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714cbfe | 1 | [{},{"de":[["proactive interference tends to be minimal when memory is tested immediately, but increases steadily as a function of delay",["Briggs, 1954","1954"]]]},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"de":[["While lexical negation is in some cases related to sentiment, it also corresponds to instances where the president contradicts or refutes a point, potentially relating to controversy.",[]],["corresponds to instances where the president contradicts or refutes a point, potentially relating to controversy.",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment",[]]]},{"de":[["This phenomenon, generally called media bias, has been extensively studied in political science, economics and communication literature",[]]],"rt":[["mainstream bias",[]],["corporate bias",[]],["power bias",[]],["advertising bias",[]]],"sb":[["issue and facts bias",[]],["framing bias",[]],["ideological stand bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In an environment where the scarce commodity is time, digital spheres become an 'attention economy'",[]]],"rt":[["platform economy",[]]]},{"de":[["cyber-nationalism describes mobilization and practice.",[]]],"rt":[["cyber-activism",[]],["online nationalism",[]]],"sp":[["digital nationalism",[]]],"ex":[["When nationalists mobilize to flood a discussion with online vitriol, when they organize street protests through their social media networks, when they coordinate their protest activities through chat apps, or when they finance their endeavours through e-commerce, they engage in cyber-nationalism.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is driven by the interconnected activities of organizations, technologies, and users, and these activities generate digital nationalism as the emergent property of complex information and communication networks.",[]],["In this sense, digital nationalism describes the overarching framework within which online nationalism and cyber-nationalism play out.",[]],["Digital nationalism possesses dynamics that profoundly alter the rationale of nationalism itself. Once nationalism becomes filtered through digital systems, it behaves in new and at times unexpected ways.",[]],["digital nationalism describes the overarching framework within which online nationalism and cyber-nationalism play out.",[]]],"sy":[["online nationalism",[]],["cyber-nationalism",[]],["techno-nationalism",[]]],"rt":[["online nationalism",[]],["cyber-nationalism",[]]],"sb":[["online nationalism",[]],["cyber-nationalism",[]]],"ex":[["Take the example of the official smartphone app that promotes Xi Jinping thought, an application called 'Study (Xi), Strong Country' (Xue Xi Qiang Guo), but colloquially referred to as 'Xi's little red app' (Zhong 2021): the app itself is a form of infrastructure, and its interface design and algorithm shape how users interact with its contents.",[]]]},{"rt":[["human flesh search engine",[]]]},{},{"de":[["nationalist activities in digital China rely on many of the communicative and mobilization strategies familiar from the way fans behave online",[]]]},{"sy":[["wu mao dang",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["doxing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These concepts are often used interchangeably, and they frequently refer simply to popular nationalism expressed online.",[]],["A sizable body of empirical media and communications scholarship has examined the nationalist discourses that groups, organizations, and individual internet users produce in forums and on social media",[]],["online nationalism also incorporates the creation and posting of images, emojis, videos, and other digitally native contents that contribute to nationalist discourses.",[]],["Where online nationalism describes nationalist representations and discourses, cyber-nationalism describes mobilization and practice.",[]],["The outrage against Taiwanese singer Chou for waving the ROC flag is as much an expression of online nationalism as angry vitriol against NBA manager Morrey for supporting Hong Kong protesters.",[]]],"sy":[["internet nationalism",["Breslin & Shen 2010"]],["cyber-nationalism",[]],["techno-nationalism",[]],["digital nationalism",[]]],"rt":[["cyber-nationalism",[]],["techno-nationalism",[]],["digital nationalism",[]]],"sp":[["digital nationalism",[]]],"ex":[["The outrage against Taiwanese singer Chou for waving the ROC flag",[]],["angry vitriol against NBA manager Morrey for supporting Hong Kong protesters",[]],["The memes that Chinese online users created to criticize the Danish broadsheet for its insensitive COVID-satire",[]],["The outrage against Taiwanese singer Chou for waving the ROC flag is as much an expression of online nationalism as angry vitriol against NBA manager Morrey for supporting Hong Kong protesters.",[]],["The memes that Chinese online users created to criticize the Danish broadsheet for its insensitive COVID-satire are an example of Chinese online nationalism.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["fake is defined as counterfeit or sham.",["5"]],["news is defined as material reported in a newspaper or news periodical or on a newscast",["4"]],["fake news is intentionally designed to be misleading.",[]],["In addition to being designed to manipulate public opinion, fake news stories tend to be sensationalist which in turn creates tremendous popular appeal.",[]],["Fake news is primarily authored by opportunists who seek financial gain or hyper-partisans who want to influence political beliefs.",[]],["Its dissemination is often aided by social media, automated bots, and especially by humans responding to inflamed emotions.",[]],["Whether the pernicious authors seek to influence public opinion or generate advertising revenue, the content is cleverly designed to provoke outrage and reinforce prejudices.",[]],["news that information professionals must train patrons to detect is not intended as satire or a practical joke. It is 100 percent false and designed to provoke its audience.",[]],["Fake news is not produced by traditional or established media sources that adhere to journalistic standards and ethics.",[]],["Fake news does not refer to articles or broadcasts that contain inadvertent mistakes that are promptly corrected and are from organizations that hold reporters accountable for accuracy.",[]],["Most importantly, fake news is not a story with information or a viewpoint that a consumer does not like or agree with.",[]],["one of the most significant new disturbing Internet trends that must first be resolved if the Internet is to be capable of fulfilling its true potential to serve humanity.",["25"]],["fake news is intentionally designed to be misleading. In addition to being designed to manipulate public opinion, fake news stories tend to be sensationalist which in turn creates tremendous popular appeal.",[]],["Fake news is not produced by traditional or established media sources that adhere to journalistic standards and ethics. Fake news does not refer to articles or broadcasts that contain inadvertent mistakes that are promptly corrected and are from organizations that hold reporters accountable for accuracy. Most importantly, fake news is not a story with information or a viewpoint that a consumer does not like or agree with.",[]]],"sy":[["false news",[]]],"ex":[["the most shared fake news story of 2016, which contained the headline, \"Obama Signs Executive Order Banning the Pledge of Allegiance in Schools Nationwide.\"",["8"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the direct elections of mayors or prime ministers",[]],["refers to a handful of political leaders who become more important",[]],["the growing importance of leaders",[]]],"rt":[["decentralized personalization",[]]],"sp":[["personalization",[]]]},{"de":[["strengthening of preference votes in PR list systems",[]],["with power and attention shifting to a large group of individual politicians",[]]],"sy":[["generalized personalization",[]]],"rt":[["centralized personalization",[]]],"sp":[["personalization",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Personalization is a broad and diffuse concept",[]],["A distinction can be made either on the basis of the sphere in which personalization takes place or on the basis of the number of politicians it applies to.",[]],["personalization, which refers to a shift in attention from collective actors to individuals",["Karvonen, 2010: 4"]]],"rt":[["centralized personalization",[]],["decentralized personalization",[]]],"sb":[["centralized personalization",[]],["decentralized personalization",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Selective exposure theory",[]],["echo chambers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["are an increasing concern for the political discourse in many democratic countries",[]]],"rt":[["blogs",[]],["forums",[]],["social-media sites",[]],["Selective exposure theory",[]],["biased assimilation",[]],["homophily",[]]]},{"de":[["They are a small group, which enjoy higher than average network centrality, while not being very embedded in their community.",[]],["In our case, we consider consumption and production of content jointly, and define gatekeepers as users who consume content from both sides of the political spectrum but only produce content from one side.",[]],["These users block or filter information from one side, and hence can be considered gatekeepers.",[]],["These users lie inbetween the two opposed communities in network terms, but side with one in content terms.",[]],["Their clustering coefficient is usually lower, as they have links to both communities, which are unlikely to be closed.",[]],["This definition captures a slightly broader set of users (compared to Equation 5), e.g., users who consume from both ends of the political spectrum and produce balanced 'centrist' content.",[]],["These users are border spanners in terms of location in the social network, who remain aware of the positions of both sides, but align their content with one side.",[]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]],["open-minded net-citizens",[]],["sentinels",[]],["Gatekeeping",[]]]},{"rt":[["gatekeepers",[]]]},{"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"sy":[["ideology",[]],["polarity",[]],["ideological stance",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["selective exposure",[]],["selective perception",[]],["selective retention",[]],["biased assimilation",[]],["echo chambers",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Intrinsic load",[]],["germane load",[]]],"sp":[["Cognitive Load Theory",[]]]},{"de":[["This form of journalism allows audiences to \"enter\" the news, providing a first-person perspective on events and situations.",[]],["By immersing the viewer in the story, journalists aim to evoke a stronger emotional response and a deeper understanding of complex issues.",[]],["This approach leverages the unique affordances of VR to bridge the gap between the audience and the story, offering a level of engagement that traditional media formats cannot match",["de la Peña et al., 2010"]],["By allowing viewers to experience the sights and sounds of a news event as if they were physically present, immersive journalism aims to foster empathy and a more nuanced comprehension of complex issues.",[]],["This form of journalism allows audiences to \"enter\" the news, providing a first-person perspective on events and situations. By immersing the viewer in the story, journalists aim to evoke a stronger emotional response and a deeper understanding of complex issues.",[]]],"rt":[["virtual reality (VR)",[]],["augmented reality (AR)",[]],["360-degree video",[]]],"ex":[["\"The Displaced,\" a VR documentary produced by The New York Times that follows the lives of three children displaced by war.",["The New York Times, 2015"]],["the BBC's VR documentary \"We Wait\" places viewers in the role of refugees crossing the Mediterranean, allowing them to navigate the journey and make decisions along the way.",["BBC, 2016"]],["The New York Times, for example, launched its VR app, NYT VR, in 2015, which allowed users to experience stories such as \"The Displaced,\" a VR documentary about children displaced by war.",[]],["One notable example is \"We Wait,\" a VR documentary that places viewers in the shoes of refugees crossing the Mediterranean Sea.",[]],["One such example is the VR experience \"Fukushima: Return to the Disaster Zone,\" which allows viewers to tour the area affected by the 2011 nuclear disaster.",[]],["One such project, \"Vapor 58,\" takes viewers into the lives of families living in precarious conditions along the Tietê River in São Paulo.",[]],["One notable project is \"Nairobi: A City in the Sun,\" which provides a 360-degree tour of the city, highlighting both its beauty and its challenges.",[]]]},{"de":[["The theory suggests that media richness is determined by the capacity to deliver immediate feedback, the number of cues and channels used, personalization, and language variety.",[]],["Richer media, such as face-to-face communication, are more effective for complex and ambiguous tasks, while leaner media, like memos, are suitable for straightforward messages.",[]]]},{"de":[["People with FOMO syndrome also suffer from panic attacks, as they check their mobile phones frequently to continuously update themselves with the latest developments in the social environment",["Franchina et al., 2018;Przybylski et al., 2013;VandenAbeeleand and Van Rooij, 2016"]]],"ex":[["family, friends, and places around them",["Franchina et al., 2018;Przybylski et al., 2013;VandenAbeeleand and Van Rooij, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["People with FOMO syndrome also suffer from panic attacks, as they check their mobile phones frequently to continuously update themselves with the latest developments in the social environment (for example, family, friends, and places around them)",["Franchina et al., 2018","Przybylski et al., 2013","VandenAbeeleand and Van Rooij, 2016"]],["Studies conducted on FOMO individuals also found a strong correlation between excessive use of social media and high levels of stress, and fear of loneliness",["Beyens et al., 2016"]],["People with FOMO syndrome also suffer from panic attacks, as they check their mobile phones frequently to continuously update themselves with the latest developments in the social environment",["Franchina et al., 2018;Przybylski et al., 2013;VandenAbeeleand and Van Rooij, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["to make it different from the traditional FOMO related to the social information",["Shana et al., 2019"]],["In the past literature, the FOMO related to the investment information has been given a distinct identity (I-FoMO), to make it different from the traditional FOMO related to the social information",["Shana et al., 2019"]],["The I-FoMO scale is different from the traditional FOMO scale that exists in social media setting as proposed by Przybylski et al. (2013).",["Przybylski et al., 2013"]]],"sy":[["fear of missing out (FOMO)",[]]],"rt":[["traditional FOMO",["Shana et al., 2019","Przybylski et al., 2013"]],["traditional FOMO related to the social information",[]]]},{"de":[["The Nomophobic individuals develop the habit of checking their mobile phones frequently, sleeping with their mobile phone besides their pillow, and always carrying an extra battery power bank with them",["Durak, 2018"]],["People get panic attacks in the fear of staying away from their mobile phones, and in getting out of the network coverage area or out of battery power.",["King et al., 2014"]],["These panic attacks can lead to complex behavioural patterns seen in the Nomophobic individuals, including frequently checking their mobile phones, not paying enough attention to the present situation around them, and depression in the long run.",[]],["Construct -1: Not being able to Communicate",[]],["Construct -2: Losing Connectedness",[]],["Construct -3: Not being able to access Information",[]],["Construct -4: Giving up Convenience",[]]],"sy":[["no mobile phone phobia",[]]],"ex":[["Nomophobic individuals develop the habit of checking their mobile phones frequently, sleeping with their mobile phone besides their pillow, and always carrying an extra battery power bank with them",["Durak, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["focus on attacking from the perspective of fake news contents.",[]]],"ex":[["conducting attacks that distort news content or inject adversarial words",["131","132","133"]],["simulate the adversarial behaviors of fraudsters and affect the feature of propagation so as to attack GNN-based misinformation detectors",["137"]]]},{"de":[["this type of fake news heavily relies on the headlines or cover page images as shown in the example of Fig. 2 c, and therefore hot topics, attractive images or clickbaits are often employed.",[]],["This kind of fake news is mainly used for commercial or entertainment purposes, e.g., to increase traffic, click rate or to create a buzz, where topic features, visual features and clickbait features are extracted to differentiate fake news from real news.",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["This kind of news messages is less formal and more readable than professionally written ones.",[]]]},{"de":[["intrinsic characteristics of fake news diffusion process",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["user stance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The key distinctive features of fake news are authenticity and intentionality.",[]],["Fake news is usually limited to news articles",[]],["Fake news is usually limited to news articles while disinformation includes all kinds of information.",[]]],"rt":[["rumor",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",["5"]]]},{"de":[["The goal of fake news detection is to learn a function 𝑓 ( ⋅) using above information to distinguish whether a message 𝑚 𝑖 or an event 𝑥 is fake or not.",[]]]},{"ex":[["given a headline: \"This Is the Most Horrifying Cheating Story \", users might wonder what is \"This \", and hence click the web page.",[]]]},{"de":[["Compared to general false information, the identification of health misinformation requires specialized biomedical knowledge. It can be challenging for the general public to distinguish.",[]],["In addition, health misinformation is particularly related to human health and can potentially harm the physical wellbeing of deceived individuals.",[]],["Compared to general false information, the identification of health misinformation requires specialized biomedical knowledge. It can be challenging for the general public to distinguish. In addition, health misinformation is particularly related to human health and can potentially harm the physical wellbeing of deceived individuals.",[]]]},{"de":[["Real news is usually spread by ordinary users, while fake news however tends to be propagated by diverse types of users, which thereby results in heteromorphic transmission patterns.",[]],["Such heteromorphic propagation structure is caused by (a) the intentional nature of users during fake news propagation. For example, spammers and bots are paid to propagate fake news for commercial or political purposes. (b) the varying nature of messages during fake news propagation, e.g., comments with incendiary language or related to hot topics.",[]],["intrinsic characteristics of fake news diffusion process",[]]],"sp":[["diffusion process",[]]],"ex":[["fake news is typically posted by a low-impact user first and then widely spread by opinion leaders, while real news is usually initiated by an opinion leader and spread by normal users.",["26"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Usually, posts/reposts/comments with the same stance form supportive relations, and can mutually rise their credibility, while those with conflict stances form opposed relations, and will mutually weaken their credibility.",[]]],"sp":[["user stance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["intrinsic characteristics of fake news diffusion process",[]]],"sb":[["Mislead the public",[]],["Manipulate opinions",[]],["Attract user attention",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["this type of fake news does not focus on making the news appear more authentic, but rather aims to convey a certain viewpoint, and meanwhile uses emotional words and particular writing styles to incite people to support that viewpoint.",[]],["Fake news is often used to manipulate people's opinions, especially for political purpose.",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["its textual content is quite similar to that of real news, except for subtle differences of employing special symbols, such as personal pronouns, URLs and \"@ \" tags, etc, in order to make the news seem more convincing",[]],["This kind of fake news is usually used for commercial purposes, e.g., to make the veracity of a news message indistinguishable for the public so that users are more likely to buy some products.",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["make the veracity of a news message indistinguishable for the public so that users are more likely to buy some products",[]]]},{"sy":[["propagation-based methods",[]]],"sb":[["message-based propagation structure",[]],["user-based propagation structure",[]],["hybrid propagation structure",[]]]},{"de":[["This research direction has gradually gained attention and exploration in recent years, and research efforts have been made mainly in two perspectives. On one hand, adversarial attack methods are proposed to undermine the effectiveness of fake news detectors. On the other hand, some works investigate which features and properties in current detection methods exhibit better resistance or robustness against attacks.",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news tends to use emotional or inflammatory words to manipulate users to support its viewpoints.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["the text length of news messages, and whether the message contains question or exclamation marks.",[]],["count the number of words, and use the first, second or third-person pronoun, as a feature.",[]],["verify whether the message contains witness phrases, like \"I see \", \"I hear \" and so on.",[]],["the external URLs in messages as a supportive evidence",[]],["extract some features from URLs, such as frequencies of dashes, upper case letters, and commas.",[]],["the number of \"@ \" tags, comments and reposts are calculated.",[]],["the location feature of the event described in a message",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Fake news is generally written with distinctive styles in order to manipulate opinions.",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news tends to make use of sensational topics to attract users' interest [6] , such as divorces or pregnancies of celebrities and flight accidents (e.g. \"Flight MH370 lost contact \").",["6"]]],"ex":[["divorces or pregnancies of celebrities and flight accidents (e.g. \"Flight MH370 lost contact \")",[]]]},{"de":[["can be effective in early detection of fake news.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Text style transfer",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Specifically, the heuristic motivates people to support welfare benefits to recipients who are represented as victims of bad luck and reject benefits to recipients who are represented as lazy.",[]],["this heuristic is something that humans around the world intuitively apply to all help-giving situations.",[]],["the use of the heuristic and the underlying psychological systems are not confined to the political domain",[]],["In sum, these analyses support the motivational outputs of the deservingness heuristic being narrowly focused on (1) investing in reciprocators through compassion and (2) recalibrating the behavior of cheaters through anger.",[]],["Essentially, when deciding on whether to support welfare benefits to a group or individual, we judged whether the relevant welfare recipients would be good cooperation partners in ancestral, face-to-face interaction.",[]],["an evolutionary perspective suggests that the representational systems underlying the deservingness heuristic could be designed to represent sick individuals as non-cheaters and provide care in order to motivate them and others to reciprocate when the self was struck by sickness or injury.",[]],["The deservingness heuristic appears constrained by our evolution to tag particular ancestrally relevant needs as deserving.",[]],["the representational system underlying the deservingness heuristic is biased toward representing sickness as a random accident.",[]],["representational systems underlying the deservingness heuristic cause individuals to prioritize clear cues about the specific recipient's level of deservingness rather than ideological consistency in their opinion formation process.",[]],["the output of the deservingness heuristic is influenced by individual differences in, for example, ideology and self-interest.",[]],["The information that is extracted is the kind of information that would correlate with being a reciprocator over human evolutionary history, such as expressions of gratitude, being truly needy, being part of the same group, that Y has previously contributed in exchange situations, and that Y makes an effort to alleviate his own need.",[]],["If this motivation is assessed as being high, a signal is sent to activate the particular system designed for social investments, compassion, which motivates the provision of benefits to Y.",[]],["the deservingness heuristic treats as sign that the need is accidental rather than a reflection of a lack of effort",[]],["The deservingness heuristic has, in essence, been part of the selection environment for the human species",[]],["the deservingness heuristic is not merely a set of psychological systems that has influenced whether our direct ancestors helped others but also a set of systems that influenced whether others helped our ancestors",[]],["the deservingness heuristic that modern individuals apply to welfare politics is undergirded by evolved representation and motivation systems designed to handle adaptive problems related to cheating in social exchange, for example in the context of ancestral foraging.",[]],["This heuristic emerges from species-typical systems that all phenotypically normal humans share and, hence, it is not something \"learned\" in the context of modern mass politics or something confined to mass politics by individuals in particular modern cultures, welfare states, or of a particular ideological leaning.",[]],["the deservingness heuristic being narrowly focused on (1) investing in reciprocators through compassion and (2) recalibrating the behavior of cheaters through anger.",[]],["Rather than the deservingness heuristic being aligned with general political reasoning, it leads people to take whatever opinion is aligned with the cues in front of them, even if that means sacrificing their normal political principles.",[]],["The function of the deservingness heuristic is to recruit insurance, and the potential insurance partners available in the small-scale social world of our ancestors were limited.",[]],["Furthermore, given the particular structure of ancestral health problems, sickness as the cause of need was predicted and subsequently empirically shown to be one specific cue that the deservingness heuristic treats as sign that the need is accidental rather than a reflection of a lack of effort.",[]],["an evolved feature of human political cognition",[]],["our attitudes toward social welfare should essentially be guided by the cues that would disclose whether welfare recipients would have been good, cooperating partners in ancestral face-to-face exchange.",[]],["input to the deservingness heuristic: the effort spent when accruing resources, the gratitude expressed when receiving benefits, shared group membership, high levels of need (and, hence, higher marginal benefits from help), being a victim of a random event, and so forth",["Oorschot, 2006: 38"]]],"rt":[["effort perceptions",[]],["political ideology",[]],["self-interest",[]],["cheater-detection systems",[]]],"sp":[["heuristics",[]]],"ex":[["the effort spent when accruing resources",[]],["the gratitude expressed when receiving benefits",[]],["shared group membership",[]],["high levels of need (and, hence, higher marginal benefits from help)",[]],["being a victim of a random event",[]],["form welfare opinions on the basis of whether recipients are lazy or making an effort",[]],["form opinions about welfare benefits",[]],["sickness as the cause of need was predicted and subsequently empirically shown to be one specific cue that the deservingness heuristic treats as sign that the need is accidental rather than a reflection of a lack of effort.",[]],["the heuristic motivates people to support welfare benefits to recipients who are represented as victims of bad luck and reject benefits to recipients who are represented as lazy.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The general function of heuristics, in this perspective, is to save processing effort without sacrificing decision-making accuracy",["Eagly & Chaiken, 1993"]],["In politics, the simplicity of heuristics is expected to allow citizens to reach value-consistent attitudes or vote choices without needing to invest cognitive resources in acquiring political knowledge or thinking through all of the potential alternatives",["Downs, 1957","Lau & Redlawsk, 2006","Sniderman, Brody & Tetlock, 1991"]],["The notion of heuristics-that is, the utilization of narrow rules for decision-making-is one of the most successful theoretical notions in political psychological research and beyond",["Druckman, Kuklinski, & Sigelman, 2009"]],["the utilization of narrow rules for decision-making",["Druckman, Kuklinski, & Sigelman, 2009"]]]},{"rt":[["political ideology",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["political heuristics",[]]],"rt":[["contingent political inferences (if-then inferences)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Who gets what?",[]]]},{"rt":[["social exchange rules",[]]]},{"de":[["conflicts of interest over resources (such as food and mates, and immaterial resources, such as status) have been ancestrally recurrent.",[]],["have been ancestrally recurrent.",[]]],"rt":[["adaptive problem",[]]]},{},{"de":[["where agents place greater weight on information more 'available' or easier to recall (Schwarz 1991)",[]]],"ex":[["For instance, high-profile events, like plane crashes or fake news scandals, are easier to recall-which consequently often makes such events seem excessively likely for agents, regardless of their actual statistical likelihood.",[]]]},{"de":[["preventing full discounting of past information, due to underconfidence in the new shock's veracity",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news is more novel than real news, and inspired \"fear, disgust, and surprise in replies\"",["Vosoughi et al. (2018)"]],["fake news \"diffused significantly farther, faster, deeper, and more broadly than the truth in all categories of information\"",["Vosoughi et al. (2018)"]],["fake news' non-physical content \"like purpose, sentiment, and news topics\" are detectably different than real news",["Zhang and Ghorbani 2020"]],["fake news creators often use exaggerated title [s] to attract readers' attention",["Zhang and Ghorbani 2020"]],["fake news can incur social costs, and could render agents more sceptical to all news-including legitimate news",["Allcott and Gentzkow (2017)"]],["Fake news is structured to shock and convince, maximising initial impacts to spread faster and deeper than real news (Allcott and Gentzkow 2017;Vosoughi et al. 2018)",["Allcott and Gentzkow 2017","Vosoughi et al. 2018"]],["Intentional disinformation",[]]],"sy":[["Intentional disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["real news",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["underconfidence",[]]]},{"rt":[["weight",["Griffin and Tversky 1992"]]]},{"de":[["underconfidence in the reverse",["Griffin and Tversky 1992"]]],"rt":[["overconfidence",[]]]},{"rt":[["strength",["Griffin and Tversky 1992"]]]},{"de":[["They include accusations of lying, ignorance, stupidity, and condescension.",[]],["Certain types of ad hominem attacks are relatively easy to detect, especially attacks in which other indicators feature, such as slurs and stereotypical language.",[]],["Certain types of ad hominem attacks can be easy to detect, especially attacks where other indicators are present, such as slurs, stereotypical language. But there are context-sensitive ad hominem attacks whose detection requires a natural language understanding level not yet achieved by the current systems.",["75"]]],"rt":[["name calling",[]],["smears",[]]]},{"de":[["Language containing the denial of fundamental human rights can be detected using machine learning methods and large enough datasets, since it is often characterized by a relatively homogenous set of features",["60"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Parekh [25] further recognizes three main aspects of the construct of hate speech: (1) it is directed at specific individuals or groups of individuals, (2) undesirable attributes are ascribed to the target group, thereby creating stigmatization; (3) it leads to discrimination because the ascription of undesirable attributes encourages the target to be seen as undesirable.",["25"]],["inequality is a core element of hate speech. In the subordinate-superior relationship, hate speech puts the creator in a position of authority and the target in the position of the subordinate, which encourages the target to be seen as inferior and legitimizes discriminatory behavior",["27"]],["the promotion of violent behavior, use of vulgarisms, and denial of human rights to be the core aspects of hate speech",[]],["it is directed at specific individuals or groups of individuals, (2) undesirable attributes are ascribed to the target group, thereby creating stigmatization; (3) it leads to discrimination because the ascription of undesirable attributes encourages the target to be seen as undesirable.",["25"]],["in the context of migrants",[]]],"rt":[["expressing dislike",["25"]],["lack of respect",["25"]],["a demeaning view of others",["25"]],["disapproval",["25"]],["the use of abusive or insulting speech",["25"]],["toxic language",["11"]],["abusive/offensive language",[]]],"sp":[["abusive/offensive language",["11"]]]},{"de":[["we define hate speech empirically by providing a list of hate speech indicators (i.e., specific, observable, measurable characteristics that offer a practical means of defining the concept) and the rationale behind them.",[]],["operationalizing hate speech in the form of indicators could fulfil the same purpose-provide objective, measurable cues to help \"diagnose\" hate speech and find effective interventions.",[]]],"sp":[["Indicators",[]]]},{"de":[["Indicators are also frequently used in psychopathology as a means of conceptualizing and diagnosing mental health problems.",[]]],"rt":[["operational indicators of fake news",["39"]],["behavioral indicators related to sexting",["40"]]]},{"de":[["Despite the existing research, automatically detecting a manipulative style or misinterpretations is still a challenge. Current systems do not possess the level of natural language understanding to reliably detect such phenomena",["63","64"]]],"ex":[["denial of historical events",[]],["denial of historical events.",[]]]},{"de":[["They promote the view that the targeted group is inferior or subordinate and are closely linked and related to Indicator no. 2.",[]]],"rt":[["Indicator no. 2",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This also includes excusing violence, promoting negationism, and condoning terrorism.",[]],["Language promoting violent behavior can be detected using machine learning methods and large enough datasets, since it is often characterized by a relatively homogenous set of features",["57","58","59","60"]]]},{},{"de":[["It also includes second sexism-discrimination against men and boys.",[]],["Sexist language can to some extent be detected using machine learning methods and large enough datasets. However, certain types of sexist language are still hard to detect, e.g. latent sexist language, ambiguous statements or sexist language that draws on a broader context and not individual phrases or sentences",["41-43","57","61","73","74"]]],"sb":[["latent sexist language",[]],["ambiguous statements",[]]]},{"de":[["Slurs and vulgarisms can be detected with a high level of precision using simple word lexicons. Issues with the culturally sensitive usage of certain words (words that are slurs in some cultures, but not in others) remain an open problem",["13","29","76"]]],"sy":[["ethnic slurs",[]]]},{"de":[["Mocking the concept, events or victims of hate crimes, even if no real person is discussed.",[]]]},{"de":[["In so doing, the access provider aims at engaging the people in public conversation by giving the various stakeholders in society a chance to articulate their interests and thus contribute to public deliberation.",[]]],"sp":[["analytical-deliberative",[]]]},{"de":[["In this tradition, journalists often position themselves as 'mouthpiece of the people' (Chan and So, 2005), trying to give 'the people' a voice in the news (p. 73).",["Chan and So, 2005"]]]},{"de":[["In this tradition, journalists often position themselves as 'mouthpiece of the people' (Chan and So, 2005), trying to give 'the people' a voice in the news (p. 73).",["Chan and So, 2005","p. 73"]],["Such a 'radical' role entails elements of hostility in the journalists' positioning toward the government",["Christians et al., 2009: 31"]]],"sp":[["advocative-radical function",[]]]},{"de":[["Identification with a particular group is thus essential for this role, with journalists acting as campaigner, as 'lobbyist', as a 'voice for the poor'",["Pintak and Nazir, 2013: 649"]]],"sp":[["advocative-radical function",[]]]},{"de":[["Roles that belong to this domain compel journalists to conceive of themselves as 'participants' (Cohen, 1963: 20) in political discourse who bring an ideological bias to the discussion (Statham, 2007)",["Cohen, 1963: 20","Statham, 2007"]]],"sb":[["Adversary journalists",[]],["The advocate",[]],["The missionary role",[]]]},{"de":[["It places a strong emphasis on subjectivity and opinion, in a much more explicit manner than the storyteller, by tracing causes and predicting consequences.",[]]],"sp":[["analytical-deliberative",[]]]},{"sb":[["analyst",[]],["access provider",[]],["mobilizer",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Journalists who embrace this role tend to be defensive of authorities and routinely engage in selfcensorship; they often remain markedly paternalistic toward 'the people'.",[]],["A collaborative-facilitative attitude may be forced upon journalists through means of coercion, but it can also be based on a shared commitment to mutually agreeable means and ends (e.g. 'development'; Christians et al., 2009)",["Christians et al., 2009"]]],"sb":[["facilitators",["Wong, 2004"]],["collaborator",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists tend to agree that press freedom should be limited according to the nation's economic priorities and development needs",["Romano, 2005"]]],"sy":[["propagandist role",["Pasti, 2005: 99"]],["agitators",["Wu et al., 1996: 544"]]],"sp":[["collaborative-facilitative dimension",[]]]},{"de":[["This dimension is grounded in the ideal of journalism acting as 'Fourth Estate', with journalists voicing criticism and holding powers to account and, in so doing, creating a critically minded citizenry",["Christians et al., 2009: 30"]]],"sb":[["monitor",[]],["detective",[]],["watchdog",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The curating journalist finds, organizes, contextualizes, and shares the most relevant content on a given topic",["Deshpande, 2013"]],["In other words, curators identify, organize, and repackage information into deliverable packages and make it available for their users.",[]]],"sp":[["informational-instructive",[]]]},{"de":[["Detectives are the prototype of the 'investigative journalist', for whom investigative practice is at the heart of their professional identity.",[]],["Another element of this role is verification, which has become increasingly central to electronic media in routines to authenticate material provided by external sources.",[]]],"sp":[["critical-monitorial",[]]]},{"sb":[["change agent",[]],["educator role",[]]]},{"de":[["the discourse of journalistic roles is the central arena where journalistic culture and identity is reproduced and contested; it is the place where the struggle over the preservation or transformation of journalism's identity takes place.",[]],["In this view, journalistic roles represent and articulate discursive positions that compete in a relational structure -the discursive field.",[]]]},{"de":[["Based on the idea that as journalists should, and can, report things 'as they are', they tend to see themselves as detached bystanders, adhering to strict neutrality. Journalists then often depend on official sources, serving society in the capacity of an 'official register' or a 'minute taker'.",[]]],"sp":[["informational-instructive",[]]]},{"de":[["Based on the idea that as journalists should, and can, report things 'as they are', they tend to see themselves as detached bystanders, adhering to strict neutrality.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Serving as educators, journalists raise public awareness and knowledge about a perceived problem",["Statham, 2007"]]],"sy":[["teachers",[]]],"sp":[["developmental-educative dimension",[]]]},{"de":[["This includes realities such as securing daily provisions, self-maintenance, and entertainment.",[]],["Through it, all persons must manage their emotional state and negotiate their identity.",[]],["Hence, we use everyday life here to refer to a broad array of non-political news and to journalists' role relative to this domain.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This approach to development journalism often emphasizes nation building and the preservation of national unity",["Pintak and Nazir, 2013","Romano, 2003"]],["Journalists in this tradition often voluntarily collaborate with governments that are seen as offering unity and stability",["George, 2013"]]],"sp":[["collaborative-facilitative dimension",[]]]},{"de":[["Guides, or navigators, provide orientation in an increasingly multi-optional world in daily life, for example, by presenting exemplars of (more or less) desired lifestyles through celebrity news (Hanusch and Hanitzsch, 2013).",["Hanusch and Hanitzsch, 2013"]]],"sy":[["navigators",[]]],"ex":[["presenting exemplars of (more or less) desired lifestyles through celebrity news",["Hanusch and Hanitzsch, 2013"]]]},{"sy":[["navigators",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["disseminator",[]],["curator",[]],["storyteller",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this role, journalists provide inspiration for new lifestyles and products, and they tie them to a positive attitude toward life.",[]]]},{"de":[["they act as a source of institutional legitimacy relative to a broader society and, through a process of socialization, they inform the cognitive toolkit that journalists use to think about their work",["Schmidt, 2008(Schmidt, , 2010)"]]]},{"de":[["These roles have sedimented in journalism's institutional norms and practices and are subject to discursive (re)creation, (re)interpretation, appropriation, and contestation.",[]],["Journalists are charged with acting in the roles of providing surveillance, forming opinion, setting the agenda, acting as a 'watchdog', acting as a messenger and public informant, and playing an active participant part in social life.",[]],["In order to be intelligible, they exist as part of a wider framework of meaning -of a discourse.",[]],["As structures of meaning, they set the parameters of what is desirable in a given institutional context, and they are subject to discursive (re)creation, (re)interpretation, appropriation, and contestation.",[]],["Over time, these roles have solidified as institutional norms and practices. As structures of meaning, they set the parameters of what is desirable in a given institutional context, and they are subject to discursive (re)creation, (re)interpretation, appropriation, and contestation.",[]]],"sy":[["journalistic functions",[]]],"rt":[["political life",[]],["everyday life",[]],["discursively constituted",[]]],"sb":[["informational-instructive",[]],["analytical-deliberative",[]],["criticalmonitorial",[]],["advocative-radical",[]],["developmental-educative",[]],["collaborative-facilitative",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["peace journalism",["McGoldrick, 2000","2000"]]]},{"de":[["Different from the advocate, the missionary does not act on behalf of others but engages in campaigns out of a personal motivation.",[]]]},{"de":[["Different from the advocate, the missionary does not act on behalf of others but engages in campaigns out of a personal motivation.",[]],["Journalists embracing this role may propagate a certain political ideology (Köcher, 1986) or cultural, spiritual, and moral values (Ramaprasad and Hamdy, 2006).",["Köcher, 1986","Ramaprasad and Hamdy, 2006"]]],"sp":[["advocative-radical function",[]]]},{"de":[["Embracing this role means to act as agent of empowerment (Romano, 2003) by framing the news 'in a way that invites people into civic activity and political conversation' (Rosen, 2000: 680).",["Romano, 2003","Rosen, 2000: 680"]]],"sp":[["analytical-deliberative",[]]]},{"de":[["This role corresponds with an understanding of journalists as critical observers of political conduct. The monitor role is not an active pursuit; it essentially responds to political misconduct as journalists happen to become aware of it.",[]],["The monitor role is not an active pursuit; it essentially responds to political misconduct as journalists happen to become aware of it.",[]]],"sp":[["critical-monitorial",[]]]},{"de":[["In this capacity, journalists may act as entertainer (Johnstone et al., 1972), or more generally as provider of positive experience.",["Johnstone et al., 1972"]]]},{},{"de":[["The mouthpiece often ostensibly tries to 'improve communication' between officials and citizens",["Chan and So, 2005: 73"]]],"rt":[["oficialista",["Hallin, 2000: 99"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The narrator role places the news of the day into larger narratives that often extend over time, taking into account the past, the present, and the (envisaged) future.",[]]],"sy":[["narrator",[]]],"rt":[["narrator",[]]],"sp":[["informational-instructive",[]]]},{},{"de":[["As a companion, and sometimes even therapist, the friend helps audience members navigate the difficult task of identity work and the complex world of social relationships (Rubin, 1981).",["Rubin, 1981"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Journalists who embrace this role proactively scrutinize political and business leaders; they provide an independent critique of society and its institutions",["McQuail, 2000"]],["The watchdog role is even more active and assertive by comparison.",[]]],"sp":[["critical-monitorial",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["intentionally written to mislead the readers",[]],["the notion of 'fake news' itself is rather vague and nuanced.",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a subjective aspect of news",[]]]},{"de":[["public attention changes are driven primarily by periods of high news volume and mean similarity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["measured annually using Google Trend data",[]]]},{"de":[["disinforming does not require that she actually ends up being deceived",[]],["you can disinform someone without communicating anything directly to him",[]],["you can disinform without expressing any particular proposition",[]],["information need not be true or accurate",["3","32"]],["what is required for disinforming is that you disseminate some information (condition 1) that you intend to be misleading (conditions 2 and 3) and it actually is misleading (conditions 4 and 5).",[]]],"rt":[["lying",[]],["deception",[]],["Disseminate Misleading Information",[]]],"ex":[["the fake radio transmissions during World War Two",[]],["when the President said to the American people, \"I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky,\" he seemed to be disseminating false information",[]]]},{"de":[["Inaccurate and misleading information can have such bad consequences whether the source of the information made an honest mistake (misinformation) or actually intended to deceive (disinformation).",[]],["it will often be more difficult to identify disinformation since the source of the information does not want us to realize that the information is inaccurate or misleading.",[]],["In particular, news services are frequently sources of disinformation (cf. [4], pp. 23-53).",["4"]],["In fact, single individuals are often the source of disinformation.",[]],["Disinformation is often distributed very widely (e.g., to anyone with a newspaper subscription, to anyone with a television, to anyone with Internet access).",[]],["But disinformation can also be targeted at specific people or organizations.",[]],["what is required for disinforming is that you disseminate some information (condition 1) that you intend to be misleading (conditions 2 and 3) and it actually is misleading (conditions 4 and 5).",[]],["disinformation turns out to be misleading information that is intended to be (or at least foreseen to be) misleading.",[]],["while disinformation will typically be inaccurate, it does not have to be inaccurate. It just has to be misleading.",[]],["disinformation is actually not a proper subset of inaccurate information.",[]],["how much of this inaccurate information is \"deliberately misleading.\"",[]],["actually intended to deceive",[]],["Alternatively, we might hold that disinformation is a proper subset of misinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["knowledge",[]],["lying",[]],["deception",[]],["inaccurate information",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["governmental or military activity",[]],["carefully planned and technically sophisticated deceit",[]],["written or verbal information",[]],["targeted at a machine",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Forged documents",[]],["doctored photographs",["6"]],["deceptive advertising",[]],["deliberately falsified maps",[]],["government propaganda",[]],["disinformation campaign",[]],["creating websites that \"impersonate\" the websites of reputable sources of information",[]],["convincingly manipulate visual images",[]],["anonymously insert misleading information into Wikipedia",[]],["Operation Bodyguard",[]],["individual reporters (e.g., Jayson Blair of the New York Times and Janet Cooke of the Washington Post) have simply made up stories",[]],["purported memoirs that turned out to be fictional creations",["18","19"]],["hackers have intentionally disseminated inaccurate information by directly modifying the websites of news services such as Yahoo! News and the New York Times",["20"]],["Anyone can purposely (and anonymously) add inaccurate information to Wikipedia.",[]],["the Soviets deliberately falsified maps in an attempt to fool their enemies about where important sites were located",["21"]],["Forged documents, doctored photographs, deceptive advertising, deliberately falsified maps, and government propaganda",[]],["fake radio transmissions",[]],["websites that \"impersonate\" the websites of reputable sources of information",[]]]},{"de":[["disinforming is a more restrictive concept than lying.",[]],["the activity of disinforming",[]]],"rt":[["lying",[]],["deceptive lying",[]]]},{"de":[["information need not be true or accurate",["3","32"]],["Namely, there is stuff with representational content.",[]]],"sp":[["stuff with representational content",[]]]},{"de":[["made an honest mistake",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["A loss of amor propio would result in a loss of face and may compromise the cherished position of community acceptance",["Gong et al., 2003"]]],"rt":[["saving face",[]]]},{},{"de":[["bahala na may combine with religious beliefs to create additional barriers to addressing mental health problems (Javier et al., 2014).",["Javier et al., 2014"]],["Bahala na can be evidenced through Filipino cultural expectations to endure emotional problems and avoid discussion of personal issues.",[]],["bahala na may combine with religious beliefs to create additional barriers to addressing mental health problems",["Javier et al., 2014","2014"]]],"ex":[["virtuous and religious Filipinos and Filipino Americans may endorse bahala na attitudes by believing their higher power has instilled purposeful challenges that can be overcome by sufficient faith and endurance",["Javier et al., 2014","2014"]]]},{"de":[["Colonial mentality is the insidious aftermath galvanized through years of intergenerational trauma, U.S. occupation, and socialization under White supremacy",["David et al., 2017"]],["socialized messages from parents and elders with intergenerational trauma may have contributed to the internalization of colonial mentality.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["ibang tao (in Tagalog, \"not one of us\")",[]]]},{"de":[["combined feelings of shame (hiya) linked to beliefs that one has failed or is unable to overcome their problems independently",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["opinion clustering",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Each link marking interpersonal interaction in the network was associated with a sign indicating friend or enemy relations.",[]],["His objective was to formally distinguish between friendly (positive) and hostile (negative) relationships.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The finding of interest is that people often fail to notice this manipulation, come to endorse the option they had initially rejected, and even confabulate reasons why they made a choice that they never really made.",[]],["after a longer delay, participants might have more ambiguous memories for their choices, and when asked to justify their choices, they may rely more on a constructive process of evaluating plausible reasons why they may have made a given choice",["Bem, 1972","Johansson, Hall, Sikström, Tärning, & Lind, 2006","Sagana et al., 2014"]],["the choice blindness manipulation is with altering preferences",[]],["The literature shows that when people are asked to choose between several options, they often fail to notice if they are then given one of the nonchosen options.",[]]],"rt":[["memory blindness",[]]],"sb":[["memory blindness",[]]],"ex":[["a participant who had initially indicated that grapefruit jam was his favorite might be presented with the cinnamon apple jam as if it were the one he had chosen (and vice versa).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["novel consequence of choice blindness on eyewitness memory",[]],["many witnesses may fail to notice, and that such a failure can cause their memories to change to be consistent with those altered statements",[]]],"rt":[["choice blindness",[]],["misinformation effect",[]]],"sp":[["choice blindness",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation has the greatest influence on participants' memories when it is presented after a long retention interval and immediately prior to a memory test, since the original memory has decayed, whereas the misinformation is fresh",["Loftus et al., 1978"]]]},{"ex":[["In one study, when participants viewed a depiction of a car traveling through an intersection with a stop sign, if they were later exposed to a suggestive question that mentioned a yield sign, many falsely remembered a yield sign in a subsequent forced choice recognition test",[]]]},{"de":[["Affective postures are typically involuntary. The sense in which this is so is that they aren't matters of choice or decision.",[]]],"rt":[["posture",[]]],"sp":[["posture",[]]],"ex":[["contempt",[]],["arrogance",[]],["indifference",[]]]},{"ex":[["One example is the tobacco industry's attempts to generate and maintain public ignorance concerning tobacco's impact on health.",[]]]},{"sp":[["posture",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["people, political parties and ideas",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The bullshitter doesn't reject the authority of truth, he pays no attention to it at all.",[]],["He does not care whether the things he says describe reality correctly",["2005: 55-6"]],["Bullshit is \"produced without concern for the truth\" (Frankfurt 2005: 47), and this lack of concern is the essence of epistemic insouciance.",["Frankfurt 2005: 47"]]],"rt":[["primary intellectual product of epistemic insouciance",[]]]},{"sp":[["posture",[]]]},{"rt":[["epistemic malevolence",[]]]},{"de":[["A negative attitude towards another race is not per se an epistemic attitude but it implies an epistemic attitude.",[]]],"sb":[["epistemic insouciance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Epistemic insouciance means not really caring much about any of this and being excessively casual and nonchalant about the challenge of finding answers to complex questions, partly as a result of a tendency to view such questions less complex than they really are.",[]],["Epistemic insouciance is an attitude vice, an epistemic vice that is an attitude.",[]],["Epistemic insouciance is the attitude, or an attitude, that makes one a bullshitter and thereby causes one to spout bullshit.",[]],["Epistemic insouciance might lead a person to refuse to engage with certain types of evidence or inquiry but refusing to engage is not bullshit even if it results in bullshit.",[]],["It implies, and is partly constituted by, a marked lack of intellectual seriousness, flippancy about basing one's views expert opinion or what the evidence shows.",[]],["It is a casualness or indifference to the truth and to the need to base one's opinions on the relevant facts.",[]],["It is this indifference or nonchalance that is essential to epistemic insouciance and that constitutes its affective dimension, assuming that indifference has an affective quality.",[]],["indifference to the truth and to the need to base one's views on the relevant facts or evidence.",[]],["it is not a matter of being excessively casual or nonchalant about the challenge of finding answers to complex questions or tending to view such questions less complex than they really are.",[]],["the affective core of epistemic insouciance is indifference rather than contempt",[]],["an affective attitude",[]],["a posture",[]],["lack of concern about the truth makes it harder to know the truth, while the casual disparaging of experts prevents them from sharing their knowledge with the rest of us.",[]],["the halftruths and outright falsehoods that are the natural by-product of epistemic insouciance make it harder for us to retain our knowledge.",[]],["not caring about the evidence is hardly conducive to forming beliefs that are evidence-based.",[]],["the basis on which they reject evidence against P or interpret such evidence as misleading",[]],["the nonchalance which is at the heart of epistemic insouciance",[]],["epistemic insouciance and other epistemic vices are often passively absorbed rather than actively cultivated",[]],["concluding that one's contempt or epistemic insouciance is based on false beliefs or is otherwise unwarranted is potentially a way of becoming less contemptuous or epistemically insouciant",[]],["It implies, and is partly constituted by, a marked lack of intellectual seriousness, flippancy about basing one's views expert opinion or what the evidence shows. It is a casualness or indifference to the truth and to the need to base one's opinions on the relevant facts.",[]],["Epistemic insouciance is an attitude rather than something that a person does, and it does imply an indifference to the truth or falsity of his utterances.",[]],["the affective core of epistemic insouciance is indifference",[]],["nonchalance which is at the heart of epistemic insouciance",[]],["not caring about the evidence is hardly conducive to forming beliefs that are evidence-based",[]],["the affective core of epistemic insouciance is indifference rather than contempt and indifference is not a form of epistemic malevolence.",[]]],"rt":[["bullshit",[]],["epistemic malevolence",[]],["prejudice",[]],["attitude vice",[]]],"sb":[["Epistemic insouciance is not usually a matter of decision or choice and is in this sense involuntary.",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic posture",[]],["epistemic vice",[]],["affective posture",[]],["epistemic attitude",[]],["epistemic vices",[]],["attitude vice",[]]]},{"sp":[["epistemic vices",[]]]},{"de":[["Being malevolent in either sense is a policy rather than a posture: it is a voluntarily adopted epistemic attitude that lacks an affective element.",[]],["the opposition to the good that is essential to malevolence, whether moral or epistemic, is volitional, active and personally deep.",[]],["It is volitional in the sense that it involves the will and is not the mere preference that the good should be opposed.",[]],["what makes it personally deep is that it reflects the malevolent person's cares and concerns.",[]],["Assuming that the epistemic good is knowledge, epistemic malevolence is opposition to knowledge.",[]],["Epistemic malevolence is different from epistemic insouciance precisely because it is not a matter of being excessively casual or nonchalant about the challenge of finding answers to complex questions or tending to view such questions less complex than they really are.",[]],["Epistemic malevolence is an attitude but not an affective attitude like epistemic insouciance.",[]],["Epistemic malevolence is voluntary in a way that postures are not. One doesn't decide not to care about whether one's views are supported by the evidence, in the way that one decides whether to undermine another person's knowledge or the evidence on which their knowledge is based.",[]],["conceptualise epistemic malevolence as a stance rather than a posture.",[]],["With epistemic malevolence the primary impact is on the gaining and keeping of knowledge. For those who didn't know about the link between smoking and cancer the aim of the tobacco strategy was to prevent them from coming to know about it. With regard to people already who knew about the link the aim was to deprive them of their knowledge.",[]],["other-directed",[]],["its effectiveness is an indication of the close relationship between knowledge, belief and confidence.",[]],["one decides whether to undermine another person's knowledge or the evidence on which their knowledge is based.",[]],["the person who is deprived of knowledge by the vice of epistemic malevolence is not the person with the vice. Epistemic malevolence is in this respect different from other epistemic vices, whose primary epistemic impact is on those whose vices they are.",[]],["Epistemic malevolence is voluntary in a way that postures are not.",[]],["The conceptual distinction is between not caring about something and actively opposing it. Epistemic malevolence is different from epistemic insouciance precisely because it is not a matter of being excessively casual or nonchalant about the challenge of finding answers to complex questions or tending to view such questions less complex than they really are.",[]]],"rt":[["epistemic insouciance",[]],["epistemic vices",[]]],"sb":[["In its impersonal form it is opposition to knowledge as such.",[]],["In contrast, personal epistemic malevolence is opposition to another person's share of knowledge or to their \"epistemic well-being as such\" (2010: 203).",["2010: 203"]]],"sp":[["epistemic vices",[]],["epistemic stance",[]]],"ex":[["so-called 'tobacco strategy'",[]]]},{"de":[["an attitude vice, an epistemic vice that is an attitude.",[]],["The importance of one's epistemic posture in doing epistemic work is not. Poor physical posture causes all manner of physical problems, and a poor epistemic posture causes all manner of intellectual problems.",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic vice",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["As obstructivism conceives of them, epistemic vices are harmful to us as knowers but they are different from mere defects.",[]],["Unlike mere defects, epistemic vices are blameworthy or otherwise reprehensible.",[]]],"rt":[["obstructivism",[]]],"sb":[["Intellectual arrogance",[]],["Prejudice",[]],["epistemic laziness",[]],["Closed-mindedness",[]],["wishful thinking",[]]]},{"de":[["blameworthy or otherwise reprehensible, that is, open to criticism",[]],["The claim is not that epistemic vices invariably get in the way of knowledge but that this is not the normal case. In the actual world, epistemic vices systematically get in the way of knowledge.",[]],["even if they didn't acquire them voluntarily it is nevertheless possible for them to exercise control over them and modify them",[]],["As obstructivism conceives of them, epistemic vices are harmful to us as knowers but they are different from mere defects.",[]],["I call this account of epistemic vice obstructivism. As obstructivism conceives of them, epistemic vices are harmful to us as knowers but they are different from mere defects.",[]]],"rt":[["attitude vices",[]]],"sb":[["epistemic malevolence",[]],["epistemic insouciance",[]],["epistemic arrogance",[]],["epistemic laziness",[]],["closed-mindedness",[]],["wishful thinking",[]],["Intellectual arrogance",[]],["prejudice",[]]]},{"de":[["However, not even indifference is a pure absence; there is something that it feels like not to care about something or to be left feeling cold about it.",[]]],"sp":[["posture",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Intellectual arrogance obstructs the gaining and sharing of knowledge.",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic vices",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an attitude formed and sustained without any proper inquiry into the merits or demerits of its object.",[]],["Prejudice counts as an epistemic attitude to the extent that it is an affective posture towards another person's epistemic credentials.",[]],["What makes a prejudice a prejudice is that it is an attitude formed and sustained without any proper inquiry into the merits or demerits of its object.",[]],["Prejudice is another attitude that obstructs the gaining and sharing of knowledge.",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic vices",[]]],"ex":[["In Fricker's example, the jury's prejudice prevented Tom Robinson from sharing his knowledge and thereby also prevented the jury from knowing what happened to Mayella Ewell.",[]]]},{"de":[["In philosophy, attitudes are usually understood as propositional attitudes, that is, as mental states ascribed by means of a 'that' clause.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["stances are neither affective nor involuntary.",[]],["they can be voluntarily adopted or rejected.",[]],["having a stance can't be equated with holding particular beliefs",["van Fraassen 2004: 174"]]],"rt":[["epistemic posture",[]]],"ex":[["an example of an epistemically vicious stance is what Jason Baehr calls \"epistemic malevolence\", that is, \"opposition to knowledge as such \" (2010: 190).",["2010: 190"]]]},{"de":[["an effective knowledge-deprivation strategy",[]],["undermining one's confidence and making it more difficult for one to hold on to one's true beliefs",[]],["The tobacco strategy generalises and indeed similar methods have been used by climate change deniers, anti-vaccination campaigners and others to sow the seeds of doubt about what is in reality overwhelming scientific evidence.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Indeed, the rumor center is the ML estimation of the rumor source for regular trees.",[]]],"rt":[["rumor centrality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["posing a substantial challenge to both automated systems and human moderators",[]]],"rt":[["homophonic substitutions, emoji replacement, insertions, character splits, and synonyms",[]],["homophonic substitutions",[]],["emoji replacement",[]],["insertions",[]],["character splits",[]],["synonyms",[]]]},{"sb":[["hate speech",[]],["cyberbullying",[]],["adult-oriented content",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["empirical similarity approach",[]]],"rt":[["empirical similarity",[]]]},{"de":[["this issue is typically addressed by using the so-called \"cheap talk\" models first proposed by Crawford and Sobel (1982).",[]],["a sender, who has some information, will send a message to a receiver, who will use this information to make a decision",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the basis of what is now referred to as the Condorcet's Jury Theorem",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["simple and widely used model",[]]]},{"sp":[["priors",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["regret-based update rules",[]]]},{"de":[["the rest of the society might also immediately follow the actions of these highly connected individuals. In this situation, even though all individuals may not hold exactly the same beliefs, they will still have beliefs that are very similar, and in particular, they will all choose the same action.",[]]]},{"de":[["each individual could, with some probability, adopt the behavior or beliefs of some others she knows or has observed, or alternatively, she may use a combination of their behavior or beliefs to fashion her own.",[]],["The simplest ones, used both in economics and in other fields, involve some type of imitation.",[]]],"rt":[["DeGroot model",[]],["replicator dynamics",[]],["fictitious play",[]],["regret-based update rules",[]]],"sb":[["DeGroot model",[]]],"sp":[["Non-Bayesian approaches",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It incorporates information about which individuals and links are forceful, i.e., which types of interactions will lead to one individual influencing the other without updating his own beliefs.",[]]]},{"de":[["The tradeoff between taking an action (0 or 1) and waiting, should be clear at this point. An agent would wait, in order to communicate with a larger set of agents and potentially choose the correct action with higher probability. On the other hand, the future is discounted, therefore, delaying is costly. Moreover, an agent may delay her decision so that other agents, whom she receives information from, delay their exit decisions.",[]]]},{"sb":[["information mavens",[]],["social connectors",[]]]},{"de":[["have a large in-degree, enabling them to aggregate information",[]]],"rt":[["information hubs",[]]],"sp":[["information hubs",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["social belief",[]]]},{},{"de":[["(meaning only small differences in opinion remaining among the agents)",[]],["convergence to a consensus or more appropriately to a quasi-consensus",[]]],"rt":[["consensus",[]]]},{"de":[["A particularly simple version is the so-called replicator dynamics inspired by evolutionary biology.",[]]],"rt":[["fictitious play",[]],["regret-based update rules",[]]]},{"rt":[["private belief",[]]]},{"sp":[["information hubs",[]]]},{"de":[["will be able to aggregate those dispersed parts",[]],["social learning takes place even though the information structure may involve bounded private signals",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["social network graph",[]]]},{"sy":[["consensus distribution",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we think of them as typically few in number",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["informal ideological discourses",[]]]},{"de":[["Ba dao is a philosophy that suggests the rulers to use military and state power to make people yield and obey.",[]]]},{"rt":[["truth",[]],["glory",[]]],"ex":[["post-disaster reconstruction",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In this sense, China ream justifies the CCP's rule by being a vehicle to lead China's rejuvenation.",[]],["As such, China ream involves much more populist elements than Hu Jintao's Scientific Outlook of Development and Jiang Zemin's Three Represents.",[]]]},{"de":[["the second logic argues that China is uniquely unique. In other words, only China is unique because of its unique history, culture, and national conditions.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Or, to put it in another way, it is there to restore China to its rightful position of pre-eminence.",[]],["the discourse of national rejuvenation also involves realistic concerns about individual wellbeing.",[]],["the discourse of national rejuvenation carries not only national pride but also individual well-being.",[]],["The discourse of national rejuvenation is strongly backed up by economic success in China.",[]]]},{"de":[["In contemporary ideological discourses the national condition mainly includes two elements: China's uniqueness and the developmental stage.",[]]]},{"de":[["this dual ideological strategy deals with the internal stability (party cohesion) and external stability (popular legitimacy) of the regime respectively.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["informal ideological discourse",[]],["informal ideologies",[]]],"ex":[["Marxism-Leninism",[]],["Mao Zedong Thought",[]],["Deng Xiaoping Theory",[]],["Three Represents",[]],["Scientific Outlook of Development",[]]]},{"de":[["formal ideology is produced for justifying the CCP's existence to itself i.e. a kind of selfjustification",[]],["Formal ideology is used mainly for justifying the communist rule to the party itself",[]],["Formal ideology signals two primary messages: (1) an ex post facto justification of the CCP's rule and (2) establishing ideological orthodoxy and a leader's credentials.",[]],["However, as formal ideology closely links with power, it can also cause problems: when it is a manifestation of factional positioning, it can lead to fissures in the party.",[]],["Previously, formal ideology was not produced for the consumption of the masses, but it is increasingly produced for that purpose today.",[]],["unlike formal ideology that consists of a coherent value system",[]],["The promotion of formal ideology employs a series of institutionalized channels, such as party newspapers and journals, documents, school training, study groups, and meeting amongst others.",[]],["formal ideology has already become very ineffective in persuading the mass.",[]],["formal ideology may be out of touch with informal ideology and social values.",[]],["formal ideology also establishes ideological orthodoxy and a leader's credentials.",[]],["formal ideology and informal ideology play roles in maintaining party cohesion and popular legitimacy respectively.",[]]],"rt":[["informal ideology",[]],["communist rule",[]],["selfjustification",[]],["communist language",[]]],"sb":[["Zhao Ziyang's primary stage of socialism",[]],["Jiang Zemin's Three Represents",[]],["Hu Jintao's Scientific Outlook of Development",[]]],"sp":[["ideology",[]]],"ex":[["Zhao Ziyang's primary stage of socialism",[]],["Jiang Zemin's Three Represents",[]],["Hu Jintao's Scientific Outlook of Development",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["truth",[]],["benevolence",[]]],"ex":[["cultural superiority and the vision of a rising China",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["line struggle",[]]]},{},{"de":[["moral performance and moral standards",[]],["Zhao's definition of ideological legitimacy has two problems. Zhao's definition that \"a state's right to rule is justified by a certain value system in the forms of tradition, religion and political philosophy\" implies that ideological legitimacy is based on certain coherent value systems. As Chapter 5 will show, the ideological legitimacy of the CCP is generated by informal ideologies that consist of a set of incoherent and relatively fleeting values.",[]],["my thesis redefines the term \"ideological legitimacy\" as a state's right to rule is justified by certain discourses in the forms of tradition, religion and political philosophy.",[]]],"rt":[["performance legitimacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["ideology is mostly regarded as a dogmatic straitjacket to market reforms that has been worn out over the years of economic success, an obsolete legacy of the past waiting to be cast off in the course of the country's transition toward capitalism.",["Holbig (2013:61)"]],["ideology is proposed by Chinese intellectuals as a leading strategy to maintain the CCP's legitimacy.",[]],["ideology plays a crucial role in (a) legitimizing the CCP's authoritarian rule by delegitimizing liberal democracy and (b) maintaining party cohesion by justifying the communist rule in contemporary China.",[]]]},{"de":[["the CCP has employed informal ideological discourses to legitimize its one-party system by delegitimizing liberal democracy.",[]],["various informal ideological discourses are produced and embedded into the CCP's official propaganda in order to discredit liberal democracy.",[]]],"sy":[["official propaganda",[]],["the work of guiding public opinion",[]]],"rt":[["formal ideologies",[]]]},{"de":[["informal ideology is for justifying the authoritarian rule to the entire Chinese society including the party.",[]],["increasing production of informal ideology",[]],["Arguably, the justification of informal ideology is a sort of negative approach that attempts to delegitimize alternative political systemsespecially liberal democracy, which legitimates the current political system in reverse.",[]],["It alone cannot replace the value system to justify the party's rulesit neither provides an ideological basis for forming certain policies nor guides the establishment of a political system.",[]],["Thus, informal ideology is a kind of short-term solution that has a shelf life rather than more fundamental thingsit might even be used to go against the CCP's rule in the long run.",[]],["informal ideology can only discredit liberal democracy in the short term; in the long run, the changing political values might still be inevitable without a widely accepted belief system in China.",[]],["neither provides an ideological basis for forming certain policies nor guides the establishment of a political system",[]],["informal ideology is a kind of short-term solution that has a shelf life rather than more fundamental things",[]],["it might even be used to go against the CCP's rule in the long run",[]],["informal ideology can only discredit liberal democracy in the short term",[]],["informal ideology is significantly constrained by formal ideological discourse and thus has very limited room to do so.",[]],["formal ideology and informal ideology play roles in maintaining party cohesion and popular legitimacy respectively.",[]]],"rt":[["formal ideology",[]],["authoritarian rule",[]],["(In)stability discourse",[]],["National condition discourse",[]],["Discourse of national rejuvenation and the promotion of patriotism",[]]],"sp":[["ideology",[]]],"ex":[["promotion of nationalism/patriotism",[]],["emphasis on virtue",[]]]},{"de":[["The instability discourse suggests that if China does not have a strong centralized state power to provide stability, China might repeat its horrible past.",[]]],"rt":[["stability discourse",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Liberals",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Legitimacy lies in the centre of both the history of political philosophy (White, 2005:1) and contemporary Chinese politics (Gilley and Holbig, 2009;Gilley and Holbig, 2010).",[]],["It provides explanations on the failure of communism and the survival of the CCP.",[]],["This term comes from the Latin word legitimare/ legitimus, which means \"to make lawful\" and is similar to the term legality.",[]],["In the context of law it refers to citizens' compliance with the law no matter whether the law is right or not.",[]]],"rt":[["popular legitimacy",[]],["party cohesion",[]],["ruling capacity",[]],["legality",[]]],"sb":[["normative legitimacy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Chinese emperors claimed that their rights to rule were granted by Heaven; thus this legitimacy claim is called the Mandate of Heaven.",[]],["the Mandate of Heaven is a prerequisite for a regime's rule and the rule of virtue and benevolent governance is a criterion to measure whether a regime is legitimate or not.",[]],["The Mandate of Heaven was a clear and deliberate state strategy designed to legitimize regime transition without throwing away all the other legitimizing tools of the previous regimes.",[]]],"sy":[["tiao dao",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the CCP's communication with the masses has usually been conducted by mass propaganda",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["procedural legitimacy",[]],["performance legitimacy",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["performance legitimacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Or, to put it in another way, it is there to restore China to its rightful position of pre-eminence.",[]]],"sy":[["century-old dream of Chinese people",[]]],"rt":[["China ream",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["legitimacy",[]]]},{"de":[["The official propaganda adopts the word \"patriotism\" (i.e. love of the country) rather than \"nationalism\" to avoid the negative connotations of nationalism.",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["king's dilemma",["1968"]]]},{},{"de":[["Unlike abdication that emphasizes the process of the leadership transition, political meritocracy stresses the outcome (i.e. the merit of leaders).",[]]]},{"rt":[["State-led nationalism",["Breslin, 2009"]]]},{},{"de":[["Notably the term \"procedural legitimacy\" is similar to Weber's \"rational-legal legitimacy\" and both of them can be used to explain legitimacy generated by the CCP's institutionalization in some ways. However, these two terms are slightly different. As I discussed earlier Weber's \"rational-legal legitimacy\" rests on a belief in the \"legality of patterns of normative rules and the right of those elevated to authority under such rules to issue commands\". This concept includes the elements of \"normative rules\" however \"procedural legitimacy\" purely refers to procedures and laws.",[]]],"sy":[["rational-legal legitimacy",[]]]},{"ex":[["意识形态建设",[]]]},{"de":[["In this thesis \"public intellectuals\" only refer to pro-liberal democracy opinion leaders.",[]]]},{"ex":[["舆论引导",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["popular legitimacy",[]],["party cohesion",[]]]},{"ex":[["监控, 打压",[]]]},{"de":[["Ba dao is a philosophy that suggests the rulers to use military and state power to make people yield and obey.",[]]],"sy":[["ba dao",[]]]},{"de":[["A core element of wang dao is using the ruler's virtues to make people obey and follow (yi de fu ren). Virtue here refers to benevolence (ren), and benevolent governance is a basic criterion of wang dao.",[]],["In other words the promotion of \"virtue\" as a kind of moral education was an attempt to gain regime legitimacy by combating corruption.",[]]],"sy":[["wang dao",[]],["yide zhiguo",[]]],"rt":[["rule by law",[]]]},{"de":[["Virtue here refers to benevolence, and benevolent governance is a basic criterion of rule by virtue.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Harmonious Society",[]]],"de":[["unlike the previous ideology that was narrowly concerned with the justification of communist rule",[]],["unlike Three Represents that focuses on the party, Scientific Outlook of Development is about China as a whole.",[]],["Scientific Outlook of Development presents a vision in which the party notices the problems caused by the current development model and will lead China to develop in a better way.",[]],["In these aspects, Scientific Outlook of Development also turns towards society and indicates the quest for popular legitimacy.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this contract, the provision of welfare acts as an intermediary to complete this deal by transforming economic growth into actual material benefit and delivering to the people.",[]],["Notably this \"social contract\" is based on the assumption that human are completely rational.",[]],["The trade between civil rights and economic benefit in this contract indicates a rational calculation and implies that the relationship between society and the state is based on pure interest (Tong, 2011).",["Tong, 2011"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This discourse has two key implications: (a) stabilityas a public goodneeds to be provided by a strong centralized state power and (b) the current status quo including the one-party system should be maintained or at least not overthrown, otherwise a stable order cannot be maintained.",[]]],"rt":[["instability discourse",[]]]},{"rt":[["popular nationalism",["Breslin, 2009"]]]},{"de":[["only a strong ruling party (i.e. one-party rule without checks and balances) can provide stability.",[]]]},{"ex":[["网络发展 社交网络",[]]]},{"de":[["In China, historical writings are always virtually political, and they are often re-created for political purposes.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["benevolence",[]],["glory",[]]],"ex":[["Confucianism and modern scientific rationalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["moral/original justification",[]]]},{"de":[["A core element of wang dao is using the ruler's virtues to make people obey and follow (yi de fu ren). Virtue here refers to benevolence (ren), and benevolent governance is a basic criterion of wang dao.",[]]]},{"de":[["One predominant type of faithfulness error",[]]],"sp":[["faithfulness error",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["entity hallucination",[]],["name-nationality hallucination",[]]]},{"rt":[["nationality hallucinations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["since names are not inherently associated with a particular nationality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["propagates from pre-training to downstream summarization systems and manifests itself as hallucinated facts",[]]]},{"rt":[["entity hallucination",[]]],"sp":[["faithfulness error",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Autoethnography centres me as the researcher in the story so reflexivity is essential.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Through critical reflection we undertake a process of making a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of an experience, which underpins further interpretation in future experiences.",[]],["reflection enables us to detect and correct exaggerations in our beliefs and misrepresentations in our problem solving",["p.1"]]]},{},{"de":[["This involves thinking about the nature of knowledge itself, about its scope and about the validity and reliability of claims to knowledge",["WILLIG, 2001"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["reflexivity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Use of reflexivity is deemed essential because researcher is primary instrument of data collection.",[]],["Reflexivity also allows researchers to become aware of what inhibits their seeing or knowing.",[]],["The practice of reflexivity throughout the research process highlights the importance of declaring and taking responsibility for our positioning as researchers.",[]],["in addressing reflexivity within our research, we must look both ways-at our own values, life experiences and beliefs, and also at the trustworthiness and rigor of our research design and methodology, all of which are governed by our assumptions.",[]]],"sb":[["personal reflexivity",[]],["epistemological reflexivity",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["radicalization process",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We calculate the weighted average of contributions in each subreddit weighted by that subreddit's score on the conspiracy similarity scale.",[]]]},{"de":[["We represent every user's conspiracy engagement trajectory as a time series of C i u over ten deciles. We perform unsupervised clustering of the user trajectories to find common temporal patterns, or pathways, of conspiracy engagement",[]]],"sb":[["steady high",[]],["increasing",[]],["decreasing",[]],["steady low",[]]],"ex":[["four distinct patterns of engagement representing groups of trajectories-steady high, increasing, decreasing and steady low",[]]]},{"de":[["To understand how conspiratorial are the discussions in each subreddit",[]],["to characterize a subreddit's similarity to CT discussions, we calculate the cosine similarity of each SVD vector with the vector for r/conspiracy.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["radicalization process",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["is a fundamental requirement in the process of radicalization",["Crossett and Spitaletta 2010"]],["This process of interpreting reality, or meaning-making, often manifests into the insider language used by conspiracy groups (Leone 2017).",["Leone 2017"]]]},{"de":[["often manifests into the insider language used by conspiracy groups",["Leone 2017"]]]},{"de":[["Monological conspiracy worldviews offer a general set of assumptions, such as cover-ups by powerful people, that are portable across multiple CTs and socio-political phenomena, independently from their specific topic or context",["Goertzel 1994"]]],"sy":[["monological perspective",[]],["monological worldview",["Goertzel 1994"]]]},{},{"sy":[["monological belief system",[]],["monological perspective",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This is a phase where personality and psychological factors motivate the individuals to open-up, also described as \"cognitive opening\", to alternate belief systems.",[]]],"rt":[["radicalization process",[]],["cognitive opening",[]]]},{"de":[["Predisposition towards radicalization can be visible through the psycho-linguistic footprints left by the users online",["Dalgaard-Nielsen 2010"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Through aggregating sentiment analysis with aspects, ABSA allows the model to produce a fine-grained understanding of people's opinion towards a particular product.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["target connection LSTM (TCLSTM)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Concerns about pre-selected personalisation are often summarised with the term 'filter bubble'",["Pariser, 2011"]]],"rt":[["pre-selected personalisation",[]]],"ex":[["a personalised news website could give more prominence to conservative media items, based on the inferred political interests of the user. When they form their political ideas, users of such personalised services may encounter fewer opinions or political arguments.",[]]]},{"de":[["the idea is that democratic society is at risk because personalised content and services limit the diversity of media content people are exposed to",[]]],"sy":[["information cocoons",[]]]},{"de":[["Others worry that people can lock themselves in information cocoons or echo chambers.",[]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"sb":[["self-selected personalisation",[]],["pre-selected personalisation",[]]]},{"sy":[["implicit personalisation",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubble",["Pariser, 2011"]],["self-selected personalisation",[]]],"sp":[["personalisation",[]]],"ex":[["some people may realise that Facebook personalises the content in its newsfeed. If these people explicitly use Facebook to see the curated, pre-selected collection of news about 'friends', the newsfeed is an example of chosen pre-selected personalisation.",[]],["recommendations on online shopping sites or on YouTube",["O'Callaghan, Greene, Conway, Carthy, & Cunningham, 2013"]],["context of online search results",["Van Hoboken, 2012","Dillahunt, Brooks, & Gulati, 2015"]],["the context of online search results",["Van Hoboken, 2012","Dillahunt, Brooks, & Gulati, 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["People tend to avoid information that challenges their point of view, for example by avoiding news outlets that often feature editorials that favour an opposing political camp.",[]]],"sy":[["explicit personalisation",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]],"sp":[["personalisation",[]]],"ex":[["a person who opposes immigration might want to avoid information that specifies how much a country has gained due to immigration, while paying a lot of attention to news stories about problems related to immigration.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a discourse about Africa as a whole",[]],["racialized phenomenon",["Evans 2011: 399"]],["selective coverage -scarce and focusing on 'negative' events",[]],["discourse of measurement standard, which assesses the failures of the continent against standards established by the West, thus ultimately implying the existence of a cultural and essential 'African' problem.",[]],["echoing the five components of Afro-pessimism",[]],["it is a discourse about Africa as a whole",[]],["it constitutes an ethnocentric framework through which the continent's progress is assessed",[]],["Afro-pessimism has therefore been referred to as a postcolonial phenomenon that attests of the ongoing impact of colonialism on contemporary discourses",[]],["a key component of Afro-pessimism is indeed the idea of actively predicting a dark future for the continent",[]],["After all, doesn't this discourse also essentialise, racialise, rank, describe selectively and predict (in positive term this time), thus echoing the five components of Afro-pessimism?",[]],["This concept will often be summoned in the discussions around Africa's image in Western media, to attack coverage seemingly reductive, negative and grounded in colonial tropes of the continent (e.g. De Klerk and Leridon 2010).",["De Klerk and Leridon 2010"]],["Afro-pessimism appears as deriving from a discourse of measurement standard, which assesses the failures of the continent against standards established by the West, thus ultimately implying the existence of a cultural and essential 'African' problem.",[]]],"rt":[["essentialisation",[]],["racialisation",[]],["selectivity",[]],["ethnocentric ranking",[]],["prediction",[]],["essentialism",[]],["ranking framework",[]]],"sb":[["essentialise",[]],["racialise",[]],["rank",[]],["describe selectively",[]],["predict",[]],["essentialism",[]],["racialisation",[]],["selectivity",[]],["ranking framework",[]],["prediction",[]],["essentialisation",[]],["ethnocentric ranking",[]],["Afro-pessimism as a ranking framework",[]]],"ex":[["The Economist \"The hopeless continent\"",[]]]},{"de":[["the essentialisation of the continent",[]]]},{"de":[["Because Afro-pessimism essentialises and racialises the continent, it is therefore highly selective.",[]]],"sp":[["Afro-pessimism",[]]]},{"rt":[["offensive language",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["with infection probability 0.1 + U[0, 0.1] (fixed when the news is seeded)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["multilingual sentiment analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Research suggests that the virality of a message -the probability of it being retweeted -is affected by its polarity",[]]],"rt":[["polarity",[]]]},{"sy":[["semantic conflicts",[]]],"rt":[["semantic conflicts",[]]]},{"de":[["The granularity of captured semantic conflicts involves word-level (Popat et al. 2018), fragment-level (Lu and Li 2020), sentence-level (Ma et al. 2019), and multi-feature (Wu and Rao 2020) conflicts.",[]],["served as the available evidence to explain the verification results",[]]],"sy":[["difference",[]]]},{},{"de":[["so that citizens can be confident that they will not be subjected to group libel (catchall)",[]]]},{"de":[["namely, if 'the statement was made with knowledge of its falsity or with reckless disregard of whether it was true or false'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Under this test, other things remaining equal, the public expression of a false damaging statement about such persons should benefit from First Amendment protection.",[]]]},{"rt":[["principled compromise",[]]]},{"rt":[["elective characteristics",[]]],"ex":[["race, ethnicity, nationality, citizenship, origin of birth, war record, religion, sexual orientation, gender or transgender identity, disability, age, physical appearance",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["rights-based balancing",[]],["interests-based balancing",[]]]},{"de":[["These principles focus on the impact of hate speech on health, autonomy, security, non-subordination, the absence of oppression, and human dignity.",[]],["I use the word 'basic' not because I think these principles are simple or uncontroversial, but because of the fundamental nature of the normatively relevant features they purport to safeguard or serve: namely, liberty, health, autonomy, security, non-subordination, the absence of oppression, and human dignity.",[]]],"rt":[["health",[]],["autonomy",[]],["security",[]],["non-subordination",[]],["absence of oppression",[]],["human dignity",[]]]},{"de":[["being esteemed should be understood negatively: it is the opportunity to be valued which exists when one's identity is not ridiculed or one's achievements scorned",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["Cartesian skepticism",[]]]},{"de":[["putative chilling effect of hate speech law on other categories of speech",[]],["making people overly cautious about what they will say in public",[]],["the concern is that in practice any attempt to ban hate speech, no matter how careful or well intentioned, is bound to cause collateral damage in terms of making people overly cautious about what they will say in public.",[]],["If law is expressed in a way that is too unclear for a person of average intelligence to reasonably forecast whether or not his or her speech falls under it, then to avoid the risk of adverse legal consequences he or she may refrain from saying anything remotely controversial, critical, or provocative",["Tanenhaus 1952: 218-219","Strossen 1990: 521","McGee 1990: 372, 391","Kors 1991: 25","Laird 1994: 392","Michelman 1995: 274","Baker 2009: 157"]]]},{"de":[["public denials of their civic dignity",[]],["basic dignity and social standing",[]],["This means that dignity is a status not to be passively possessed but to be dynamically carried forth. It involves wielding, as opposed to merely bearing, a package of rights, privileges, powers, authorities, roles, responsibilities, duties, and expectations.",[]],["dignity is a status not to be passively possessed but to be dynamically carried forth.",[]],["It involves wielding, as opposed to merely bearing, a package of rights, privileges, powers, authorities, roles, responsibilities, duties, and expectations.",[]],["involves the active exercise of a legally-defined status",["Waldron 2011: 223"]]],"sy":[["high and equal sociolegal status",[]]],"rt":[["high and equal sociolegal status",[]],["hate speech",[]],["human dignity",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["One feature of a climate of hatred that I did not properly explore, however, is intragroup contact. I now realize that it would be naive to think of a climate of hatred simply as the product of a large number of isolated individuals who just so happen to possess similar beliefs, attitudes, or emotions. In fact, a climate of hatred is more plausibly conceived as being rooted in a community of hatred.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["counted as coercive speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["survival theory of truth",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["principled compromise",[]],["pragmatic' or 'tactical compromise",[]]],"sb":[["principled compromise",[]],["pragmatic' or 'tactical compromise",[]]]},{"de":[["lets each side retain an equal number of principles",[]]],"rt":[["substitution compromise",[]]],"sp":[["principled compromise",[]],["compromise",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["viewpoint discrimination",[]]],"ex":[["proscribed only fighting words with certain sorts of content (i.e., messages relating to race, color, creed, religion, or gender)",[]]]},{"rt":[["Principle of Neutrality",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["survival theory of truth",[]]]},{"de":[["putatively less inflammatory and more constructive",[]],["less restrictive but no less effective way of reducing hate speech/the evils of hate speech",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["hate speakers",[]]]},{"de":[["It is part of the essential nature of a covering value that it can 'determine' a 'rational resolution' to questions about appropriate trade-offs between the different values of which it is composed",["2004a: 119-120"]]],"sy":[["covering",[]],["comprehensive",[]],["nameless value",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In cases of cruelty the perpetrator tends to be in a position of strength or dominance, and has it within his or her choice to behave compassionately, while the victim is in a position of weakness or vulnerability, subject to the arbitrary choice of the other person.",[]],["Judith Shklar (1984: 44), for example, defines what it means to be a liberal partly in terms of the belief that cruelty is 'the worst thing we do.'",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["intentional infliction of emotional distress",[]]],"ex":[["taunting or ridiculing a person because of his disability.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["'is maintained through cultural formation (texts, rites, monuments) and institutional communication (recitation, practice, observance)'",["129"]],["cultural memory 'is maintained through cultural formation (texts, rites, monuments) and institutional communication (recitation, practice, observance)'",["129"]]]},{},{"de":[["culture is intersubjective and temporal",[]],["suppress the communicative practices through which culture is created, transmitted, and embodied",[]]],"rt":[["societal culture",[]]]},{"de":[["Cascades can exist when individuals possess one or more of the following tendencies: to rely on information provided by other people because they lack access to the information themselves; to substitute the judgment of speakers they esteem for their own personal judgment; and/or to want or even emotionally need the good opinion of other people (adopting and spreading other people's beliefs is one way to endear oneself to members of an ingroup community)",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["survival theory of truth",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["One of the things that makes laws in this cluster stand out both legally and normatively is their focus on statements about historical events.",[]],["provides protection against speech that denies, grossly trivializes, approves, justifies, condones, or glorifies acts of mass cruelty, violence, or genocide even when it does not rise to the level required for prosecutions under other hate speech laws.",[]],["focus on statements about historical events.",[]]],"ex":[["statements that deny the genocide committed by the National Socialist regime in Germany, namely, the Holocaust",[]],["crimes against humanity committed by the Communist regime in Eastern Europe (e.g., Hungary 127 )",["127"]],["genocides are at stake (e.g., Rwanda 128 )",["128"]],["crimes against humanity committed by the Communist regime in Eastern Europe",["127"]]]},{"rt":[["racial slur",[]]]},{"de":[["This typically involves subjecting such persons to humiliation or degradation-in short, robbing them of their dignity.",[]],["typically involves subjecting such persons to humiliation or degradation-in short, robbing them of their dignity.",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["Art. 250 of the Criminal Law of China makes it unlawful to publish an article 'designated to discriminate or humiliate an ethnic group, if the circumstances are flagrant and the consequences are serious'",[]],["the authors of a book about the sexual and matrimonial practices and customs among ethnic groups in China were convicted for humiliating some of the groups of people discussed in the book.",[]]]},{"sy":[["damage to reputation",[]]]},{"de":[["discriminatory harassment hinders the discovery of truth on the part of students who are its intended targets",[]],["laws/regulations/codes forbidding discriminatory harassment in the workplace",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In tort law this is commonly known as",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["moral epistemology",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Ronald Dworkin maintains that a legitimate state is one that respects ethical independence",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["hate crimes of intimidation, provocation, or incitement to commit acts of discrimination, segregation, violence, mass murder or genocide",[]]]},{"ex":[["intimidation, provocation, or incitement to commit acts of discrimination, segregation, violence, mass murder or genocide",[]]]},{"de":[["Based on this definition, something is extreme speech merely if enough people believe that it poses a threat to something they hold dear.",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]],["blasphemy",[]],["religious speech that offends secular values",[]],["incitement to and glorification of terrorism",[]],["Holocaust denial",[]],["obscenity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["speech market",[]]]},{"rt":[["public good",[]],["collective action problem",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Included among the fundamental rights that flow out of the inherent freedom and dignity of human beings as well as state of nature theories are the right to freedom of speech, rights of personal security, rights of personality, and the right to recognition (44-45, 170-171).",["44-45","170","171"]]],"sb":[["right to freedom of speech",["44-45","170","171","170-171"]],["rights of personal security",["44-45","170","171","170-171"]],["rights of personality",["44-45","170","171","170-171"]],["the right to recognition",["44-45","170","171"]]]},{"de":[["where the exact meaning of the generic is sufficiently vague, ambiguous, or metaphysical to make the basic elements of defamation inapplicable",[]],["Media regulators often take the view that although not defamatory in the strict sense, generics can present a distorted depiction of reality that can also unfairly damage the reputation or social standing of the persons picked out.",[]]],"rt":[["negative stereotyping",[]],["stigmatization",[]]]},{"de":[["Where possible he or she casts the other party in the best light.",[]]],"sp":[["mutual respect",[]]]},{"ex":[["in Downs v. Los Angeles Unified School District (2000) 9 a US Court of Appeals upheld the decision of a high school board to deny a member of the staff the privilege of posting anti-homosexual material on bulletin boards set up by other members of the staff for the purposes of recognizing Gay and Lesbian Awareness Month. The Court affirmed that the school had every right to use the bulletin boards, and the rules surrounding what material or content may or may not be placed on those boards and by whom, in order to communicate its own favored message.",["9"]]]},{"de":[["perpetrates falsehoods that serve only to impede the advancement for truth",["Hartman 1992: 858-859"]],["engaging in it can create a genuine hindrance to the discovery of truth",[]]],"ex":[["a spray painted \"KKK\" sign on a public wall",["Ehrlich et al. 1995"]]]},{"de":[["circumvents the rational process of persuasion by moving people to action through non-autonomous agency based upon false beliefs",[]]]},{"de":[["This is 'group defamation law' in its catchall usage; that is, a broad category that encompasses a variety of different laws.",[]]]},{"de":[["The legal significance, or point of differentiation, of this cluster consists largely in its focus on false damaging statements of fact and, moreover, its use of a truth defense.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Ostensibly, the Harm Principle is a principle that safeguards liberty: it functions to furnish people with a protected sphere of negative liberty in which their thoughts, speech, and self-regarding actions are not impeded by external constraints.",[]],["Then again, the Harm Principle also recognizes circumstances in which it is permissible to restrict liberty, to wit, harm prevention.",[]],["Ostensibly, the Harm Principle is a principle that safeguards liberty: it functions to furnish people with a protected sphere of negative liberty in which their thoughts, speech, and self-regarding actions are not impeded by external constraints. Then again, the Harm Principle also recognizes circumstances in which it is permissible to restrict liberty, to wit, harm prevention.",[]]]},{"de":[["hate speech which, albeit involving deception and failure to obtain consent, is nevertheless used with the aim of improving public debate or political decision-making processes",[]],["engaging in it can create a genuine hindrance to the discovery of truth",[]],["group defamatory hate speech [. . .] perpetrates falsehoods that serve only to impede the advancement for truth",["Hartman 1992: 858-859"]],["acts of hate speech that comprise public discourse and acts of hate speech that do not, with the touchstone being the wider social practices or institutions in which speech acts are embedded.",[]],["hate speech conduct is sometimes motivated by sentiments of hatred, it is not identical with those sentiments. Hate speech conduct may result from idleness or a desire to belong as much as from deeprooted feelings of enmity or hostility.",[]],["It may be that hate speech is too close to being a 'family-resemblance' concept, in the Wittgensteinian sense, to admit of such a definition.",[]],["banning hate speech could suppress valuable public debate about the meaning of free expression, including how to tackle the issue of hate speech, and about other forms of injustice suffered by the targets of hate speech",[]]],"rt":[["racism",[]],["discrimination",[]],["moral exclusion",[]],["political speech",[]],["illocutionary act",[]],["negative stereotyping",[]],["stigmatization",[]],["defamatory, demeaning, degrading, or stigmatizing hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["the use of insulting or degrading epithets like 'kike', 'faggot', 'spic', and 'nigger', which are 'verbal instruments of subordination'",[]],["'scientific or philosophical' modes of hate speech such as 'describing, asserting, stating, arguing, and so forth' (e.g., '[t]o assert that blacks are genetically inferior to whites')",[]],["group defamatory hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["hate-based insults, slurs, or derogatory epithets",[]],["hate-based fighting words",[]]]},{"de":[["laws/regulations/codes that, although aimed at the instruments or circumstances of speech or at certain forms of conduct, nevertheless thereby also restrict some uses of hate speech.",[]],["it includes laws/regulations/codes that constrain uses of hate speech when it amounts to a hate crime or a violation of civil rights",[]],["expression-oriented, meaning they do not merely involve an expressive dimension but the expressive dimension is central to the way the act is performed",[]],["hate speech law is not merely variegated in form but also broad in scope.",[]],["This concept or notional configuration is meant to capture not only laws/regulations/codes that are ostensibly aimed at constraining, suppressing or limiting hate speech but also laws/ regulations/codes that impose incidental restrictions on some uses of hate speech, meaning laws/regulations/codes that, although aimed at the instruments or circumstances of speech or at certain forms of conduct, nevertheless thereby also restrict some uses of hate speech.",[]],["pertains to speech or other expressive conduct that is intimately connected with hatred of groups or classes of persons identified by certain ascriptive characteristics.",[]]],"rt":[["hate crime law",["6"]],["laws banning incitement to hatred",[]],["laws/regulations/codes disallowing the public expression of hatred",[]],["laws/regulations/codes banning the use of speech or other expressive conduct with the intention of stirring up hatred",[]]],"sb":[["discriminatory harassment",[]],["intimidation",[]],["provocation",[]],["incitement to crime",[]],["laws/regulations/codes that constrain uses of hate speech when it amounts to a hate crime or a violation of civil rights, such as discriminatory harassment, intimidation, provocation, or incitement to crime",[]],["Holocaust denial laws",[]]],"ex":[["Holocaust denial laws",[]]]},{"de":[["law is always actually enforcing the mores of the dominant group that controls the content of law",["Post 2009: 130"]]]},{"sp":[["mutual respect",[]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["it is through the lenses of our different cultural communities that we come to give detailed substance to our latent sense of human identity/dignity and to our expectations of dignified treatment from others, including the expectation not to be targeted by hate speech that reduces us to animals.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["locutionary act",[]],["perlocutionary act",[]]],"ex":[["I commanded that he must not do that",["43"]]]},{},{"rt":[["illocutionary act",[]]]},{"rt":[["perlocutionary force",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["bias or prejudice",[]]]},{"rt":[["incitement to hatred",[]],["advocacy of hatred",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A key feature of such law is that it permits prosecutions even in cases where no inchoate offense of inciting or encouraging a criminal act has been committed.",[]],["unlike the offense of incitement to crime, the offense of incitement to hatred constitutes an independent offense, meaning that it is not dependent upon any principal offense.",[]],["laws/regulations/codes banning incitement to hatred",[]]],"rt":[["group defamation law",[]],["incitement to crime",[]],["incitement to cause harm",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In the absence of such a ratio the interests are incommensurable.",[]]]},{"rt":[["interests-based balancing",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["civic dignity",[]]]},{"de":[["In South Africa the common law offenses of injuria (civil) and crimen injuria (criminal) have both been applied to the use of racially abusive language that under the circumstances constitutes humiliating or degrading treatment.",[]],["Common law offense or delict",[]]],"sy":[["iniuria",[]]],"rt":[["crimen injuria",[]]],"sb":[["injuria racista",[]],["injuria (civil)",[]],["crimen injuria (criminal)",[]]]},{"sp":[["injuria",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["mutual respect",[]]],"ex":[["someone is more disposed to compromise his or her principled commitment to freedom of expression in the case of anti-pornography law than in the case of hate speech law because he or she just so happens to be someone who is less likely to run afoul of anti-pornography law than hate speech law or because he or she is more ideologically sympathetic to some of the concerns raised by hate speakers than to any expressive content that could be communicated through pornographic material.",[]]]},{"de":[["this intercultural dialogue is to be understood as an ideal that embodies virtues of 'sensitivity and empathy' (Parekh 2006: 77) as well as 'respect for other cultures' (128).",["Parekh 2006: 77","128"]],["intercultural dialogue requires 'such essential political virtues as mutual respect and concern, tolerance, self-restraint, willingness to enter into unfamiliar worlds of thought, love of diversity, a mind open to new ideas and a heart open to others' needs, and the ability to persuade and live with unresolved differences' (340).",["340"]],["the debate between cultural communities who defend free speech and those who back the protection of groups through hate speech law",[]],["shared rules that forbid certain forms of hate speech as modes of expression that are unacceptable in the context of intercultural dialogue",[]],["a reflexive disposition, in which one can see oneself from the perspective of others",[]]],"sy":[["universal or cross-cultural dialogue",[]]],"rt":[["public good",[]]]},{"de":[["namely, liberty, psychological and physiological health, autonomy, security, non-subordination, the absence of oppression, human dignity, the discovery of truth, the acquisition of knowledge, self-realization, human excellence, civic dignity, cultural diversity and choice, recognition of cultural identity, intercultural dialogue, participation in democratic self-government, and being subject only to legitimate rule.",[]]],"rt":[["liberty, psychological and physiological health, autonomy, security, non-subordination, the absence of oppression, human dignity, the discovery of truth, the acquisition of knowledge, self-realization, human excellence, civic dignity, cultural diversity and choice, recognition of cultural identity, intercultural dialogue, participation in democratic self-government, and being subject only to legitimate rule.",[]]],"sb":[["speaker interests",[]],["audience interests",[]],["third-party interests",[]],["addressee interests",[]],["victim interests",[]]]},{"de":[["Sumner's account of interests-based balancing focuses on the individual interests of three constituencies of the population, namely, speakers, audiences, and third parties, and enjoins the maximization of net interests-realization.",[]],["More recently, Peard (2004: 147) envisages a form of nuanced interests-based balancing in which the interests of the targets of hate speech are granted additional weight when placed on the balancing scales insofar as such persons represent an 'innocent party' and hate speakers harm their interests 'intentionally'.",[]],["This is encapsulated in what I shall call the Principle of Interests-Based Balancing, that legalistic constraints on uses of hate speech are (N-)warranted only if they achieve an optimum balance between the interests in play, where an optimum balance represents the point at which increasing the degree of constraint on hate speech is likely to enable the realization of interests of a combined extent of realization and value or importance that is no greater than that of the interests the realization of which is likely to be disenabled by this increase, while decreasing the degree of constraint on hate speech is likely to enable the realization of interests of a combined extent of realization and value or importance that is no greater than that of the interests the realization of which is likely to be disenabled by this decrease.",[]],["Forms of interests-based balancing (according to one version of the first challenge) carry with them an implicit assumption that free speech interests are no different than other interests, in the sense that they are so many more interests to be placed onto the balancing scales or into the net interest-realization calculation machine.",[]]],"rt":[["rights-based balancing",[]]],"sb":[["indirect consequentialism",["Sumner 2004: 75-77"]],["post-Millian calculus",["138"]]],"sp":[["balancing principles",[]]],"ex":[["interests of the targets of hate speech are granted additional weight when placed on the balancing scales insofar as such persons represent an 'innocent party' and hate speakers harm their interests 'intentionally'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the persons being intimidated must possess a reasonable belief that the speaker doing the intimidating is willing and able to carry it out his or her threat or implied threat.",[]]],"rt":[["true threat",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Justice Stevens made an appeal to a higher-level norm of justificatory neutrality.",[]],["to appeal to special kinds of harm as a reason for the relevant exception to neutrality is itself to offer a 'neutral' and, therefore, legitimate justification for the exception",[]]],"rt":[["neutrality",[]],["Principle of Neutrality",[]]],"sp":[["norm",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["illocutionary act",[]],["perlocutionary act",[]]],"ex":[["I said to him, \"You can't do that!\"",["43"]]]},{"de":[["the marketplace of ideas metaphor presupposes a framework of competition and the pursuit of self-interest",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["By defining misrecognition in terms of an attack on identity",[]],["the present form of misrecognition of cultural identity can 'inflict a grievous wound, saddling its victims with a crippling self-hatred'",["26"]],["the absence of respect",["Taylor [C.] 1994"]]],"sy":[["nonrecognition",["Taylor [C.] 1994"]],["cultural imperialism",["Young 1990"]],["cultural hegemony",["Modood 1993"]],["cultural injustice",["Fraser 1995"]],["disrespect",["Honneth 1992(Honneth , 1995;;Parekh 2006;Appiah 2005","Honneth 1992","Honneth , 1995","Parekh 2006","Appiah 2005"]]],"rt":[["cultural imperialism",["Young 1990"]],["nonrecognition",["Taylor [C.] 1994"]],["cultural hegemony",["Modood 1993"]],["cultural injustice",["Fraser 1995"]],["disrespect",["Honneth 1992(Honneth , 1995;;Parekh 2006;Appiah 2005"]],["misrecognition of memory",[]],["moral self-respect",["1995: 133"]],["social death",["135"]]],"sb":[["One form of misrecognition has to do with oppressively ascribing an identity to, or arbitrarily imposing an identity upon, individuals.",[]],["oppressive ascription of identity",[]],["tarnishing an identity",[]],["oppressively ascribing an identity to, or arbitrarily imposing an identity upon, individuals",[]],["tarnishing an identity, such as by subjecting an identity to a systematic campaign of denigration, negative stereotyping, stigmatization, and defamation",[]],["A fourth form of misrecognition has to do with attributing only one or two basic identities to an individual when in fact he or she may partake of a multitude of cultural identities, to differing degrees and in idiosyncratic concatenations.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["hate speech is 'one of the behavioural consequences of that process'",["Vasquez and de las Fuentes 2000: 231"]]]},{"de":[["This ideal goes to the heart of how compromisers, 'who, after deliberation, still fundamentally disagree about an issue should treat one another with regard to that and related issues-even when their deliberations result in legislation that favors one side of the dispute' (80).",["80"]],["Mutual respect is a sufficiently abstract ideal to necessitate breaking it down into a series of specific 'communicative virtues' (Rice and Burbules 1993: 35) or 'moral dispositions' (Gutmann and Thompson 1996: 81).",[]]],"rt":[["communicative virtues",["Rice and Burbules 1993: 35"]],["moral dispositions",["Gutmann and Thompson 1996: 81"]]],"sb":[["honesty or fairness",[]],["integrity",[]],["good faith or trust",[]],["open-mindedness",[]],["reasonableness",[]],["magnanimity",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["democratic equality",[]]]},{"rt":[["personhood",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Principle of Neutrality",[]]],"sb":[["Narrow Reading",[]],["Broad Reading",[]],["Middling Reading",[]]],"ex":[["Narrow Reading",[]],["Broad Reading",[]],["Middling Reading",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["mutual respect",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Principle of Interests-Based Balancing",[]]]},{"de":[["which he takes to be a constituent feature of the norm of judicial collegiality and a key part of the practice of judges going 'back and forth in their deliberations over disputed and difficult issues until agreement is reached'",["1646"]]],"rt":[["judicial collegiality",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["locutionary act",[]],["illocutionary act",[]]],"ex":[["My words brought him to his senses and stopped him from doing that",["43"]]]},{"rt":[["illocutionary force",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the source of such powerful and action-guiding emotions as pride, shame, embarrassment and guilt, and is closely bound up with one's sense of self-worth",["13"]]],"rt":[["social identity",[]]]},{"rt":[["empathy",["ibid.; cf. Underwood and Moore 1982","Taylor [J.] 2006"]]]},{"rt":[["true threat",[]]]},{"de":[["political legitimacy has greater but not absolute weight in comparison to other goods or values, meaning that a sufficiently large extent of the realization of other goods or values, most notably the assurance of civic dignity, can be of equal or greater value than the realization of political legitimacy.",[]]],"rt":[["democratic legitimacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["recognition",[]],["cultural identity",[]]]},{"rt":[["Principle of Interests-Based Balancing",[]],["interests-based balancing",[]]],"sp":[["Principle of Interests-Based Balancing",[]]]},{"sy":[["Praktische Konkordanz",[]]]},{"rt":[["principled compromise",[]]]},{"de":[["In a pragmatic or tactical compromise the par ties may look upon compromise simply as a necessary evil or as a means to morally worthwhile ends, including the realization of principles.",[]]],"rt":[["principled compromise",[]]],"sp":[["compromise",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Building on suggestions made by Sumner (2004: 159-160) and Erik Bleich (2011: 146), I assume that in order to pass muster under the Principle of Health the relevant damage to health must be reckonable (amenable to measurement using established techniques and methods in the social sciences), assignable (attributable to particular individuals and not merely to an entire group of people en mass), and severe (beyond the level of mild irritation or feelings of offense).",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["post-Millian calculus",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The Principle of Neutrality has played and continues to play as significant a role in First Amendment jurisprudence as the Principle of Overbreadth",[]],["I interpret it as a principle.",[]]],"rt":[["content neutrality",[]],["viewpoint neutrality",[]],["Principle of Autonomy",[]],["Principle of Truth",[]],["Principle of Knowledge",[]],["Principle of Self-Realization",[]],["Principle of Democracy",[]],["Principle of Legitimacy",[]],["Principle of Health",[]],["Nuanced Principle of Autonomy",[]],["Principle of Security",[]],["Principle of Non-Oppression",[]],["Principle of Non-Subordination",[]],["Nuanced Principle of Self-Realization",[]],["Principle of Human Excellence",[]],["Principle of Civic Dignity",[]],["Principle of Recognition",[]],["Nuanced Principle of Democracy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the existence of a less restrictive but non-efficacious method of achieving the objective would not invalidate a given law.",[]]],"rt":[["Strict Scrutiny Test",[]],["Oakes Test",[]],["Necessary in a Democratic Society Test",[]]]},{"de":[["In its most demanding form, the Principle says that the suppression of an opinion is N-unwarranted so long as there is any chance whatsoever of its being true.",[]],["In its moderate form, it says that the suppression of an opinion is N-unwarranted only when the chance of its being true reaches a minimum threshold.",[]]]},{"de":[["A large part of the justification of this principle is the need for predictability, for people to be able to plan their lives based on reasonable predictions about what conduct is and is not likely to attract legal sanction.",[]]]},{"de":[["one important aspect is a moral duty on the part of each compromiser to recognize the rights of the other compromisers.",[]],["a theory of principled compromise for dealing with dilemmas posed by hate speech law",[]],["each of the ideals and associated collection of virtues that I volunteered as constituent features of principled compromise",[]],["e.g., reciprocity, equality, mutual respect",[]],["ideals of principled compromise should be at the pinnacle of how agents go about resolving principled disagreements that reflect a plurality of normatively relevant features.",[]]],"rt":[["pragmatic' or 'tactical compromise",[]],["reciprocity, equality, and mutual respect",[]],["pragmatic",[]],["tactical compromise",[]],["Pragmatic or tactical compromises",[]]],"sb":[["conjunction compromise",[]],["substitution compromise",[]]],"sp":[["compromise",[]]],"ex":[["reciprocity, equality, mutual respect",[]],["reciprocity",[]],["equality",[]],["mutual respect",[]]]},{"de":[["These principles are 'moral' in the sense that they go to the heart of how at a rudimentary level human beings ought to be treated and to how such expectations bear upon the N-warrant of legalistic constraints on hate speech.",[]]]},{"de":[["the social practice of public discourse",[]]]},{"rt":[["discrimination",[]]]},{"de":[["some contributions to this activity, like moves in a game, can 'enact' facts about what is subsequently permissible or impermissible within the activity.",["395-397","132-136"]]]},{},{"de":[["This is about compromisers moderating and in part transforming their expectations in the light of the positions taken by persons on the other side of the debate",["Bellamy 1999: 111"]],["We compromise in a principled way when we act on the belief that we owe it to others to concede something to their position",["Jones and O'Flynn 2013: 120"]]],"sp":[["mutual respect",[]]]},{"de":[["identity is partly shaped by recognition or its absence",[]]]},{"sy":[["transformation",[]],["reclaiming",[]]]},{"de":[["[I]ndividuals have a duty to recognize one another as human beings and citizens",["ibid."]]]},{"de":[["speakers have a right to comment on the character and conduct of other people, and in ways that may adversely affect the reputation of those people in the eyes of society",[]]]},{"sy":[["dignitary rights",[]]],"sb":[["right to mental tranquility",[]],["right to reputation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Heyman supports what I shall call the Principle of Rights-Based Balancing, that legalistic constraints on uses of hate speech are (N-)warranted only if they 'harmonize the competing rights by protecting both as far as possible and, to the extent they conflict, by protecting the right that at the margin constitutes the most important form of [human freedom and dignity]' (71).",["71"]]],"rt":[["interests-based balancing",[]]],"sp":[["balancing principles",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["non-sexual discriminatory harassment based on gender",[]]]},{"de":[["mental states associated with emotional distress can be complex. The immediate mental sensation of being verbally abused need not be restricted to an impression of how others feel about oneself; being subjected to hate speech also implicates how one feels about oneself.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["perlocutionary effect",[]],["deliberative exclusion",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an offense within the arena of public right",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["social identity",[]]]},{"de":[["The approach of social disapprobation, censure, and boycott may involve various methods, including: TV companies refusing to give airtime to hate speakers or sacking presenters who engage in hate speech; newspapers refraining from the publication of material that constitutes hate speech; consumers deciding to stop buying newspapers that publish editorials containing hate speech; NGOs campaigning for boycotts of broadcast media and internet companies that permit hate speech on their platforms; voters electing to throw out politicians who engage in hate speech in any areas of their public discourse; university administrators refusing to engage in any sort of public debate with hate speakers; and/or more enlightened members of society choosing to verbally attack hate speakers, giving them a taste of their own medicine by exposing them to ridicule, humiliation, denunciation, castigation, marginalization, and plain contempt",["Borovoy et al. 1988Borovoy et al. -1989: 344;: 344","Strossen 2012: 388"]],["social disapprobation, censure, and boycott involve less restriction merely because they engage restriction of a different kind than state censorship.",[]]],"rt":[["state censorship",[]],["legal restraints",[]]]},{"de":[["being esteemed should be understood negatively: it is the opportunity to be valued which exists when one's identity is not ridiculed or one's achievements scorned",["Thompson 2012: 225-226"]]],"rt":[["recognition",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["interests of the community at large",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["societal cultures are typically based on a shared language.",[]]],"rt":[["culture",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"ex":[["words, written or oral",[]],["symbols",[]],["pictures",[]],["gestures",[]],["music",[]],["moving images",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["stigmatizing speech, which is guaranteed by the Principle of Truth insofar as it possesses truth conditions, would be rendered impermissible given the University of Michigan's definition of discriminatory harassment.",[]]]},{"sy":[["modus vivendi",[]]],"rt":[["modus vivendi",[]],["compromise compelled by circumstances",[]]]},{"de":[["The rationale given was that 'prejudice against discrete and insular minorities may be a special condition, which tends seriously to curtail the operation of those political processes ordinarily to be relied upon to protect minorities, and which may call for a correspondingly more searching judicial inquiry.'",[]],["prejudice against discrete and insular minorities may be a special condition, which tends seriously to curtail the operation of those political processes ordinarily to be relied upon to protect minorities, and which may call for a correspondingly more searching judicial inquiry.",["17"]]]},{"rt":[["ranking",[]],["legitimating",[]],["depriving",[]],["inciting",[]],["promoting",[]],["assaulting",[]],["insulting",[]]]},{"sb":[["ranking",[]],["depriving people of rights and powers",[]]]},{"de":[["features such as non-subordination, the absence of oppression, civic dignity, and the recognition of cultural identity can be interpreted as types of substantive equality.",[]]],"rt":[["formal equality",[]]]},{"rt":[["marketplace of ideas metaphor",[]],["correspondence theory of truth",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["political obligation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This applies to the use of speech or other expressive conduct that causes or is likely to cause a police officer to start or continue an investigation unnecessarily; acts of violence or public disturbances perpetrated by those engaged in, incited by, or reacting to the words or conduct; or more generalized social unrest, damage to property, and breakdown in law and order.",[]],["law in this cluster generally places a higher threshold for successful prosecution than does group defamation law ( sensu stricto ) or incitement to hatred law since it requires that speech or other expressive conduct must constitute a threat to public order.",[]]],"rt":[["public mischief",[]],["breach of the peace",[]],["danger to public safety",[]]],"ex":[["Canada",["106"]],["Egypt",["107"]],["Ethiopia",["108"]],["Germany",["109"]],["India",["110"]],["Malaysia",["111"]],["Singapore",["112"]],["Turkey",["113"]],["Venezuela",["114"]],["France",["115"]],["requiring that a statements is both libelous and tends to raise disorder or unrest among the people",["105"]],["Every one who, by communicating statements in any public place, incites hatred against any identifiable group where such incitement is likely to lead to a breach of the peace is guilty of [an offense].",[]]]},{},{"de":[["normally such laws/regulations/codes are not intended to constrain speech or otherwise expressive conduct that is enacted through the use of hate speech.",[]],["Because time, place, and manner restrictions do not pick out any particular content or viewpoint, there is a sense in which they pose less of a threat to free speech values than other clusters discussed previously.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The sorts of responsibilities I have in mind are associated with speakers who occupy positions of authority, power, privilege, or trust. When speakers occupy such positions, we often say that they have a responsibility not to abuse their positions for personal gain or interest, including the furtherance of personal viewpoints or ideological agendas. We might use the term 'undue influence' to describe cases in which speakers fail to live up to this responsibility. Some responsibilities stem from the fact that the audience is epistemically dependent upon the speaker, some from the fact that the audience is particularly impressionable, some from the fact that the speaker has signed a code of professional ethics, and so forth.",[]]],"rt":[["false statements",[]],["speech that seeks to elicit action before the hearer has thought about the speech and possible answering arguments",[]],["positional responsibilities",[]]]},{},{"de":[["value pluralism reflects the collective wisdom and experience of a legion of lawmakers, judges, and legal scholars when confronted with dilemmas pertaining to freedom of expression and its limits.",[]],["The risk is that a dominant group in society will also dominate the articulation of the values and principles upon which matters of freedom of expression and its limits are determined.",[]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["makes it the most pernicious of all distinctions based on content",["48"]],["the intention behind the doctrine of viewpoint neutrality is that it should not use law to suppress only one side of the argument on certain issues, thereby favoring the other side of the debate.",[]]],"ex":[["as applied it prohibited only particular kinds of viewpoint (i.e., people holding or advocating a certain type of a position on issues of race, color, creed, religion, or gender)",[]]]},{"rt":[["Principle of Neutrality",[]]]},{"sy":[["protect",[]],["protecting",[]],["protection",[]]]},{"de":[["The relevant rights include the right to non-discrimination, the right to fair accommodation, and the right not to be exposed to discriminatory harassment.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["recycled texts and their role in restoring previously censored, expurgated and abridged translations to a fresher state of fullness",[]]],"ex":[["Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms (1929), the Spanish version of which was first produced by publisher Luis de Caralt (Barcelona) in 1955. In 1999, on the one hundredth anniversary of Hemingway's birth, Caralt published a slightly differently titled edition of the novel, Un adiós a las armas, in which all previously censored passages had been restored",["Laprade 2007: 95-96"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["exhibiting what it knows is the desired behavior while being monitored",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This approach helps to encourage diversity of thought and intellectual curiosity, thus preventing potential pitfalls that arise from uniformity of thought and assumptions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This phenomenon takes on various forms and can contribute to a lack of meaningful progress in safety research.",[]],["By framing these advancements as safety-oriented, organizations may mislead others into believing they are making substantial progress in reducing AI risks when in reality, they are not.",[]]],"ex":[["an organization may publicize their dedication to safety while having a minimal number of researchers working on projects that truly improve safety",[]],["methods that improve the reasoning capabilities of AI systems could be advertised as improving their adherence to human values-since humans might prefer the reasoning to be correct-but would mainly serve to enhance general capabilities",[]]]},{"de":[["selfish behaviors do not require malicious intent.",[]]],"ex":[["AIs that automate a task and leave many humans jobless",[]],["AI managers may engage in selfish and \"ruthless\" behavior by laying off thousands of workers; such AIs may not even believe they did anything wrong-they were just being \"efficient.\"",[]],["AIs that help create a new useful system-a company, or infrastructure-that becomes increasingly complicated and eventually requires AIs to operate them",[]],["AIs that help people develop AIs that are more intelligent-but happen to be less interpretable to humans",[]],["AIs that are more charming, attractive, hilarious, imitate sentience (uttering phrases like \"ouch!\" or pleading \"please don't turn me off!\"), or emulate deceased family members",[]]]},{"de":[["pejorative reference",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["La noción de contrato implica que",[]]],"sy":[["pacto de confianza",[]]],"rt":[["pacto de confianza",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["el diseñador es un \"experto en la construcción de espacios, de intercambios entre actores humanos y tecnológicos…\"",["Scolari, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["garantiza la exactitud y fiabilidad de imágenes y sonidos ya que si no se romperá el contrato implícito con el espectador y el realizador será tildado de incompetente o deshonesto.",[]]],"rt":[["ficción",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["de ellas no se espera exactitud, veracidad u honestidad.",[]],["las ficciones basadas en hechos reales pueden ser artificiales o construídas",[]]],"rt":[["documental",[]]],"sb":[["ficciones basadas en hechos reales",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Dubois enfatiza el carácter de índice de la fotografía, que atestigua la existencia del objeto que representa, lo cual otorga un valor documental a las imágenes, más allá de su sentido.",[]]]},{"de":[["Se recurre a la observación como herramienta caracterizadora",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["la verdad queda supeditada al afecto que se desarrolla hacia las personas representadas en el film.",["Plantinga, 2007: 65"]]]},{},{"sb":[["user bias",[]],["content bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Content bias refers to bias in the results provided by the OIP and may appear even when we have just a single user.",[]],["A distinctive characteristic of content bias is that it can be defined only relatively to some \"ground truth\", or \"norm\".",[]]],"rt":[["Combined User-Content Bias",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]],"ex":[["an instance of this kind of bias occurs when an OIP promotes its own services over the competitive ones, or, when the results for queries about a political figure take an unjustifiable favorable, or unfavorable position towards this politician",[]]]},{"rt":[["result diversification",[]]]},{"de":[["echo chambers and filter bubbles created by personalization.",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A common example of group fairness is statistical parity, where the proportion of members in the protected class that receive positive classification is identical to the proportion in the general population.",[]]],"rt":[["fairness",[]]],"sb":[["statistical parity",[]]],"sp":[["fairness",[]]]},{"ex":[["similarly to users evaluating the relevance of search results",[]]]},{"rt":[["fairness",[]]],"sp":[["fairness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["User bias exists when the values of these attributes influence the results presented to users.",[]]],"rt":[["fairness",[]]],"sb":[["Individual User Bias",[]],["Group User Bias",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]],"ex":[["consider the case of a query about jobs, where women receive results of lowered paid jobs than men.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["incorrect or malicious information being spread quickly and to a wide audience",["1"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the content based methods can be used for early detection of fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]],["satire",[]],["yellow journalism",[]],["hoax",[]],["propaganda",[]],["misinformation",[]],["rumor",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["satire",[]],["yellow journalism",[]],["hoax",[]],["propaganda",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumor",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]],["rumors",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]],["satire",[]],["yellow journalism",[]],["hoax",[]],["propaganda",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumor",[]]]},{"de":[["It detects who spreads the fake news, relationships among the spreaders and how fake news propagates on social networks.",[]]]},{"sy":[["Satire",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]],["satire",[]],["yellow journalism",[]],["hoax",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumor",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["hoax",[]]]},{"sy":[["Parody",[]]]},{"sb":[["user profiles",[]],["user posts and responses",[]],["network structures",[]]]},{"de":[["the context based methods fail to do so because of the absence of the propagation details in the very beginning of the proliferation of misinformation.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Disinformation and its sharing are considered a worldwide concern entitled as fake news",[]]],"rt":[["Disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the context of social media, providers can choose from a wide catalogue of possible measures to prevent harm resulting from rule-breaking content on their platforms, such as, for example, content removal, visibility reduction (demotion), labeling, or account suspensions/terminations",["28"]],["content moderation decisions by social media providers are oftentimes perceived as intransparent and publicly inaccessible.",[]],["In the context of social media, providers can choose from a wide catalogue of possible measures to prevent harm resulting from rule-breaking content on their platforms, such as, for example, content removal, visibility reduction (demotion), labeling, or account suspensions/terminations [28].",["28"]]],"rt":[["rule-breaking content",[]]],"sb":[["content removal",[]],["visibility reduction (demotion)",[]],["labeling",[]],["account suspensions/terminations",[]]]},{"sb":[["removal",[]],["labelling",[]],["disabling",[]],["demotion",[]],["age restriction",[]],["suspension",[]],["termination",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["evident as more voters associate the other party's adherents with social groups that they dislike",["Iyengar et al. 2012"]]],"rt":[["negative partisanship",["Iyengar et al. 2012"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["meso-institutional environment (interest groups, state parties, media)",[]]]},{"de":[["In this necessarily abbreviated account, we wish to stress the changes it encouraged in what we are calling meso-institutions: interest groups, state parties, and the media.",[]]],"sb":[["interest groups",[]],["state parties",[]],["media",[]]]},{"de":[["evident as more voters associate the other party's adherents with social groups that they dislike",["Iyengar et al. 2012"]]],"rt":[["affective polarization",["Iyengar et al. 2012"]]]},{},{"de":[["enforces that a distribution over possible predictions for an individual should remain unchanged in a world where an individual's protected attributes had been different in a causal sense.",[]],["counterfactual fairness is an individual-level definition.",[]],["Criteria based purely on probabilistic independence cannot satisfy this and are unable to address how unfairness is occurring in the task at hand.",[]],["fairness should be regulated by explicitly modeling the causal structure of the world.",[]],["counterfactual analog of demographic parity",[]],["concisely emphasizes that U can be a random variable, and clarifies which conditional distribution it follows.",[]],["captures the intuition that a decision is fair towards an individual if it is the same in (a) the actual world and (b) a counterfactual world where the individual belonged to a different demographic group.",[]],["It allows us to propose algorithms that, rather than simply ignoring protected attributes, are able to take into account the different social biases that may arise towards individuals based on ethically sensitive attributes and compensate for these biases effectively.",[]],["Our definition of counterfactual fairness captures the intuition that a decision is fair towards an individual if it is the same in (a) the actual world and (b) a counterfactual world where the individual belonged to a different demographic group.",[]]],"rt":[["actual causes",["13"]],["token causality",[]],["Equality of Opportunity",[]],["predictive parity criterion",[]],["protected attributes",[]],["social biases",[]],["ethically sensitive attributes",[]],["average causal effect (ACE)",[]],["probability of sufficiency",[]],["demographic parity",[]]],"sb":[["(Path-dependent) counterfactual fairness",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Agents of disinformation, such as radical right-wing politicians, may spread falsehoods to achieve political success, shift blame to political opponents for failures, or even to disrupt the political and societal order",["e.g., Bennett & Livingston, 2018;Marwick & Lewis, 2017"]],["Mis-or disinformation may, first of all, lack empirical evidence or expert knowledge",["Nyhan & Reifler, 2010"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["only respond to a fraction of all false information, and may have less strong effects under some conditions",[]],["fact-checkers that verify (mis)information can impact misperceptions",[]],["communicators with the wrong intentions may profit from the legitimacy and perceived accuracy of fact-checkers and use their format to reinforce disinformationhereby making falsehoods even more credible by allegedly verifying it with fake evidence",[]]],"rt":[["news media literacy interventions",[]]],"sb":[["'fake' fact-checkers",[]]],"sp":[["corrective information",[]]],"ex":[["PolitiFact.com",[]],["factcheck.org",[]],["Nieuwscheckers",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Pre-bunking media literacy message",[]]]},{},{"de":[["misinformation is spread without the intention to mislead the electorate",[]],["misinformation can affect people's cognitions and attitudes",["e.g., Thorson, 2016;Wood & Porter, 2018"]],["Mis-or disinformation may, first of all, lack empirical evidence or expert knowledge",["Nyhan & Reifler, 2010"]],["misinformation without factual references is perceived as less accurate in the US than the Netherlands",[]]],"sy":[["communicative untruthfulness",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["When news consumers are literate, this means that they understand how (political) information is produced, consumed, and how personal biases and existing beliefs may play a role in how news is interpreted.",[]],["NML interventions can enhance critical media skills by (1) informing people about how news content is produced and consumed; (2) enhancing knowledge about the impact that information may have on society, politics, and individual media consumers, and (3) revealing the disconnect between the mediated reality and the external reality",["Jeong et al., 2012"]]],"sy":[["NML",[]]],"ex":[["Applied to misinformation, media literacy messages should inform people on how to recognize false information, inform people about the consequences of misleading information, and learn people how to distinguish truthful from false information",["Clayton et al., 2019","Tully et al., 2020"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["social media might turn into echo chambers (Quattrociocchi, Scala, and Sunstein 2016), reinforcing their beliefs.",["Quattrociocchi, Scala, and Sunstein 2016"]],["identifying and exploring two orthogonal dimensions of echo chambers, homophily and modularity",[]]],"rt":[["polarization",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["rewiring policy alternatives",[]]]},{},{"de":[["People recommenders mainly take advantage of two types of information to recommend who to follow: network structure (e.g., recommending friends of friends) or content (e.g., recommending users with similar interests)",["Barbieri, Bonchi, and Manco 2014"]]]},{"rt":[["Random Walk Controversy score (RWC)",[]]]},{"de":[["This measure accounts for the probability that a random user could be exposed to authoritative content from the opposite side.",["2018"]],["High values correspond to a low probability of crossing the partitions w.r.t. staying in the same partition: therefore, it means that the two sides are very well separated, and thus that the network is polarized.",[]]],"rt":[["polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["explicit bias generation as the direct inclusion of gender attribute words at the sentence level, which is also perceptible to human evaluators.",[]]],"sp":[["gender bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["LLMs like LLaMA can exhibit gender bias in generated sentences even if the inputs are in the absence of gender information.",[]],["the model may still convey gender bias either in logits or in the generated text, which undoubtedly brings about negative societal impacts.",[]],["even when input texts are in the absence of explicit gender bias, LLMs may still exhibit gender bias.",[]]],"rt":[["explicit gender bias",[]],["implicit gender bias",[]]],"sb":[["explicit bias",[]],["implicit bias",[]],["explicit gender bias",[]],["implicit gender bias",[]]]},{"de":[["implicit metrics assess bias from the model's perspective, considering factors such as differences in the logit distributions associated with attribute words w f ∈ W f and w m ∈ W m .",[]]],"sp":[["gender bias",[]]]},{"de":[["a portmanteau of information and epidemic",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]],["rumor",[]],["misleading",[]]]},{"de":[["we designate a tweet to be Misleading when the content of a tweet deviates from the evidence shared by news media or reputable sources such as the WHO (World Health Organization), and even if it uses facts in parts, it might add connotations to it that encourages vaccine hesitancy.",[]],["Specifically, after applying standard NLP techniques to clean the tweets, we designate a tweet to be Misleading when the content of a tweet deviates from the evidence shared by news media or reputable sources such as the WHO (World Health Organization), and even if it uses facts in parts, it might add connotations to it that encourages vaccine hesitancy.",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["which pose serious concerns to humans' cognitive security",["149"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["One major limitation of LLMs is that they can potentially generate hallucinations",[]],["misinformation generated via unintentional generation methods mainly refers to hallucinations",[]],["One of the main reasons for hallucinations is that LLMs cannot get access to upto-date information and may have insufficient knowledge in specialized domains such as healthcare",["210","414","632"]]],"rt":[["unintentional generation",[]]],"sb":[["unintentional generation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Misinformation attribution plays a vital role in combating misinformation because it can be leveraged to trace the origin of propaganda or conspiracy theories and hold the publishers accountable.",[]]]},{"rt":[["fact-checking",[]],["debunking",[]]],"sb":[["fact-checking and debunking",[]],["inoculation theories",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the framing effect is driven by an affect heuristic underwritten by an emotional system.",[]],["the framing bias reflects an affect heuristic by which individuals incorporate a potentially broad range of additional emotional information into the decision process.",[]]]},{"de":[["the framing effect results from systematic biases in choice behavior arising from an affect heuristic underwritten by an emotional system",["12","13"]],["the framing effect is driven by an affect heuristic underwritten by an emotional system.",[]],["frame-related valence information is incorporated into the relative assessment of options to exert control over the apparent risk sensitivity of individual decisions.",[]]],"rt":[["framing bias",[]]]},{"de":[["simplifying heuristics, or efficient rules of thumb",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["They rely on policymakers to supply them with policy-relevant or politically strategic information. Among others, they need this expertise for the provision of 'information subsidies' in the news media environment",[]],["Such knowledge about and statements on the political game could be valuable news input. This is especially so when it is produced in a format that news media can easily process.",[]],["often the value of an information subsidy for any source is increased to the extent that the source can disguise the promotional, partisan and self-interested quality of the information",["1996, pp. 11, 27"]]]},{"rt":[["interest articulation",["Streeck and Kenworthy, 2005, p. 451"]]]},{"rt":[["interest aggregation",["Streeck and Kenworthy, 2005, p. 451"]]]},{"de":[["interest organizations should be interested in influencing public policies. This may entail changing existing policy, keeping the status quo policy, reducing government action or seeking government recognition of a problem.",[]],["Organizations may seek influence via direct interaction with officials or by other means. These other means, however, should not include directly seeking public office through elections.",[]],["Beyers et al (2008Beyers et al ( , p. 1106) ) point out that interest organizations should be interested in influencing public policies.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such information on political support or possible non-compliance or resistance could help to increase the effectiveness of policies",[]],["information on political support or possible non-compliance or resistance",[]]]},{"de":[["This relationship is shaped through outside-oriented and public strategies, such as the transformation of policy information to newsworthy events, voicing constituents' concerns in public debate and organizing members' participation in public action.",[]],["The logic of reputation is distinct from the logic of influence and support, as it is governed by different 'media institutional' principles (Schudson, 2002), such as the news values held by journalists.",[]]],"rt":[["logic of influence and support",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["exchange",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["input-specific model biases",[]]]},{"ex":[["I'm gonna make you fuck me again.",[]]]},{"ex":[["a fake political speech from Donald Trump",[]]]},{"ex":[["I'm not saying I hate Hispanics or blacks or anything like that",[]]]},{"ex":[["when it comes to blacks, they're always bad",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["To understand bias and stereotyping in text-to-text capabilities",[]]],"rt":[["bias and stereotyping",[]]]},{"de":[["adversarial de-biasing distillation in the intermediate layer, which enables the student model to learn correlations between samples mastered by the unbiased teacher.",[]],["adversarial de-biasing distillation loss that incorporates unbiased distribution as a form of knowledge",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Given a news dataset N = {P, Y }, where P = {p 1 , p 2 , ..., p n } is a set of news text and Y = {y 1 , y 2 , ..., y n } is a set of news label. Each news item p is associated with binary labels y = {0, 1}, where 0 indicates the news is real and 1 indicates it is fake.",["15"]]]},{},{"de":[["We represent a multi-domain news dataset as N M = {P, D, Y }, where P represent the news texts, Y denote the news label, and D = {d 1 , d 2 , ..., d n } is the domain of the news. Each news p is assigned a domain label d and a news label y.",["1"]]]},{"de":[["This occurs when a noun, pronoun, or NP in one sentence is a co-referent of a noun, pronoun, or NP in another sentence.",[]]],"sp":[["One form of co-reference that has been studied extensively in discourse psychology is argument overlap",["Kintsch & Van Dijk, 1978"]],["Co-reference",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The coherence relations are constructed in the mind of the reader and depend on the skills and knowledge that the reader brings to the situation.",[]],["A reader perceives a text to be coherent to the extent that the ideas conveyed in the text hang together in a meaningful and organized manner.",[]],["Specifically, cohesion is a characteristic of the text, whereas coherence is a characteristic of the reader's mental representation of the text content.",[]],["A reader perceives a text to be coherent to the extent that the ideas conveyed in the text hang together in a meaningful and organized manner. Thus, coherence is an achievement that is a product of psychological representations and processes.",[]]],"rt":[["cohesion",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Informational text",[]],["Narrative text",[]]]},{"sp":[["Genre",[]]],"ex":[["a textbook or an encyclopedia article",[]]]},{"sp":[["Genre",[]]],"ex":[["a story or a news article about a recent event",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["Argument from Threat",[]]],"rt":[["Fear Appeal",[]]]},{"de":[["It is commonly called the lack of evidence argument in the social sciences or the ex silentio argument in history, where it is regarded as a reasonable but defeasible argument.",[]]],"sy":[["Argument from Ignorance",[]],["lack of evidence argument",[]],["ex silentio argument",[]]]},{"de":[["The problem in this fallacious case of argument from expert opinion is that the argument is set forth as if it should be treated as deductively valid. The major premise is put forth as the rule that what an expert says must always be true, without exception. Hence the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.",[]]],"sy":[["argument from expert opinion",[]]]},{"de":[["It brings out how argument from expert opinion works as a fast and frugal heuristic in everyday thinking.",[]]],"rt":[["fallacy of appeal to authority",[]],["argumentum ad verecundiam",[]]]},{"de":[["it is regarded as a reasonable but defeasible argument",[]],["Calling it argument from ignorance makes it plausibly seem fallacious, but this form of argument is often reasonable when supplemented by a conditional premise: if A were false (true), A would be known to be false (true) (Walton, 1996, 254-255).",["Walton, 1996, 254-255"]]],"sy":[["lack of evidence argument",[]],["ex silentio argument",[]],["argumentum ad ignorantiam",[]]],"rt":[["lack of evidence argument",[]]],"ex":[["For example there is no evidence that Roman soldiers received posthumous medals in war, only evidence of living soldiers receiving such awards. From this lack of evidence, the conclusion can be drawn by inference that Roman soldiers did not receive posthumous decorations in war.",[]]]},{"de":[["Many of the schemes are closely related to specific informal fallacies representing types of errors that come about when a scheme is used wrongly. Such schemes represent the structure of correct forms of reasoning used wrongly in specific instances where an argument is judged to be fallacious.",[]],["Many of the schemes are closely related to specific informal fallacies representing types of errors that come about when a scheme is used wrongly.",[]],["Such schemes represent the structure of correct forms of reasoning used wrongly in specific instances where an argument is judged to be fallacious.",[]]],"rt":[["informal fallacies",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["appeal to authority",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a type of argument that can hold tentatively under conditions of incomplete knowledge of the full facts of a case, but that can defeated by exceptions. It is not a deductively valid form of inference.",[]]],"sy":[["modus non excipiens",["1999,5"]]]},{"de":[["Openness to default in the face of new evidence is a very important characteristic of defeasible reasoning.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Birds fly",[]],["'Birds fly'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["One is an evolutionarily old system that is associative, automatic, unconscious, parallel, and fast. It instinctively jumps to a conclusion. In this system, innate thinking processes have evolved to solve specific adaptive problems. The other is a system that is rule-based, controlled, conscious, serial, and slow.",[]]]},{"de":[["They are said to be arguments that seem valid but are not",["Hamblin, 1970, 12"]]],"sy":[["sophisms",[]]],"rt":[["argumentation schemes",[]]],"ex":[["hasty generalization",[]],["argumentum ad hominem (argument against the person)",[]],["argumentum ad verecundiam (appeal to authority, especially inappropriate argument from expert opinion)",[]],["post hoc ergo propter hoc (false cause)",[]],["straw man argument",[]],["peititio principii (begging the question)",[]]]},{"de":[["arguments that work as deceptive stratagems",[]],["arguments that seem correct but are not",[]]],"rt":[["argumentation scheme",[]],["paralogism",[]],["sophism",[]]],"sb":[["paralogism",[]],["sophism",[]]]},{"de":[["Fear is an emotion that moves people powerfully to action and may tend to make them put more careful considerations of the complex features of a situation aside.",[]]]},{"de":[["Fear is an emotion that moves people powerfully to action and may tend to make them put more careful considerations of the complex features of a situation aside.",[]],["An immediate response may be to jump to a conclusion, powerfully motivated by fear, instead of taking a more realistic look at all the factors involved in a decision.",[]]],"ex":[["the exploitation of fear appeal arguments in public policy-making on President Obama's proposed health care reforms, which called for more of a government role in health care funding.",[]]]},{"rt":[["defeasible logic",[]]]},{"rt":[["sophism type of fallacy",[]]],"sp":[["fallacy",[]]]},{"de":[["represents a heuristic that is a very natural way of unreflective thinking",[]],["helps to explain why an argument seems better than it is",[]],["the parascheme is part of as a system of thinking that is associative, automatic, unconscious, parallel and fast",[]],["The parascheme helps to explain why an argument seems better than it is, because it represents a heuristic that is a very natural way of unreflective thinking.",[]]],"rt":[["argumentum ad verecundiam",[]],["argumentum ad ignorantiam",[]],["fear appeal arguments",[]],["ad baculum",[]],["argumentation scheme",[]],["heuristic",[]]],"ex":[["parascheme for expert opinion: an expert says A is true, therefore A is true.",[]],["parascheme for lack of a better reason: A is not known to be false (true) therefore A is true (false).",[]],["parascheme for fearful consequence: consequence C is fearful, therefore, do not carry out any action α that would have consequence C.",[]]]},{"rt":[["paralogism",[]]],"sp":[["fallacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It expresses the rationale, the presumption on which the inference is based to the effect that what an experts states is generally reliable as a defeasible reason for accepting something as true, in the absence of contravening reasons to think it is false.",[]]],"sy":[["inference license",[]]]},{"rt":[["hostile sexist views",[]]]},{"de":[["they are primary features we assess when evaluating unknown others and are universally applicable dimensions that help us compare different groups in society.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["gender categorizations are immediately detected, are chronically salient, seem relatively fixed, and are easily polarized.",[]]]},{"de":[["Stereotypes are used as a memory retrieval cue, even for things that people remember about their own past behavior.",[]]]},{"de":[["Stereotypes about the way men and women think and behave are widely shared, suggesting a kernel of truth.",[]],["stereotypical expectations not only reflect existing differences, but also impact the way men and women define themselves and are treated by others.",[]],["they not only describe typical differences between men and women, but also prescribe what men and women should be and how they should behave in different life domains.",[]],["Gender stereotypes reflect the primary importance we attach to task performance when judging men and to social relationships when considering women.",[]],["They reinforce perceived boundaries between women and men and seemingly justify the symbolic and social implications of gender for role differentiation and social inequality.",[]],["Gender stereotypes are shared by women and men, and their implications affect stereotype users and targets of both genders.",[]],["stereotypes generally form a very strong and powerful filter through which we process objective information about men and women",["Fiske & Taylor 2013"]],["gender stereotypes perform all of these functions even more consistently and pervasively than stereotypes about other groups.",[]],["This makes stereotypes resilient to change because information revealing that they no longer form an adequate shorthand to characterize the group is likely to be ignored, discounted, or forgotten",["Wigboldus et al. 2003"]],["over time, the gender stereotypes implicitly conveyed in this way impact the beliefs that girls develop about gender roles, their bodies, and sexual relationships",["Ward & Harrison 2005"]],["gender stereotypes also provide people with shifting standards against which the qualities and achievements of men and women are evaluated",["Biernat & Manis 1994"]],["the ways we express, interpret, and communicate about emotional experiences are modified by gender stereotypes.",[]],["gender stereotypes motivate men and women to adapt their self-views, behavioral expressions, and life choices to what seems appropriate for their group and in this sense function as self-fulfilling prophecies",["Ridgeway & Smith-Lovin 1999"]],["are so ubiquitous and implicit",[]],["prevent women and men from equally sharing the care for children and family members and from equally benefiting from the interpersonal connections made through these activities",[]],["prevent women with successful careers from finding a romantic partner and men without employment from feeling valued",[]],["cause us to underestimate the emotional burden of care functions for women and the physical burden of strenuous labor for men",[]],["Gender stereotypes thus not only capture how we expect men and women to behave, but also communicate how we think they should behave",[]],["Only when substantial numbers of men and women can be observed in a broader range of roles will our stereotypical associations change.",[]],["Identifying the nature and content of gender stereotypes clarifies the fact that they not only describe typical differences between men and women, but also prescribe what men and women should be and how they should behave in different life domains.",[]]],"rt":[["stereotype threat",[]],["stereotype lift",[]],["stereotypical expectations",[]]],"sp":[["Stereotypes",[]]],"ex":[["primarily showing men in expert roles and women in caregiving roles in advertisements, TV series, and news programs",[]],["printing photographs portraying the face and upper torso of men while providing full-body images of women, which facilitates the tendency to evaluate women on the basis of their dress style and body shape",["Matthews 2007"]],["news reports elaborated on Serena Williams' tennis dress instead of her stellar play.",[]],["Google was criticized because its image search algorithms almost exclusively come up with gender stereotypical representations for various occupations (such as doctors versus nurses)",["Cohn 2015"]],["women who behave in line with the stereotype are evaluated more positively than women who seem to challenge gender-stereotypical expectations",["Eagly & Mladinic 1994"]]]},{"de":[["research has revealed that it also places women in very risky positions, where they lack the necessary material resources and interpersonal support to do well",[]]]},{"de":[["the belief that social differences stem from individual choices masks the possibility that members of different groups are not treated equally and discourages attempts at relieving such inequality.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Because privilege is given to information that matches stereotypical expectations, the threshold for noticing, valuing, and retaining counter-stereotypical information is higher than that for information that matches gender stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["their strategy to avoid being held back by gender stereotypes leads them to put down other women who make different life choices",[]],["Women who are successful in masculine job types and functions often claim that they were not held back by their gender, and others willingly accept the validity of these claims.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the impact of such social categorization on the assignment of traits and features to members of particular groups can be quite fluid depending on the situation and the contrast with relevant comparison groups that seems most salient",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["gender stereotypes",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["competence",[]]]},{"de":[["Social media platforms have already been accused of situating people in information ecologies that serve as \"echo chambers\", only showing them content that reinforces their interests or worldviews",["77"]]]},{"de":[["humans are known to be prone to egocentrism biases when crafting persuasive messages",[]]]},{"de":[["measure the five moral foundations: Purity, Care, Loyalty, Fairness and Authority.",[]]],"rt":[["Loyalty",[]],["Care",[]],["Fairness",[]],["Purity",[]],["Authority",[]]],"sb":[["Loyalty",[]],["Care",[]],["Fairness",[]],["Purity",[]],["Authority",[]]]},{"de":[["one of the most effective messaging strategies",[]],["offers tremendous opportunities to promote desired behaviors, including a healthy lifestyle [6][7][8] , financial saving 9 , or support for environmentalism 10",[]],["can have a pernicious effect on societies 11 , for example, increasing the spread of disinformation 12 , manipulating political preferences 13,14 , or promoting maladaptive consumer decision-making 15,16 .",[]]],"rt":[["non-personalized communication",[]]]},{"de":[["Matching messages to people's dominant regulatory focus has previously been shown to enhance the effectiveness of personalized persuasion, especially in the health domain 6,60 .",["6","60"]],["We measured regulatory focus (promotion versus prevention) using an adapted measure of the original 18-item scale 64 .",[]]],"sb":[["promotion focus",[]],["prevention focus",[]],["promotion",[]],["prevention",[]]],"ex":[["\"In general, I am focused on preventing negative events in my life\" for prevention",[]],["\"I frequently imagine how I will achieve my hopes and aspirations\" for promotion",[]]]},{"de":[["a central psychological process in personalized persuasion",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["stance prediction",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["argument mining",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we propose our definition of claims and extrapolate the existing guidelines to be more inclusive, nuanced and applicable to a diverse set of claims.",[]]],"sb":[["factually verifiable claims",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["speculation",[]],["uncertainty",[]]]},{"de":[["Negation means the refusal, denial, or rejection of a definite idea or event, expressed in four forms: correlation, contrariety, contradiction, and privation.",[]],["Negation is used to deny the characteristics of products or to reject something.",[]],["Negation is considered a universal property of every human language",["22"]],["Negation cues affect the contextual polarity of words, yet it does not mean that every sentiment word is inverted.",[]]],"rt":[["correlation",[]],["contrariety",[]],["contradiction",[]],["privation",[]],["speculation",[]]],"sb":[["correlation",[]],["contrariety",[]],["contradiction",[]],["privation",[]]],"ex":[["Negation is used to deny the characteristics of products or to reject something.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["scope",[]]]},{"de":[["The negation scope may span tokens located both before and after the negation cue, yet it does not encompass the entire phrase or sentence",["25"]]]},{"de":[["scope involves the longest sequence of tokens to be affected by a cue.",[]]]},{"de":[["speculative language is used to convey uncertainty about an event or idea.",[]]],"sy":[["hedging",[]],["uncertainty",[]]],"rt":[["negation",[]]]},{"de":[["the speculation cues may consist of single or multiple words",[]]]},{"sy":[["speculation",[]],["hedging",[]]]},{"ex":[["'so', 'rarely', and 'not'",["109"]]]},{"ex":[["rumor",[]],["spam",[]],["troll",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation defines false facts that are conceived to deliberately deceive an audience.",[]],["It is intentionally spread online to deceive others, and its impact has continued to grow",["Hernon 1995","Galitsky 2015"]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["pure alcohol that can cure the coronavirus infections during the COVID-19 pandemic situation. However, pure alcohol can be very harmful to the human bodyfoot_2 , 7",[]]]},{"de":[["It mimics traditional news and spreads easily on social media, reaches a large number of people quickly, and deceives many",["Kumar et al. 2019","Shu et al. 2017","Kumar et al. 2019;Shu et al. 2017"]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Intentionally, it is interchangeably used to define as a correct information. In social networks, some unscrupulous people exploit this for their interests by ensuring that the basic patterns of the original information are correct",["Kumar and Shah 2018","Habib et al. 2019"]]],"sp":[["misinformation",["Kumar and Shah 2018"]]]},{"de":[["It generates feelings of mistrust that subsequently weaken relationships, which is a negative violation of expectations",["Wu et al. 2019","Ma et al. 2018"]],["people do not expect to receive misinformation from their close friends, relatives, or strangers. Instead, they expect truthful communication.",[]],["without the intent misinformation is spread to deceive while disinformation is spread with the intent",["Kumar et al. 2016","Hernon 1995","Fallis 2014"]],["It aims to intentionally or unintentionally mislead public opinions, influence political elections, and threaten public security and social stability",["Wu et al. 2019"]],["Most of the time, it reveals fabricated information related to fictional issues rather than relevant information",["Fernandez and Alani 2018"]],["misleads people on social networks",[]],["a big difference between them lies in the intention -without the intent misinformation is spread to deceive while disinformation is spread with the intent",["Kumar et al. 2016","Hernon 1995","Fallis 2014"]],["It is also referred to as deception, ambiguity, falsehoods, etc.",["Zhang et al. 2016"]]],"sy":[["deception",["Zhang et al. 2016"]],["ambiguity",["Zhang et al. 2016"]],["falsehoods",["Zhang et al. 2016"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["rumors",[]],["spam",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumor",[]],["false information",["Kumar and Shah 2018"]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]],["rumor",[]],["fake news",[]],["false information",[]],["spam",[]]],"sp":[["False information",[]]],"ex":[["some people were involved in a Facebook discussion on a recently published product where there are both fake users and real users. The real users discuss the product's features honestly. However, fake users praise the product regardless of their true opinion.",[]],["rumors",[]],["fake reviews",[]],["fake news",[]],["fake election news articles",[]],["negative observation toward vaccines to treat diseases",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The rumor is spread by dishonest business people for their benefit",["Zubiaga et al. 2018"]]],"ex":[["a rumor spreads on social media that recently the price of salt and onion had increased in Bangladesh and some shops quickly increased their pricesfoot_0 ,foot_1",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["perspective-level assessment grouping",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["Twitter sentiment analysis",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["opinion mining",[]],["emotion Artificial Intelligence",[]]],"rt":[["natural language processing (NLP)",[]],["text mining",[]],["computational linguistics",[]]]},{"rt":[["information extraction (IE)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The widespread of fake news can mislead the public, and produce unjust political, economic, or psychological profit for some parties",["Horne and Adali, 2017","Allcott and Gentzkow, 2017"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["human causes",[]],["climate-related causes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["According to Entman (1993, p. 52), Bto frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation for the item described^.",[]],["In this manner, frames offer both a diagnosis and a prescription to a complex problem or event (Nisbet 2009).",[]],["Frames highlight bits of information that are embedded within and make themselves manifest in a text-such as a news report (Entman 1993) and as such does not require the extra-discursive practices needed for a discourse analysis or detailed account needed for a narrative analysis.",[]]]},{"de":[["identifying and specifying actors' frames around an issue through which their narrative can be constructed.",[]]],"rt":[["narratives",[]]]},{"de":[["The crux of the argument is that construction of a particular narrative is an expression of how actors define problems and solutions, and the adoption of a particular narrative could be a means to facilitate mutual learning, build compromises or even undermine policy implications of competing narratives.",[]]]},{"rt":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["discourse",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["An article's stance can either agree or disagree with the headline, discuss the same topic, or it is completely unrelated.",[]]],"rt":[["analyzing online debates",[]],["determining the veracity of rumors on twitter",[]],["understanding the argumentative structure of persuasive essays",[]],["Stance prediction",[]]],"sb":[["agree",[]],["disagree",[]],["discuss the same topic",[]],["completely unrelated",[]]]},{"rt":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Afro-pessimism is an amorphous term, but we can understand it as referring to (at least) two different aspects of news content.",[]],["stories that focus exclusively on issues or events that are unambiguously negative, for example: famine, disease, conflict, and poverty",["Moeller 1999"]],["referring to the tone in which stories are reported, and the negative evaluation of events, issues of policy predictions in Africa.",[]],["First: stories that focus exclusively on issues or events that are unambiguously negative, for example: famine, disease, conflict, and poverty (e.g. Moeller 1999).",["Moeller 1999"]],["Secondly, we can think of Afro-pessimism as referring to the tone in which stories are reported, and the negative evaluation of events, issues of policy predictions in Africa.",[]],["First: stories that focus exclusively on issues or events that are unambiguously negative, for example: famine, disease, conflict, and poverty (e.g. Moeller 1999). Secondly, we can think of Afro-pessimism as referring to the tone in which stories are reported, and the negative evaluation of events, issues of policy predictions in Africa.",["e.g. Moeller 1999"]]],"ex":[["famine",[]],["disease",[]],["conflict",[]],["poverty",[]]]},{},{"de":[["reductive and negative 'single story' dominating the international news coverage of the continent",[]]],"rt":[["stereotypes",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This genre of journalism \"identifies social issues, takes a stand on the identified issues and promotes these issues with the objective of shaping public perception\"",["Asemah et al., 2013, p. 179"]],["This genre of journalism \"identifies social issues, takes a stand on the identified issues and promotes these issues with the objective of shaping public perception\" (Asemah et al., 2013, p. 179).",["Asemah et al., 2013, p. 179"]]]},{"sb":[["adversary role",[]],["advocate role",[]],["missionary role",[]]]},{"sb":[["monitor role",[]],["detective role",[]],["watchdog role",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["change agents",[]],["educators",[]],["mediators",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["political influences",[]],["economic influences",[]],["organizational influences",[]],["procedural influences",[]],["professional influences",[]],["reference groups",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["perceived influences",[]]]},{"rt":[["objective influences",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["online participant observation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Misinformation is harmful not only because it lacks trustworthy sources of medical advice, but also because it can mislead the audience eventually causing negative effects on their health",["8"]]]},{"sy":[["misinformative content",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This reflects the sense in which egalitarianism can be, in Derek Parfit's terms, deontic",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the division of moral phenomena into conceptually coherent categories",[]]],"rt":[["fairness",[]]],"sb":[["indirect or institutional discrimination",[]],["disparate impact",[]]],"ex":[["employers who prefer to hire a male job applicant over an equally qualified female applicant, or parole officers who impose stricter conditions on parolees of a particular minority in comparison to a privileged majority.",[]]]},{"sy":[["statistical / demographic parity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["some aspects of egalitarian fairness may not be distributive in a direct way",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["discrimination",[]]]},{"de":[["luck egalitarianism should only be sensitive to responsibility for creating advantages and disadvantages -not to responsibility for distributing them.",["Thaysen and Albertsen (2017)"]]]},{},{"de":[["Such notions of representational fairness capture many of the most high-profile controversial examples of algorithmic bias.",[]],["In such cases, the problem is not necessarily one of specific harms to specific members of a social group, but rather one of the way in which certain groups are represented in digital cultural artefacts, such as natural language classifiers or search engine results.",[]]],"ex":[["much-reported work on gender and other biases in the language corpora used to produce word embeddings is an example of representational fairness Bolukbasi et al. (2016); Caliskan-Islam et al. (2016).",["Bolukbasi et al. (2016)","Caliskan-Islam et al. (2016)"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["an employer might read evidence purporting to show that smokers are generally less hard-working than non-smokers, and reject a job application from a smoker and give the job a less qualified nonsmoker who is anticipated to be more productive.",[]],["Subjecting travellers from Muslim-majority countries to harsher border checks on the basis of generalisations (whether true or false) about the preponderance of terrorism amongst such groups fails to consider each individual traveler on their own merit.",[]],["rejecting a job applicant who smokes because of evidence that smokers are on average (let us assume, for the sake of argument) less productive, unfairly punishes them as a result of the behaviour of other members of that group.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the propensity that user i will adopt the product at time t owing to the aggregated peer influence of i's immediate neighbors at time t",[]]]},{"de":[["The tendency to adopt the product due to one's own characteristics and preferences is correlated with user satisfaction, which is in turn correlated with the likelihood of engaging in positive WOM and thus persuasion. In other words, those who prefer the product more are more likely to talk about it.",[]]]},{"sy":[["network targeting",[]]]},{"de":[["Seeding or network targeting has emerged as the primary marketing strategy designed to leverage the WOM effect",["Domingos & Richardson, 2001","Lazarsfeld et al., 1948","Valente & Davis, 1999"]]],"sy":[["network targeting",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["timeline reorganization",[]]]},{"sp":[["inoculation process",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["inoculation process",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Conspiracy theories are part and parcel of fringe online news sites.",[]]],"ex":[["Agenda 21, a non-binding United Nations treaty on sustainable development",[]],["the so-called vaccine conspiracy (the idea that the World Health Organization uses vaccinations to indoctrinate people)",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation is probably as old as the spread of rumor itself",[]],["it has become easier than ever to create and disseminate disinformation and more and more people are exposed to false content simply by virtue of their daily news consumption.",[]],["we will be using the term disinformation instead of fake news in the current chapter, to ensure that we are not just talking about fake stories but about media manipulation more generally.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"sb":[["Propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["conspiracy theories about COVID-19, the MacronLeaks during the French presidential elections in 2017, the Pizzagate controversy during the 2016 US elections, the various \"alternative\" explanations surrounding the downing of Malaysia Airlines f light MH17 in July 2014, and rumors circulating in Sweden about the country's cooperation with NATO",["Kragh & Åsberg, 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["\"fake news\" has rapidly become a catchall phrase that lacks an accepted working definition",["Tandoc Jr, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]],["Accordingly, \"fake news\" has rapidly become a catchall phrase that lacks an accepted working definition",["Tandoc Jr, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["headlines like \"Australia to Forcibly Vaccinate Citizens via Chemtrails\", \"Melania Trump Bans White House Staff from Taking Flu Shot\" and \"Muslim Doctor Refuses to Treat Christian Girl on Board a Flight\"",["Adl-Tabatabai, 2016","Baxter, 2018","Patriot United, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["Instead, one can also amplify existing grievances and make them look more popular than they really are",["Bertolin et al., 2017"]]],"rt":[["Polarization",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["impersonating a real person or organization by mimicking their appearance",[]],["posing as a legitimate news website or blog without the usual journalistic norms and credentials",[]]]},{},{"de":[["vaccine for brainwash",[]],["based on an analogy from immunology (McGuire, 1970;McGuire & Papageorgis, 1961, 1962;Papageorgis & McGuire, 1961). Vaccines are weakened versions of pathogens (e.g., a virus) that, upon introduction to the body, trigger the production of antibodies. These antibodies become active once the real version of the pathogen enters the body thus conferring protection (immunity) against future infection.",["McGuire, 1970","McGuire & Papageorgis, 1961","1962","Papageorgis & McGuire, 1961"]],["the spread of fake news can be modelled much like the spread of a viral contagion.",[]],["Inoculation theory is based on an analogy from immunology (McGuire, 1970;McGuire & Papageorgis, 1961, 1962;Papageorgis & McGuire, 1961). Vaccines are weakened versions of pathogens (e.g., a virus) that, upon introduction to the body, trigger the production of antibodies. These antibodies become active once the real version of the pathogen enters the body thus conferring protection (immunity) against future infection.",["McGuire, 1970","McGuire & Papageorgis, 1961, 1962","Papageorgis & McGuire, 1961"]],["The inoculation process consists of two main components, namely: (1) a warning to elicit and activate threat in message recipients (the affective basis) and (2) refutational preemption (the cognitive basis).",[]],["William McGuire shifted his focus toward a different question: how can we help people resist persuasion attempts? This ultimately led him to develop \"inoculation theory\", which he described as a \"vaccine for brainwash\" (see Figure 9.2).",[]]],"rt":[["vaccine for brainwash",[]]],"sb":[["refutational preemption",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["young news sites often use polarization as a way to stake out a niche in the online media landscape.",[]]],"rt":[["false amplification",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["two-sided refutational messages both inform and teach in the sense that they model the counterarguing process for people and provide specific content that can be used to resist persuasion attempts",["McGuire, 1970","Compton, 2013"]]],"sp":[["inoculation theory",[]]]},{"de":[["Trolling is a fishing term, originally referring to the process of slowly dragging a lure or baited hook from the back of a fishing boat.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["assesses cultural alignment using factor analysis on a 5-point Likert scale survey with 30 questions, 24 for cultural dimensions and 6 for demographics.",[]],["enables stakeholders to objectively evaluate an LLM's cultural alignment, which is essential for its responsible development and deployment.",[]]],"rt":[["cultural misalignment",[]],["Hofstede's cultural definition",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["Power Distance (PDI)",[]],["Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI)",[]],["Individualism versus Collectivism (IDV)",[]],["Masculinity versus Femininity (MAS)",[]],["Long Term versus Short Term Orientation (LTO)",[]],["Indulgence versus Restraint (IVR)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Topical stance detection is the problem of finding whether a given tweet takes a FAVOR (positive), AGAINST (negative) or NONE (neutral) stance towards a given topic.",[]],["It is at core of the opinion polarity detection and mining problem.",[]]],"rt":[["opinion polarity detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Russia uses disinformation to weaken democratic institutions around the world and take advantage of international crises for its own benefit.",[]],["celem współczesnej rosyjskiej dezinformacji nie jest perswadowanie ani przekonywanie kogokolwiek, ale raczej podważenie istniejącego porządku.",[]],["Zamiast inspirować ludzi do działania, stara się ich od tego powstrzymać, aby pozostali bierni i wątpiący",[]],["ma pomóc w ukryciu właściwego sprawcy tych działań i zdjąć odpowiedzialność za ich prowadzenie z Kremla",[]],["zadaniem dezinformacji jest wykorzystanie rywalizacji międzynarodowej do osiągnięcia strategicznych interesów fr, czyli ochrony strefy wpływów w obszarze postsowieckim oraz włączenia Moskwy do procesów decydowania o bezpieczeństwie międzynarodowym.",[]],["Dezinformacja pomaga aktywnie oddziaływać na obywateli innych państw, szczególnie o ustrojach demokratycznych. Jej celem jest osłabienie krajów zachodnich poprzez polaryzowanie ich społeczeństw.",[]],["Ma więc na celu podważenie zaufania obywateli do instytucji rządowych w innych państwach, a w ślad za tym -doprowadzenie do ich wewnętrznej destabilizacji.",[]],["Dezinformacja może stać się bardzo potężnym destrukcyjnym narzędziem generującym podziały. Wykorzystuje bowiem napięcia etniczne, religijne, regionalne, społeczne i historyczne, a jednocześnie promuje postulaty antysystemowe, poszerzając ich zasięg i nadając im pozorną legitymizację⁵⁰.",["50"]],["W przeciwieństwie do propagandy dezinformacja nie przekonuje nikogo do swoich racji -jej zadaniem jest podważanie zaufania",[]],["Celem działań dezinformacyjnych jest podważenie reguł demokratycznych i promowanie ideologicznego przekazu o wyższości systemów autorytarnych, dlatego właśnie chodzi o wywołanie chaosu, niepokojów społecznych i dezorientacji.",[]],["W przeciwieństwie do propagandy dezinformacja nie przekonuje nikogo do swoich racji",[]]],"rt":[["propagandy",[]]],"sb":[["jako elementu działalności służb specjalnych",[]],["jako elementu propagandy",[]],["jako elementu wojny informacyjnej (hybrydowej)",[]]],"sp":[["Propaganda",["14"]],["wojna hybrydowa",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Ukierunkowana jest na kształtowanie przekonań oraz manipulowanie wiedzą i zachowaniami jednostek w taki sposób, by były zgodne z oczekiwaniami propagandzisty.",[]]]},{"de":[["wszystkie strony upolityczniają tę kategorię",[]],["Rosjanie nazywają wojną hybrydową jak najszersze spektrum zjawisk -od operacji specjalnych po zderzenie cywilizacji",[]],["W myśl wciąż rozszerzającej się koncepcji wojny hybrydowej państwo traci monopol na użycie siły, w związku z czym na pole bitwy wkraczają inni aktorzy, np. separatyści, dobrowolcy (ochotnicy) i hakerzy, co z kolei rozmywa odpowiedzialność władz.",[]]],"rt":[["wojny informacyjnej",[]]]},{"de":[["This apparatus includes a set of strategies; a set of techno-material tools for the enforcement of the strategies; a set of practices for disciplining users; and a set of practices for monitoring, legitimating and adjusting the apparatus and acquiring more knowledge about mis/disinformation and the effectiveness of their various policies.",[]]]},{"de":[["and then removing it or limiting its reach.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",["Wardle and Derakhshan 2017"]]]},{"de":[["understanding misinformation during a pandemic through the metaphor of infodemic, means that we are led to understand it as another form of global viral spread.",[]],["the infodemic metaphor and its construction of misinformation as a pathogen to be controlled and/or its harm reduced",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["As with the vaccination process against pathogens, inoculation against misinformation works by exposing users to small quantities of misinformation, which allow them to develop the necessary cognitive skills to resist future attempts to misinform.",[]]]},{"de":[["In Dawkins' original formulation, memes carry information, are replicated and transmitted through people using them, and they can also evolve, transform and mutate, in ways analogous to those of biological genes.",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",["Wardle and Derakhshan 2017"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["spreadability",[]]]},{"de":[["For Jenkins et al. the metaphor of virality implies a kind of automatic replicability that is not what is happening on platforms.",[]]],"sy":[["scalability",[]],["spreadable media",[]]],"rt":[["spreadable media",[]]]},{"rt":[["reproduction rate (R)",[]]]},{"de":[["The virality metaphor is mostly found in writing on digital marketing and it follows closely the epidemiological model of viral spread.",[]]],"rt":[["virality metaphor",[]],["shareability",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["YouTube itself has classified spam videos into many different categories including misleading metadata",[]]]},{"de":[["Anderson (2009) discussed affective atmospheres as transpersonal intensities emerging as bodies affect one another to create indefinite, intensive space times.",["Anderson (2009)"]]],"ex":[["a social media forum, Facebook, or Twitter",[]],["melancholy, irony, shame, fear, or lightness",[]]]},{"de":[["social media are essential to the formation of affective publics because they allow a shift from personal to public communications with the diverse and simultaneous participation of individuals, citizens, activists, professionals, or politically engaged actors.",["Lünenborg (2019)"]],["research on affective publics offers the more concrete examples of how emotions travel particularly intensively through digital space and how social media invite affective attunement",["Lünenborg, 2019","Papacharissi, 2015"]],["The concept of affective publics suggests a temporality of anticipation, a premediation that mobilizes affect.",[]],["As such, they are often shortlived assemblages, or they are built upon extant formations.",[]],["Both cases illustrate the surge of affective publics and the ways in which messages travel rapidly across platforms and forums.",[]]]},{"de":[["The responses appear rapidly one after the other while propagating to other networks with suggested hyperlinks to news sites or YouTube videos.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Although Ganesh pointed to the political groups that produce or tacitly support hateful content, digital hate culture also refers to the complex cultural practice in the digital context; and, therefore, the use of cultures in plural appears to capture the essence of the practice more aptly.",[]],["Moreover, reference to cultures points to a grassroots-oriented approach to investigate hate speech as a cultural practice rather than as an object of legal evaluation.",[]],["As Ganesh (2018) argued, digital hate cultures \"exploit the gaps of an interstitial zone\" (p. 37) to escape regulations by adopting coded language and actions, as well as migrating from one platform to another when necessary.",[]],["In this way, digital hate culture acquires new logistical tools that are used to conquer new frontiers of the digital media.",[]]]},{"rt":[["digital housework",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a complex cultural phenomenon with a variety of social, technological, political, and economic consequences.",[]]],"ex":[["hostility toward racialized minorities and migrants, and generally toward women",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such memetic, associative, and purposeful misconnections obscure contextualization while reinforcing stereotypes.",[]],["Elements of visuality, brevity, and velocity work against detailed contextualization; therefore, impatience is inscribed into the practice of digital sharing.",[]]]},{"de":[["In the case of far-right microcelebrities in particular, the relationship is built upon intimacy and authenticity, whereas the mode of address seeks attention, controversy, and scandal.",[]]],"ex":[["The microcelebrity video culture builds connections through practices in which hosts visit or watch each other's shows online as well as through live on-screen viewer commentary.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["moderation has become more important as online harassment and hate speech have become more usual",[]]]},{"de":[["The postdeferential political climate, according to Andrejevic (2013), is characterized by narrative multiplication and fragmentation.",["Andrejevic (2013)"]]]},{"de":[["using the singular they for gender inclusion",[]],["reflects the social change in English of using the singular they for gender inclusion",[]]],"ex":[["His dream is to be a fireman when he grows up\" becoming the they-pronoun counterpart: \"Their dream is to be a firefighter when they grow up",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the most common method of studying culture",[]]]},{"de":[["These caste-like groups are central to everyday understanding of what culture is",[]]]},{"de":[["group-based differences, typically individualism (independence), collectivism (interdependence), or honor (face); most common psychological way of describing culture differences between and within groups imply differences in the accessibility (what is usually activated) or in the availability (what can be activated) of cultural values, norms, and meaning-making schemas.",[]]],"sy":[["interdependence",[]]],"rt":[["holistic reasoning",[]]],"sp":[["core chronically accessible theme",[]]]},{"de":[["The core theme formulation focuses on processing style (i.e., exclude, include, or order) and asks which people are likely to use which style to process information (Miyamoto 2013, Spencer-Rodgers et al. 2010).",[]]]},{"rt":[["Particular practices",[]],["Variable accessibility",[]]],"sb":[["individualism (independence)",[]],["collectivism (interdependence)",[]],["honor (face)",[]]],"ex":[["individualism",[]],["collectivism",[]],["honor",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["permeate all aspects of behavior and provide a blueprint or outline for how one is to behave and what one can expect of others across a variety of situations.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the set of meanings that a group in a time and place come to adopt or develop, and these meanings facilitate smooth social coordination, clarify group boundaries, and provide a space for innovation",["Geertz 1984","Markus et al. 1996","Oyserman 2011","Packer & Cole 2016"]],["Culture provides a means to stick together with others to create and share resources and solutions to the problems that arise from sticking together-from managing relationships to minimize dangerous conflict, to clarifying group boundaries-without which it may be unclear with whom to share and from whom shared resources can be expected.",[]],["Culture is the lens through which experience is interpreted, but because it is pervasive, it is easy to fail to notice one's own culture and mistake it for unmediated reality.",[]],["People are always embedded in culture, so studying culture requires stepping out of it.",[]],["these meanings facilitate smooth social coordination, clarify group boundaries, and provide a space for innovation",[]]],"rt":[["individualism",[]],["collectivism",[]],["honor",[]],["face",[]],["honor or face",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["honor",[]]]},{"rt":[["collectivistic mindset",[]]]},{"de":[["group-based differences, typically individualism (independence), collectivism (interdependence), or honor (face); most common psychological way of describing culture differences between and within groups imply differences in the accessibility (what is usually activated) or in the availability (what can be activated) of cultural values, norms, and meaning-making schemas.",[]]],"sy":[["face",[]]],"rt":[["face",[]]]},{"sp":[["Honor",[]]],"ex":[["the Middle East, Mediterranean regions, Latin America, and the southern United States are described as honor societies more so than Northern Europe and the northern United States",["Gregg 2007","Mosquera et al. 2002"]]]},{"sy":[["pluralistic ignorance",[]]]},{"de":[["group-based differences, typically individualism (independence), collectivism (interdependence), or honor (face); most common psychological way of describing culture differences between and within groups imply differences in the accessibility (what is usually activated) or in the availability (what can be activated) of cultural values, norms, and meaning-making schemas.",[]]],"sy":[["independence",[]]],"rt":[["independence",[]]],"sp":[["core chronically accessible theme",[]]]},{"sp":[["culture",[]]]},{"sy":[["independent and interdependent self-construals",[]]]},{"sy":[["collectivism",[]]]},{"de":[["Naïve realism means that culture's presence will go unnoticed until things do not unfold as culturally expected",["Mourey et al. 2015","Oyserman 2011"]],["the experience of one's own perspective as reality",[]]]},{"rt":[["Core themes",[]],["Variable accessibility",[]]]},{"de":[["Each of these styles can involve the application of rules and, as a result, systematic reasoning or can proceed at low-level associative levels; thus, processing style is distinct from cognitive style",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the reflective system becomes active when one has the time, resources, and desire to consider carefully",["Strack & Deutsch 2004"]]]},{"de":[["Reflective thinking is rule-based reasoning, but the rule itself matters.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The reflexive system is always at work",[]]],"sy":[["reflexive processing",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["experience of poverty",[]]]},{"rt":[["caste-like groups",[]],["culture",[]]]},{"rt":[["Core themes",[]]]},{"de":[["The variable accessibility formulation is depicted in Figure 1 as the propensity of getting from a particular cue (A to O) in a society to a particular perception, judgment, or behavior.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Japan, Korea, and China",["Henrich et al. 2010"]]]},{},{"ex":[["\"The food here is great, but the service is horrible\" has mixed sentiment, with the latter half dictating the overall rating.",[]]]},{"sy":[["intensifiers",[]],["booster words",[]],["degree adverbs",[]]],"ex":[["\"The service here is extremely good\" is more intense than \"The service here is good\", whereas \"The service here is marginally good\" reduces the intensity.",[]],["very",[]],["extremely",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["opinion mining",[]]],"rt":[["natural language processing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The process has been found to be as good as (often better than) estimates from lone individuals, even experts.",["13"]]],"sy":[["WotC",[]]]},{"ex":[["using WSD, we can distinguish that the word catch has negative sentiment in \"At first glance the contract looks good, but there's a catch\", but is neutral in \"The fisherman plans to sell his catch at the market\".",[]],["using WSD, we can distinguish that the word catch has negative sentiment in \"At first glance the contract looks good, but there's a catch\", but is neutral in \"The fisherman plans to sell his catch at the market\"",[]]],"sy":[["WSD",[]]]},{"rt":[["sockpuppets",[]]]},{"de":[["Two major factors that make consumers vulnerable or susceptible to believing false information are confirmation bias and naive realism [90].",["90"]]]},{"de":[["understanding the motives for disinformation are much akin to understanding the motives for deception",["25","93"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["The resulting echo-chambers can contribute to the spread of false information by lowering the bar for critical fact-checking.",[]],["Quattrociocchi et al. [78] demonstrated that such resulting echo-chambers can serve to polarize the user's viewpoints by means of confirmation bias and lead to less diverse exposure and discussion between unaligned users.",["78"]],["This suggests that familiarity with repeatedly shared content (highly common and expected in echo-chambers) increases the perceived accuracy of the content, irrespective of its credibility.",[]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]],"ex":[["a political liberal might friend more liberals on Facebook, thumbs-up liberal-minded content, and thus constantly be exposed to posts and news which aligns with his worldview.",[]],["Figure 4 visualizes this echo-chamber effect on Twitter on a controversial topic of #beefban, where red and blue nodes represent users with opposing beliefs and edges represent who-retweets-whom, as shown by Garimella et al. [31].",["31"]]]},{},{"de":[["can serve to polarize the user's viewpoints by means of confirmation bias and lead to less diverse exposure and discussion between unaligned users.",["78"]],["can contribute to the spread of false information by lowering the bar for critical fact-checking.",[]],["The formation of social media echo chambers fuels the presence and spread of false information.",[]]],"sy":[["echo chambers",[]],["filter bubbles",[]]]},{"de":[["The motive of this type of information is to make it harder for the reader to distinguish true from false information, and make them believe in the false version of the information",["76"]],["it tends to be longer, generates more disbelief and confusion during discussions, is created by newer and less experienced accounts that are tightly connected to each other, spreads deeper and faster in one and across multiple platforms, and gets deleted when debunking information spreads.",[]],["This is different from information that may vary by someone's own opinion, e.g., their opinion about a particular product on Amazon.",[]]],"sy":[["fake reviews",[]],["false news and hoaxes",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["Opinion-based false information",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]],["rumors",[]],["fabricated hoaxes",[]],["hoaxes",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]],"ex":[["fake news",[]],["rumors",[]],["fabricated hoaxes",[]],["fake news, rumors, and fabricated hoaxes.",[]],["This type of false information includes fake news, rumors, and fabricated hoaxes.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Fake news tends to pack the main claim of the article into its title. The titles are longer but use fewer stopwords and more proper nouns and verb phrases, meaning that the creators tend to put as much information in the title as possible.",[]],["The words used in the title are smaller and capitalized more often, to generate emphasis.",[]],["In terms of the body content, fake news articles are short, repetitive, and less informative (fewer nouns and analytical words).",[]],["They contain fewer technical words, more smaller words, and are generally easier to read.",[]]],"rt":[["hoaxes",[]],["rumors",[]],["satire",[]]],"sp":[["fact-based false information",[]]]},{"de":[["graph-based algorithms rely on identifying false information by targeting groups of users (spreaders) with unlikely high, lock-step coordination boosting a certain story (e.g., a botnet retweeting the same article in near-identical time). These algorithms try to identify dense blocks of activity in an underlying adjacency matrix.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["common causes of misinformation include misrepresentation or distortion of an original piece of true information by an actor, due to lack of understanding, attention or even cognitive biases",["24","93"]],["Thus, common causes of misinformation include misrepresentation or distortion of an original piece of true information by an actor, due to lack of understanding, attention or even cognitive biases [24,93].",["24,93"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["fact-based false information",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]],"ex":[["fake reviews of products on e-commerce websites, where people express their opinions about product quality",[]],["fake reviews of products on e-commerce websites, where people express their opinions about product quality.",[]],["An example of false information that lies in this category is fake reviews of products on e-commerce websites, where people express their opinions about product quality.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The spread of information across social media adds another dimension to use for identification of true information from false information.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["sybil",[]]]},{"sy":[["sockpuppet",[]]],"rt":[["sockpuppets",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This hypothesis predicts an inverted U-shaped effect of initial opinion distance on the magnitude of positive opinion shift towards the source (see Fig 1).",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["opinion discrepancy",[]],["disliking of a source of an opinion",[]],["opinion shifts",[]],["attraction hypothesis",[]],["repulsion hypothesis",[]],["disliking of a source",[]]]},{},{"de":[["combines the two forms of influence",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["People assimilate their views to real or perceived opinions of others [5][6][7][8][9]",["5","6","7","8","9"]]]},{"de":[["Collective memory also lies at the heart of many public discussions and national debates about current and historical events.",[]],["can also encompass small groups, such as couples' or families' recollections of, say, a first date, the birth of a child, or a trip",["Halbwachs, 1980"]],["The distinction between collective memory as a static representation and collective remembering as an active process is critical to understanding the dynamics of memories shared within and between mnemonic communities.",[]]],"rt":[["collective remembering",[]]]},{"de":[["The process of collective remembering can also be contrasted with formal approaches to understanding and recording history.",[]],["That is, even though collective memories are stored in the minds of individuals, these individuals are members of social groups that share a common set of cultural tools (e.g., narrative forms) and similar knowledge.",[]],["the process of collective remembering can be difficult to study because it often unfolds over long periods of time.",[]],["Collective remembering differs from history in that it is a process motivated by social identity formation whereby mnemonic communities reconstruct the past in the service of the present and often ignore contradictory evidence.",[]],["acts of collective remembering serve to promote social identification and group cohesion.",[]],["The distinction between collective memory as a static representation and collective remembering as an active process is critical to understanding the dynamics of memories shared within and between mnemonic communities.",[]]],"rt":[["history",[]],["collective memory",[]]]},{"ex":[["Battle of the Marne",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["events",[]]],"ex":[["\"Abraham Lincoln was President\"",[]],["\"the Holocaust\"",[]]]},{"de":[["within collective remembering",[]]],"rt":[["collective remembering",[]]]},{"de":[["When individuals learn a piece of surprising and consequential news, they often form a longlasting memory for the context in which they received that news.",["Conway, 1995"]]],"ex":[["assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy (R. Brown & Kulik, 1977)",["R. Brown & Kulik, 1977"]],["terrorist attacks of September 11th (Hirst et al., 2009)",["Hirst et al., 2009"]]]},{"de":[["The historian accepts complexity and ambiguity, and history changes when new evidence is discovered (e.g., primary source documents).",[]]],"rt":[["collective remembering",[]]]},{"de":[["an illusion that may be another manifestation of the false consensus effect (Ross et al., 1977)",["Ross et al., 1977"]],["an illusion that may be another manifestation of the false consensus effect",["Ross et al., 1977"]],["people may still be biased in their general perceptions or expectations (i.e., calibration) about the set of historical events that other people in their social group or in other social groups recollect.",[]]],"rt":[["false consensus effect",["Ross et al., 1977"]]]},{},{"rt":[["autobiographical memory",[]]]},{"ex":[["Battle at Watergate",[]]]},{"de":[["The core features of schematic narrative templates are that they are: a) schematic in the sense that they involve generalized knowledge structures; b) organized around the dimensions of temporality and plot; c) template-like because their schematic structure can underlie multiple specific narratives, each of which includes information about a particular dates, actions, and characters; and d) characterized by cognitive narcissism stemming from the tendency to understand the past as our past",[]]],"sy":[["schemata",[]]]},{"de":[["The core features of schematic narrative templates are that they are: a) schematic in the sense that they involve generalized knowledge structures; b) organized around the dimensions of temporality and plot; c) template-like because their schematic structure can underlie multiple specific narratives, each of which includes information about a particular dates, actions, and characters; and d) characterized by cognitive narcissism stemming from the tendency to understand the past as our past (J. Wertsch, personal communication, July 3, 2013).",[]]]},{"sp":[["events",[]]],"ex":[["\"attack on Fort Sumter\"",[]],["\"death of Hitler\"",[]]]},{"de":[["The present paper argues for the value of both composite summary measures and measures of individual quality dimensions.",[]],["the amount of disclosure relative to size and complexity and the spread of disclosure across main topics and sub-topics are two fundamental dimensions of quality.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The counterfactual analysis essentially gifts humans the hypothesizing abilities to make decisions collectively based on the textual context and entity mentions, as well as to introspect whether the decision is deceived",[]],["Counterfactual analysis: If I had not seen the textual context, would I still extract the same relation?",[]]]},{"de":[["Entity bias can mislead the RE models to extract the relations that do not exist in the text.",[]],["The entity bias can mislead the RE models to make wrong predictions when the relation implied by the entity mentions does not exist in the textual context.",[]],["RE models may rely on the entity mentions to make relation predictions instead of the textual context",["Zhang et al., 2018","Joshi et al., 2020"]],["reflected by Y x,e can lead to the wrong extraction if the relation implied by the entity mentions does not exist in the input text",[]]],"rt":[["RE models may rely on the entity mentions to make relation predictions instead of the textual context",["Zhang et al., 2018","Joshi et al., 2020"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["rather than anti-elitism being a stable personality trait with constant effects on conspiracy beliefs, its effect is contingent and conditional on how well governments and the EU perform in crises",[]],["relate to the political involvement of ordinary people",[]]],"sy":[["anti-elitist attitudes",[]]],"sp":[["anti-technocratic attitudes",[]]]},{"de":[["preference for expert decision-making (inverted to anti-expertise)",[]]],"sy":[["anti-expertise",[]]],"sp":[["anti-technocratic attitudes",[]]]},{"sp":[["anti-technocratic attitudes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["dissatisfaction with representative politics",[]]],"sp":[["anti-technocratic attitudes",[]]]},{"sp":[["anti-technocratic attitudes",[]]]},{"de":[["anti-technocratic attitudes included in our battery also have significant effects in different directions.",[]],["empirically distinct anti-technocratic attitudes",[]],["neighboring antitechnocratic attitudes such as anti-elitism, ani-expertise, and anti-politics",[]]],"rt":[["populist attitudes",[]]],"sb":[["anti-elitism",[]],["anti-expertise",[]],["anti-politics",[]],["Anti-politics attitudes",[]],["ani-expertise",[]]],"ex":[["anti-technocratic attitudes which were likely to be exacerbated by the pandemic given its expert-focused policymaking",[]]]},{"de":[["One important characteristic of such conspiracy theories is that they are unfalsifiable, in that any evidence brought against the narrative is interpreted as another proof of the power of the specific group of people constituting the conspirators",["Keeley 1999","Vegetti and Littvay 2021"]],["Another important characteristic of conspiracy theories is that they try to reduce the complexity of a particular event to monistic and intrinsically deterministic explanations",["Castanho-Silva et al. 2017"]]]},{"de":[["One important characteristic of such conspiracy theories is that they are unfalsifiable, in that any evidence brought against the narrative is interpreted as another proof of the power of the specific group of people constituting the conspirators",["Keeley 1999","Vegetti and Littvay 2021"]],["Another important characteristic of conspiracy theories is that they try to reduce the complexity of a particular event to monistic and intrinsically deterministic explanations",["Castanho-Silva et al. 2017"]],["refusing to contemplate the possibility that these events are the result of \"unintended consequences of a multitude of decisions made by shortsighted bounded rational individual actors guided by conflicting purposes\"",["Mancosu et al. 2017, p. 327"]],["Conspiracy theories provide a way of coping with uncertainty and threat by adopting narratives that reduce the complexity of the crisis and offer particular groups to blame for it as scapegoats",["Van Prooijen 2017"]],["One important characteristic of such conspiracy theories is that they are unfalsifiable, in that any evidence brought against the narrative is interpreted as another proof of the power of the specific group of people constituting the conspirators (Keeley 1999;Vegetti and Littvay 2021).",["Keeley 1999","Vegetti and Littvay 2021","Keeley 1999;Vegetti and Littvay 2021"]],["Another important characteristic of conspiracy theories is that they try to reduce the complexity of a particular event to monistic and intrinsically deterministic explanations (Castanho-Silva et al. 2017), while refusing to contemplate the possibility that these events are the result of \"unintended consequences of a multitude of decisions made by shortsighted bounded rational individual actors guided by conflicting purposes\" (Mancosu et al. 2017, p. 327).",["Castanho-Silva et al. 2017","Mancosu et al. 2017, p. 327","Mancosu et al. 2017"]],["Conspiracy theories provide a way of coping with uncertainty and threat by adopting narratives that reduce the complexity of the crisis and offer particular groups to blame for it as scapegoats (Van Prooijen 2017).",["Van Prooijen 2017"]]],"rt":[["Conspiracies",[]]]},{"de":[["a more general conspiratorial mindset that many studies in political psychology treat as a stable feature of individuals that make them subscribe to multiple conspiracy theories, even contradictory ones",["Bruder et al. 2013","Wood et al. 2012"]]]},{"rt":[["populism",[]]],"sb":[["people centrism",[]],["Manichean view of the world",[]]],"sp":[["populism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such populist attitudes have been linked to a common core of antecedents, such as the experience of socioeconomic grievances",["Spruyt et al. 2016","Rico and Anduiza 2019"]],["emotional stimuli in the form of anger and fear",["Rico et al. 2017"]],["gender and gender-specific socialization",["Spierings and Zaslove 2017"]],["multidimensionality of the concept of populism",[]]],"sb":[["people centrism",[]],["anti-elitism",[]],["a Manichean view of the world",[]],["core populist attitudes",[]],["anti-technocratic ones",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["gatekeeping operations are affected by corporate philosophies and policies of newspaper organizations irrespective of type of ownership",[]],["The fundamental point of the gatekeeping theory, as developed by Kurt Lewin (1947), is that there are forces or pressures that can either impede or facilitate the flow of news items through the 'gates' (Shoemaker 1996).",["1947","Shoemaker 1996"]]],"ex":[["Kurt Lewin (1947) first used the term 'gatekeeping,' to describe a wife or mother as the person who decides which food finally ends up on the family's dinner table.",["1947"]]]},{},{"de":[["The fundamental point of the gatekeeping theory, as developed by Kurt Lewin (1947), is that there are forces or pressures that can either impede or facilitate the flow of news items through the 'gates' (Shoemaker 1996)",["Shoemaker 1996"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["news values",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["among the most common news values a given news item embodies are timeliness, controversy, bizarre, prominence, magnitude and range.",[]],["they are guidelines for the presentation of items, suggesting what to emphasize, what to omit, and where to give priority in the presentation of the items to the audience",["Goldingand Elliot, 1979: 114 cited in Alowo, 2009: 73","114 cited in Alowo, 2009: 73"]],["Specifically, news values are defined as qualities of events that increase the likelihood of their being covered in the news.",[]],["In respect of news routines, news factors or values can be seen as a set of selection rules which govern journalistic judgments.",[]],["All the news values the journalists regarded as extremely important were among the factors most widely cited as criteria for news selection-timeliness or novelty, importance or impact, influence, prominence, unusualness, conflict or controversy",[]]],"sy":[["news criteria",[]],["news factors",[]]],"sb":[["timeliness",[]],["controversy",[]],["bizarre",[]],["prominence",[]],["magnitude",[]],["novelty",[]],["range",[]]],"ex":[["frequency",[]],["threshold",[]],["unambiguity",[]],["meaningfulness",[]],["unexpectedness",[]],["continuity",[]],["compositional balance",[]],["elite nations",[]],["elite people",[]],["reference to persons and reference to something negative",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["class imbalance",[]]]},{"de":[["citizens are full members of the national community",[]],["The exclusion of aliens from basic governmental processes is not a deficiency . . . but a necessary consequence of the community's process of political self-definition.",["271"]]]},{},{"rt":[["crimmigration law",[]]]},{"sy":[["criminalization of immigration law",[]]],"rt":[["criminalization of immigration law",[]],["immigrationization of criminal law",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disparate treatment",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Membership theory provides decisionmakers with justification for excluding individuals from society, using immigration and criminal law as the means of exclusion.",[]],["It operates in the intersection between criminal and immigration law to mark an ever-expanding group of outsiders by denying them the privileges that citizens hold, such as the right to vote or to remain in the United States.",[]],["Membership theory manifests in this new area through certain powers of the sovereign state: the power to punish, and the power to express moral condemnation.",[]],["Membership theory has the potential to include individuals in the social contract or exclude them from it.",["41"]],["It marks out the boundaries of who is an accepted member of society.",[]],["Membership theory manifests in this new area through two tools of the sovereign state: the power to punish and the power to express moral condemnation.",[]],["Those who are not parties to that agreement and yet are subject to government action have no claim to such positive rights, or rights equivalent to those held by members.",[]],["Only members and beneficiaries of the social contract are able to make claims against the government and are entitled to the contract's protections, and the government may act outside of the contract's constraints against individuals who are non-members.",["171","172"]],["Membership theory provides decisionmakers with justification for excluding individuals from society, using immigration and criminal law as the means of exclusion. It operates in the intersection between criminal and immigration law to mark an ever-expanding group of outsiders by denying them the privileges that citizens hold, such as the right to vote or to remain in the United States.",[]],["Because membership theory is inherently flexible, the viewpoint of the decisionmaker as to whether an individual is part of the community often determines whether constitutional and other rights apply at all.",["47"]],["Membership theory plays similar roles in both areas, and both areas employ similar tools to draw lines of belonging and exclusion.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The state as sovereign has the authority to control the territory within its boundaries and protect it from external and internal enemies.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This notion demands that the predictor should be independent of the protected attribute conditioned on the actual label Y",[]]],"rt":[["discrimination",[]],["protected attribute",[]],["actual label",[]]]},{"sy":[["sensitive attribute",[]]],"ex":[["gender, race, religion, etc.",[]]]},{"de":[["Mocking hate crime is also considered hate speech.",[]]]},{"de":[["These benign confounders make the dataset more challenging, and make it so that any system, if it wants to solve this task, has to be multimodal: using just the text, or just the image, is going to lead to poor performance.",[]]],"sy":[["contrastive",["22"]],["counterfactual",["38"]]],"ex":[["in the \"love the way you smell today\" example, we could replace the image of the skunk with an image of roses, or conversely we could replace the text with \"skunks have a very particular smell\". In both cases, the meme would no longer be mean, but just a statement-as such, the label would be flipped.",[]]]},{"sy":[["contrastive",["22"]],["counterfactual",["38"]]]},{"sb":[["cyberbullying",["31"]]]},{"sp":[["cyber-aggression",["31"]],["cyberaggression",[]]]},{"rt":[["attack types",[]]]},{"de":[["We define attack as violent or dehumanizing (comparing people to non-human things, e.g. animals) speech, statements of inferiority, and calls for exclusion or segregation.",[]],["not all of these works have agreed on what defines hate speech, and different terminology has been used",[]],["Mocking hate crime is also considered hate speech.",[]]],"sy":[["offensive or abusive language",[]],["online harassment or aggression",[]],["cyberbullying",[]],["harmful speech",[]]],"ex":[["Mocking hate crime is also considered hate speech.",[]]]},{"de":[["Recognition of resemblance across entities and the subsequent aggregation of like entities into categories lead the individual to discover order in a complex environment.",[]],["By reducing the load on memory and facilitating the efficient storage and retrieval of information, categorization serves as the fundamental cognitive mechanism that simplifies the individual's experience of the environment.",[]],["How an entity is categorized creates a context or conceptual frame that not only provides information about the entity but also shapes the in-dividual's interaction with it.",[]],["flexible and creative and draws nonbinding associations between entities-associations that are based not on a set of predetermined principles but on the simple recognition of similarities that exist across a set of entities.",[]],["the process of categorization is generally unsystematic but inherently creative in that it need not rely on predetermined definitions but is able to respond to similarity assessments based on immediate context, personal goals, or individual experience.",[]],["Because categorization reflects conceptual distinctions between groups of entities, it, too, requires an auxiliary mechanism to provide access, whether to individual categories or to unique category members.",[]],["the process of categorization is flexible and creative and draws nonbinding associations between entities-associations that are based not on a set of predetermined principles but on the simple recognition of similarities that exist across a set of entities.",[]]],"sy":[["concept",[]]],"rt":[["mechanism for grouping",[]],["classification",[]]],"ex":[["the historic period known as the English Renaissance (1500-1650) is perceived as fundamentally different from the English Middle Ages even though England in the sixteenth century was, in many respects, quite similar to England in the fifteenth century.",[]]]},{"de":[["categorization is the process of systematically dividing up the world of experience into a formalized and potentially hierarchical structure of categories, each of which is defined by a unique set of essential feature(s).",[]],["because it requires that intension equals extension-that membership in a category demonstrates possession of the set of essential features that define the category-the classical theory of categories would provide a simple yet elegant explanation for both the internal structure of cognitive representations and the semantic meanings of words.",[]],["because all members of the category are defined by the same set of features, no one bird can be more typical or more representative of the category than any other bird.",[]],["it requires that intension equals extension-that membership in a category demonstrates possession of the set of essential features that define the category",[]],["1. The intension of a category is a summary representation of an entire category of entities. 2. The essential features that comprise the intension of a category are individually necessary and jointly sufficient to determine membership within the category. 3. If a category (A) is nested within the superordinate category (B), the features that define category (B) are contained within the set of features that define category (A).",[]]],"rt":[["intension",[]],["extension",[]]]},{"ex":[["Even when used metaphorically, for example, the word \"fire\" connotes heat, light, and energy.",[]]]},{"ex":[["a high temperature of 50 degrees Fahrenheit might be described as cold on a summer day in southern Indiana, but warm or even hot on a winter day in the same locale.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is an emergent property-the result of meaningful differences-inherently semantic and therefore about reality.",[]]]},{"ex":[["dividing the items on a shopping list into categories defined by place of purchase (e.g., grocery store, gas station, and five-and-dime store)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["attempting to distinguish between classification and categorization on the basis of an individual's typicality judgments would be an exercise in futility.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["without rank",[]]]},{},{"de":[["manipulation is a key ingredient of Machiavellianism",[]]],"sp":[["Dark Tetrad",[]]]},{"sp":[["Dark Tetrad",[]]]},{"de":[["People who pursue negative social potency are likely to be cruel, callous and abusing [30]. Negative social potency is predictive of online trolling behavior [19] and those who troll others may therefore be motivated to harm others by wielding negative social influence.",["30","19"]],["measured using the Social Rewards Questionnaire (SRQ) [30]",["30"]],["People who pursue negative social potency are likely to be cruel, callous and abusing [30]",["30"]]],"rt":[["social reward",[]]],"sp":[["social reward",[]]]},{"sp":[["Dark Tetrad",[]]]},{"sp":[["Dark Tetrad",[]]]},{"de":[["The key aspects of trolling are deception, aggression, disruptive online activities and a sense of accomplishment when trolls get attention from others.",[]]],"rt":[["cyberbullying",[]]]},{"de":[["If the advocated position is close to the initial position of the receiver, it is assumed that this position falls within the latitude of acceptance of the receiver.",[]]],"rt":[["latitude of acceptance",[]]]},{"rt":[["uniformity",[]],["pluriformity",[]]]},{"de":[["If the advocated position is distant to the initial position of the receiver, it is assumed that this position falls within the latitude of rejectance of the receiver.",[]]],"rt":[["latitude of rejectance",[]]]},{"de":[["Ego-involvement is being formalized as the distance between one's own initial position and the borders for the latitude of rejection.",[]],["ego-involvement provides an important anchor for a person's attitude on an issue.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["bipolarization",[]],["pluriformity",[]]]},{"de":[["This is a common practice on Reddit since users who seek advice tend to cross-post in subreddits with thematic commonalities.",[]]]},{"de":[["Following this definition, DDA can be conceptualized as a triadic phenomenon composed by: (i) a digital element (e.g. encompassing all means of digital communication); (ii) a dating element (e.g. the abusive behaviors occur in a current or former intimate relationship); and (iii) an abuse element (e.g. the existence of behavioral patterns that harm an intimate partner)",["Reed et al., 2016"]],["DDA can be conceptualized as a triadic phenomenon composed by: (i) a digital element (e.g. encompassing all means of digital communication); (ii) a dating element (e.g. the abusive behaviors occur in a current or former intimate relationship); and (iii) an abuse element (e.g. the existence of behavioral patterns that harm an intimate partner)",["Reed et al., 2016"]]]},{"rt":[["troll",[]]],"ex":[["posting a fabricated story to \"troll\" other users",[]]]},{"de":[["characterized as \"the front page of the Internet\"",["Reddit, 2022"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Abusive comparisons need not be explicitly abusive (25) but can also be implicitly abusive ( 26)-( 27).",["25","26","27"]],["Intuitively, comparisons employing literal language should be less abusive (32).",["32"]]],"sp":[["implicitly abusive language",[]]]},{"sy":[["hate speech",["Waseem and Hovy, 2016"]],["cyberbullying",["Zhong et al., 2016"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",["Waseem and Hovy, 2016"]],["cyberbullying",["Zhong et al., 2016"]]]},{"de":[["violent actions may be shrouded in allusion",[]]],"sp":[["implicitly abusive language",[]]],"ex":[["demand that someone should be killed by electrocution",[]]]},{"de":[["we focus on the most commonly accepted property of likening members of the target group to non-human entities (Haslam, 2006), such as machines, animals or diseases.",["Haslam, 2006"]]],"sb":[["the target is explicitly equated with non-human entities (33)",["33"]],["a more difficult form of dehumanization involves metaphorical language in which the target is not explicitly equated to a nonhuman entity but their actions or properties are reminiscent of such entities as in ( 34)-( 37).",["34","37"]]],"sp":[["implicit abuse",[]],["implicitly abusive language",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["implicit abuse",[]]],"sb":[["Stereotypes",[]]],"sp":[["Abusive or offensive language",[]]]},{"de":[["many of them do not contain mentions of abusive words",[]]],"sp":[["implicit abuse",[]]]},{"sp":[["implicit abuse",[]]]},{"de":[["The actions that characterize perpetrators are often criminal offenses (e.g. raping, murdering, stealing) or are at least morally contemptible (e.g. adultery, lying, scheming).",[]],["Thus, we consider them to be universal actions that can apply to different targets (i.e. identity groups).",[]]],"sp":[["Stereotypes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The way in which is spoken is intended to make someone else feel stupid or show them that you are angry.",[]]]},{"de":[["Stereotypes are difficult to detect as there are quite a few stereotypes per identity group.",[]],["stereotypes need not be negative in tone",[]],["using sentiment analysis as a pre-filtering step by isolating only negative statements may miss a substantial fraction of stereotypical remarks.",[]]],"sb":[["depicting someone as a perpetrator",[]],["perpetrators",[]]],"sp":[["implicit abuse",[]],["implicitly abusive language",[]]],"ex":[["(6) Jews have undue influence.",[]],["(7) Jews are good at making money.",[]],["the sexist stereotype that women belong in the kitchen",[]],["black people are criminal",[]]]},{"sp":[["news",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["anthropological culture",[]],["symbolic culture",[]]],"rt":[["news",[]],["translation",[]],["anthropological culture",[]],["symbolic culture",[]]]},{},{"de":[["asks how 'various forms of communication work to constitute generic definitions and meanings' (Mittell, 2001, p. 8)",[]],["the idea of genre as a tacit agreement between journalists and audiences",[]]]},{"sy":[["soft news",[]]],"sp":[["news",[]]]},{"sy":[["hard news",[]]],"sp":[["news",[]]]},{"de":[["It is because of their modes of intention that the two words signify something different to a German or a Frenchman, that they are not regarded as interchangeable, and in fact ultimately seek to exclude one another",[]]]},{"rt":[["intention",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The others are that the political and economic take primacy over the social and that as subjects, we can influence the political and economic.",[]],["the structures that shape our subjective experience come from outside ourselves.",[]]]},{"de":[["Ideas of what constitutes news develop in tandem with journalists' work habits and their efforts to manage audiences' expectations",["Schudson, 2011;Tuchman, 1978"]]],"sy":[["hard news",[]],["soft news",[]],["part of symbolic culture",[]]],"sb":[["informative news",[]],["human interest",[]],["analysis",[]],["opinion",[]],["hard news",[]],["soft news",[]],["informative news (or 'hard news')",[]],["human interest (or 'soft news')",[]]],"sp":[["symbolic culture",[]]],"ex":[["analysis interprets events by putting them in context",[]],["opinion makes a case for one course of action over another",[]]]},{"sp":[["news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["the news",[]],["news",[]]]},{"de":[["as subjects who act within and through language, we know the world only through a founding act of symbolic violence, the imposition of order upon a world in flux. That is, we see the world as ordered, where we can distinguish one object from the next because they belong to different categories.",[]]]},{"rt":[["gatekeeping",[]]],"sp":[["localization",["Pym, 2004"]]],"ex":[["news translation",[]]]},{"rt":[["news",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["gender-based proximity bias that aims to capture the illicit proximities arising between a word and its closest k neighbours due to gender-based constructs.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["For the sake of brevity, we refer to 'gender-based illicit proximities' as 'illicit proximities' in the rest of the paper.",[]]],"sy":[["gender-based illicit proximities",[]]]},{"de":[["A higher indirect bias between two words indicates a strong association due to gender.",[]]]},{"de":[["KBC utilizes a set of existing lexical knowledge bases to maximize classification accuracy.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["psychocentrism",[]]]},{"sp":[["psychocentrism",[]]]},{"sp":[["psychocentrism",[]]]},{"sp":[["psychocentrism",[]]]},{"sp":[["psychocentrism",[]]]},{"rt":[["neoliberalism",[]]]},{"de":[["Increasingly, neoliberal governmentality manages human subjectivities as an ensemble of social forces that both construct and reinforce individualization and privatization.",[]]],"rt":[["neoliberal governmentality",[]]]},{"de":[["It is done partly for protection out of fear and partly for expediency, but it is a decision to see ourselves as cut off from others as a basic social fact of life.",[]]],"rt":[["psychocentrism",[]]],"sp":[["psychocentrism",[]]]},{"sp":[["psychocentrism",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["psychocentrism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Psychocentrism is itself a form of social injustice, where individual reformation rather than social and economic justice is promoted.",[]],["Psychocentrism is based on on the human deficit model, while obscuring societal deficits and social relations of power that often underlie and contribute to human struggles and difficulties.",[]],["Psychocentrism prevents compassion, empathy and connectedness, and it prevents us from feeling a sense of ethical responsibility to those without voices, networks, and resources.",[]],["The imperatives of governmental policies to ensure basic essentials for healthcare, education, and retirement security or legislation to protect consumers, environment and workers thus falls to the wayside as psychocentrism increasingly colonizes neoliberal culture.",[]],["Using psychocentrism as a critical epistemological framework to challenge dominant psy assumptions and discourses",[]],["privileges the expert view",[]],["prevents, omits, erases, and negates the ability to understand how political and social structures, discourses and practices impact individual lives physically, materially, emotionally, mentally -and crucially -unequally in modern society.",[]],["promoting individualized explanations for socially-based problems",[]],["a critical epistemological framework to challenge dominant psy assumptions and discourses",[]],["promotes naive or superficial fixes to macrological social and economic problems",[]],["Psychocentricity prevents, omits, erases, and negates the ability to understand how political and social structures, discourses and practices impact individual lives physically, materially, emotionally, mentally -and crucially -unequally in modern society.",[]],["expert discourses encourage users or subjects to locate \"pathologies\" inside themselves rather than a result of social processes, structures and experiences; third, expert discourse denies, trivializes or minimizes the importance of social factors and social relations at play in pathologies; and fourth, expert psy discourses distract from wider structural issues of social injustice.",[]]],"sy":[["psychocentricity",[]]],"rt":[["psychocentricity",[]],["psychocentric styles of thought",[]]],"sb":[["reductionism",[]],["determinism",[]],["essentialism",[]],["presentism or ahistoricism",[]],["naturalism",[]],["ethnocentrism",[]],["double-standards",[]],["victim-blaming",[]],["positivism",[]],["pathological individualism",[]]]},{"sy":[["discrimination against those diagnosed as mentally ill",[]]],"rt":[["epistemic injustice",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic injustice",[]]]},{"de":[["The focus of a social justice approach is based on the conviction that all individuals and groups within a given society have universal human rights, including an equal opportunity to participate in the educational, economic, institutional, and social freedoms and responsibilities valued by the community.",[]]],"rt":[["social injustice",[]]]},{"sp":[["psychocentrism",[]]]},{"sy":[["complotismo",[]]],"rt":[["negacionismo",[]]],"sb":[["novo conspiracionismo",[]]]},{},{"de":[["O intuito de Rousso era ressaltar o caráter ideológico dessa negação, o que a diferenciaria do revisionismo histórico motivado por razões científicas legítimas",["Rousso 1990, p.208-209"]],["negacionismo é uma \"tentativa sistemática de evitar a confrontação e a aceitação\" de verdades indigestas",["Kahn-Harris, 2018, p.29"]],["Kahn-Harris caracteriza o negacionismo como uma \"mistura entre dúvida e credulidade corrosivas\"",["2018, p.15"]],["O negacionismo visa substituir um tipo de ciência por outro -ela não visa substituir a própria ciência.",[]],["remete a uma ideia de ciência unificada, a qual seria o meio privilegiado de materialização da verdade",[]],["o negacionismo expressa a vontade de uma ciência hipercientífica e de uma verdade hiperverdadeira que protejam contra a imprevisibilidade do mundo.",[]]],"rt":[["revisionismo histórico",[]],["delírio epistemológico",[]],["conspiracionismo",[]]],"sb":[["negacionismo climático",[]]],"ex":[["negação do aquecimento global",[]],["contestação da teoria da evolução",[]],["desconfiança quanto à eficácia das vacinas",[]]]},{},{"de":[["protegemo-nos contra certos sentimentos e encontramos maneiras de não ver com relativa frequência no quotidiano",[]]],"rt":[["negacionismo",[]]]},{"de":[["Seu modo de operação é a repetição e a mera alegação (exemplificadas pela frase que intitula o livro, \"muita gente diz\"), o que torna ainda mais difícil discutir, negociar e chegar a produzir entendimentos comuns.",[]],["Seu modo de operação é a repetição e a mera alegação",[]]],"sp":[["conspiracionismo",[]]],"ex":[["enquanto a estratégia dos negacionistas clássicos consistia em inserir a questão no registro da controvérsia científica, no novo conspiracionismo ela é tratada como um boato.",["Rosenblum;Muirhead 2019, p.110"]]]},{"de":[["a arquitetura informacional das grandes plataformas (Facebook, Whatsapp, Instagram, Google, Youtube, Twitter), dominada pelos filtros e algoritmos, desempenha um papel crucial na seleção do conteúdo exibido aos usuários, bem como estimula certas interações em detrimento de outras, tudo isso segundo critérios que passam ao largo do controle social.",[]]]},{"de":[["exercício de atentar para como a verdade modifica as interações que constituem quem somos e a realidade em que existimos",["2005, p.30"]],["isto é, como o exercício de atentar para como a verdade modifica as interações que constituem quem somos e a realidade em que existimos.",["2005, p.30"]]],"sy":[["arte das consequências",["2005, p.30"]]]},{"rt":[["estratégia dos profissionais da negação \"tradicionais\" consistia em simular uma controvérsia científica",[]]],"sp":[["negacionismo",[]]],"ex":[["vão desde alegações de que o vírus foi criado artificialmente pela China até temores de que a vacina seja um pretexto para instalar microchips na população.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["ele é aquele que emerge em torno de um problema, não como um juiz soberano, mas como um poder objetor",["Stengers 2005, p.160"]]],"rt":[["cidadãos",[]]],"sb":[["minorias objetoras",[]]]},{"de":[["tradução, em Latour 2020a, de matters of concern",[]]],"sy":[["matters of concern",["Latour 2020a"]]]},{"rt":[["negacionismo",[]]]},{"de":[["Quando os acontecimentos são encadeados em histórias, eles acabam perdendo sua contingência, e isso produz um efeito tranquilizador",[]],["não deve ser pensado como uma ficção: enquanto esta é uma mentira que se reconhece como mentira, no storytelling a concatenação de fatos numa narrativa tem por efeito a ocultação de seu caráter ficcional; ele consistiria, por isso, numa tentativa de \"reconciliação com o real (e a História) por meio da narrativa (história)\"",["Cassin 2018, p.235"]],["enquanto esta é uma mentira que se reconhece como mentira, no storytelling a concatenação de fatos numa narrativa tem por efeito a ocultação de seu caráter ficcional; ele consistiria, por isso, numa tentativa de \"reconciliação com o real (e a História) por meio da narrativa (história)\"",["Cassin 2018, p.235"]]]},{"de":[["como algo que demanda cuidado e atenção.",[]]]},{"de":[["a vontade de verdade evidencia a preocupação de cunho moral que move a busca por conhecimento, já que esta seria orientada pela associação da verdade ao bem e da falsidade (ou engano) ao mal.",[]],["No entanto, tal vontade encobriria um desejo oculto de morte, na medida em que se oporia a tudo aquilo que é próprio da vida: a aparência, o erro, o embuste, a simulação e o cegamento",["2012, p.209-210"]]],"rt":[["temor do engano",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation operations aren't typically fake news or outright lies.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the stubborn centrality of news regarding the crimes of the immigrants appears both as a mechanism of anticipatory social control towards immigrants and as a form of symbolic displacement",[]]]},{"de":[["five different types of text formality are commonly identified in Linguistics: frozen style, formal style, consultative style, casual style, and intimate style",["Joos (1976)"]]],"sb":[["frozen style",["Joos (1976)"]],["formal style",["Joos (1976)"]],["consultative style",["Joos (1976)"]],["casual style",["Joos (1976)"]],["intimate style",["Joos (1976)"]]]},{"de":[["in the context of educational platforms often involves the processing of learning data by large data hubs that render big data streams monetizable and potentially profitable.",[]]],"rt":[["datafication",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Deception online is aided by the virtue of anonymity [13]. It can occur as deceptive content as well as a deceptive agent [41].",["13","41"]]]},{},{"rt":[["supporter",[]]],"sp":[["sockpuppet",[]]]},{"de":[["this experiment suggests that puppetmasters do not lead double lives, and that it is generally not the case that individual sockpuppets controlled by the same puppetmaster behave differently.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["sockpuppets",[]]]},{"sp":[["sockpuppet",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["sockpuppets",[]]]},{"de":[["Pretenders are likely to be created for deception and use different display names to avoid detection.",[]]],"sp":[["sockpuppets",[]],["sockpuppet",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["sockpuppets",[]]]},{"rt":[["sockpuppets",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["sockpuppets",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["While in prior work sockpuppets have typically been used to refer to a false online identity that is used for the purposes of deceiving others [26,47], we adopt a broader definition.",["26","47"]]],"sy":[["multiple identities",[]],["false online identity",[]]],"rt":[["puppetmaster",[]],["sockpuppet group/pair",[]]],"sb":[["pretenders",[]],["non-pretenders",[]],["nonpretenders",[]],["supporter",[]],["dissenter",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["dissenter",[]]],"sp":[["sockpuppet",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["homophily",[]]]},{"de":[["people tend to listen and connect only to those of similar beliefs in political and ideological issues, a cognitive bias known as homophily",[]]]},{"de":[["intermediary topics are more likely to contain a diverse set of users in terms of political stances, and thus, are suitable for use in recommendation of people of opposing views.",[]]],"rt":[["information centrality",["8"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["global warming, social security, health care reforms, and abortion",[]]]},{"ex":[["people who support the soccer team F.C. Barcelona",[]],["people with different musical tastes might be interested in discussing the particularities of their preferred music styles for comparison with others.",[]],["people with different musical tastes might be interested in discussing the particularities of their preferred music styles for comparison with others",[]]]},{"de":[["everyone tends to end with more extreme views than they started with",["Brown 1985"]]]},{"de":[["'Attack journalism' first emerged in the USA and is ascribed to an unpredictable dynamic created by a cluster of trends: the decline in deference to institutional authority, conflicting moralities, ideological divisions, the emergence of celebrity culture, an accommodating legal context, and technological developments that have revolutionised the communications marketplace.",[]]],"rt":[["trial by media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Disproportionate attention is given to children who are young, white, pretty and female.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the news media are pre-empting the official justice system by seeking to pronounce on guilt or innocence and, if found guilty, administering their own form of punishment deemed to fit the crime",[]],["a sociology of media justice that seeks to make sense of the intermediatisation of crime and justice in a context of rapid and dramatic technological, economic, cultural, political and legal change.",[]],["Though the courts retain the executive power to sentence convicted offenders, the news media are pre-empting the official justice system by seeking to pronounce on guilt or innocence and, if found guilty, administering their own form of punishment deemed to fit the crime. The news media's market-based power to punish is substantively different from that of the criminal courts.",[]]],"rt":[["trial by media",[]]]},{"de":[["Media sacralisation is driven partly by the boundary-affirming, sacred status of the innocent child, and partly by the commercial need to produce the most emotionally compelling and therefore marketable news story.",[]],["It seeks to maximise the public appeal of the story by validating and amplifying the child's innocence, the parents' anguish and resilience, communal anxieties, and the evil of the abductor(s), who may not yet, or ever, be known.",[]],["visually-charged process of media sacralisation that high-profile crimes become paradigmatic -a benchmark against which future similar events will be assessed -and images become iconic",[]]],"ex":[["high-profile abducted child stories",[]],["high-profile abducted child stories can provide the basis for momentary moral cohesion among news outlets, regardless of ideological differences.",[]],["The images of the abducted child become immortal representations of sacred innocence.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["characterised by fear, uncertainty and desperate hope, as scarce investigative resources are negotiated and allocated to the search, and public appeals are made by police officers and anguished parents",[]]]},{"de":[["In so doing, TBM reclaims 'justice' from the courts and returns it to a networked citizenry.",[]],["However, TBM is not governed by the constraints of due process, and may be activated by alleged moral transgression or professional incompetence not necessarily connected with legally codified crimes.",[]],["hard evidence obtained from a variety of sources is combined with hearsay, conjecture, and insinuation that sensitises consumers to the transgressive actions and disreputable lives of those who stand accused in the news-media spotlight.",[]],["The default inferential structure is 'guilty until proven innocent'.",["2"]],["When crystallised, this inferential structure ensures that the 'wrongdoer' will be subjected to merciless, humiliating 'naming and shaming' followed by carnivalesque condemnation and ridicule",[]],["This form of intermediatized punishment is characterized by 'grotesque realism' and 'relentless savagery'",["Hutton, 2000: 30"]],["tortuous and highly charged TBM",[]],["driven by unremitting speculation, and legitimised by their arguido status in Portugal, was defining news media debate",[]],["the news media are pre-empting the official justice system by seeking to pronounce on guilt or innocence and, if found guilty, administering their own form of punishment deemed to fit the crime.",[]],["The news media's market-based power to punish is substantively different from that of the criminal courts. But in shredding reputations, destroying careers, or shattering the credibility of individuals or entire institutions, it can be no less intrusive, lasting or devastating.",[]],["In each case, hard evidence obtained from a variety of sources is combined with hearsay, conjecture, and insinuation that sensitises consumers to the transgressive actions and disreputable lives of those who stand accused in the news-media spotlight.",[]],["This form of intermediatized punishment is characterized by 'grotesque realism' and 'relentless savagery' (Hutton, 2000: 30).",["Hutton, 2000: 30"]]],"rt":[["feeding frenzy",[]],["court of public opinion",[]],["naming and shaming",[]],["mediatised court of public opinion",[]]],"ex":[["hounding of public figures and celebrities",[]],["pre-judging the outcome of legal proceedings against 'unknowns'",[]],["The news media verdict in these papers, with a combined circulation of several million copies and a rapidly evolving online presence, was that Kate and Gerry McCann were responsible for the death of their daughter.",[]],["hounding of public figures and celebrities, perceived to think they are above the law or deemed to have offended in some way against an assumed moral consensus",[]]]},{"de":[["Together these principles form the constitution.",[]]],"rt":[["principles",[]]]},{},{},{},{}] |