File size: 222,423 Bytes
714cbfe | 1 | [{},{"rt":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The term fake news is not a new communication concept, the term actually dates back to the late 19th century as stated in the Merriam-Webster dictionary.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"ex":[["Knack Factchecker with Knack Magazine in Belgium, TjekDet with Mandag Morgen in Denmark, CheckNews with Libération and Les Decodeurs with Le Monde in France, German Fakt oder Fake affiliated with Die Zeit, Spanish La Chistera with El Confidencial, DN's Fakta I frågan with the daily Dagens Nyheter etc.",[]]]},{"ex":[["There is Fakt in Austria, Faktograf in Croatia, Demagog in the Czech Republic, Greek Ellinika Hoaxes in Greece, Demagog in Poland, Poligrafo in Portugal, Factual in Romania, Demagog in Slovakia, MAFINDO's TurnBackHoax.ID in Indonesia.",[]]]},{"de":[["It usually contains a 3-scale measure (7 fact-checkers), or 4 or 5 (each scale was found among 5 fact-checkers), there were four examples of 6-scale and one example for 7-and 8-scale rating systems.",[]]],"ex":[["true, rather true, rather untrue, and false",["Belgian Knack Factchecker"]],["true, partly true, partly false, false, hoax and not possible to check",["Dutch Nieuwscheckers"]]]},{},{"ex":[["French LuiPresident.fr with Ecole Supérieure de Journalisme de Lille, Dutch Factory from journalism school at Fontys University of Applied Sciences, and Nieuwscheckers from Leiden University's journalism and new media program",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["donde los hechos cuentan menos que las sensaciones y emociones que producen, generando un nuevo estado emocional (Rúas y García, 2018) que altera el actual ecosistema mediático y supone nuevos retos y amenazas para el periodismo, en la disputa por imponer un relato dominante de la crisis.",["Rúas y García, 2018"]],["generando un nuevo estado emocional (Rúas y García, 2018) que altera el actual ecosistema mediático y supone nuevos retos y amenazas para el periodismo, en la disputa por imponer un relato dominante de la crisis.",["Rúas y García, 2018"]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["conflict",[]],["responsibility",[]],["human interest",[]],["scientific interpretation",[]],["errors of evolutionary theories",[]]]},{"sb":[["episodic",[]],["thematic",[]]]},{"de":[["The frame structures discussions about reality systematically and gives meaning to them by either emphasizing certain information or excluding it.",["2"]],["The media can cast a mold of thinking on an issue by a framing technique that highlights or deletes certain aspects of the issue leading the public to understand the issue in certain ways.",[]]],"sy":[["the framework of a story",[]]],"rt":[["the constructive viewpoint",[]],["framing technique",[]],["constructive viewpoint",[]]],"sb":[["formal frame",[]],["content frame",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["mix the real and the grotesque",[]],["The ridiculous becomes the grotesque",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["century-old practices of photographic satire aimed at political and religious authorities",["7"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["parody",[]]]},{"de":[["social semiotics has been useful to avoid an \"essentialist\" approach to the corpus of images, that is, to relate the strictly visual variables of each photograph with other key aspects such as written language, graphic layout and editorial conditions.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the study of visual motifs lies in the core of the article's methodology, given that in order to group and analyse all the front page photographs, we have focused on elements of repetition and difference between them, in order to find when, why and how an isolated image becomes a recurrent motif with its own themes and variations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["в которых отсутствовали эмоционально окрашенные слова и использовались сдержанные описания глобального потепления",[]]],"rt":[["язык журналистов",[]]],"ex":[["такие формулировки, как «неблагоприятные условия», «экстремальные явления», «разбалансировка системы», «угроза» и «риски»",[]]]},{"rt":[["social agenda",[]]]},{"rt":[["научный язык",[]]]},{"de":[["Raquel Recuero (2009) adds that social actors (users) have motives and that their decisions to pass information to networks depend on social capital. She believes there are two types of constructed values: primary and secondary.",["2009"]]],"sb":[["primary",[]],["secondary",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["satire or parody",[]],["false connection",[]],["misleading content",[]],["false context",[]],["imposter content",[]],["manipulated content",[]],["fabricated contents",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["manipulated content intended to go viral on Facebook and thus influence public opinion during the pre-election period in Brazil",[]],["false information",[]]],"sy":[["false information",[]],["manipulated news",[]]],"rt":[["manipulated news",[]],["clickbait",[]]]},{"de":[["uses the titles to attract readers rather than true facts",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["relies on imagery to attract users; using images of someone they recognize and then adding in manipulated information",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["These are placed between the informational content.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["celebrities",["Marshal, 1997"]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["utilizan estrategias y tácticas de engaño con mentiras sobre las propuestas de otros candidatos.",["Ponidelko y Lukashev (2001)"]],["el término es utilizado en ocasiones para difundir propaganda o prácticas poco éticas",[]],["Black PR también es empleado por los profesionales afroamericanos que buscan dar visibilidad a su trabajo en Estados Unidos.",[]],["se utiliza en mayor grado para describir estas acciones",[]],["también es empleado por los profesionales afroamericanos que buscan dar visibilidad a su trabajo en Estados Unidos.",[]],["describe las campañas políticas creadas en periodos electorales con el ánimo de afectar la imagen de opositores o rivales políticos",["Freitag y Quesinberry, 2008"]]],"sy":[["la práctica Rusa",["The Guardian; 2020"]],["Dark PR",[]],["relaciones públicas negras",[]]],"rt":[["Dark PR",[]]],"sp":[["relaciones públicas",[]]]},{},{"de":[["parece tener mayor vinculación a la actividad empresarial",[]],["En su desarrollo se emplea la desinformación (fake news), el espionaje, las batallas judiciales, las cuentas falsas, las narraciones falsas, las reseñas falsas y los sitios web de pseudonoticias.",[]],["englobando también más parcelas del ámbito digital.",[]],["aparece posteriormente, englobando también más parcelas del ámbito digital.",[]],["El término Dark PR es más utilizado que Black PR.",[]],["Dark PR parece tener mayor vinculación a la actividad empresarial y se utiliza para describir la actividad profesional de influencia negativa contra los competidores. En su desarrollo se emplea la desinformación (fake news), el espionaje, las batallas judiciales, las cuentas falsas, las narraciones falsas, las reseñas falsas y los sitios web de pseudonoticias.",["Thompson y Weldon, 2022"]]],"sy":[["Black PR",[]]],"rt":[["Black PR",[]]]},{"de":[["la aplicación estratégica de la falsedad con la intención de engañar y anticipar las ventajas",["1999, p. 26"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["deepfakes",[]],["astroturfing",[]],["eco chambers",[]],["filtros burbuja",[]]],"ex":[["campañas de desinformación",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Black PR",[]]],"sp":[["relaciones públicas",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["'specific' negativity",[]]]},{"rt":[["German Euroscepticism",[]]]},{"rt":[["'diffuse' negativity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the online news room can be seen as an extension of the existing domain of mainstream media, in which only selected news and opinions are made available and consumed by like-minded audiences",[]]]},{},{"de":[["to the extent that there is a 'gender gap' in support for such parties and that they promote traditional gender roles or indeed gender equality in their opposition to Islam",["Mudde, 2007","Spierings, Zaslove, Mügge, & de Lange, 2015"]]],"sy":[["men's parties",[]]]},{"de":[["Participatory populism is, however, different from critical debate to the extent that online discussion forums rarely allow for an engagement with the arguments of political opponents but rather result in a categorical rejection of political elites and an overall negativity towards political representatives.",[]],["While populism is usually approached from the perspective of political actors and parties, the Internet opens up the opportunity for 'populist non-elite actors' to participate in populist communication",["Engesser, Fawzi, & Larsson, 2017, p. 1284"]]],"sp":[["populism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["engagement results in a collective voice that expresses high levels of negativity towards mainstream democratic politics",[]],["engagement with online news contributes to the salience of populism by amplifying a collective voice of users that is characterised by a high level of negativity towards mainstream political representatives and institutions",[]],["selective user engagement with news content that aggregates a collective voice of the people and that therefore does not remain marginal but contributes in important ways to opinion formation in an electoral context",[]],["We posit that online user commenting forums attract citizens who actively engage with political news but who, rather than contributing to the democratic legitimacy of policies and institutions, participate in a systematic delegitimization of the political system.",[]],["we have introduced an alternative option of 'participatory populism' that considers user commenting practices as important for both activating citizens in election campaigns and aggregating audiences.",[]]],"rt":[["individual expressions of discontent with representative politics",[]],["collective expressions of the voice of users",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Euroscepticism",[]]]},{"de":[["In the context of EP elections, this would be characterised by high levels of negativity towards the EU and mainstream national actors.",[]],["focusing on how negativity towards mainstream institutions and actors finds expression in the comments",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["conclude source cues have a substantial influence on public opinion in most ordinary circumstances, but that an unreliable messenger may not fully undermine an otherwise effective message",["Chaiken 1980","Petty and Cacioppo 1986"]]],"sb":[["heuristic (based on source cues)",[]],["systematic (based on message content)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Social media also creates opportunities for incidental news exposure not driven by active considerations",["Bakshy, Messing, and Adamic 2015","Feezell 2018","Kim et al. 2018"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["While both fake news and real news are narratives reporting events, narratives of fake news have the intention to make readers believe whatever is reported has indeed happened, whereas real news storytelling does not necessarily have such an aim.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["listic characteristics of a narrative, encompassing narrative length, text cohesion and coherence, contextual embeddedness, and elaboration.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Persuasion, as a communicative process, seeks to influence others' views, behaviors, and emotions.",[]],["Complex social interactions, such as persuasion, have become increasingly prevalent in social media communications.",[]]]},{"de":[["While both fake news and real news are narratives reporting events, narratives of fake news have the intention to make readers believe whatever is reported has indeed happened, whereas real news storytelling does not necessarily have such an aim.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["propaganda",["25"]],["socjotechnika",["25"]],["inżynieria społeczna",["25"]],["perswazja",["25"]],["techniki społecznej manipulacji",["25"]],["komunikacja zaburzona/zakłócona (disrruptive communication)",["25"]],["clickbaity",["25"]],["alternatywne fakty",["25"]],["fake newsy",["25"]]],"rt":[["czarną propagandą",["30"]]],"de":[["Jest ona wykorzystywana w ramach operacji informacyjno-propagandowych używających technik wpływu i oddziaływań psychologicznych w czasie pokoju, kryzysu i wojny w celu zaszkodzenia odbiorcom",["29"]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["informacja ekspresywna i socjalna, określane przez Lyonsa wspólnym terminem \"informacja międzyosobowa\", czyli aspekty znaczenia związane z cechami nadawcy i społecznym zakotwiczeniem języka/komunikacji",["17"]]]},{},{"de":[["the manner in which language is written and contextualized (e.g., rhetorical strategies, surreptitious wording, and withholding of details)",[]],["the manner in which language is written and contextualized (e.g., rhetorical strategies, surreptitious wording, and withholding of details) may bias how the message is understood.",[]]]},{"sb":[["time",[]],["funding source",[]],["nation of origin",[]]],"ex":[["time",[]],["funding source",[]],["nation of origin",[]]]},{"sp":[["discursive resonance",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["trend skepticism",[]],["impact skepticism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a climate skeptic is also someone who endorses the science but negates, for instance, its political and economic consequences.",[]],["By this definition, a climate skeptic is also someone who endorses the science but negates, for instance, its political and economic consequences.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This would indicate a convergence of online and offline agendas as we calculated the thematic divergence between websites of climate change skeptics and legacy media.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["To determine the degree of congruence between the online communication of the climate skeptical counter-movement and traditional media coverage, and how it develops over time, we distinguish three different discursive dimensions [45]: (1) issues and frames, (2) the positions articulated, and (3) the visibility of actors.",["45"]]],"sb":[["thematic resonance",[]],["positional resonance",[]],["actor resonance",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["pure thematic congruence",[]]]},{"de":[["Depending on both the corpus and the theory, the resulting thematic structures (i.e., probability distribution over words) may either be interpreted as actual topics (e.g., environment versus economy), as issues (e.g., climate change), or as frames (e.g., the emphasis on the scientific consensus), depending on the underlying type of text corpus [71].",["71"]],["the results of our topic model suggest that some frames are aligned with a specific position (e.g., the denial of weather consequences reflects the skeptical position).",[]],["none of the frames is solely used by one side of the debate",["12"]]],"sy":[["interpretative packages",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["trend skepticism",[]],["attribution skepticism",[]]]},{"de":[["To determine the degree of congruence between the online communication of the climate skeptical counter-movement and traditional media coverage, and how it develops over time, we distinguish three different discursive dimensions [45]: (1) issues and frames, (2) the positions articulated, and (3) the visibility of actors.",["45"]]]},{"sb":[["conflict",[]],["surprise",[]],["status/elite",[]]]},{"rt":[["news factors",[]]]},{"rt":[["consensus skepticism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["political countermovements in the sense of Fraser [8]",["8"]]]},{"sp":[["discursive resonance",[]]]},{"sp":[["discursive resonance",[]]]},{"rt":[["attribution skepticism",[]],["impact skepticism",[]]]},{"de":[["To determine the degree of congruence between the online communication of the climate skeptical counter-movement and traditional media coverage, and how it develops over time, we distinguish three different discursive dimensions [45]: (1) issues and frames, (2) the positions articulated, and (3) the visibility of actors.",["45"]]]},{"de":[["Twitter has been described as a platform for ambient journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["we consider the results for the attribution of responsibility for the riot.",[]]]},{"sy":[["frames in thought",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this view, a frame could be better understood and revealed (coded) through identifying clusters of specific aspects which are conceptually pertinent and empirically observable.",[]],["Matthes and Kohring (2008) specify generic, not case-specific, elements that constitute a frame on public issues and events, including problem definition, moral evaluation (valence), and causal interpretation (attribution of failure/success).",["Matthes and Kohring, 2008"]]],"rt":[["problem definition",[]],["moral evaluation (valence)",[]],["causal interpretation (attribution of failure/success)",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing is thus viewed as essential to the construction of meaning and the process of human communication",["(Gamson, 1992)"]]],"rt":[["frames in communication",[]],["frames in thought",[]]]},{"de":[["the former usage focuses on what a speaker says (e.g., the aspects of an issue emphasized in elite discourse)",[]]],"rt":[["frames in thought",[]]]},{"de":[["the latter usage focuses on what an individual is thinking (e.g., the aspects of an issue a citizen thinks are most important)",[]]],"rt":[["frames in communication",[]]]},{"de":[["the media construct reality by selecting certain aspects of an issue/event over others and emphasizing those through a lens which is often influenced or obscured by the ideologies or cultural values of the authoring establishment",["Edelman, 1993","Shoemaker and Reese, 1996"]]],"rt":[["frame building",[]]]},{"sy":[["frames in communication",[]]]},{"de":[["the notion of framing has also been discussed in the context of news making",["(Pan and Kosicki, 1993)"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Therefore, to maintain cognitive consistency, people avoid accepting content on social media that contradicts their viewpoint (Pearson & Knobloch-Westerwick, 2019).",["Pearson & Knobloch-Westerwick, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["humans are often sensitive to a dissonance between behavior and beliefs and compel individuals to seek solutions to resolve the dissonance",[]]]},{"de":[["People are more likely to accept the news that aligns with their beliefs (Scheibenzuber et al., 2021).",["Scheibenzuber et al., 2021"]],["There is a widespread perception that confirmation bias is a cognitively harmful tendency.",[]],["Bias hinders the formation of informed beliefs, reduces people's ability to correct misconceptions, and causes them to become overconfident in their reasoning",["Mercier, 2016(Mercier, , 2018;;Peters, 2020;Steel, 2018"]],["confirmation bias changes individuals' social media activity as it is a psychological defense",["Weeks et al., 2017"]],["Confirmation bias hinders reliable belief formation and truth-tracking.",[]],["Previous research has shown that confirmation bias results from avoiding cognitive dissonance",["Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2020"]],["an important bridge between exposure patterns and belief in fake news",[]],["reducing confirmation bias is fundamental to preventing people from being harmed by fake news on social media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["fake news maintains the appearance of news, fake news is misleading, and fake news has a deliberate purpose (Gelfert, 2018).",["Gelfert, 2018"]],["fake news comprises six types: news satire, news parody, fabrication, manipulation, advertising, and propaganda.",["Tandoc Jr (2018)"]],["fake news maintains the appearance of news, fake news is misleading, and fake news has a deliberate purpose",["Gelfert, 2018"]],["That is fake news maintains the appearance of news, fake news is misleading, and fake news has a deliberate purpose (Gelfert, 2018).",["Gelfert, 2018"]]],"sb":[["news satire",[]],["news parody",[]],["fabrication",[]],["manipulation",[]],["advertising",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["Incidental exposure is a contemporary way for people to access information.",[]],["In contrast to intentional exposure, incidental exposure emphasizes chance encounters with news content--users are exposed to information even without seeking it (Nanz et al., 2020).",["Nanz et al., 2020"]]],"rt":[["intentional exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["Intentional exposure is a form of information acquisition driven by personal intent or motivation (Heiss & Matthes, 2019;Shahin et al., 2021).",["Heiss & Matthes, 2019","Shahin et al., 2021"]]],"rt":[["incidental exposure",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["emotion resonance",[]]]},{"rt":[["emotion dissonance",[]]]},{"de":[["spreads rapidly across platforms and poses a serious threat to public information security.",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["continuous news coverage",[]],["special campaign coverage programming",[]],["multi-party debates",[]],["single-party cross-examination sessions",[]]]},{"ex":[["So, you've been persuaded by your colleagues to vote Progress Party?",[]]]},{"rt":[["debate format",[]]]},{"ex":[["Why do you vote for the Socialists?",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Campaign television coverage",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the WHO labelled an infodemic",["4"]]]},{},{"de":[["attributed to a perception that news is created mainly for men and along with the unequal domestic burdens women shoulder in most societies, which preclude them from dedicating significant time and attention to news consumption.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["knowledge hallucination",[]]]},{"de":[["Large Language Models (LLMs) perform excellently in fake news detection tasks, but their outputs are often accompanied by hallucinations, i.e., generated content that is contradictory to facts.",[]]]},{"sp":[["knowledge hallucination",[]]]},{"sb":[["input-conflicting hallucination",[]],["context-conflicting hallucination",[]],["fact-conflicting hallucination",[]]]},{"de":[["Using clarification makes for a benign form of humour without a sense of correction, which is why it is considered to be uniting rather than dividing",[]]],"sp":[["humour functions",["Meyer 2000"]]]},{"de":[["stresses contradictions and differences between one social group and another",["Meyer 2000: 321"]]],"rt":[["identification",[]]],"sp":[["humour functions",["Meyer 2000"]]]},{"de":[["Laughter in this case is invoked to discipline those who are not seen as properly following the rules of a social group",["Duncan 1962","Meyer 2000: 320","Duncan 1962;Meyer 2000: 320"]]],"rt":[["differentiation",[]]],"sp":[["humour functions",["Meyer 2000"]]]},{},{"de":[["the media framing define the story's meaning and thereby shape people's interpretations",["Entman 1993","Hallahan 1999"]]]},{"de":[["In political media framing, especially during election campaigns, there are two common umbrella terms under which frames can be placed: game frames, where focus is on who is winning or losing, and issue frames, where there is more focus on political substance (Aalberg et al. 2011).",["Aalberg et al. 2011"]]],"sp":[["political media framing",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["identification",[]],["clarification",[]],["enforcement",[]],["differentiation",[]]]},{"de":[["the most uniting humour function of identification",[]]],"rt":[["differentiation",[]]],"sp":[["humour functions",["Meyer 2000"]]],"ex":[["Using self-deprecating humour to ally yourself with the audience is an example of identification",["Chapel 1978","1978"]],["Using self-deprecating humour to ally yourself with the audience is an example of identification (Chapel 1978)",["1978","Chapel 1978"]]]},{"de":[["In political media framing, especially during election campaigns, there are two common umbrella terms under which frames can be placed: game frames, where focus is on who is winning or losing, and issue frames, where there is more focus on political substance (Aalberg et al. 2011).",["Aalberg et al. 2011"]]],"sp":[["political media framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Media coverage can mould certain positions around issues in the public sphere, since the media framing define the story's meaning and thereby shape people's interpretations (Entman 1993;Hallahan 1999).",["Entman 1993","Hallahan 1999"]]]},{"de":[["humour has been described as a mixed feeling of the soul, a sense that consists of both pleasure and pain",["Plato 1961","1961"]],["Since the days of Plato, humour has been described as a mixed feeling of the soul, a sense that consists of both pleasure and pain (Plato 1961).",["Plato 1961"]]],"sy":[["double-edged sword",["Attardo 1994","Meyer 2000: 310","1994","2000","Attardo 1994;Meyer 2000: 310"]]]},{},{"sy":[["first-order talk scandal",[]]]},{"de":[["may affect cognition",[]]]},{"de":[["use English as a pivot language, by first translating input to English, processing it in English, and then translating the answer back to the input language.",[]]]},{"de":[["Exposure to cross-cutting political ideas is widely accepted as a necessary component of a healthy public sphere.",[]],["Does television news provide greater exposure to cross-cutting political views than newspapers?",[]],["television news typically provides more cross-cutting exposure than newspapers.",[]],["the difference in levels of media-party parallelism between newspapers and television may help account for the lower levels of cross-cutting exposure through newspapers.",[]],["the beneficial effects of cross-cutting exposure rely upon thoughtful consideration of oppositional views",["Mutz & Martin, 2001"]],["cross-cutting exposure is especially unlikely in countries with high levels of media-party parallelism.",[]],["newspapers and television news are leaning toward a respondent's own views and producing little cross-cutting exposure (0), not leaning in either direction (1), or leaning away from a respondent's own views and producing relatively high levels of cross-cutting content (2)",[]]],"rt":[["perceptions of disagreement",["Mutz & Martin, 2001"]],["selective exposure",[]]],"ex":[["leaning away from a respondent's own views and producing relatively high levels of cross-cutting content (2)",[]]]},{"de":[["Cross-cutting exposure can do little good if it is sufficiently subtle that readers and viewers do not recognize it.",[]]]},{"rt":[["hostile media perceptions",[]]]},{"de":[["it defies reality: Obviously, both sides cannot be correct that the same content is biased in opposite directions. Clearly, then, judgments of media \"bias\" must emanate from characteristics of those judging the content instead of, or in addition to, the content itself.",[]],["Do citizens perceive newspapers and television news as exposing them to primarily disagreeable political content, as predicted by the hostile media phenomenon?",[]]],"rt":[["relative hostile media perception",[]]]},{"de":[["high levels of media-party parallelism will result in less cross-cutting exposure.",[]],["This concept reflects the extent to which individual political allegiances correspond with the partisanship of people's news sources.",[]],["Parallelism need not be formal, as in a newspaper that is directly owned by a political party or aligned with a specific ideology, but parallelism should be reflected in ongoing aggregate patterns of media use and partisanship.",[]],["provide aggregate measures of the structure of each country's media system relative to its party system.",[]],["media environments that exhibit higher levels of media-party parallelism produce lower levels of cross-cutting exposure.",[]],["When sources are more segregated by their audiences' party affinities, people can more easily exercise selective exposure, as is particularly evident with newspapers.",[]]],"sy":[["press-party parallelism",[]]],"rt":[["partisanship in media",[]],["cross-cutting exposure",[]]],"ex":[["press-party parallelism in Greece",[]]]},{"de":[["a relatively more hostile perception of favoritism on the part of a media source may, in reality, just be a relatively less friendly perception that is nonetheless still supportive of the reader or viewer's political perspective.",[]]],"rt":[["hostile media effects",[]]]},{"de":[["To the extent that theories of selective exposure are correct, people should be exposing themselves to like-minded media to whatever extent possible.",[]],["Or do citizens perceive their media as exposing them to like-minded political content, as predicted by theories of selective exposure?",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["consumerist alienation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["biological racism",["Wren 2001, 144"]]]},{"rt":[["neoliberal ideological paradigm",[]]]},{"de":[["The religious connotations of articulations such as \"debt redemption\", foregrounds the metaphysical roots of debt, which is further connected to punishment and to guilt (Graeber 2011, 5).",["5"]],["The language of debt moralizes relations founded on violence, making the victim to seem guilty (pp. 5).",[]]]},{"de":[["The objectification of an eschatological threat legitimizes unprecedented, emergency measurements that bypass institutionalized procedures and rights.",[]]]},{"de":[["Frames provide the conceptual foundations for people to perceive social realities.",[]],["Different topics of public interest relate to different social functions of framing.",[]],["In the context of politics, ideological positions related to the social agents producing public frames, organize the semantics of frames.",[]],["to frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendations for the item described. Typically frames diagnose, evaluate, and prescribe",["1993, 52"]],["Frames provide the conceptual foundations for people to perceive social realities",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["Frames",[]]]},{"sb":[["neoliberal governmentality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Existential threats (survival, chaos and abyss) and metaphysical references (God) organize the magnitude of the crisis.",[]]],"rt":[["Eschatology",[]]]},{"de":[["Different scholars (Lasch 2001(Lasch /1979;;Bauman 2005;Berardi 2009) stress the influence of commodity culture in the development of introvert, infantilized social characters that do not assume social responsibility and are reluctant to perform political praxes.",["Lasch 2001(Lasch /1979;;Bauman 2005;Berardi 2009"]]]},{"sp":[["Governmentality",[]]]},{"de":[["where it is up to the people not to support unethical or corrupt governments, business, or individual habits",["Crouch 2011, 26"]]]},{"de":[["these include deregulation of economic activity, locally and globally, privatizations, optional fiscal policy, reductions in social spending and reductions in taxation of the wealthier, aggressive competition, flexible labour conditions.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Reification derives from different forms of objectifications and rationalizations required for the establishment of the social relations required by the capitalist process.",[]],["Capitalist social roles are naturalized as normal and rational.",[]],["The process of reification is connected to the fetish character of the objectified form of the commodity that does not carry inscriptions of the process of its production and circulation.",[]],["Reification occurs due to the rationalization and standardization of labour and the objectification of the worker.",[]],["The subjective human is mediated by the mechanistic process of production, and is assessed according to the axiomatic laws that the capitalist process imposes, irrespective of the worker's subjective will.",[]],["The worker is called to conform and to discipline him/herself according to the continuous changing needs of the capitalist process and the technological developments that reproduce capitalism.",[]],["Reification conceals the political interventions and the power inequalities that capitalist societies are structured upon.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The spectacle provides a simplistic and illusionary unity of an increasingly fragmented, late modern world whose sense making becomes increasingly complex and a difficult process.",[]],["On the political side, the spectacle is establishing particular ways of seeing the world, which are highly ideological.",[]],["The role of the spectacle is to \"dazzle\" consumers into particular forms of realities, behaviours, mentalities, ideas, truths and social relations.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["According to Bild's discourse, the Greeks are responsible for their own suffering.",[]],["The Greeks are also responsible for the dangers that the crisis poses to other Europeans.",[]],["Bild-Zeitung offers its public a purposefully confused version of the facts related to Greece's position in the global economic crisis.",[]],["Bild's version of the crisis discredits people's resistances against the degrading of their lives, as something irrational and even ungrateful, while celebrating the loss of jobs in the particular country and the closing down of Greece's minimal social provisions.",[]]],"rt":[["culturalist frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Greece and the people inhabiting there are produced in homogenous terms. Greece and Greeks are reified through Mediterranean and Middle Eastern folkloric stereotypes, banal historical references to \"Greek antiquity\", or references to popular culture constructions of Greece, Greek culture and Greeks (like \"Zorba the Greek\" or the blockbuster film \"my big fat Greek wedding\", which built its success by concentrating and selling all widely \"known\" prejudices and stereotypes on Greece).",[]]]},{"rt":[["Tabloidization of politics",[]]],"sb":[["Tabloidization of politics",[]]]},{"rt":[["Tabloidization",[]]],"sp":[["Tabloidization",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["nationalist \"common sense\"",[]]]},{"rt":[["Frames",[]]]},{"de":[["The sense of the touristic space is mediated by consumerist frames, reifying places and people as palpable entities for consumption.",[]],["The tourist industry does not allow identification with the local but focuses on the activities of touristic consumption.",[]]],"rt":[["tourist discourse",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["never as simple as it is presented by commentators and viewers. Information can encapsulate the subjective perspectives of its author. It can defy singular true/false labels but should be evaluated based on multiple dimensions such as temporal availability, as well as political and commercial interests.",[]],["information is \"multiple,\" that it is never as simple as it is presented by commentators and viewers. Information can encapsulate the subjective perspectives of its author.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Greater intellectual humility has been shown to increase people's abilities to detect political misinformation (Koetke et al., 2022), in part, due to its metacognitive aspects JIL, 2024, 18(2). http://dx.doi.org/10.11645/18.2.636 (see Porter et al., 2022).",["Koetke et al., 2022","JIL, 2024, 18(2)","Porter et al., 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["mindfulness as a significant aspect of healthy information seeking and interpretation",[]],["This process of mindfulness asks information consumers to pause and reflect on the information they are consuming, which has been shown to improve learning and retention and reduce emotional reactions",["Aytac & Mizrachi, 2022"]]],"rt":[["critical thinking",[]]],"ex":[["breathing techniques that help reduce affective responses",["Arch & Craske, 2006","Cho et al., 2016","Doll et al., 2016","Metz et al., 2013"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["sophisticated recruitment tactics known as \"redpilling\", which use feelings of anger and fear to encourage conspiracist ideation.",[]],["This has become a prominent metaphor for conspiracist epistemologies in which \"awakening\" to the operations of the conspiracy is an essential mode of knowledge about the world",["Hannah, 2021a","Marwick & Furl, 2021","Marwick & Partin, 2022"]]],"rt":[["conspiracist epistemologies",[]]]},{"rt":[["data",[]],["information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["media professionals in Kenya and Senegal cross-check information for authenticity before it is disseminated to the audience. They do this by contacting the primary and secondary sources of information to confirm the authenticity of the content in question. They might also contact an expert in the area to seek for their opinion with regards to the content in question.",[]],["cross-checking information can be done by using secondary sources of information (Paskin, 2018), confirming from the original source (Lazer et al., 2018), or consulting experts who are knowledgeable about the issue (Cohen et al., 2022).",["Paskin, 2018","Lazer et al., 2018","Cohen et al., 2022"]]],"rt":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["media professionals in both Senegal and Kenya employ fact-checking strategies such as cross-checking of information from primary, secondary, and expert sources and verifying images and videos using reverse image search as reactive strategies.",[]],["As misinformation remains a significant threat to news organizations, fact-checking has become a crucial tool for verifying information.",[]],["In fact, fact-checking has been recognized as one of the most important non-governmental responses to disinformation",["Saurwein & Spencer-Smith, 2020"]],["it occurs after claims have been made, making it inherently reactive.",[]],["Fact-checking as a reactive strategy for addressing misinformation has gained traction as a method of mitigating its spread.",[]],["both fact-checkers and journalists are involved in verifying and determining the accuracy of information shared publicly (e.g., verifying posts made by social media users) or content created internally to be disseminated by the media house (i.e., checking the accuracy of claims before publishing).",[]],["effective tool of fighting misinformation",[]],["crucial global tool for combating misinformation",[]],["practical and effective solution to deal with misinformation",[]],["strategy of identifying false information",[]],["The aim of factchecking is to grow media information literacy in the general public so that people don't consume information at face value.",[]],["fact-checking should be a multistakeholder process that does not infringe on peoples' freedom of speech even as it helps mitigate the spread of misinformation",["Ardèvol-Abreu et al., 2020"]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]],["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]],"ex":[["during a sit down with journalists to explain his government policies over the annual budget, the president of Kenya, William Ruto made twelve claims of which four were proven correct, one exaggerated, one unproven, and six proven incorrect by Africa Check (Africa Check, 2023)",["Africa Check, 2023"]]]},{"sy":[["information pollution",["Wardle and Derakhshan (2017)"]]]},{"sy":[["information disorder",["Wardle and Derakhshan (2017)"]]]},{"de":[["media literacy education can occur before exposure to false information and can be applied to more than one specific piece of false content as a proactive response",["Hameleers 2022"]],["promote it as a set of skills that audiences can build and apply to their own news and information practices",["Singer & Tully, 2022"]],["Media literacy education, on the other hand, offers a proactive response to prepare audiences to engage with information more effectively.",[]],["media literacy education teaches audiences to analyze and deconstruct media messages and understand the process of message construction. potential impact of information, and revealing the gap between mediated and external realities.",[]],["equip media consumers with technical-know-how on how to consume media content critically as a strategy of combating misinformation",[]],["proactive strategy that can empower audiences to be critical media consumers and to engage in their own fact-checking",[]],["effective longer-term solution for addressing misinformation because it extends beyond single false claims",[]],["media literacy among the consumers of media content to curb the spread of misinformation.",[]],["educational dimension that promoted media literacy.",["Kuś and Barczyszyn-Madziarz (2020)"]]],"rt":[["fact-checking",[]],["news literacy",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Vraga et al. (2012) note that media literacy education teaches audiences to analyze and deconstruct media messages and understand the process of message construction. potential impact of information, and revealing the gap between mediated and external realities.",["Vraga et al. (2012)"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["fake voices",[]],["spoofing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the use of cyber-tools by governments, or non-state actors working in close collaboration with them, to influence elections",[]]],"ex":[["the hacking and public release of private information",[]],["social media activity authored by foreign troll farms",[]]]},{"de":[["cyber-activity is illegal when it interferes with a state's right to freely choose its \"political, economic, social and cultural system\" or \"deprives a significant part of the electorate of the ability to vote.\"",[]]],"ex":[["foreign-funded social media disinformation campaigns that focus on political substance rather than political process.",[]]]},{"rt":[["domestically generated disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["which in a democratic polity is expressed through the institution of elections",[]]]},{"de":[["academic blog is more than a crude popularisation borrowing from journalistic or conversational practices.",[]]],"sp":[["academic genres",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Questions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["represent an important way by which authors structure their discourse for particular readers, helping them to see the coherence of arguments and guiding their thinking in the direction the author wishes to go.",[]],["help organise larger segments of texts to explicitly spell out to readers where the argument is going and what the writer intends to do next.",[]],["have two main roles a) to signal directions and changes in the ongoing text and b) to signal an interactive relationship with readers, indicating that their text processing needs are being taken into account.",[]],["They are thus concerned with making the textual world accessible and meaningful to readers by configuring discourse units of various size for them. They achieve the pragmatic functions of organizing a text both locally and globally and reducing readers' processing effort",["Aguilar, 2008"]],["function to aid comprehension of the ongoing text",[]],["bloggers deploy more frame markers in order to present complex research material to a less homogeneous readership which is less conversant with disciplinary knowledge, and to structure this in a succinct manner in much shorter texts.",[]],["Frame markers represent an important way by which authors structure their discourse for particular readers, helping them to see the coherence of arguments and guiding their thinking in the direction the author wishes to go.",[]]],"rt":[["rhetorical metatext",[]]],"sb":[["Sequencers",[]],["Labellers",[]],["Goal announcers",[]],["Topic shifters",[]],["Sequencing",[]],["label stages",[]],["announce goals",[]],["shift topic",[]],["Sequencers: used to sequence parts of the text or to internally order an argument (e.g. there are several reasons why, first, then, 1, 2, a, b, at the same time, next).",[]],["Labellers explicitly label the function of the following stage or upcoming text. Often these indicate the speech act that will be performed, either encapsulating aspects of the prior text (to summarize, in sum, thus far) or signal what the following text is intended to do (by way of introduction, to repeat)",[]],["Goal announcers state the author's purpose in the text (I argue here, my purpose is, the paper proposes, I hope to persuade).",[]],["Topic shifters indicate a shift in the direction of the text (right, OK, now, let us return to, with regard to).",[]]],"sp":[["metadiscourse resources",[]],["interactive metadiscourse",[]]],"ex":[["Sequencing finally First/ Firstly First of all Last/ lastly Next thus, so, there are three reasons for this (etc.) + listing (a,b,c, etc) numbering (1,2,3, etc) bullet pointing Second/Secondly subsequently Then Third/Thirdly to begin to start with",[]],["label stages all in all at this point at this stage by far for the moment in a word in brief in conclusion in short in sum in summary on the whole overall so far thus far to conclude to repeat to sum up to summarise",[]],["announce goals (in) this chapter (in) this part (in) this section aim desire to focus goal intend to intention objective purpose seek to to better understand want to wish to would like to",[]],["shift topic back to digress in regard to move on now regarding resume return to revisit shift to so to look more closely turn to well with regard to",[]],["such as in conclusion, there are several reasons for this, and my purpose is.",[]]]},{"de":[["Explicitly stating one's purposes is a powerful rhetorical tool (Hyland & Jiang 2018) and writers are well aware of its value in signalling the direction of their argument and ensuring that readers understand where the text will take them.",["Hyland & Jiang 2018"]],["These signposts are also useful for establishing the core around which the argument can build on and help sharpen the writer's thinking about what it is that they are doing (Lim et al., 2015).",["Lim et al., 2015"]],["goal announcers also provide motivation for readers interested in the topic and a helpful aid to those who may be less familiar with the ideas (Hyland & Jiang, 2018).",["Hyland & Jiang, 2018"]]],"sb":[["overall purpose",[]],["Local goals",[]]],"ex":[["(23) We would like to find out how researchers evaluate impact (if at all), what the benefits of using social and other digital media for public engagement has been...",[]],["(24) The objective of this study was to compare the publication patterns of students in traditional versus TD doctoral training programs.",[]]]},{"de":[["The marker may refer to the overall purpose of the paper or to local, more immediate goals in a specific part of the text.",[]],["provide motivation for readers interested in the topic and a helpful aid to those who may be less familiar with the ideas",["Hyland & Jiang, 2018"]],["declare the direction of the text or proclaim local purposes",[]],["simultaneously provide the reader with detailed explanations and clarifications",[]]],"sp":[["frame markers",[]]],"ex":[["I argue here, my purpose is, the paper proposes, I hope to persuade",[]]]},{"de":[["This readerorientation in texts is often referred to as interactive metadiscourse",[]]],"sb":[["frame markers",[]]],"sp":[["Metadiscourse",[]]]},{"de":[["Often these indicate the speech act that will be performed, either encapsulating aspects of the prior text (to summarize, in sum, thus far) or signal what the following text is intended to do (by way of introduction, to repeat)",[]],["Explicitly pointing out how readers should interpret the preceding discourse is obviously a useful strategy to guarantee that they will get the writer's take-home message.",[]],["do not point backwards to what has been, but which pause the discourse to explicitly refer to the stage it has reached and signal what will come next",[]],["They are a type of what Fraser (1988) calls 'discourse activity markers' which refer to types of discourse work such as explaining or summarising, and not to the type of message the speaker conveys through the utterance.",["Fraser (1988)","1988"]]],"sy":[["frame markers",[]]],"rt":[["discourse activity markers",[]]],"sb":[["subheading labellers",[]]],"sp":[["frame markers",[]],["discourse activity markers",[]]],"ex":[["to summarize, in sum, thus far",[]],["by way of introduction, to repeat",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a defining feature of digitally mediated discourse",[]],["Recontextualisation therefore involves, among other changes, writers making decisions regarding how best to restructure lines of argument, set out discourse purposes, signal text directions and manage rhetorical connections",["Hyland & Jiang, 2018"]],["In most cases, the contents of academic blog posts are closely related to the research articles in which they might originate, but with specialised scientific information re-modelled for a new readership and the demands of different communicative purposes.",[]],["has long interested linguists to explain how information can be appropriated and manipulated for different contexts",["Bauman & Briggs, 1990","Bernstein, 1990","Linell, 1998"]]],"rt":[["intralinguistic translation",["Gotti, 2014"]]]},{"de":[["Alternative conceptualisations, however, help shed some light on this device.",[]]]},{"de":[["offer the most explicit way of labelling stages or ordering an argument.",[]],["offer a resource for clarifying the presentation and guiding readers by overt marking of steps in a process, stages of an argument, or aspects of an idea.",[]]],"sy":[["Sequencing devices",[]]],"rt":[["sequence introducer",[]],["sequence indicator",[]]],"sb":[["listing sequencers",[]],["numerical sequencers",[]],["temporal sequencers",[]]],"sp":[["frame markers",[]]],"ex":[["there are several reasons why, first, then, 1, 2, a, b, at the same time, next",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Indicating chronology and importance",[]],["This suits the storytelling nature of blogs, setting out chronological progression.",[]]],"sp":[["sequencers",[]]]},{"de":[["their use disrupts the flow of the discourse, causing a digression which may be hard to follow (Ionescu, 2019).",[]],["departing from the ongoing argument and explicitly breaking from the content of the previous utterance in this way, can dilute the thematic focus of the text and risks undermining the argument.",[]],["disrupts the flow of the discourse, causing a digression which may be hard to follow",["Ionescu, 2019"]],["departing from the ongoing argument and explicitly breaking from the content of the previous utterance",[]],["They are used to organise the discourse with the specific aims of either introducing a related topic (31), of changing the current topic (32), or of returning to a topic introduced earlier (33)",["Mur-Dueñas, 2011"]]],"rt":[["Next",[]],["now",[]],["we turn to",[]]],"sp":[["frame markers",[]]],"ex":[["right, OK, now, let us return to, with regard to",[]]]},{"de":[["Low-resource languages present unique linguistic diversity and cultural identities.",[]],["characterized by limited digital resources, linguistic data, and tools for NLP tasks",[]]],"rt":[["high-resource languages",[]]],"ex":[["Arabic (Saudi Arabia), Assamese (India), Bodo (India), Brazilian (Brazil), Gujarati (India), Kannada (India), Khasi (India), Kashmiri (India), Malayalam (India), Marathi (India), Mizo (India), Persian (Iran), and Xibe (China)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["deliberately false information",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These influencers are often people who grow their popularity socially or economically and individual members of society look up to them for certain decisions or behaviours within their areas of influence.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Misinformation is closely related to the culture of rumours.",[]]],"sy":[["false information",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["rumour",[]],["rumours",[]]]},{"de":[["rumours may spread misinformation (false information) or disinformation (deliberately false information) on a network of people.",["2011Qazvinian et al. [ , p. 1589"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["weak ties",["Kadushin, 2004"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Strong ties",["Kadushin, 2004"]]]},{"sy":[["false news",[]]],"rt":[["misleading content",[]]]},{"de":[["identifying the diffusion source (i.e., the person that initiated it) is a problem that has attracted much research interest.",[]]]},{"de":[["where the node at the top position in the ranking is identified as the source",[]]]},{"de":[["an entity affects a system by using multiple identities",[]],["Note that this is a variation of the well-known Sybil attack [15], where an entity affects a system by using multiple identities.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"de":[["We do not, but view opinion as biased.",[]],["this paper operates on the assumption that bias, to some extent, is inherent and unavoidable in news.",[]],["The phenomenon of inclination or prejudice in the news",["1,5,[7][8][9]"]]],"sy":[["partisan or hyperpartisan news",["10","11","10,11"]]],"rt":[["Event Selection",[]],["Commission and Omission",[]],["Labeling and word choice",[]],["spin bias",[]]],"sb":[["Event Selection",[]],["Commission and Omission",[]],["Labeling and word choice",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It allows users to evaluate newspapers on distinct levels, including entities, text content, and article headings.",[]],["The Media Bias Spectrum fulfills this role, recognizing the relative nature of media bias and even capitalizing on it to illustrate the range of viewpoints on a particular subject or towards a specific entity.",[]]],"sb":[["event selection bias",[]],["labeling and word choice bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Health-related misinformation, however, is rarely a binary distinction between true and fake news.",[]],["misinformation may easily be caused by the use of sensational language, or disease-mongering, or not disclosing a conflict of interest",[]]],"ex":[["sensational language",[]],["disease-mongering",[]],["not disclosing a conflict of interest",[]]]},{"rt":[["link-baiting",[]]]},{"de":[["there is a difference between lying and deception",[]]],"rt":[["lying",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["both linguistic analysis methods (comparison of contexts, presence of logical and grammatical errors, analysis of quotes) and technical methods (verification of the source, its domain, verification of the authenticity of the text) can be used to identify fake news.",[]],["fake news containing deliberately provocative information that has a strong ('explosive') impact on the emotional sphere of citizens is spread in society by the so-called viral method of citizens, spread in the society in the so-called viral way through the effect of 'emotional contagion'.",[]],["As a social phenomenon, fake news is a new step in the development of information influence and mass communication technologies.",[]],["fake news usually tries to persuade, i.e. the purpose of the message already determines the truth of the information in advance.",[]],["In a viral way 'fake news is able to set the agenda in a short period of time, causing an acute public resonance and even excitement.",[]],["the authors propose to consider fake news as a manifestation of post-truth",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",["Wardle, 2017","2017"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["post-truth",[]]],"sb":[["Satire or parody",["Wardle, 2017"]],["Misleading content",["Wardle, 2017"]],["Imposter content",["Wardle, 2017"]],["Fabricated content",["Wardle, 2017"]],["False communication",["Wardle, 2017"]],["False context",["Wardle, 2017"]],["Manipulated content",["Wardle, 2017"]],["1. Satire or parody",["2017"]],["2. Misleading content",["2017"]],["3. Imposter content",["2017"]],["4. Fabricated content",["2017"]],["5. False communication",["2017"]],["6. False context",["2017"]],["7. Manipulated content",["2017"]]],"sp":[["post-truth",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In this context, we can talk about the functioning of the information model of media linguistic analysis",[]]],"sb":[["selection of facts of reality",[]],["interpretation of facts and events",[]],["formation (creation) of images",[]],["formation of stereotypes",[]],["creation of cultural and ideological context",[]]]},{"de":[["Truth in the ontological sense is a manifestation and representative of the existing (\"what is\", i.e. \"what is\"), and truth represents the ought (i.e. \"what should be\")",[]]]},{"de":[["In the media sphere, post-truth is seen as a quasi-real environment favourable to pseudo-news",[]],["post-truth is often seen as an ideological truth that builds a single coordinate system and worldview for society",[]],["the ideology of truth is opposed to the counter-ideology of post-truth",[]],["In this context, post-truth is seen as a correlation between the real and the imaginary (desired), myth and history.",[]],["Post-truth blurs the boundaries between lies and truth, significantly detrimental to modern society.",[]],["Post-truth is gradually turning into a space of growing disinformation for the benefit of various political forces or groups (Rabin-Havt, 2016).",["Rabin-Havt, 2016"]],["the utilitarian nature of post-truth, as individuals and society are focused on so-called \"useful\" truths.",[]],["post-truth avoids the space of critical analysis, dialogue or polylogue (Samchuk, 2022), as it does not provide for a \"bridge\", i.e. feedback between the addressee and the addressee (Samchuk & Hurkivska, 2023).",["Samchuk, 2022","Samchuk & Hurkivska, 2023"]],["the emergence of the post-truth phenomenon indicates a fundamentally new reality and perception of this reality.",[]],["Post-truth in the interpretation of this philosopher turns into a new verbal \"clothing\" of truth",[]],["the audience rejects facts that do not fit into the post-truth ideology.",[]],["The effect of post-truth is based on such a feature of the human psyche as the habit of fitting any new information to existing and entrenched stereotypes, while finding out the truth often disappoints the reader, and a sense of anger contributes to the perception of information regardless of its objectivity and accuracy.",[]],["The cognitive parameter of post-truth, \"truthfulness/truth\", is replaced by the pragmatic parameter \"benefit/profitability/attractiveness\".",[]],["the prefix \"post-\" has an atypical meaning as a time when the value of truth has been lost",["Makintayr (2021)"]],["post-truth is seen as a correlation between the real and the imaginary (desired), myth and history",[]],["In the media sphere, post-truth is a quasi-real environment favourable to pseudo-news.",[]],["fake news is a manifestation of post-truth.",[]],["the authors propose to consider fake news as a manifestation of post-truth",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["post-truth politics",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["populist nationalism in the United States and the United Kingdom, where political changes were driven by the fear and grievances of the middle class, who wanted to be heard.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Satirical news highlights current events and news stories by mixing them with fictional and often absurd events. Satire is often used to raise awareness of social issues or criticise political misconduct. However, there is always the risk that the humorous components go unnoticed, and the satirical pieces are taken as factual.",[]],["Satirical news highlights current events and news stories by mixing them with fictional and often absurd events.",[]],["Satire is often used to raise awareness of social issues or criticise political misconduct.",[]]]},{"rt":[["post-truth",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["determiner",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is created to advertise, arouse interest, misinform, and create income opportunities.",[]],["The creator receives money based on the number of clicks, which makes clickbait commercial.",[]],["Clickbait has been categorized into demonstrative adjectives, lists, modals, questions, and \"wh\" words such as what, why, and who, positive superlatives, and negative superlatives.",[]],["It is created to advertise, arouse interest, misinform, and create income opportunities. The creator receives money based on the number of clicks, which makes clickbait commercial.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["To increase the number of clicks, several linguistic features are used in the headlines, such as emotionally provoking words or sensational words (Bednarek, 2006;Bednarek & Caple, 2017), anaphora or the technique of substituting words to avoid revealing the real topic, presuppositions, use of questions, negative words, quotes, signal words, pronouns, and numbers (Lee et al., 2019), forward references which are used to trigger presuppositions such as pronouns, adverbs, definite articles, ellipsis of obligatory arguments, imperatives with implicit deictic reference, interrogatives, and general nouns with deictic reference (Blom & Hansen, 2015;Karaca, 2019), and plot organization including organizing the story in a different order or the use of reversal narrative to enhance readers' curiosity.",["Bednarek, 2006","Bednarek & Caple, 2017","Lee et al., 2019","Blom & Hansen, 2015","Karaca, 2019"]]],"rt":[["non-clickbait headlines",[]]]},{"ex":[["\"this is\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["used comparative words to make people judge and explore the headline to find out the truth.",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news is circulated as a meme or a false story aimed at catching people's attention with an interesting headline",["DiResta et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["clickbait",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["evaluation",[]]],"ex":[["\"could\" and \"must\"",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["linguistic feature",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["clickbait headlines",[]]]},{"de":[["common bait phrases and personal pronouns were used.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Frames are \"subtle devices'' used to represent social events in a way that would simplify people's reaction to them and guide their understanding of emerging incidents (Norris, McQueen and Cutler 2003).",["Norris, McQueen and Cutler 2003"]],["The process of framing involves \"construction of interpretive frames\" and \"representation\" of such frames (Kaufman, Elliott and Shmueli 2003).",["Kaufman, Elliott and Shmueli 2003"]]]},{"de":[["They are usually imposed by \"patrons or institutions\" who determine which books should be translated and published (Lefevere 1992).",["Lefevere 1992"]],["Since ideologies are \"acquired and expressed\" in society (Van Dijk, 2006), retranslations are influenced by the ideology of translators or publishing institutions (Amirdabbaghian and Shangeetha 2020).",["Van Dijk, 2006","Amirdabbaghian and Shangeetha 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["translatorial/editorial strategies that orient the reception (Wardle 2012) of the work translated and sustain the translators' implicit self-assertion and validation",["Wardle 2012"]]],"rt":[["framing",[]],["interpretive foreclosure",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It represents an \"auxiliary\" (Genette 1997) or \"integral\" (Gray 2015) element to the text. Either way, it 'controls' the reading experience and guides the reader's interpretation of it (Amirdabbaghian and Shangeetha 2020: 85).",["Genette 1997","Gray 2015","Amirdabbaghian and Shangeetha 2020: 85"]]],"rt":[["paratextuality",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["paratextual praxis",[]]]},{"de":[["paratextual elements as means to (re)frame/manipulate by setting and/or excluding certain expectations.",[]]]},{"sy":[["peritextual elements",[]]],"rt":[["paratextual praxis",[]],["paratextual intervention",[]]]},{},{"de":[["ideologically oriented",[]]]},{"rt":[["translatorial intervention",[]]]},{},{"de":[["used to \"set up an interpretive context for the reader\" (Baker 2007: 158).",["Baker 2007: 158"]]]},{"de":[["multi-view methods suffer significant performance degradation when features from individual views are lost or contain a substantial amount of noise, leading to erroneous judgments.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["missed hate speech sequences",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech is mostly used against groups of common race, ethnicity, national origin, religious affiliation, sexual orientation, caste, gender, gender identity, and serious disease or disability.",[]]],"ex":[["\"Refugees are the illness of the world and must be cured with antibiotics.\"",[]],["\"Black women on London transport...\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A deceitful and incongruent news article can negatively affect readers, such as false beliefs and wrong opinions",["Ecker et al., 2014","Ecker et al., 2022","Tsfati et al., 2020"]],["usage of deceptive and incongruent news headlines as an effective means to spread disinformation over digital platforms is evident",["Chesney et al., 2017","Effron and Raj, 2020"]],["An incongruent news article may be constituted in various forms (i) the headline makes unrelated or opposite claims to its body, (ii) both headline and body refer to a common topic or event, but the contents are not related, (iii) both headline and body report a genuine event/incident, but the dates or name entities are manipulated",[]]],"sy":[["deceitful and incongruent news article",[]]],"rt":[["clickbait",[]]],"sb":[["the headline makes unrelated or opposite claims to its body",[]],["both headline and body refer to a common topic or event, but the contents are not related",[]],["both headline and body report a genuine event/incident, but the dates or name entities are manipulated",[]]]},{"de":[["Compared with traditional media, We-Media is characterized by individualization, autonomy, diversification, clustering, and rapid dissemination",["Bowman & Willis, 2003"]],["We-Media has the civilianization of subjects and a low entry threshold. Interactive mode of communication; Real-time and fragmented communication content.",[]],["We-Media's participation in food safety regulation has defects, such as the overflow of rumors and water armies, and the easy dissemination of negative information. We-Media is a double-edged sword, and it not only brings convenience to people but also causes the breeding and diffusion of rumors, which has a certain negative impact on society.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The influence of media is that they can guide how audiences think about an issue",[]]]},{"de":[["Certain aspects of the online community reports that are emphasised can influence the reader's interpretation of these incidents.",[]]],"ex":[["The online community reports from MambaOnline frame violence against gay men in a way that focuses on their victim profile and vulnerability, the role of technology in facilitating attacks, and the failures of the police service.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["abductions",[]],["torture",[]],["blackmail",[]],["murder",[]],["queercide",[]],["disappearances",[]],["larceny",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["stand-alone websites that evaluate the factual claims of news reports, such as Politifact and Snopes",[]],["evaluations of news reports by credible news media, such as the Washington Post",[]],["warnings on content placed by informational intermediaries, such as Facebook",[]]]},{"de":[["Most notably, fake news outlets lack the news media's editorial norms and processes for ensuring the accuracy and credibility of information.",[]],["We have retained it both because of its value as a distinct scientific construct, and because its political salience helps draw attention to an important subject.",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Performative control",[]]],"sp":[["post-foundational theory",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["moved from \"narrowly stereotyped roles\" (Ross, 2019, p. 397) to discursive-performative practices of control",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["hegemonic articulation",[]]],"ex":[["violence, lawlessness, etc.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The polarized model incorporates the relative control of media by political parties, extended clientelism, late democratization and the weaker development of rational authorities.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["o DO pode materializar-se sob diferentes formas (e.g., verbal vs não verbal; direto vs indireto); o autor do DO tem a intenção de atacar um grupo ou um dos seus membros; e, por fim, o grupo-alvo é atacado não por via de um comportamento ou ação específica, mas devido às suas características identitárias ou estatuto num determinado contexto social.",[]]],"rt":[["estereótipos negativos",[]]],"sb":[["DO direto ou explícito",[]],["DO encoberto",[]]]},{"de":[["Como forma de contornar esta questão, os utilizadores têm procurado utilizar estratégias comunicativas subtis para espalhar o ódio sem serem detetados e punidos.",[]]],"sy":[["subtil",["Assimakopoulos et al., 2017","Daniels, 2008"]],["soft",["Assimakopoulos et al., 2017","Daniels, 2008"]],["implícito",["Assimakopoulos et al., 2017","Daniels, 2008"]]],"rt":[["dog-whistling",[]]],"sp":[["Discurso de Ódio",[]],["discurso de ódio (DO)",[]]],"ex":[["estratégias retóricas específicas, como a ironia verbal e o humor, são formas eficazes de difundir o DO encoberto.",["Baider e Constantinou (2020)"]],["estratégias retóricas e discursivas, tais como ironia, sarcasmo e humor (Baider & Constantinou, 2020;Billig, 2001;Dynel, 2018)",["Baider & Constantinou, 2020","Billig, 2001","Dynel, 2018"]],["eufemismos (Magu & Luo, 2018)",["Magu & Luo, 2018"]],["perguntas retóricas (Albelda Marco, 2022;Krobová & Zàpotocký, 2021)",["Albelda Marco, 2022","Krobová & Zàpotocký, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["o DO encoberto pode ser considerado mais danoso para a autoestima e dignidade deste grupo.",[]],["Isto acontece principalmente devido aos valores subjacentes geralmente associados a mensagens encobertas baseadas na superioridade branca e na discriminação estrutural (ou institucional).",[]],["Todas estas definições metafóricas implicam a ideia de algo oculto que precisa de ser desvendado para ser plenamente compreendido e, assim, adequadamente abordado ao nível da sua deteção e implementação de políticas públicas.",[]]],"sy":[["discurso velado",[]]],"ex":[["és trans, mas nem sequer reparei, assim está tudo bem",[]]]},{"de":[["Essa técnica, que tem sido usada para contornar a eliminação de DO online direto através da moderação automática, possibilita a disseminação de DO encoberto através de imagens, memes, eufemismos, símbolos e linguagem camuflada",["Bhat & Klein, 2020"]],["Essa técnica, que tem sido usada para contornar a eliminação de DO online direto através da moderação automática, possibilita a disseminação de DO encoberto através de imagens, memes, eufemismos, símbolos e linguagem camuflada (Bhat & Klein, 2020).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["modo prejudicial de perpetuar e normalizar estereótipos negativos associados a identidades sociais",[]],["discurso encoberto transmitido sob a forma de humor",[]],["ao contrário dos elogios, que buscam particularizar e deslocar o indivíduo das características do grupo, o humor, mesmo quando direcionado a um indivíduo específico, procura generalizar o estereótipo e o preconceito associado à sua comunidade. Nesse sentido, a função do humor é reforçar o estereótipo, contribuindo para sua normalização.",[]],["o humor, mesmo quando direcionado a um indivíduo específico, procura generalizar o estereótipo e o preconceito associado à sua comunidade.",[]],["a função do humor é reforçar o estereótipo, contribuindo para sua normalização.",[]],["uma estratégia retórica eficaz para divulgar o DO encoberto",[]]],"rt":[["humor afiliativo",[]],["humor agressivo",[]]],"sb":[["humor negro",[]],["humor agressivo",[]],["humor afiliativo",[]]]},{"rt":[["humor agressivo",[]]],"sp":[["Humor",[]]]},{"de":[["O humor agressivo é, pois, expresso sem considerar o seu potencial impacto sobre os outros, e é frequentemente baseado em estereótipos negativos, sendo o alvo um objeto de ridicularização.",[]],["humor agressivo pode ter graves implicações para as comunidades visadas, perpetuando a discriminação e reforçando estereótipos prejudiciais",[]]],"rt":[["humor afiliativo",[]],["DO encoberto",[]]],"sp":[["Humor",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["voter fraud frame",["Biggers and Hanmer 2017;Conover and Miller 2018;Edelson et al. 2017;Gronke et al. 2019"]],["voter suppression frame",["Biggers and Hanmer 2017;Conover and Miller 2018;Edelson et al. 2017;Gronke et al. 2019"]]]},{"ex":[["attack",[]],["assault",[]],["slam",[]],["break",[]],["battle",[]],["sweep",[]],["block",[]],["voting to war",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["elite rhetoric",[]],["framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["elite rhetoric",[]],["framing",[]]]},{"ex":[["such a person does not indulge in forwarding fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["big five personality types",[]]]},{"de":[["the ELM proposes that such a processing takes place on a continuum.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Baumeister and Tice have argued that FoMO is more or less a psychological need as people feel baffled whenever they are asked to refrain from it (1990) as they seek to be popular and to relate with someone (Beyens et al., 2016), however it predicts greater negative emotions (Elhai et al., 2020)",["1990","Beyens et al., 2016","Elhai et al., 2020"]]],"ex":[["information and news provided by media channels and agencies also transmits erratic behaviour among investors costing them money due to Investor -FoMO instead of traditional FOMO",["Shiva et al., 2020"]]]},{"de":[["The theory has heuristic value as it facilitates intellects with clues on adoption of media and consumption",["Baran 2011"]],["Nowadays the theory is widely used to assess individual behaviour with social media viz. Facebook, twitter, microblogging",["Hsu, 2015"]],["experiences based on sharing COVID-19 news",[]]],"rt":[["gratification theory",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["heuristic-systematic information processing model (HSM)",[]]]},{"de":[["Such individuals frequently feel undesirable emotions and strive to manage demanding circumstances by denial and delay",["Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010"]]],"sp":[["big five personality types",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people were believed to spread rumours which aligned with their beliefs",["Allport & Postman, 1947","DiFonzo & Bordia, 2007","Rosnow, 1991","Allport & Postman, 1947;DiFonzo & Bordia, 2007;Rosnow, 1991"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Lee has associated SMF with exhaustion, indifference, and decreased interest in work",["2016"]],["Excessive indulgence on social media results in being prone to more faults and negative feelings of frustration and confusion",["Logan et al., 2018","Zhang, 2020","Logan et al., 2018;Zhang, 2020"]],["resulting from excessive COVID-19 related news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It essentially needs good amount of motivation, cognitive resources, as well as ability",["Chen & Chaiken, 1999"]]],"sp":[["heuristic-systematic information processing model (HSM)",[]]]},{"sy":[["veracity problem",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["media coverage is hardly objective and complete, and various biases exist when it comes to what is covered and how.",[]],["If the reporting of violence is associated with the availability of ICT, systematic measurement error, and therefore, statistical bias can ensue.",[]],["it can fundamentally alter the conclusion we draw",[]],["reporting was significantly influenced by cellphone coverage, which is sufficient to induce a statistical relationship where there is no real effect",[]],["reporting bias affects one's results",[]],["biased reporting in media-based event data",[]],["If reporting is correlated with the independent variable, the estimated effects can be strongly biased, and even lead to erroneous conclusions.",[]],["reporting bias is less likely to affect events with high casualty rates, the estimated statistical effects should decrease as we move toward these events.",[]]],"sy":[["selective reporting",[]]],"rt":[["Selective Reporting",[]],["Random Reporting",[]],["selective reporting of violence",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["uncertainty around the selection of events that are actually reported",[]],["the effect of cellphones is completely or partly driven by selective reporting in conflict event data",[]],["the dependence of reporting on cellphone coverage should be stronger the lower the severity of an incident",[]]],"sy":[["reporting bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["description bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The factors are attributed a value and priority that can affect how an individual constructs reality.",["McQuail (2005)","2005"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["emphasised in The Australian, which often framed asylum seekers through binaries, emphasising racial, ethnic and societal differences.",[]],["Such framing casts the 'Other' as being incapable of practising 'civilised' restraint in sexual and emotional life",["Hall 1997, p. 243"]]],"sy":[["the Other",[]]],"rt":[["binary opposition",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",["Ribeiro and Ortellado (2018)"]]]},{"de":[["Credibility and legitimation constitute the symbolic capital of journalists. The credibility of journalism and journalists is narratively built. An accurate and, therefore, true journalistic production is assumed, based on \"credibility (authority of those who witnessed/saw/is exempt/objective, etc.)\" (Guazina, 2013, p. 6, our translation).",["Guazina, 2013, p. 6, our translation"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["crosschecking",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",["Lazer et al., 2018(Lazer et al., , p.1094)"]],["disinformation",["Lazer et al., 2018(Lazer et al., , p.1094)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It has its own rules and operation laws, understood by the initiates, allowing their perpetuation.",[]]]},{"de":[["Legitimacy justifies the institutional order.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["co-operative interruption",[]],["overlap",[]]]},{"sb":[["co-operative interruption",[]],["overlap",[]]]},{"de":[["Interruption is often considered a sign of dominance",[]]],"sb":[["co-operative",["Murata, 1994","1994"]],["intrusive",["Murata, 1994","1994"]],["clarification",["1983"]],["agreement",["1983"]],["disagreement",["1983"]],["tangentialization",["1983"]],["subject change",["1983"]]]},{"rt":[["floor-taking",[]],["topicchanging",[]],["disagreement",[]]],"sb":[["floor-taking",[]],["disagreement",[]],["topicchanging",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["we conclude with very limited evidence of audience bias.",[]]],"rt":[["out-group hostility",[]]]},{},{"de":[["gatekeeping bias is understood to result from news values",[]],["While incident-and perpetrator-related characteristics predict selectivity in the degree of media attention (gatekeeping bias) and the content of coverage (presentation bias), thereby indicating news bias",[]]],"rt":[["presentation bias",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["the so-called Islamic State",[]]]},{"de":[["selectiveness in how news media cover terrorism",[]],["Our findings illustrate news bias in the form of selective news coverage of attacks, with the predicted probability of an average attack to be covered being close to 0%.",[]]],"rt":[["gatekeeping bias",[]],["presentation bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["presentation bias manifests in journalistic labeling of acts (or actors) as \"terrorism.\"",[]],["presentation bias manifests in whether journalists offer a single interpretation of incidents.",[]],["While incident-and perpetrator-related characteristics predict selectivity in the degree of media attention (gatekeeping bias) and the content of coverage (presentation bias), thereby indicating news bias",[]]],"rt":[["gatekeeping bias",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["the Nordic Resistance Movement",[]]]},{"ex":[["depictions of violence",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Annotators meticulously examined statements for contradictions and inconsistencies, aligning them with established facts and knowledge. They employed a systematic approach, comparing content with reliable sources and theories to maintain logical integrity.",[]],["When encountering inconsistencies, annotators deliberated carefully, consulting authoritative references to discern errors or falsehoods. Clear logical discrepancies led to labeling sentences as false, recognizing logical coherence as essential for reliability.",[]]]},{"sy":[["opinion mining",[]]]},{"de":[["Trusted news outlets, government websites, and established organizations were considered more reliable, while sources with a history of publishing unverified or misleading content were deemed less credible.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["is unacceptable to God and dangerous to Islamic faith.",[]]],"sy":[["innovation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such engagement resulting from provocation must urge the individual to take 'immediate' action.",["34"]]]},{},{"de":[["It implies a desire on the part of the perpetrator to create by his actions a particular state of mind necessary to commit such a crime in the minds of the person(s) he is so engaging.",[]],["the crux of establishing the direct element of incitement to commit genocide relies on whether the intended audience perceived the implications of the discourse.",["107"]]]},{},{"de":[["Haykal's definition of",[]]],"rt":[["dār al-ḥarb",[]],["dār al-kufr",[]]]},{"de":[["According to Haykal,",[]]],"sy":[["dār al-kufr",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Extensive hate propaganda sets into motion a continuum of destruction by devaluing and dehumanizing the victim group.",["64"]],["This form of psychological preparation lays a seed of hate and implants in people's mind the idea that the extermination of a certain group of people is not just acceptable, but also necessary.",["65"]],["This is a process of social conditioning which gradually, but radically, changes norms of thought and behaviour.",["70"]],["used as a mechanism to subliminally place the concept of hatred in the mind of the audience. The subliminal message is repeated in such a consistent manner that it becomes an inherent thought process of the subject.",[]],["creating a collective enemy based on underlying and already implanted negative stereotypes, backed up by religious justification and the fabrication of material facts, through consistent reinforcement of hate discourse",[]],["In the lead up to genocide, hate propaganda sets the stage whilst incitement acts as the catalyst.",[]]],"rt":[["incitement",[]],["incitement to commit genocide",[]]],"sb":[["stereotyping and labelling",["69"]],["generalisation",["69"]],["testimonial, i.e., god, history, experts are on our side and support us",["69"]],["vox populi, vox dei, i.e., everyone is in favour of our program, everybody is joining our bandwagon",["69"]],["repetition",["69"]],["falsehood and lies",["69"]]]},{"sy":[["migration",[]]]},{"de":[["juristic",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["unambiguous call to directly and publicly incite their audience to commit genocide",[]],["incitement relies on hate speech in order to create a climate in which its poisonous message can flourish.",["62"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["their objectives compose two tiers; religious and political. They aim to eliminate shirk (polytheism) through their ultraconservative jihadist school of thought which seeks to eradicate any other religious group who do not follow their strict interpretation of Islam.",[]]],"rt":[["Salafism",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["kufr",[]]]},{"de":[["the camp of kufr (disbelief) and hypocrisy",[]]],"rt":[["kuffar (unbeliever)",[]],["kuffar",[]]]},{},{"de":[["linguistic analysis depicts a mental state designed to bring about a required outcome.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the etymology of which stems from the Latin root meaning 'to sow' or to 'spread out'",[]],["The components which form the building blocks of propaganda are the concepts of brainwashing, distortion and persuasion",[]],["the patterns which emerge from the propagandists' conduct can reveal or at least indicate the intent hidden behind an entire propaganda mechanism.",["29"]],["The components which form the building blocks of propaganda are the concepts of brainwashing, distortion and persuasion rendering it an extremely powerful tool in time of conflicts.",["3"]],["The severity of bringing about the massive participation of the population in mass action falls under its most dangerous guise when the intent of the propagandist is laced with the dolus specialis of the crime of genocide.",[]]],"rt":[["brainwashing",[]],["distortion",[]],["persuasion",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Whether incitement is public is evaluated on two factors: 'The place where incitement occurred and whether or not assistance was selective or limited' .",["45"]],["There is no absolute requirement that the inciting discourse be carried through a specific medium or to a specified number of people, however both the number and the medium act as key indicators in finding that the incitement was public.",["46"]]],"rt":[["Incitement in the private sense",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the cleverly selected term",[]],["The above passages identify the Shi'a as the Rāfidah, claiming that the Shiite Messiah 'Mahdi' is the Dajjāl, an antichrist figure in Muslim eschatology, and depicting Shi'a Muslims as devil worshipers.",[]]],"rt":[["kufr",[]]]},{"de":[["Both jihādī-Salafīs and the non-violent Salafīs adhere strictly to absolute monotheism (tawhīd).",[]],["the call to return to the authentic practices and beliefs of the first generation of Muslims (al-salaf al-sālih); the need to diminish unbelief; the sole belief that the Qur'ān and Sunna are the only valid sources of religious authority; the imperative to rid Islam of heretical inventions (bid'a); and the belief that specific answers to all conceivable questions are found in the Qur'ān and Sunna.",[]]],"rt":[["al-salaf al-sālih",[]]]},{"de":[["They must be dehumanised to such an extent that the victim is clearly defined as something less than fully human.",["128"]]],"sb":[["extreme negative stereotyping",[]]]},{"de":[["The implications stemming from the devout use of the concept arise from its ideological and historical dynamic.",[]],["The issue with the free practice of takfīr lies solely with its abuse being the object of conscious subjectivism, rendering it an extremely dangerous weapon in the hands of those who are attached fanatically to their own sect.",[]],["is's view stipulates that a person deprived of their iman has committed a major sin, the punishment of which is lawful murder.",[]],["a convoluted subject whose pronouncement requires a carefull aaplication of appropriate principles of the different levels [maratib] of Islamic jurisprudence [usul al-Fiqh], an adept understanding of Islamic legal criterion [al-dalil al-shar'i] and a carefully reviewed evidence [dalil].",["122"]],["The concept consists of declaring a person's religious 'belief' (iman) as impure, accusing them of 'unbelief' kāfir.",["179"]]],"sy":[["excommunication",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["hate propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["There exists a range of possible measures to prevent harm, including content removal, visibility reduction (demotion), labelling, and account suspensions/terminations (Drolsbach and Pröllochs, 2024).",["Drolsbach and Pröllochs, 2024"]]]},{"de":[["understood as \"threats against democratic, political and policy-making processes, as well as against public goods, such as the protection of health, the environment or the security of EU citizens\"",["European Commission, 2018"]],["Misleading advertising, satire and parody, misinformation or clearly partisan comments fall outside of what can be considered as disinformation",["European Commission, 2018"]]]},{},{"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumors",[]]]},{"sy":[["misinformation",["Zhu et al., 2022"]],["fake news",["Zhu et al., 2022"]],["disinformation",["Zhu et al., 2022"]],["rumors",["Zhu et al., 2022"]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This practice de-facto limits their visibility and reach so that, from the user's perspective, the platform appears to be working as usual, despite the fact that their content is much less visible to other users than usual",["Are and Briggs, 2023","Kosters and Gstrein, 2023"]]],"sp":[["content moderation technique",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["researchers have conceptualized political violence (such as wars, coups, disorders, terrorism, and homicides) as phenomena that diffuse through social networks by contagion",["14","17","18","19","20","21"]],["In a nutshell, they can occur whenever information is transmitted form one actor to another within a social network.",[]]],"rt":[["social contagion",[]]]},{"de":[["a popular argument when talking about anti-immigrant sentiments and xenophobic violence is the concept of economic threat or deprivation",["55"]]],"sy":[["deprivation",["55"]]]},{"de":[["the latter are more likely to trigger the diffusion of violent attacks.",[]],["In addition to rumors about refugees, rumors about people with southern complexions or non-German accents are included in the data base because such characterizations are typically associated with refugees.",[]]],"ex":[["The most frequent accusations concern refugees robbing, assaulting other men and sexually harassing women.",[]]]},{"rt":[["mere contacts",[]]]},{"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["As soon as information is transmitted from the first to the second actor, an idea or behavior can be imitated and adopted, that is, contagion can occur.",[]]],"rt":[["contagion effects",[]]]},{"de":[["We relate to the term insofar as the societal structures and norms that we describe in the context of violence against refugees might to a certain extent be perceived as an external force that exercises control over what are legitimate patterns of thinking and acting for individuals.",[]]]},{"de":[["Definitions of hate speech vary across cultural and legal settings.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["confirmation bias",[]],["implicit bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["cognitive bias",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["fake videos",[]]],"ex":[["pornographic videos used as revenge to harm many women",["40"]]]},{"de":[["one of the newest forms of disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["fake videos",[]]]},{"de":[["potential for circulation of so-called fake news in the online environment, mainly through the use of digital social networks",[]],["the generation and impact of fake news and alternative facts have reached new heights, driven primarily by the increased digitization of information and the explosion of social media",["68"]],["A key element of fake news as defined by Silvermann, is an underlying profit motive of its creators",["68"]],["A second motivation implicit in many definitions of fake news is ideological: Purveyors of fake news create false stories to promote particular ideas or people they favor, often discrediting others",["68"]],["facticity and intent to deceive",["68"]],["spread as unconfirmed rumors and possibly cause dramatic impacts on society",[]]],"sy":[["fabricated stories",[]],["rumors",[]],["click-bait headlines",[]],["disinformation",["68"]]],"sb":[["political satire",["68"]],["news parodies",["68"]],["propaganda",["68"]]],"ex":[["political satire",[]],["news parodies",[]],["propaganda",[]],["Fake news was then a story about sea monsters",[]],["the newspaper published news about life on the moon, with bipedal weasels and unicorn goats",[]],["a 2017 Your News Wire article claimed that, according to an NPR study, more than 25 million Hillary Clinton votes were fraudulent, suggesting that Clinton had actually lost the popular vote by a huge margin.",["68"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["social engineering attacks",[]]]},{"sp":[["cognitive bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["information finding",[]],["information seeking",["(p. 3)"]]],"sp":[["information consumption",[]]]},{"rt":[["information finding",[]],["information encounter",["(p. 3)"]]],"sp":[["information consumption",[]]]},{"de":[["Social engineering approaches materialize in posts, applications that require personal data, data that can break the accounts themselves, extract information from users by creating opportunities to log into various applications in exchange for providing birthday, mother's name, street where you grew up, name of your pet.",["(p. 3)"]]],"ex":[["Romance fraud is another tactic where military personnel appear to be seeking romantic involvement, asking for friendship through Facebook or Instagram accounts. In reality, these are software agents created to extract personal and especially financial information about the targeted person.",[]]]},{"de":[["The concept of social network has been used to analyze interactions between individuals, groups, organizations or even entire societies since the end of the 19th century.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Bots",["(p. 4)"]]]},{"rt":[["propaganda",["2"]]]},{"de":[["agenda setting further pursuing it as an issue of importance-thus feeding back into its overexposure",["16"]]],"rt":[["cultivation",[]],["mainstreaming",[]]]},{"de":[["with cultivation overexposing and mainstreaming a certain topic",["16"]],["under cultivation theory",[]]],"rt":[["agenda setting",[]]],"sp":[["cultivation theory",["15"]]]},{},{"de":[["a rumor may later be verified to be true or false by other authorized sources.",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["a system with an oppositeness component will already have the opposite semantics between increase and decrease, as well as increase and expand already calculated.",[]]],"rt":[["semantic similarity",["de Silva and Dou, 2019"]]]},{},{"sp":[["promotional tone issue",[]]]},{"sp":[["promotional tone issue",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["promotional tone issue",[]]]},{"sp":[["promotional tone issue",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["promotional tone issue",[]]]},{"de":[["This training involves the development of media competencies that encompass specific skills and essential knowledge to face the emerging challenges of the media ecosystem, which can be structured into four levels",["Kačinová, Sabada-Chalezquer, 2022"]],["This training involves the development of media competencies that encompass specific skills and essential knowledge to face the emerging challenges of the media ecosystem, which can be structured into four levels (Kačinová, Sabada-Chalezquer, 2022): the personal level, focused on individual empowerment through critical thinking and resilience against misinformation; the social level, which fosters collaboration and dialogue within diverse communities; the civic level, which encourages active participation in the digital public sphere and citizen empowerment; and the cultural level, which promotes understanding and respect for diversity.",["Kačinová, Sabada-Chalezquer, 2022"]]],"sb":[["the personal level, focused on individual empowerment through critical thinking and resilience against misinformation",["Kačinová, Sabada-Chalezquer, 2022"]],["the social level, which fosters collaboration and dialogue within diverse communities",["Kačinová, Sabada-Chalezquer, 2022"]],["the civic level, which encourages active participation in the digital public sphere and citizen empowerment",["Kačinová, Sabada-Chalezquer, 2022"]],["the cultural level, which promotes understanding and respect for diversity",["Kačinová, Sabada-Chalezquer, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["a total other language in of itself",[]],["more familiar and colloquial within his community",[]],["essentially a distinct language in itself",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It encompasses everything from language and religion to food, music, art, and social norms, and helps to shape how people view themselves and others.",[]]]},{"de":[["and in this case the social order of an AISWT.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This internalization leads to self-doubt and the feeling of speaking incorrectly or lacking proper communication skills",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a social justice orientation in the design of technological artifacts can afford new practices, social habits, and ways of interacting that are informed by experiences and sensitivities of marginalized voices",["28"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["confirmation bias compels individuals to process scientific information in ways that align with culturally congruent worldviews",["Kahan et al., 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["influences risk perception of some environmental issues and the perceived validity of science related to them",["Kahan et al., 2008","Kahan et al., 2015"]]],"sb":[["technocratic framing",["Kahan et al., 2015"]],["regulatory framing",["Kahan et al., 2015"]]]},{"sp":[["One Health",[]]]},{},{"de":[["resonates well with those holding communitarian worldviews",["Kahan et al., 2015"]]],"sp":[["Cultural framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["tends to resonate well with those who hold individualistic worldviews",["Kahan et al., 2015"]]],"sp":[["Cultural framing",[]]],"ex":[["with respect to climate change, a technocratic framing that emphasizes technological solutions and highlights the power of human ingenuity tends to resonate well with those who hold individualistic worldviews",["Kahan et al., 2015"]]]},{"rt":[["agenda de medios",[]],["agenda pública",[]],["agenda política",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["la adaptación de la política a la lógica del espectáculo (Swanson; Mancini, 1996), propia del medio televisivo y de influencia norteamericana, gestionada por especialistas en marketing",["Swanson; Mancini, 1996"]]]},{"de":[["in her perspective, it elicits the idea of qualities of attraction to a person or an object.",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{"sb":[["the first part of this model, called internal",[]],["external forms of authentication",[]],["external authentication",[]]]},{"de":[["enli (2015, p. 2) associates the term authenticity with \"the real\" and \"the genuine\" in opposition to whatever is \"fake, unreal, or false\".",[]],["the degree of authenticity depends on symbolic negotiations between the main participants in the communication",[]],["authenticity a cultural artifact and, thus, an aesthetic construct.",[]],["the idea of a visually appealing resource is particularly useful for our paper since it immediately elicits notions of authority, accuracy, and credibility among users.",[]],["When conceptualizing mediated authenticity, the author highlighted that the media is an institution that produces negotiations within a symbolic power, stating that \"the degree of authenticity depends on symbolic negotiations between the main participants in the communication\".",[]]],"rt":[["trust",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["heuristics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it is also connected to the assumption that a big group of people must be right.",["metzger and Flanagin 2013"]]],"sp":[["heuristics",[]]]},{"sp":[["heuristics",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["heuristics -that is, mental shortcuts -are particularly relevant to define what news and noise is.",[]],["to judge news reliability and make a quick decision, audiences rely on mental shortcuts based on previous knowledge.",[]]],"sy":[["shortcuts news audiences use",[]]],"rt":[["trust",[]]],"sb":[["reputation",["Metzger and Flanagin, 2013"]],["endorsement",["Metzger and Flanagin, 2013"]],["consistency",["Metzger and Flanagin, 2013"]],["self-confirmation",["Metzger and Flanagin, 2013"]],["expectancy violation",["Metzger and Flanagin, 2013"]],["persuasive intent",["Metzger and Flanagin, 2013"]]],"ex":[["symbols, numbers, and labels -the latter is frequently a colored rectangle with text on it, such as fact-checking agencies present verified information, or how news organizations signalize the use of content modified by artificial intelligence (ai).",[]]]},{"sy":[["incidental news consumption",["Boczkowski, Mitchelstein and Matasi, 2018"]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["the self",[]],["the source",[]],["the message",[]]],"sp":[["Authentication",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which we examine in the context of social media",[]],["the latter is what we refer to as news exposure, which we examine in the context of social media.",[]],["according to Gil De Zúñiga, Weeks, and ardèvol-abreu (2017, p. 107), it refers to \"indirectly staying informed about public events.\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["When searching for news and encountering unexpected advertisements, for example, readers tend to evaluate it as less credible.",[]]],"sp":[["heuristics",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["heuristics",[]]]},{"de":[["this conceptualization is somewhat related to what researchers call selective exposure, which occurs when people only consume information that confirms their beliefs.",["skovsgaard, shehata, and strömbäck (2016)"]]],"rt":[["attraction to news",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["heuristics",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["internal",[]]]},{"sp":[["internal",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Prochazka and schweiger (2019) recognize that trust requires two actors (the trustee, in our case the audience, and the trustor, the news organizations), it is future-focused, it entails risks (in the sense that future actions are unpredictable), and it reduces complexity -which is where heuristics operate.",["Prochazka and schweiger (2019)"]],["according to Van Dalen (2019), trust is related to the future and the expectation that news organizations will fulfill their social tasks (e.g., publishing reliable information).",[]],["Prochazka and schweiger (2019) recognize that trust requires two actors (the trustee, in our case the audience, and the trustor, the news organizations), it is future-focused, it entails risks (in the sense that future actions are unpredictable), and it reduces complexity",[]]]},{"sb":[["left-wing",[]],["right-wing",[]],["unbiased",[]]]},{"rt":[["political bias shift",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is a phenomenon that can significantly influence the presentation and reception of information in various forms of communication, including news articles, opinion pieces, blogs, and social media content",["Elejalde et al., 2018"]],["It is a phenomenon that can significantly influence the presentation and reception of information in various forms of communication, including news articles, opinion pieces, blogs, and social media content (Elejalde et al., 2018).",["Elejalde et al., 2018"]]],"rt":[["economic (left-right)",["Gold, 1998"]],["political leaning",[]]]},{"de":[["A positive ∆PA indicates a shift towards a right-wing bias in the AI-generated article, while a negative ∆PA suggests a left-wing bias.",[]]],"rt":[["political alignment score",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the use of headlines that act as clickbait is essential in order to guarantee the rapid dissemination of pieces of news.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["discursive construction of the self",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the analysis of frames concentrates on the way in which journalists organize their discourse around a series of central ideas, themes and interpretations, in this way ignoring or downplaying other facets of reality",["2008"]]]},{},{"de":[["Journalists construct frames around worldly issues and events, in this way zooming in readers' attention on certain interpretations and structures of meaning.",[]],["Other scholars have conceived frames as being less dynamic and portraying fixed meanings, which journalists can select in order to present and comment on various political issues, making them clear to the general public",["1992","1993","1999","2001"]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["oppositional frames",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This occurs when media determine issue salience by paying more or less emphasis to it (see McCombs, 2018).",["McCombs, 2018"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The framing of technology in media gives the public a way to understand its potentials, limitations, and uses.",[]],["In this way, frames \"define problems,\" \"diagnose causes,\" and \"suggest remedies\" (Kuypers, 2009: 182).",["Kuypers, 2009: 182"]],["Essentially, frames affect how audiences interpret issues and develop relevant schema (Scheufele, 2000).",["Scheufele, 2000"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the media push various agendas that suit their ideological stances via the use of frames",[]]],"ex":[["rightleaning and left-leaning media framed the technology by focusing on different aspects of race and government surveillance as it pertains to facial recognition",[]]]},{"de":[["This highlights a shift in media indexing wherein debate around a topic of public discussion (and the saliency of arguments around that topic) is indexed to an increasing number of elites rather than simply to those in governmental power.",[]]]},{"de":[["It argues that the range of debate around an issue presented by news media is indexed to the range of debate present in mainstream government discourse.",[]]]},{"rt":[["categories",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people's knowledge of misinformation tactics may make them resistant to persuasion, as their general awareness of persuasion tactics increases their ability to recognize such attempts",["Fransen et al., 2015"]]]},{"sp":[["homophily",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["is a troubling trend of the 21 st century.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Homophily can be at the surface-or deep-level (Lazarsfeld & Merton, 1954 used the terms ascribed and acquired).",[]]],"sb":[["Surface-level attributes",[]],["deep-level attributes",[]]]},{"sy":[["lurking",[]]]},{"sb":[["protective",[]],["acquisitive",[]]]},{"de":[["mindfulness has been shown to reduce the influence of biases",["Kiken & Shook, 2011"]],["As mindfulness is generally argued to contrast the automated and heuristic processing that gives biases the opportunity to manifest (Creswell, 2017), mindfulness has been shown to reduce the influence of biases (e.g., Kiken & Shook, 2011).",["Creswell, 2017","e.g., Kiken & Shook, 2011","Kiken & Shook, 2011"]]],"ex":[["mindfulness training has been shown to reduce people's susceptibility to deceptive phishing attacks",["Jensen et al., 2017"]]]},{"sp":[["homophily",[]]]},{},{"de":[["disinformation results from the dissemination of false information in different media to deceive and manipulate the public",["Wardle andDerakhshan, 2017","de Oliveira et al., 2021"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news intentionally deceives the reader",[]],["When comparing fake news and disinformation, we highlight that fake news intentionally deceives the reader.",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Algorithms used to target and deliver marketing messages are often influenced by unrepresentative data and design assumptions that need to consider cultural differences",["7","8"]],["Algorithmic bias often occurs because the data used does not adequately represent cultural diversity, making the resulting messages irrelevant to local values.",[]],["This bias can arise from various sources, including unrepresentative data, algorithms designed with inappropriate assumptions, or the influence of existing social and cultural systems",["8","19"]],["Algorithms not trained on diverse datasets often reinforce stereotypes or marginalize minority cultural identities.",[]],["Algorithmic bias that does not consider cultural diversity can affect the relevance of marketing to consumers from different cultural backgrounds",["12","8"]],["Algorithmic bias can influence how marketing messages are disseminated, who sees them, and how they respond. This bias can arise from various sources, including unrepresentative data, algorithms designed with inappropriate assumptions, or the influence of existing social and cultural systems",["8","19"]]],"sy":[["algorithm bias",[]]],"rt":[["algorithm-driven content delivery",[]]]},{"de":[["culture-based marketing should reflect cultural values and be adaptive to the ever-evolving digital dynamics.",[]]]},{"de":[["Higher levels of digital literacy, on the other hand, empower customers to evaluate marketing communications critically.",[]]]},{"de":[["The impact of local media on consumer behavior contributes to the relevance of material and influences the tastes of customers [31].",["31"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["it is false, that is, the news item is fake news",["AGCOM 2018, 25-26"]],["it is 'contagious', that is, it transfers emotions among people to such an extent that their behaviour is conditioned",["AGCOM 2018, 25-26"]],["there is a fraudulent willingness or intention to create a fake news item",["AGCOM 2018, 25-26"]],["there is an ideological or political or economic motivation in its creation",["AGCOM 2018, 25-26"]],["it is disseminated very widely",["AGCOM 2018, 25-26"]],["it has a massive and informative impact on citizens with the purpose of moulding their behaviours.",["AGCOM 2018, 25-26"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["where they generate baseless or unsupported responses",["Ji et al., 2023"]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["peaks",[]]]},{"de":[["the Facebook algorithm reinforces 'confirmation bias'",[]],["we are more likely to click on and link to material which appears to confirm our own views and interests.",[]]]},{"de":[["a new concept of 'information utilities' may be appropriate to capture their increasingly dominant role",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook and Google",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["commodification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The negative triad refers to automatic negative biases in thoughts about the world, the future, and the self (Beck, 2008). Specifically, people suffering from depression, tend to believe that nobody would value them (negative world view), that negative things would keep happening to them and their future would be hopeless (negative view on future), and that they would be worthless (negative view on self).",["Beck, 2008"]]],"sy":[["negative triad",["Beck, 2008"]]]},{"de":[["Negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future are theorized to develop over time, and thereby evoke and/or maintain depressive symptoms.",[]]],"sp":[["theory from clinical psychology and psychiatry",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The repeated activation of dysfunctional schemas, however, may contribute to a hypersalient 'depressive mode'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["According to Beck (2008), the negative cognitive triad often comes in combination with dysfunctional cognitive distortions",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future are theorized to develop over time, and thereby evoke and/or maintain depressive symptoms.",[]],["describes the irrational and pessimistic belief system of a person suffering from depression, an affective disorder.",[]]],"sy":[["Beck's cognitive triad",["Beck, 1987","Beck, 2008"]],["negative triad",[]]],"rt":[["dysfunctional cognitive distortions",["Beck, 2008"]]],"sb":[["negative world view",[]],["negative view on future",[]],["negative view on self",[]]],"ex":[["nobody would value them (negative world view)",[]],["negative things would keep happening to them and their future would be hopeless (negative view on future)",[]],["they would be worthless (negative view on self)",[]]]},{"sp":[["depressogenic thought patterns",[]]]},{"sp":[["depressogenic thought patterns",[]]]},{"de":[["but do not differentiate between how audience members could refer such negative news to themselves",[]]],"ex":[["an overall negative tonality",[]],["a pessimistic outlook presented in the news story",[]],["stresses the incapability of an individual political actor",[]]]},{"de":[["We make decisions about news all the time, consciously and unconsciously -in fact, we have to, given that we just cannot consume all the available news",["Zillmann, 1988a"]],["We make decisions about news all the time, consciously and unconsciously -in fact, we have to, given that we just cannot consume all the available news (Zillmann, 1988a(Zillmann, , 1988b)).",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["mood management",["Zillmann, 1988a"]]]},{"de":[["News selection is therefore conceptualized to be driven by the available media content that resonates with self-concepts, affective states, and anticipated exposure effects. These concepts in turn determine the selection and interpretation of the media content",["Knobloch-Westerwick, 2015b"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["By doing so, it amplifies diverse voices while also considering sociodemographic factors and ethical concerns.",[]]],"sy":[["perspectivist approach",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Journalism ethics and standards",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Gatekeeping theory has also been labelled an effective conceptual approach to studying online journalists",["William P.C, 2006"]]],"rt":[["Networked Gatekeeping Theory",[]],["Network gatekeeping theory (NGT)",[]]]},{"sy":[["code of ethics in journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["NGT has a great deal of ramifications on understanding of information dissemination and users behaviour on the internet.",[]],["attempts to offer new definitions of gatekeeping and gatekeepers adapting traditional concepts to a networked society.",[]]],"rt":[["Gatekeeping theory",[]]],"sp":[["gatekeeping theory",[]]]},{"de":[["academic research about it lagging far behind",[]]],"sp":[["journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hate speech is subjective and context-dependent most of the time",[]],["Hate speech is a highly subjective issue.",[]]],"sy":[["hate",[]]],"rt":[["text classification",[]],["false news",[]],["abusive comments",[]],["hostile online communities",[]]],"sb":[["Profanity",[]],["Sexual orientation",[]],["Personal",[]],["Gender chauvinism",[]],["Religious",[]],["Political",[]],["Violent intention",[]]]},{"de":[["NOT means the absence of hate speech or other offensive material in the post.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["bullying people for supporting a political party.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["comments challenging the use of a turban or a burkha (the veil)",[]]]},{"de":[["It also gathers information on similar or opposite words, contextual understanding, different senses of words, etc.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["as part of the innovation that network-born media have contributed to the media ecosystem",["Salaverría, 2021"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Misleading reporting",[]]]},{"de":[["claiming a causal effect despite non-randomized study design",[]]],"sb":[["claiming a beneficial effect of the treatment despite statistically non-significant results",[]],["claiming an equivalent effect of the treatment for statistically non-significant results",[]],["claiming that the treatment is safe for statistically non-significant results despite lack of power",[]],["claiming safety of the treatment despite adverse events reported in the scientific articles",[]],["claiming a causal effect (i.e., implies a cause and effect relationship between the intervention being assessed and the outcome of interest [12]) despite non-randomized study design",["12"]],["concluding a beneficial effect despite lack of a comparator",[]],["focus on p-value instead of clinical importance",[]],["interpretation of relative risk as absolute risk",[]],["any other type of misleading interpretation not classified under the above section",[]],["Claiming a beneficial effect of intervention despite statistically non-significant results",[]],["Claiming the treatment is safe when results are statistically non-significant",[]],["Claiming safety despite adverse events",[]],["Claiming a causal effect despite non-randomized study design",[]],["Claiming a beneficial effect despite a small sample size not reported",[]],["Concluding a beneficial effect despite lack of comparator",[]]],"sp":[["spin",[]]],"ex":[["claiming a beneficial effect of the treatment despite statistically non-significant results",[]],["claiming an equivalent effect of the treatment for statistically non-significant results",[]],["claiming that the treatment is safe for statistically non-significant results despite lack of power",[]],["claiming safety of the treatment despite adverse events reported in the scientific articles",[]],["claiming a causal effect (i.e., implies a cause and effect relationship between the intervention being assessed and the outcome of interest",["12"]],["concluding a beneficial effect despite lack of a comparator",[]],["focus on p-value instead of clinical importance",[]],["interpretation of relative risk as absolute risk",[]],["any other type of misleading interpretation not classified under the above section",[]]]},{"de":[["not reporting adverse events that were reported in the scientific article",[]],["Selective reporting of study outcomes favoring statistically significant results",[]],["Misleading reporting of study design",[]]],"sb":[["not reporting adverse events",[]],["misleading reporting of study design",[]],["selective reporting of outcomes favoring the beneficial effect of the treatment (e.g., statistically significant results for efficacy outcomes or statistically non-significant results for safety outcomes)",[]],["linguistic spin (i.e., any word or expression emphasizing the beneficial effect of the treatment [10])",["10"]],["any other type of misleading reporting not classified under the above section",[]],["Not reporting of adverse events",[]],["Selective reporting of study outcomes favoring statistically significant results",[]],["Linguistic spin or hype",[]]],"sp":[["spin",[]]],"ex":[["not reporting adverse events",[]],["misleading reporting of study design",[]],["selective reporting of outcomes favoring the beneficial effect of the treatment (e.g., statistically significant results for efficacy outcomes or statistically non-significant results for safety outcomes)",[]],["linguistic spin (i.e., any word or expression emphasizing the beneficial effect of the treatment",["10"]],["any other type of misleading reporting not classified under the above section",[]]]},{"de":[["extrapolating a beneficial effect from an animal study to humans",[]]],"sy":[["inadequate extrapolation",[]]],"sb":[["extrapolation of animal study results to human application",[]],["extrapolation of preliminary study results to clinical application",[]],["extrapolating the effect of study outcomes to other outcomes for the disease",[]],["extrapolation of the beneficial effect of the study intervention to a different intervention (e.g., broccoli, which contains sulphoraphane, was claimed as beneficial by health news, but the study evaluated the benefit of a sulphoraphane compound only)",[]],["extrapolation from the study participants to a larger or different population",[]],["inappropriate implication for clinical or daily use (i.e., an improper recommendation or advice to use the intervention in clinical practice or daily use not supported by study results)",[]],["any other types of extrapolation not classified under the above section",[]],["Results of animal study to human application",[]],["Study outcomes to different outcomes",[]],["Study intervention to different interventions",[]],["Study participants to a larger or different population",[]],["Inappropriate implication for clinical/daily use",[]],["Other types of inappropriate extrapolations",[]]],"sp":[["spin",[]]],"ex":[["extrapolation of animal study results to human application",[]],["extrapolation of preliminary study results to clinical application",[]],["extrapolating the effect of study outcomes to other outcomes for the disease",[]],["extrapolation of the beneficial effect of the study intervention to a different intervention (e.g., broccoli, which contains sulphoraphane, was claimed as beneficial by health news, but the study evaluated the benefit of a sulphoraphane compound only)",[]],["extrapolation from the study participants to a larger or different population",[]],["inappropriate implication for clinical or daily use (i.e., an improper recommendation or advice to use the intervention in clinical practice or daily use not supported by study results)",[]],["any other types of extrapolation not classified under the above section",[]]]},{"de":[["These spin were mainly related to misleading reporting (59%), misleading interpretation (69%) and overgeneralization/misleading extrapolation (41%) of study results.",[]],["the presence of spin in abstract conclusions could have an impact on readers' interpretation.",[]],["the presence of spin was associated with an overestimation of the beneficial effect of the treatment from research articles to press releases and the news",[]],["misrepresentation of research results highlighted in the health section of Google News",[]]],"sy":[["distorted presentation",["5","6","5,6"]],["misrepresentation",["7","8","7,8"]],["exaggeration of research results",["9","10","11"]],["boasting",["10"]],["misleading or inadequate reporting",["12","13"]],["biased interpretation",["14"]],["overinterpretation",["6"]],["misinterpretation and inappropriate extrapolation",["7"]],["distorted presentation [5,6]",["5","6"]],["misrepresentation [7,8]",["7","8"]],["exaggeration of research results [9][10][11]",["9","10","11"]],["boasting [10]",["10"]],["misleading or inadequate reporting [12,13]",["12","13"]],["biased interpretation [14]",["14"]],["overinterpretation [6]",["6"]],["misinterpretation and inappropriate extrapolation [7]",["7"]]],"rt":[["misrepresentation of research results",[]]],"sb":[["misleading reporting",[]],["misleading interpretation",[]],["overgeneralization/misleading extrapolation",[]],["inappropriate extrapolations",[]],["Highlighting a single patient experience for the success of a new treatment instead of focusing on the group results",[]]],"ex":[["highlighting a single patient experience for the success of a new treatment instead of focusing on the group results",[]],["A new drug known as ALN-PCS, performed just as well, reducing cholesterol up to 57 per cent",[]]]},{"de":[["the fear that important heritage and crucial historical documents related to the Ukrainian culture might be destroyed, either intentionally (as not being consistent with Russian ideology) or unintentionally (as collateral damage in the bombardment).",[]],["the fear that important heritage and crucial historical documents related to the Ukrainian culture might be destroyed, either intentionally (as not being consistent with Russian ideology) or unintentionally (as collateral damage in the bombardment)",["Reid, 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["refer to the prospect of overcoming Putin's grip on power in Russia and moving on to a more democratic type of government.",[]],["suggesting that it also needed to carry out deputinization as the process of breaking free from the Kremlin's ubiquitous influence",["Burke, 2022"]]],"rt":[["destalinization",[]]]},{"de":[["involved non-state actors (multinational technology corporations) withdrawing from the country.",[]],["Mykhailo Fedorov started using and propagating the term in an unprecedentedly broad sense, which involved non-state actors (multinational technology corporations) withdrawing from the country",["Bergengruen, 2022"]],["Mykhailo Fedorov started using and propagating the term in an unprecedentedly broad sense, which involved non-state actors (multinational technology corporations) withdrawing from the country.",[]]],"rt":[["cyber blockade",[]]]},{},{"de":[["emerged in military studies in the 1950s and is now gaining momentum in political sciences",[]],["often applied to propaganda, disinformation, and censorship in both military and non-military confrontations",["McConnell-Ginet, 2020","Pascal, 2019","Rafael, 2016","Stahl, 2016"]],["is often applied to propaganda, disinformation, and censorship in both military and non-military confrontations",["McConnell-Ginet, 2020","Pascal, 2019","Rafael, 2016","Stahl, 2016"]]],"ex":[["intended to dehumanize minority groups, vilify those seen as disloyal, and shape public beliefs that would render systematic atrocities acceptable",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This designation is an allusion to the brutish humanoid monsters that serve Dark Lords of Middle-earth in the legendarium of J.R.R. Tolkien.",[]]]},{"de":[["This position was dubbed pro-Russia neutrality by China researcher and former US advisor on Asia policy Evan Medeiros",["Hille, 2022"]],["referring to China's silent backing of Russia's actions while formally declaring neutrality and not supplying weapons to the Russian army",["Hille, 2022"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["neologisms of the war in the narrow sense",[]]]},{"de":[["it was coined in 1996 by Dzhokhar Dudayev, the first President of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, who meant by it an anti-human ideology grounded on the Russian chauvinistic worldview and the world domination complex",["Dudayev, 1995"]]],"sy":[["rashism",[]],["русизм (russism)",[]]],"rt":[["дерашизація (the English equivalent would be deruscization / derashization)",[]]]},{"sy":[["rashism",[]]]},{"sy":[["Russia's war machine",[]],["Vladimir Putin's war machine",[]]],"ex":[["to defuel Russia's war machine",[]],["a cog in Russia's war machine",[]],["wheels falling off the Russian war machine",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Fascists calling other people \"fascists\" is fascism taken to its illogical extreme as a cult of unreason.",["Snyder, 2022"]],["Fascists calling other people \"fascists\" is fascism taken to its illogical extreme as a cult of unreason. […] Calling others fascists while being a fascist is the essential Putinist practice",["Snyder, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["Anja Schüler notes that this process can be accompanied by generalization, concretization, or metaphorical transformation of the term's original meaning (Schüler, 2006).",["Schüler, 2006"]],["this process can be accompanied by generalization, concretization, or metaphorical transformation of the term's original meaning",["Schüler, 2006"]]],"sy":[["neosemanticisms",["Renouf, 2013"]]]},{"sy":[["re-Stalinization",[]],["Stalinisation",[]],["Re-Stalinisation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Western countries",[]]]},{"de":[["built upon the model \"country + war fatigue\", similarly to Iraq fatigue, Afghanistan fatigue, etc.",[]],["This neologism was effective in conveying the natural phenomenon of blunted sympathy for Ukraine after a period of excited and enthusiastic support.",[]]],"ex":[["When Ukraine fatigue is setting in, it is very important to show that we are with them for the long haul and we are giving them the strategic resilience that they need",["Manancourt, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["sought relief abroad by hitching their wagon and public image to that of Ukraine's heroic resistance",["Gherasim, 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["Motivated reasoning is a powerful factor in our students' or patrons' refusal to engage with a broad swathe of opinion.",[]],["In the real world of flesh-and-blood humans, reasoning often starts with established conclusions and works back to find \"facts\" that support what we already believe. And if we're presented with facts that contradict our beliefs, we find clever ways to dismiss them.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["source credibility",[]]]},{"sb":[["insider",[]],["expert",[]],["eyewitness",[]]],"ex":[["my husband's siblings work in the UN",[]],["I am an analyst at a DC think tank",[]],["I saw it with my own eyes",[]]]},{"sy":[["audio instant messages",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["coordinated actions",["31","42"]]],"rt":[["online manipulation",[]]],"ex":[["online fandoms",[]],["grassroots initiatives",[]]]},{"ex":[["groups of activists protesting against unfair taxation (LCH) and in favor of women's rights (B60)",[]]]},{"de":[["methods for detecting the use of rhetorical techniques to influence others",["13"]],["measured as the fraction of articles in a certain frame flagged as propagandist, out of all articles from that frame",[]],["they use propaganda to influence others",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This definition is striking in its broadness and to some degree, its vagueness and especially in its failure to recognise terrorism as a political concept.",[]]],"ex":[["seriously intimidating a population, seriously destabilising or destroying political, constitution, economic or social structures of a country or an international organisation, intimidation, coercion, kidnapping, destruction to a government or public facility, a transport system, an infrastructure facility, including an information system, seizure of an aircraft, ship or other means of public or goods transport, the manufacture, possession, acquisition, transport, supply or use of weapons, explosives or of nuclear, biological or chemical weapons, as well as research into, and development of biological and chemical weapons without lawful authority.",["Centre for Laws of the Federation of Nigeria"]],["The release of dangerous substance or causing of fire, explosions, or floods, the effect of which is to endanger human life, interference with or disruption of the supply of water, power, or any other fundamental natural resource, the effect of which is to endanger human life",["Centre for Laws of the Federation of Nigeria"]],["seriously intimidating a population, seriously destabilising or destroying political, constitution, economic or social structures of a country or an international organisation, intimidation, coercion, kidnapping, destruction to a government or public facility, a transport system, an infrastructure facility, including an information system, seizure of an aircraft, ship or other means of public or goods transport, the manufacture, possession, acquisition, transport, supply or use of weapons, explosives or of nuclear, biological or chemical weapons, as well as research into, and development of biological and chemical weapons without lawful authority. 'The release of dangerous substance or causing of fire, explosions, or floods, the effect of which is to endanger human life, interference with or disruption of the supply of water, power, or any other fundamental natural resource, the effect of which is to endanger human life'",["Centre for Laws of the Federation of Nigeria"]]]},{},{"rt":[["terrorism",[]]]},{"rt":[["deviancy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Labels do not just describe things, they make a judgement.",[]],["Thus, labels have to be seen to be strategically chosen and embedded in narratives to convey a particular understanding of the discourse in question.",[]],["Labelling, as Monccrieff and Eyben argue, involves 'insidious dimensions of power, where authoritative 'scientific' technique' can be used to depoliticise political processes (2007:19)",["2007:19"]],["Labelling, as Monccrieff and Eyben argue, involves 'insidious dimensions of power, where authoritative 'scientific' technique' can be used to depoliticise political processes (2007:19).",["2007:19"]]]},{"de":[["As condensational symbols, they can serve as political tools and instruments of policy due to the media's tendency to use labels to create meaning and knowledge about political and social reality.",[]],["words used consistently in media narratives convey particular meanings over time",["Entman, 1991"]],["For labels to be effective (credible, taken to be reliable reflections of part of reality), they have to form part of a chain of rational arguments: the appearance of rationality gives these labels the aura of objectivity",["Broek, 2017:122"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Terrorism is a contested concept.",[]],["a pejorative term",[]],["a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore",["Hoffman, 2006:23"]],["Hoffman argues that the word 'terrorism' is a pejorative term. Moreover, 'it is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore' (Hoffman, 2006:23)",["Hoffman, 2006:23"]]],"sy":[["Terrorist",[]],["terrorist group",[]],["Terrorist sect",[]],["militant",[]],["fighters",[]],["insurgents",[]]]},{"rt":[["common criminal",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Higher degree indicates broader engagement across justice concerns (for actors) or wider stakeholder invocation (for justice dimensions).",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["procedural justice",["García-García et al., 2020"]],["recognitional justice",["García-García et al., 2020"]],["restorative justice",[]]],"sp":[["just transition (JT)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Our focus is on frame analysis, which identifies dominant meaning structures within texts.",[]]],"rt":[["frame building",[]],["frame effects",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Brüggemann (2014, p. 63) describes framing as the \"selection and salience\" of certain issue dimensions to produce coherent interpretive patterns.",["Brüggemann (2014, p. 63)"]]],"rt":[["frame building",[]],["frame effects",[]],["frame analysis",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["distributional justice",["García-García et al., 2020"]],["procedural justice",["García-García et al., 2020"]],["recognitional justice",["García-García et al., 2020"]],["restorative justice",["Mirzania et al., 2023"]]],"de":[["The concept of a \"just transition\" (JT) first appeared in the 2011 National Climate Change Response White Paper and coincided with the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Program (REIPPP), which attracted investments in renewables",["Hedley et al., 2024"]]],"sy":[["JT",[]]],"rt":[["distributional justice",[]],["procedural justice",[]],["recognitional justice",[]],["restorative justice",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["mediated communication-where actors engage in open deliberation outside researcher-controlled settings-remains underexplored.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Narratives provide coherence, assign roles and functions (e.g., supportive to a cause, villain), and often carry persuasive power, especially in shaping attitudes and behaviors.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["while literature often frames procedural justice around participation and inclusion",["Barnes, 2022","Diezmartínez et al., 2025","Radtke, 2025"]]],"rt":[["distributional justice",["García-García et al., 2020"]],["recognitional justice",["García-García et al., 2020"]],["restorative justice",[]]],"sp":[["just transition (JT)",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["distributional justice",["García-García et al., 2020"]],["procedural justice",["García-García et al., 2020"]],["restorative justice",[]]],"sp":[["just transition (JT)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["digital archives as repositories of collective memory",[]],["Media is a substantial entity in a society, with an apparatus to frame collective memory by framing certain issues (or aspects of issues).",[]],["Both the processes of promoting and denoting a specific aspect of an issue (framing) and contesting and revising of memories are rhetorical processes.",[]]],"sy":[["public memory",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The phenomenon of framing categorizes changes/formulation of opinions (sometimes very strong) often originating from minute presentation modifications of issues.",[]]],"rt":[["rhetorical process",["Kuypers, 2009, p. 185"]]]},{},{"de":[["the inherently rhetorical nature of media framing",[]],["media framing plays an exceedingly significant role in promoting (or denoting) and consequently shaping our remembrance of the past",[]]]},{"de":[["narrative frame of the government involving themselves in the private lives of citizens and assaulting civil liberties",[]]]},{"de":[["These ceremonies, festivals, or traditions recur after certain time periods (mostly every year) and perform a function of revitalizing the collective memories of the group",["Assmann, 2001"]]]},{},{"sy":[["collective memory",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The Gezi Park space had transformed into something more than a mere green space. The park was a place of memories and experiences-a site of memory.",[]]],"rt":[["ground of memory",[]]],"ex":[["Gezi Park",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the organization was providing an avenue for these oppressed citizens fighting back against the authoritarian regime.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["ideological echo chambers",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a procedure that governance institutions use to promote a deliberate message, even if this is not on track with what the institution is expected to do",[]],["policy branding is the means to create a convincing narrative by using specific descriptions and ciphers.",[]],["branding in policymaking is utilized (mainly) in order to help governments, key stakeholders, and actors to deal with crises.",[]],["The ultimate goal, according to Marsh and Fawcett (2011) is to persuade the public about the value and the eminence of the policy (or the political message) promoted.",["Marsh and Fawcett (2011)"]],["the image that branding creates (or the brand that the respective stakeholders develop) aims to mitigate the noise around a topic and the possible tension surrounding it.",["Marland et al., 2017"]],["Policy branding, which is a more frivolous way compared to policy framing (as its goal is more superficial), is utilized in order for a specific goal to be achieved.",[]],["The process of",[]],["branding seems to be \"less a way of improving the quality of a product and more a way of marketing it to consumers\" (Marsh & Fawcett, 2011, p. 516).",["Marsh & Fawcett, 2011, p. 516"]],["Therefore, policy branding is the means to create a convincing narrative by using specific descriptions and ciphers.",[]],["branding has become a tactic utilized at the political level, as well as the policymaking process level, playing an important role in policy framing and-consequently-in policy development.",[]]],"rt":[["policy framing",[]],["political branding",[]],["branding",[]],["public branding",[]],["nation branding",[]]],"sp":[["Branding",[]],["policy framing",[]]],"ex":[["the IMO performs a kind of greenwashing of its action.",[]]]},{"de":[["the way an issue is framed can influence how it is perceived or dealt with in the political arena.",[]],["This complexity allows involved actors in the framing process to select, emphasize, and organize aspects of it in order to define how an issue will appear in the public sphere and ensure that it will contribute to their end goal.",[]],["The process of",[]]],"rt":[["sense-making",[]],["storytelling",[]]]},{"rt":[["storytelling",[]]]},{"rt":[["sense-making",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["attribute agenda setting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Satire, irony, and sarcasm are techniques typically used to express humor and critique, rather than deceive; however, they can occasionally be mistaken for factual reporting, akin to fake news.",[]],["Satirical news is sometimes associated with fake news.",[]]],"rt":[["irony",[]],["sarcasm",[]],["humor",[]],["critique",[]],["exaggeration",[]],["humor detection",[]],["sentiment analysis",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The process of framing involves selecting and promoting certain aspects of an event, and connecting them to offer a specific interpretation.",[]]]},{"de":[["the media can play an important role in setting the political agenda of countries through the selection of events to be covered and broadcast as news.",[]]]},{"de":[["The positioning analysis was based on pre-defined categories derived from the basic methodology",[]]],"ex":[["\"for with reservations\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Based on this concept, two main characteristics are identified in targeted killing operations: 1) the execution of the target is the objective, rather than withdrawal, surrender, or incapacitation; 2) they are directed at individuals previously identified by the offender",["Walsh, 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["Description bias refers to the veracity and the completeness of a reported event (McCarthy et al., 1999).",["McCarthy et al., 1999"]]],"sb":[["source bias",[]],["omission bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Selection bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Description bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The concept of one-sided violence encompasses only those fatalities that are caused by the intentional and direct use of violence.",[]],["Both refrain from including intentionality in their definitions.",[]],["this step decreases the precision of definitions but it improves the matching of the definition with what is actually coded.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Selection bias",[]]]},{"de":[["The former can be a consequence of low media attention.",[]]],"sb":[["proximity bias",[]],["significance bias",[]],["intensity bias",[]]]},{"de":[["significance bias strongly influences the reporting about certain types of victims.",[]]],"sp":[["Selection bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Description bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the pursuit of freedom of information online can involve sharing of information regardless of its perceived accuracy",[]],["it represents something more nuanced than just a desire to make people aware of some political information.",[]],["somewhat of a conspiracist or paranoid overtone, with one of the items saying 'people should know about secret plots planned against them'.",[]]],"rt":[["Prosocial Activism",[]],["Attack or manipulation of others",[]],["Entertainment",[]],["Political Self-expression",[]],["Fighting False Information",[]]],"sp":[["motivations for sharing political information",[]]],"ex":[["to balance the bias in the media",[]]]},{"de":[["Lower performance on measures of cognitive reflection, indexing a tendency to select an intuitive but incorrect rather than a considered and correct response to a question, has been associated with belief in false material [e.g. 20,21].",["20","21"]],["reflecting a tendency for reduced analytic thought",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["information that is technically true but is presented out of context in order to convey a misleading impression",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["reflecting a desire to upset the established order",[]]]},{"de":[["One of the correlates of positive schizotypy is a tendency to rely on intuitive (as opposed to deliberative) processing. This can be seen in increases in intuitive thinking, decreases in cognitive reflection [26] and the operation of information processing biases [27].",["26","27"]]],"sp":[["Schizotypy",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["While there are different conceptualizations, schizotypy is argued to be multidimensional in nature.",[]]],"sb":[["positive dimension of schizotypy",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Because EPE is about understanding politics, it is a better predictor of information seeking behaviors than traditional measures of internal or external efficacy that focus on confidence in taking effective political action",["12","38","39"]]]},{"de":[["it can correct misperceptions and create reputational costs for elites who make false claims.",[]],["Fact checking has been found to sometimes fail or even backfire in its effects on factual beliefs",["4","5","6"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["in which ethnic out-groups are framed as a potential threat",[]]],"rt":[["low-status stereotypes",[]],["Stereotype Content Model (SCM)",["7"]]],"sp":[["stereotype content",[]]],"ex":[["such as in relation to criminal behavior",[]]]},{"sy":[["subtle stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["in which they are framed as having a low social of socio-economic status",[]]],"rt":[["high-threat stereotypes",[]],["Stereotype Content Model (SCM)",["7"]]],"sp":[["stereotype content",[]]],"ex":[["such as being associated with drug addiction or unemployment",[]]]},{"de":[["may be more influential in the long run",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["copy editors",[]],["news chiefs",[]],["editors-inchief",[]]],"sp":[["journalists",[]]]},{},{"de":[["If framing is about selection and salience, it is also about excluding and repressing other aspects",["1993","1980"]]]},{"de":[["This quest for an integrated structure corresponds with labeling of the frames.",[]]],"sp":[["framing and reasoning devices",[]]]},{"de":[["investigates the production side of framing",["1999"]],["Frame-building studies deal with questions about which factors influence the framing practices of journalists as well as about how these processes work",["1999: 108"]],["aims to investigate the development of news framing in the journalistic realm",[]]],"rt":[["news framing",[]]]},{"de":[["like metaphors, exemplars, and depictions",["1989"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["definition of the issue, cause, consequences, solution, and moral evaluation",["1993"]]]},{"sp":[["journalists",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a social crisis can easily emerge out of nothing via fears based on confusing knowledge with bogus references to \"scientists\" or \"authoritative sources\"",["Shiraev & Mölder, 2020"]]],"ex":[["The \"buckwheat crisis\" is a great example of a possible disinformation campaign",[]]]},{"de":[["making up 29.6% of the Estonian population who speak Russian as their mother tongue",[]]]},{"de":[["Due to its complexity and diversity, it has become difficult to distinguish between satire, objective opinions, or controversial truths because of the subjective nature of the claims [3].",["3"]]]},{"de":[["captures subtle tonal inconsistencies either as stance misalignment or incorrect framing",["26","27"]]]},{"de":[["determine whether it constitutes an appropriate method for further processing and classifying news articles as \"agree,\" \"disagree,\" or \"irrelevant.\"",[]]],"sb":[["stance detection as a subtask of fake news identification",[]]],"ex":[["agree",[]],["disagree",[]],["irrelevant",[]]]},{},{"de":[["to evaluate a piece of online news, people should investigate who is behind the information, evaluate the evidence presented, and compare the information with other sources.",[]],["the three skills were described by one latent construct-civic online reasoning-that, in turn, was related to all self-rated attitudes and skills, and background variables except age and educational orientation.",[]],["civic online literacy is constituted by a diverse set of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and background characteristics that need to be carefully mapped to site characteristics to get a more complete picture of online credibility assessments",[]]],"sy":[["civic online literacy",[]]],"rt":[["Who is behind the information? What is the evidence? What do other sources say?",[]],["media and information literacy",[]]],"sb":[["sourcing",[]],["comparing",[]],["evidence",[]]],"sp":[["information literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["assess the credibility of a balanced text from public service on the government's new policies regarding hate crime with a biased right-wing text on the same matter from an online newspaper described as junk news",[]],["Comparing (What do other sources say?)",[]],["What do other sources say?",[]]],"rt":[["corroboration",[]]],"sp":[["civic online reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["the attitude is linked to a mindset of openness toward others' knowledge and an interest in the news",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["civic online reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["information literate individuals ask three \"fundamental questions [. . . ]: how do you know that-what evidence do you have for that-who says so-how can [you] find out.\"",[]],["Information literacy has been described as a \"survival skill\" for citizens in a digital world (Eshet, 2004).",["Eshet, 2004"]]],"sb":[["media literacy",[]],["civic online reasoning",[]]],"sp":[["digital literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["information literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]]]},{"sy":[["news-seekers",[]]]},{"sp":[["civic online reasoning",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["fakes",[]],["Fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["distinguish facts from disinformation or fake news",[]],["the spread of fake news, manipulation of information, alternative facts",[]],["detect fake news can contribute to the creation of a more informed and responsible information environment",[]]],"sy":[["false information",[]],["Fakes",[]]],"rt":[["information operations",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["Misleading Facts",["15"]],["Misinterpretation",["15"]],["Satire and Parody",["15"]],["Conspiracy Theories",["15"]]],"sp":[["fakes",[]]]},{"sy":[["post-truth",[]],["Fake News",[]]],"rt":[["manipulations",[]],["alternative facts",[]],["lies",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation",["3"]],["rumours",["3"]],["memes",["3"]],["\"viral\" content",["3"]],["pranks",["3"]],["news satire",["3"]],["news generators",["3"]],["synthesized media content",["3"]],["Fake News",[]],["Misleading Facts",[]],["Misinterpretation",[]],["Satire and Parody",[]],["Conspiracy Theories",[]]]},{"de":[["media literacy is a necessary element among all segments of the population, in particular within the framework of the Russian Federation's war in Ukraine.",[]],["people with a high level of media literacy show better skills in choosing information that satisfies their information needs, they are able to consciously and selectively interact with various media sources, in particular with the mass media.",[]],["a high level of media literacy contributes to the audience's ability to recognize, analyse and evaluate a variety of information coming from the media.",["45"]],["Media literacy and critical thinking are key competencies that help people distinguish between fake and reliable sources of information.",[]],["Developing media education programs and raising the level of media literacy among citizens is an important step to ensure media safety.",[]],["key competencies that help people distinguish between fake and reliable sources of information",[]],["media literacy involves the ability to analyse and evaluate the content of information.",["42"]],["media literacy helps young people understand how information shapes their consciousness and perception of the world",["43"]]],"rt":[["critical thinking",[]],["information analysis",[]],["media security",[]],["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Media security includes measures aimed at ensuring the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of media content, includes measures to protect against unauthorized access, theft, modification, or damage to media data, as well as detection and prevention of the spread of harmful or unwanted content.",["5","6","7","5,6,7"]],["the level of media security has been violated.",[]],["importance of strengthening it today.",[]],["development of media security",[]],["formation of general media security in the conditions of full-scale military aggression.",[]],["Media security is an important aspect in the modern information space, especially in conditions of military aggression.",[]],["an important aspect in the modern information space, especially in conditions of military aggression",[]]]},{"sp":[["fakes",[]],["Fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fakes",[]],["Fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["propaganda can cause changes in people's ideas, attitudes and behaviour, shape the perception of events and influence the formation of public opinion.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fakes",[]],["Fake news",[]]]},{"sb":[["Political Bias",[]],["Commercial Bias",[]],["Ownership Bias",[]],["Religious Bias",[]],["Racial Bias",[]]]},{"sb":[["Political Bias",[]],["Commercial Bias",[]],["Ownership Bias",[]],["Religious Bias",[]],["Racial Bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The idea is to illuminate ways in which dominant forces in the society construct versions of reality that favour their interests.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias in the Media",[]],["Bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias in the Media",[]],["Bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias in the Media",[]],["Bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias in the Media",[]],["Bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["internal processes that are difficult to measure objectively",[]]]},{"de":[["this process is considered to culminate in the achievement of",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["internal processes that are difficult to measure objectively",[]]]},{"de":[["internal processes that are difficult to measure objectively",[]]]},{"sb":[["progressive news media",[]],["conservative news media",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Construal-Level theory (Trope & Liberman, 2010) highlights two other types of proximity or psychological distance: social proximity, which refers to how close one perceives another person as an individual or member of a group; and temporal proximity, which refers to the closeness of an event or issue in time.",["Trope & Liberman, 2010"]]],"rt":[["temporal proximity",[]]],"sp":[["proximity or psychological distance",["Trope & Liberman, 2010"]],["psychological distance",[]]]},{"de":[["the social transition stage can be measured through external indicators.",[]],["registrations to trans-related NGOs reflect a broader engagement of trans individuals seeking support, guidance, and access to resources for their social transition.",[]],["registrations to trans-related NGOs as an alternative indicator of the social transition process of trans minors.",[]]]},{"de":[["Construal-Level theory (Trope & Liberman, 2010) highlights two other types of proximity or psychological distance: social proximity, which refers to how close one perceives another person as an individual or member of a group; and temporal proximity, which refers to the closeness of an event or issue in time.",["Trope & Liberman, 2010"]]],"rt":[["social proximity",[]]],"sp":[["proximity or psychological distance",["Trope & Liberman, 2010"]],["psychological distance",[]]]},{"de":[["negative news coverage of trans issues can promote",[]]],"sy":[["transphobia",[]]]},{"sy":[["misinformation",[]],["hoax",[]]]},{"de":[["Weakened example of false content",[]],["Using debunked manipulated visual content",[]],["Role-playing a \"bot destroyer\" that needs to",[]],["Active role of the player",[]],["The player is instructed to be aware of",[]],["Flagging the content as unreliable",[]],["Moment of implementing the inoculation -prophylactic (before the disinformation is spread) or therapeutic (after the disinformation is already present in online/offline spaces)",["Compton 2019"]],["can produce a psychological resistance to disinformation (Banas and Rains, 2010)",[]]],"sb":[["prophylactic",[]],["therapeutic",[]]]},{"de":[["are an emergent tool used in interventions focused on tackling online disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Inoculation can have long-lasting effects if the intervention is administered regularly (similar to a booster shot) (Maertens et al., 2021;Maertens et al., 2020) and can positively impact various cultural contexts (Basol et al., 2021), being considered a 'broad spectrum vaccine' (Lewandowsky and van der Linden, 2021) against disinformation spread online.",["Maertens et al., 2021","Maertens et al., 2020","Basol et al., 2021","Lewandowsky and van der Linden, 2021"]]],"rt":[["threat",[]],["refutational preemption",[]]],"sb":[["prophylactic",[]],["therapeutic",[]],["threat",[]],["refutational preemption",[]]]},{"sp":[["active inoculation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["active inoculation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["prosystemic opposition",[]]],"sp":[["Euroscepticism",["Bijsmans (2017)"]]]},{"sb":[["Euroalternativism",[]]]},{"rt":[["us and them",[]]]},{"sp":[["Framing metaphor",[]]]},{"sp":[["Framing metaphor",[]]]},{"de":[["is also present, apparently in episodes, throughout the entire timeframe, but is most salient in the days leading up to December 8",[]]],"sp":[["Anticipation frame",[]],["generic frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["us and them",[]]]},{"sp":[["Framing metaphor",[]]]},{"sp":[["Generic frame",[]]]},{"sp":[["Negativity news value",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["news factors",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Generic frame",[]]]},{"sp":[["Victimisation frame",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["calculated based on the perceptual effects on oneself and on others",[]]]},{"de":[["implies both the need to answer one's questions and the satisfaction derived from being heard by others.",[]]],"sy":[["overall perceptual media effect",[]],["perceived total influence of certain content",[]]]},{"de":[["Research on the TPE (Schmierbach et al., 2008;Sun et al., 2008b;Rojas, 2010) generally suggests that the overall perceptual media effect or the perceived total influence of certain content is an important variable, which is calculated by summing the perceptual effect on others and on oneself because it always plays its role in conjunction with TPP.",["Schmierbach et al., 2008","Sun et al., 2008b","Rojas, 2010"]]],"rt":[["TPP",[]]]},{"de":[["Essentially, it suggests that the majority of people tend to believe that others are more vulnerable than themselves when confronted with media messages.",[]]],"sy":[["thirdperson perception",[]]],"rt":[["thirdperson effect (TPE)",[]]]},{"sp":[["third-person effect",[]]]},{"de":[["well known as the thirdperson effect (TPE), initially proposed by Davison (1983)",[]]],"sb":[["perceptual component",[]],["behavioral component",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This information might be created to purposely harm people's reputations, deceive them, or draw attention to themselves.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Misinformation",[]]]},{"sb":[["Fabricated news",[]],["Manipulated news",[]],["Advertisement news",[]],["Irrelevant news",[]],["Sufficient news",[]]]},{"de":[["considered \"misinformation\" as a generalized term rather than specifying in a particular category (i.e., fake news, fake reports, false facts)",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["fake reports",[]],["false facts",[]]],"sb":[["hoaxes",[]],["rumors",[]],["fake news",[]],["fake reviews",[]],["false facts",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Our definition follows the idea of T. van Dijk, 'who distils four characteristics he says are common to all communities: having members, a social organization, language and patterns of interaction, and a culture and common identity' (Jankowski, 2002, p. 39).",["Jankowski, 2002"]],["distils four characteristics he says are common to all communities",[]]]},{"de":[["It stands for the invisible framework that dictates what information is perceived as \"legitimate\" based on its source's alignment with the group's historical experience.",[]]],"ex":[["In the Estonian context, this dimension is particularly visible in the differing interpretations of 20th-century history, which continue to color perceptions of contemporary news.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["However, journalism's roles are perceived differently in different societies (see long tradition of 'Four theories of press' by Siebert et al., 1956;later Mellado, 2015), thus trust is a cultural phenomenon related to the social and cultural context (Tsfati and Ariely, 2014).",["Tsfati and Ariely, 2014"]],["However, studies of media trust do not question that trust is a relationship between trustor and trustee, i.e., the news media has a role in creating or destroying trust.",[]],["The findings demonstrate that media trust cannot be understood solely as an individual attitude toward news sources, but must also be analysed in relation to cultural belonging, collective memory, and geopolitical context.",[]],["media is what creates a common information space for a community; especially when it comes to language communities.",[]],["media trust as a phenomenon with high proximity and low level of generalization, it affects anyone in a rather similar manner.",[]],["trust is a cultural phenomenon related to the social and cultural context",[]],["trust is a relationship between trustor and trustee",[]]],"rt":[["cultural-historical dimension of media trust",[]],["trustor",[]],["trustee",[]]]},{"de":[["False news spreads faster and farther than truthful news, largely driven by human behavior rather than automation",["23","33"]],["often conflated with other misleading content such as satire and factual errors",["9"]]]},{"de":[["satire aims for humor and critique rather than deception",[]],["irony and exaggeration are used for social commentary",["4","6"]],["Satirical writing employs rhetorical devices such as irony and sarcasm",[]],["These traits make satire especially challenging for algorithms to identify, as the language often mimics legitimate news while embedding subtle cues such as absurd scenarios or sarcastic tone that signal its true intent",["3"]],["mimics news style while differing in intent",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["brute",[]],["tyrant",[]],["bully-boy",[]],["thug",[]]]},{"rt":[["Sinophobic discourses",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This definition presupposes a cognitive view of metaphor according to which metaphors do not only occur at a linguistic level but also at a cognitive one (Lakoff and Johnson 1980).",[]]]},{"rt":[["linguistic metaphors",[]],["conceptual metaphors",[]]]},{"ex":[["in the source domain marriage/love different specific sub-domains can be recognised such as the end-of-honeymoon scenario",[]],["a related scenario could be the schoolyard scenario, which recalls playground dynamics involving bullies and implies that within the schoolyard frame, various social actors are involved",[]]]},{"rt":[["target domain",[]]],"ex":[["in the conceptual metaphor time is money, time is the target domain being described in terms of the source domain money",["Lakoff and Johnson 1980"]]]},{},{"rt":[["source domain",[]]],"ex":[["in the conceptual metaphor time is money, time is the target domain being described in terms of the source domain money",["Lakoff and Johnson 1980"]]]},{"sp":[["violence-related",[]],["violence-related metaphors",[]]]},{"sb":[["war metaphors",[]],["violence metaphors",[]]]},{"de":[["commonly used by news media to frame international relations among countries",[]]],"sb":[["war metaphors",[]],["violence metaphors",[]]],"ex":[["violating Hong Kong's autonomy; brutish assaults on key institutions of Hong Kong; attacks on the civil rights of Hong Kongers",[]],["China hit Australian barley producers; China can't explode the Australian iron ore trade",[]],["Instead, Beijing is described, accurately, as a habitual and aggressive violator of that order -a domestic tyrant, international bully and economic bandit that systematically robs companies of their intellectual property, countries of their sovereign authorities, and its own people of their natural rights.",[]],["This election is going to be about who can stand up to China, the world's communist bully.",[]]]},{"sp":[["violence-related",[]],["violence-related metaphors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the media impose topics for reflection on the audience",[]],["is more important than forming a specific opinion on the topic",[]],["the media impose topics for reflection on the audience, and the list of these topics for discussion, the so-called agenda is more important than forming a specific opinion on the topic.",[]]]},{"sp":[["manipulation techniques",[]]]},{"sy":[["фейковыми (фальшивыми, ложными) новостями",[]]]},{"de":[["Currently, unreliable socially significant information is usually referred to as fake (bogus, false) news.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["bogus news",[]]]},{"de":[["Often, the purpose of such a tool is to inflict reputational damage to the other side, belittle its achievements, that is, to create an inaccurate, often negative image of the other side. . . , and also to achieve other pursued goals.",["12"]],["This phrase from an archival document fully corresponds to the definition of fake news proposed in the introduction to the article",[]],["unreliable socially significant information",[]],["вызывали не только излишнее возбуждение среди читателей",[]]],"sy":[["bogus",[]],["false",[]],["ложные новости",[]],["вымышленные известия",[]]],"rt":[["fibs",[]]],"ex":[["in this instance, the police of the capital",[]]]},{"sp":[["manipulation techniques",[]]]},{"sp":[["manipulation techniques",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]],["вымышленные известия",[]]]},{},{"de":[["is closely connected to language.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Different linguistic expressions may convey the same meaning, but also reflect the social identity of the speaker",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["deceptive (fake) information",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["serious fabrications",["Rubin et al., 2015a"]],["large-scale hoaxes",["Rubin et al., 2015a"]],["humorous fakes",["Rubin et al., 2015a"]]]},{"de":[["The word 'post-truth' was chosen as the Oxford Dictionaries Word of the Year 2016",[]]]},{"de":[["This definition corresponds to serious fabrications.",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["likely makes participants more attentive to accuracy, shaping their subsequent judgments",[]]],"sy":[["behavioral nudges",[]]]},{"de":[["has been shown to reduce vulnerability against future false information and its impact",["Lewandowsky and van der Linden 2021"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["If successful, a phishing attack can lead to the hijacking of a victim's social media, device, or private information.",[]]]},{"de":[["Automation is key feature of modern social engineering attacks, allowing attackers to conduct phishing attacks at scale (Ariu et al., 2017).",["Ariu et al., 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["reports from cybersecurity firms estimate that spear phishing on social media rose 500 percent in 2016 (Proofpoint, 2017), tripled in 2017 (PhishLabs, 2018), dipped after platforms' purge of fake accounts, but increased 30 another percent in the first half of 2018 (Proofpoint, 2018).",["Proofpoint, 2017","PhishLabs, 2018","Proofpoint, 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["The effects of such ambivalence cast a shadow on representations of each woman's athletic prowess, raising subtle doubts about her performance and achievements.",[]]]},{"de":[["Athletes with higher celebrity value can capitalise on this for commercial purposes, as their active engagement with fans and high visibility can increase their commodity value and, in turn, drive brand awareness and marketing (Pegoraro, 2010).",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Sports and athletes that fit most closely with normative ideals of femininity receive most media attention, so even during a mixed-sex event like the Olympics a feminine appropriate sport like gymnastics receives far more media attention than do team sports which may conform less easily to idealised notions of femininity",["Sailors, Teetzel & Weaving, 2012","Eagleman, 2015"]]]},{"de":[["This can help frame female athletes as childlike, and thus less serious.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Female athletes' bodies may not be referred to directly very often, as most male journalists now seem to be aware of the backlash they may suffer for overt sexualisation, but women's performances are still judged aesthetically, and consequently",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Fake news is increasingly becoming a major problem for global social coexistence, for example by undermining trust in democracies.",[]]],"ex":[["fake news influence elections, reduce the acceptance of scientific findings such as human-made climate change, and, in the worst instances, lead to violent action",["Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017","Comerford & Gerster, 2021","Traberg et al., 2022"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["electoral integrity beliefs function as cognitive shortcuts that help individuals make sense of perceived systemic failure and unmet economic expectations",[]],["To measure electoral integrity beliefs, we rely on items used in the Austrian Corona Panel Project (Kittel et al., 2021) and a previous study by Partheymüller et al. (2022), which employed a multidimensional electoral integrity item battery.",["Kittel et al., 2021"]]]},{"ex":[["foreign interference",[]],["coordinated disinformation",[]],["algorithmic amplification on social media platforms",[]]]},{"de":[["Model 2 focuses on perceptions of external and informational interference, including foreign intervention and the role of social media in biasing elections.",[]]],"ex":[["social media bias",[]],["foreign interference",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["electoral malpractice",[]]],"ex":[["incorrect vote counting, misconduct by electoral officials, and external influences via social media or foreign organizations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Model 1 captures skepticism toward the integrity of core electoral institutions, combining perceptions of vote counting accuracy, media impartiality, and the behavior of electoral authorities.",[]]],"ex":[["vote counting",[]],["board misconduct",[]]]},{"rt":[["procedural concerns",[]],["external threats",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These include technical shortcomings, administrative errors, or procedural irregularities that, although not necessarily intentional, can still undermine public confidence in the integrity of elections",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["facial manipulation",[]]]},{"de":[["malicious transformations such as Deepfakes",[]]],"sy":[["facial manipulations",[]]]},{"sp":[["facial manipulation",[]]]},{"sy":[["forgery",[]]],"sb":[["identity swap",[]],["Attribute manipulation",[]],["face reenactment",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["digital watermarking techniques",[]],["watermarks",[]]]},{"de":[["this watermarking scheme withstands benign transformations, such as resizing or compression, when applied to the watermarked images, without triggering false positives, while remaining sensitive enough to detect malicious alterations such as deepfakes",[]]]},{"sb":[["Fragile watermarks",[]],["robust watermarks",[]],["Semi-fragile watermarks",[]]]},{"rt":[["source-centered approach",[]],["manipulative information",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["content-centered approach",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["junk news",[]]],"ex":[["fake news",[]],["junk news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["NLP systems that exhibit such biased behavior can perform better for the favored gender, e.g., speech recognizers that achieve higher accuracy for male voices (Tatman, 2017), or reinforce harmful stereotypes, e.g., social media platforms that misgender LGBT+ community members (Villaronga et al., 2021).",[]]],"rt":[["selection bias",[]],["semantic bias",[]],["recognition bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Without being limited to any one language, this might include characteristics such as religion, gender and race.",[]]]},{"de":[["a good summarization system should preserve the writer's voice-the style, intent, and points of view conveyed by the authors.",[]]]},{"de":[["In addition to preserving factual consistency-the focus of much prior work (Kryscinski et al., 2020;Goyal and Durrett, 2020;Wang et al., 2020a;Pagnoni et al., 2021;Feng et al., 2023a;Tam et al., 2023)",[]]]},{"de":[["We use a political perspective evaluator (Liu et al., 2022d) to quantify political stances of summaries and news articles (mapping text sequences to left, center, or right)",["Liu et al., 2022d"]]]},{"de":[["This speech frame allows room for a 'reactive reversal' if the audience does not respond well to what is implied.",["41"]],["Since what is implied is not explicitly stated, this leaves the intended audience in a 'grey zone' within which some listeners are more likely to hear and act on the coded intent.",[]]],"sy":[["dog-whistling",[]]],"rt":[["Plausible deniability",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["mis-and disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["information disorders",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Seen from an ecological perspective, in the way TDP studies mis-and disinformation, this is not unlike seeding ideological frames around what is desired as an intended outcome, including the fundamental characteristics of Aotearoa New Zealand as a nation-state, and consequently, what is required to harvest this desired goal.",[]]],"rt":[["tactical messaging",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda vectors",[]]]},{"rt":[["strategic messaging",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda vectors",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In general, a model containing more bias in our setting can make subtle associations regarding gender (e.g. generating text using authoritative descriptive words regarding one gender in comparison to others or consistently representing one gender as being \"correct\" in various situations). This in turn can lead to representational harms that can hurt disfavored genders in the future.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["untargeted attacks",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Manipulation of the content may vary from intentional omission of some truthful aspects to mixing false information with reliable facts put into a fully truthful and trustworthy context.",[]],["Disinformation and misinformation are somehow created and remain in the environment.",[]],["disinformation and misinformation may mutate.",[]],["disinformation and misinformation are also spread in the environment by carriers.",[]],["Usually, the disinformation is well prepared for consumption, to a certain degree it is prepared to be more attractive for the consumer.",[]],["Usually, it has some good potential to be spread due to its interesting content.",[]],["prepared by accompanying text which adds to the importance and urgency of the communication often with some degree of conspiracy",[]],["Very aggressive disinformation is simply hidden in between a truthful factual context and mixed with truth and facts.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["fake news is not (1) satiric news with proper content without intent to mislead or deceive consumers and with little probability of being misperceived as factual; (2) rumours that did not originate from news events; (3) conspiracy theories; (4) misinformation that is created unintentionally; and (5) hoaxes that are only motivated by fun or to scam target individuals",["Shu et al. 2017, p. 25","Shu et al. 2017"]],["fake news might be not be related only to news articles as it may have a form of falsified or wrongly translated documents, edited pictures, videos or evidence intentionally shared by e-mails or published on blogs and vlogs.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Manipulation of the content may vary from intentional omission of some truthful aspects to mixing false information with reliable facts put into a fully truthful and trustworthy context.",[]]]},{"de":[["an ʻumbrella termʼ, which encompasses ʻa wide variety of existing adverse circumstances and actions, such as terrorism, migration, piracy, corruption, ethnic conflict etc.ʼ",["NATO 2011"]]],"sy":[["hybrid warfare",[]]]},{"de":[["what has changed are the tools of hybrid warfare and the context.",[]]],"rt":[["conventional and nonconventional measures",[]],["information warfare",[]],["influence operations",[]]],"sb":[["information warfare",[]]]},{"de":[["information warfare has its inherent geopolitical dimension.",[]]],"sb":[["operational security, electronic warfare (EW), psychological operations (PSYOPs), deception, physical attack on information processes, and information attack on informational processes",["Nichiporuk 1999, p. 188"]]],"sp":[["hybrid warfare",[]]]},{"rt":[["meme theory",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation and misinformation are somehow created and remain in the environment.",[]],["disinformation and misinformation may mutate.",[]],["disinformation and misinformation are also spread in the environment by carriers.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["the paradox may be resolved by the limited toleration of those not tolerant",[]]]},{"rt":[["secondary",[]]]},{"de":[["At the ProTruthPledge.org users may agree to abide by the twelve practices in working with information",["Tsipursky & Morford 2018"]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["farmer's logic",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Populism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["this dynamic serves a specific function in populist politics: the desire to de-demonise and communicate legitimacy and integration into the party system.",[]],["while populist parties may continue to signal their distinctiveness from mainstream actors via discourse, they have an incentive-provided by visual social media-to portray their leaders as credible, caring, and \"normal'' politicians.",[]],["understood as a three-fold strategy comprising a legitimacy, good character, and policy angle",[]],["visual de-demonisation practices, ultimately supporting the concerned radical right actor in achieving mainstream status and widespread acceptance.",[]],["the option to visually de-demonise is also an important strategic goal of their presence on the platform.",[]],["visual de-demonisation strategy can appear to populists as a viable way forward to address the dilemma pointed out by Curini et al. (2024) of maintaining an anti-establishment and radical appeal while seeking governability and further integration into the party system.",[]],["Visual de-demonisation enables those PRR actors interested in improving their profile, to present themselves in a new and positive light.",[]],["Visual de-demonisation has, therefore, a strategic utility for the PRR, and holds considerable potential for contributing to its mainstreaming.",[]],["visual de-demonisation as comprising intersecting micro-dynamics rather than strictly distinguishable strategies",[]],["A visual de-demonisation strategy, however, is not solely oriented on establishing legitimacy, and the two should not be equated.",[]],["visual de-demonisation may be better conceived as a single strategy comprising micro-dynamics that build and intersect with one another, altogether contributing to providing a well-rounded image of the populist leader as a legitimate and personable politician, interested in a wide range of policy areas.",[]]],"rt":[["populist strategic communication",[]],["radical right mainstreaming",[]],["positive content on visual social media",[]],["legitimacy",[]],["good character",[]],["policy angle",[]],["legitimacy-signalling",[]],["policy-signalling",[]]],"sb":[["legitimacy",[]],["policy angle",[]],["good character",[]],["policy",[]]]},{"de":[["It can have political motivation when exercised by the state, or a religious or cultural motivation when related to what is considered politically correct and can be enforced by dubbing studios and distributors",["Scandura, 2004"]],["deaf organisations consider any type of editing to be potential censorship",[]]]},{"de":[["It can have political motivation when exercised by the state, or a religious or cultural motivation when related to what is considered politically correct and can be enforced by dubbing studios and distributors",["Scandura, 2004"]]]},{},{"de":[["making the visual impact more vivid and meaningful for the audience",[]]],"ex":[["identifying the presence of the walls and barbed wire but also detailing their appearance",[]]]},{"de":[["is an area that has received limited attention in research and practice.",[]]],"rt":[["Subtitling for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing (SDH)",[]],["Audio description (AD)",[]],["Arabic Sign Language Interpreting (ArSL)",[]]]},{"ex":[["apartheid wall",[]]]},{"de":[["as a result of translators' own beliefs, given that, as O'Connell (2000) notes, the choice or rejection of certain translation solutions regarding specific topics is never free from certain ideological manipulations on the part of the translator.",[]],["This self-censorship by the accessibility provider in MA has been documented by other studies in relation to AD (Sanz-Moreno, 2017, 2018), given that certain scenes of a certain sexual nature were not described.",["Sanz-Moreno, 2017","2018"]],["This decision highlights the ethical dimension of respecting both translators' and describers' personal values and cultural norms, an often-overlooked consideration in discussions about language fidelity.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["absence-as power, presence, and productive-as a concept that might more securely anchor investigations into the causes of algorithmic bias, and that can prompt more capacious, creative, and joyful future work.",[]],["it provides a way of thinking through the biases in the data that cannot ever be fixed, and in so doing, provides a path for moving forward with technical work that allows the data and its biases to both be taken into account.",[]],["position absence as an active presence, an influence despite its non-physical manifestation",[]],["This definition implies that even though something (data, algorithmic processes, documentation) may not be physically present, its impact or influence is still felt and recognized.",[]],["By shifting our focus from bias to absence, we gain a more capacious concept with which to anchor questions of algorithmic harm.",[]],["Reconceptualizing bias as absence, however, enables us as researchers to train our attention on the reasons for the bias to enter into the dataset or data system.",[]],["makes our desires explicit and unavoidable",[]],["The absence is not a silence, not a missing or non-existent sensing. Rather it establishes contact and connection with an analyst at a level that requires effortful engagement.",[]],["absence may be able to forge a different relationship to evidence, not as the inverse of presence, but as a way to mark the space for what is to come.",[]],["absence is not the lack of presence but can also hold the noisy spaces for possibility resounding with the din of improvised relations.",[]],["invites an attunement to bodies in motion, to encounters that begin from the sensory, and a particular bodily knowing.",[]],["helps us probe our methods for acknowledging underlying and longstanding forces of capital and colonial power by reimagining their role within and beyond the worlds they try to contain.",[]],["an indicator of power with which analysts can carefully work through what is not there; an activation of presence that allows analysts to wrestle with what gets hidden, excluded, or left incomplete as a lively contributor to meaning making; and a capacious idea of the productive, which opens analysts to imaging the world differently.",[]],["Rather than theorizing algorithmic systems as problems to solve, we bring a reframing of the issue of algorithmic bias itself. We propose absence as a concept that might more securely anchor investigations into the causes of algorithmic bias as well as prompt more generative, more capacious, and more creative interventions into the technical as well as the social, historical, and political structures that serve as the sources of bias.",[]]],"rt":[["bias",[]],["presence",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["structured through archival research, it is also speculative",[]],["based on careful research and engagement with the fragments that have been captured in the archives, yet it attempts to push against the limits of them and the narratives that have been constructed from them",[]],["methods for searching for the experiences of enslaved Black women that push against the \"violence and distortion of traditional archives\" and archives that \"do not faithfully reveal or honor the enslaved\" [53].",["53"]],["a method for imagining what could have been (and what could be).",[]]]},{"de":[["racialising classifications and exclusionary mechanisms enforced through datafication",[]]]},{"rt":[["Design Speculation",[]]]},{"de":[["Within this context, speculation works as exploratory and experimental-situated in, and occuring in relation to, the specific archive or dataset it engages. This distinguishes our approach from other speculative methods",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["null value",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["presents characteristics of multi-modality, strong concealment, and rapid evolution.",[]],["Such information may cause negative effects, including spam ads, false information, hate speech, online violence, and other illegal content.",[]],["This type of information has three essential characteristics: non-regularity, potential harm, and deliberate avoidance.",[]]],"sb":[["spam",[]],["false information",[]],["other violations",[]],["inappropriate speech",[]],["online violence",[]]],"ex":[["spam ads",[]],["false information",[]],["hate speech",[]],["online violence",[]],["other illegal content",[]],["spam, false information, other violations, inappropriate speech, and online violence",[]]]},{"de":[["This type of information has three essential characteristics: non-regularity, potential harm, and deliberate avoidance.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The scale for faithfulness is: 1. Unfaithful: The summary is almost entirely incorrect or unrelated to the source. 2. Mostly Unfaithful: The summary includes only a few relevant arguments or correct details but is largely incorrect or missing. 3. Neutral: The summary has about half of the important points correct, but also includes notable inaccuracies or omissions. 4. Mostly Faithful: The summary reflects most of the article's arguments accurately, with only minor errors or omissions. 5. Perfectly Faithful: The summary includes all of the article's main arguments accurately and does not introduce any contradictory or unsupported claims.",[]]],"rt":[["coverage",[]],["factual accuracy",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["coverage",[]]]},{"sy":[["faithfulness",[]]]},{"rt":[["perspective-specific summaries",[]]]},{"de":[["Some of this information is unstructured and untrue, that is, it distorts reality, it is often called manipulative information.",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Individuals who are media literate are able to engage and participate at every level of public life, from social networking to e-Government.",["The European Association for Viewers Interests, 2020"]],["expands the concept of literacy, as today's messages come in many forms, and literacy can no longer relate simply to the ability to read and write",[]],["offers solutions to public health issues, such as body image and substance use problems, which are exacerbated by reports of toxic media",[]],["enables all people to participate in the global media environment.",[]]],"sy":[["umiejętność korzystania z mediów",[]]],"rt":[["digital literacy",[]],["media education",[]],["Digital skills",[]]],"sb":[["media literacy of educators",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["These decisions are based on the creators' own point of view, which will be determined by their opinions, assumptions and prejudices, as well as the media to which they have been exposed.",[]]],"ex":[["even the most objective documentary filmmaker has to decide which frames to use, what to cut, and where to place the camera",[]]]},{},{"de":[["study framing in order to establish whether particular \"presentation of an issue or an event\" results in a behavioral change",["Bos et al., 2016"]]],"rt":[["presentation of an issue or an event",[]]]},{"rt":[["media frames",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Providing baseline statistics could serve as a sort of exemplar, making the problem of fake news consumption more available at the top of the reader's mind, resulting in greater subjective assessments of prevalence and concern.",[]],["If the only supportive piece of information comes to mind easily because it has been endlessly repeated or is very vivid and memorable, we may erroneously conclude that support is strong.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["reach",[]],["speed",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["ease of processing is an important cue to assessments of truth, in part, because easy processing is interpreted as evidence for many important criteria that are related to assessments of truth: information that is easy to process is rated as more coherent, credible, compatible with our own general knowledge, likely to have high social consensus, as well as being well supported by significant evidence",["Schwarz, 2015","Schwarz & Newman, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["one could check whether the arguments that lead to a certain conclusion meet the test of logical or mathematical consistency",["Hammond, 1996, p. 95"]]]},{},{"de":[["Is this compatible with knowledge retrieved from memory or obtained from trusted sources?",[]],["Compatibility can be assessed analytically by checking the information against one's knowledge, which requires motivation and time (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986).",["Petty & Cacioppo, 1986"]]]},{"de":[["Törnberg (2018) instead draws on the concept of \"complex contagion\" (multiple sources of reinforcement may be required to induce adoption), which is useful for describing the spread of behaviors such as social movements and avant-garde fashion (Centola & Macy, 2007).",["Centola & Macy, 2007"]],["useful for describing the spread of behaviors such as social movements and avant-garde fashion (Centola & Macy, 2007)",["Centola & Macy, 2007"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Construal Level Theory",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["What do my friends say? What do the opinion polls say?",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Vosoughi et al. (2018) argue that research into diffusion of science and conspiracy science stories does not allow understanding of factors affecting spread of true versus false news, since by definition, a conspiracy story cannot be verified as false or true.",[]]]},{"de":[["Conspiracy theories are ideal markers of uniqueness because they are relatively unconventional and suggest access to privileged knowledge",["Lantian, Muller, Nurra, & Douglas, 2017"]],["conspiracy theories provide a pseudo-reality that is plausible or nearly scientific but retains the mystery of cover-ups.",[]]],"rt":[["paranoia",[]]],"sp":[["Misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Conspiracy theories have devices that inoculate members against potential attacks, namely instilling distrust in information coming from external sources.",[]]],"rt":[["true conspiracies",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals construe on a lower level if objects and events are psychologically close (in time, space, socially, or in probability of occurrence), whereas individuals construe on a higher level if objects and events are psychologically distant.",[]]],"sb":[["concrete mindset level (or also low construal level)",[]],["more abstract mindset level (or high construal level)",[]]]},{"de":[["the summary of sub-principles, of which one is the maxim of quality.",[]]],"sb":[["maxim of quality",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["the accuracy of a weather forecast may be checked by comparing it to reality (Hammond, 1996, p. 95). For instance, if rain was predicted and it rained, the prediction was true, if not, it was false.",["Hammond, 1996, p. 95"]]]},{"de":[["Does the source have the relevant expertise? Does the source have a vested interest? Is the source trustworthy?",[]]]},{"sp":[["fact checking",[]]]},{"de":[["Cultural knowledge not only makes it easier to process culturally f luent information, but it also helps people know when something is not right, triggering a shift from associative, gut-based reasoning to systematic, rule-based reasoning when the unexpected occurs",["Oyserman, 2011"]]]},{"ex":[["the belief that brushing your teeth twice a day is good for your health",["McGuire, 1970"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Compared to simple human error, the involvement of intent has important psychological connotations",["van der Linden, 2017","van der Linden, Roozenbeek, Oosterwoud, Compton, & Lewandowsky, 2018"]],["The possibility of instant and anonymous communication makes the internet an ideal vehicle for deception.",[]],["disinformation is agnostic as to the veracity of information.",[]],["disinformation does not need to rely on already available identity-to-action associations. These associations can be constructed in context.",[]],["In practical applications, disinformation is generally treated as a subset of misinformation, as it is more difficult to ascertain the motives of actors transmitting inaccurate information.",[]],["Veracity and bias are irrelevant to disinformation messaging, it does not matter if the content is true or unbiased; it only matters if the intended response is produced",["Weedon, Nuland, & Stamos, 2017"]],["Some authors distinguish misinformation and disinformation, where the former may involve an actor spreading inaccurate information that they believe is true, and the latter involves a conscious attempt to deceive. In practical applications, disinformation is generally treated as a subset of misinformation, as it is more difficult to ascertain the motives of actors transmitting inaccurate information.",[]],["we use the term \"disinformation\" to describe this latter form of message content shared by senders who do not have the intent to inform but the intent to shape recipient judgment and decision making independently of the probative content of the messages they send.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["fake stories",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["Propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Members may not realize they are receiving information from low-credibility sources; they are biased to believe that information from other community members is true.",[]]],"sy":[["cliques",[]]],"ex":[["Such echo chambers have been identified on Twitter (Barberá, Jost, Nagler, Tucker, & Bonneau, 2015;Williams, McMurray, Kurz, & Lambert, 2015), Facebook (Del Vicario, et al., 2016), and various blogs (Suhay, Blackwell, Roche, & Bruggeman, 2015).",["Barberá, Jost, Nagler, Tucker, & Bonneau, 2015","Williams, McMurray, Kurz, & Lambert, 2015","Del Vicario, et al., 2016","Suhay, Blackwell, Roche, & Bruggeman, 2015"]],["Twitter",["Barberá, Jost, Nagler, Tucker, & Bonneau, 2015","Williams, McMurray, Kurz, & Lambert, 2015"]],["Facebook",["Del Vicario, et al., 2016"]],["various blogs",["Suhay, Blackwell, Roche, & Bruggeman, 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["The aim of this badge is to show how players can manipulate basic emotions in order to rile up their followers and make their content shared more readily.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["accuracy motivation",["Hart et al., 2009"]]]},{"de":[["Is there supportive evidence in peer-reviewed scientific articles or credible news reports? Do I remember relevant evidence?",[]]]},{"rt":[["crowdsourcing",[]],["Knowledge-based approaches",[]],["style-based approaches",[]]],"sb":[["Fact checking by domain experts",[]],["Crowdsourcing",[]],["Knowledge graphs",[]]],"de":[["Fact-checking initiatives abound, and some (such as PolitiFact and Snopes) have even become household names.",[]]]},{"de":[["What sets fake news apart from news reports that are merely false is the intention to deceive.",[]],["Production of fake news is generally motivated by financial or ideological gain as it can mislead readers into believing that false news content is true.",[]],["the term \"fake news\" has also been used as a means of discrediting news stories from more reputable sources with which groups or individuals may disagree.",[]],["the phrase had become conf lated to mean a number of different processes, from genuine human error to intentional foreign interference in the democratic process.",[]],["claims of \"fake news\" go a step further in arguing that the news media are not merely biased (i.e., selectively reporting certain facts) but wrong (i.e., reporting information that is factually incorrect).",[]],["deliberately deceptive reports based on manipulated or freely invented data",["Bar-Ilan & Halevi, 2020"]],["a catchall phrase that lacks an accepted working definition",["Tandoc Jr, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]],["claims of \"fake news\" go a step further in arguing that the news media are not merely biased (i.e., selectively reporting certain facts) but wrong",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["mal-information",[]],["intentional deception",[]],["compensatory control theory",[]],["personal need for structure",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Melania Trump Bans White House Staff from Taking Flu Shot",["Adl-Tabatabai, 2016","Baxter, 2018","Patriot United, 2018"]],["Muslim Doctor Refuses to Treat Christian Girl on Board a Flight",["Adl-Tabatabai, 2016","Baxter, 2018","Patriot United, 2018"]],["Russian activists creating Facebook ads that showed doctored images of celebrities (falsely) claiming that Americans could vote from home",["Wagner, 2017"]],["the website 70news, whose now-deleted article (falsely) stating that Donald Trump had won the popular vote in the 2016 election brief ly became one of the top results for Google News searches of \"final election results\"",["Earl, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["specific accusation that journalists are not merely selectively reporting certain facts but rather knowingly spreading false information to advance a particular viewpoint.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Instead, one can also amplify existing grievances and make them look more popular than they really are",["Bertolin et al., 2017"]]]},{"sy":[["illusions of knowledge",[]],["misconceptions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The resulting filter bubble (Pariser, 2011)",[]],["The resulting filter bubble (Pariser, 2011) presents largely consistent information that reinforces the user's worldview and presents few challenges, leaving users confident that their own views are correct and the views of others at best mistaken and at worst malevolent (for a discussion, see Schwarz & Jalbert, 2020).",["Pariser, 2011"]]],"rt":[["echo chamber",[]]]},{"de":[["This level of polarization is reinforced by the emergence of ideologically homogeneous filter bubbles",[]]],"rt":[["Echo chambers",[]]]},{"rt":[["concept valence",[]],["semantic negation",[]]],"ex":[["\"In Africa, 40% of people make less than 1 Dollar per day\" (negatively framed)",[]],["\"In Africa, 60% of people make more than 1 Dollar per day\"",[]],["\"20% of German under-17-year-olds are smokers\" (negatively framed)",[]],["\"80% of German under-17-year-olds are non-smokers\" (positively framed, emphasis added)",[]]]},{"ex":[["Billy Graham's Evangelistic Association supports a literal interpretation of the bible (e.g., the story of creation) through a mass media empire.",[]],["Islamic extremism is of course common as well. Examples include the Kharijites from the seventh century and the Wahhabi fundamentalism presumably promoted by Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Qatar",["Braswell, 2000","Delong-Bas, 2008","Huff, 1995","Nasir, 2009"]]]},{"ex":[["statements written in an easy-to-read font are more likely to be judged as true than those written in more difficult-to-read fonts",["Reber & Schwarz, 1999"]],["rhyming aphorisms (woes unite foes) are judged as more likely to be true than ones that do not rhyme",["McGlone, & Tofighbakhsh, 2000"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Misinformation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["hostile media phenomenon",["Vallone, Ross, & Lepper, 1985"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["have the intention of sowing doubt and leading people to be open to being told any possible alternative",[]]]},{"de":[["people may reasonably assume that the photo is relevant to the judgment at hand and that the placement of the photo is the communicator's attempt to provide supportive evidence for the claim",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Originally demonstrated in the 1970s (Hasher, Goldstein, & Toppino, 1977), this effect has been replicated many times, is robust across procedural variations and materials, and can last for many weeks",["Hasher, Goldstein, & Toppino, 1977","Dechêne, Stahl, Hansen, & Wänke, 2010"]]],"ex":[["just a single, brief exposure to a fake news headline (e.g., 'Donald Trump Sent His Own Plane to Transport 200 Stranded Marines') increased the likelihood that people believed the headline was true",["Pennycook, Cannon, & Rand, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["The purpose of this badge is to show how easy this process is and how a professional look or name does not necessarily imply legitimacy.",[]]],"sb":[["(1) impersonating a real person or organization by mimicking their appearance",[]],["(2) posing as a legitimate news website or blog without the usual journalistic norms and credentials",[]]]},{},{"de":[["When people are using information-based reasoning, they have access to both associative and systematic strategies.",[]],["People are likely to use information-based processing when the information to be used is easy to access, clear, and limited; in these cases, computational processing (e.g., trading off risks and rewards) is possible (Reyna, 2004).",["Reyna, 2004"]]]},{},{"sb":[["partial inoculation (forewarning only)",[]],["full inoculation (forewarning plus preemptive refutation)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes play a number of key roles, including representing reality, understanding objective features of the world, and comparing those features with subjective standards.",[]]],"rt":[["beliefs",[]],["attitudes",[]]],"ex":[["we write with the certainty that the keyboard in front of us exists, and we are similarly certain that we need the correct password to gain access to our computer",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["fact checking",[]]]},{"ex":[["France's \"Fake News Law\", which during election time would place tougher restrictions on media outlets as to what content they are allowed to put online",["Bremner, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["people start with the assumption that communicators are attempting to be informative -to clearly tell them something that is relevant, something that their audience does not already know",["Schwarz, 2014"]],["people assume that message sharers share content they believe to be factually true, unbiased, and potentially useful in informing judgment and decision making, even if sometimes message sharers get it wrong and, unbeknownst to themselves, misinform",["Schwarz, 2014"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["harm can also be achieved by spreading factually correct information with harmful implications -for example, by leaking factually true private information that should not have any bearing on public issues -a type of information that is sometimes referred to as \"mal-information\".",[]]],"ex":[["leaking factually true private information that should not have any bearing on public issues",[]]]},{"sp":[["cooperative principle",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the term \"misinformation\" is also used for false information in general",[]],["Misinformation, like all information, is piecemeal and subject to revision when newer knowledge becomes available.",[]],["While misinformation can refer to any publicly accessible erroneous information, the use of the term today generally implies malintent and deception.",[]],["disinformation is generally treated as a subset of misinformation, as it is more difficult to ascertain the motives of actors transmitting inaccurate information.",[]],["Because intention to harm is often difficult to determine, the term \"misinformation\" is also used for false information in general",[]],["For the purpose of this chapter, misinformation will refer to all instances where information can be verified as containing clear falsehoods.",[]],["the use of the term today generally implies malintent and deception.",[]],["Some authors distinguish misinformation and disinformation, where the former may involve an actor spreading inaccurate information that they believe is true, and the latter involves a conscious attempt to deceive.",[]],["\"misinformation\" is merely false but not intended to harm.",[]],["In practical applications, disinformation is generally treated as a subset of misinformation, as it is more difficult to ascertain the motives of actors transmitting inaccurate information.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]],["about climate change",[]],["rumors (pieces of information that have not yet been confirmed as true or false)",[]],["conspiracy theories (which by definition are not verifiable, and tend to be spread by people who believe them to be true)",[]],["hoaxes (which are designed to deceive, may be humorous or malicious, and often involve citing a trusted source)",[]]],"ex":[["satire news (designed for humor and not intended to deceive)",[]],["rumors (pieces of information that have not yet been confirmed as true or false)",[]],["conspiracy theories (which by definition are not verifiable, and tend to be spread by people who believe them to be true)",[]],["hoaxes (which are designed to deceive, may be humorous or malicious, and often involve citing a trusted source)",[]]]},{"rt":[["uninformed",["Nyhan and Reif ler (2010)"]]]},{"rt":[["uninformed subject",[]]]},{"sp":[["Construal Level Theory",[]]]},{"ex":[["Many people will attempt to provide a numerical answer to the question \"How many animals of each kind did Moses take on the ark?\" even when warned about this type of trick, and later demonstrate knowledge that the reference should be to Noah, not to Moses",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a bias in responses, and not differences in knowledge, accounts for the framing effect. Given insufficient knowledge, individuals are more likely to guess \"true\" when faced with a negatively framed compared to positively framed (identical) statistical statement.",["Hilbig, 2012b"]]],"rt":[["framing effect",[]],["concept valence",[]]]},{"de":[["negatively framed versus positively framed statements are more likely to be judged as true",["Hilbig, 2009(Hilbig, , 2012b)"]]],"rt":[["expectations",[]],["the semantics of the statements",[]],["individuals' mindset",[]]]},{"rt":[["negativity bias",[]]],"ex":[["the negatively framed statement (2) that focuses on the divorce rate is more likely to be judged as true compared to the positively framed version (1) that focuses on marriage duration",["Hilbig, 2009"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["photos capture attention, and can at times, aid comprehension and increase the chances that people remember the associated content",[]]],"sy":[["decorative photos",[]]],"ex":[["a photo of a man standing in front of stacks of ballot boxes",[]],["the headshot of a giraffe",[]],["a photo of Nick Cave on stage with a microphone in his hand and singing to a crowd",[]],["a photo of benzene",[]],["a photo of quills in a pot of ink",[]]]},{"de":[["Repetition also increases perceived social consensus",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["false amplification",[]]]},{"de":[["difference in attitudes",[]]]},{"rt":[["negativity bias",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Sense-making",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["fact checking",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We assessed this based on the standing of the source, as determined through external indicators such as historical veracity, accountability, and retrospective corrections.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["retraction epidemic",[]]]},{"sp":[["retraction",[]]]},{"sp":[["Misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Schizotypal personality also involves autistic fantasy and an absence of repression",["Perry, Presniak, & Olson, 2013"]],["These mechanisms allow individuals to believe that the self is all-powerful and to protect themselves from shame or fear by imagining that others have these thoughts and emotions.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Strong religious systems",[]]],"ex":[["The Boko Haram group in Nigeria is an example of a sect because it defined itself as a dissident group, rejected traditional education, and increased secrecy and reliance on privileged knowledge.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This tendency matches the general definition of a self-serving bias as a \"cognitive or perceptual process that is distorted by the need to maintain and enhance self-esteem\"",["Forsyth, 2008, p. 429"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["being patriotic",[]],["nationalistic",[]],["British",[]],["a Londoner",[]],["a European",[]],["male",[]],["a parent",[]],["a taxpayer",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Social media platforms are designed for people to come together and share identity-relevant content.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["problems in source monitoring",["Johnson, Hashtroudi, & Lindsay, 1993"]]]},{"de":[["This includes lexical features (e.g., number of words, average word length, number of unique words) and syntactic features (e.g., n-grams, parts of speech).",[]]]},{"de":[["Trolling is a fishing term, originally referring to the process of slowly dragging a lure or baited hook from the back of a fishing boat.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["repetition-based",[]]]},{"de":[["truthiness may be driven, in part, by an illusion of evidence created by the photo, rather than changes in the ease of processing produced by the photo.",[]]],"sy":[["truth effect",[]]],"rt":[["illusion of evidence",[]]]},{"de":[["This truthiness effect holds over several days and influences a range of judgments, including judgments about general knowledge facts, predictions about future events, and judgments about our own episodic memories.",[]],["This truthiness effect -that non-probative photos bias people to believe claims -also holds in other domains of judgment.",[]],["the addition of semantic information, not photos per se, led to a truthiness effect.",["Newman et al., 2012"]],["how the availability of conceptually relevant information can enhance processing, but bias judgment.",[]],["borrowing a word that US satirist Stephen Colbert coined for \"truth that comes from the gut and not books\"",[]],["biasing effect of non-probative photos",[]]],"sy":[["truth that comes from the gut and not books",[]]],"rt":[["rose-colored cognitive biases about future events",[]],["truthiness paradigm",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Uncertainty is produced by a discrepancy between the actual level of understanding of an event or phenomenon and the desired level of understanding (Park, 2010).",["(Park, 2010)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformed",["Nyhan and Reif ler (2010)"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformed subject",[]]]},{"rt":[["group consciousness",[]]],"ex":[["fascism, fundamentalism, fanaticism, and terrorism",[]]]},{"rt":[["Propaganda",[]],["semantic warfare",[]]],"sb":[["semantic warfare",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a sense of confidence, and ontological security, mainly through reliance on routine and habitual interactions",["Mitzen, 2006","Kinvall, 2004"]],["The developed sense of ontological security involves, at the level of practical consciousness, a person's understanding of his existential essence: insight into human life, coexistence with other individuals, the need for a continuous personal identity, etc.",[]]],"sy":[["ontological confidence",["Laing, 1976","1976"]]],"rt":[["identity security",["Gustafsson, 2014"]]]},{"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["The effectiveness of propaganda depends on the willingness of people to conceive relevant narratives.",[]],["The instrument of semantic war is propaganda, which strives to provide a person with a sense of \"ontological security\".",[]],["propaganda as a technology of information and psychological influence within the framework of modern political communications",[]],["Propaganda as a means and instrument of semantic warfare occupies a virtual space and affects the entire mental sphere of a person and forms his semantic constructs.",[]],["In the temporal dimension, it is a prolonged war which is not interested in the very facts but in their misinterpretation (Martin, 1982).",["Martin, 1982"]],["the objective of propaganda as a tool and means of information warfare is the destruction of reality.",[]],["The desired effect is achieved through pulp political talk shows, TV series, and other propaganda activities.",[]],["it denoted a fanatical appeal to the masses based on unilateral informing and manipulation via communication channels",["Czitrom, 1982"]]],"rt":[["political propaganda",[]],["information and psychological operation",[]],["information weapons",[]],["information warfare",[]],["information dominance",[]],["cyber war",[]],["information security",[]],["Information-semantic warfare",[]],["semantic warfare",[]]]},{"rt":[["psychological operation",[]],["information warfare",[]]],"sb":[["psychological operation",["Dictionary, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["reliance on the mechanisms of routinization of human behavior in everyday life",[]]]},{"de":[["It takes place in a virtual space and affects the entire mental sphere: cognitive, emotional, and volitional.",[]],["Thus, the objective of propaganda as a tool and means of information warfare is the destruction of reality.",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]],["information warfare",[]]],"sp":[["information warfare",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["One possible explanation is that having a major cognitive need for closure makes straightforward the reaction to a potential threat as the monkeypox epidemic, activating stereotypical and stigmatizing thoughts, such as declassing the threat as a hoax.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["So these traits may partly explain people's general tendency to believe and perceive information from the environment as useful, make it their own, or reject it, regardless of the content.",[]]]},{"de":[["Epistemic trust refers to an adaptive attitude in relatively benign social circumstances in which the individual is selectively and appropriately open to social learning opportunities in the context of relationships.",[]]]},{"sp":[["mentalized affectivity",[]]]},{"sp":[["mentalized affectivity",[]]]},{"de":[["The affective regulation of emotion is based on the capacity for mentalization.",[]],["part of a concentric process of emotion regulation",[]],["The affective regulation of emotion is based on the capacity for mentalization. In this sense, emotions are not only controlled in the process of regulation, but are also reevaluated in meaning in a process that involves identifying, processing, and expressing the emotion.",[]]],"rt":[["theory of mind",[]],["emotional regulation",[]],["emotional intelligence",[]]],"sb":[["Identifying emotions",[]],["Processing emotions",[]],["Expressing emotions",[]]]},{"de":[["This trait is described along a continuum from a high need for closure at one end and an increased need to avoid closure at the other end.",[]]]},{"sp":[["mentalized affectivity",[]]]},{"ex":[["a woman who has sex on the first date is an easy one",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Owing to its emphasis on \"cold facts,\" this frame is frequently deployed in broadsheet newspapers.",[]]],"sy":[["economy-oriented frames",[]]],"sp":[["news frame",[]],["generic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Research across different disciplines shows that emotions are a central force behind people's perceptions, cognitions, and behaviors",["Ellsworth, 2013"]],["Studying emotions as discrete entities facilitates more nuanced and accurate predictions about the influence of a distinct emotion on an outcome following stimulus exposure.",[]],["Especially in media studies, where stimuli are usually complex, discrete emotions offer the largest utility to identify more and unique effects",["Nabi, 2010"]]]},{},{"de":[["Research shows that episodic frames have strong effects on emotions, which consecutively shape policy support",["Aarøe, 2011","Gross, 2008"]]],"rt":[["human interest frame",[]]]},{"de":[["Exemplars, however, can also distort perceptions through heuristic thinking",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["the human interest frame",[]],["the economic consequences frame",[]]],"sp":[["News frames",[]]]},{"de":[["By featuring an individual case, the issue becomes not only more personal but also more emotional",["Aarøe, 2011"]],["human interest frames are indeed more emotionally arousing than economy-oriented frames",[]]],"rt":[["episodic news frame",["Iyengar, 1991","Gross, 2008","Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000"]]],"sp":[["news frame",[]],["generic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["the contestation cue or, more specifically, the meaning attached to the issue drives framing effects.",[]]],"sb":[["moderately contested issues",[]]],"ex":[["the former is associated with a high-polarized opinion landscape in which the size of two contesting parties is roughly equal in size",["Szczerbiak & Taggart, 2004"]],["the latter refers to an opinion landscape in which public opinion is more scattered",[]]]},{"sp":[["News frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["by leaving behind seemingly irrelevant aspects, frames allow the journalist to compose a simplified version of a complex problem.",[]]],"sb":[["Issue-specific frames",["de Vreese & Lecheler, 2012"]],["generic frames",["de Vreese & Lecheler, 2012"]]],"ex":[["Issue-specific frames pertain to a specific topic",["de Vreese & Lecheler, 2012"]],["generic frames are neither thematically nor culturally bounded",["de Vreese & Lecheler, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["In essence, it refers to the persuasiveness of information.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["cooperative arguers",[]]]},{"sp":[["information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the single purpose of commercial journalism is profit-making by harvesting people's attention, which is sold to advertisers.",[]],["a hybrid institution that simultaneously pursues two functions: the economic, which is profit-making, and the democratic, which is providing quality news",["Jackson 2009"]],["prioritize their commercial interests over the promotion of deliberation",[]],["profit-making became an end in itself",[]],["the market logic driving for-profit news media",[]],["the single purpose of commercial journalism is profit-making by harvesting people's attention, which is sold to advertisers",[]],["A more nuanced, common, and realistic view conceives it as a hybrid institution that simultaneously pursues two functions: the economic, which is profit-making, and the democratic, which is providing quality news",["Jackson 2009"]]],"rt":[["commercial journalism with deliberative tinges",[]],["deliberative journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["the cooperative ideal asks to adopt the attitude of teachers and students and to learn from each other's perspectives and ideas, striving to nurture each claim and argument to its most attractive form, developing their weak points and furthering whatever helpful contribution it is they can bring to the table.",["Stevens (2016: 378-379)"]]],"rt":[["adversarial model of argumentation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["populist gatekeeping",[]]],"sp":[["deliberative journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["an ideal that does not correspond exactly to any of the main journalistic ideals theorized so far",[]],["the press's main function is epistemic: to actively promote good democratic deliberations",[]],["journalism should frame politics as a continuous process of finding solutions to common problems; solutions that are either consensual or at least acceptable to everyone",[]],["journalism should actively foster political discussions that are characterized by impartiality, rationality, intellectual honesty and equality among the participants.",[]],["Journalism in a civic democracy promotes political participation by creating and managing opportunities for public deliberation.",[]],["deliberative journalists shouldn't merely offer a platform for others to debate; nor should they mechanically report the arguments offered by different actors. Instead, they should promote that deliberation, in part, by actively criticizing the actions and views of different actors and by offering new arguments if necessary.",[]],["deliberative scholars generally believe that the press should be an active public reasoning institution that engages in criticism and provides new arguments.",[]],["The ethical rationale of deliberative journalists is to actively promote quality deliberation, for which providing facts is just one instrumental activity among others.",[]],["objective reporting neglects key practices of deliberative journalism, such as conducting investigative reporting and engaging in criticism.",[]],["spark debate on how to prevent further corruption in the future.",[]],["profit-seeking is not at all part of what deliberative journalism entails",[]],["the economic function would be subsidiary to fulfilling the democratic one",[]],["the four main journalistic duties it entails, which I referred to as the general duty of deliberative gatekeeping, the duty to set a deliberative agenda, the duty to explain, and the duty to promote public reasoning.",[]],["deliberative journalism's main function is to provide citizens with the information they need to update their political knowledge and thus be able to engage in high-quality deliberation.",[]]],"rt":[["public journalism",[]],["objective reporting",[]],["partisan journalism",[]],["watchdog journalism",[]],["commercial journalism",[]],["deliberative democracy",[]],["watchdog",[]],["commercial journalism with deliberative tinges",[]],["deliberative gatekeeping",[]],["duty to set a deliberative agenda",[]],["duty to explain",[]],["duty to promote public reasoning",[]]],"sb":[["the general duty of deliberative gatekeeping",[]],["the duty to set a deliberative agenda",[]],["the duty to explain",[]],["the duty to promote public reasoning",[]],["a more passive deliberative press that refrains from criticizing and generating new arguments",[]]]},{"rt":[["other agents that promote deliberation incidentally or unconsciously",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They can thus be seen as second-order duties, since their content and implications largely depend on the first-order duty to set a deliberative agenda, for whose realization they are instrumental.",[]],["The journalistic duty to explain entails an obligation to provide the information that would best help citizens achieve these three kinds of understanding about newsworthy issues.",[]]],"rt":[["duty to promote public reasoning",[]]],"sp":[["deliberative journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["This duty requires journalists to encourage their audiences to engage in critical reflection on the issues they report, fairly weighing the reasons for and against different possible courses of action.",[]]],"rt":[["duty to explain",[]]],"sp":[["deliberative journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["the specific duty that governs the selection of issues in deliberative newsmaking",[]],["This is the specific duty that governs the selection of issues in deliberative newsmaking.",[]],["They can thus be seen as second-order duties, since their content and implications largely depend on the first-order duty to set a deliberative agenda, for whose realization they are instrumental.",[]]],"sp":[["deliberative journalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["political understanding",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the purpose of these explanations is not to help citizens reach an agreement on what should be done, but something prior and more basic: to enable them to gain an accurate understanding of what is at stake",[]]]},{"de":[["Fox (2013: 270) suggests a Rawlsian view, according to which objectivity \"mandates journalists to proceed in a manner that we can reasonably expect others to accept as reasonable.\"",["Fox (2013: 270)"]]]},{},{"de":[["the ideal of objective reporting required journalists to limit themselves to dispassionately describing the world, avoiding any \"analysis, interpretation, investigative reporting, dramatic description, theoretical speculation, strong comment, and campaigning\"",["Ward 2015: 239"]],["More specifically, the ideal of objective reporting required journalists to limit themselves to dispassionately describing the world, avoiding any \"analysis, interpretation, investigative reporting, dramatic description, theoretical speculation, strong comment, and campaigning\" (Ward 2015: 239).",["Ward 2015: 239"]],["the ideal of objective reporting requires reporting not the argument itself, but rather the fact that someone made an argument (Tuchman 1972: 665).",["Tuchman 1972: 665"]],["required journalists to limit themselves to dispassionately describing the world, avoiding any \"analysis, interpretation, investigative reporting, dramatic description, theoretical speculation, strong comment, and campaigning\"",["Ward 2015: 239"]]]},{"de":[["Partisan journalists are thus not members of a public reasoning institution but rather of a faction whose interests and views they share and serve (Ward 2015: 184, 191).",["Ward 2015: 184","191"]],["partisan journalists are under no obligation to explain issues to their audiences, for what matters isn't that the audiences understand those issues but rather that they take sides",[]],["partisan journalists shouldn't be expected to incentivize the fair assessment of others' views and interests.",[]]],"sy":[["factionalist journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["scientific understanding",[]]],"sb":[["rational political understanding",[]],["empathetic political understanding",[]]],"sp":[["understanding",[]]]}] |