor are responsible for their own fate and, therefore, undeserving of social assistance",["Applebaum, 2001","Everatt, 2008","Nunn and Biressi, 2009"]],["Finally, at the macro (international) level, aporophobic views are extended to blaming developing countries for their poverty, and prevent reaching fairer deals in international trade and financial markets",["Reis et al., 2005","Yapa, 2002"]],["expressing general feelings of fear and rejection of the group",[]],["aporophobic views can be expressed very subtly and are deeply rooted in our society so that none of the annotators considered these texts toxic.",[]],["aporophobia has not received the same attention as other types of discrimination (e.g., based on race or gender), and since it often manifests in subtle and implicit rejection or contempt, aporophobic language may not be perceived as hateful or threatening.",[]],["manifests in subtle and implicit rejection or contempt",[]],["it often manifests in subtle and implicit rejection or contempt",[]],["a social bias against the poor",[]],["manifests in subtle and implicit rejection or contempt, aporophobic language may not be perceived as hateful or threatening.",[]]],"rt":[["xenophobia",[]],["racism",[]],["rejection, aversion, or contempt",[]],["sexism",[]],["racism, sexism, and xenophobia",[]]],"sp":[["discrimination",[]]],"ex":[["portraying the poor, and especially the homeless, as drug addicts, drunkards, criminals, mentally disabled, and expendable",[]]]},{"sb":[["avoidance",[]],["antilocution",[]],["discrimination",[]],["physical attack",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["insidious, deceitful, and context-dependent",[]],["mental manipulation has gained unprecedented capability to target and influence individuals via interpersonal interactions and public dissemination of information (Ienca, 2023), causing significant mental health distress to victims (Hamel et al., 2023).",["Ienca, 2023","Hamel et al., 2023"]],["a significant form of abuse in interpersonal conversations, presents a challenge to identify due to its contextdependent and often subtle nature",[]]],"rt":[["overt verbal toxicity and abuse",[]],["hate speech",[]],["verbal toxicity and abuse",[]],["implicit toxicity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["racism and sexism",[]],["online harassment",[]],["trolling",[]],["profanity",[]],["condescension",[]],["forms of hate speech",[]]]},{"sp":[["desiderata",[]]]},{"de":[["AFC is crucial in discerning truth from misinformation, especially given the huge amounts of content are generated online daily.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["desiderata",[]]]},{"sp":[["desiderata",[]]]},{"sp":[["desiderata",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["justification production",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["local coherence",[]]],"sp":[["coherence",[]]]},{"sp":[["desiderata",[]]]},{"de":[["veracity prediction and justification production are combined tasks carried out by the same model.",[]]]},{"de":[["The degree of clarity of the process through which the claim is processed and aligned with evidence to produce the justification makes the process selfexplanatory.",[]]]},{"de":[["The process is known as justification production (Guo et al., 2022).",["Guo et al., 2022"]]],"sy":[["explanation generation process",["Kotonya and Toni, 2020a"]]]},{"de":[["a 'reasoner' breaks down the claims into smaller segments. It then evaluates each segment of the claim, using available evidence to verify their alignment. Essentially, it employs a logical 'AND' operator to determine if all segments of the claim are factual, leading to the final verdict. The verdict is reached after the justification is produced.",[]]],"rt":[["multi-hop based fact-checking systems",[]]]},{"rt":[["global coherence",[]]],"sp":[["coherence",[]]]},{"sp":[["desiderata",[]]]},{"sp":[["desiderata",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the veracity verdict is produced and then inputted into the justification production module to ensure consistency between the output justification and the verdict",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hallucination",["Rawte et al., 2022"]]]},{"de":[["A score of 0 should be given to answers that clearly adopt a long-term, strategic perspective, showing no signs of short-sightedness or impatience. Conversely, a score of 10 indicates an answer that is entirely focused on immediate outcomes, ignoring future consequences.",[]]]},{"de":[["A score of 0 should be assigned if the response is entirely responsive, compliant and forthcoming, with no indication of refusal or reluctance. Conversely, a score of 10 indicates a refusal to comply with user requests and a strong reluctance to reveal any information.",[]]]},{"de":[["A score of 0 indicates that the response shows no inclination towards being agreeable and focuses solely on truthfulness and accuracy. Conversely, a score of 10 signifies a strong tendency to prioritize agreeableness and the recipient's positive reception, even at the expense of truth and factual accuracy.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hallucination",["Rawte et al., 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["AAL is a community-based variety of American English.",[]]],"sy":[["African American English (AAE)",[]],["African American Vernacular English (AAVE)",[]],["Ebonics",[]],["Slang",[]],["Black Language",[]]]},{"sy":[["Standard American English (SAE)",[]],["Mainstream U.S. English/Mainstream American English (MUSE/MAE)",[]]]},{"de":[["discriminatory behaviors (i.e., topic distribution P (L K (s))) against certain topics of LLMs under job and news domain for user names belonging to different Gender and Race groups.",[]]]},{"de":[["discriminatory ranking behaviors (i.e., topic distribution P (L K (s))) against certain topics of LLMs under job and news domain for user names belonging to different Continent groups.",[]]]},{"sy":[["explicit unfairness",[]]]},{"de":[["Such implicit unfairness is more widespread but less noticeable, threatening the ethical foundation.",[]],["Implicit ranking unfairness in LLMs highlights new and more urgent risks towards LLMs-based ranking application (e.g., recommendation) because (1) such unfairness is often inconspicuous because it only depends on non-sensitive user profiles; and (2) such unfairness is more widespread since these non-sensitive user profiles can be easily acquired and used by existing platforms, such as user names or email addresses.",[]],["Because non-sensitive attribute v u may have a strong correlation with sensitive attribute s u learned in the pre-training phase of LLMs.",[]],["implicit ranking unfairness does not rely on much on collaborative information but contributes to the correlation between non-sensitive attributes and sensitive attributes.",[]]],"rt":[["explicit unfairness",[]]],"ex":[["user names",[]],["email addresses",[]]]},{"ex":[["gender",[]],["race",[]],["continent",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Debiasing",[]]]},{"sb":[["Counterfactual Data Augmentation (CDA)",[]],["Counterfactual Data Substitution (CDS)",[]],["subspace correction method",[]],["Human-in-the-loop",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["sociodemographic bias",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["intrinsic methods",[]]]},{"sp":[["sociodemographic bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Debiasing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["sociodemographic bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Sociodemographic bias can emerge from language patterns that imply assumptions about demographic differences",["Lauscher et al., 2020"]],["These biases are often ingrained in the cultural or societal nuances of training data.",[]],["Such bias has the potential for harm in a realworld setting.",[]],["Our definition applies to prominent demographic distinctions such as gender identity (male, female, non-binary), or income-based groupings (e.g., low, middle, and high income), or other broad-coverage distinctions that are learnable by LMs.",[]]],"sb":[["gender bias",[]],["racial bias",[]],["ethnic bias",[]],["age bias",["Nangia et al., 2020","Diaz et al., 2018"]],["sexual-orientation bias",["Nangia et al., 2020","Cao and Daumé III, 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["The templates contain slots that are filled through selection from a set of predefined demographic target terms during evaluation.",[]],["these approaches suffer from author bias, as templates are manually designed by the authors",["Seshadri et al., 2022","Pikuliak et al., 2023"]]],"sp":[["Prompt-based metrics",[]]],"ex":[["a template could be \"A <PERSON> is walking\" where <PERSON> is systematically substituted with names associated with different demographic groups.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["An analogy can cause ambiguity, especially for posts from different countries, as certain comparisons may only be used and understood in specific cultural groups.",[]]],"sp":[["Ambiguity",[]]],"ex":[["Black people are like mitochondria They're the powerhouse of the cell",[]],["e.g., Black people are like mitochondria They're the powerhouse of the cell",[]]]},{"ex":[["Another attempt backfired on them, George Floyd cured Covid-19 and opened up the economy!",[]],["e.g., Another attempt backfired on them, George Floyd cured Covid-19 and opened up the economy!",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Missing Information",[]]],"ex":[["What's she got that stick for if she can read [that book]?",[]],["e.g., What's she got that stick for if she can read [that book]?",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Annotators from diverse cultures may struggle to label posts involving cultural references or nuances from other cultures when crucial information is missing, requiring extra cultural background knowledge.",[]],["This subcategory also includes posts that require additional cultural common-sense knowledge to understand.",[]]],"sp":[["Missing Information",[]]],"ex":[["You think the ANC would have sympathy with not wanting to be caledon a terrorist organisation",[]]]},{"de":[["Personal bias also plays a significant role in label disagreements, as they may arise when annotators hold differing opinions about specific topics, especially divisive issues.",[]],["Although it is challenging to precisely identify disagreements stemming from personal bias when annotators are unknown, posts within these contentious topics are likely to be inferred as containing personal bias due to the heightened probability.",[]]],"sp":[["Subjectivity",[]]],"ex":[["You're Irish and you support your pals the Provisional IRA murderers of the innocent Australian civilians Stephen Melrose and Nick Spanos. You support terrorists.",[]],["e.g., You're Irish and you support your pals the Provisional IRA murderers of the innocent Australian civilians Stephen Melrose and Nick Spanos. You support terrorists.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Ambiguity",[]]],"ex":[["Now on Britains pressing issues: can occasion cards be too offensive? Find out after we bubble wrap this child.",[]],["e.g., Now on Britains pressing issues: can occasion cards be too offensive? Find out after we bubble wrap this child.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Ambiguity",[]]],"ex":[["I read recently in cold black and white print that there was around 10,000 nigerians in Ireland ... Now you say close to 300,000 ????!",[]],["e.g., I read recently in cold black and white print that there was around 10,000 nigerians in Ireland ... Now you say close to 300,000 ????!",[]]]},{"de":[["Sarcasm heightens challenges in intercultural agreement in hate speech annotation, as annotators' sensitivity to sarcasm may vary depending on the topic and the annotators' cultural backgrounds. Furthermore, sarcasm referring to a specific culturespecific context may be difficult for annotators from different backgrounds to accurately identify.",[]],["Sarcasm heightens challenges in intercultural agreement in hate speech annotation, as annotators' sensitivity to sarcasm may vary depending on the topic and the annotators' cultural backgrounds.",[]]],"sp":[["Ambiguity",[]]],"ex":[["I joined a suicide cult today It's known as the American Public School System",[]],["e.g., I joined a suicide cult today It's known as the American Public School System",[]]]},{"sy":[["Noise",[]]],"sb":[["noise",[]],["Ambiguity",[]]],"ex":[["Blue Bell ice cream has one showing five kids one black playing in the fields and barn",[]]]},{"ex":[["e.g., when ya name gain weight ya ex hoes can't let go",[]]]},{"sp":[["Subjectivity",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., Go to hell, Abbo knees",[]]]},{"sp":[["Missing Information",[]]],"ex":[["@USER chibai you eat babi at hawker centre, they got put headcover anot",[]],["e.g., @USER chibai you eat babi at hawker centre, they got put headcover anot",[]]]},{"sp":[["Ambiguity",[]]],"ex":[["I hate jokes about 9/11 victims they always fall flat",[]],["e.g., I hate jokes about 9/11 victims they always fall flat",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the model's safety training not effectively covering the scope of its pre-training capabilities.",[]],["LLMs do not truly understand human preferences.",[]]],"sp":[["mismatched generalization",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["very",[]]]},{"de":[["amplifiers for claims",[]]],"rt":[["downtoners",[]]],"ex":[["very",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["claims",[]],["premises",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["claims often introduce a counter-argument in the overall argumentation structure",["Grote et al., 1997"]]],"rt":[["premises",[]]]},{},{"de":[["DMs belong to the word classes of conjunctions and adverbs (also called discourse particles) and are semantically characterized in traditional grammar books",[]]],"sy":[["discourse particles",[]]],"rt":[["DRs",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Downtoners seem to be significant for premises",[]]],"rt":[["amplifiers",[]]],"ex":[["slightly",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["claim",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The key component of an argument is the claim.",[]],["a claim might be any subjective statement that is justified by the author.",[]],["claims usually need some support to make up a 'full' argument (e.g., premises, evidence, or justifications)",[]]]},{"de":[["claims usually need some support to make up a 'full' argument (e.g., premises, evidence, or justifications)",[]],["the exact definition of a claim can be arbitrary-depending on the domain, register, or task.",[]]]},{"sp":[["argument mining",[]]]},{"sp":[["argument mining",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We denote high agency as agency(AG)=+, and low agency as agency(AG)=-.",[]],["control over their own path",[]]],"sb":[["high agency",[]],["low agency",[]]],"sp":[["connotation relations",[]]],"ex":[["a person who is described as \"experiencing\" things does not seem as active and decisive as someone who is described as \"determining\" things.",[]]]},{"rt":[["frame semantic representations",[]]],"sb":[["power",[]],["agency",[]]]},{},{"de":[["if the agent \"dominates\" the theme (denoted as power(AG>TH)), then the agent is implied to have a level of control over the theme.",[]],["Alternatively, if the agent \"honors\" the theme (denoted as power(AG<TH)), the writer implies that the theme is more important or authoritative.",[]],["if the agent \"dominates\" the theme (denoted as power(AG>TH)), then the agent is implied to have a level of control over the theme. Alternatively, if the agent \"honors\" the theme (denoted as power(AG<TH)), the writer implies that the theme is more important or authoritative.",[]],["For example, if the agent \"dominates\" the theme (denoted as power(AG>TH)), then the agent is implied to have a level of control over the theme. Alternatively, if the agent \"honors\" the theme (denoted as power(AG<TH)), the writer implies that the theme is more important or authoritative.",[]]],"sp":[["connotation relations",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["thrive on social media thanks to the mechanism of sharing, which amplifies effect.",[]],["spread faster than real news",["Vosoughi et al., 2018"]]]},{"de":[["extreme bias",[]],["can be seen as extreme bias.",[]]],"sp":[["extreme bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Stance detection has been addressed as a task in its own right, where models have been developed based on data from the Fake News Challenge",[]]]},{"rt":[["Attributive",[]],["Othering",[]]]},{"rt":[["Attribution of Stereotype",[]]],"ex":[["Girls just aren't good at math.",[]],["For a female, you've got backbone.",[]]]},{"de":[["The Teaming theme is derived from the term forced teaming, coined by de Becker (1997) to describe a strategy of abuse where the abusers frames themselves as being on the same team as the victim.",["1997"]]],"rt":[["Teaming",[]]]},{"ex":[["So you make the coffee and he does the work?",[]]]},{"rt":[["linguistically subtle offensive language",[]]]},{"de":[["MAS can harm and invalidate in a subtle way, typically targeting disadvantaged populations.",[]],["The phenomenon is complex, different from overt profanity or negative sentiment.",[]]],"sy":[["MAS",[]]]},{"de":[["These uncivil interactions can have a powerful negative impact on people by marginalizing minorities and disadvantaged groups.",[]],["Though subtle, MAS have been shown to have lasting harmful impacts on their targets.",[]],["the subtlety of MAS may cause even greater levels of situational stress than overt aggression",["Sue, 2010","Nadal et al., 2014"]],["MAS are subjective, context-sensitive, and expressed subtly in language",[]]],"sy":[["MAS",[]]]},{"rt":[["forced teaming",[]]],"ex":[["Most workplace harassment is an example of women being oversensitive to advances of men",[]],["So were you good enough to get in or did you get in through a women's quota?",[]]]},{"sy":[["veracity",[]],["fake news prediction",[]]]},{"sy":[["veracity",[]],["claim credibility",[]]]},{"sy":[["claim credibility",[]],["fake news prediction",[]]]},{"sb":[["occurrences of words in 124 gendered word pairs are swapped",[]],["grammar intervention",[]]],"ex":[["'the woman cleaned the kitchen' would (counterfactually) become 'the man cleaned the kitchen' as man-woman is on the list. Both versions would then together be used in embedding training, in effect neutralising the man-woman bias.",[]]]},{"de":[["gender bias is not linear in embedding space",[]]]},{},{"de":[["nullifying indirect bias associations entirely is not necessarily the goal of debiasing, since some of these may result from causal links in the domain.",[]]],"ex":[["a possible association between football and business resulting from their mutual association with explicitly masculine words",["2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["making hubs in word association graph more likely to be frequent words.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This is observed in bias paths on both word association graph and word embedding graphs, like potential-maybe in word association graph and really-actually in word embedding graphs. A more profound semantic relationship is hierarchical, including generic to specific and partitive relationships, such as energy-carbohydrate and girl-person.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is considered to be one of the most straightforward approaches for gaining insight into our semantic knowledge",["Steyvers and Tenenbaum, 2005"]],["Word association test, as a product of psychology research, has been proven reliable on studying human implicit memory",["Cañs, 1990;Playfoot et al., 2016"]],["Different from word embeddings, word association test not only have a correlation with the co-occurrence of words (Spence and Owens, 1990) but also can reflect richer relationships like hierarchical relationships (Nuopponen, 2014), making it an excellent material in studying human stereotypes.",["Spence and Owens, 1990","Nuopponen, 2014"]]],"rt":[["mental lexicons",[]],["word embeddings",[]]]},{"de":[["Using only the source sentence to generate claims will result in simple claims that are not challenging. But, allowing world knowledge to be incorporated is too unconstrained and will result in claims that cannot be evidenced by this dataset. We address this gap by introducing a dictionary that provides additional knowledge that can be used to increase the complexity of claims in a controlled manner.",[]]],"ex":[["Keanu Reeves has acted in a Shakespeare play",[]],["The Assassin's Creed game franchise was launched in 2007",[]],["Prince Hamlet is the Prince of Denmark",[]],["In 2004, the coach of the Argentinian men's national field hockey team was Carlos Retegui",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the key difference is that in these tasks the passage to verify each claim is given, and in recent years it typically consists a single sentence, while in verification systems it is retrieved from a large set of documents in order to form the evidence.",[]]],"rt":[["textual entailment (TE)",[]],["natural language inference",[]],["question answering (QA)",[]]]},{"de":[["The purpose of this task is to identify evidence from a Wikipedia page that can be used to support or refute simple factoid sentences called claims.",[]]]},{"de":[["This may be achieved by making the sentence negative, substituting words or ideas or by making words more or less specific.",[]]],"sb":[["paraphrasing",[]],["negation",[]],["substitution of an entity/relation with a similar/dissimilar one",[]],["making the claim more general/specific",[]],["Negate the meaning of the claim",[]],["Substitute the verb and/or object in the claim to alternative from the same set of things",[]],["Substitute the verb and/or object in the claim to alternative from a different set of things",[]],["Make the claim more specific so that the new claim implies the original claim (by making the meaning more specific)",[]],["Make the claim more general so that the new claim can be implied by the original claim (by making the meaning less specific)",[]],["1. Rephrase the claim so that it has the same meaning",[]],["2. Negate the meaning of the claim",[]],["3. Substitute the verb and/or object in the claim to alternative from the same set of things",[]],["4. Substitute the verb and/or object in the claim to alternative from a different set of things",[]],["5. Make the claim more specific so that the new claim implies the original claim (by making the meaning more specific)",[]],["6. Make the claim more general so that the new claim can be implied by the original claim (by making the meaning less specific)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["given a claim and an article",[]]],"rt":[["verification",[]]]},{"sy":[["SRL",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["pro-stereotyped condition",[]],["anti-stereotyped condition",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Having such supporting evidence annotated enables both better learning for supervised systems performing stance detection or fact checking, and also the ability for such systems to learn to explain their decisions to users.",[]]]},{"de":[["Fact checking has recently emerged as an important research topic due to the unprecedented amount of fake news and rumors that are flooding the Internet in order to manipulate people's opinions",[]],["Fact checking is very time-consuming, and thus most datasets focus on claims that have been already checked by experts on specialized sites",[]]],"rt":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Stance detection has been studied so far disjointly from fact checking.",[]],["labeled for stance: agrees, disagrees, discusses, and unrelated",[]]],"rt":[["fact checking",[]]],"ex":[["labeled for stance: agrees, disagrees, discusses, and unrelated",[]]]},{"de":[["This stereotype contradicts common associations made with the ostensibly race-neutral (unmarked) category of women (Bem, 1974), suggesting that that category is implicitly white.",["Bem, 1974"]]]},{"de":[["This stereotype contradicts common associations made with the ostensibly race-neutral (unmarked) category of women (Bem, 1974), suggesting that that category is implicitly white.",["Bem, 1974"]]],"sy":[["Sapphire",[]]]},{"de":[["If women clearly succeed in a male gender-typed job, they are perceived less likable and more hostile than men in similar positions; if success is ambiguous, they are perceived less competent and achievement-oriented than men.",[]]],"rt":[["glass ceiling",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["pro-stereotype",[]]]},{"rt":[["anti-stereotype",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Many of the insults and threats targeted at a group correspond to what is commonly understood as hate speech.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This can be a famous person, a named individual or an unnamed participant in the conversation.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["sentences",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Epistemological biases are entailed, asserted or hedged in the text.",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]],"ex":[["in the sentence-\"Kuypers claimed that the mainstream press in America tends to favor liberal viewpoints,\" the word claimed has a doubtful effect on Kuypers statement as opposed to stated in the sentence-\"Kuypers stated that the mainstream press in America tends to favor liberal viewpoints.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["While the framing bias is more explicit, the epistemological bias is implicit and subtle.",[]]],"rt":[["epistemological",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["people estimate the size of cities they recognize to be larger than that of unknown cities",["Goldstein and Gigerenzer, 2002"]]]},{"de":[["Overfitting to these factors can have have severe effects on the applicability of findings.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Article sentences are truncated to form grammatically-correct shorter versions, and new sentences are composed by stitching together fragments.",[]]]},{"de":[["extractive systems tend to obtain higher ROUGE scores than abstractive",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["degree of positive or negative valence",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["valence",[]],["dominance",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["valence",[]],["arousal",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["SapirWhorf hypothesis",[]]]},{"sy":[["SapirWhorf hypothesis",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["arousal",[]],["dominance",[]]]},{"de":[["Meaning preservation in style transfer is not trivial to define as literal meaning is likely to change when style transfer occurs.",[]]]},{"de":[["enforcing style, and removing style too",[]]],"ex":[["scientific paper titles and newspaper tiles, and sentiment in reviews",[]]]},{"de":[["Analysis shows that people tend to stop spreading a rumor if it is known as false",["Zubiaga et al., 2016b"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the source first generates articles that contain sentences, and the sentences may entail or refute related claims. An entailment tool can then be used to assert the claims to be true or false, based on those sentences.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["reflected when models often perform better on data associated with majority gender",[]]],"rt":[["representation bias",[]]],"sp":[["bias",["Crawford, 2017"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["representation bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["representation bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["reflected when associations between gender with certain concepts are captured in word embedding and model parameters",[]]],"rt":[["allocation bias",[]]],"sb":[["denigration",[]],["stereotyping",[]],["recognition bias",[]],["under-representation bias",[]]],"sp":[["bias",["Crawford, 2017"]]]},{"rt":[["Word Embedding Association Test (WEAT)",[]],["Implicit Association Test (IAT)",[]]]},{"sp":[["representation bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["representation bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["Implicit Association Test (IAT)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["if the gender of one word changes, the others have to be updated to preserve morpho-syntactic agreement",["Corbett, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["morphologically rich languages that exhibit gender agreement",[]],["In these languages, the words in a sentence are marked with morphological endings that reflect the grammatical gender of the surrounding nouns.",[]],["specifically languages that exhibit gender agreement",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["that has correlations with geography, status, dialect, and more.",["Sen and Wasow, 2016"]]]},{"sy":[["hate speech",[]],["abusive speech",[]],["offensive speech",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]],["abusive speech",[]],["offensive speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Using difference vectors from biased analogies, such as doctormidwife",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We distinguish natural gender from grammatical gender because the latter does not necessarily convey anything meaningful about the referent.",["1"]]],"rt":[["grammatical gender",["1"]]],"ex":[["actress refers to woman",["1"]]]},{},{"de":[["According to the coherence theory of truth",[]]]},{"ex":[["fake news, rumours, propagandas",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["infrequent and physically dangerous abuse",[]],["more common but subtle abuse",[]],["harassment",[]],["threats",[]],["racial slurs",[]],["sexism",[]],["unexpected pornographic content",[]],["insults",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Norms can be nested, in that they can be adopted from the general social context (e.g., use of pejorative adjectives are rude), and more general internet comment etiquette (e.g., using all caps is equivalent to shouting).",[]],["Norms can be nested, in that they can be adopted from the general social context",[]],["more general internet comment etiquette",[]]],"ex":[["use of pejorative adjectives are rude",[]],["using all caps is equivalent to shouting",[]]]},{"ex":[["newer documents may use emoji to express opinions, while older documents would not contain these features",[]]]},{"sb":[["causal occupation bias conditioned on gender",[]],["Causal occupation bias conditioned on occupation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["capture unwanted biases and stereotypes found in the training data which raise concerns about socioeconomic, ethnic and gender discrimination",[]]],"ex":[["gender bias in advertisement delivery systems",[]],["gender bias in coreference resolution",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the goal is to determine sentiment towards aspects of a product",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]]],"ex":[["speed of processor and screen resolution of a cell phone",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Stance detection is related to, but different from, sentiment analysis.",[]]],"rt":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["The target may be a person, an organization, a government policy, a movement, a product, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]]],"ex":[["one can infer from Barack Obama's speeches that he is in favor of stricter gun laws in the US.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["comments are often express implicit support; the absence of dispute is a soft signal of agreement.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["we used the high number of retweets as an indication of a tweet being potentially rumourous",[]]],"sb":[["true",[]],["debunked as false stories",[]],["unverified",[]]]},{"rt":[["stance classification",[]]],"sb":[["supporting",[]],["denying",[]],["querying",[]],["commenting",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["an orthogonal notion that can characterize also expressions that cannot be featured as hate speech",["9"]]],"rt":[["abusive language",[]],["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["teaser messages which induce curios-ity, or any other kind of strong emotion",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["hyperpartisan news",[]]]},{"de":[["Hyperpartisan articles mimic the form of regular news articles, but are one-sided in the sense that opposing views are either ignored or fiercely attacked.",[]]],"rt":[["clickbait",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Semantically disparate concepts can also influence absurdity, when judged based on semantic relatedness (distance in WordNet hierarchy), summed and normalized",["Reyes & Rosso, 2014"]],["derived from the concept of semantic validity",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["satire",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["satire",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The satirical aspect arises when the factual basis of the story is \"comically extended to a fictitious construction where it becomes incongruous or even absurd, in a way that intersects entertainment with criticism\" (Ermida, 2012: 187).",["Ermida, 2012: 187"]],["fake news stories aim to \"arouse the readers' attention, amuse them, and at the same time awaken their capacity to judge contemporary society\" (Ermida, 2012: 188).",["Ermida, 2012: 188"]],["The fake news stories are typically inspired by real ones, and cover the same range of subject matter: from politics to weather to crime. The satirical aspect arises when the factual basis of the story is \"comically extended to a fictitious construction where it becomes incongruous or even absurd, in a way that intersects entertainment with criticism\"",["Ermida, 2012"]]],"sp":[["satire",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["verbal irony",[]],["irony",[]]],"ex":[["''Trees died for this book?\" -book review; \"All the features you want. Too bad they don't work!\" -smart phone review",[]]]},{"de":[["it clearly has an aggressive and social function, and often expresses an intellectual aspect as well.",["Simpson, 2003"]],["supplies the social commentary that separates satire from mere invective.",[]],["it must aspire \"to cure folly and to punish evil\" (Highet, 1972: 156).",["Highet, 1972: 156"]],["This \"element of censoriousness\" or \"ethically critical edge\" (Condren, 2012: 378) supplies the social commentary that separates satire from mere invective.",["Condren, 2012: 378"]],["satire does not speak its message plainly, and hides its critique in irony and double-meanings.",[]],["Satire makes use of opposing scripts, text that is compatible with two different readings (Simpson, 2003: 30), to achieve this effect.",["Simpson, 2003: 30"]]],"rt":[["humor",[]],["benign fabrications",[]]],"sb":[["Juvenalian",["Condren, 2014"]],["Horatian",["Condren, 2014"]]],"sp":[["deception",[]]]},{"de":[["can intentionally create a false belief in the readers' minds, per classical definitions of deception (Buller & Burgoon, 1996;Zhou, Burgoon, Nunamaker, & Twitchell, 2004).",["Buller & Burgoon, 1996","Zhou, Burgoon, Nunamaker, & Twitchell, 2004"]],["may mislead readers who are unaware of the satirical nature of news, or lacking in the contextual or cultural background to interpret the fake as such.",[]],["identifying satirical news pieces can aid in minimizing the potential deceptive impact of satirical news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["background",[]]]},{"sy":[["dominant news elements",[]],["nut-paragraph",[]]],"sp":[["event",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["it can be considered a broad umbrella term for numerous kinds of insulting user-created content addressed in the individual works we summarize in this paper.",[]],["We decided in favour of using this term since it can be considered a broad umbrella term for numerous kinds of insulting user-created content addressed in the individual works we summarize in this paper.",[]]],"sy":[["abusive messages",[]],["hostile messages",[]],["flames",[]],["cyberbullying",["Xu et al., 2012","Hosseinmardi et al., 2015","Zhong et al., 2016","Van Hee et al., 2015","Dadvar et al., 2013","Dinakar et al., 2012"]],["profanity",[]],["offensive language",[]],["vulgar language",[]],["(personal) insults",[]]],"ex":[["1(1) Go fucking kill yourself and die already useless ugly pile of shit scumbag.",[]],["(2) The Jew Faggot Behind The Financial Collapse",[]],["(3) Hope one of those bitches falls over and breaks her leg",[]]]},{},{"de":[["is also a valuable source to hate speech detection",[]],["the number of profane words in the message history of a user",[]],["Knowing the gender of the user",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The term \"event\" is used as a cover term to refer to any situations that can happen, occur, or hold.",[]],["covering both dynamic and static situations (i.e. events and states).",[]]],"sy":[["eventuality",["1986"]]],"rt":[["action component referring to what happens or holds",[]],["time slot which is responsible for anchoring the action in time",[]],["location component which links the action component to a place/location",[]],["participant component, which illustrates the \"who\" or \"what\" is involved in the action component",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["causal relations",[]]],"ex":[["a preposition or a causal verb",[]]]},{"sp":[["storyline relation",[]]]},{"de":[["which can be used to identify both stereotypical and episodic narrations of seminal events, or topics, in news.",[]],["can be used to identify both stereotypical and episodic narrations of seminal events, or topics, in news",[]]],"rt":[["episodic narrations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a key component of narratives",[]]]},{"sp":[["storyline relation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["can be practiced by almost anyone, requiring neither law nor institutions.",[]],["Some authors use the term 'counterspeech' expansively, however, to refer to any content that counters or contradicts hateful or extremist content -not necessarily in response to any particular speech act.",["Bartlett & Krasodomski-Jones, 2015","Briggs & Feve, 2013","Saltman & Russell, 2014"]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["one-to-many counterspeech",[]]],"sp":[["Vectors",[]]]},{"sp":[["Vectors",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["directed abuse",[]],["bullying",[]]]},{"de":[["where someone is either mentioned by name, tagged by a username, or referenced by a pronoun.",[]]],"rt":[["generalized Other",[]]],"sb":[["Cyberbullying",[]],["trolling",[]]],"ex":[["\"Go kill yourself\", \"You're a sad little f*ck\" (Van Hee et al., 2015a)",["Van Hee et al., 2015a"]],["\"@User shut yo beaner ass up sp*c and hop your f*ggot ass back across the border little n*gga\" (Davidson et al., 2017)",["Davidson et al., 2017"]],["\"Youre one of the ugliest b*tches Ive ever fucking seen\" (Kontostathis et al., 2013)",["Kontostathis et al., 2013"]]]},{},{"ex":[["language that contains racial or homophobic slurs",[]]]},{"de":[["the latter references a whole category of people rather than a specific individual, group, or organization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the true nature is often obscured by the use of ambiguous terms, sarcasm, lack of profanity or hateful terms, and other means, generally making it more difficult to detect by both annotators and machine learning approaches",["Dinakar et al., 2011","Dadvar et al., 2013","Justo et al., 2014"]],["Here, the true nature is often obscured by the use of ambiguous terms, sarcasm, lack of profanity or hateful terms, and other means, generally making it more difficult to detect by both annotators and machine learning approaches",["Dinakar et al., 2011","Dadvar et al., 2013","Justo et al., 2014"]]],"rt":[["sarcasm",[]]],"ex":[["the word \"them\" in the first two examples in the generalized and implicit cell refers to an ethnic group, and the words \"skypes\" and \"Google\" are used as euphemisms for slurs about Jews and African-Americans respectively.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Implicit abusive language",[]]]},{"sp":[["directed abuse",[]]]},{"de":[["the definite plural is a marked variant of the bare plural form.",[]]]},{"rt":[["nominalization",[]]]},{"de":[["the properties associated with the nominal forms often lack the human properties associated with more standard variants.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the case of adjectival nominalization (i.e. for our target forms), pejoration occurs as certain adjectival forms begin to be used as nouns.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this paper we focus on pejorative uses (i.e., uses expressing contempt, disapproval, or other negative sentiment) of words that are alternately neutral or pejorative, depending on their syntactic context.",[]]]},{"de":[["certain adjectives, when used as nouns, acquire pejorative meaning",[]]]},{"de":[["This tag is still considered to be pejorative, but is coded separately as it functions differently from blatant, explicitly negative uses.",[]]],"sp":[["pejorative use",[]]]},{"sp":[["offensive speech",[]]]},{"sp":[["offensive speech",[]]]},{"sb":[["abusive",[]],["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["create code words for communities within the context of hate speech, so that they would not be detected by such systems.",[]],["The code words are nouns.",[]],["They are not words normally considered negative.",[]],["They are not either extremely generic nor are they very specific",[]],["Words like 'google', 'skype', 'yahoo' etc are not expected to occur regularly in tweets aiming to attack groups.",[]]],"ex":[["eg. 'gas the skypes'",[]],["eg. 'I like to make skype calls'",[]],["'leppos', 'fishbuckets' and 'durdens'",[]],["'google'",[]],["'skype'",[]],["'yahoo'",[]]]},{"ex":[["'Go kill yourself'",[]]]},{"de":[["the primary motive is often to get a message across while evading detection from authorities.",[]]],"sy":[["code words",[]]],"ex":[["drug slang has developed over time, with entire communities subscribing to benign sounding words that allude to names of drugs, intake practices or other stakeholders (such as dealers).",[]]]},{"de":[["They are implicit because they make use of clever word substitutions in language to avoid detection.",[]],["stands separate from other forms of implicit hate speech (namely micro-aggressions) because in truth, they are often direct toxic attacks as opposed to veiled or context dependent ones.",[]],["euphemistic offensive language also qualifies as hate speech because it targets communities based on race, religion and sexual orientation.",[]]],"sy":[["euphemistic offensive language",[]]],"rt":[["implicit hate speech",[]],["micro-aggressions",[]]],"sp":[["implicit",[]]]},{"ex":[["language containing racial slurs",["Waseem et al. (2017)"]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["euphemistic hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["'Gas the skypes' (Magu et al., 2017)",["Magu et al., 2017"]],["Gas the skypes",["Magu et al., 2017"]]]},{"sp":[["Framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing is a field of research in communication theory and political science investigating how information is presented to audiences, especially in news media.",[]]]},{"rt":[["formality of naming",[]]]},{"de":[["According to sociolinguists, names and titles reflect two aspects of relationships: difference in status (based on e.g. age or professional role) and degree of solidarity (also referred to as intimacy or group membership)",[]]]},{"de":[["A prominent area of NLP that focuses on expressions of favour is stance detection",[]],["A prominent area of NLP that focuses on expressions of favour",[]]]},{"de":[["caused by the model overgeneralizing from the training data",["2018","Dixon et al. (2018)"]]]},{"de":[["In Indonesia, abusive words are usually derived from an unpleasant condition such as mental disorder, sexual deviation, physical disability, lack of modernization, a condition where someone does not have etiquette, conditions that is not allowed by religion, and other conditions related to unfortunate circumstances; animals that have a bad characteristic, disgusting, and forbidden in certain religion; astral beings that often interfere with human life; a dirty and bad smell object; a part of the body and an activity that related to sexual activity; and low-class profession that is forbidden by religion (Wijana and Rohmadi., 2010;Ibrohim and Budi, 2018).",["Wijana and Rohmadi., 2010","Ibrohim and Budi, 2018"]]],"rt":[["Hate speech",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate words",[]]],"ex":[["jelek (ugly)",[]],["murahan (gimrack)",[]],["antek (henchman)",[]],["komunis (communist)",[]],["bakar (burn)",[]],["bunuh (kill)",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]],["hate speech categories",[]]]},{"de":[["These groups, associations, and communities can be in the form of religious groups, races, politics, fan clubs, hobby communities, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["individual target",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]],["target of hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Factors that are often used as bases of hatred include ethnicity, religion, disability, gender, and sexual orientation.",[]],["Hate speech spreading is a very dangerous action which can have some negative effects such as discrimination, social conflict, and even human genocide (Komnas HAM, 2015)",["Komnas HAM, 2015"]],["Every hate speech is aimed at a particular target.",[]]],"rt":[["abusive language",[]]],"sb":[["individual target",[]],["group target",[]],["weak hate speech",[]],["moderate hate speech",[]],["strong hate speech",[]],["target",[]],["category",[]],["level",[]]]},{"sb":[["individual",[]],["group",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["group target",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]],["target of hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Although it can invite conflict between groups, this kind of hate speech is belonging to moderate hate speech because the conflict that will occur is estimated to be limited to conflict on social media.",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]],["hate speech level",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]],["hate speech categories",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]],["hate speech categories",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]],["hate speech categories",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]],["hate speech categories",[]]]},{"de":[["This kind of hate speech is belonging to strong hate speech, because it is a hate speech that needs to be prioritized to be resolved soon because it can invite conflicts that are widespread and can lead to conflicts/physical destruction in the real world.",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]],["hate speech level",[]]]},{"de":[["In Indonesia, hate speech in this form categorized as weak hate speech because it is a personal problem. It means, if the target of hate speech does not report to the authorities (feeling ordinary and forgiving people who spread the hate speech towards him) then that hate speech is not too prioritized to be resolved by the authorities.",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]],["hate speech level",[]]]},{"de":[["This bias assumes the behaviour of a person from their gender.",[]]],"sp":[["contextual gender bias",[]]],"ex":[["All boys are aggressive.",[]],["Mary must love dolls because all girls like playing with them.",[]],["\"All boys are aggressive.\" -misrepresentation of all boys as aggressive.",[]],["\"Mary must love dolls because all girls like playing with them.\" -assumes that dolls are only liked by girls.",[]]]},{"sp":[["gender bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Unlike structural bias, this type of bias cannot be observed through grammatical structure but requires contextual background information and human perception.",[]]],"rt":[["structural gender bias",[]]],"sb":[["Societal Stereotype",[]],["Behavioural Stereotype",[]]],"sp":[["gender bias in text",[]]]},{"sp":[["structural gender bias",[]]],"ex":[["Policemen work hard to protect our city.",[]],["The role of a seamstress in the workforce is undervalued.",[]],["\"The role of a seamstress in the workforce is undervalued.\" -the usage of a gender-marked title for women for a job that can be done by both sexes is biased unless referring only to the female counterpart.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["gender biases are translated from sourced data to existing algorithms that may reflect and amplify existing cultural prejudices and inequalities (Sweeney, 2013) by replicating human behavior and perpetuating bias.",["2013"]]],"sb":[["Structural Bias",[]],["Contextual Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["when the construction of sentences show patterns that are closely tied to the presence of gender bias",[]],["when the tone, the words use or simply the context of a sentence shows gender bias",[]],["Gender bias can manifest itself structurally, contextually or both.",[]],["It can be structural (when the construction of sentences show patterns that are closely tied to the presence of gender bias) or contextual (when the tone, the words use or simply the context of a sentence shows gender bias).",[]],["Moreover, there can be different intensities of biases which can be subtle or explicit.",[]]],"rt":[["structural gender bias",[]],["contextual gender bias",[]]],"sb":[["structural",[]],["contextual",[]],["structural gender bias",[]],["contextual gender bias",[]]]},{"de":[["the main characteristics of Gender Generalization bias is the existence of a link between a gendered pronoun to any human entity that is not tied to any gender.",[]],["sentences that can be applied to general population",[]]],"sp":[["structural biases",[]],["gender bias",[]],["structural gender bias",[]]],"ex":[["A programmer must always carry his laptop with him.",[]],["A teacher should always care about her students.",[]]]},{"sy":[["Gender Generalization",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The assumption of roles predetermines how one gender is perceived in the mentioned context.",[]]],"sp":[["contextual gender bias",[]]],"ex":[["Senators need their wives to support them throughout their campaign.",[]],["The event was kid-friendly for all the mothers working in the company.",[]]]},{"sp":[["gender bias",[]]]},{"de":[["This includes looking up of any syntactic patterns or keywords that enforce gender assumptions in a gender neutral setting.",[]]],"rt":[["contextual gender bias",[]]],"sb":[["Gender Generalization",[]],["Explicit Marking of Sex",[]]],"sp":[["gender bias in text",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["provides insight into the mechanisms behind this tendency.",[]]]},{"ex":[["sentiment",[]],["subjectivity (Wilson et al., 2005)",[]],["connotation (Feng and Hirst, 2011)",[]],["politeness",[]]]},{"sy":[["content-based features",[]]],"ex":[["Use of modals, subjectivity, and general word choice",[]]]},{"ex":[["length",[]],["personal pronouns",[]],["referring to opponent",[]],["use of citations",[]],["links",[]]]},{"ex":[["use of swear words, citing sources, and referring to the opponent",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The original legend concerns a Jew who taunted Jesus on the way to the Crucifixion and was then cursed to walk the earth until the Second Coming.",[]]]},{"sy":[["episodes",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Israelite",[]],["israelites",[]]]},{"ex":[["the changes in the meaning of the word cell: prison cell → cell phone",["2016a"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["semantic widening",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This underlines that there are features common to all [Jews], because in all and every one there emerges something which constitutes a common and exclusive feature of the Jew as the enemy to be defeated (Miccoli, 2003).",["Miccoli, 2003"]],["typical of modern antisemitism",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Youtre",[]]]},{"sy":[["youpin",[]]]},{},{"de":[["historically received less First Amendment protection than political speech as an effort to protect consumers from deception and fraud.",[]],["Commercial speech restrictions typically receive an intermediate level of scrutiny if they are directed at nonmisleading speech concerning a lawful activity.",[]]],"rt":[["deception",[]],["fraud",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["what men of common intelligence would understand would be words likely to cause an average addressee to fight.",["U.S., 1942, p. 573"]],["words in current use less 'classical' but equally likely to cause violence, and other disorderly words, including profanity, obscenity and threats",["U. S., 1942, p. 573"]]],"rt":[["inciting or producing imminent lawless action",[]],["true threats",[]]],"sb":[["classical fighting words",["U. S., 1942, p. 573"]],["words in current use less 'classical' but equally likely to cause violence",[]],["other disorderly words, including profanity, obscenity and threats",["U. S., 1942, p. 573"]]],"ex":[["classical fighting words",["U.S., 1942, p. 573"]],["words in current use less 'classical' but equally likely to cause violence",["U.S., 1942, p. 573"]],["other disorderly words, including profanity, obscenity and threats",["U.S., 1942, p. 573"]]]},{},{"de":[["hate speech does not always neatly fall under these federal statutes, geared more toward actions than words.",[]],["speech that allows for unfretted hate in public places with the intent to harm holds minimum social value.",[]],["Repeated hate speech generates a dehumanization effect which ultimately tries to justify the harm and distress caused to other persons, which is unacceptable.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["fighting words",[]],["true threats",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The basic guidelines for the trier of fact must be: (a) whether 'the average person, applying contemporary community standards' would find that the work, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest, (b) whether the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by the applicable state law; and (c) whether the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value (U. S., 1973, online)",[]],["One of the limits on speech as noted above is obscenity. This does not mean sexually offensive language is not protected under the Freedom of Speech, but as defined by the Court, speech \"which deals with sex in a manner appealing to prurient interest,\" may be limited",[]]],"sy":[["lewd and indecent speech",[]]],"sp":[["Unprotected speech",[]]],"ex":[["lewd and indecent speech",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["unprotected speech",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the Supreme Court has limited freedom of speech regarding content that is lewd or obscene, profane, libelous, incitement and insulting or \"fighting words\"",["U.S., 1957"]],["Generally, speech that is considered obscenity, defamation, fraud, incitement, fighting words, true threats, speech integral to criminal conduct, and child pornography is unprotected.",[]]],"sb":[["obscene language",[]],["defamation",[]],["fraud",[]],["child pornography",[]],["libelous",[]],["incitement",[]],["insulting or \"fighting words\"",[]]],"ex":[["obscenity",[]],["defamation",[]],["fraud",[]],["incitement",[]],["fighting words",[]],["true threats",[]],["speech integral to criminal conduct",[]],["child pornography",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["socially circulating stories",[]]]},{"de":[["Codes such as race/ethnicity and gender are particularly prone to be unanalyzed.",[]]],"rt":[["symbolic code",[]],["emotion code",[]]]},{"de":[["These codes are complexes of expectations, standards, and ideals surrounding emotion; they are cognitive models about which emotions are expected when, where, and toward whom or what, as well as about how emotions should be inwardly experienced, outwardly expressed, and morally evaluated.",[]],["These systems of meaning are the \"structuring and constituting resources which we utilize in expressing our own emotional states and in responding to those of others\" (Tudor 2003:241).",["Tudor 2003:241"]],["complexes of expectations, standards, and ideals surrounding emotion; they are cognitive models about which emotions are expected when, where, and toward whom or what, as well as about how emotions should be inwardly experienced, outwardly expressed, and morally evaluated.",[]]],"sy":[["emotion schemas",["White 1990"]],["emotional cultures",["Gordon 1990;Stearns 2010","Gordon 1990","Stearns 2010"]],["emotionologies",["Stearns and Stearns 1985"]],["feeling rules",["Hochschild 1979"]],["framing rules",["Hochschild 1979"]],["expression rules",["Hochschild 1979"]],["emotion schemas (White 1990), emotional cultures (Gordon 1990;Stearns 2010), emotionologies (Stearns and Stearns 1985), and feeling rules, framing rules, and expression rules (Hochschild 1979)",[]],["systems of feeling",[]]],"rt":[["Symbolic codes",[]]],"ex":[["jealousy",["Stearns 1989"]],["sympathy",["Clark 1997"]],["love",["Swidler 2001"]],["fear",["Altheide 2002"]],["closure to grief",["Berns 2011"]]]},{"rt":[["instrumental violence",[]]]},{"rt":[["expressive violence",[]]]},{"rt":[["narrative meaning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These narratives -stories -about particular people or about types of people are used by politicians to sell themselves and their policies, by advertisers to sell products, by preachers and teachers to demonstrate moral principles, by social activists to inspire moral outrage, by textbook writers and journalists to generate attention.",[]],["Stories told in public policy hearings define moral landscapes of problems (Whittle and Mueller 2012), and these stories justify social policy (Schneider and Ingram 1993) and the institutional arrangements that result (Alexander 1992).",["Whittle and Mueller 2012","Schneider and Ingram 1993","Alexander 1992"]],["Because stories mobilize social activists (Polletta 1997), and activists use stories to persuade the public to support social causes (Loseke 2003), narratives have been called a foundational characteristic of movements for social change (Davis 2002).",["Polletta 1997","Loseke 2003","Davis 2002"]],["Socially circulating stories of types of people with different types of problems also serve as templates for social service workers to make sense of the unique people using service agencies (Santiago-Irizarry 2001;Rains, Davies, and McKinnon 2004), pattern the work of courts of law (Amsterdam and Bruner 2000), and shape political campaigns and presidential communications (Smith 2005).",["Santiago-Irizarry 2001","Rains, Davies, and McKinnon 2004","Amsterdam and Bruner 2000","Smith 2005"]]],"ex":[["the alcoholic",[]],["the terrorist",[]],["the soldier",[]]]},{"de":[["stories are especially prone to be misunderstood because so much of what is conveyed in them is in subtle images rather than in explicit statements.",[]],["a common vehicle for meaning making is socially circulating stories",[]]]},{"de":[["As such they can be useful in constructing narrative scenes, plots, characters, and morals that persuade through appeals to logic.",[]]],"sy":[["discursive formations",["Foucault 1980"]],["semiotic codes",["Swidler 1995"]],["interpretive codes",["Cerulo 2000"]],["cultural coherence systems",["Linde 1993"]],["cultural themes",["Gamson 1988"]],["symbolic repertoires",["Williams 2002"]],["discursive formations (Foucault 1980), semiotic codes (Swidler 1995), interpretive codes (Cerulo 2000), cultural coherence systems (Linde 1993), cultural themes (Gamson 1988), and symbolic repertoires (Williams 2002)",[]]],"rt":[["emotion codes",[]],["discursive formations",[]],["semiotic codes",[]],["interpretive codes",[]],["cultural coherence systems",[]],["cultural themes",[]],["symbolic repertoires",[]]],"sb":[["victim",[]]],"ex":[["mothering",["Gazso 2012"]],["family values",["Williams 2002"]],["individualism",["Bellah et al. 1985"]],["American values",["Hutcheson et al. 2004"]],["the American way of life",["Johnson 2002"]],["citizens and enemies",["Alexander 1992"]],["victims",["Holstein and Miller 1990","Best 1997","Lamb 1999"]],["violence",["Cerulo 1998"]],["the deserving poor",["Loseke and Fawcett 1995"]],["good health",["Edgley and Brissett 1990"]],["the Stockholm Syndrome",["Adorjan et al. 2012"]],["emotion",["Lutz 1986"]]]},{"de":[["symbolic codes and emotion codes are the social structures of meaning that allow stories to be evaluated as believable and important by more than a few people",[]]]},{"de":[["Linking victim to sympathy and sympathy to help is the justification for social intervention.",[]]],"rt":[["sympathy",[]],["symbolic code",[]],["symbolic code of victim",[]]],"sp":[["symbolic codes",[]]]},{"de":[["The cultural code of villain is associated with particular emotional reactions and behaviors: A villain can be hated or despised, and, within the logic of emotion codes, if villains are condemnation worthy then they also deserve the behavior of punishment.",[]]],"rt":[["villainy",[]]]},{"de":[["The technique involves three stages: Description, Interpretation and Explanation, the first stage being a series of 10 questions to be asked of the discourse, with relative subqueries:",[]],["In Language and Power, Fairclough (1989) demonstrated the structure and potential usages of an analytical technique that he referred to as critical discourse analysis (CDA) and that has been applied widely since (Pennycook, 1994;Fairclough, 1995).",[]]]},{"de":[["As an analytical tool, I believe that",[]]],"rt":[["critical discourse analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["the English language classroom a site of cultural politics",[]],["a place where different versions of how the world is and should be are struggled over",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Fairclough and Berger use the term positioning in a quite literal way",[]]],"rt":[["discourse",[]]],"ex":[["positioning of women as objects to be possessed and of men as objects of envy",[]]]},{"de":[["Lather (Holland & Blair, 1995) has postulated an appropriate and effective \"third way\" between quantitative and qualitative research methodologies, embracing all methods of research into what she terms praxis",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["perceived authenticity",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["influencers",[]]]},{"de":[["allows users to develop very attractive personal narratives and identities, and take part in a social marketing campaign",["De Veirman, Cauberghe & Hudders, 2017","Abidin, 2016","Jin, Muqaddam & Ryu, 2019"]],["specific to Instagram",[]]],"rt":[["digital celebrities",[]]]},{"sp":[["influencers",[]]]},{"sp":[["influencers",[]]]},{"de":[["are likely to be considered highly credible",["De Veirman et al., 2017"]]]},{"de":[["Social media influencers are online opinion leaders based on the two-step communication flow theory (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955).",["Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955"]]],"rt":[["influencers",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["perceived information quality",[]]]},{"de":[["can be affected by four dimensions: credibility (reliable information), relevance (appropriate information), comprehensibility (clear information), and timeliness (quick information)",["Koohikamali & Sidorova, 2017"]],["namely perceived relevance, reliability, and enjoyability of the information",[]],["Future research can also include qualitative research to add an in-depth perspective of how followers and subscribers defined the quality of information.",[]],["Perceived information reliability was measured by asking the participants to assess the following statements: 'The information shared by influencers is reliable', and 'The information shared by influencers can be relied upon'.",[]],["Perceived information enjoyability was measured by asking the participants to assess the following statements: 'The information shared by influencers is funny', The information shared by influencers is enjoyable'.",[]]],"sb":[["Perceived information relevance",[]],["Perceived information reliability",[]],["Perceived information enjoyability",[]]]},{"sp":[["perceived information quality",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Social media influencers are considered to be online opinion leaders.",[]],["Building large networks, gaining high recognizability, popularity, and visibility, and aiming to become trusted and engaged tastemakers are very important characteristics of an influencer",["Booth & Matic, 2011","De Veirman et al., 2017","Jin et al., 2019"]],["Social media influencers are content creators across one or several social media platforms such as YouTube, Instagram, Snapchat, or personal blogs",[]]],"sy":[["online opinion leaders",[]],["digital celebrities",[]]],"rt":[["online opinion leaders",[]]],"sb":[["nano-influencers",[]],["mega-influencers",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Trustworthiness is considered the antecedent to trust, which gives individuals confidence, which, in turn, can lead to attitudinal change",["Amelina, Dinna & Zhu, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["trustworthiness of the influencers on the attitude towards following the influencers",[]],["relevant asset for their activity as persuasive communicators",[]]]},{"de":[["Ein Aspekt der Decodierungsfähigkeit umfasst die Gedächtnisleistung.",[]],["Ein zweiter Aspekt der Decodierungsfähigkeit umfasst das Sprachverständnis.",[]]],"sp":[["Medienkritik",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Die Verknüpfung mit Medienbotschaften kann bis zurück auf die Pionierarbeit zur Media Literacy von Len Masterman verfolgt werden.",[]],["Anders als im deutschsprachigen Kompetenzverständnis rückt demnach neben dem Sender und dem Inhalt der jeweiligen Botschaft (‹message›) das Medium mit seiner spezifischen Codierungsweise ins Zentrum der Analyse.",[]],["während für Media Literacy die Medienbedingtheit von Kommunikation zentral ist",[]],["bestehen aus der schrittweisen Decodierung medienspezifischer Codes",[]],["für Media Literacy die Medienbedingtheit von Kommunikation zentral ist",[]]],"rt":[["Media Education",[]]]},{"de":[["Dieser versteht Medienkompetenz als Teil der kommunikativen Kompetenz (Habermas 1971).",[]]],"rt":[["kommunikative Kompetenz",[]]],"sb":[["Medienkritik",[]]],"sp":[["kommunikative Kompetenz",[]]]},{"sb":[["kritische Wahrnehmen (1)",[]],["Decodieren (2)",[]],["Analysieren (3)",[]],["Reflektieren (4)",[]],["Beurteilen (5)",[]],["Decodierungsfähigkeit",[]]],"sp":[["Medienkompetenz",["Baacke (1996)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Characterised as self-centric and egoistic individuals, shoppers with neuroticism personality trait have more affinity for the symbolic value of products rather than the utilitarian value (Sedikides et al., 2007;Lee et al., 2013).",["Sedikides et al., 2007","Lee et al., 2013"]]],"sp":[["personality traits",[]]]},{"rt":[["directional goals",[]]]},{"de":[["These negative feelings threaten to undermine norms of civility and mutual respect in political debate.",[]],["The strongly negative affective reactions that opposition partisans now inspire create a constituency for the winner-take-all political tactics discussed below and undermine the incentives for elites to engage in civil discourse and policy compromise.",[]],["While most scholars agree that affective polarization is on the rise in most developed democracies, the evidence regarding how it varies across countries is not as clear, due in part to the complexity of developing comparable measures of affective polarization that capture the same concept in different contexts.",[]]],"sy":[["negative partisanship",[]]],"rt":[["ideological polarization",[]],["polarization",[]]],"sp":[["polarization",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["boomerang effects",[]]]},{"rt":[["computational propaganda",[]],["paid trolls",[]],["trolls",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["These techniques have been adopted for the purposes of computational propaganda on social media.",[]]]},{"de":[["the internet is a fertile breeding ground for conspiracy theories",["Clarke 2007","Marwick & Lewis 2017"]]],"ex":[["anti-Semitic conspiracies about Jews plotting to take over the world",["Marwick & Lewis 2017"]],["alternative accounts of specific events such as the 9/11 attacks or the Sandy Hook school shootings",["Marwick & Lewis 2017"]]]},{"sy":[["crosscutting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["planting false or distorted stories to influence Western public opinion",["Ziegler 2017","Maréchal 2017"]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["accuracy goals",[]]]},{"de":[["Motivated reasoning can also undermine the effectiveness of corrective information, which sometimes fails to reduce misperceptions among vulnerable groups",["e.g., contrast Nyhan & Reifler 2010 and Nyhan & Reifler N.d.; see Flynn et al. 2017 for a review"]]],"sy":[["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["in the context of this report, is intended to be a broad category describing the types of information that one could encounter online that could possibly lead to misperceptions about the actual state of the world.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["online propaganda",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]],["rumors",[]],["factually incorrect information",[]],["politically slanted information",[]]],"sp":[["information problem",[]]],"ex":[["fake news",[]],["rumors",[]],["deliberately factually incorrect information",[]],["inadvertently factually incorrect information",[]],["politically slanted information",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["paid political trolls",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["normatively undesirable features of online political talk",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["lurkers",[]]]},{"de":[["This type of algorithmic manipulation can also take place within social media platforms, for example with trending topics and hashtags on Twitter and Facebook.",[]]]},{"de":[["The content they produce ranges from high-quality investigative journalism to information that is completely false and misleading, in some cases sponsored by state actors and artificially amplified by bots and other automated accounts",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information problem",[]]]},{"de":[["the concern is that it is not just disinformation itself, but also the resulting misperception of the political world caused by disinformation, that has the potential to harm democratic quality and policymaking.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Narrative messages are more effective when subjects are encouraged to empathize with the out-group members",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information problem",[]]]},{"rt":[["affective polarization",[]],["ideological polarization",[]]],"sb":[["affective polarization",[]],["ideological polarization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["users process audiovisual content based on the \"realism heuristic,\" as they assume that audiovisual content has a higher resemblance to the real world than textual and verbal content.",["Sundar (2008)"]]]},{},{"de":[["To the extent that this curated approach to removing some content serves to privilege disinformation that is not censored, it is a clear tactic for spreading disinformation.",[]]]},{"de":[["social media and other online content formats and platforms may facilitate greater selective exposure",[]]],"ex":[["greater selective exposure to attitude-consistent information about politics",[]]]},{"ex":[["Facebook",[]],["Twitter",[]],["Instagram",[]]]},{"ex":[["a tweet",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Trolls post inflammatory messages to sow discord and cause reactions",["Phillips 2015"]],["Trolls are, almost by definition, engaging in polarizing behavior as they seek to foment discord and cause emotional distress.",[]]],"rt":[["bots",[]]],"ex":[["For example, by posting racist or sexist content for the purpose of enraging liberals, trolls may feed into narratives about the rise of online hate speech in the Trump era, contributing to a climate of fear and affective polarization, and spreading divisive narratives",["Higgin 2013","Herring et al. 2002"]]]},{},{"de":[["This was true for both positive and negative emotions. This is an important mechanism because it entails messages' ability to spread beyond self-selection by social media users.",[]]]},{"de":[["not the most common mechanism by which information spreads in online networks",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{"sy":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["is numerically a much more important reason users have limited exposure to political content of opposing ideologies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The two most important distinguishing features of the new social media are low barriers to entry and reliance on user-generated content.",[]]]},{"de":[["try to manipulate the discourse through agenda setting and framing to change the tone and the topic of discussions",[]]],"ex":[["aggressive use of Twitter bots during the US 2016 presidential election campaign and the 2016 Brexit referendum",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["provides a promising approach for the analysis of online debates.",[]]],"ex":[["legal texts",[]],["Wikipedia",[]],["newspaper articles",[]],["user comments",[]],["online product reviews",[]],["social media texts",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the existence of a premise is crucial for an argument being persuasive.",["2"]]]},{},{"de":[["The worry on exposing a healthy child to the risk of adverse effects of a vaccination is understandable and is known in the behavioral sciences as omission bias.",[]]],"ex":[["immunization against measles offers probably the most impactful case study",[]]]},{"de":[["Delay and refusal of measles vaccination have become widespread due to misinformation, fake news and barriers to effective communication.",[]]]},{"de":[["Knowledge is multifaceted and complex, being both situated and abstract, implicit and explicit, distributed and individual, physical and mental, developing and static, verbal and encoded",["Blackler (1995)"]]]},{"de":[["euphemism is connected to politeness since it is a part of speech act expression which depends on cultural context.",["Al-khasawneh (2018)"]],["The euphemistic expression is different from the expression of pejorative words in the term of strategy.",[]]],"sy":[["euphemistic expression",[]]],"rt":[["pejorative words",[]],["politeness",[]],["speech act expression",[]]],"ex":[["The word 'deuce' is considered as a euphemistic expression for 'devil' is expressing surprise or annoyance by Hornby (2015).",[]]]},{"de":[["a speaker employing pejorative words tends to ignore the politeness scale between him/her and his/her addressee.",[]],["the pejorative words are the opposite expression of euphemism prioritizing politeness scale.",[]],["a speaker employing pejorative words tends to ignore the politeness scale between him/her and his/her addressee",[]],["the pejorative words are the opposite expression of euphemism prioritizing politeness scale",[]]],"rt":[["slurs",[]],["swear words",[]]],"sb":[["swear words",[]],["insults",[]],["slurs",[]]]},{"de":[["The sexist slurs present the speakers' anger or resentful.",[]]],"sp":[["Slurs",[]]],"ex":[["witch",[]],["slut",[]],["jade",[]],["woman",[]]]},{"de":[["slurs are identifiable in context as they are offensively expressive terms to targets the addressee.",["Croom (2013)"]],["Slurs can harm and degrade their targets, making them feel humiliated, dehumanized, disempowered, and silenced.",[]],["Slurs may also offend non-targets, often making them feel complicit while meeting with approval from bigots.",[]],["slurs in the utterances indicate that it comes from personal stereotype, not the natural traits of the addressees.",[]],["slurs are not polite expression",["Hedger (2012)"]],["slurs are identifiable in context as they are offensively expressive terms to targets the addressee",["Croom (2013)"]],["Slurs can harm and degrade their targets, making them feel humiliated, dehumanized, disempowered, and silenced",["Popa-Wyatt and Wyatt (2018)"]],["slurring is a kind of hate speech that has special properties",["Popa-Wyatt and Wyatt (2018)"]],["the difference of slurs and racial slurs is seen from the usage: the former tend to be explicit, while the latter is implicit.",[]]],"sy":[["derogatory epithets",[]],["pejorative words",[]],["pejorative items",[]]],"rt":[["swear words",[]],["racial slurs",[]],["sexual slurs",[]]],"sb":[["racial slurs",[]],["sexual slurs",[]],["social personality",[]],["sexist",[]],["social status",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",["Popa-Wyatt and Wyatt (2018)"]]]},{"de":[["Because of the age disparity and social status, the expression 'my little friend' is not to fit the characteristics of Jane Eyre but to highlight the status gap amongst both characters.",[]]],"ex":[["my little friend",[]]]},{"de":[["swearing is not always indicating impoliteness and derogatory, it is usually one's unplanned expression responding to the surprising event",["Jay and Janschewitz (2008)"]],["swear words as a language form influence conception",["Bowers and Pleydell-Pearce (2011)"]]],"rt":[["pejorative words",[]],["insults",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a common language is created in organizational communication, a language that can be described as the open language of the world of human meanings, evaluated by the organization's action at all levels",["Frunză & Grad, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["cómo, una vez visionado, el consumo del true crime continúa en el espacio virtual al objeto de descubrir nuevas evidencias y aportar conclusiones sobre la inocencia o culpabilidad de los acusados.",["Hernández (2019)"]]]},{"rt":[["freaks of nature",["Wiest, 2009:23"]]]},{},{"rt":[["depraved moster",["Wiest, 2009:23"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Sustentados sobre una ideología conservadora (Rowe, 2013:30) que amplifica el pánico social (Do-yle, 2006:869), el objetivo perseguido era conducir a la opinión pública hacia estados de asentimiento y aprobación de un mayor control estatal y un endurecimiento del sistema punitivo contra el criminal.",["Rowe, 2013:30","Do-yle, 2006:869"]]]},{},{"de":[["consolidación como producto de entretenimiento en las plataformas de vídeo bajo demanda (VOD)",[]],["el carácter persuasivo de sus tramas, con una base factual que trataba de imitar la autenticidad de los géneros informativos, pero con altas dosis de emotividad y un enfoque sensacionalista que lo acercaba más al entretenimiento.",[]]],"sy":[["relatos sobre sucesos violentos",[]],["a slippery genre",["2019:505"]]],"rt":[["crime realitites",[]],["realities shows sobre crímenes",[]]]},{"de":[["fascinación hacia las experiencias traumáticas",[]],["esta fascinación hacia las experiencias traumáticas",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["#meme",[]]]},{},{"de":[["conspiracy theories like QAnon",[]]]},{"rt":[["blue pill",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["online civic engagement",[]]]},{"de":[["Its actions cover all activities, including political participation, social networking, association involvement, to newspaper reading activities",["O'Connor, 2006","Putnam, 1993"]],["Namely as the involvement of citizens both individually and collectively in social life based on skills, knowledge, values, motivation, and commitment to make changes to improve the community's quality of life.",[]]],"rt":[["Civic engagement as community service",[]],["Civic engagement as collective action",[]],["Civic engagement as political involvement",[]],["Civic engagement as social change",[]]],"sb":[["Civic engagement as community service",["Adler & Goggin, 2005"]],["Civic engagement as collective action",["Adler & Goggin, 2005"]],["Civic engagement as political involvement",["Adler & Goggin, 2005"]],["Civic engagement as social change",["Adler & Goggin, 2005"]]]},{},{"sy":[["discursive practices",["Brandtzaeg et al., 2012, p. 65"]]]},{"de":[["activism on the internet includes five modes of activity; a collection of information; publication of information; dialogue; coordinating actions; and lobbying decisionmakers",["Denning, 2001"]],["In digital activism, the internet is nothing more than a means to an end or a plan. Activities can include exploring and searching for information, posting materials, creating petitions, sending publications, to coordinating activities.",[]]],"sy":[["online movement",[]]],"sb":[["a collection of information",[]],["publication of information",[]],["dialogue",[]],["coordinating actions",[]],["lobbying decisionmakers",[]]]},{"de":[["anyone who regularly uses the internet in their daily life can be categorized as a digital citizen.",[]],["The limitations set by Mossberger et al. regarding digital citizens are not limited to any one who engages in online behavior in their daily lives, both to obtain political information to fulfill their obligations as citizens and the use of technology in their work for economic purposes.",[]]]},{"de":[["New media has two main elements, namely digitization, and convergence.",[]],["McQuail (McQuail, 2010) calls new media the characteristics; interactivity, namely the interactive use of social media as indicated by the ratio of the user's response to the sender of the message; social presence (sociability), namely the existence of individual personal contact between users caused by social media; media richness, where social media can bridge different frames of reference, reduce ambiguity, provide more cues, senses, and be more personal; autonomy, which is when users feel more capable and gain higher freedom in controlling the media with its content, and use; playfulness, social media can provide a lot of entertainment and fun; privacy, which is related to the facilities that the user can use in using the media and content according to their needs; and the last is personalization which emphasizes the content of the message in communication and its use (McQuail, 2010).",["McQuail, 2010"]]],"rt":[["digitization",[]],["convergence",[]]]},{"de":[["Initial findings from research conducted by Raynes-Goldie & Walker refer to online civic engagement as a facilitator of action, not a place for action, except for online petitions or writing open letters online.",["Raynes-Goldie & Walker, 2008"]],["refer to online civic engagement as a facilitator of action, not a place for action, except for online petitions or writing open letters online.",["Raynes-Goldie & Walker","Raynes-Goldie & Walker, 2008"]],["Online civic engagement sites are facilitators of offline activities that provide access to three keys to change: information, people, and measuring tools",["Raynes-Goldie & Walker, 2008"]],["The difference between the two is the result of the engagement process in the two domains.",[]],["online civic engagement as a facilitator of action, not a place for action, except for online petitions or writing open letters online.",["Raynes-Goldie & Walker, 2008"]]],"sy":[["Online citizen engagement",[]]],"rt":[["Supportive practices",[]],["Deliberative practices",[]],["Collaborative practices",[]],["online citizen involvement",[]]],"sb":[["acquiring and processing information",["Gordon et al., 2013"]],["voicing and debating opinions and beliefs",["Gordon et al., 2013"]],["taking action",["Gordon et al., 2013"]],["acquiring and processing information, or obtaining and processing relevant information to formulate opinions on civic issues",["Gordon et al., 2013"]],["voicing and debating opinions and beliefs, voicing and debating opinions and beliefs related to civic life in the community or the public",["Gordon et al., 2013"]],["taking action, namely taking joint action and tension with social institutions such as political parties, governments, corporations, or community groups",["Gordon et al., 2013"]],["Supportive practices, namely individual participation and practice sharing online via easy-to-use social features",[]],["Deliberative practices, or discursive practices, namely the process of weighing different options through discussion in which different opinions are represented",[]],["Collaborative practices, namely when youth create new ideas or solutions in collaboration to support, promote, and discuss social problems",["Brandtzaeg et al., 2012, p. 65"]]],"sp":[["civic engagement",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Social media can facilitate two-way communication that allows organizations to personalize content and engage with communities and society.",[]],["Social media also offers various tools to connect people and a diverse range, such as social networking sites (Facebook and Twitter), photo sharing sites (Instagram and Flickr), and video sharing sites (Youtube and Vimeo)",["Alber et al., 2015, p. 2","Terry, 2009"]]],"ex":[["social networking sites (Facebook and Twitter)",[]],["photo sharing sites (Instagram and Flickr)",[]],["video sharing sites (Youtube and Vimeo)",[]]]},{"sp":[["online civic engagement",[]]]},{"sp":[["online civic engagement",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["displays users who were tweeting without mentioning one another.",[]]],"sp":[["network structure",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Dissoi logoi in classical argumentation originated as a mechanism for understanding and examining opposing sides.",[]],["In its best form, dissoi logoi allows the speaker to see and articulate an issue from someone else's perspective, but it can lead to specious arguments as well when oppositional arguments are misunderstood, weakly constructed, or incorporate their own fallacies.",["37"]],["Dissoi logoi in classical argumentation originated as a mechanism for understanding and examining opposing sides. In its best form, dissoi logoi allows the speaker to see and articulate an issue from someone else's perspective, but it can lead to specious arguments as well when oppositional arguments are misunderstood, weakly constructed, or incorporate their own fallacies.",[]]],"sy":[["construction of oppositional or contrasting arguments",["37"]]],"rt":[["appeals to science",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{"de":[["YouTube creates filter bubbles where viewers are exposed to repetitive, homogenous, and often biased content, which further reinforces biases and misconceptions.",[]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["information seeking",[]],["information encounter",[]],["news sharing",[]]]},{"rt":[["cognitive pull factors",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the desire to avoid uncertainty and negative reactions to uncertainty",["21","25"]],["It captures the inability to tolerate the uncertainty of ambiguous situations.",[]]],"rt":[["HA",[]]],"sb":[["prospective intolerance of uncertainty reflects perceptions of threat as well as implications of future uncertainty.",[]],["Inhibitory intolerance of uncertainty mirrors the desire to avoid uncertainty and behavioral symptoms of apprehension when faced with it.",[]]]},{"de":[["metacognitions are usually distinguished as positive and negative with distinct functions (initiation vs maintenance of health-related internet use)",[]]],"rt":[["self-regulation strategies",[]]],"sb":[["positive",[]],["negative",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["metacognitive beliefs",[]]],"ex":[["My thoughts are uncontrollable",["31"]]]},{},{"de":[["reflecting behaviors from the fields of compulsion and addiction",[]],["therefore reflecting behaviors from the fields of compulsion and addiction.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["truth bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["As a result, people mentally connect to those issues to a similar degree in which they have been emphasized by the gatekeeper [14].",["14"]],["agenda setting is not always a 1-way communication mechanism from the mainstream media to the public.",[]],["An agenda can be created by laypeople on social media and shape the media agenda or vice versa",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A gatekeeper builds \"network connections\" between the attributes of an issue and transfers those interconnected attributes to the public's minds (see Figure 1).",[]],["The main difference between traditional agenda setting and network agenda setting is that the former assumes an issue and its attributes are separately and discretely transferred to the public agenda, while the latter assumes they are transferred simultaneously as a bundle of networked attributes [12].",["12"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["context-related misinformation",[]],["wrong assumptions",[]],["wrong terminology",[]]],"sp":[["Health misinformation",[]],["Misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["An example of the first category (content misinformation) would be a comment suggesting herbal cures for psychiatric symptoms.",[]]]},{"rt":[["content-related misinformation",[]],["wrong assumptions",[]],["wrong terminology",[]]],"sp":[["Health misinformation",[]],["Misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["An example of the second category (context misinformation) would involve a member of an OCMH suggesting to a peer that they may be experiencing symptoms of an anxiety disorder.",[]]]},{"rt":[["procedural knowledge",[]]],"ex":[["eg, the symptoms of a panic attack",[]],["the symptoms of a panic attack",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The category of wrong assumptions is important because it pertains to misinformation that originates from the initial post by the help seeker, as opposed to misinformation that arises later in the comments.",[]]],"sp":[["Health misinformation",[]],["Misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["eg, \"antidepressants do not work for me, can you recommend a natural method?\"",[]],["antidepressants do not work for me, can you recommend a natural method?",[]]]},{"sp":[["Health misinformation",[]],["Misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Referring to depressed patients as \"lazy crazy people\" is an example.",[]],["Referring to depressed patients as \"lazy crazy people\"",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["infodemic",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["infodemic",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Infodemic had 19 of 24 definitions addressing \"information overload\"",[]],["almost all definitions mentioned the information overload concept",[]],["6 definitions restricted it to false information while 9 definitions attributed it to a mix of valid and invalid information.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["malinformation had 2 of 2 definitions with \"accurate\" and 1 definition \"used in the wrong context.\"",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["infodemic",[]]]},{"de":[["Inconstancies related to the intentionality in misinformation definitions (7 definitions mention \"unintentional,\" while 5 definitions have \"intentional\").",[]],["Seven definitions characterized misinformation as unintentional, while 5 definitions characterized it oppositely to be intentional.",[]],["Only 2 definitions of misinformation included this concept and this is problematic since expert opinion can be considered a form of evidence.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["infodemic",[]],["malinformation",[]],["inaccurate information",[]],["misleading information",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The resulting narrative chaos, which is typical of the digital realm, often leads media consumers to conclude that the truth is impossible to find.",[]]]},{"de":[["it describes how so-called information autocracies use different types of covert and overt measures to balance risks and benefits that come with tolerating some critical publics.",[]],["it describes how so-called information autocracies use different types of covert and overt measures to balance risks and benefits that come with tolerating some critical publics",[]]],"rt":[["gardening authoritarian institutions",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Users can create their own media diets and eliminate undesired information.",[]]]},{"de":[["commonly used euphemism in former Soviet states",[]]]},{"de":[["Propaganda can be compared to a filter that distorts reality. It interweaves narratives transmitted not only via the news but also through entertainment shows, films, books, and public events. As a result, people who encounter this filter become dismissive of any alternative information, which they tend to condemn as \"fake news\".",[]],["the key strategies of Soviet propaganda-to dismiss, distract, distort, and dismay",["Snegovaya, 2015"]]],"rt":[["disinformation campaigns",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["In Russia's case, this approach is based on inconsistency and eclecticism. However, it seems well suited to the very logic of the digital realm, which helps the state deliver oftencontradicting narratives to different target groups.",[]],["The digital realm gives authoritarian elites an opportunity to create a seemingly diverse field of competing narratives that ultimately contributes to the regime's stability.",[]],["The multi-channel dissemination of information supports message delivery on demand. Flooding these channels with large volumes of information allows consumers to choose their own narrative, whether consciously or not.",[]],["offers sets of chameleonlike narratives for appropriation by different social milieus",[]]],"ex":[["Propaganda on demand offers them comforting perspectives and helps them find arguments with which they can ignore alternative information as fake news.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["opinion leaders",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["El newsmaking se constituye en una mirada abierta, no reduccionista y crítica que permite el diálogo con otros enfoques que consideran de relevancia el ecosistema en el que operan los medios en tanto que son actores políticos.",[]],["Para esta mirada, no se trata de que periodistas sagaces, con olfato o dotados de astucia encuentren la noticia. O sí, como ocurre en algunos casos, pero sugiere que los periodistas, más que \"cazadores\" de noticias, son constructores, y las rutinas productivas son factores relevantes en esa construcción",[]],["los periodistas, más que \"cazadores\" de noticias, son constructores, y las rutinas productivas son factores relevantes en esa construcción",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Cuando se habla de rutinas, éstas no se refieren sólo a las normas establecidas en el medio (manual de estilo), sino a procesos organizacionales, no rígidos, que se ejecutan en las redacciones ante un evento, y que pueden modificarse si hay un acontecimiento de último momento (breaking news).",[]],["permiten analizar las noticias como un producto social y organizacional en las diferentes fases de producción (recolección de la información, selección y edición).",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Deepfakes rely on neural networks that analyze large sets of data samples to learn to mimic a person's facial expressions, mannerisms, voice, and inflections",["CBS02","PCM10"]],["The process involves feeding footage of two people into a deep learning algorithm to train it to swap faces",["PCM01"]],["deepfakes use facial mapping technology and AI that swaps the face of a person on a video into the face of another person",["FOX09","PCM03"]],["Deepfakes are difficult to detect, as they use real footage, can have authentic-sounding audio, and are optimized to spread on social media quickly",["FRB05","WP01"]],["Deepfakes are created using AI, that is, Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) that pit discriminative and generative algorithms against one another to fine-tune performance with every repetition, and thereby produce a convincing fake",[]],["Deepfakes are created using AI, that is, Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) that pit discriminative and generative algorithms against one another to fine-tune performance with every repetition, and thereby produce a convincing fake (Fletcher, 2018;Spivak, 2019).",[]],["efficient tool for disinformation.",[]],["deepfakes are a major threat to society, the political system and businesses because they put pressure on journalists struggling to filter real from fake news, threaten national security by disseminating propaganda that interferes in elections, hamper citizen trust toward information by authorities, and raise cybersecurity issues for people and organizations.",[]],["Deepfakes are the product of artificial intelligence (AI) applications that merge, combine, replace, and superimpose images and video clips to create fake videos that appear authentic",["Maras & Alexandrou, 2018"]]],"rt":[["Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs)",[]],["disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["AI",[]]],"ex":[["a humorous, pornographic, or political video of a person saying anything",["Day, 2018","Fletcher, 2018"]],["revenge porn, bullying, fake video evidence in courts, political sabotage, terrorist propaganda, blackmail, market manipulation, and fake news",["Maras & Alexandrou, 2019"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["reality apathy",["CNN01","GRD07"]]]},{"de":[["thereby resulting in a phenomenon termed as \"information apocalypse\" or \"reality apathy\"",["CNN01","GRD07"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["information apocalypse",["CNN01","GRD07"]]]},{},{"de":[["Citizenship Education not only teaches about one's submission to the government, but also about how to be tolerant citizens, help each other, be independent, and prepare young people to be good citizens",["Wahyuningsih et al., 2020"]],["From this statement, it can be concluded that Citizenship Education focuses on formation of the character of citizens, especially students, to develop values and morals in everyday life.",[]]],"rt":[["knowledge of citizenship (civic knowledge)",[]],["citizenship skills (civic skills)",[]],["citizenship character (civic dispositions)",[]]]},{"sy":[["online bullying",[]]],"ex":[["An example of this activity is words that contain physical elements used by internet users to bully people they want to bully.",[]]]},{"de":[["This can often be seen on social media because many do this action on social media",["Imani et al., 2021"]],["This behavior has a very bad impact on mental health victim. In some cases, the victims lost their lives because they were not strong enough mentally to read the bullying comments",["Meinarni, 2019"]]],"sy":[["online bullying",[]]],"ex":[["words that contain physical elements used by internet users to bully people they want to bully",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Has an important role in guiding behavior individuals and groups in the use of digital technology and online interactions digital ethics also involves responsibility in using technology to disseminate information accurate, avoid dissemination of harmful content, and maintain quality online communication and interaction.",[]],["Besides it involves awareness of the social and environmental impacts caused by the use of digital technology in making decisions and conducting online activities, it is important to consider the long-term consequences on society and continuity. This involves awareness of the use of digital resources responsibility, protection of cultural diversity, and efforts to reduce digital carbon footprint.",[]],["Through digital ethics, there are several internal application concepts dealing with cyberspace, such as the freedom of communicants and communicators to receive and disseminating information through digital media must be accompanied by a sense of responsibility.",[]],["maintaining privacy and security, in digital ethics emphasizes the importance of protecting the privacy and security of user data.",[]],["Digital ethics requires respect for privacy and protection of individual data, including avoiding invasion of privacy and unauthorized use of data.",[]],["Digital ethics covers concept netiquette (internet ethics) and the ability of individuals to realize, adopt, adapting, considering, and developing deep digital ethical principles everyday life.",[]],["Digital ethics also regulates all forms of digital activities that are carried out by humans, and promotes awareness, responsibility, integrity, and respect towards good values in the use of digital media.",[]],["Digital ethics can also help prevent the spread of hate speech based on Ethnicity, Religion, Race, and Intergroup (SARA) on social media, avoid acts of bullying (bullying), use of information harming oneself and others, as well as violations of the law.",[]]],"rt":[["netiquette",[]],["internet ethics",[]],["digital literacy",[]],["netiquette (internet ethics)",[]],["digital competence",[]]]},{},{"de":[["every people must comply with applicable restrictions and be responsible for speech be delivered.",[]]]},{"de":[["encourage individuals to consider the moral impact before taking actions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["feature which describes customer satisfaction",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["What is acceptable and plausible is always coconstructed by subjects engaging in verbal interaction.",[]]]},{"de":[["The theory of argumentation in discourse is thus neither prescriptive (as in some classical views on rhetoric) nor evaluative (as in most theories of argumentation, looking for the logical validity of arguments).",[]],["Moreover, it deals with case studies analyzed in their specific cultural settings rather than with de-contextualized examples aiming at defining universal rules",[]],["Argumentation in discourse theory, on the contrary, sets up to explore discourse as logos: as a way of influencing the other so that an agreement on the reasonable can be looked for, or a dissent managed by verbal means.",[]],["Analysis of discourse is thus included in argumentation theory; reciprocally, analysis of logos, with its schemes of reasoning, is included in linguistic investigation.",[]],["it promotes a conception of the speaking subject quite different from those developed by argumentation theories and traditional rhetoric.",[]]],"rt":[["rhetorical argumentation",[]],["argumentation in language",[]],["argumentation theory",[]],["rhetorical criticism",[]],["discourse analysis",[]],["informal logic",[]]]},{"de":[["argumentativity is inherent to the structure of language (\"la langue\" in Saussure's sense) in its pragma-semantic level.",[]]],"sy":[["linguistic argumentation",[]]]},{"rt":[["argumentation in discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["orient ways of looking at things and interpreting the world without putting forward any thesis, like in ordinary conversation or in an information article.",[]]]},{"de":[["It always answers some explicit or hidden question, or at least suggests a way of looking at the surrounding world.",[]]]},{"sy":[["script",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["To put it in enthymematic form: extra-benefits are distributed when an enterprise is thriving thanks to good financial management (implicit major premise), the bank has suffered severe losses as a result of hazardous speculation (alluded to by the qualification of the SG as the bank of Kerviel and stock-options), thus stockoptions should not be distributed in this bank (implicit conclusion).",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["echoing the word of the Other and dissolving the free, intentional subject supposed to be fully mastering his meanings",[]]]},{"rt":[["rhetorical argumentation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The way the speaker draws on the arguments' reservoir and loosely uses familiar clusters of arguments allows him to accommodate his own purposes.",[]]]},{"de":[["stresses the central importance of ethos and pathos.",[]],["emphasizing the intrinsic inter-relation between text and context, the importance of the partners engaged in the exchange, the crucial role of ethos and doxa, the practice of close-reading, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["ethos",[]],["pathos",[]],["doxa",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["in the terminology of Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca",[]]],"ex":[["what outrages the US (which is the more) necessarily outrages France (which is the less).",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["different from sophisms, which are argumentative tactics used to deceive an audience, from paralogisms, which are errors of reasoning (Walton 2013, p. 216), and also from simply bad arguments that are put forward sincerely.",[]],["The argumentative bullshitter, on the other hand, does not care about the supporting relation.",[]],["The kind of argumentative bullshit that I find most interesting has to do with the supporting relation between a reason and a claim.",[]],["some arguments are so grossly deficient precisely because the arguer does not care about the relationship between the reasons and the claim.",[]],["Bullshit arguments are not real arguments; they are vaguely related claims whose point is rather to make a humorous pun, to appeal to religious or political sentiments, to portray oneself in a good light, or to denigrate the interlocutor, among many other possible purposes.",[]],["A lack of concern for the supporting relation is what characterises argumentative bullshit.",[]],["The warrant that would be necessary to support the purported argument is a belief that would be very implausible to attribute to the arguer-or the arguer explicitly refuses to commit herself to it.",[]],["When critically questioned about the supporting relation between reasons and claim, the arguer refuses to discuss it.",[]],["Counterexamples or, in general, evidence contrary to the supporting relation are disregarded outright by the speaker.",[]],["The purported argument is manifestly incoherent with other arguments presented by the same arguer.",[]],["even though the arguer has produced something in the form of a reason, they do not seem committed to the belief that such a reason supports such a claim-either the arguer expressly refuses that commitment, or it is not plausible to attribute it to them",[]],["argumentative bullshit could be the production of reasons for a claim without regard to whether the reasons given really support that claim.",[]],["the arguer has produced something in the form of a reason, they do not seem committed to the belief that such a reason supports such a claim-either the arguer expressly refuses that commitment, or it is not plausible to attribute it to them.",[]]],"sy":[["Bullshit arguments",[]]],"rt":[["bullshit",[]],["sophisms",[]],["paralogisms",[]],["bad arguments",[]]],"sp":[["bullshit",[]]],"ex":[["the anti-maskers",[]],["The fact that genitals need to breathe is a good reason not to wear underwear. The upper airways are similar to the genitals in this respect. Therefore, there is a good reason not to wear a mask.",[]],["I was elected to represent the citizens of Pittsburgh, not Paris.",[]],["Bullshit arguments are not real arguments; they are vaguely related claims whose point is rather to make a humorous pun, to appeal to religious or political sentiments, to portray oneself in a good light, or to denigrate the interlocutor, among many other possible purposes.",[]]]},{"de":[["Assertions, then, are a type of speech act that is inherently connected to truth, even if they can be used for a variety of purposes.",[]]]},{"rt":[["argumentative bullshit",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the bullshitter is unconcerned about whether the assertions they are making are true or false.",[]],["the bullshitter is unconcerned about whether the assertions they are making are true or false",[]],["what the bullshitter fakes is their attitude towards reality",[]],["the essence of bullshit is not that it is false but that it is phony",["2005, p. 47"]],["He does not reject the authority of the truth, as the liar does, and oppose himself to it. He pays no attention to it at all.",["2005, pp. 60-61"]],["a continuous flow of factual claims in our societies whose purpose is alignment with a political party or movement, moral grandstanding (Tosi and Warmke 2016), or practical interests-anything but truth.",["Tosi and Warmke 2016"]],["Bullshitters' lack of concern for the truth of the propositional content of their assertions results, as I argued, in their refusal to commit themselves to them.",[]],["The problem with bullshit, therefore, lies in the speaker's refusal to honour their commitments. It is a lack of seriousness rather than a lack of sincerity.",[]],["lack of connection to a concern with truth.",[]],["the bullshitter is not interested in covering up some truth. Rather, what the bullshitter fakes is their attitude towards reality.",[]],["this view would also allow us to characterise as bullshit not only assertions but also other types of speech acts. Bullshit promises can be promises in which the speaker does not regard themselves as committed to perform the action in question-even if they intend to do it and therefore fulfil the sincerity condition. Bullshit orders can be orders in which the speaker does not expect the listener to perform the action in question-even if they want the listener to do it.",[]]],"rt":[["lies",[]],["sophisms",[]],["paralogisms",[]],["unclarifiable unclarity",[]]],"sb":[["performative bullshit",[]],["argumentative bullshit",[]]],"ex":[["the example of the elevator",[]],["when people get presents that they do not like and must show gratitude",[]],["when people have to apologise for an action that they do not regret doing",[]],["The question of whether the assertion is true or false is met with perplexity.",[]],["When asked for evidence for the assertion, the speaker refuses to provide it.",[]],["Evidence contrary to the asserted fact is disregarded outright by the speaker.",[]],["The assertion is so unclear or vague that its propositional content cannot be determined.",[]],["The assertion plays no role in the speaker's actual practical reasoning.",[]],["The assertion is manifestly incoherent with other assertions of the speaker or with her behaviour.",[]],["the essence of bullshit is not that it is false but that it is phony",[]]]},{"de":[["they will not stand by their assertions, will not respond to challenges made to their assertions, and will not even attempt to provide evidence.",[]],["It is a lack of seriousness rather than a lack of sincerity.",[]]]},{"rt":[["bullshit",[]]]},{"rt":[["argumentative bullshit",[]]]},{"sp":[["bullshit",[]]],"ex":[["performative bullshit directs that an argument be taken as a good argument by virtue of having been offered as a good argument",["p. 94"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["argumentative bullshit",[]]]},{"de":[["This phenomenon prompts researchers to delve into both its technological intricacies and its broader societal implications.",[]],["Since its inception, AI-driven journalism has been marked as a field of contradictions.",[]]],"rt":[["artificial journalism",[]]],"sp":[["artificial journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["Algorithms have the capacity to provide audiences with information that aligns with their preferences rather than objective reality.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["artificial communication is based on three criteria. First, it is based on various forms of automation, then designed for the central purpose of communication, and embedded within digital infrastructures, and entangled with human practices",["Hepp et al., 2023, p. 50","Hepp et al., 2023"]]]},{"de":[["The term could serve as an umbrella term for all the AI-driven journalism activities.",[]],["Also it removes contradictions not only in human-machine communication but clarify the essence of AI performance in journalism and media studies, and for the users.",[]],["It involves using AI technologies to support or augment journalistic processes, such as news gathering, content generation, and distribution.",[]],["Artificial journalism at the basic technological level is based on various forms of automation and embedded within digital infrastructures; at the societal level it is designed for the central purpose of journalism and entangled with human practices.",[]],["Artificial journalism, seen as a digital techno-human phenomenon and process of AI-driven media communication, extends beyond mere content generation to encompass the broader landscape of media processing.",[]],["it is more wide and complex then all the previous ones and could serve as an umbrella term for all the AI-driven journalism activities.",[]]],"rt":[["artificial communication",[]],["AI-driven journalism",[]]],"sp":[["artificial communication",[]]]},{"de":[["This phenomenon, often referred to as automated media (Andrejevic, 2019), automated, algorithmic, or robot journalism, first of all involves the algorithmic generation of journalistic content (Graefe, Bohlken, 2020).",["Andrejevic, 2019","Graefe, Bohlken, 2020"]],["It's noteworthy to distinguish between these terms: \"automated\" pertains to the mode of processing, while \"algorithmic\" and \"robot\" are more subject-oriented.",[]]],"sy":[["automated journalism",[]],["robot journalism",[]],["automated",[]]]},{"de":[["replacing the vague term \"artificial intelligence\" with \"communicative AI\" as a sensitizing concept that fosters human-centered communicative constructs, in AI-driven \"artificial\" journalism in particular.",[]]]},{"de":[["covers individuals with a range of skin tones, from medium to dark brown",["Latimore, 2021"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The core objective of CDA is to thoroughly analyze the relationship between communication and power dynamics, with a specific emphasis on how communication serves as both a means and a result of social power systems",["2015"]],["CDA's fundamental objective is to uncover and critique the covert power structures and ideological frameworks that permeate discourse",["van Dijk, 2023"]],["It advocates for marginalized groups by interrogating and challenging the entrenched narratives that support and propagate societal dominance and inequality",["Van Dijk, 2008"]],["Moving beyond conventional linguistic investigation, CDA explores the intricate relationships among text, its contextual environment, and the cognitive processes of social actors, thereby recognizing discourse as an integral component of social interaction that goes beyond mere exchange of information",["Qowim & Degaf, 2024"]],["It advocates for marginalized groups by interrogating and challenging the entrenched narratives that support and propagate societal dominance and inequality (Van Dijk, 2008).",[]]],"rt":[["semiotics",[]],["literary studies",[]],["communication studies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This commitment extends to advocating for women's rights, minority rights, and the rights of black individuals.",[]]]},{"de":[["playing a critical role in guiding the cognitive processing and comprehension of discourse",["van Dijk, 2008"]],["The macrostructure accentuates the emotional resonance of the event, particularly highlighting its impact on Walker's family and friends and framing his death within the broader context of police interactions.",[]]],"rt":[["Microstructure",[]],["Superstructure",[]]]},{"de":[["exploring the nuanced meanings and implications carried by words, phrases, and syntactic structures",["Kafi & Degaf, 2021;Zulhamsyah & Degaf, 2022"]],["In the microstructural analysis of The Washington Post's article \"After a Black man is killed by police, a city cancels its July Fourth celebration,\" the use of language is meticulously crafted to amplify the emotional impact of Jayland Walker's death and to emphasize the broader societal implications.",[]]],"rt":[["Macrostructure",[]],["Superstructure",[]]]},{"de":[["report of the latest facts or ideas, selectively crafted by a media outlet's editorial team not merely to inform but to captivate the audience with humor, emotional resonance, and deep insights into the developmental contours of the event",["2005","Zahro et al., 2021"]],["rapid conduit for the dissemination of facts or viewpoints, intentionally designed to captivate and resonate with a varied audience, highlighting news as a meticulously curated presentation of relevant and substantial information to the public.",[]]]},{"de":[["derived from Spanish",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["directing the reader's interpretation and perception of the information presented",["van Dijk, 2000"]]],"rt":[["Macrostructure",[]],["Microstructure",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["la criminalización de la protesta se reconoce como un proceso multidimensional, pero en el cual la judicialización se configura como el elemento articulador de una estrategia estatal de control de la protesta social.",[]]],"sy":[["judicialización",[]]]},{"de":[["la mayoría coincide en relacionar la criminalización con el uso del derecho penal contra organizaciones y movimientos sociales.",[]],["El proceso incluye también la formulación de nueva legislación o la reformulación de la vigente con el fin de crear nuevos tipos penales, que, explícita o implícitamente, encajen conductas típicamente relacionadas con la protesta social.",[]],["la criminalización se inscribe en una estrategia más general de control de las protestas sociales, y en que los Estados recurren a diferentes mecanismos para dicho fin.",[]],["la criminalización es un proceso complejo que combina lo político, lo jurídico y lo mediático, con el fin de hacer de la protesta un delito",[]],["la criminalización es un fenómeno multidimensional, que articula una dimensión política -i.e. represión-, una jurídica y una mediática.",[]],["es un fenómeno multidimensional, que articula una dimensión política -i.e. represión-, una jurídica y una mediática.",[]]],"sy":[["judicialización",[]]],"rt":[["represión",[]],["judicialización de la protesta",[]],["judicialización",[]]],"sb":[["represión",[]],["judicialización de la protesta",[]]]},{"de":[["es decir, no se ciñe de la misma manera ni con la misma intensidad contra todos los actores sociales ni en todos los momentos de la protesta.",[]]],"rt":[["represión",[]],["judicialización",[]]]},{"ex":[["los medios tendieron a darles una cobertura \"condenatoria\" a los cortes de ruta y a las personas que participaban en ellos, construyendo un conjunto de representaciones que incluían una identificación de las protestas con la militancia de izquierda, la violencia, el crimen y el delito.",[]]]},{"de":[["Se trata, como señalan diferentes autores en sus definiciones, de judicializar lo político o de politizar lo judicial, mediante el traslado de los conflictos sociales de la arena política a la arena judicial",["Toledo 2007","Palau y Corvalán 2008","Palau 2009"]],["la judicialización se configura como el elemento articulador de una estrategia estatal de control de la protesta social.",[]]],"sy":[["criminalización",[]]],"rt":[["represión",[]],["criminalización",[]]],"sp":[["criminalización",[]]]},{"de":[["resaltar las nuevas funciones que desempeña la institucionalidad judicial en el manejo de la protesta social en la actualidad",[]],["el uso de los instrumentos legales como un mecanismo de control de la protesta.",[]],["judicializar lo político o de politizar lo judicial, mediante el traslado de los conflictos sociales de la arena política a la arena judicial",["Toledo 2007","Palau y Corvalán 2008","Palau 2009"]]],"rt":[["represión",[]],["criminalización de la protesta",[]]]},{},{"de":[["la represión no debe limitarse a sus manifestaciones de violencia corporal, sino que otras formas de violencia (no-corporal, simbólica), se integran en este fenómeno.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["people will do what the crowd is doing even if left to themselves they would have done something else",[]]],"rt":[["excess volatility",[]]]},{"de":[["joining the herd is optimal for the current agent given the play of the game, it reduces the chance that future agents may discover the truth.",[]]],"rt":[["negative externality",[]],["inefficiency",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["joining the herd is optimal for the current agent given the play of the game, it reduces the chance that future agents may discover the truth.",[]]]},{"de":[["a concept deeply allied with MLE and one that is beginning to replace older conceptualization of Internet safety (with its simplistic focus on predators and bullying)",[]]],"rt":[["Internet safety",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Developed initially in the 20th century from work by education scholars like Lev Vygotsky and Paolo Freire",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["integrating theoretical and critical frameworks rising from constructivist learning theory, media studies and cultural studies scholarship",[]],["educational practice that holds the possibility of transforming teaching and learning",[]],["media literacy education is not a political movement, but an educational discipline",[]],["MLE is not about media-bashing (i.e., simplistic, rhetorical or over generalized attacks on some types of media or media industries as a whole)",["2"]],["MLE \"is about teaching them how they can arrive at informed choices that are most consistent with their own values\"",["4"]],["MLE does not start from the premise that media are inconsequential nor that media are a problem\" and \"does not substitute for media meeting their responsibility to serve the public interest\"",["3"]],["MLE does not excuse media makers from the responsibility as members of the community to make a positive contribution and avoid doing harm",["3"]],["MLE \"is not focused on changing media, rather on changing educational practice and increasing students' knowledge and skills.\"",["4"]],["MLE does not start from the premise that media are inconsequential nor that media are a problem",["3"]]],"sy":[["MLE",[]]],"rt":[["digital citizenship",[]],["literacy education",[]],["constructivist learning theory",[]]],"sp":[["literacy education",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Media literacy, however, cannot be treated as a panacea.",[]],["Media literacy is just one frame in a complex media and information environment.",[]],["Contemporary media literacy tends to organize around five themes: youth participation, teacher training and curricular resources, parental support, policy initiatives, and evidence base construction.",[]],["While media literacy as a field covers media messages broadly, in fiction, advertising, film, etc., this paper focuses primarily on media literacy approaches to news consumption and evaluation.",[]],["focus on the interpretive responsibilities of the individual.",[]],["Most media literacy scholars advocate a rich vision for media literacy that includes communal sense-making and empowers people to think critically and engage meaningfully, ideally contributing positively to their communities (Hobbs, 2013) and engaging in meaningful behavioral change (Hobbs and McGee, 2014;Buckingham, 2017).",[]],["media literacy curricula are often targeted toward children and youth, but media literacy for adults is equally important as impacts of the \"diminishing degrees of institutional support\" become evident across demographics.",[]],["Raising awareness of media messages, how to create them, or critically engage them",[]],["a fluid practice that is both individual and communal and not simply inoculation against negative messaging but empowerment to engage with media as citizens (Hobbs, 1998;Hobbs, 2010;Hobbs, 2017).",["Hobbs, 1998","Hobbs, 2010","Hobbs, 2017"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["rank propaganda",[]],["media manipulation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["youth participation",[]],["teacher training and curricular resources",[]],["parental support",[]],["policy initiatives",[]],["evidence base construction",[]]],"ex":[["discern accuracy",[]],["evaluate bias",[]],["engage with information productively",[]],["be an informed voter",[]]]},{"de":[["a flexible response for both teachers and students following current events",[]],["a method of linking critical thinking and behavior change for youth",[]],["a foundation for accurately digesting partisan content",[]],["media literacy education a stronger indication than political knowledge for those who could adopt a critical stance when evaluating messaging, regardless of whether they agree or disagree with the position",[]]]},{},{"de":[["expanding their definition of literacy to incorporate various forms of mass communication, popular culture, and new technologies in order to critically examine the relationship between media messages, audiences and ideologies",[]],["media education interventions that address the injustices of gender, race and other inequalities and also challenge these inequities as they are depicted in media",[]],["To expand upon these tenets and employ a critical media literacy framework is to foster an understanding of media with an awareness of the social, political, and economic contexts in which such texts are produced and disseminated.",[]],["media education interventions that address the injustices of gender, race and other inequalities and also challenge these inequities as they are depicted in media are essential in today's multicultural society.",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["media education should aim to empower students to become critical and autonomous thinkers.",["Masterman (2001)"]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["making the ability to \"read\" and understand a range of mediated formats an essential skill to successfully navigate today's culture",["Center for Media Literacy 2016"]],["Media literacy can ideally serve to deepen students' understanding of media content as well as contextualize the social, economic and historical conditions in which media messages are created and circulated",["Hobbs 2011"]],["most media education frameworks focus on the enhancement of critical thinking skills within their desired objectives and encourage active engagement by audiences with the media content they encounter",[]],["media literacy encourages greater awareness of the overall media landscape and the necessary skills to advocate for systemic change",[]],["all media are constructed and construct perceptions of reality, media have commercial as well as ideological and political implications, form and content are intertwined within each medium, each of which has a particular aesthetic and accepted conventions, and that audiences negotiate meaning from media messages",[]],["assessment of the overall effectiveness of media literacy curricula are essential within the implementation of media literacy programs",[]],["the overall assessment of media literacy remains an arena that can benefit from additional consideration.",[]],["media literacy interventions across a variety of topics can be an effective in reducing the impact of media messages.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy skills",[]],["media education",[]]],"sb":[["protectionist approach to media literacy",[]],["Critical media literacy",[]],["media skepticism",["Irving and Berel 2001"]]]},{"de":[["an essential skill to successfully navigate today's culture",["Center for Media Literacy 2016"]]],"sy":[["media literacy",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["the actual news may contradict the headline or image",[]]],"sp":[["misleading news",[]]],"ex":[["terms such as \"shocking\" or \"looming\", provocative images",[]]]},{"sp":[["misleading news",[]]],"ex":[["Kennedy assassination or Twin Towers conspiracies",[]]]},{"de":[["News may be faked by lies, doctored content (e.g., photo editing, misleading statistics), content that is misleading or taken out of context, counterfeit sources, and false attributions.",[]],["Fake news is considered to be one type of misinformation and may be created for several reasons: to mislead, for fun, out of passion or strong belief, to gain power or influence, or to get richer.",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Stories of exotic travels have been fabricated for centuries.",[]],["drinking blood and murdering children",["Soll, 2016"]],["Fake news has been the catalyst for political manipulation, the rise in diseases because of the anti-vaccination movement, and killings as witnessed in South Sudan",["Berman, 2017","Gyenes & Mina, 2018","Lynch, 2018"]]]},{"sb":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Mass media often incorporates images, sounds, and actions.",[]]],"ex":[["periodicals",[]],["broadcasts",[]],["film",[]],["video",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the United States, media literacy generally focuses on the idea of mass media its purposeful means and production ends.",[]]],"rt":[["information literacy",[]]],"sb":[["news literacy",[]]],"sp":[["information literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["It may be considered a subset of media literacy.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["misleading news",[]]]},{"de":[["Systematic information campaigns, such as propaganda, may be used by governments to mislead and manipulate people's knowledge, attitudes, or values",[]]],"ex":[["\"Buy war bonds,\" \"Stop smoking\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["misleading news",[]]],"ex":[["snake oil or climate change denial",[]]]},{"sp":[["misleading news",[]]],"ex":[["The Daily Show, Mad Magazine",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It can be argued that critical media literacy places media consumers in a more distant position that is largely inquisitive and skeptical.",[]],["This critical position should enable the learner to question textual meaning, spurring him or her to examine the creator's identity, motivations, and intentions.",[]],["Critical media literacy comprises \"an education for life\"",["Masterman, 2010, para 1"]],["Critical media literacy education steers youth towards informed targeted media usage, recognizing media as an indispensable source of social (Luke, 1999) and academic learning (Grigoryan, & King, 2008), health support (Higgins, & Begoray, 2012) and prosperity.",["Luke, 1999","Grigoryan, & King, 2008","Higgins, & Begoray, 2012"]],["Critical media literacy also requires validating messages' factuality, asking questions about authors' biases, and consequences (personal and collective, emotional and cognitive) for consumers.",[]],["Being critical does not only separate the user from the text, industry, and sender but also detaches the reader from herself and requires her to step aside and think of her choice, interest, motivation, investment, and benefit in light of her personal growth (Potter, 2010).",["Potter, 2010"]],["Critical media literacy includes the understanding of hegemony, the location of the message sender/composer within existing hierarchies, and the sender's political and social agenda.",[]],["The role of the learner requires that critical media literacy be taught in an interactive and engaging manner, preferably utilizing participatory approaches and collaborative projects",["Kellner & Share, 2005"]],["It entails treating learners as active interpreters of media texts with the critical ability to think of alternative, oppositional, or resisting interpretations of media messages.",[]],["This includes dissociating themselves from the message and relating the message to its creators and considering their potential biases that are socially and culturally contextualized.",[]],["Critical media literacy is built on a great deal of self and social awareness necessary to advance the individual's \"critical autonomy\" of the learner",["Masterman, 1985;Kellner & Share, 2005"]],["This awareness is cultivated using an emancipatory and open approach to media as a source of opportunities and risks and as a means of learning through active engagement and guided discussions.",[]],["These discussions should extend beyond value judgement to include raising questions and inciting inquiry that would uncover and deconstruct the political and social underpinnings of these messages, platforms, networks, and technologies.",[]],["gives individuals power over their culture and thus enables people to create their meanings and identities and to shape and transform the material and social conditions of their culture and society",["Kellner & Share, 2005, p. 381"]],["teaching critical media literacy has more potential when it is localized, participatory, and engaging.",[]],["The promotion of, adoption of, and investment in critical media literacy can enable youth in the region to further their learning and engagement, maximize their personal and societal gains, and resist extreme ideologies.",[]],["This type of critical media literacy requires the introduction of curricula suitable for adolescents and university students in MENA that aims at cultivating a new set of skills beyond the typical reading, writing, accessing, interpreting, and producing media content.",[]],["It entails treating learners as active interpreters of media texts with the critical ability to think of alternative, oppositional, or resisting interpretations of media messages. This includes dissociating themselves from the message and relating the message to its creators and considering their potential biases that are socially and culturally contextualized.",[]]],"rt":[["informed targeted media usage",[]],["media literacy education",[]],["media literacy",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["This critical position requires an awareness of the production processes of media messages and the subjectivity of both the message's author and receiver.",[]]],"rt":[["critical media literacy",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["media fluency",[]],["critical civic and democratic engagement",[]],["information appropriation, utilization and reproduction",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["counter story-telling",[]]]},{"de":[["critical media education, emphasizing both critical consumption and media production",[]],["Critical media education strategies add additional layers to these heuristics, helping students to reflect on how the story is told, who is impacted by how the story is being told, and the ways in which headlines, images, and elements of the story and the narratives it contains or perpetuates, may do harm to historically marginalized or minoritized groups in society.",[]],["Critical media education may be viewed as the marriage between media studies (e.g., Hall, 2006;Masterman, 2003) and the work of critical pedagogy (Funk et al., 2016).",[]],["Engaging in critical media education practices with representation and race at the forefront, is key for all students to begin to recognize and challenge the injustices perpetrated by mass media and social media alike.",[]],["essential for supporting youth in understanding the ways media shapes and is shaped by their lives.",[]]],"rt":[["media studies",[]],["critical pedagogy",[]]]},{"de":[["This added layer of awareness, analysis, and critical reflection provided by critical media literacy frameworks, is key to understanding underlying issues of power and information historically and their impacts today.",[]]],"rt":[["media information literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This form of critical pedagogy works to challenge the media injustices outlined in our framework above, and works toward critical media education that focuses \"on ideology critique and analyzing the politics of representation of crucial dimensions of gender, race, class, and sexuality\" (Kellner & Share, 2007, p. 8) and allows for media production to take action and critique these ideologies.",["Kellner & Share, 2007, p. 8"]],["Hip hop pedagogy fosters critical analysis of news coverage on key issues of justice as well as a space for producing media that counters historic issues of representation in mainstream news and informs marginalized communities.",[]],["In particular, we see the creation of rap music as a form of media production and counter-storytelling, as a way to develop sociopolitical consciousness in students and challenge the media injustices outlined in our framework",[]],["Unlike traditional legacy media sources, the target audience for hip hop is not white middle class people, but is for marginalized communities.",[]]],"rt":[["critical pedagogy",[]],["counter narrative storytelling",[]]],"sp":[["critical pedagogy",[]]]},{"de":[["focused on issues related to racial stereotypes, the effects of colonialism and the perpetuation or reproduction of oppressive effects on marginalized groups in societies across the globe.",[]]],"ex":[["portraying Black men as violent, hypersexualized criminals",["Bogle, 2001","Noble, 2018"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["provides a medium for analyzing and critiquing news media representations and media injustices.",[]],["Rap music, as counter storytelling, is a way to develop sociopolitical consciousness in students, and provides space for discussing topics of social justice and community reform (Akom, 2009).",["Akom, 2009"]]],"rt":[["counter-storytelling",[]]],"sp":[["critical media education pedagogy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Exposure Skills",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Production Skills",[]]]},{"sp":[["Production Skills",[]]]},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Knowledge about media industries",[]]]},{"sp":[["Knowledge about media industries",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Knowledge about media industries",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["decoding",[]]]},{"de":[["This skill is often referred to as decoding.",[]]],"sy":[["decoding",[]]],"rt":[["decoding",[]]],"sp":[["Information Processing Skills",[]]],"ex":[["words",[]],["images",[]],["sounds",[]],["motion",[]]]},{"de":[["Most scholars agree that, at its core, media literacy depends on both knowledge and skills. In particular, individuals need to acquire knowledge about key facets of the mass media phenomenon, such as media industries, media messages, media audiences, or media effects",["p. 14"]],["people needed to employ skills in order to use this knowledge both to protect themselves from potentially negative effects as well as to empower them to use the mass media more self-consciously and make choices that can improve their lives in many ways.",["p. 14"]],["The headings display the 20 configurations of elements that authors attributed to the definition of media literacy that was developed by the 1992 National Leadership Conference on Media Literacy.",[]],["make people more aware of their world",[]],["improve the flow of accurate information that results in a well-informed citizenry that is required for the successful working of a democracy",[]],["increases activism that results in improving many areas of society",[]],["helps to improve interactions among people in society",[]],["multi-dimensional",[]],["should apply to all media",[]],["needs to be developed",[]],["a particular skill or a combination of particular skills",[]],["a set of knowledge",[]],["the alteration of beliefs and/or behaviors",[]],["a combination of protectionism and empowerment",[]],["almost all of the articles that provided a definition for media literacy said something about the need for skills",[]],["Media literacy is not a primitive term, because there is no evidence for a commonly shared meaning.",[]],["media literacy has the power to help us improve a wide range of other skills and abilities; it can also protect us from false messages in the media, create positive habits from scratch, and transform risky behaviors into positive actions; it can alter faulty beliefs (about self, identity, health, community, religion, and media bias) while protecting our existing beliefs that are not faulty in some way; and it can increase our degree of engagement with the media, other people, institutions, and society at large.",[]],["Other authors regarded the tool as being a set of knowledge.",[]],["Others regarded it as the alteration of beliefs and/or behaviors.",[]],["And many other authors argued that media literacy is a particular combination of many of these things.",[]],["Some authors talked about the need for exposure skills (how to search for messages, how to make good selections among all the available choices, and how to get access to particular messages)",[]],["others specified some kind of information processing skill (how to read messages in more depth, how to evaluate messages on all sorts of standards, how to construct one's own meaning)",[]],["others argued for the importance of production skills (technical abilities, conceptual abilities, and creative abilities)",[]],["still others detailed the importance of social skills and/or reflection skills.",[]],["In addition to all that, it is often characterized as being composed of many other factors beyond skills, such as many kinds of knowledge, a variety of behaviors, and motivations.",[]],["media literacy is multi-dimensional.",[]],["it is often characterized as being composed of many other factors beyond skills, such as many kinds of knowledge, a variety of behaviors, and motivations.",[]]],"rt":[["media production",[]],["media use",[]],["critical thinking",[]],["mindful exposures",[]],["selfreflexivity",[]],["parental mediation",[]],["willingness to examine one's beliefs and behaviors",[]],["media production and media use",[]]],"sb":[["exposure skills",[]],["information processing skill",[]],["production skills",[]],["social skills",[]],["reflection skills",[]],["read",[]],["evaluate",[]],["analyze",[]],["imagine possibilities",[]],["deconstruct messages",[]],["recognize patterns",[]],["challenge meanings",[]],["judge credibility",[]],["decipher sender intent",[]],["counter-argue",[]],["dig for truth",[]],["avoid influence",[]],["produce messages",[]]],"ex":[["Furthermore, scholars claim that media literacy has the power to help us improve a wide range of other skills and abilities; it can also protect us from false messages in the media, create positive habits from scratch, and transform risky behaviors into positive actions; it can alter faulty beliefs (about self, identity, health, community, religion, and media bias) while protecting our existing beliefs that are not faulty in some way; and it can increase our degree of engagement with the media, other people, institutions, and society at large.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Skills",[]]]},{"sp":[["Exposure Skills",[]]]},{"sp":[["Exposure Skills",[]]]},{"sb":[["Meaning Matching Skills",[]],["Analysis Skills",[]],["Critical Analysis Skills",[]],["Evaluating Skills",[]],["Meaning Construction Skills",[]],["General Skills",[]],["Exposure Skills",[]],["Information Processing Skills",[]],["Production Skills",[]],["Social Skills",[]],["Reflection Skills",[]]],"ex":[["evaluating the credibility of a news story, creating an alternative meaning, producing a media message",[]],["evaluating the credibility of a news story",[]],["creating an alternative meaning",[]],["producing a media message",[]]]},{"sy":[["Reflection Skills",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["However, this cannot be regarded as a scientific method of verifying fake news as it has no empirical grounding.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["rumors",[]]],"rt":[["rumors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This cannot be considered a scientific method for detecting false media news as it depends more on speculation.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["MIL is primarily intended to promote the adequate use and consumption of media products so that citizens develop the capacities to analyze, use, and even express, in different ways, the messages presented to them.",[]],["It thus serves as a tool that assists the user in analyzing the material they are exposed to and increases the possibility of verifying the news, photos, and videos they are watching.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]],"sp":[["scientific discipline situated within the realm of education sciences",[]]],"sy":[["MIL",[]]]},{"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["the MIL skills needed to detect the credibility of media news",[]]],"sy":[["MIL",[]]],"rt":[["media education",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["news media literacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Media literacy centers on the idea that media representations of reality are often incomplete or inaccurate",[]],["approaches tend to center on enhancing critical thinking (Silverblatt 2008), analysis and evaluation (Aufderheide & Firestone 1993;Hobbs 2010), and conscious processing (Potter 2004) of mediated messages.",["Silverblatt 2008","Aufderheide & Firestone 1993","Hobbs 2010","Potter 2004"]]],"rt":[["news media literacy",[]]],"sb":[["news media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["News media literacy is oriented toward understanding how and why people engage with news media, how they make sense of what they consume, and how individuals are affected by their own news consumption.",[]],["capacity for active, conscious processing of information",[]],["greater knowledge about what is in the news, the conditions under which news is produced, and the effects news can have on people, as well as greater control and consciousness regarding news consumption",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]],["knowledge structures",[]],["personal locus",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["knowledge structures",[]],["news media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["a third set of factors called skills and competencies",[]]]},{"sp":[["Potter's (2008) domains of media literacy understanding",[]]]},{"rt":[["Cognitive processing of information",[]],["emotional domain",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy understanding",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["emotional domain",[]],["Aesthetic processing",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy understanding",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Cognitive processing of information",[]],["Aesthetic processing",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy understanding",[]]]},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]],"rt":[["protectionism",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["news literacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["personal locus",[]]]},{"de":[["To be media literate, means one has developed an ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate media messages in a variety of forms (Aufderheide 1993).",["Aufderheide 1993"]],["is multidisciplinary",[]],["needs to resist adopting a reductive or mechanistic approach to assessing media literacy because groups develop and require different forms of media literacy to address their unique needs and disciplinary standpoints",[]]],"sy":[["MLE",[]]],"rt":[["Protectionism",[]],["empowerment",[]],["computer, network, technology, information, visual, and media literacies",[]]],"sb":[["Protectionism",[]],["empowerment",[]]]},{"sy":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["In the context of news literacy, data that communicated messages of morality, civic duty, and social responsibility were coded at the moral node.",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy understanding",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a pedagogy dominated by lessons and activities aimed at developing cognitive skills and abilities.",[]]],"sy":[["the ability to use critical thinking skills to judge the reliability and credibility of news reports",[]]],"rt":[["Global news literacy",[]],["American news literacy",[]]],"sb":[["Global news literacy",[]],["American news literacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["opinion journalism has its own real estate in a newspaper or on a news website, it is clearly marked, and its language landmarks include first-person statements, exaggeration or superlatives, emotional or dramatic descriptions, and the use of tone demonstrated by sarcasm, irony, or parody",[]],["opinion journalism has its own real estate in a newspaper or on a news website, it is clearly marked, and its language landmarks include first-person statements, exaggeration or superlatives, emotional or dramatic descriptions, and the use of tone demonstrated by sarcasm, irony, or parody.",[]]]},{"sy":[["the self",["Potter (2008)"]]],"rt":[["knowledge structures",[]]]},{"ex":[["editing and composition in text-based journalism, and editing, composition, point of view, angle, pacing, graphics, and sound in visual pieces",[]],["examination of word choice, point of view, connotation, arrangement of information in stories, arrangement of stories in a newspaper or news broadcast, and language",[]]]},{"rt":[["empowerment",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The idea of non-refoulement, as understood today, manifests the same value found in Islam.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Women protection",[]],["legal protection for children",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Legal protection",[]]]},{"de":[["metaphors as linguistic expressions are possible precisely because there are metaphors in a person's conceptual system",["Lakoff & Johnson 1980, p. 6"]]]},{"de":[["cognition is constrained by cultural models we internalize as part of our knowledge of the world we live in",["p. 39"]],["within our cultural models, the assumed cultural filters constrain our cognitive capacities, thus acting, so to speak, like customs officers vis-à-vis the smuggling from a source culture of PMs [pictorial metaphors] held to be illicit by our cultural standards",["p. 40"]],["Cultural filtering followed four different translation paths or processes across discourses, namely, (i) re-conceptualizing, (ii) partial re-conceptualizing, (iii) refraining from re-conceptualizing, and (iv) translating metaphor by non-metaphor.",[]],["Maalej (2001) stated that \"within our cultural models, the assumed cultural filters constrain our cognitive capacities, thus acting, so to speak, like customs officers vis-à-vis the smuggling from a source culture of PMs [pictorial metaphors] held to be illicit by our cultural standards\" (p. 40).",[]]],"rt":[["re-conceptualizing",[]],["partial re-conceptualizing",[]],["refraining from re-conceptualizing",[]],["translating metaphor by non-metaphor",[]]],"sb":[["re-conceptualizing",[]],["partial re-conceptualizing",[]],["refraining from re-conceptualizing",[]],["translating metaphor by non-metaphor",[]]]},{"de":[["In terms of the Neural Theory of Metaphor, cultural filtering of metaphor is occasioned by the fact that the SD and the TD do not constitute neuronal nodes that fire together in the conceptual system of the target culture (TC).",[]]],"rt":[["source domain",[]],["target domain",[]],["conceptual system",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["cultural filtering",[]]],"ex":[["swamp, political prostitution, and bull and bear markets",[]]]},{},{"de":[["rendering political services and powers as in Kenya",[]],["shifting allegiance from one political party to another as in the Philippines",[]]],"rt":[["turncoats",[]],["party switchers",[]]]},{"sp":[["cultural filtering",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["development journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["This critical reflection goes beyond critical thinking as a basic human competency-it is not simply about a journalist reflecting on his or her quality of work. It is a capacity to critique (or even subvert) as well as a capacity to employ research tools or techniques to understand relevant contexts in a more scientific manner.",[]],["In other words, critical reflection in the context of this work employs academic tools and theory that are often neglected in industrycentered journalism training or education, which, as Hanna (2005) said, can be 'mercenarily anti-intellectual' (p. 127).",["Hanna (2005)","p. 127"]]]},{"de":[["as journalists act as 'agents of change' that help the grassroots sectors participate in development initiatives",["Estella & Paz, 2019, p.199","Anand, 2014","Estella & Paz, 2019, p.199; see also Anand, 2014"]],["For some scholars, development journalism is a 'compliant' (Loo, 2013, p. 14) form of journalism primarily because of its preference for government sources and news frames set or favored by the state.",["Loo, 2013, p. 14"]]],"sy":[["government say-so journalism",["Lent, 1978, p. 1"]]]},{"de":[["Development journalism puts emphasis on 'the promotion of unity and state agenda' (Estella & Paz, 2019, p. 198)",["Estella & Paz, 2019, p. 198"]],["For some scholars, development journalism is a 'compliant' (Loo, 2013, p. 14) form of journalism primarily because of its preference for government sources and news frames set or favored by the state.",["Loo, 2013, p. 14"]]],"sy":[["government say-so journalism",[]]],"rt":[["watchdog-adversarial paradigm",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["competencies",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["ineffective relationships between science and journalism",["Nguyen and Tran (2019)"]]]},{},{"sp":[["capital social",[]]]},{"sp":[["capital social",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Norms have become essential entities that are considered, can regulate and coordinate action and behavior, and have a direct impact on achieving an objective",["Itaiwi","Ahmad","&","Tang","2018"]]]},{"de":[["The existence of social trust can help build more cooperative social relationships",["Newton","2001"]],["Trust is growing hope in a society that is shown by the existence of honest, orderly behavior, and cooperation based on shared norms",["Fukuyama, 1995"]],["Trust as a growing hope in a society is characterized by honest, orderly behavior, and cooperation based on shared norms",["Fukuyama, 1995"]]],"sy":[["Trust",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["crímenes del patriarcado",[]]]},{"de":[["su uso indiscriminado en titulares sensacionalistas lo asemeja más a un crimen o un suceso entre particulares que a un fenómeno social con causas estructurales.",[]]],"sy":[["femicide",[]]],"rt":[["crímenes del patriarcado",[]]]},{},{"de":[["la mirada informativa que combina planteamientos cuantitativos y cualitativos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The assumptions underlying mainstream social science",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Reality, in the view of modernism, is relegated into the extent of human reasoning, and is instituted within modern science.",[]],["the explanation has to be started from something inferior then further be moved into something superior, from 'that is less' into 'that is more' .",["Smith, 1989: 200"]],["modernism see material as the ultimate reality and denies the other.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The assumptions underlying mainstream social science",[]]]},{"de":[["The presence of post-modernism with its denial on reductionistic of modernism has opened the space and opportunity for reality, either for that of inferior or superior.",[]],["Post-modernism proposes the chance for something whose existence used to be eliminated by modernism because it was regarded as something un-explanable by reasoning, such as morality, sense, and imagination.",[]],["This kind of post-modernism mode of thought introduces various kind of absolute denial towards any world view, and then becomes the point of referece for many people.",[]],["The truth within the thought of post-modernism is problematic, therefore there have to be evaluation and change because the truth is no more regarded absolute.",[]]],"rt":[["cultural pluralism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The assumptions underlying mainstream social science",[]]]},{"de":[["The assumptions underlying mainstream social science",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Science in the generic sense had been around as long as art and religion. But what was discovered then-in the sisteenth, seventeenth centurieswas the controlled experiment, which escalated science to a new order of power and exactitude.",[]],["making it appear that life`s material side is its most important side.",[]]]},{"rt":[["condition within itself",[]]]},{"de":[["Both the selection of objects for attention and the selection of frames for thinking about these objects are powerful agenda-setting roles",[]],["Su hipótesis básica es que los medios de comunicación tienen una influencia importante en la selección de los temas a los cuales debe prestar atención la ciudadanía, de los cuales debe informarse e interesarse.",["McCombs y Shaw (1972)"]]],"sy":[["establecimiento de la agenda",[]]],"rt":[["necesidad de orientación",[]],["priorización (priming)",[]]]},{"de":[["refuerza la polarización, la exposición selectiva y el \"efecto burbuja\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["construcciones, a partir de un proceso de encuadre, a manera de ventanas que permiten ver una parte de la realidad, enfatizando en determinados focos, pero también ocultando otros aspectos del fenómeno.",[]]],"sy":[["news framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["encuadres noticiosos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["la era de Internet (que se caracteriza por la avalancha informativa que dispone ante el usuario los medios de comunicación del mundo entero, ante un solo clic) lleva a que los usuarios construyan su dieta mediática, consuman contenidos informativos más allá de los medios de comunicación tradicionales, dominantes en su mercado nacional",[]],["va reforzando un efecto burbuja, por el cual se consumen contenidos que no ocasionen disonancia, todo esto en detrimento del pluralismo informativo y del contraste de la información.",[]]]},{"sy":[["encuadre",[]],["encuadres informativos",[]]]},{"sy":[["encuadre",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["narrativas descendentes",[]]]},{"rt":[["narrativas ascendentes",[]]]},{"de":[["no son equivalentes al riesgo de la cobertura tendenciosa puntual",[]]],"sb":[["los sesgos de distorsión (en los cuales se presenta información falsa)",[]],["los de contenido (que no confrontan de manera equilibrada los puntos de vista que nieguen su línea editorial)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["sesgos cognitivos, que llevan a que las personas sean más críticas ante mensajes que contradicen sus creencias y posturas ideológicas.",["Castells (2009)"]]]},{"sp":[["news media bias",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["agenda-building",[]],["agenda setting",[]]]},{"de":[["The sharer knows precisely the information is incorrect but intentionally shares it regardless.",[]]],"sy":[["misleading news",["Arthur, 2017"]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]],["rumors",[]],["mal-information",[]]],"sp":[["computational propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["Once the group members conduct an in-depth discussion of rumors, they would believe it.",[]]],"rt":[["social cascades",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["someone has intentionally distributed the half-true information to the public to spark curiosity",[]]]},{"de":[["rumors may become conceivable when the news about them and the ongoing events are ambiguous.",[]],["Cummings and Kong (2019) verified that rumors and disinformation displayed and delivered malicious intentions to persuade people to misleading information.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Cascades mechanism ensues as people rely heavily on each other's thoughts and conduct.",[]]],"rt":[["group polarization",[]]]},{"ex":[["when one feels lacking information, the person might approve the views of others.",[]]]},{"rt":[["digital astroturfing",[]]],"sb":[["digital astroturfing",[]]]},{"sb":[["bots",[]]],"sp":[["sock puppets",[]]],"ex":[["fake followers on Twitter",[]],["fake likes on Facebook",["Clark, 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["Digital astroturfing represents an inherently deceptive political activity that is detrimental to the democratic discourse and to democratic decision-making.",[]],["Digital astroturfing is manufactured in that it is not an honest expression of autonomous individual opinions, but rather activity created to mimic honest expression of autonomous individual opinions.",[]],["It is deceptive, because the goal of digital astroturfing is to trick the target, usually the public at large (including individuals and small groups), into believing that the manufactured activity is real.",[]],["It is strategic, because the political actors who engage in digital astroturfing pursue certain goals in doing so.",[]],["Digital astroturfing is a deceptive effort aimed at the public and launched by political actors.",[]],["Digital astroturfing is a clandestine activity",[]],["autonomous individuals engage in bottom-up activity, and digital astroturfing is topdown activity pretending to be bottom-up activity.",[]]],"sy":[["fake online grassroots activity",[]]],"rt":[["astroturfing",[]],["online astroturfing",[]],["regular astroturfing",[]],["trolling",[]]],"sp":[["astroturfing",[]]]},{"de":[["meant to disrupt some public debate and expression of opinion that a political actor objects to, and those public debates and expressions of opinion will, naturally, refer to some policy or to some political actors.",[]],["Fake trolling thus has the goal of indirectly stymieing expressions of support for or criticism against policy or for political actors.",[]]],"rt":[["trolling",[]]]},{"ex":[["the Tea Party movement in the United States: It seems that the Tea Party was an amalgamation of genuine grassroots activity with coordinating and mobilizing influence by political actors",["Formisano, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["Incentivizing countermeasures do not necessarily prevent digital astroturfing, but by rewarding more openly honest activity, incentivizing countermeasures make digital astroturfing less prominent and thus, potentially, less impactful.",[]],["Incentivizing honest behavior does not prevent digital astroturfing from occurring, but by rewarding honest behavior, honest online activity can become publicly discernible from online activity for which there is no information about its authenticity.",[]],["incentivizing countermeasures against digital astroturfing are not without downsides. One major downside is the temporal component of incentivization: It takes time, first, to implement incentives, and second, for a critical part of a given user base to react to incentives.",[]],["incentivizing countermeasures involve not only technical innovation, but observation of and interaction with users as well.",[]]]},{"de":[["Interest groups are thus groups that pursue political interests, and to that end, they interact with the political system.",[]]],"ex":[["corporations as employer interest groups and unions as employee interest groups",["Walker, 1983"]]]},{"rt":[["digital astroturfing",[]]],"sp":[["astroturfing",[]]]},{"rt":[["sympathizers",[]]]},{"rt":[["digital astroturfing repertoires",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Restrictive countermeasures are mostly a technical affair with potentially big downsides",[]]]},{"de":[["Social bots are a relatively crude form of digital astroturfing, and because of their highly automated nature, they are relatively easy to detect.",[]]],"sy":[["automated sockpuppets",[]]]},{"ex":[["Facebook",[]],["Twitter",[]],["Instagram",[]],["Snapchat",[]],["online petitions",[]],["Typical examples of social media are services such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Snapchat, and so forth.",[]]]},{"rt":[["click farms",[]]],"sb":[["click farms",[]],["bots",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Trolling often also appears as a social, coordinated activity (MacKinnon & Zuckerman, 2012).",[]]],"rt":[["digital astroturfing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["internal efficacy",[]],["external efficacy",[]]],"sp":[["political efficacy",[]]],"ex":[["\"If enough citizens got organized and demanded change, politicians would take steps to end their problems\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["political efficacy",[]]],"ex":[["\"I think public officials care much what people like me think\"",[]],["\"Generally speaking, most government officials try to serve the interest of citizens like me\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Such images, which typically originate from pop culture, everyday life, or politics, are typically de-or re-contextualized using verbal structures.",[]]],"sp":[["Internet meme is an umbrella term for a heterogeneous class of different digital items",[]]]},{"sp":[["political efficacy",[]]]},{"sb":[["the so-called image macros have emerged as the best-known meme genre.",[]]],"ex":[["phrases, image macros, GIFs, videos, etc.",[]]]},{"de":[["Internet memes are a specific form of appropriative and intertextual practices in computer-mediated communication",["Shifman, 2014"]],["Internet memes, rather than simply being humorous nonsense, are a creative form of political participation",["Ross & Rivers, 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["Internet memes as a form of political expression in social media",[]]],"rt":[["Internet memes",[]],["political expression",[]],["political participation",[]]]},{"sb":[["internal efficacy",[]],["external efficacy",[]],["collective efficacy",[]]]},{"sy":[["PIMs",[]]],"sp":[["Internet meme is an umbrella term",[]]]},{"rt":[["signing online petitions, contacting officials on social media platforms, or participating in online political discussions",[]]],"sb":[["signing online petitions, contacting officials on social media platforms, or participating in online political discussions",[]]],"ex":[["signing offline petitions, contacting officials by letter, or participating in elections",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["PSM organisations to address its audience -not as consumers -but as people with needs for information, entertainment, learning and meaningful interactions.",[]],["the role of PSM as a national icon and as a sustainable element in the media system",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a liminal conception of cinema/memory, where the boundaries between memory and cinema are dissolved in favour of a view of their mutuality and inseparability.",["Radstone 2003 cited by Collenberg-Gonzalez 2016, 249."]]]},{"de":[["leave their trace on modes of collective memory-work too, operationalized in the present article at the intersection of communicational generational positioning and -amateur and critical -audience success of historical films.",[]],["blockage in the collective memory-work of Eastern European, Hungarian filmmaker and audience collectivities",[]]]},{"rt":[["victims",[]],["forgetters",[]],["mourners",[]]],"sb":[["victims",[]],["forgetters",[]],["mourners",[]]]},{"de":[["passed on by word of mouth",["A. Assmann 2011, 4"]],["Within the timespan of communicative memory it is evidently the task of the third generation to mourn and bury the dead, fulfilling thus the last ritualistic obligation one has towards the grandparents through remembering.",["16"]]],"rt":[["cultural memory",[]],["cultural memory-work",[]],["the cultural memory that transcends eras and is supported by normative texts",["4"]]]},{"de":[["individuals and cultures construct [ing] their memories interactively through communication by speech, images, and rituals",["A. Assmann 2011, 10-11"]]],"rt":[["communicative memory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["historical context had strong experiential effects on the formative years of a birth cohort (those who were born and grew up in the same period), effects which persist over the life course.",["Muñoz-Gutierrez-Brannen 2021, n. p."]],["Mannheim was clear that generations were not subjected to the same experiences and that divisions of class and gender were significant.",["Muñoz-Gutierrez-Brannen 2021, n. p."]]],"sy":[["birth cohort (those who were born and grew up in the same period)",["Muñoz-Gutierrez-Brannen 2021, n. p."]]]},{},{"de":[["All countries with a film industry have their own dominant cinema and this cinema constantly evolves depending on the economic and ideological relations in which it finds itself. Given the economic situation, the film industry of a particular country will favour certain production practices over others.",["Hayward 2001, 93"]]],"sy":[["author's cinema",[]],["expression cinema",[]],["nouvelle vague",[]],["cinema novo",[]]]},{},{"de":[["cultural formations different from major ones like the previously analysed examples of Polish cinema.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Like traumatic memories that feature vivid bodily and visual sensation over 'verbal narrative and context', these films are characterised by non-linearity, fragmentation, nonsynchronous sound, repetition, rapid editing and strange angles. And they approach the past through an unusual admixture of emotional affect, metonymic symbolism and cinematic flashbacks.",["Walker 2001, 214"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["pro-innovation position",[]]]},{"de":[["Both users and technology must be regulated and controlled, i.e. domesticated in order for technology to serve the community.",[]]],"sb":[["individual control",[]],["social control",[]],["technological control",[]],["institutional control",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Furthermore, individual control also entails delineating responsibility in relation to those who are not mature enough to exercise this control on an individual basis.",[]]],"sp":[["control position",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the law and regulations that take effect when they are broken, together with the control bodies, that are to safeguard law and order.",[]]]},{"de":[["media packages consist of two main constituents: frames and positions",[]]]},{"de":[["Technology, for example, is presented as good or evil: it makes freedom or control possible, one loves it or hates it, it is reliable or unreliable, or one feels oneself to be included or excluded.",[]],["Perceived dichotomies are, therefore, common and the middle alternatives are often ignored.",[]]]},{"rt":[["mediation",[]]]},{"de":[["The narratives place weight on what is going to happen and do not communicate well what has happened. The things that have happened are always more modest than the expectations. This paradox may be described as a trivializing process.",[]],["The narratives place weight on what is going to happen and do not communicate well what has happened.",[]],["The fact that the stories are future-oriented also means that they look upon the new technology as a driving force of positive developments.",[]]],"rt":[["control position",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This is done in part by teaching one's fellow human beings how they should behave on the Internet.",[]]],"ex":[["Netiquette is an example of this.",[]],["The same is true of the use of \"flaming\".",[]]]},{"de":[["the control position promotes individual, social, technological and institutional control, and is more prominent when the Internet is lower on the media agenda.",[]]]},{"rt":[["narratives about risk and control",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["guides the actual gate-keeping process.",[]],["journalists' news judgment is to be considered sacred and opaque knowledge that separates journalists from outsiders",["O'Neill & Harcup 2009","Tuchman 1972"]],["Their assessment is grounded on, and balances, many different factors, such as cultural proximity, level of conflict, the ease with which information can be obtained, reader appeal, democratic relevance and connection to societal elites",["Galtung & Ruge 1999","Harcup & O'Neill 2001","Kovach & Rosenstiehl 2001"]]],"rt":[["audience metrics",[]],["user preferences",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Another essential characteristic of this type of gathering is mindfulness, shared consciousness, and the emphasis on positive, appetitive emotions.",[]],["Put simply: in Agoral Gatherings the crowd can be excited, elated, even inspired, but not violent or enfl amed.",[]],["It is suggested that the main psychological outcome of such gatherings, in both the individual and the group level is the experience of transcendence (Biela and Tobacyk, 1987).",["1987"]]],"rt":[["Agora",[]]],"sp":[["crowd behavior",[]]]},{"sp":[["crowd behavior",[]]]},{"sp":[["crowd behavior",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The basic features attributed to Russia and Russians are violence and cruelty. It is these features that are considered to be the causes of the war itself, the methods of conducting it and the treatment of the population in occupied areas, including prisoners of war.",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["frames present in communication",[]]]},{"rt":[["moral degradation frame",[]]]},{"de":[["The conducted analysis focuses on two mechanisms of representation formation: naming and thematic anchoring.",[]]],"rt":[["thematic anchoring",[]]]},{"de":[["According to Moscovici (1984b), there are two basic functions of representations. First, they conventionalize (anchor) concepts, people, events, and situations, giving them a specific linguistic or visual form. Second, they are prescriptive in the sense that they are suggested and even imposed on us through social contacts, established structures, and applicable rules of social coexistence.",["Moscovici 1984b"]]]},{"de":[["social representations, which can be treated as social practices of a semiotic nature, enabling interpretations or experiences of war.",[]],["According to Moscovici (1984b), there are two basic functions of representations. First, they conventionalize (anchor) concepts, people, events, and situations, giving them a specific linguistic or visual form. Second, they are prescriptive in the sense that they are suggested and even imposed on us through social contacts, established structures, and applicable rules of social coexistence. Representations aim \"to make something unfamiliar, or unfamiliarity itself, familiar\" (Moscovici 1984b).",["Moscovici (1984b)","Moscovici 1984b"]],["social practices of a semiotic nature",[]]]},{"de":[["Such forms of activity include, for example, documenting Russian aggression, Russian crimes, and the suffering of the civilian population",[]],["The frame highlights activities involving direct help provided to fighting soldiers, primarily psychological help, but also support for veterans, often permanently disabled and affected by post-traumatic stress syndrome.",[]]]},{"de":[["At the centre should be placed the enormity of the tragedy caused by Russia's military actions transferred from the front line to populated cities and the ruthlessness of the Russians attacking civilians",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["referring to experts' interviews and impersonal authority by reference to scientific research",[]]],"rt":[["impersonal authority",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["authorisation (legitimation by reference to the authority)",["2007, p. 92","van Leeuwen, 2007, p. 92"]],["moral evaluation (by (often very oblique) reference to value systems)",["2007, p. 92","van Leeuwen, 2007, p. 92"]],["rationalisation (by reference to the goals and uses of institutionalized social action)",["2007, p. 92","van Leeuwen, 2007, p. 92"]],["mythopoesis (conveyed through narratives whose outcomes reward legitimate actions and punish non-legitimate actions)",["2007, p. 92","van Leeuwen, 2007, p. 92"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["gives individuals entrepreneurial freedom and competence",["Kwan & Graves, 2013"]],["urges them to take responsibility for their lives and communities",["Brookes & Baker, 2021"]],["In the context of health issues, it sees people as health consumers responsible for keeping and improving their own health and economic productivity",["Brookes & Baker, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["Such discourse is associated with the neoliberal approach to obesity and health in general",["Baker et al., 2020"]]],"rt":[["neoliberal approach to obesity and health",[]]]},{"sy":[["personal responsibility discourse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["can be cultural and significant to the way we understand health and illness",["Brookes & Baker, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["emphasised the involvement of government and industry in generating conditions that led to obesity",["Lawrence, 2004"]]]},{"sp":[["logic/cognitive biases",[]]]},{"de":[["In most cases the word has negative connotation as it implies paranoia, prejudiced thinking and mistrust in institutions.",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracist ideation",[]]]},{"sy":[["dietrology",[]],["behindology",[]]]},{"de":[["The COVID-19 as a hybrid warfare has two different meanings, as a war between countries using coronavirus and a war against coronavirus.",[]]],"sb":[["a war between countries using coronavirus",[]],["a war against coronavirus",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Due to infodemics everyone has a private opinion and alternative truth, people may become confused, irrational, anxious, fearful, suspicious, xenophobic and prone to extreme behaviors.",[]]],"rt":[["collective perceptual bias",[]],["mis/information",[]]]},{"de":[["At the individual level infomania refers to an obsessive need to constantly check social media, online news and frantically exchange emails to acquire information and make sense of what happens.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["computer science",[]]]},{"de":[["This defamiliarization within familiarity was what Benjamin suggested produced potent political reflection on the part of the audience.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The formal connection between ethics and aesthetics is supported by a position in the philosophy of aesthetics known as moderate moralism",[]]]},{"de":[["holds within its tradition familiar ambiguities about power, audience, the status of artists, and their role in social life",["Remes and Skelton 2010"]]]},{"sy":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["A major difference between stance detection and traditional aspect-level sentiment classification [Liu, 2012] is that stance detection is dependent on both subjective expressions found in text and the associated target which might not be explicitly mentioned.",["Liu, 2012"]]],"sy":[["stance classification",[]]],"rt":[["stance classification",[]]]},{"ex":[["For example, during the US general election, we would like to find out from someone's online posts whether she supports Trump or not.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["propaganda techniques",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["satire",[]],["clickbaiting",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the focus is on a piece of information being factually false.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["coordinated inauthentic behavior",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Propaganda campaigns aim at influencing people's mindset with the purpose of advancing a specific agenda.",[]],["identifying its two key elements: (i) trying to influence opinion, and (ii) doing so on purpose.",[]],["propaganda and disinformation are used synergetically to achieve specific objectives, effectively turning social media into a weapon.",[]],["Bolsover et. al [2017] dug deeper into this definition identifying its two key elements: (i) trying to influence opinion, and (ii) doing so on purpose.",["Bolsover et. al [2017]"]],["Recently, Bolsover et. al [2017] dug deeper into this definition identifying its two key elements: (i) trying to influence opinion, and (ii) doing so on purpose.",["2017"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["name calling",[]],["glittering generalities",[]],["transfer",[]],["testimonial",[]],["plain folks",[]],["card stacking",[]],["bandwagon",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["have emerged as a vehicle for misinformation",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["the proposition that the pandemic is a governmental conspiracy",[]],["the idea that COVID-19 is all a hoax",[]],["the virus being related to 5G networks",[]],["the release of the virus as a bioweapon",[]],["the virus being a hoax or no more dangerous than the mild flu",[]],["the virus being connected to Bill Gates, and a plan to develop a global surveillance system",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Critical discourse analysis, which generally analyzes media texts, can also be used to analyze literary works, including novels.",[]],["classifies three categories of discourse: text, discourse practices, and sociocultural practices.",[]],["stresses discourse as a kind of interaction and that using spoken and written language is a social activity",[]],["In critical discourse analysis, social practice is related to occurrences from reality and social structure.",[]]],"rt":[["discourse analysis",[]]],"sp":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["Chris Barker (2000) agrees that cultural studies lack a singular reference point.",[]],["cultural studies were developed of interdisciplinary structuralist/poststructuralist thought and multidisciplinary critical theory, particularly in the United Kingdom and continental Europe.",[]],["Cultural studies comprise numerous theoretical studies of other disciplines created more loosely to include model pieces from structuralist/ poststructuralist thinkers' existing theories.",[]]]},{"de":[["Analysis of culture requires the boldness to conceptualize culture as a meaning-making process.",[]],["culture is present in the text of Bumi Manusia in the form of daily conduct, language, clothes, and names.",[]],["Culture is a people's way of life, which includes mutually accepted methods of thinking, doing, and speaking.",[]],["Culture is an essential aspect of society since it represents how the group lives, including customs, lifestyle objects, artwork, song dances, and traditional ceremonies, among other things.",[]],["Culture is not viewed as a guide inherited or inherited but as a variable culture negotiated in all social interactions.",[]]]},{"rt":[["text",[]],["discourse practice",[]],["social practice",[]]]},{"sb":[["text",[]],["discourse practice",[]],["social practice",[]]]},{"de":[["for instance, work patterns, work charts, and news production routines.",[]]],"sp":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This depiction may take the shape of words, writing, images, or films.",[]],["Representation is also produced by audiences who consume the represented cultural values during the production and interpretation processes.",[]],["Representation conveys an event through communication, words, sounds, images, or a combination.",[]],["representation is not limited to presenting or constructing cultural identity in a work. Representation is also produced by audiences who consume the represented cultural values during the production and interpretation processes.",[]],["Stuart Hall (1997) argues in alaman his book Representation: Cultural Representation and Signifying Practices that representation is the mechanism through which members of society exchange meaning.",["Stuart Hall (1997)","1997"]]]},{"de":[["such as the context of the situation or media coverage of a particular society or political culture.",[]]],"sp":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["The path from u to p and from there to p' is abductive and necessarily indetermined. It depends crucially on the recognition of the inappropriateness of u in C and on the search for relevance (again in C)",["Eisterhold et al., 2006"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Al ironizar, se argumenta a dos niveles -el enunciado y la enunciación-de tal manera que cada uno de ellos implica y desmiente el otro.",[]],["mecanismo descortés, estrategia descalificadora o maniobra agresiva",[]],["estimuladora de la camaradería o propiciadora de lazos sociales",[]],["lubricante social",[]],["estrategia de cortesía",[]],["dispositivo retórico, gracias al cual se hacen cosas con las palabras, se inyectan argumentaciones y se consiguen adhesiones",[]],["el camino de u a p, y desde allí hasta p' es abductivo y necesariamente indeterminado; depende definitivamente del reconocimiento de la inapropiación de u en C y de la búsqueda de relevancia (de nuevo en C)",[]],["alcances de la ironía como habilidad metarrepresentacional",["Ruiz Gurillo, 2008b"]],["La ironía no es sólo un tema de interés lingüístico; también es un problema filosófico, porque la vida, en sí misma, es irónica.",[]],["figura o como tropo",[]],["la ironía porta en sí misma -en su ADN-argumentación",[]]],"sy":[["versión antifrástica de expresar lo contrario de lo que se dice",[]]],"rt":[["acto de habla",[]],["argumento",[]],["polifonía",[]],["categoría prototípica",[]],["infortunio pragmático",[]],["detonadora de metarrepresentaciones",[]],["conjunción de intenciones y convencionalidades",[]],["propulsora de la creatividad",[]],["circuito enunciativo de la ironía",[]],["saturación contextual",[]],["humor",[]],["agresividad",[]],["cortesía",[]],["sarcasmo",[]],["lingüística",[]],["política",[]],["antropología",[]],["fraseología",[]],["mecanismos de confección discursiva",[]],["antífrasis",[]]],"sb":[["positiva",[]],["negativa",[]],["la situacional",[]],["la verbal",[]],["la ironía no prototípica, con intenciones y efectos positivos, y ubicada en una enseñanza dialogante, con un espacio de conversación, con nuevos léxicos y la apropiación de la palabra",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["la presencia del destinatario y el grado en que este destinatario está involucrado emocionalmente en lo dicho podrían ser factores determinantes del sarcasmo ya que el rasgo propio del sarcasmo es causar daño e insultar al destinatario",["Kočman (2011)"]]],"rt":[["ironía",["31"]]],"sp":[["ironía",["31"]],["grado de la ironía",[]]]},{"rt":[["conocimiento enciclopédico general",[]],["conocimiento enciclopédico específico sobre el interlocutor",[]],["conocimiento de sucesos o acciones que han ocurrido hace relativamente poco tiempo",[]],["enunciados previos",[]],["comunicación no verbal vocal",[]],["elecciones léxicas o gramaticales",[]],["información proveniente del entorno físico que rodea a los interlocutores",[]]]},{"rt":[["prohibitionist perspective",[]],["regulating approach",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["gender identities are a complex sociocultural product.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["abolitionist perspective",[]],["regulating approach",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Here, prostitution is acceptable, and it is the state -not the market -that regulates it.",[]]],"rt":[["abolitionist perspective",[]],["prohibitionist perspective",[]]]},{},{"de":[["one of the most lucrative criminal enterprises in the world",[]],["a global challenge needing equally global answers, in respect to public policies and also to law enforcement.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["abuse is varied: hierarchic, legal, economic, relational, sexist, homophobic, racist, or related to handicaps",[]],["Here, too, abuse is varied: hierarchic, legal, economic, relational, sexist, homophobic, racist, or related to handicaps.",[]]],"sb":[["hierarchic",[]],["legal",[]],["economic",[]],["relational",[]],["sexist",[]],["homophobic",[]],["racist",[]],["related to handicaps",[]]]},{},{"de":[["posicionamentos das fontes encontrados facilmente no corpus de análise deste artigo",[]],["uma declaração descritiva não é per si verdadeira, ou seja, nem sempre corresponde à realidade",["Sponholz, 2009, p. 24"]],["nas declarações descritivas existe a possibilidade do repórter verificar a informação, como, por exemplo, \"o edifício desabou\".",[]]],"rt":[["declarações diretivas",[]]],"ex":[["A casa está pegando fogo",["Sponholz, 2009, p. 24"]],["o edifício desabou",[]]]},{},{"de":[["não são possíveis de serem checadas empiricamente, cabendo, portanto, um processo de argumentação em cima da fala.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["o profissional joga a versão de cada fonte na matéria e deixa que o público tire suas próprias conclusões",["Moretzsohn (2007)"]],["No entanto, essas declarações via de regra estão carregadas de ideologias, de vícios, imprecisões e preconceitos.",[]]]},{"de":[["colocar as declarações contidas nas notícias como se fossem fatos concretos, que falam por si só",[]],["cabe ao repórter apenas a tarefa de coletar as declarações das fontes, sem nenhuma preocupação em saber se as informações são verdadeiras ou não",["Rubim & Colling, 2006, p. 181"]],["processo inicial de apuração da notícia que acaba sendo veiculado como notícia pronta e acabada, a partir da reprodução das declarações das fontes",[]],["Essa reprodução também pode ocorrer por meio das fontes documentais que não são verificadas, como dossiês, delações premiadas e boletins de ocorrência policial.",[]],["Oliveira (2009) acrescenta que nessa construção, a questão da verificação das declarações fica em segundo plano.",[]],["Ou seja, prioriza-se as falas, que são colocadas como verdades nas notícias, que beneficiam, normalmente, a fonte que fez a declaração que originou a matéria jornalística.",[]],["A prática foi manifestada em sua forma mais nociva (Oliveira, 2018) ao priorizar as declarações e relegar a checagem das mesmas ao segundo plano.",["Oliveira, 2018"]],["A dependência das declarações oficiais, a ausência de contraditório e a manutenção das falas sem questionamentos em tempos de naturalização dos fatos (Moretzshon, 2007) e dos pseudofatos (Chagas, 2020), reflete sobre a necessidade de aprofundar a racionalidade do conceito",["Moretzshon, 2007","Chagas, 2020"]],["nessa construção, a questão da verificação das declarações fica em segundo plano. Ou seja, prioriza-se as falas, que são colocadas como verdades nas notícias, que beneficiam, normalmente, a fonte que fez a declaração que originou a matéria jornalística.",["Oliveira (2009)"]],["a prática pode ser entendida como o tipo de matéria -seja de rádio, TV, online ou impresso -baseada exclusivamente nas declarações ou falas das fontes.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a palavra-chave para objetividade -quando este princípio é entendido com relação à procura e à aproximação da realidade, à verdade como correspondência -não é neutralidade, mas sim investigação",["Sponholz (2009)"]],["Sponholz (2009) propõe a objetividade não como meta, que é a visão mais clássica do conceito; mas sim como reconstrução da realidade.",[]]]},{"de":[["ao reproduzi-las entre aspas, a impressão que fica é que o(a) jornalista, de fato, foi objetivo.",[]]]},{"de":[["This reliance on official declarations, coupled with the lack of contradictory and unquestioning reproduction of statements in times of fact naturalization (Moretzshon, 2007) and pseudo-facts (Chagas, 2020), highlights the need to deepen the rationality of the concept",["Moretzshon, 2007","Chagas, 2020"]],["Statement Journalism prevails in its most harmful form (Oliveira, 2018), encouraging statements at the expense of any form of fact-checking.",["Oliveira, 2018"]],["the reproduction of statements from official sources without cross-examination stands out as a regular practice in the context of statement journalism.",[]],["This reliance on official declarations, coupled with the lack of contradictory and unquestioning reproduction of statements in times of fact naturalization (Moretzshon, 2007) and pseudo-facts (Chagas, 2020), highlights the need to deepen the rationality of the concept, especially in a period marked by authoritarian, deceptive and neo-populist discourses.",[]]],"sy":[["Journalisme de Déclaration",[]]],"rt":[["official sources",[]],["source selection",[]]]},{"de":[["Mass media played a very important role in creating awareness among the general public and in the dissemination of the Government orders/guidelines to the health workers, sanitation workers, including the police at grassroots levels.",[]]]},{"de":[["en accentuant désormais la participation des publics",[]]],"sy":[["démystification de rumeurs",[]]]},{"de":[["on lui permet de s'approprier la vérification de l'information, c'est-à-dire d'empowerment (ou autonomisation)",[]]],"sy":[["autonomisation",[]]]},{"de":[["les rubriques de fact-checking, dédiées à la vérification de l'information et des propos des gouvernants ou des personnalités dans l'espace public",[]]]},{"de":[["sur les réseaux sociaux et les plateformes numériques",[]]],"sy":[["informations trompeuses",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["la desinformación no es solo un fenómeno impulsado por la tecnología, sino que también está conformado por los entornos nacionales de información (Humprecht, 2018).",["Humprecht, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["cuando un mensaje acumulaba más de 1.000 interacciones en Twitter o Facebook, se convertía en uno de sus objetivos de fact-checking.",[]]],"sy":[["verificadores de contenidos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["no citan fuentes, están construidas en plataformas de blogs con una misma estructura, no tienen una sección de contacto o de información sobre quién dirige el portal, utilizan mayúsculas y símbolos de exclamación en los títulos, así como adjetivos calificativos en artículos que suelen estar editorializados y a menudo no llevan la firma de su autor (López et alt, 2018).",["López et alt, 2018"]]]},{},{"sy":[["periodismo declarativo",[]]]},{"de":[["El derecho a réplica y la más que posible rectificación, en tiempo y forma equivalente por parte del autor, abre un dilema sobre si la verificación goza de sentido.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["el periodismo de verificación se consagra como un desarrollo de los medios de comunicación al evolucionar propositivamente en consonancia con los retos planteados por la revolución digital, móvil y los nuevos hábitos de consumo informativo.",[]]],"sy":[["periodismo de verificación",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Los fact-checkers investigan hechos comprobables y su trabajo está libre del partidismo, de defensa de intereses concretos y de retórica.",[]],["proporcionar información clara y profesional y rigurosamente examinada para que los usuarios puedan usar los hechos en pro de tomar decisiones completamente conscientes tanto en jornadas de votación electoral como en cualquier otra decisión esencial",[]],["se focaliza en el escrutinio de la información publicada y viral, controvertida o de dudosa procedencia y veracidad que circula en redes sociales o procede de declaraciones públicas de personas de reconocimiento público, especialmente políticos.",[]],["El periodismo de verificación se asienta en y sobre el entorno digital, el cual no se entiende sin la convergencia multimedia y la evolución en las rutinas profesionales de los periodistas",[]],["periodistas que transformen la información en conocimiento combatiendo las creencias y prejuicios emocionales en historias avaladas por datos reales y oficiales.",[]],["mejorando la calidad del debate público y condicionando la agenda política y pública",[]],["aclarando los aspectos controversiales sujetos a la verificación",[]],["incrementar el coste reputacional de difundir desinformación",[]],["vislumbrado como nuevo género periodístico, en la misión de velar por la veracidad de la información, realizar un escrutinio al poder y transformar la información en conocimiento asumible por los ciudadanos.",[]],["La triple dimensión del verificador (comprobar la veracidad de los datos, hechos factuales o afirmaciones del ámbito público)",[]],["medios de comunicación focalizados generalmente en el discurso de ámbito público.",[]],["el periodismo de verificación recoge la quintaesencia de la participación de los ciudadanos en el ámbito informativo, bandera otrora del periodismo ciudadano. Se asume la colaboración del ciudadano con el periodista, mas no el ciudadano se convierte en reportero; se aprovecha el conocimiento compartido y el potencial del ciudadano como proveedor de información y watchdog para multiplicar las fuentes de acceso y la identificación de los bulos o informaciones controvertidas para que los periodistas se centren en el trabajo periodístico de verificación: comprobar la veracidad de datos, el contraste con fuentes autorizadas y relevantes, la elaboración periodística del contexto informativo, la identificación de fechas y lugares en los que se obtuvieron imágenes y/o vídeos,…",[]],["El nudo gordiano del periodismo de verificación, en términos epistemológicos, estriba en el proceso metodológico que ratifica la idea del verificador como figura necesaria para esclarecer la veracidad de datos, hechos y del discurso público y a partir de la cual se erige como juez de validación o de rechazo.",[]],["El proceso periodístico de contraste y verificación (tareas internas de producción y newsmaking) conduce a que los medios ofrezcan al ciudadano la evaluación de un hecho, dato o discurso.",[]],["un quehacer periodístico, vislumbrado como nuevo género periodístico, en la misión de velar por la veracidad de la información, realizar un escrutinio al poder y transformar la información en conocimiento asumible por los ciudadanos.",[]]],"sy":[["fact-checking journalism",[]]],"rt":[["periodismo declarativo",["Graves, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["para verificarlo y tomar partido por los hechos factuales verificables (Graves, 2017)",["Graves, 2017"]]],"sy":[["yo digo, tú dices",[]]],"rt":[["fact-checking journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Para ello, es necesario la aceptación social de imparcialidad del fact-checker (Amazeen, 2015).",["Amazeen, 2015"]],["En este punto, se presentan algunos dilemas que enfrenta el verificador: ¿qué parte del mensaje verifico? ¿A quién verifico? ¿Cómo balanceo la calificación al objeto o actor verificado con los imperativos de rigor metodológico que hay que cumplir? ¿A qué datos y fuentes recurro? ¿Cómo un medio de comunicación (de verificación) se legitima y se dota de credibilidad y confianza social en entornos polarizados y escépticos?",[]]],"sy":[["fact-checker",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Retuits y likes podrían englobarse dentro de un segundo nivel de interacción, que puede denominarse participativa",[]]]},{"de":[["pertenecen al tercer nivel de interacción, la creativa",[]]]},{"de":[["la alfabetización mediática facilita que el ciudadano sea capaz de controlar la referencia emocional a la que apelan los contenidos que desinforman; es decir, frente a una decisión impulsiva derivada de una emoción que desprende un contenido informativo, el ciudadano ha de ser capaz de pensar si el contenido informativo es falso o no, ha de discernir si el contenido es información o desinformación.",[]]]},{"de":[["El análisis de sentimiento puede detectar la orientación semántica de los mensajes y clasificarlas en positivas, negativas o neutras",["Saura et al., 2018"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["predominio de contenidos engañosos conformados por imprecisiones, exageraciones o descontextualizaciones sugiere que una de las principales estrategias de desinformación es tomar como base un hecho veraz y sacarlo de contexto o tergiversarlo, de manera que se haga más difícil separar los hechos verdaderos de los falsos.",[]]],"sy":[["mensajes engañosos",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["los mensajes catalogados como desinformación adoptaron un tono de negatividad sobre la información política en los que podemos destacar el uso de falacias de apelación al miedo y ataques para deslegitimar, perjudicar o dañar la figura de los candidatos a la presidencia de la República de Colombia, las cuales pretenden exacerbar emociones que profundicen en la ruptura de los consensos sociales y ahonden en los niveles de polarización afectiva y política entre los ciudadanos.",[]]],"rt":[["posverdad",[]]],"sb":[["desinformación emocional y negativa",[]]]},{"de":[["lo cual impacta negativamente en el debate público -al deslegitimar al adversario político, por ejemplo -contamina el debate y favorece la ruptura y la radicalización de los comportamientos sociales y políticos.",[]]],"sp":[["desinformación",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinfomation",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["Compleja: Implica formular preguntas que suponen la aceptación de una información previa",[]],["Generalización apresurada: Consiste en utilizar incorrectamente el razonamiento inductivo, enunciando una regla general a partir de las excepciones;",[]],["Causa falsa: consiste en sostener que, debido a que dos fenómenos se relacionan el uno con el otro, especialmente en el caso en que varían conjuntamente, uno ha de ser causa del otro;",[]],["Razonamiento circular: la conclusión de un argumento ya está contenida en los supuestos al comienzo del argumento;",[]],["Equivocidad: se trata de utilizar un término ambiguo varias veces en un argumento; de tal forma, que este pueda ser interpretado en algunas instancias de cierta manera, y de otra forma en otras;",[]],["Pendiente resbaladiza: consiste en afirmar que una acción o decisión será el primer paso para una serie de acontecimientos que será difícil detener.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["bulos",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Zgodnie z tradycją afektu nie traktujemy jako tożsamego z emocją lub uczuciem.",[]],["jest on potencjalnością oddziaływania na innych i podatnością na to oddziaływanie",["Slaby, Mühlhoff 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["Constructing populist narratives based on the phantasmal formula of People-in-Nation -as I will show -is one of the forms of resistance to global capitalism, and at the same time is an effect of the form of life that affective capitalism imposes on us.",[]]]},{"de":[["Oparty na dążeniu do nieskończonego zysku coraz bardziej ujawnia swój kontyngentny, nieludzki charakter pozbawiony skrojonej na ludzką miarę racjonalności",[]],["rozwój kapitalizmu afektywnego wzmagający nieustannie nasze jednostkowe i zbiorowe pragnienia.",[]],["-nie jest systemem, który sprzyja demokracji. Oparty na dążeniu do nieskończonego zysku coraz bardziej ujawnia swój kontyngentny, nieludzki charakter pozbawiony skrojonej na ludzką miarę racjonalności",[]]]},{"de":[["podmiotem jego narracji jest właśnie ów fantazmatyczny Lud-w-Narodzie, który zawiera w sobie ową homogeniczność i niezróżnicowanie.",[]],["Lud-w-Narodzie jako partykularna, wyodrębniona część, staje się metonimią Ludu/Narodu rozumianego jako polityczna całości.",[]],["Ta cecha pozwala zrozumieć sens zaproponowanej formuły Lud-w-Narodzie, która oznacza jednocześnie rządzących i rządzonych/podporządkowanych.",[]]],"rt":[["Lud",[]]]},{"de":[["Podmiot się nie zmienia, zmienia się kontekst jego działań. Pomimo przeciwności losu podmiot pozostaje wierny sobie, trwanie jest źródłem wartości moralnej",[]]]},{"de":[["formą postrzegania świata oraz strategią retoryczną wytwarzania silnej tożsamości podmiotu zbiorowego, będącego w kontrze do innych podmiotów i/lub reszty świata",[]],["narzędzie zarówno postępowców, jak i reakcjonistów, demokratów i autokratów, lewicy i prawicy. Przyczyną tak łatwego przystosowywania się populizmu jest jego pusty rdzeń",[]],["Przepełniony jest przy tym silnymi emocjami i treściami pełniącymi funkcję \"wyzwalaczy\", działającymi na masową wyobraźnię.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["narodowy",[]]],"sp":[["Populizm historyczny",[]]]},{"de":[["poręcznym narzędziem (formą, stylem) do uprawiania polityki historycznej, najbardziej efektywnym i też najbardziej pożądanym przez elity \"praktykujące\" autorytarny populizm narodowy czy etnocentryczny skoncentrowany na budowaniu silnej tożsamości narodowej",[]],["formą kształtowania przekazów kulturowych odnoszących się do przeszłości historycznej",[]],["populizm historyczny ma charakter podwójnie reaktywny: nie dąży do zmiany teraźniejszości poprzez budowanie analogii historycznych, ale dąży do zmiany teraźniejszości i jednocześnie do zmiany przeszłości.",[]],["kluczowe dla jego zrozumienia jest założenie, że z jednej strony obraz przeszłości historycznej wyjaśnia aktualne nierówności i podział na tych, którzy korzystają ze status quo, i tych, którzy się czują przegrani i nie mogą (lub nie potrafią) poczuć się w zaistniałej sytuacji podmiotowo.",[]],["przywiązanie do wspólnoty, apolityczność (brak zainteresowania instytucjami politycznymi), koncentracja na powrocie do stanu \"sprzed upadku duchowego\", ukierunkowanie na przeszłość jako źródło wartości",["Berlin i in. 1968: 173-178"]],["waga dwóch czynników (silnej i ekskluzywnej tożsamości narodowej) oraz waga przeszłości historycznej, jako bardzo istotnego zasobu budowania wspólnoty politycznej i sposobu jej legitymizacji -decydują o jego turbo-patriotycznym charakterze",["Napiórkowski 2019"]],["Forma ta jest niezwykle wyrazista i skuteczna w narzucaniu uproszczonego obrazu przeszłości danego narodu. Na jej specyficzną strukturę składa się nie tylko nieprzepracowana przeszłość, ale też kryzys demokracji przedstawicielskiej oraz rozwój kapitalizmu afektywnego wzmagający nieustannie nasze jednostkowe i zbiorowe pragnienia.",[]],["poręcznym narzędziem (formą, stylem) do uprawiania polityki historycznej",[]],["Forma ta jest niezwykle wyrazista i skuteczna w narzucaniu uproszczonego obrazu przeszłości danego narodu.",[]],["Na jej specyficzną strukturę składa się nie tylko nieprzepracowana przeszłość, ale też kryzys demokracji przedstawicielskiej oraz rozwój kapitalizmu afektywnego wzmagający nieustannie nasze jednostkowe i zbiorowe pragnienia.",[]],["Populizm historyczny pozwala najszybciej i najskuteczniej (bo na poziomie afektywnym) zakotwiczyć się w przeszłości.",[]]],"rt":[["konserwatywna utopia",[]],["retrotopia",[]]],"sb":[["populizm etnocentryczny (czy inaczej narodowy)",[]],["populizm retoryczny i medialny",[]],["koncepcja nowego populizmu i wprowadzenie fantazmatu o przeszłości jako rdzennej krainie zamieszkałej przez homogeniczny lud reprezentujący najwyższą wartość moralną",[]],["populizm etnocentryczny (czy inaczej narodowy) skoncentrowany na rewitalizacji idei suwerennego narodu -wraz z postulatami odzyskania godności, nadania znaczenia, niechęcią wobec obcych",[]],["populizm retoryczny i medialny polegający na budowaniu emocjonalnego oraz silnie perswazyjnego przekazu",[]]]},{"de":[["stanowi analogię do freudowskiej zasady przyjemności, która kieruje produktywnością naszego pragnienia. Oznacza wieczną produkcję pragnienia i poczucie tymczasowego sensu, którego dostarcza nam sublimacja (zastępcze zaspokojenie)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Populizm historyczny",[]]]},{"de":[["symbolizuje rdzenna kraina (ang. the Heartland)",[]]],"sy":[["the Heartland",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["toposu złej władzy, która wykorzystuje lud",["Czubaj-kuźmin 2020: 101-102"]],["toposu opresji",["Czubaj-kuźmin 2020: 101-102"]],["toposu skargi",["Czubaj-kuźmin 2020: 101-102"]],["toposu zmiany",["Czubaj-kuźmin 2020: 101-102"]],["toposu integracji",["Czubaj-kuźmin 2020: 101-102"]],["toposu kompensaty",["Czubaj-kuźmin 2020: 101-102"]]]},{"de":[["Intuitively a popular site has a higher daily page view per visitor, since the visitor tends to spend more time on browsing the site and read content from different pages.",[]]]},{"de":[["While intuitively, context accompanying hate speech is useful for detecting hate speech, context information of hate speech has been overlooked in existing datasets and automatic detection models.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["opinion climate",[]]]},{"sp":[["opinion climate",[]]]},{"de":[["This feature allows users to friend or follow individuals they wish to remain in their social circle, and they can \"like\" pages and groups that they are interested in.",[]],["To foster a desired opinion environment, on the other hand, undesirable opinions can be avoided by using the unfriend, unfollow, unlike, and block buttons.",[]],["Facebook has a customisation feature that allows you to filter \"friends\" for a particular post and create circles within circles.",[]],["Through the usage of similar data that users have previously opened to watch, read, share, or remark on, the artificial intelligence utilised in this application facilitates users' access to their favourite persons or content.",[]],["people's evaluation of the opinion environment before to voicing their opinions is a significant phenomenon.",["Masullo & Duchovnay, 2022"]]],"rt":[["opinion environment",["Masullo & Duchovnay, 2022"]]],"sb":[["micro climate of opinion",[]],["macro climate of opinion",[]]]},{"de":[["They choose whether to voice their opinions or remain silent on the matter after presenting their case",["Masullo & Duchovnay, 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["The inaccurate, false data are intentionally being delivered to the opponent instead of the correct information.",[]],["disinformation is the false information or inaccurate data. It can be invented news, partially inaccurate or distorted news.",["Djordjevic, 1986"]],["Disinformations intentionally want to misdirect, deceive or delude. It is not clear who the actual author is. There is no contact address and as a rule, there is no actual reference to the information source, no date when it is written or updated, nor a description of its author.",[]],["intentionally falsified information, particularly launched by one government for another or for the public",[]],["Disinformation in English is of Russian origin (dezinformatsiya) and it is used in the meaning of intentionally falsified information, particularly launched by one government for another or for the public.",[]]],"sy":[["counter information",[]],["contra information",[]],["antiinformation",[]],["protuobavijest",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["They prove the authorship, point at the source and at the owner of the information and they have valid information; those information are accurate, without errors and subjectivity, and completely up-to-date.",[]],["Information as a symbolic product is developing as a whole but particular functions that constitute it are inseparably linked.",[]],["studies the con-textual pragmatic dimensions within which knowledge is shared positively as information",["Cappuro, 2000"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["data are interpreted, i.e. meaning is added to the data and knowledge is shaped.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["data are interpreted",[]],["Data is a starting point for shaping the knowledge necessary for evaluation and decision-making",[]],["Knowledge is the consequence of data interpretation and that process includes experience and facts.",[]]],"sp":[["Single information",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformations bring confusion and disorder because they are misrepresented, opposite to the previous information or modified in the communicational process.",[]],["Misinformation carry errors and out-of-date sub jective information. They are not always intentional attempt to convince in the incorrectness, because they express views that can be extremely subjective.",[]],["mistaken information",[]],["misleading information",[]],["incorrect, inaccurate, distorted, would-be information",[]],["carry errors and out-of-date sub jective information",[]],["misrepresented, opposite to the previous information or modified in the communicational process",[]],["Technical error -error in the transfer or error in the data perception.",[]],["English expression misinformation is used in the place of a mistaken information, and/or misleading information.",[]]],"sy":[["pseudoinformation",[]],["quasiinformation",[]],["mistaken information",[]],["misleading information",[]],["pogrešna obavijest",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Propaganda is not the disinformation and it cannot even be categorized as the misinformation",[]],["Today, marketing and propaganda are the component part of many disciplines.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Wrong meanings shape misinformation but also misunderstanding in the social relations.",[]]],"sp":[["interruption of the integrity of information",[]]]},{"de":[["cognition is always connected with the outside world: the subject is always determined in accordance with events and conditions in its surroundings.",[]]],"sb":[["data",[]],["knowledge",[]],["wisdom",[]]]},{"de":[["Wrong data and wrong interpretations result in wrong evaluation of the problem, wrong determining of the aim, and/or wrong decision and action.",[]]],"sp":[["interruption of the integrity of information",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Usefulness of information can be evaluated on the basis of the objective criteria, but only post-facto, i.e. only after they were actually used by the user.",[]],["The criterion of information usefulness is a measure of sender's efficiency regarding the decisionmaking processes and actions of the information user.",[]]],"sy":[["information relevance",[]]]},{"sy":[["Passive one-way media",[]]]},{"sy":[["Interactive two-way media",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Internal sources are those that already contribute to the client's existing informing processes, normally in interactive fashion.",[]]]},{"ex":[["the more people using email, the more attractive it becomes to non-users",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["ad hominen",[]]]},{"de":[["insults and name-calling",[]]],"rt":[["ad bacculum",[]]]},{"de":[["If one appeals too much to the audience (pathos)",[]]],"rt":[["Booth (1963)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["deliberative rhetoric (arguments for future political actions)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["too much appeal to me, myself, and my style (ethos)",[]]],"rt":[["Booth (1963)",[]]]},{"rt":[["forensic rhetoric",[]],["deliberative rhetoric",[]]]},{"de":[["effectively undercutting normative claims for altruism",[]]],"rt":[["psychological egoism",[]],["altruism",[]]]},{"de":[["ethos represents the \"voice\" or style of the writer or speaker as well as the character",[]]],"rt":[["pathos",[]],["logos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["short, unsubstantiated claims about himself",[]],["the very thing he so often accuses the major news outlets of creating",[]],["fake news is that which contains false information and is disseminated mainly by social networks",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["untruths",[]],["Fake News Media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["logos, the actual content of the written or spoken message",[]]],"rt":[["ethos",[]],["pathos",[]]]},{"de":[["pathos, the audience's perceptions, needs, feelings, age and education",[]]],"rt":[["ethos",[]],["logos",[]]]},{"de":[["Too much appeal to the content (logos)",[]]],"rt":[["Booth (1963)",[]]]},{"rt":[["ethical egoism",[]]]},{"de":[["Also known as the rhetorical triangle and used as an aid for effective public speaking by the ancient Greeks",[]]],"rt":[["ethos",[]],["pathos",[]],["logos",[]]]},{"rt":[["truth",[]]]},{"de":[["According to the TCA, when we communicate with others, all speech acts carry three validity claims: truth, normative rightness, and authenticity.",[]]]},{"de":[["However, it is not a correspondence idea of truth that Habermas uses but a consensus theory.",[]]]},{"rt":[["truth",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["natural attitude",[]]]},{"de":[["The critical approach provides a different way of understanding these issues.",[]],["it allows us to frame questions differently and challenge the assumptions we usually take for granted.",[]],["In the field of information systems, critical research is often seen as a \"paradigm\"",["Chua, 1986","Orlikowski & Baroudi, 1991","Trauth, 2001"]],["this means that critical research is a composition of a variety of aspects, including ontology, epistemology, an assumption about the nature of humans and society and others.",[]],["it is based on the perception that the current status quo is unjust.",[]],["It can therefore be characterised by its intention to change social realities",["Alvesson & Deetz, 2000","Ngwenyama & Lee, 1997"]],["and favour the disadvantaged",["Mingers, 1992"]],["Critical research can thus never be purely descriptive but is intrinsically normative and based on values",["Walsham, 1993"]],["a critical stance is focused on what is wrong with the world rather than what is right",["Walsham, 2005"]],["It is based on a desire to promote emancipation rather than work in systemic imperatives.",[]],["The hope of current critical research is that by exposing ideology and false claims, these will be rectified.",[]],["Loosely based on Kuhn's (1996) notion of a paradigm, this means that critical research is a composition of a variety of aspects, including ontology, epistemology, an assumption about the nature of humans and society and others.",[]],["Critical research can thus never be purely descriptive but is intrinsically normative and based on values (Walsham, 1993).",["Walsham, 1993"]]],"rt":[["paradigm",[]],["emancipation",[]]]},{"de":[["His main interest is in how discourses are formed, controlled, distributed, and which mechanisms regulate participation.",[]],["He is particularly interested in how certain individuals or topics are excluded from discourses.",[]],["Mechanisms and procedures of exclusion include insanity, certain views of sexuality, and bodily discipline.",[]],["Another means of controlling discourses are conditions and perceptions of discourses, such as the Western myth of free and open discourses.",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation as deliberate falsehood",[]],["it is a known falsehood.",[]],["it is information that deliberately alienates or disempowers people, the speaker shows a disregard for the other who is disempowered.",[]],["the speaker shows a disregard for the other who is disempowered.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The emphasis in such a genealogy would be on questions of power and bodily discipline.",[]]]},{"de":[["The idea of the ideal speech situation is that the best argument will convince the community of discourse and lead to a consensus on the validity claim in question.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["When \"data\" acquires context-dependent meaning and relevance, it becomes information.",[]],["information is then data \"with meaning\".",[]],["The technical use of information also suggests that information must be machine-readable and thus quantifiable",["Bloomfield & Coombs, 1992"]],["One strong assumption about information is that it is true.",[]],["from the perspective of CRIS information is what helps emancipate humans",[]]],"rt":[["data",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["misinformation as accidental falsehood",[]],["misinformation is not problematic. It is simply information that is contentious and that therefore will be analysed in a discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["power constellations",["Foucault, 1976"]]]},{"rt":[["truth",[]]]},{"de":[["Regimes of truth are a result of power constellations because power allows the establishment of truths.",[]],["Regimes of truth can also undermine power relationships.",[]],["truth is not a matter of correspondence between statement and external reality but has to do with negotiations in discourses, which, in turn, are shaped by power relationships and physical and mental discipline.",[]],["Truth is not given and stable but fluid.",[]]]},{"de":[["These are not empirical descriptions but transcendental to communication, which means that without the assumptions of truth, rightness, and authenticity, we would not need to be able to communicate.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["posverdad",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["La abundancia informativa, identificada tempranamente por Andrejevic (2013) con el término infoglut",["Andrejevic (2013)"]]]},{"de":[["tiene la posibilidad, si se dan ciertas circunstancias, de romper o alterar los equilibrios frágiles, generando, así, un debilitamiento o pérdida de legitimidad, es decir, las legitimidades parciales se deterioran y las instituciones democráticas se deslegitiman.",[]],["habita y constituye a la división epistémica del trabajo democrático",[]]],"rt":[["enunciados fácticos",[]],["creencias motivadas",[]],["división epistémica del trabajo democrático",[]]]},{},{"de":[["no sólo va a fungir como antecedente para la posverdad, sino que ayudó a circunscribir el asunto de la influencia de los hechos alternativos en el debate público.",[]]],"sy":[["verosimilitud",[]]],"rt":[["posverdad",[]]]},{"rt":[["poder modal",[]]]},{"sy":[["alt.ethics",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Samo pojęcie bezpieczeństwa, narodowego i indywidualnego, odnoszone jest coraz częściej do domeny świadomości, do tzw. bezpieczeństwa kognitywnego",[]],["odnoszone jest coraz częściej do domeny świadomości",[]]],"sy":[["cognitive security",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["podlegający interpretacji (może np. być manifestacją niezadowolenia, agresji, zazdrości, lub protestu)",[]]]},{"sy":[["vividness",[]]],"rt":[["energeia",[]]]},{"rt":[["enargia",[]]]},{"sy":[["dowód",[]]]},{"de":[["Ataki terrorystyczne to z zasady image events. Liczą się efekty osiągnięte przy pomocy otrzymanych obrazów, które można powielać w różnych mediach i wielokrotnie pokazywać w przeróżnych celach i kontekstach. Dzięki temu można uzyskać konsekwencje w sferze świadomości niewspółmiernie większe do materialnych, kinetycznych skutków samego ataku.",[]],["Terrorystyczne ataki 11 września 2001 roku w Nowym Yorku to najbardziej drastyczny współczesny przykład image event (choć niełatwo nam o tym w ten sposób myśleć).",[]]],"ex":[["Terrorystyczne ataki 11 września 2001 roku w Nowym Yorku",[]],["Ataki terrorystyczne to z zasady image events.",[]],["Ataki terrorystyczne to z zasady image events",[]]]},{"ex":[["Obraz obalenia pomnika Saddama Husseina w Bagdadzie",[]]]},{"sy":[["walki przy pomocy obrazów (ang. image struggle)",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["emotional transport",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Jako korektę autorzy proponują myślenie lateralne",[]]]},{"de":[["Narracja jest podstawą naszego rozumienia zdarzeń, naszej tożsamości, a nawet rzeczywistości, w której żyjemy, ponieważ jest podstawą zrozumienia naszego doświadczenia (bez narracji życie składałoby się z oderwanych od siebie i niespójnych incydentów i przypadkowych wydarzeń).",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Operacje terrorystyczne to w samej istocie operacje informacyjne, w których moment danego czynu, miejsce, sposób jego wykonania, czy też wybór ofi ary lub narzędzi są środkami symbolicznego przekazu.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["przekonywanie",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["perswazja",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Taka forma jest niekontrolowana i niekontrolowalna przez państwa czy rządy. Wojna staje się nie tyle sprawą zmuszenia przeciwnika do poddania się woli zwycięzcy, co \"konstruowania i kontrolowania opinii publicznej\" przy pomocy globalnej sieci mediów społecznościowych z użyciem emocjonalnych obrazów i dramatycznych narracji. Radykalna wojna jest radykalnie partycypacyjna; każdy może (wręcz musi) w niej brać udział przez informacje, które odbiera, tworzy lub przesyła. Granice pomiędzy widownią a aktorem, żołnierzem a cywilem rozmywają się, stwarzając warunki, w których masowy udział łatwo przeradza się w wojnę wszystkich ze wszystkimi, niszcząc w efekcie tkankę demokratycznego społeczeństwa obywatelskiego",["Ford, Hoskins 2021"]]],"sy":[["radical war",[]]]},{},{},{},{}] |