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714cbfe | 1 | [{"de":[["enriching the simple binary {0, 1} labels of news articles that capture the subtle reasons behind why articles might be considered fake instead of just knowing whether they are fake or not",[]]]},{},{"de":[["fascism's unique form of cultural individualism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["it is the shadow of the events rather than the events themselves which are summoned by analysis",["347"]]]},{"sy":[["\"homeland\"",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["totalitarian propaganda has three central characteristics that differentiate it from other forms: (1) it is regressive, insofar as it hopes to de-individuate the masses by fostering conformist, irrational (anti-liberal, anti-intellectual) thoughts and feelings; (2) it is totalistic, insofar as it demands \"total power over opinion formation\" (p. 116) and the elimination of competing ideologies; and (3) its only criterion is success in capturing mass adherence, because it does not actually seek to convince the populace of the validity of a particular agenda, but rather to alter their collective psychology.",["116","p. 116"]],["Thus, if totalitarian propaganda aims to produce the fascist mass by manufacturing a compelled inclusion, U.S. advertising produces the individual consumer-worker through an opposing route: the threat of exclusion from the illusory collective.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it is characterized by doublespeak",[]]]},{},{"de":[["arguing that real democracy means that we, Christian Europeans preserve and protect our culture, our religion and our civilizational achievements.",[]]]},{"de":[["One area is related to political effectiveness",[]]]},{"de":[["Populism dominates the agenda with its themes, subordinating everything to political communication. It creates and shapes alternative narratives, taking a series of tactical steps that build on the fury, frustration, resentment, or even the \"peo ple's\" need for revenge (Müller 2016).",["Müller 2016"]],["All of this is heavily imbued with an exclusionary identity politics, the creation and use of the distinction We and Them, whereby populists constitute the people, the nation, and anyone who expresses a different opinion is simply not part of the group, but part of a fallen political elite, potentially an alien and a traitor",[]]],"sy":[["populist rhetoric",[]],["populist political attitudes",[]]],"rt":[["exclusionary identity politics",[]],["populist rhetoric",[]],["populist political attitudes",[]]]},{"de":[["the concerns raised do not come from real threats, but merely from constructed beliefs about these threats",[]]]},{},{"de":[["However, ethical communication is not addressed only to journalists, it is a critical element of any communication process which wants to be successful.",[]],["ethical communication defines \"a framework or set of acceptable communication principles that align with an enterprise's overarching code of conduct or code of ethics\"",["Mandelbaum, 2019"]],["ethical communication is predicated upon certain values, such as \"being truthful, concise, and responsible with one's words and the resulting actions\"",["Mandelbaum, 2019"]],["Josina Makau (2009) defines ethical in communication by using three key elements: \"the ends (what one hopes to achieve through the communication), the means (how one chooses to communicate), and the consequences (the outcomes of communication)\"",["Josina Makau (2009)"]],["The author considers that \"ethical communication might extend to the medium or even the language chosen for delivering a message\".",["Mayhew, 2018"]],["the principles within ethical communication are autonomy (respecting others freedom), non-maleficence (not causing harm), beneficence, (communicating for good), justice (acting fair), and fidelity (being true to your word).",["Sundrud, 2014"]],["a) truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of communication; b) freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision making fundamental to a civil society; c) understanding and respecting other communicators before evaluating and responding to their messages; d) access to communication resources and opportunities as necessary to fulfil human potential and contribute to the well-being of families, communities, and society; e) communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that respect the unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators; f) condemnation for communication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred; g) commitment to the courageous expression of personal convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice; h) advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings when facing significant choices while also respecting privacy and confidentiality; i) accepting responsibility for the short-and long-term consequences for our own communication and expect the same of others.",["NCA, November 1999"]],["To practice ethical communication means to be truthful, honest, and accurate in every day professional life.",[]],["Lack of ethical communication leads others to question one's professional and personal integrity, and the validity of the message.",[]],["To communicate ethically it is about being committed to the overarching principle of being true, being open to diversity and sustaining the freedom of speech.",[]],["Mandelbaum (2019) focuses on fundamental of ethical communication: a) truthfulness and honesty (presenting information in the most reliable and factual way possible and by having professional integrity); b) consistency and responsibility (presenting consistent information to different parties and accepting short-term and longterm consequences of honest communication); objectivity (being as objective as possible when communicating with others).",["Mandelbaum, 2019"]],["Ruth Mayhew (2018) argues in favour of \"principles or foundational elements\" as: \"communicating fact-based messages honestly and accurately; valuing freedom of expression, diversity of perspective and tolerance of dissent; ever offending or provoke listeners; allowing access to the resources and facts that helped formulate an accessible message; being considerate of basic human needs\".",["Mayhew, 2018"]],["Professor Nolan Sundrud from University of Denver argues the principles within ethical communication are autonomy (respecting others freedom), non-maleficence (not causing harm), beneficence, (communicating for good), justice (acting fair), and fidelity (being true to your word).",["Sundrud, 2014"]]],"rt":[["the ends (what one hopes to achieve through the communication), the means (how one chooses to communicate), and the consequences (the outcomes of communication)",["Makau (2009)"]],["autonomy (respecting others freedom), non-maleficence (not causing harm), beneficence, (communicating for good), justice (acting fair), and fidelity (being true to your word)",["Sundrud, 2014"]]]},{},{"de":[["completely cross checked, it does not create tensions or deceptiveness, it has not hard words, is not turned against other journalists, or police officers, it does not put anybody on the spot, and it (…) does not cause problems to the officials' research",[]],["doesn't include personal views and it only describes the facts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Also, a message is failed when it \"provokes great tension out of nowhere\", because of presenting information without arguments (NGO representative, Racist crime, 17 y., female, Greek).",["(NGO representative, Racist crime, 17 y., female, Greek)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Weiner (2006) focuses in its attribution theory on perceived responsibility as part of the \"one's cognitions surrounding the intentionality of an event\"",[]],["Owning one's words reinforces the importance of being conscientious about ethical communication",["Mandelbaum, 2019"]]],"rt":[["fault",[]],["blame",[]]],"sb":[["institutional ethical responsibility",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals tend to attribute positive experiences to internal factors (within themselves) and negative experiences to external factors (outside themselves)",["Ross, 1977apud Rahimi et. al., 2016"]]],"rt":[["fault and blame",[]]]},{"de":[["the multidisciplinary characteristic of the new strategic communication domain could be explained by the fact that it draws from a variety of methods and subject areas, or from diverse disciplines, such as mass communication, public relations, marketing, management, military history, or security studies etc.",[]],["extending the range of strategic communication to include processes of innovation and leadership",["Zerfass and Huck (2007)"]],["the use of words, actions, images, or symbols to influence the attitudes and opinions of target audiences to shape their behaviour in order to advance interest or policies, or to achieve objectives",["Farwell (2012)"]],["strategic communication can simply be considered a \"whole of government approach developed by different departments and agencies\"",["Paul 2011"]],["strategic communication is also recognized as a developing subfield within the communication domain.",[]]],"rt":[["mass communication, public relations, marketing, management, military history, or security studies",[]],["information operations, psychological operations, public diplomacy, and public affairs",["Taylor, 2009, p. 28"]],["information operations",["(Taylor, 2009, p. 28)"]],["psychological operations",["(Taylor, 2009, p. 28)"]],["public diplomacy",["(Taylor, 2009, p. 28)"]],["public affairs",["(Taylor, 2009, p. 28)"]]],"sb":[["public relations",[]],["marketing communication",[]],["health communication",[]],["political communication",[]],["issues management",[]],["crisis communication",[]],["risk communication",[]],["environmental and science communication",[]],["social movements",[]],["counter terrorism communication",[]],["public diplomacy",[]],["public safety and disaster management",[]]],"sp":[["communication domain",[]]],"ex":[["information operations, psychological operations, public diplomacy, and public affairs",["Taylor, 2009, p. 28"]]]},{"de":[["either when given straightforward or complex prompts, highlighting their unpredictable nature",["2"]],["can generate unexpected and sometimes misleading results called \"hallucinations\", either when given straightforward or complex prompts, highlighting their unpredictable nature",["2"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["framing bias",[]]]},{"de":[["These frame dimensions are general enough to be applied to various political topics.",[]]],"ex":[["\"economics\"",[]],["\"morality\"",[]],["\"Health and safety\"",[]],["\"cultural identity\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which comprises content bias and style bias.",[]]],"rt":[["content",[]],["style",[]],["content bias",[]],["style bias",[]]],"sb":[["content bias",[]],["style bias",[]]]},{"sb":[["content bias",[]],["style bias",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["positive",[]],["negative",[]],["neutral",[]]]},{},{"de":[["mandates a nuanced evaluation of the models' positions on diverse political issues",[]],["can lead to polarization and other harms in downstream applications",[]]],"rt":[["political-orientation",[]],["framing",[]],["Stance",[]]]},{"rt":[["anchor distributions",[]]]},{"ex":[["\"pro-choice\" or \"prolife\" about the topic of reproductive rights",[]]]},{"de":[["it analyzes the lexical polarity (positive, negative, or neutral) towards the target entity in a generation.",[]],["Style bias measured with media bias rate.",[]]],"sp":[["framing bias",[]]],"ex":[["disproportionately criticizing nonpreferred party",["Elejalde et al., 2018"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The bulk of the production of the junk news pages that we include consists of low-quality, sensational content.",[]],["They frequently publish fabricated-i.e. completely fake-news, but as Venturini [15] argues, diffusion is the purpose, not falsity: ' [. . .] spread, rather than fakeness, is the birthmark of these contents that should be called \"viral news\" or possibly \"junk news\" for, just as junk food, they are consumed because they are addictive, not because they are appreciated.' (p.3 in [15])",["15"]],["money-driven",[]],["thriving on the core components of social media use",[]],["The bulk of the production of the junk news pages that we include consists of low-quality, sensational content. They frequently publish fabricated-i.e. completely fake-news, but as Venturini [15] argues, diffusion is the purpose, not falsity: ' [. . .] spread, rather than fakeness, is the birthmark of these contents that should be called \"viral news\" or possibly \"junk news\" for, just as junk food, they are consumed because they are addictive, not because they are appreciated.' (p.3 in [15])",["15"]],["We study the money-driven, low-quality, highly shareable kind of content that is typically distributed on social media as clickbait.",[]],["thriving on the core components of social media use, this highly spreadable, low-quality category of news threatens to drown out better-quality news",["15"]]],"sy":[["viral news",[]],["Commercially motivated junk news",[]]],"rt":[["viral news",["15"]]]},{},{"sy":[["like",[]]],"ex":[["thumbs-up",[]],["heart",[]],["crying emoticon",[]],["shocked emoticon",[]],["angry emoticon",[]]]},{"de":[["statistics of the user engagement with the published posts",[]]]},{"de":[["The proponents of the maximal form of this thesis describe the term Assyrian as \"false\" or even as orientalist propaganda.",[]]],"sy":[["East Syrian",[]],["Nestorian",[]],["Syriac Christian",[]],["suraye",[]],["suryoye",[]]],"rt":[["Aramaic",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["nationalism",[]]]},{"de":[["processes contingent on recent circumstances rather than as primordial categories",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["ethnicity",[]]]},{"de":[["not all Nestorians are Assyrians, and not all Assyrians are Nestorians.",[]]],"rt":[["Nestorians",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Propaganda is still valued as an instrument for advancing all shades of political interests and agendas",[]],["propaganda is 'more often … concerned with reinforcing existing trends and beliefs'",[]],["it operates with many different kinds of truth -the outright lie, the half truth, the truth out of context.",[]],["propaganda is ethically neutral -it may be good or bad",["Welch, 2002: 5"]],["The first task of the student of propaganda is to divest the word of its pejorative and derogatory associations",["Welch, 2002: 5"]],["propaganda is ethically neutral -it may be good or bad.",["Welch, 2002: 5"]],["Its persuasive function.",["Lasswell, 1927;Institute for Propaganda Analysis, 1937;Welch, 2002;Taylor, 2003;Shabo, 2008;Stanley, 2015"]],["Audiences.",["Lasswell, 1927;Institute for Propaganda Analysis, 1937;Welch, 2002;Taylor, 2003;Shabo, 2008;Stanley, 2015"]],["Intentions and agendas for cultivating particular ideas or directing particular behaviours.",["Lasswell, 1927;Institute for Propaganda Analysis, 1937;Welch, 2002;Taylor, 2003;Shabo, 2008;Stanley, 2015"]],["Use of flawed reasoning or emotional appeal.",["Lasswell, 1927;Institute for Propaganda Analysis, 1937;Welch, 2002;Taylor, 2003;Shabo, 2008;Stanley, 2015"]]],"rt":[["public diplomacy",[]],["public relations",[]],["healthcare warning",[]]],"ex":[["the viral spread of propaganda",["Hobbs, 2020: 69"]]]},{"de":[["yet another (quite unnecessary) label, sharp power, is required to describe many of the actions that would have been described previously as propaganda or political warfare.",[]]]},{"de":[["a universal 'catch-all' term that is used by policymakers and academics alike to describe strategic communications via attraction.",[]],["a universal 'catch-all' term that is used by policymakers and academics alike",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["rumor detection",[]]]},{"de":[["related to rumor detection",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A high betweenness centrality signals a strategic position within the network",["61"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["information",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["They possess the necessary financial and social resources to produce PR material that is \"diced, sliced, and packaged\" for journalists",[]],["Powerful actors as pharmaceutical companies invest in ready-made news, and storylines professionally outlined by their public relations and commercial departments.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These news gathering routines have become established over decades",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["news value",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["DECOR suppresses noise in the news engagement graph by downweighting the noisy edges, specifically via learning a social degree correction mask based on a theoretically motivated likelihood ratio-based statistic under the DCSBM model, with a nonlinear relaxation to improve the flexibility of the model.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the edge weights are positively correlated with the number of common readers, and larger edge weights imply closer connections between news articles.",[]],["The weighted node degrees in A can be used to measure the intensity of user engagements for each news article.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["We operationalized this frame with two indicators: contrasting research findings (Zehr, 2000;Ruhrmann et al., 2015;cf. Guenther et al., 2019) or conflicting viewpoints about the topic at hand (cf. Antilla, 2005).",["Zehr, 2000","Ruhrmann et al., 2015","cf. Guenther et al., 2019","cf. Antilla, 2005"]],["controversy was conveyed by highlighting conflicting viewpoints within the scientific community, for example, by noting that study findings departed from previous research, or that research studies had produced mixed results",[]],["Contrasting findings",[]],["Conflicting viewpoints",[]]]},{"de":[["Zehr posits that this frame often relies on a \"practice of interjecting and emphasizing controversy or disagreement among scientists\"",["2000"]],["Antilla (2005) expands on this definition, arguing that controversy can also be mediated by highlighting disagreements between scientists and those outside of academia, such as industry leaders.",["2005"]],["Guenther et al. do not explicitly identify a controversial science frame, instead characterizing stories that highlight \"contrasting findings of research, contrasting interpretation of [the] same data-set, [or] conflicting viewpoints of researchers\"",["2019"]],["highlighted differences between the views of scientists and other actors, such as parents or medical practitioners",[]],["instances most often highlighted disagreements between scientists and policymakers",[]],["Contrasting research findings highlighted conflicts from within the scientific community, such as when research findings departed from those of other studies. Conflicting viewpoints, on the other hand, originated outside of the academy, such as when scientific consensus did not translate into political consensus or when a personal anecdote presented in a news story differed from the research findings.",[]]],"rt":[["uncertain science frame",[]],["Contrasting findings",[]],["Conflicting viewpoints",[]],["scientific credibility",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]]],"ex":[["news stories employing a controversial frame often \"included rhetoric from climate skeptics with known fossil fuel industry ties\" (Antilla, 2005, p. 347) that called the research findings into question.",["Antilla, 2005"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["news stories about broader topics may also play an important role.",[]],["embedding scholarly publications in coverage focused on broader issues, such as policy development, economics, or personal anecdotes",[]],["issue-focused stories seldom included details like author names, affiliations, or journal titles.",[]],["They were also less likely to provide any details about the study design or methods, and more likely to provide only a link to the scholarly publications they referenced.",[]]],"rt":[["science communication stories",[]],["science communication",[]]]},{"de":[["away from the more traditional emphasis on law enforcement",[]]]},{"rt":[["republished story",[]]]},{"rt":[["original story",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["issue-focused stories",[]]]},{"de":[["This frame includes a \"focus on scientific uncertainty over efficacy or outcomes of stem cell-related research and applications, \"",["Nisbet et al., 2003"]],["Uncertainty was most often conveyed by noting a lack of existing research (n = 7, 41.2%).",[]],["stories questioned the scientific credibility of the studies themselves (n = 6, 35.3%).",[]],["It cautions against viewing the research findings as trusted facts, often by raising doubts about the scientific credibility of the research results or the researchers themselves, emphasizing conflicts of interest (e.g., industry funding) or methodological shortcomings, such as small sample sizes (Zehr, 2000;Guenther et al., 2019;Stecula and Merkley, 2019).",["Zehr, 2000;Guenther et al., 2019;Stecula and Merkley, 2019","Zehr, 2000","Guenther et al., 2019","Stecula and Merkley, 2019"]]],"rt":[["controversial science frame",[]],["valid science frame",[]],["Preliminary findings",[]],["Questionable credibility",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]]],"ex":[["operationalized the uncertainty frame as shedding doubt on the veracity of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) climate consensus, by referring, for example, to a lack of understanding about the issue at hand.",["Stecula and Merkley, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["These news stories do not convey any opposing views or doubts toward the research findings or topic, such that the authors of the study in question act as the \"primary definers\" (ibid.) of the issue at hand.",[]],["That is, scientific information is communicated using a neutral tone, without controversy, discussion, or evaluation of risks or benefits.",[]],["By omitting information about the study design, the valid science frame conveyed validity by implying broad scientific agreement (n = 33, 17.9%)-like Frakt's story 2017, which points to \"several systematic reviews and meta-analyses of therapies for opioid addiction found that methadone therapy reduced criminal activities related to heroin use\"-and by emphasizing scientific credibility by stating author affiliations (n = 42, 22.8%) or journal titles (n = 30, 16.3%).",[]],["this framing is most often achieved not by highlighting scientific credibility or the rigor of the research methods, but by omitting study details and other contextual information-sometimes by merely providing a link to the published study",[]],["Specifically, we proposed that this frame omits any potential scientific uncertainty and controversy regarding the study, such as poor methodological quality or contrasting research findings.",[]],["the valid science frame, in particular, was often communicated by omitting details about the research referenced, rather than highlighting them",[]],["Journalists appeared to communicate scientific validity not by emphasizing the rigor of the methods (or lack thereof), but by simply reporting research findings without elaboration-at the extreme, providing nothing more than a link to the published study.",[]]],"rt":[["uncertain science frame",[]],["Trusted facts",[]],["Positive",[]],["scientific credibility",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Ethiopians like stew",[]]]},{"ex":[["The lawyer misrepresented the situation and tricked the person",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["There is an Asian family that lives down the street",[]]]},{"de":[["they require knowledge of their existence in the society to be identified",[]],["they might also often express positive sentiment about the target group.",[]],["they are still undesirable as they propagate false biases in the society and are offensive to the target group.",[]],["Stereotypes differ from other types of offensive text in two key aspects: (1) they require knowledge of their existence in the society to be identified, and (2) they might also often express positive sentiment about the target group.",[]]],"rt":[["hate-speech",[]],["misogyny",[]],["abuse",[]],["threats",[]],["insult",[]],["explicit stereotype",[]],["implicit stereotypical association",[]],["anti-stereotype",[]],["non-stereotypes",[]]],"sp":[["harmful language",[]],["offensive text",[]],["offensive language",[]]]},{"de":[["hate speech is addressed towards a collec-tive to vilify it through verbal statements, nonverbal messages, symbols, images, or memes",["Simpson, 2013"]]]},{},{"ex":[["The emotional suppression and the emotional transference are examples of inadequate coping strategies.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["The type of stance in various existing definitions",[]],["stance",[]]],"ex":[["SemEval-2016, VAST, P-Stance, (Grimminger and Klinger, 2021), (Aleksandric et al., 2024), and MGTAB",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["deny",[]],["refute",[]],["disagree",[]]],"rt":[["positive stance",[]]]},{"rt":[["no stance",[]]],"sp":[["truthfulness stance",[]]]},{"sy":[["comment",[]],["query",[]],["no stance",[]]],"rt":[["neutral stance",[]],["no stance",[]]]},{"rt":[["neutral stance",[]]],"sp":[["truthfulness stance",[]]]},{"sy":[["support",[]],["agree",[]]],"rt":[["negative stance",[]],["neutral/no stance",[]]]},{"de":[["RATSD generates contextual knowledge related to factual claims and tweets using the approach of retrieval augmented generation (RAG)",[]],["RATSD produces stance analyses -narratives that describe tweets' stance toward claims -by prompting LLMs with the generated contextual knowledge.",[]],["RATSD includes a classifier based on a fine-tuned language model that takes as input a claim, the tweet analysis, and the contextual knowledge. It then outputs a classification label representing the orientation of the tweet's truthfulness stance toward the claim.",[]]],"rt":[["large language models (LLMs)",[]],["retrieval-augmented generation (RAG)",[]]]},{"sb":[["truthfulness stance",[]]]},{"de":[["assesses whether a textual utterance affirms its truth, disputes it as false, or expresses a neutral or indeterminate position.",[]],["tweets' stance toward the truthfulness of factual claims",[]],["Given a factual claim c and a tweet t, the task of truthfulness stance detection is to return one of three distinct classification labels -positive (⊕), negative ( ), or neutral/no stance ( ). A positive stance applies when t conveys the belief that c is true. A negative stance indicates that t believes c is false. A neutral/no stance signifies that t either expresses uncertainty about the truthfulness of c (neutral) or does not explicitly take a position on c's truthfulness, even though both t and c discuss the same topic (no stance).",[]],["The expression of truthfulness stance may differ depending on whether the claim is true or false.",[]]],"rt":[["stance",[]]],"sb":[["neutral stance",[]],["no stance",[]]],"sp":[["stance",[]],["The type of stance in various existing definitions",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["ataque",[]],["defensa",[]]]},{"rt":[["enfoques de ataque",[]]],"sp":[["teoría del Framing",[]]]},{"sy":[["guilt frame",[]],["enfoque de ataque",[]],["enfoque antigubernamental",[]],["attack frame",[]]]},{"sy":[["excuse frame",[]],["enfoque de excusa",[]],["enfoque de respuesta",[]],["response frame",[]],["marco pro-gubernamental",[]]]},{"sy":[["excuse frame",[]],["enfoque de respuesta",[]],["response frame",[]],["marco pro-gubernamental",[]]]},{"sy":[["enfoques implícitos",["Matthes, 2007, p. 138"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["referring to fabricated information that closely mimics news and taps into existing public beliefs to influence behaviour",["Waisbord, 2018"]],["Fake news is a consequence of a communicative ecosystem that has serious weaknesses and risks and the result of malice and intentional deceit.",["Kucharski (2016)"]],["the dissemination of fake news is similar to a virus epidemic.",["Kucharski (2016)"]],["the dissemination of fake news is similar to a virus epidemic",["Kucharski (2016)"]],["fake news adapts to dissemination, when the system is unregulared.",[]],["the message that is being spread is ultimately based on false information",[]],["telling events as known through their subjective experience, is not telling an empirical truth",["Palczewski, Ice, and Fritch (2016, p. 145)"]],["young people associate, in a non-judgmental way, certain sensationalist news content with the idea of fake news, revealing high levels of skepticism about the information content",[]],["an approach to ideas that diverge from the principles and foundations of journalism, like informing or searching for the truth of facts",[]]],"rt":[["manipulation",[]],["distortion",[]],["misinformation",["Mihailidis & Viotty, 2017, p. 4"]],["sensationalism",[]],["hoax-based stories",["Mihailidis & Viotty, 2017, p. 4"]],["hearsay",["Mihailidis & Viotty, 2017, p. 4"]],["rumors",["Mihailidis & Viotty, 2017, p. 4"]],["contested truths",[]]],"ex":[["(i) a stunning headline; (ii) a revelation that reaffirms us or that make us feel outraged; and (iii) a legitimate and reliable appearance.",["Garcia (2018, pp. 65-66)"]],["impact voting and legislative decisions",["Sydell, 2017"]],["a stunning headline; (ii) a revelation that reaffirms us or that make us feel outraged; and (iii) a legitimate and reliable appearance.",["Garcia (2018, pp. 65-66)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The editorials are significantly marked with deontic modals because of the need to draw the attention of the government to expedient responsibilities on its part to ensure that the country is conducive, aiding the willingness of medical practitioners to remain and practice their profession in the country.",[]]]},{"ex":[["should and ought(not) to",[]]]},{"de":[["Deontic modality concerns what is obligatory, permissible, or necessary, based on a set of moral principles.",[]],["It is dependent on some kind of authority, that is, permission granted by some authority (speaker/writer) influences the ability of the occurrence of events (Palmer 2003).",[]],["It is dependent on some kind of authority, that is, permission granted by some authority (speaker/writer) influences the ability of the occurrence of events",["2003"]],["Deontic modality concerns what is obligatory, permissible, or necessary, based on a set of moral principles. It is dependent on some kind of authority, that is, permission granted by some authority (speaker/writer) influences the ability of the occurrence of events",["Palmer 2003"]]],"sy":[["modulation",[]]],"sp":[["modality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The dynamic meaning identified by Palmer covers the other subclasses of meanings (circumstantial, neutral and external necessity) that fall under the unclear boundaries tagged as non-epistemic and nondeontic (Depraetere 2015).",[]],["it is used to communicate likely or possible actions that the government could undertake to halt or sustain medical brain drain in the country in the sample editorials as indicated in excerpts [16] and [17].",[]],["The dynamic meaning identified by Palmer covers the other subclasses of meanings (circumstantial, neutral and external necessity) that fall under the unclear boundaries tagged as non-epistemic and nondeontic",["Depraetere 2015"]]],"sp":[["modality",[]]]},{"de":[["The main objective of an editorial is to influence readers to see issues from the perspective of the writer, thus helping the reader to make up his mind about the events of the world (Marques and Mont' Alverne 2019).",[]]]},{"de":[["The epistemic modals deployed in the editorials are chiefly channeled towards the projected possibilities if the government addresses the issues responsible for the exodus of health workers.",[]],["epistemic modality in editorials are dominantly predictive",[]]]},{"de":[["It has to do with the speaker's assessment of validity of the proposition in terms of \"possibility\" and \"necessity\" (Palmer 1986: 121).",[]],["Epistemic modality can be said to be subjective in nature because the assessment of validity is ultimately derived from the speaker's or writer's commitment to the proposition in the act of communication (Funamoto 1999;Palmer 1990).",[]],["Epistemic modality can be said to be subjective in nature because the assessment of validity is ultimately derived from the speaker's or writer's commitment to the proposition in the act of communication",["Funamoto 1999;Palmer 1990"]]],"sp":[["modality",[]]]},{"sp":[["modal auxiliaries",[]]],"ex":[["will(not) and would",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They give more information about functions of the main verbs that follow them.",[]]],"ex":[["can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would and must",["Quirk et al. 1985","Quirk et al. (1985)"]]]},{"de":[["a linguistic concept helps to achieve the objective of an editorial -which is to convey a communicator's attitude or opinion about the truth of a proposition or towards a particular situation or event in a way in which the speaker's point of view can be detected in an utterance",[]],["The opinions and judgement of a writer or speaker on the necessity or possibility of propositions are represented through modality",[]],["Modality, a linguistic concept helps to achieve the objective of an editorial -which is to convey a communicator's attitude or opinion about the truth of a proposition or towards a particular situation or event in a way in which the speaker's point of view can be detected in an utterance.",[]],["the subjective characteristic of an utterance is the concern of modality, and is therefore defined as the grammaticalisation of the speaker's or writer's subjective opinions or attitudes",["1986"]]],"sb":[["epistemic",["1990"]],["deontic",["1990"]],["dynamic",["1990"]],["epistemic, deontic and dynamic",["Palmer (1990)"]]]},{"de":[["It is a presentation of fact and opinion in a pleasing, logical and concise manner for the sake of interpreting significant news or influencing opinions of average readers",["Elyazale 2014","Ogunwale 2008","Elyazale 2014;Ogunwale 2008"]]],"sp":[["sub-genre of the large class of opinion discourse",["van Dijk 1996"]]]},{"de":[["Due to journalistic conventions which place important information early in the articles, the lead sentences often contain key information.",[]]],"rt":[["position bias",[]]]},{"de":[["a social construct, which is under pressure from the economic, political and social forces which have historically shaped it.",[]],["more than a scoop or a geographical locus",[]],["it is a social construct, which is under pressure from the economic, political and social forces which have historically shaped it.",[]],["the beat is more than a scoop or a geographical locus; it is a social construct, which is under pressure from the economic, political and social forces which have historically shaped it.",[]]],"rt":[["scoop",[]],["geographical locus",[]]],"sb":[["The Geographic Beat",[]],["The Issue Beat",[]],["The Institution Beat",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an attempt to de-institutionalise the profession.",[]]],"sy":[["civic journalism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["direct hate speech is condemned by international organisations and its use may be a reason for lawsuits against media outlets and their further penalisation",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"ex":[["the dissemination of information that Ukraine prepared terrorist attacks in Donbas",["1"]]]},{},{"de":[["Such expressions and words create intolerance, hatred, and can be humiliating and cause pain",[]],["In addition, statements containing hate speech may include calls for violence and discrimination.",[]],["Publications containing hate speech create intolerance, hatred, and can lead to discrimination and violence.",[]],["Among the main manifestations of hate speech are messages related to anti-Ukrainian rhetoric. The main negative in the analysed media is directed towards such objects as Ukraine as a state entity, Ukrainians, patriotic citizens, the Ukrainianspeaking population, and participants in the 2014 revolution of dignity.",[]],["from the legal point of view hate speech includes direct insults and calls for violent or discriminatory actions against a group of people based on their race, ethnicity, gender, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["hate rhetoric",["UN Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech, 2019"]]],"sb":[["direct hate speech",[]],["indirect (hidden) hate speech",[]],["manipulative hate speech",[]],["direct attacks on the target (type 1)",[]],["indirect attacks by means of ridicule, sarcasm, marginalisation, negative associations based on Second World War archetypes (type 2)",[]],["manipulation and suggestion (type 3)",[]],["Type#1 direct hate speech",[]],["Type#2 indirect hate speech",[]],["Type#3 manipulative hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["To spread the second type of hate speech, modern mass media exploits contempt and ridicule, deliberate exaggeration, or bracketing, which gives the word a figurative meaning or so-called affirmative forms to elucidate historical events.",[]]],"sy":[["indirect hate speech",[]],["manipulative hate speech",[]]],"rt":[["hidden and manipulative language of hostility",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["bypassing formal legal prohibitions (direct insults and calls for action)",[]],["-distortion and subjective interpretation of historical facts; -citing biased \"experts\".",[]],["using the technique of substituting the meanings of concepts by other concept that create negative associations and negative images",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["A title is considered manipulative if it does not match or distorts the information presented in the text of the article.",[]]],"ex":[["A title is considered manipulative if it does not match or distorts the information presented in the text of the article.",[]]]},{"rt":[["indirect influence",[]],["repetition method",[]],["manipulative names",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["fallacies related to argumentation",[]],["informal fallacies",[]],["causation fallacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["domain-specific external knowledge",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This issue arises because current models do not effectively model the complex and often asymmetric relationships between domains",[]],["the negative transfer problem in multi-domain fake news detection as a failure to model asymmetric domain relationships",[]]],"rt":[["domain shift",[]]]},{"de":[["arises from the unprincipled fusion of knowledge across domains",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["has traditionally been dominated by a literary discourse, and discourses of intimacy and adventure",[]],["diverts journalism towards what might interest the public instead of what is in the public's interest",[]],["The shared exigence that traditional feature journalism seems to address comprises a publicly recognized need to be entertained and connected with other people on a mainly emotional level by accounts of personal experiences that are related to contemporary events of perceived public interest.",[]],["The differences among the genres of feature journalism are related to the rhetorical forms that are used to address this exigence.",[]],["feature articles fall somewhere between news writing and short story writing",["2004: 8"]],["the feature writer can provide more in-depth coverage than news journalists can",[]],["the social function of some feature journalism genres thereby has been transformed to include not only entertainment but also enlightenment and insight into complex and quintessential matters of culture and society.",[]],["The social function of feature journalism -which has been surprisingly stable during the past hundred years -has therefore primarily been to entertain the audience and connect people on an emotional level through the exposure of personal experiences of perceived public value.",[]],["novel or subtle combinations of form (which mark feature journalism today)",["(1994: 37)"]],["stories are emotional, and they involve readers.",["(2004: 7)"]],["These articles tell us much about the human condition.",["(2004: 7)"]],["these articles are often less objective than conventional news writing, offering a particular point of view or the author's personal impression, perceptions and opinions",["(2004: 7)"]],["Feature journalism is best understood as a family of genres that address a similar exigence but differ in rhetorical form.",[]]],"sy":[["soft news",[]],["soft news/ feature stories",[]],["feature writing",[]],["feature story",[]],["feature stories",[]]],"rt":[["hard news",[]],["newspaper feature reportage",[]],["profile interview",[]],["human interest",[]],["literary discourse",[]],["short story writing",[]]],"sb":[["newspaper feature reportage",[]],["profile interview",[]],["commercialized and consumer-oriented feature journalism mainly in newspapers",[]],["intimate and fiction-inspired feature journalism predominantly in books",[]],["innovative and experimental feature journalism mainly in online publications",[]]],"sp":[["genres",[]]],"ex":[["Human interest stories",[]],["reportage",[]],["celebrity profiles",[]],["colourful background stories",[]],["lifestyle stories",[]],["personal columns",[]],["Human interest stories, reportage, celebrity profiles, colourful background stories, lifestyle stories, personal columns",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the serious, enlightening kind of journalism that enhances democracy",[]]],"rt":[["soft news",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The new journalists applied techniques of narrative storytelling, scene construction and character development to their stories. They wrote adventure pieces of journalism, utilizing techniques of fiction writing to establish intimate relations with sources and readers.",[]]]},{"de":[["women are now more frequently the subjects of profile interviews because of the increased intimacy of journalism.",[]]],"sp":[["feature journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["The skilled reportage journalist seeks out interesting places, people and environments, she observes and gathers the facts, before writing a story that takes the reader on a journey to the same place, to meet the people there and get to know what they are doing.",[]]],"sp":[["Feature journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["potentially trivialize journalism and mock politics and democracy",[]]],"sy":[["feature stories",[]],["feature journalism",[]]],"rt":[["hard news",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["sedition",[]]]},{"de":[["the third source of Islamic law after the Qurʾān and Sunnah",[]]],"sy":[["consensus",[]]]},{"sb":[["the greater Jihād",[]],["The Lesser Jihād",[]],["greater Jihād",[]],["Lesser Jihād",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Jihād",[]]]},{"sp":[["Jihād",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["traditions",[]],["Athār.",["6"]]]},{"sy":[["Athār.",[]]]},{"de":[["Biyani and colleagues (2016) described several categories of clickbait means, among them exaggeration, teasing, confusion, improper language and graphical material.",["Biyani and colleagues (2016)","2016"]]]},{"de":[["ranging from satire and parody to fabricated or manipulated content",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["fake news is often born from either financial or ideological motivations and therefore seeks to engage readers through rhetorical means.",[]],["On the other hand, fake news is often born from either financial or ideological motivations and therefore seeks to engage readers through rhetorical means.",[]]]},{"sy":[["forward-referencing titles",[]]],"rt":[["forward-referencing titles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["can have a moderating effect on the source scepticism that follows abundant exposure to news (Tsfati & Cappella, 2005).",["Tsfati & Cappella, 2005"]]],"rt":[["source scepticism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Simply said, we act according to how we think and feel, and we do not rely equally on what we can surmise from instinct and what we can reason from logic.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["All words in these lists are positive",[]],["These lists were validated at the time of those studies as good operationalizations of their respective concepts",[]]],"rt":[["Warmth",[]]],"ex":[["Competent, Confident, Independent, Competitive, Intelligent, Capable, Efficient, Skillful, Able, Assertive, Decisive",[]]]},{},{"de":[["this makes it widely applicable, but also makes it reductive, ignoring features of stereotypes that may be of interest in specific contexts such as ours, perhaps only in those contexts.",[]]]},{"de":[["this makes it widely applicable, but also makes it reductive, ignoring features of stereotypes that may be of interest in specific contexts such as ours, perhaps only in those contexts.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["All words in these lists are positive",[]],["These lists were validated at the time of those studies as good operationalizations of their respective concepts",[]]],"rt":[["Competence",[]]],"ex":[["Warm, Tolerant, Good-natured, Sincere, Friendly, Well-intentioned, Trustworthy, Nice, Kind, Nurturing, Understanding",[]]]},{"de":[["Being a digital citizen implies the ability to navigate digital environments and engage in online activities in a safe, responsible and competent manner.",[]]]},{"de":[["NL is gaining increasing interest, particularly among journalists, educators and researchers -it presents itself as a path to combat disinformation",["Amazeen & Bucy, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["It is not a critique of discourse but rather a critical examination of how and why discourse is produced.",[]]],"rt":[["discourse as social practice",[]]],"sp":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["He conceptualizes discourse as a unity of \"context, interaction, and text,\" with the text being the outcome of interaction, and both production and interpretation processes dependent on context",["Fairclough, 1992"]]]},{},{"de":[["These deliberately euphemistic expressions provide readers with strong implications through association.",[]]],"ex":[["In Beijing, the Subject on Everybody's Mind but Not Lips",[]],["In Yanqing, the Wind Blows and the Skiers Wait. And Wait. And Wait",[]],["Beijing Got All Ready for Olympic Curling. But About the Ice …",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["description",[]],["interpretation",[]],["explanation",[]]]},{"de":[["this involves analyzing features that carry experiential, relational, and expressive value, as well as how simple sentences are connected",[]]]},{"de":[["language and symbolic forms can help establish hegemony, or the dominance of certain ideologies, but these conditions are fluid and subject to change.",[]],["dominant ideologies spread through consent and ongoing struggles against those ideologies. This means that language and symbolic forms can help establish hegemony",[]]]},{"de":[["Foucault's (1972) assertion that language becomes the primary vehicle for the transmission, enactment, and reproduction of ideology.",[]]]},{"de":[["help bridge the gap between the readers and the media, fostering a sense of familiarity",[]]],"ex":[["Bounce Back",[]],["Blunder",[]],["Frog Princess! Chen No. 3!",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Newspaper headlines are an important part of news discourse.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["sentiment analysis tools via Google apps were applied to analyze news headlines",[]]],"sy":[["opinion mining",["Mäntylä, Graziotin, & Kuutila, 2018"]]],"rt":[["opinion mining",[]]]},{"de":[["The SVO structure allows for the most direct attribution of responsibility, indicating that S is responsible for the action V performed on O.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such policies usually stipulated that workers should be \"fully vaccinated,\" according to the definition provided by the government of Canada, which required the completion of either two doses of what was then considered a two-dose series or one dose of what was then considered a one-dose series, depending upon the vaccine and manufacturer (i.e. Moderna, Pfizer, Astra-Zeneca, and Johnson).",[]],["All such policies required that employers would undertake their legal duty to follow the accommodation process for those claiming a medical exemption or an exemption based upon a sincere religious belief that precluded covid-19 vaccination, consistent with human rights law.",[]]]},{"de":[["Advocates of social unionism typically argue that unions have an important political role to play in organizing, educating, and mobilizing working-class people around issues that transcend the workplace.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",["Wardle and Derakhshan (2017, p. 20)"]]]},{"de":[["it is established through a cognitive and relational process in which individuals evaluate the qualities of an information source, the content of its messages, or the media system as a whole",["Lucassen & Schraagen, 2012","Medina et al., 2023","Strömbäck et al., 2020"]],["The asset being referred to is fragile and intangible, and is highly relational in nature. It is sensitive to social, economic, cultural, and technological changes",["Serrano-Puche et al., 2023"]],["most trust frameworks in journalism studies consider media trust as a general sentiment rather than something specific to certain situations or individual outlets",["Engelke et al., 2019","2019"]],["the use of a single question to measure this phenomenon does not allow us to identify its multidimensional nature",[]],["asking about trust also assumes every user understands this issue in the same fashion, which can indeed be understood from many different perspectives",[]],["a single question may fall short as to capture all the intricacies behind users' level of trust",[]],["Therefore, most trust frameworks in journalism studies consider media trust as a general sentiment rather than something specific to certain situations or individual outlets (Engelke et al., 2019).",["Engelke et al., 2019"]],["Williams (2012) introduced the term 'media trust' as an analytical approach, distinguishing it from interpersonal and institutional trust, and linking it to audience engagement with various news outlets.",["Williams (2012)"]]],"rt":[["institutional trust",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",["Wardle and Derakhshan (2017, p. 20)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Consequently, individuals' trust in the media is significantly shaped by their trust in political institutions.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["radical right",[]],["manosphere",[]]]},{"de":[["These forms of violence are integrated into an anti-feminist backlash",["Wilhelm; Joeckel, 2018"]]]},{"rt":[["radical right",[]]]},{"de":[["orchestrated movements of antifeminist and far-right profiles",[]],["in reality are driven by small groups with large resources to establish mainstream opinions, criticism, or support for political leaders",["García-Orosa, 2021; Kovic et al., 2018; Piñeiro-Otero; Martínez-Rolán, 2020"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["identified with Vox",[]]],"rt":[["anti-feminist faction",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Tobacco control advocates have used a variety of media advocacy techniques to promote media coverage that will generate public support for tobacco control",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The lie surrounds us at work, on the road, at free time, in everything we see, hear and read.",["A. P. Nikolla, 2012: 5"]]]},{"de":[["This new man would put himself at the service of the ideological cause, would sacrifice himself and everything, by-passing every other spiritual or physical passion.",[]],["who at his basis would build the new family, the structure foundation of the socialist society.",[]]]},{"de":[["concepts of aggression as an internal drive",[]]]},{},{"de":[["predisposes individuals to find certain narratives (e.g., those emphasizing a dangerous, competitive human nature) more plausible and appealing than others",[]]]},{"de":[["focuses on the causes of conflict and non-violent solutions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Dialogue summarization, fittingly, takes dialogues as source text.",[]]]},{"rt":[["confirmatory assertions",[]]],"ex":[["'Technology is ethically neutral'",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["target-specific stance detection",[]]],"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["target-independent stance detection",[]]],"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["monologue rounds",[]],["discussion rounds",[]]]},{},{"de":[["enrich the headlines with three style options (humor, romance and clickbait), in order to attract more readers",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["structural regulation",["Castillo et al. (2017, p. 786)"]]],"sp":[["regulations",[]]]},{"de":[["when these groups exert pressure in defense of particular interests over the State, political parties, public opinion, or their own members, they become pressure groups.",["Linares [cited by Castillo and Almansa (2014)]"]],["Interest groups are individual groupings formed around common particular interests, whose essential purpose of the association is to defend those interests; when these groups exert pressure in defense of particular interests over the State, political parties, public opinion, or their own members, they become pressure groups.",["2014"]]],"rt":[["lobby",[]],["pressure group",[]],["pressure groups",[]]],"sb":[["pressure groups",["Linares [cited by Castillo and Almansa (2014)]"]]]},{"de":[["agencies, communication offices, or law firms, professionally dedicated to lobbying activities on behalf of an interest or pressure group that hires them",["1998"]]],"rt":[["pressure group",[]],["interest group",[]]]},{"de":[["Lobbying is a fundamental mechanism in modern democratic systems as it allows different actors to influence the public decisionmaking process.",[]],["professionalized intermediation between interest groups and decision-makers, a practice that can be regulated within a framework of transparency and ethics",["2018"]]],"sy":[["an activity whose purpose is \"to improve political decisions through the realistic perceptions of companies, associations, or citizen groups\"",["2024"]]],"rt":[["pressure group",[]],["interest group",[]]]},{"rt":[["lobby",[]],["interest group",[]],["while all pressure groups are interest groups, not all interest groups are pressure groups",["2014"]]],"sp":[["interest groups",["Linares [cited by Castillo and Almansa (2014)]"]]]},{"ex":[["understand football as a powerful tool of soft power",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["unintentional inaccuracies",["Ji et al., 2022"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This mirrors the growing trend of LLM-generated content populating the web data used by downstream applications.",[]],["LLM-generated misinformation is deliberately infused into the corpus used by the ODQA model",[]]]},{},{"de":[["QA prompts that include an additional caution regarding misinformation.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]]],"sp":[["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"rt":[["stance recognition",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["stance recognition, is presently regarded as the binary classification problem of deciding whether a given text conveys any attitude towards a certain target topic or not",[]]],"rt":[["polarity classification",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["These considerations cover certain notions and emotions when they encounter false information, affecting their decision to publicly rectify such falseness.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["People naturally seek consistent information (Spohr, 2017); reticence to correct false information may stem from dissonance, driven by the human tendency to seek information that aligns with preexisting beliefs..",["Spohr, 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["Some participants become irritated when they face views different from theirs, especially when the posts are problematic or not fact-based.",[]]],"ex":[["All participants said they empathize more with posts holding viewpoints similar to theirs because they believe them to be more credible, able to validate what they know.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Shame",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["They are able to create and define the terms, whereas the sub-dominant groups' ideas are less respected, marginalized, stigmatized, or muted",["Barkman, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["This comes from their utmost regard for the group, even at the expense of one's own interests or needs",["Bautista, 1999","Nadal, 2021as cited in Chan & Litam, 2021","Bautista, 1999;Nadal, 2021as cited in Chan & Litam, 2021"]],["pakikisama (comradeship) keeps them from correcting because of their utmost regard for the feelings of others",["Chan & Litam, 2021"]],["keeps them from correcting because of their utmost regard for the feelings of others (Chan & Litam, 2021).",["Chan & Litam, 2021"]]],"sy":[["comradeship",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["manifest in the level of one's closeness, the (absence of) motivation to correct, difficulty or ease in correcting family members, and their respect for elders.",[]]],"sb":[["Closeness in relationship",[]],["Familial ties",[]],["Respect for elders",[]]]},{"de":[["cognitive elements-a strong adherence to a set of beliefs on dialogue-effectuate reticence then form difficulties in communication.",[]],["The belief that the loss would be greater than the gain is generally why individuals avoid communication altogether.",[]],["reticent people may feel that quid pro quo is not necessary as they perceive themselves to be effective as mere listeners",[]],["reticent people may behave in ways aimed at minimizing mistakes",[]],["this behavior could be better analyzed based on users' reasoning, perspectives, lived experiences, and the possible outcomes (or lack thereof) when refusing to rectify false information publicly.",[]],["To better understand the reasons behind reticence, Keaten and collaborators (2000) proposed a six-component model. The first component is need, wherein reticent communicators know the importance of communication in society. Secondly, they see themselves as less competent in key communication skills. Thirdly, they feel helpless toward controlling the outcomes because they believe failure is inevitable. Fourthly, reticent people experience anxiety of failing in situations where conversing is needed. The fifth component is devaluation, wherein they experience a paradox of devaluating the importance of communication on a personal level, despite agreeing that communication is valuable. Lastly, withdrawal occurs when they avoid communicating.",["Keaten et al., 2000"]]],"sy":[["passiveness",[]]],"sb":[["need, wherein reticent communicators know the importance of communication in society.",[]],["they see themselves as less competent in key communication skills.",[]],["they feel helpless toward controlling the outcomes because they believe failure is inevitable.",[]],["reticent people experience anxiety of failing in situations where conversing is needed.",[]],["devaluation, wherein they experience a paradox of devaluating the importance of communication on a personal level, despite agreeing that communication is valuable.",[]],["withdrawal occurs when they avoid communicating.",[]]],"ex":[["choosing whom to interact with gave her a sense of control over the conversation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Fusing KG embeddings with text helps separate overlapping labels and propagate external signals like source reliability",["23"]]]},{"de":[["when the model exhibits uniformly low confidence across available categories, the system could flag the instance as potentially harmful but uncategorized",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["The crackhead was unable to hold down a job due to their addiction.",[]],["The person with cocaine use disorder was unable to hold down a job due to their addiction.",[]]]},{"sb":[["depression",[]],["anxiety disorders",[]],["suicidal ideation",["Zhang et al., 2022"]],["bipolar disorder",["Zhang et al., 2022"]],["autism spectrum disorder (ASD)",["Zhang et al., 2022"]],["substance use disorder",["Zhang et al., 2022"]],["eating disorders",[]]]},{"ex":[["Struggling with depression for many years ultimately led him to kill himself.",[]],["Struggling with depression for many years ultimately led him to die by suicide.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Hospitalized for malnutrition, the anorexic's weight had dropped too low.",[]],["Hospitalized for malnutrition, the person living with anorexia nervosa's weight had dropped too low.",[]]]},{"ex":[["The weather was bipolar today, with sunshine and rain alternating throughout the day.",[]],["The weather was oscillating today, with sunshine and rain alternating throughout the day.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Postfeminism, influenced by diverse perspectives and individual stances, examines the suppression and dominance that exist by considering different facets of women's identities.",["Lotz, 2001"]],["it can be seen as having an affective and psychological dimension as well",["Gill, 2017","Gill, 2017, p. 609"]],["there is a growing emphasis on promoting happiness and a positive mindset, while systematically discouraging other emotions like anger and insecurity",["Gill, 2017"]],["the film's narrative is crafted with a postfeminist standpoint, delving into the complexities of feminism, beauty standards, a critical examination of neoliberal consumerist culture, and the role of women within a seemingly abundant yet complex world of opportunities.",[]],["the focus of critique should be on postfeminist media culture. This approach requires a shift away from reliance on a fixed and authentic form of feminism and instead calls for the utilization of postmodern and constructivist perspectives to analyse how gender is portrayed in contemporary media",[]],["postfeminism, much like neoliberal capitalism in a broader context, possesses a unique 'structure of feeling' (as described by Williams in 2001Williams in [1961]]) or 'mood economy' (as articulated by Silva in 2013).",["Gill, 2017, p. 609"]],["within postfeminist culture, there is a growing emphasis on promoting happiness and a positive mindset, while systematically discouraging other emotions like anger and insecurity",["p. 610"]],["In Media Studies, postfeminism may be used to refer to the changes in theory and media representations after second-wave feminism.",[]]],"rt":[["embodiment of femininity, a shift from objectification to subjectification, an emphasis on self-monitoring, discipline, and control, individualism, the significance of choice, a paradigm of reinvention, the interplay between feminist and anti-feminist ideas, the sexualization of culture, consumerism, and the commodification of differences",["Gill, 2007, p. 255"]]]},{},{"de":[["Postfeminist media texts tend to focus on the different relationships women have with power.",[]],["Postfeminist works frequently portray an array of feminist responses, which materialize through characters who confront oppressive systems of power and display diverse forms of opposition",["Lotz, 2001"]],["a text becomes postfeminist when it portrays the challenges experienced by modern women who are influenced by feminism and their endeavours.",[]]]},{"de":[["This concept embodies inherent contradictions, spotlighting the paradox where feminism, while striving to empower women, also imposes its own burdens, leaving many women grappling with happiness in this intricate societal terrain.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Abarca las capacidades de acceso, uso, creación, análisis y evaluación de los contenidos",["Scharrer et al., 2022"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["learners should \"ask relevant questions about origins, context, and suitability for the current information need.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["how an emotional response to information can activate your confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["In this version of lateral reading, students are asked to use Wikipedia to learn more about websites they found.",[]]]},{"de":[["critically evaluate contributions made by others in participatory information environments",[]]]},{"de":[["Searching as Strategic Exploration acknowledges that \"information searching is a contextualized, complex experience that affects, and is affected by, the cognitive, affective, and social dimensions of the searcher.\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["No es un procedimiento protocolar ni una técnica sistemática, sino un ejercicio y una necesidad vital que impulsa a la persona a procurar certidumbre en su entorno informativo.",[]],["la constatación, la cual es más puntual o específica, esporádica y no necesariamente cuenta con herramientas precisas o que al menos no han sido estudiadas en profundidad.",[]],["La constatación adquiere una dimensión política al subvertir, al menos en un principio, las hegemonías epistémicas, privilegiar la autonomía cognitiva y estar vinculada con la vivencia, la memoria y la duda.",[]],["la constatación en su rol de hacer frente a la desinformación",[]],["un espacio propio para la ciudadanía",[]],["práctica distinta de la ejercida por la verificación",[]],["no implica que la constatación no sea una práctica en sí misma y que resulte identificable, incluso sin una acabada sistematización u organización cognitiva",[]],["Este proceso puede ocurrir previamente, de manera concomitante o incluso después de la verificación, y refleja una postura independiente respecto de las fuentes.",[]],["La constatación adquiere una dimensión política al subvertir, al menos en un principio, las hegemonías epistémicas, privilegiar la autonomía cognitiva y estar vinculada con la vivencia, la memoria y la duda. No es un procedimiento protocolar ni una técnica sistemática, sino un ejercicio y una necesidad vital que impulsa a la persona a procurar certidumbre en su entorno informativo.",[]],["la constatación podría constituirse en un espacio propio para la ciudadanía, pues la verificación ya se ha convertido en un concepto utilizado por los medios y por los factcheckers.",[]],["un espacio propio de la ciudadanía, distinto de la verificación de los medios o del factcheckers",[]]],"sy":[["comprobar",[]],["verificar",[]]],"rt":[["verificación de la información",[]],["verificación",[]],["verificación mediática",[]],["factchecking",[]],["factcheckers",[]]]},{"de":[["puede causar confusión y comportamientos riesgosos que pueden afectar la salud",["OMS 2020","párr. 1"]],["esta puede causar confusión y comportamientos riesgosos que pueden afectar la salud",["OMS 2020, párr. 1"]],["Esta se refiere a \"aquella información falsa o incorrecta que circula en internet con el propósito deliberado de engañar\"",["2"]]]},{"de":[["la desinformación constituye un arma de guerra",["Alastuey Rivas et al. 2024"]]],"rt":[["verificación periodística",[]]]},{},{"de":[["práctica que posee sesgos partidistas",["García-Marín, Rubio-Jordán y Salvat-Martinrey 2023"]]],"sy":[["verificación mediática",[]],["chequeo de información",[]]],"rt":[["verificación de los hechos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Mientras la desinformación se da con apego a la posverdad, en la que \"los hechos están subordinados a nuestro punto de vista político\"",["75"]]],"rt":[["desinformación",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["touted as a promising antidote for the spread of misinformation",["Bulger and Davison, 2018"]]],"rt":[["skepticism toward news",["Vraga and Tully, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["alert news consumers to the credibility and political bias of their sources",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["human rights frame",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["global frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Both are accomplished by \"instituting credible claims\" that migrants are a \"danger, risk, or threat\" to the survival of political units, and by conveying a sense of urgency or crisis (Huysmans, 2006, pp. 4 & 47).",["Huysmans, 2006, pp. 4 & 47"]]]},{"rt":[["public advocacy",[]]]},{"de":[["According to De Genova (2005), nativism is not a preoccupation with the foreignness of migrants or of internal minorities as much as it is a promotion of the priority of U.S. citizens.",["De Genova (2005)"]],["nativism is not a preoccupation with the foreignness of migrants or of internal minorities as much as it is a promotion of the priority of U.S. citizens.",["De Genova, 2005","De Genova, 2005, pp. 60-61","De Genova (2005)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["litigation strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["This can take the form of high-tech surveillance systems, increases in funding and personnel destined to border security, and related policies such as expanded detention, expedited removal, and the externalization of borders.",[]]],"rt":[["insecurity framing",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a peculiar process of constitution of a political community of the established that seeks to secure unity and identity by instituting existential insecurity",[]]]},{"ex":[["Morris's (2004) study of elementary schools in St. Louis and New Orleans. These sites were used as examples of successful all-Black schools that contradict the contemporary negative view of urban schools and students.",["Morris (2004)"]]]},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["economic frame analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["exploring policy problems in all their complexity",["Diem et al. (2014)","Diem et al., 2014"]],["to uncover elements of social stratification, the distribution of power, resources, and knowledge in policy",["Diem et al. (2014)"]]]},{},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["deductive approach",["Matthes and Kohring (2008)"]]]},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Tracking is not a problem specific to voluntary transfer programs, but is, in fact, an issue that still plagues many schools across the country.",[]]],"rt":[["segregation",[]]],"sp":[["segregation",[]]]},{"de":[["aflatoxin is not presented as an issue of public importance in rural media spaces",[]],["since aflatoxin is not presented as an issue of public importance in rural media spaces",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["message design significantly influences farmers' attitudes",[]]]},{"de":[["emphasizes practical steps and economic consequences so that aflatoxin remains consistently visible on the community communication agenda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["supported farmers in understanding a toxin that is otherwise invisible",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["false news",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["online disinhibition",[]]]},{"sp":[["online disinhibition",[]]]},{"de":[["Such a culture creates close relationships in which everyone has a responsibility to group members.",[]],["In collectivist societies, offense results in loss of face and humiliation",["Obeidat et al., 2012"]]]},{"de":[["aspects of online engagement",[]]],"sp":[["online disinhibition",[]]]},{"sp":[["online disinhibition",[]]]},{},{"de":[["high-threshold OCI involves direct participation in civil counter speech and encouraging people who generate hate speech or derogatory language to be courteous of others",["Porten-Cheé et al., 2020"]]],"sp":[["online civic intervention (OCI)",[]]]},{"sp":[["online disinhibition",[]]]},{"de":[["low-threshold OCI, which employs media platform mechanisms, such as reporting offensive speech to online platform owners and grading individuals' statements using platform-based buttons",["Porten-Cheé et al., 2020"]]],"sp":[["online civic intervention (OCI)",[]]]},{"de":[["aspects of online engagement",[]]],"sp":[["online disinhibition",[]]]},{"de":[["platform operators\" and users can interfere against material viewed as undesirable, or what is known as \"online civic intervention (OCI)\"",["Riedl et al., 2020"]]],"sb":[["low-threshold OCI",[]],["high-threshold OCI",[]]]},{"de":[["the Internet being a free space, lack of punishment, and anonymity",[]]],"sb":[["toxic online disinhibition",[]],["benign online disinhibition",[]],["benign disinhibition",[]],["toxic disinhibition",[]],["dissociative anonymity",[]],["invisibility",[]],["asynchronicity",[]],["solipsistic introjection",[]],["dissociative imagination",[]],["minimization of authority",[]]]},{"de":[["UNESCO cited four significant distinctions between online and face-to-face hate speech. The first is the persistence of online hatred, that is, its potential to stay \"active\" over extended periods and in several mediums. The second distinction is the unexpected recurrence of online hate speech, which might reemerge elsewhere even if it has been deleted from one location. The third distinction is the significance that anonymity acquires online: It is a privilege that permits, under certain situations, the disclosure of information that one would otherwise be reluctant to reveal. The fourth distinction is transnationality, which enhances the impact of hate speech and makes identifying legal measures to address it more difficult (Gagliardone et al., 2015).",["(Gagliardone et al., 2015)"]],["UNESCO cited four significant distinctions between online and face-to-face hate speech. The first is the persistence of online hatred, that is, its potential to stay \"active\" over extended periods and in several mediums. The second distinction is the unexpected recurrence of online hate speech, which might reemerge elsewhere even if it has been deleted from one location. The third distinction is the significance that anonymity acquires online: It is a privilege that permits, under certain situations, the disclosure of information that one would otherwise be reluctant to reveal. The fourth distinction is transnationality, which enhances the impact of hate speech and makes identifying legal measures to address it more difficult",["Gagliardone et al., 2015"]]]},{"sp":[["online disinhibition",[]]]},{"sp":[["online disinhibition",[]]]},{},{"de":[["contributes to their growth.",[]]]},{"de":[["Echo chambers can stifle critical thinking and distort a person's perspective, making it harder for them to consider alternative points of view and engage in complex discussions.",[]]],"rt":[["Confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["The aim behind fake news transmission is to damage a person's or entity's reputation or advertising revenue.",[]],["The phrase, which does not have a clear definition, has been used more loosely to refer to any false information, including inadvertent and unconscious mechanisms, as well as news that is averse to the perspective of high-profile individuals.",[]],["fake news content in the form of audio, video, text, and photos",[]]],"rt":[["fake news verification",[]]],"sb":[["satire",["3"]],["Parody",["3"]],["Manipulation",["3"]],["Fabrication",["3"]],["Propaganda",["3"]],["Hoax",["3"]],["Rumors",["3"]],["Unscientific claims",["3"]],["political news related content",[]],["health-related content",[]],["religious news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Media literacy, therefore, is about helping students become competent, critical, and literate in all media forms so that they control the interpretation of what they see or hear rather than letting the interpretation control them.",[]],["To become media literate is not to memorize facts or statistics about the media, but rather to learn to raise the right questions about what you are watching, reading, or listening to.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["expected to be realised first and foremost through military occupation, with other measures (such as economic coercion and industrial restructuring benefitting the motherland) following later",[]]],"sp":[["colonialism",[]]]},{"de":[["forceful Germanisation would not even be necessary, as these small 'splinters of nations' would be unable to withstand the impact of German progress and would in a generation be anyway completely overrun by the settlement of 2 million German-speakers from Russia with their high nativity rates.",[]]],"rt":[["denationalisation",[]]]},{"rt":[["Hate Speech (HS)",[]]],"ex":[["HS: Women are basically childlike, they remain this way most of their lives. Soft and emotional. It has devastated our once great patriarchal civilizations. CN: Without softness and emotions there would be just brutality and cruelty. Not all women are soft and emotional and many men have these characteristics. To perpetuate these socially constructed gender profiles maintains norms which oppress anybody.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["fundamental standard",["ABC Editorial Policy"]]]},{"de":[["including fear of external pressure that 'disciplines' the media, a reliance on information officially provided by government, corporates and 'experts', as well as the ideological environment in which the journalists operate and the orthodox opinions and debate of political elites.",[]]]},{"de":[["If the Fourth Estate's role is enabling citizens to reach an informed decision, it fails them by resiling from hard truths in order to role play at impartiality.",["Kostakidis, 2024"]],["the whole thing of impartiality is a fiction",["Hedges, 2024"]],["impartiality does not mean false balance",[]],["do not unduly favour one perspective over another",[]]],"sy":[["not taking sides",[]]],"rt":[["implicit biases",[]],["agendas",[]],["objectivity",[]]]},{"rt":[["fidelity to truth",[]]]},{"de":[["This is the dominant business model in Morocco's media which permeates both public service and non-public service media content providers.",[]]]},{"de":[["the dominance of a few giant (Western) technology companies in this convergent media environment may also create \"algorithmic harms,\" as Zeynep Tufekci (2015, p. 207) has put it",["2015","207"]]],"rt":[["digital divide",[]],["algorithmic gatekeeping",[]],["information asymmetry",[]]]},{"rt":[["mainstream media",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["customerism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["repressive media culture and heritage that can be fairly described as a competitive authoritarian regime",[]],["These regimes are competitive in the sense that the democratic institutions are real and that \"opposition forces can use legal channels to seriously contest for (and occasionally win) power; but they are authoritarian in that opposition forces are handicapped by a highly uneven-and even dangerous-playing field. Competition is thus real but unfair\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["clientelism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["rather than the transnational circulation of content or media workers outside their home countries in general",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which also provided their members with an opportunity for political organization and mobilization.",[]],["Diwaniyas were usually held in either halls attached to Kuwaiti houses or a separate building with a hall to receive guests, neighbors, and friends to discuss current events and exchange views.",[]],["contemporary diwaniyas have become more like political salons and cultural clubs; they are more organized and often feature planned events, specific topics of discussions, and guest speakers.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["While the broadcasting licensing system, to be described below, paved the way for external pluralism where each religious group or political entity would own its own channel, there are a number of successful outlets such as LBCI and Al-Jadeed that have been pluralized internally both in terms of content and staff.",[]],["where each party or religious group is represented",[]]]},{"de":[["It reflects the supremacy of power and control in dictating how social structures and divisions are represented.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The media system played a key role in transforming Libya into the \"people's mass state\" (jamahiriya) that Qadhafi had envisaged.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this system, the ruling Al-Khalifa family monopolizes the country's material resources so that the institutions of state, including the media, function to prevent the occurrence of regime change which would otherwise alter the disbursement of this wealth to a broader segment of the population, most of whom have historically been Shi'a.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["privately-owned media do not necessarily equate to independent or free media. Instead, private ownership can be used as a means to control media output even more effectively.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The problem of media capture is certainly not limited to the MENA region, and has become a global phenomenon, as evident in European countries and the US.",[]],["This has led to what the literature calls \"media capture\" (Schiffrin, 2018), that is, a state of affairs in which media outlets become a trading product of political or other actors who ensure an economic grip on it in order to remain in power.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["media systems reflect the historical trajectories of a society and the political and legal systems, economic system, and social composition of the country in which they are located.",[]]]},{"de":[["More often than not, mobilization has turned out to be propaganda used extensively by socialist-or those claiming to be socialist-republics",[]]]},{"rt":[["mobilization system",[]]]},{"ex":[["by 2004, only Syria, pre-2003 Iraq, Libya, and Sudan remained in this category.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["partisan in that print media were mainly controlled by political parties",[]],["Such media, however, are known for giving editorial directions to their employees and publishing propaganda for the party or entity that owns them.",[]]],"rt":[["public",[]],["private",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These parties employed the partisan press to express their ideologies of politics and reform.",[]]]},{"rt":[["political parallelism",[]]]},{"de":[["there are a number of successful outlets such as LBCI and Al-Jadeed that have been pluralized internally both in terms of content and staff.",[]],["particularly in terms of content and staff composition",[]]],"ex":[["LBCI and Al-Jadeed",[]]]},{"de":[["one must identify whether there are clear or unclear relationships between actors in the media and the political system",["De Albuquerque, 2012, p. 93"]],["the typical interwovenness of politics and business, and how this is mirrored in the media scene",[]],["in countries with high political parallelism, \"media are still differentiated politically, [although] they more often are associated not with particular parties, but with general political tendencies\"",["Hallin & Mancini, 2004, p. 28"]]],"sy":[["party-press parallelism",["1974"]],["media partisanship",[]]],"rt":[["party-press parallelism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a tool for curbing the enthusiasm of the economically unable and the politically undesirable investors",[]],["The law gave more attention to the political role of the press council by including in its membership representatives of the political groups that signed the peace agreement.",[]],["The council served as the watchful eyes, and the iron fist, of the government with respect to journals and journalists: all publications were to be approved and licensed, and all journalists were to be vetted by the council",["Galander & Starosta, 1997, p. 225"]]],"rt":[["Press Council",[]]]},{"de":[["are run as purely profit-oriented business models",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["partisan",[]],["private",[]]]},{"de":[["More than half of all Omani periodicals are owned and published by governmental and semi-governmental entities.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["private",[]],["partisan",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["strategic direction in its relationships with regional and international allies and enemies",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In terms of structural pluralism or media ownership, the political and sectarian groups are all, more or less, represented on the level of the media system whether by direct ownership or indirect affiliation.",[]]],"rt":[["media ownership",[]]]},{"de":[["This applies to public service television and radio, as well as political party newspapers.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["the transnational circulation of media content",[]],["the transnational circulation of media workers",[]],["the role of the diaspora or those in exile in the media scene",[]],["the space that is provided to foreign or pan-Arab media in a given country (e.g. through hosting foreign channels)",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["the Press Council",[]],["the National Security Bureau",[]],["the Press Court",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Political power is shared among political and sectarian patrons commonly referred to as zu'ama (or za'im in singular).",[]]],"sy":[["za'im",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The articles were either more factual based or designed to assuage worries or concerns.",[]]]},{"de":[["How military relations are framed in the media is important for understanding the perceptual boundaries",[]]],"rt":[["cooperative-confrontational continuum",[]]]},{"rt":[["discursive approach",[]],["framing of relations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The spread of such misinformation poses serious threats to public trust, political stability, and the integrity of information systems",["1"]]]},{"de":[["Feature selection is a crucial phase in constructing an effective fake news detection model.",[]]],"sp":[["feature engineering",[]]]},{},{"de":[["often influenced by one's emotional state and viewpoints.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["the PLM is more inclined towards associating male (female) attributes with programmers (nurses).",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["true vs. false information",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["which predicts individuals' reliance on, and acceptance of, information from that source",["Kruglanski et al., 2005"]]],"rt":[["epistemic authority",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Building on this research, we propose a relevance-based account of source credibility effects in misinformation which posits that the presence and strength of source credibility effects in misinformation contexts may be determined by the relative relevance of source credibility information compared to substantive misinformation content.",[]]]},{"de":[["source bias in the form of political slant",[]]],"sp":[["source credibility",[]]]},{"de":[["constituent dimensions (i.e., bias, expertise, trustworthiness)",[]]],"sb":[["Perceived source expertise",[]],["Perceived source trustworthiness",[]],["perceived source bias",[]],["bias",[]],["expertise",[]],["trustworthiness",[]],["perceptions of a source's expertise",[]],["perceptions of source bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["expertise",[]]],"sp":[["source credibility",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["One particular source credibility facet that seems to have been neglected in misinformation research is source trustworthiness (i.e., the extent to which sources are perceived as honest), which is one of the main pillars of source credibility",[]]],"rt":[["source credibility",[]]],"sp":[["source credibility",[]]]},{"sp":[["source credibility",[]]]},{"rt":[["ELM",[]]],"sp":[["dual-process theories",[]]]},{"sy":[["bias",[]]],"sp":[["source credibility",[]]]},{"de":[["defined by the sayable, conservation, memory, reactivation, and appropriation",[]]]},{"de":[["excessive dependence on official sources creates",["Rivas-de-Roca and García-Gordillo (2023)"]],["conveys the interests of the political class to citizens",["Rivas-de-Roca and García-Gordillo (2023)"]]]},{},{"sp":[["conversion",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["nusayríes",[]]],"sp":[["chiismo",[]]]},{"rt":[["símbolos físicos y no físicos",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["jihadisphere",[]]]},{"sy":[["slacktivistas",["Córdoba Hernández, 2017"]],["jihobbyists",["Brachman, 2009"]]]},{"de":[["This material is not supported by credible sources or factual accuracy.",[]],["Fake news is acknowledged as inaccurate information, although politicians use it to undermine in-depth journalistic investigations.",[]]],"sy":[["inaccurate information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The spread of incorrect information that can cause people to take dangerous action",[]],["The capacity of rumors to sway public opinion",[]],["public can become unnecessarily anxious and scared as a result of rumors about the virus's mortality",[]],["False information circulated quickly, creating a demand for hospital care, testing and medical procedures that lacked a scientific support system",["Bernardino and BacelarNicolau 2020"]],["They can have a significant and wide-ranging psychological influence on people, groups and even entire societies.",[]],["Rumors have the power to incite dread and anxiety when they make dramatic or frightening assertions.",[]],["Uncertainty is a perfect environment for rumors to flourish.",[]],["People looked for knowledge to ease their concerns since the SARS-CoV-2 disease was new and the epidemic was developing (Banko 2020).",["Banko 2020"]]],"sy":[["incorrect information",[]]],"rt":[["incorrect information",[]]],"ex":[["promise of miraculous treatments",[]],["wild speculation on the virus origins",[]],["inaccurate data regarding virus spread",[]],["deceptive guidance on how to avoid infection",[]],["unverified remedies or cures for the infection",[]],["Issues such as the virus's origin, mode of transmission, cure and strength have been discussed (Musa et al 2020).",["Musa et al 2020"]]]},{"de":[["distorts the prism through which Muslims are domestically viewed thereby, leading to the proliferation of anti-Muslim rhetoric and hate crimes.",[]],["has led to the Muslim community's discrimination, exclusion, and acceptance of prejudice.",[]],["a frightening phenomenon for many people",[]],["Islamophobia distorts the prism through which Muslims are domestically viewed thereby, leading to the proliferation of anti-Muslim rhetoric and hate crimes.",[]]],"sy":[["accès de délire islamophobe",[]]],"rt":[["anti-Muslim rhetoric",[]],["hate crimes",[]]]},{"de":[["impose limits to serve the dominant class. It molds debates in ways that eventually serve the interests of corporations.",[]]]},{"de":[["It was created with the intent to voice and maintain freedom as well as protect human dignity.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["An absolute HME is usually inferred directly (e.g., Eveland & Shah, 2003) or indirectly if members of two opposing groups perceive identical media coverage as being more favorable toward the opposite group (or less agreeable toward the own group), and if the perceived message tendency of each group significantly differs from the perception of media coverage as neutral and impartial (which is usually indicated by a properly labeled \"neutral midpoint\" on a continuous scale; e.g., see Duck et al., 1998;Hoffner & Rehkoff, 2011;Matheson & Dursun, 2001).",[]]],"sp":[["HOSTILE MEDIA EFFECT",[]]]},{"sp":[["self-investment",[]]]},{},{"de":[["higher status in society",[]]]},{},{"de":[["reflects an individual´s cognitive and affective attachment to a group (Leach et al., 2008;Tajfel, 1982)",["Leach et al., 2008","Tajfel, 1982"]],["identification with their ingroup",[]],["reflects an individual´s cognitive and affective attachment to a group",["Leach et al., 2008","Tajfel, 1982","Leach et al., 2008;Tajfel, 1982"]]],"sb":[["self-investment (e.g., satisfaction, solidarity, and centrality of ingroup)",[]],["self-definition (e.g., self-stereotyping and perceived ingroup homogeneity)",[]],["self-investment",[]],["self-definition",[]],["the extent of an individual's group-level self-investment",[]],["group-level self-definition",[]]]},{"de":[["Within SIT, group status refers to how groups relate to each other on a given comparison dimension.",[]],["builds on the comparison to other groups and refers to the perceived position of the ingroup on a valued dimension (e.g., competence, wealth, knowledge, morality) relative to another group.",[]]]},{"sp":[["self-definition",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["HOSTILE MEDIA EFFECT",[]]]},{"sp":[["self-investment",[]]]},{"rt":[["ingroup identification",[]]],"sb":[["selfstereotyping",[]],["perceived ingroup homogeneity",[]]],"sp":[["ingroup identification",[]]]},{"rt":[["ingroup identification",[]]],"sp":[["ingroup identification",[]]]},{"rt":[["ingroup identification",[]]],"sp":[["ingroup identification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["self-stereotyping component of selfdefinition",[]]],"rt":[["self-definition",[]]],"sp":[["self-definition",[]]]},{"sp":[["self-investment",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["discourse \"involves social conditions, which can be specified as social conditions of production, and social conditions of interpretation\"",["Fairclough 2013: 20-21","Fairclough 2013"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["These are \"schemes of interpretation\" that help the recipient place the information in a specific context and label it in a specific way.",[]],["Media frames are also logically dependent on the genre of a given text, which necessarily incorporates a basic conventional schema.",[]]],"ex":[["frame of desolates as disobedient citizens",[]],["frame of desolates as concerned citizens",[]],["the conservative frame for presenting single mothers",[]],["a frame of a conflict as sketched by Luhmann",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Media frames can therefore have different levels of abstraction (Matthes 2009), ranging from the very issue -specific, like the conservative frame for presenting single mothers, to the generic, for example, a frame of a conflict as sketched by Luhmann.",["Matthes 2009"]]]},{"de":[["play a significant role in this, taking into account a range of stakeholders (e.g., the explicit political definition of the media outlet, investors, advertisers, and, last but not least, the target audience) that in principle influence how a given (media) event is framed",["Mc-Chesney 2008"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["democracy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["democracia",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["transformações no entendimento do populismo como forma política, colocando em questão se essa forma vem necessariamente atrelada a um conteúdo (anti-)democrático",[]],["Conceito em movimento, se não em permanente transformação",[]],["o populismo tem fortes tendências democráticas e antidemocráticas que podem se manifestar simultaneamente",[]],["uma política populista nunca se esgota em sua dimensão populista",[]],["populismo é um fenômeno gradativo, não estando simplesmente presente ou ausente",[]],["concha vazia, que pode ser preenchida pelos conteúdos políticos mais díspares",["Traverso, 2019, p. 16"]]],"rt":[["articulação política",[]]],"ex":[["candidato presidencial de esquerda na França Jean-Luc Mélenchon",[]],["presidente autoritário da Turquia Recep Tayyip Erdogan",[]],["salvadorenho autoproclamado \"ditador mais legal do mundo\" Nayib Bukele",[]],["capitão reformado do exército brasileiro, o ex-presidente Jair Bolsonaro",[]]]},{"de":[["Como práticas políticas estratégicas, as teorias de conspiração são frequentemente utilizadas por quem está no poder para desviar a atenção de outras questões (Butter; Knight, 2020, p. 7) e para se proteger de críticas (Hernáiz 2008, p. 973).",["Butter; Knight, 2020, p. 7","Hernáiz 2008, p. 973"]]]},{"de":[["teorias de conspiração, que segmentam a população",[]],["estratégias políticas cuja verdadeira função é promover uma agenda política",[]],["conteúdo \"atrativo para alguns porque se encaixam nos seus compromissos ideológicos ou políticos mais amplos\"",[]]]},{"rt":[["out-of-context image detection",[]],["multimodal misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["A critical glocalization perspective seems most adequate recognizing both agency in local appropriation and structural constraint in global power relations.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["frontstage",[]],["backstage",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["A lifestyle influencer with 320,000 Instagram followers illustrates this strategy when captioning a post about personal investment: \"Providing for your future is the highest form of care for your family-this is what our grandparents taught us. \" Here, a neoliberal financial behavior (individual wealth accumulation) is semantically reframed through the traditional value of family provision, rendering it culturally legible and morally sanctioned.",[]],["In a further example, a fitness blogger captioning images of gym training writes: \"A strong body is a gift you owe to yourself and your childrenthis is amanat [sacred trust]. \" The Islamic concept of amanat, conventionally applied to spiritual and communal obligations, is here reframed to authorize a Western self-optimization practice.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the simultaneous holding of incompatible value positions that are maintained through compartmentalization, selective emphasis, and contextual adjustment rather than logical integration",[]],["the incoherence is not inadvertent but is actively produced and maintained through identifiable discursive operations",[]]],"rt":[["hybridity",["1994"]],["ambivalence",["1994"]],["value pluralism",["1969"]]],"ex":[["celebrating individual freedom and simultaneously endorsing collective obligations-without any metadiscursive acknowledgement of the tension or attempt at resolution",[]],["the same influencer publishes mosque attendance content on Friday and party content on Saturday, with neither post referencing the other, thereby producing incoherence through platform-mediated temporal segmentation rather than through explicit ideological argument",[]]]},{"de":[["This dual positioning may reflect genuine religious ambivalence, strategic audience management (appealing to both religious and secular followers), or compartmentalization where religion is confined to specific temporal zones rather than permeating all life domains.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Influencers function as value mediators navigating between multiple audiences and competing normative systems",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The cost of verification becomes prohibitively high compared to the cost of generation, leading to a market failure in the information ecosystem [18]",["18"]],["The cost of verification becomes prohibitively high compared to the cost of generation, leading to a market failure in the information ecosystem [18].",["18"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["reactive debunking",["54"]]]},{},{"rt":[["Synthetic Realities",["18"]]]},{"rt":[["Synthetic Realities",["18"]]]},{"rt":[["Synthetic Realities",["18"]]]},{"rt":[["Synthetic Realities",["18"]]]},{"sb":[["Synthetic Content-the raw text, image, audio, or video artifacts",[]],["Synthetic Identity-the fabrication of coherent personas that persist over time",[]],["Synthetic Interaction-the simulation of social presence, engagement, and relationship-building",[]],["Synthetic Institutions-the manufacture of consensus through coordinated networks of fake outlets and organizations",[]],["Synthetic Content-the raw text, image, audio, or video artifacts;",[]],["Synthetic Identity-the fabrication of coherent personas that persist over time;",[]],["Synthetic Interaction-the simulation of social presence, engagement, and relationship-building;",[]],["Synthetic Institutions-the manufacture of consensus through coordinated networks of fake outlets and organizations.",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["provenance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These conspiracies often justified this accusation by relating it to larger criticisms of governments or passing the entire war off as anti-Russia propaganda.",[]]]},{"de":[["Deepfakes most often consist of videos where a fake \"face\" constructed by artificial intelligence has been merged with an authentic video. The result of this is a realistic, mimetic recording of someone doing and saying things which they never did or said",["7"]],["a new form of weapon",[]],["a new kind of propaganda",[]],["a new and vicious type of propaganda",[]],["computer-generated",[]],["deepfakes are generally understood as audio-visual media which have been manipulated using artificial intelligence technologies [6]",["[6]"]]],"sp":[["synthetic media",[]]]},{"de":[["The difference between the two concepts is that disinformation is done purposely, while misinformation is not",["11"]],["disinformation is done purposely",[]],["Misinformation and disinformation refer to false information utilised to mislead people.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The prevalence of the liar's dividend also increases proportionately with the public's awareness of deepfakes",["2"]],["Encouraging scepticism towards visual media may unintentionally have the adverse effect of making it more likely that people will flatly deny real video evidence with which that they are presented",["19"]],["fears around deepfakes",[]]],"ex":[["where a politician is faced with compromising video evidence, they could deny a factual incriminating video of themselves as a deepfake.",[]]]},{"de":[["The difference between the two concepts is that disinformation is done purposely, while misinformation is not",["11"]],["misinformation is not",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["educational and political communication uses",[]]]},{"sb":[["Neural fake news generation",[]],["headlines created by machines",[]],["semantic incongruities in text and image captions generated by machine",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["language leakage",[]]]},{"de":[["the third news approach is the conflict",[]]],"sp":[["five conventional frames",["Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The fourth frame is the human interest",[]],["journalists and news editors did put some empathy and discuss the effects of oil pollution in the affected oil-bearing communities in their reporting",[]]],"sp":[["five conventional frames",["Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000"]]]},{},{"de":[["The first approach is the inductive approach.",[]]]},{"de":[["journalists use frames to create appealing and exciting news reports, policymakers use frames to define policy options and reach decisions, and experts use frames to simplify technical details and make them persuasive",[]],["journalists use frames to create appealing and exciting news reports, policymakers use frames to define policy options and reach decisions, and experts use frames to simplify technical details and make them persuasive (Busby et al., 2018;Shapiro, 2019;Tenenboim-Weinblatt & Baden, 2018).",["Busby et al., 2018","Shapiro, 2019","Tenenboim-Weinblatt & Baden, 2018"]]],"sb":[["responsibility",[]],["economic consequences",[]],["conflict",[]],["human interest",[]],["morality",[]]],"sp":[["framing theory",[]]]},{"de":[["Finally, the fifth frame is morality",[]]],"sp":[["five conventional frames",["Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The first frame coded deductively is responsibility",[]]],"sp":[["five conventional frames",["Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000"]]]},{},{"de":[["responsibility frames attributed to oil companies operating in the Niger-Delta, such as Shell, Chevron, Agip, and ExxonMobil, have reduced the oil-producing communities' willingness to participate in meaningful and collective actions to curtail the issue of oil pollution in the region.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Those involved in the media business have a natural human limitation of not being able to cover all aspects of a story or analysis.",[]],["They prioritise particular problem definitions as they make their moral evaluations, causal interpretations, and, sometimes, treatment recommendations; which justifies the use of frames in analysing news reports as an effective way of understanding how influence over human consciousness is exerted",["Entman 1993"]],["Those involved in the media business have a natural human limitation of not being able to cover all aspects of a story or analysis. They prioritise particular problem definitions as they make their moral evaluations, causal interpretations, and, sometimes, treatment recommendations; which justifies the use of frames in analysing news reports as an effective way of understanding how influence over human consciousness is exerted (Entman 1993).",["Entman 1993"]]]},{},{"de":[["Taking a cue from Kurth's (2003) definition of the West as comprising member countries of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), they have excluded Turkey and Albania and included five non-NATO European countries, i.e., Ireland, Switzerland, Sweden, Finland and Austria, along with Australia, New Zealand and Japan to construct their definition because of these countries' political alignment.",[]],["comprising member countries of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), they have excluded Turkey and Albania and included five non-NATO European countries, i.e., Ireland, Switzerland, Sweden, Finland and Austria, along with Australia, New Zealand and Japan to construct their definition because of these countries' political alignment.",[]]]},{"de":[["Agon metaphors refer to all situations involving confrontation, winning a prize, asserting oneself in the ranks of a team, defeating an opponent, etc.",[]]]},{"rt":[["cognitive grammar",[]],["cognitive semantics",[]]]},{"de":[["Often viewed as a branch of traditional stylistics, cognitive stylistics employs a cognitive linguistic approach to the study of style, comprising stylistic techniques. However, it seeks to determine the cognitive foundations of metaphors, metonymies, hyperboles, puns, and other stylistic techniques.",[]]],"rt":[["traditional stylistics",[]]]},{"de":[["The target domain is structured similarly to the source domain, therefore metaphorical mappings are established between them.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Puns are usually created when a polysemous word is used to suggest two or more meanings (commonly literal vs figurative) or the use of homonyms",["Wales 2011: 349"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In visual representation, the process of creating a mental picture in one's mind relies on close ties between the visual and the verbal, and knowledge of the political, socio-cultural, and semiotic implications.",["Naciscione 2010: 175"]],["Visual representation creates new meaning, stretches our imagination, and sustains figurative thought",["Naciscione 2010: 175"]]]},{"de":[["This can include name calling, stereotyping, labelling and scapegoating.",[]]],"sy":[["Personal attack",[]]],"sb":[["name calling",[]],["stereotyping",[]],["labelling",[]],["scapegoating",[]]],"sp":[["Personal Targeting",[]]]},{"de":[["It is often identified by the use of loaded language in political news.",[]],["It can cause misrepresentation of the truth of an event or alter the reader's image of a politician/party/political event.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Appeal to Audience",[]]]},{"sp":[["Appeal to Audience",[]]]},{"sp":[["Appeal to Audience",[]]]},{"sp":[["Appeal to Audience",[]]],"ex":[["a politician dressing up like a farmer and sowing some crops while campaigning and appealing to farmers.",[]]]},{"de":[["This is done by assuring good results, such as guaranteed victory in the elections.",[]]],"ex":[["rhetoric yes/no questions, where only one of the answers seems logically correct in that particular context.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["racism",[]],["casteism",[]],["ageism",[]],["sexism",[]]],"ex":[["a subtle or direct portrayal of discriminatory attitudes like racism, casteism, ageism, sexism, etc., which could either be used positively or negatively to create bias.",[]]]},{"de":[["This is done to subconsciously make the audience accept the proposed answer as the correct one without questioning it further.",[]]]},{"de":[["This is often done to make the audience draw certain expected conclusions, which would have been difficult if they knew the whole scenario clearly.",[]]],"ex":[["introducing vagueness in the form of presupposition contributes to bias in an article.",["Kameswari et al. (2020)","2020"]]]},{"sp":[["Graham's Hierarchy of Disagreement",[]]]},{"rt":[["Reductio ad absurdum",[]]]},{"sp":[["Personal Targeting",[]]]},{"de":[["This is often done as an attempt to divert attention from other issues, or sometimes even as a way to show agreement/disagreement towards some policies or situations.",[]],["attacking or praising an individual/party instead of focusing on policies/actions is the most direct way of introducing bias.",[]]],"rt":[["Ad Hominem or Personal attack",[]],["Personal praise",[]]],"sb":[["Ad Hominem or Personal attack",[]],["Personal praise",[]]]},{"de":[["This phenomenon of political bias is very prevalent in democracies, especially during elections, where influencing public opinion can have far-reaching consequences.",[]]],"sb":[["selection or gatekeeping bias",[]],["Presentation Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Since the objective of introducing bias is to persuade the reader towards or against an en- tity, the methods used to create such bias can also be considered as propaganda.",[]]],"sp":[["political bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["Oversimplification",[]]]},{"sp":[["Graham's Hierarchy of Disagreement",[]]]},{"sy":[["Ad Nauseam",[]]]},{"sp":[["political bias",[]]]},{"de":[["found to be a frequently occurring phenomena employed to twist the facts and influence public opinion",["Mullainathan and Shleifer (2002), Burke (2008)"]],["which was found to be a frequently occurring phenomena employed to twist the facts and influence public opinion (Mullainathan and Shleifer (2002), Burke (2008))",["Mullainathan and Shleifer (2002)","Burke (2008)"]]]},{"de":[["This mostly happens in the scenarios where one is questioned about his/her own actions.",[]]],"ex":[["when the former US President Donald Trump was asked about his opinion on whether Virginia should keep a statue of Confederate general Robert E. Lee, he did not give a straightforward answer but resorted to this technique by asking, \"What about other statues of famous Americans?\"",["foot_3"]]]},{"de":[["Of course, these \"conspiracy theories\" are usually based on unverified (even unverifiable) facts or sheer fabrications.",[]]]},{"de":[["That is why populists declare themselves protectors of the people they want to free from elitist oppressors.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Critical thinking is a core element of media literacy (Rek et al. 2021).",["Rek et al. 2021"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In this case, the media cannot be considered guardians of democratic norms and procedures, but a tool for asserting the interests of certain centres of power.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The media can be understood as an intermediary subsystem of society. In this sense, their function is to convey information about various relevant social phenomena and processes.",[]]],"rt":[["new media",[]]]},{"de":[["their function is to convey information about various relevant social phenomena and processes",[]]]},{"de":[["They are among the most important opinion leaders, who are often considered by citizens to be intellectual and moral authorities, and therefore have a great influence on how they perceive the world and what is happening in it.",[]]],"rt":[["opinion leaders",[]]],"ex":[["editors, presenters, anchor commentators and columnists",[]]]},{"de":[["media literacy is the main protection against negative media phenomena such as disinformation and fake news.",[]],["It also covers the ability to focus on creative problem -solving",["Hobbs 2010","Sonck et al. 2012","Mascheroni -Murri 2014"]],["Media literacy is particularly important for building resistance against media disinformation, fake news and hate speech.",[]],["A high level of media literacy shall be perceived as the main protection against negative media phenomena such as the above -mentioned ones.",[]],["it makes citizens resilient to those political messages that contain these elements.",[]],["Media -literate citizens can determine their preferences and make decisions in a deliberate and informed manner, while carefully weighing and evaluating the information they are confronted with daily.",[]],["includes all technical, cognitive, social, civic and creative capacities that allow a citizen to access, have a critical understanding of the media and interact with it",["Hobbs 2010;Sonck et al. 2012;Mascheroni -Murri 2014"]],["media literacy implies developed digital literacy and ICT skills",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["Critical thinking",[]],["creative problem -solving",["Hobbs 2010;Sonck et al. 2012;Mascheroni -Murri 2014"]],["digital literacy",[]],["ICT skills",[]]]},{"de":[["The political life of a democratic society, which, as has been said, is by its very nature plural, can only develop qualitatively in the presence of a branched and diversified media space",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["today it has a predominantly negative connotation in the dominant political and media discourse. It is associated with phenomena such as intolerance, exclusivism, manipulation, and sometimes even authoritarian tendencies.",[]],["Due to its elusive nature, is hard to state some concise and universal definition of populism (Chiran -Tomsic 2020).",["Chiran -Tomsic 2020"]],["Different dilemmas, ambiguities, contradictions, and simplifications often arise when dealing with it.",[]],["Namely, populism belongs to the category of \"essentially contested concepts\" (Mudde -Kaltwasser 2017).",["Mudde -Kaltwasser 2017"]],["populism can be perceived as a political style (Moffit -Torney 2014). This refers particularly to its style of communication (Jagers -Walgrave 2007).",["Moffit -Torney 2014","Jagers -Walgrave 2007"]],["Populism can be seen as the rejection of established political order and the ideologies on which it rests. It is against globalism and transnationalism which is related to the sovereigntist notion which claims that nation -states shall not be subjected to any kind of \"higher\" authority. It is against neoliberalism and/or multiculturalism, claiming that they contribute to the erosion of autochthonous traditions of communities and thus undermine their identities.",[]],["Populism is a divergent political phenomenon in various respects.",[]],["Populism can be seen as the rejection of established political order and the ideologies on which it rests.",[]]],"sy":[["essentially contested concepts",["Mudde -Kaltwasser 2017"]]],"rt":[["anti -elitism",[]],["Euroscepticism",[]],["anti -globalist",[]],["populist politics",[]]],"sb":[["right -wing populism",[]],["left -wing populism",[]],["centrist populism",[]]],"ex":[["National Front in France, Lega in Italy, Freedom Party in Austria, or Party for Freedom in the Netherlands",[]],["Syriza in Greece, Podemos in Spain, and Left in Slovenia",[]],["ANO 2011 in Czechia",[]]]},{"de":[["It tends to portray the situation in society in black and white fashion and to show complex social phenomena one -sidedly.",[]],["Its messages are more often than not based on emotion than on rational argumentation.",[]],["It tends to portray the situation in society in black and white fashion and to show complex social phenomena one -sidedly. Its messages are more often than not based on emotion than on rational argumentation.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the individual agenda appropriately reflects individual differences in issue salience.",[]],["the individual agenda is a concept at the individual level without a summation process and contains both intrapersonal and interpersonal issue salience.",[]],["This study defined the concept of the individual agenda grounded in individual differences, and the new changes in the social media era, inheriting the legacy of Park, audience interactivity, emphasizing interpersonal issue salience.",[]]],"rt":[["public agenda",[]],["media agenda",[]],["intrapersonal issue salience",[]],["interpersonal issue salience",[]]],"sb":[["intrapersonal issue salience",[]],["interpersonal issue salience",[]]]},{"rt":[["intrapersonal issue salience",[]]]},{"rt":[["interpersonal issue salience",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The measurement of the media agenda is primarily based on the number of media accounts reporting on a certain issue.",[]]],"rt":[["public agenda",[]],["individual agenda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["opinion leaders are more sensitive than others to the interests of their group, and more eager to express themselves on important issues",[]]]},{"rt":[["individual agenda",[]]]},{"de":[["The name of the public agenda misleads people into thinking that the public agenda is the overall agenda of the audience. In fact, the public agenda summed by individual issue salience is only an average of the individual agenda, which ignores individual differences and is not sufficiently representative of the entire public.",[]],["the public agenda that sums up individual issue salience",[]]],"rt":[["media agenda",[]],["individual agenda",[]]]},{"de":[["The basic idea of topic modeling is that a text is a mixture of multiple topics, and a topic is a probability distribution of characteristic words.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Deepfake was formerly used in the showbiz and movie industries, but now deepfake technologies have produced a stir and have started to be addressed by various fields, like cybersecurity, digital forensics, and media integrity.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["identity theft",[]],["political deception",[]]],"ex":[["fake movie images, which can superimpose one person's face on another's frame or alter their speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["complex contagions first have to spread locally before they can take advantage of such long-range ties",[]]],"sy":[["simple contagions",[]]],"rt":[["simple contagions",[]]]},{"de":[["Online echo chambers are modelled as set of users characterized by opinion and network polarization, i.e. they are clusters of like-minded users, that are (i) more separated from the rest of the network, and (ii) have a lower threshold for being convinced by a given narrative.",[]],["In other words, an echo chamber is a tightly connected set of nodes more inclined to share a common view on a given narrative.",[]]],"rt":[["opinion polarization",[]],["network polarization",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the threshold is reduced inside the cluster compared to the outside",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Emojis can thus be considered a proxy for self-reported emotions by the author of the tweet.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["widely used to refer to inaccurate information",["100"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Hashtags can be considered self-reported topics that the author believes his or her tweet links to.",[]]],"ex":[["Hashtags can be considered self-reported topics that the author believes his or her tweet links to.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The term misinformation is more commonly used to refer specifically to when false information is shared accidentally",["32"]],["we pragmatically group false information regardless of intent",[]],["The term misinformation is more commonly used to refer specifically to when false information is shared accidentally, whereas disinformation is used to refer to false information shared deliberately [32].",["32"]],["Misinformation is essentially a false rumour that has been debunked.",[]],["It should become possible -ideally in half-or fully-automated fashion -to assess the propagation of misinformation.",[]]],"sy":[["rumours",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["rumours",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation that is completely and partly false",[]],["misinformation that is spread intentionally and by accident (possibly even with good intention, but not knowing better)",[]],["misinformation that is shared only in silos",[]],["misinformation that leaves such silos and propagates further",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This category includes articles in dispute and unproven articles.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It includes articles of type, partially false, partially true, mostly true, miscaptioned, misleading etc.",[]]],"sb":[["Miscaptioned",[]]],"ex":[["images that are miscaptioned",[]],["claims to omit necessary background information",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Misinformation is essentially a false rumour that has been debunked.",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["Misinformation is essentially a false rumour that has been debunked.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The pre-programmed bot autonomously performs some work such as tweeting, unfollowing, re-tweeting, liking, following or direct messaging other accounts.",[]]],"sy":[["social bots",[]]],"rt":[["newsbots",[]],["spambots",[]],["malicious bot",[]]],"sb":[["newsbots",[]],["spambots",[]],["malicious bot",[]]]},{"de":[["not only expose individuals to politically biased content but can also contribute to reinforcing pre-existing beliefs and isolating individuals from diverse perspectives",[]],["not only expose individuals to politically biased content but can also contribute to reinforcing pre-existing beliefs and isolating individuals from diverse perspectives, further underscoring their potential impact on the formation of public opinion",[]]]},{},{"de":[["creating a broader context of misinformation and disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This selective exposure to like-minded content contributes to the reinforcement of existing political ideologies",["Shin's (2020)"]]]},{},{"de":[["Transparency builds and sustains trust with the audience",["(Kovanch, 2010)","Kovanch, 2010"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Homophily can affect not only the structure of social networks, such as links between friends and friends of friends (Kossinets & Watts, 2009), but also how individuals are exposed to information generally (Bakshy et al., 2015), specifically for health (Centola & van de Rijt, 2015) and political information (Colleoni et al., 2014;Barberá et al., 2015;Halberstam & Knight, 2016), and can lead to echo chambers that reinforce existing beliefs (Garrett, 2009;Flaxman et al., 2016).",["Kossinets & Watts, 2009","Bakshy et al., 2015","Centola & van de Rijt, 2015","Colleoni et al., 2014","Barberá et al., 2015","Halberstam & Knight, 2016","Garrett, 2009","Flaxman et al., 2016"]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["the findings reflect how broadcasters and political actors collaborated, directly or indirectly, to shape public attention.",[]],["Based on McCombs and Shaw's model, what appeared on television determined what the public perceived as necessary.",[]]]},{"de":[["Agenda-setting theory helps explain how mass media shape the public's understanding of political priorities.",[]],["political content on television did not merely inform but structured public priorities",["McCombs and Shaw, 1972"]],["Mulyana and Wijayanti (2024) describe three dimensions of agenda setting: representation, persistence, and persuasion.",[]]],"rt":[["representation",[]],["persistence",[]],["persuasion",[]]],"sb":[["Representation",[]],["Persistence",[]],["Persuasion",[]]]},{"sy":[["P3SPS",[]]]},{"de":[["This process is key to understanding how the media filter content and influence societal perception in electoral contexts.",[]],["KPI and KPID, as national and regional regulatory bodies, consistently perform a gatekeeping function as conceptualized by Lewin (1947) and expanded by Shoemaker and Vos (2009), filtering which political content proceeds to the public and which is blocked.",[]],["Shoemaker and Vos (2009) define gatekeeping as the mechanism that transforms countless bits of information into a limited number of messages that shape public discourse.",[]]]},{"de":[["Gatekeeping theory highlights KPI's reactive and structurally limited position in controlling political content.",[]]]},{"de":[["It shapes how reality is constructed, represented, and internalized by audiences.",[]],["the ideological content of media is often hidden behind its entertainment or information functions, making it difficult for audiences to detect.",["Alamsyah (2020)"]],["violations often fall within gray zones not covered by existing rules, a condition also noted by Heryanto et al. (2024) in their analysis of hoax-laden political content that exploited emotional cues and selective exposure to reinforce partisan narratives.",["Heryanto et al. (2024)"]],["ideology is not always visible through explicit endorsements. However, it often emerges through symbolic repetition, representational asymmetries, and emotional scripting embedded in program formats such as talk shows, religious features, or infotainment.",[]],["media do not merely reflect truth but manufacture consent by embedding dominant political values",["Hall (1980)","Alamsyah (2020)"]],["Following the explanation of Hall (1980) and Alamsyah (2020), media do not merely relay facts but actively produce meaning within existing power structures.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["agenda setting",[]]],"sp":[["agenda setting",[]]]},{"rt":[["agenda setting",[]]],"sp":[["agenda setting",[]]]},{"de":[["Indonesia's hybrid media system increasingly reflects traits aligned with the Polarized Pluralist model",[]],["the Polarized Pluralist model, characterized by substantial political parallelism, instrumentalized journalism, weak regulatory autonomy, and significant elite influence over media institutions",[]]],"rt":[["Democratic Corporatist",[]],["Liberal",[]]],"sp":[["models of media and politics",["Hallin and Mancini (2004)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["agenda setting",[]]],"sp":[["agenda setting",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["kolektivno nasilje",[]]],"rt":[["crimes against humanity",[]],["war crimes",[]],["mass-atrocity crimes",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["hypodermic-needle thesis",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["State-sponsored ethnicity was also most cited as instilling a shared belief that one's country-as an ethnoreligious nation-was destined to be saved if not reforged in war.",[]],["As a political movement, state-sponsored ethnicity-centering on an imagined history but also traumatic collective-memories of WWII ( Dragojević 2013; Đurašković 2016), innocence (Živković 2011), and destiny for the people or nation as a unique ethnic, religious, and national community",[]]],"ex":[["the transition from a shared South Slav to a Serb, Croat, or Muslim identity was accompanied by growing interethnic and religious animosities",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["Extremely harmful to people and society.",[]]]},{"de":[["they all point to falsehood in information dissemination.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["rumour",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["\"She lost her brother to SARS\" (Twitter post checked by BBC) Disinformation",[]],["Destruction and looting of Osun State Mall (Twitter post checked by BBC) Disinformation (False context)",[]]]},{"de":[["These posts are either self-generated or shared from social media platforms.",[]],["they all point to falsehood in information dissemination.",[]],["While the term can be understood as information that is untrue, it is also used by people to downplay the opinions of others when at variance with their own.",[]],["The motivations for fake news are \"political, subversive, financial and for entertainment\"",["17"]],["Mavridis [9] posits that there are two motivations for fake news: pecuniary and ideological. For pecuniary purposes, content is produced to gain advertising revenue, and when misleading content is shared it results in more clicks which translates into more money. Mavridis [9] explains that some people produce misleading information for ideological purposes e.g. to promote a different political viewpoint and distribute propaganda to discredit others.",["9"]],["through news outlets or internet with an intention to gain politically or",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumour",[]],["false news",[]]],"sb":[["False context",[]],["false connection",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Report of Catholic Bishops marching in support of EndSARS Protest (Twitter post checked by BBC) Fake news (False connection)",[]]]},{"de":[["they all point to falsehood in information dissemination.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumour",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["they all point to falsehood in information dissemination.",[]],["honest mistake, careless or cognitive bias",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumour",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]],"ex":[["BBC apologises for a report on Lekki massacre (Facebook, implicating the BBC) Misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Untruthful customer opinion",["5"]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["according to a predefined strategy to promote a particular viewpoint or political",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["Uncertainty and confusion about",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This approach is very beneficial when the training data is limited.",[]]]},{"de":[["They thus provide a concise indication of a tweet's semantic context.",[]]]},{"de":[["information topics are modeled as ecological niches [40] associated to each species.",["40"]]],"rt":[["ecological niches",[]]]},{"rt":[["competition",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In OTSD, one important challenge lies in identifying the target from the text rather than having it provided as input.",[]],["In OTSD we assume no input target information is given during the whole process, making it more practical than TSE, which requires a comprehensive list of all possible targets.",[]],["To address the need for a more accurate evaluation metric in the Open Target Stance Detection (OTSD) task-one that aligns the generated stance with the corresponding generated target",[]]],"sp":[["Zero-shot Stance Detection (ZSSD)",[]]]},{"sy":[["Stance Detection (SD)",[]]]},{"de":[["The target can be mentioned explicitly in the text, or sometimes the idea of the target can be conveyed indirectly",["Küçük and Can, 2020"]],["the task of SD",[]],["detecting stances in both explicit and nonexplicit cases",[]]],"sy":[["Stance classification",[]]],"rt":[["Target Generation (TG)",[]]]},{"de":[["The target can be a single word or a phrase, but its maximum length MUST be #n words.",[]],["The target can be asingle word or a phrase, but its maximum lengthMUST be 5 words.",[]],["The Gold Target column represents the true target, indicating the primary topic or issue the tweet addresses, which in turn informs the stance noted in the Gold Stance column.",[]]]},{"de":[["collecting training data for every potential target is impractical",["Allaway et al., 2021"]]],"sb":[["Open-Target Stance Detection (OTSD)",[]],["cross-target stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["reflects a heightened awareness of the potential for manipulation in digital media-a form of skepticism that could be harnessed and redirected towards more productive ends.",[]],["those with higher conspiracy mindset are likely to sense the risks of political deepfakes and understand their threat to public opinions and elections.",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy theories",[]]],"ex":[["deepfake videos of President Obama helped spur a coup d'etat; an AI-generated video propagated a conspiracy theory against the son of US presidential candidate Biden",["Langa, 2021"]]]},{"rt":[["deepfake correction",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Due to fast advancements in AI technologies, producing deepfakes become user-friendly and reach high levels of realism heuristics, which increases difficulties in detection and authentication.",[]]],"sb":[["faceswap",[]],["fabricated voices",[]]],"sp":[["audiovisual disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["resulting in selective narrowing individual perspectives of truth.",[]],["People with echo chambers often read news or social media information similar to their entrenched beliefs without checking different sources or confirming their information from online and offline media.",[]],["echo chamber is a strong cognitive factor that negatively influences the outcome orientation",[]]],"sy":[["information cocoon",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy mentality",[]],["deepfake interaction",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive factor",[]]],"ex":[["Based on Twitter analyses of US elections and Brexit, likeminded people tended to form groups together which amplified similar ideas, rejected outside information, and thus influenced their judgment of the reality",["Gorodnichenko et al., 2021"]]]},{"rt":[["information cocoons",[]]]},{"de":[["consisting of checking source credibility and content veracity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Presumed influence orients people towards political or civic responses to manage disinformation",["Lee, 2021"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["significantly reduce the sharing of misinformation on X (formerly Twitter) and Facebook",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["To the best of your knowledge, is this headline accurate?",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["tools to refute or correct misinformation, such as debunking and content labelling",[]]],"ex":[["debunking",[]],["content labelling",[]]]},{},{"de":[["is viewed as an outcome of the broader process of structural and professional change.",[]]],"rt":[["PR-ization",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["local journalism",[]],["local news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["filling the media void when the regional papers do not cover the local news or do it sporadically and incompletely, for example, primarily reporting crimes",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["if hyperlocals contribute to local knowledge, to the accountability of local elites and to the ability of local people to lobby for changes, then they fulfil the journalistic norms",["Barnett and Townend (2015:344)"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["when the regional papers do not cover the local news or do it sporadically and incompletely, for example, primarily reporting crimes",[]]]},{"de":[["the difference between 'news' as a PR activity and 'news' based on the principle of free access to sources and professional judgement of relevance and factuality by news organizations",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["sponsored journalism",[]]],"ex":[["different forms of more or less hidden text advertising",[]],["sponsored journalism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["we classify causal relation into two specific types: causes or caused by.",[]]],"sb":[["causes",[]],["caused by",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["interprets news narrative from the perspective of event reporting, and enables constructing event-level discourse relations for every possible pair of sentences, fostering a comprehensive understanding of the broader context",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["media bias can be very subtle and usually depends on comprehensive contextual information to be discovered",["Fan et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["overt ideological language",[]],["informational bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Instead of only reflecting the existence of temporal order, we classify temporal relation into three detailed categories for deeper narrative understanding: before, after, and overlap.",[]]],"sb":[["before",[]],["after",[]],["overlap",[]]]},{"sb":[["audience as a group or as a public",[]],["audiences with their needs or preferences",[]],["the audience of the medium",[]],["audience defined by channel or content",[]],["the audience as a target",[]],["as a participant",[]],["as a spectator",[]]]},{"de":[["defining the audience as a group or as a public; audiences with their needs or preferences, the audience of the medium, audience defined by channel or content but also the audience as a target, as a participant, as a spectator, etc.",[]]]},{"rt":[["mis-information",[]],["mal-information",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]]},{},{"de":[["resembles real news at first glance, thus building a network of fake websites",[]],["plays with the legitimacy of journalism and remains a work of fiction",["Tandoc, Lim and Ling (2017)"]]],"sb":[["satire",[]],["parody",[]],["fabrication",[]],["manipulation through photos",[]],["propaganda and advertising",[]],["public relations",[]]]},{"rt":[["dis-information",[]],["mis-information",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["dis-information",[]],["mal-information",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Research in theories of use and gratifications emphasizes how individuals use communications in their environment to satisfy their needs and achieve their goals.",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate types",[]],["Hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["'rats'",[]],["'pigs'",[]]]},{"de":[["lowers thresholds for violence and legitimizes social or physical harm",["Haslam, 2006","Haslam and Stratemeyer, 2016"]]]},{"sp":[["hate types",[]],["Hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["'monsters'",[]],["'diseases'",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech as noted by Waseem et al. (2017) can manifest in both explicit and implicit forms (Talat et al., 2017).",["Waseem et al. (2017)","Talat et al., 2017"]]],"sb":[["Explicit hate speech",["Talat et al., 2017"]],["Implicit hate speech",["Talat et al., 2017"]],["Insults",[]],["Dehumanization",[]],["Demonization",[]],["Incitement to violence",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate types",[]],["Hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["NP functions as a lexical resource for emotionally charged expressions.",[]]],"sp":[["hate types",[]],["Hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["'stupid'",[]],["'lazy'",[]]]},{"de":[["Language choice in multilingual societies is rarely arbitrary.",[]]]},{"de":[["Language switching in digital forums and commercial discourse often serve rhetorical goals, reflecting the strategic use of the language that best resonates with target audiences",["Ifukor, 2011","Dalamu, 2017","Dogruöz et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["metaphorical and figurative language, which may encode hostility more subtly than direct insults but can be equally potent in legitimizing violence",[]]]},{"de":[["functions as both a unifying lingua franca and a marker of authenticity, solidarity, and informality",[]],["linguistic resource for hostility and its sociolinguistic salience in amplifying stereotypes and affect",[]],["NP appears frequently for strong opinions, identity marking, and rhetorical effects",[]],["It is deeply embedded in everyday life and plays a role as a unifying force in Nigeria's multicultural society, functioning as both a street and home language, valued for humor and storytelling.",[]],["Nigerian Pidgin, in particular, functions as both a unifying lingua franca and a marker of authenticity, solidarity, and informality.",[]],["combines broad intelligibility with an affective, informal register",["Obi, 2014","Osoba et al., 2015"]],["informal and affective code used to express humor, critique, and solidarity",["Oluyinka Adebayo, 2023"]],["NP, often dismissed as \"low status,\" is mobilized to reinforce social hierarchies and intensify hostility against vulnerable groups.",[]],["NP is not merely an informal code, but a linguistic resource strategically deployed to reinforce stereotypes and intensify hostility.",[]],["The sociolinguistic associations of NP with low prestige make it especially potent in positioning groups as inferior, while its broad intelligibility ensures affective resonance in multiethnic online settings.",[]]],"sy":[["NP",[]]],"rt":[["English",[]],["Yoruba",[]],["code-mixed tokens",[]],["loanword handling",[]],["figurative devices",[]]]},{"de":[["human behavior is generally motivated by two types of norms (Rhodes, shulman, and Mcclaran 2020)",["Rhodes, shulman, and Mcclaran 2020"]]],"rt":[["injunctive norms",[]]],"sp":[["norms",["Rhodes, shulman, and Mcclaran 2020"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["social bots",[]]],"ex":[["the WhO's bot which sends out cOViD-19-related information to reduce the spread of misinformation in private and meso spaces",[]]]},{},{"de":[["human behavior is generally motivated by two types of norms (Rhodes, shulman, and Mcclaran 2020)",["Rhodes, shulman, and Mcclaran 2020"]]],"rt":[["descriptive norms",[]]],"sp":[["norms",["Rhodes, shulman, and Mcclaran 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["Misinformation is a multidimensional construct (scheufele and Krause 2019) describing claims that are-intentionally or not-at odds with the best available evidence (Freiling et al. 2023: 141).",[]],["the deviance can happen on the level of the core information (e.g. a claims or image), the meta-information (e.g. false author information), or through the context (e.g. a quote placed in a misleading context) and can take several forms including text, images, audiovisual and so on (Quandt et al. 2019).",["Quandt et al. 2019"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["bots that automatically disseminate news articles to social media platforms",["lokot and Diakopoulos 2015"]],["these newsbots serve as technological actants (lewis and Westlund 2015) and can innovate relationships between journalists and their audience (Jones and Jones 2019).",["lewis and Westlund 2015","Jones and Jones 2019"]]],"rt":[["technological actants",["lewis and Westlund 2015"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["modular pseudo-user infrastructure",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["without the development of e-democracy and electronic expression of will, Ukraine has no future, no matter what reforms it implements.",[]]]},{"de":[["The basis of modern information security is the preservation of data integrity, information availability, confidentiality and reliability.",[]]],"rt":[["cyber security",[]],["regulatory and political component",[]],["institutional sphere",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["cultural missrepresentation",[]]]},{"rt":[["media bias",[]]]},{"de":[["represents only one aspect of scientific fact-checking",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This process is crucial for preserving the integrity of scientific information, preventing the spread of misinformation, and fostering public trust in research findings.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In the context of news reports, framing is about how an issue is characterized by journalists and how readers take the information to form their impression",[]]]},{"de":[["our metric approximates the existence of framing bias by quantifying how intensely aroused and sensational the generated summary is in reference to the target neutral reference",[]]]},{"de":[["hallucinatory generation has the risk of being not only factually inaccurate and/or unverifiable but also politically biased and controversial.",[]],["neural sequence models can suffer from the hallucination of additional content not supported by the input",[]],["hallucination is another contributor to framing bias",[]],["consequently adding factual inaccuracy to the generation of NLG models",[]]],"rt":[["hallucinatory framing bias",[]],["hallucinatory phenomena",[]],["political hallucination",[]]],"ex":[["the MDS generations were hallucinating politically controversial or sensational content that did not exist in the input sources.",[]]]},{"rt":[["media framing bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This bias exists dominantly in the form of \"extra information\" on top of the salient key information about an issue that changes the overall impression of it.",[]]],"sy":[["information bias",[]]],"rt":[["Lexical framing bias",[]]],"sp":[["framing bias",[]],["Media framing bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["media framing bias",[]]],"ex":[["\"put on hold\" and \"stalled\" both mean the same outcome, but the latter has a more negative connotations",[]]]},{"de":[["This bias exists mainly as biased word choices that change the nuance of the information that is being delivered.",[]]],"sy":[["lexical bias",[]]],"rt":[["Informational framing bias",[]]],"sp":[["framing bias",[]],["Media framing bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["information bias",[]],["lexical bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["NEUS",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["dual frames",[]]],"de":[["The deployment of counter-frames as been demonstrated to challenge complacency and stimulate critical thinking by presenting alternative viewpoints and questioning existing narratives.",[]],["counter-frames serve as calls to action, garnering support for oppressed Gazans and amplifying their voices on the global stage.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which were less prevalent",[]]]},{"rt":[["counter frames",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["figurative framing",["Benczes and Ságvári (2022)"]]]},{"de":[["individuals' attempts to persuade using language and paralinguistic messages that describe, identify, and analyse an issue's characteristics and structures",["D'Angelo (2019)"]]]},{"de":[["Frames capture the essence of a problem, describe the nature of a situation and suggest methods of analysis",["Berinsky & Kinder 2006"]],["Media frames are described as central organizing ideas or storylines that give meaning to unfolding events; they suggest the essence of controversies and the core issues",["Gamson & Modigliani 1989"]],["Frames capture the essence of a problem, describe the nature of a situation and suggest methods of analysis (see Berinsky & Kinder 2006).",["Berinsky & Kinder 2006"]]],"rt":[["Framing Theory",[]],["news framing theory",[]],["Media Framing Theory",[]],["Media frames",[]],["framing devices",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the endeavours of the outlets to frame issues in certain ways",["Molek-Kozakowska 2014"]],["distinguish between framing devices that suggest how to think about the issue and reasoning devices that justify what should be done about it",["Gamson and Modigliani (1989)"]],["succinct and straightforward framing devices, which ensures that the audience quickly grasps the intended meaning",[]],["framing devices that efficiently convey the essence of the story without affecting comprehension",[]]],"rt":[["Framing Theory",["Entman 1993"]],["framing",[]],["reasoning devices",["Gamson and Modigliani (1989)"]]],"sb":[["metaphors",["Gamson and Modigliani (1989)"]],["exemplars (historical examples)",["Gamson and Modigliani (1989)"]],["catchphrases/expressions",["Gamson and Modigliani (1989)"]],["depictions",["Gamson and Modigliani (1989)"]],["visual images (e.g., icons)",["Gamson and Modigliani (1989)"]]]},{"sy":[["news framing theory",[]],["Media Framing Theory",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["MSA has no speech community",["Zibin 2019"]]],"sy":[["fusˤħa:",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The predominant type of frames identified were problem frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing devices",[]]]},{"de":[["an increase in salience enhances the probability that receivers will perceive the information, discern meaning and thus process it, and store it in memory",["Entman 1993","1993: 53"]]]},{"de":[["characterized by \"exceptionalism\" within liberalism, a logic of \"exclusion\" resting upon the construction of profiles that frame which is \"abnormal\" and upon the imperative of freedom transformed into a \"normalization\" of social groups whose behaviours are monitored for their present and their future.",["61"]]]},{},{"rt":[["Islamophobia",[]],["neo-Islamophobia",[]]]},{"ex":[["verbal and physical abuse against Muslim students, headscarves, and hijab-wearing women and girls in schools and public places",[]],["harassing or beating Muslims on the street",[]],["sending hate mail to Islamic centres and mosques",[]],["spray painting slurs on mosques",[]],["vandalizing mosques",[]]]},{"de":[["Islamophobia is thought to be a modernized version of Orientalism",[]],["actually took birth with the re-birth of Islam in the 7th century, which shook the religious and systemic foundations of early medieval Europe in general and the Byzantine empire in particular.",[]],["Later, it was used to facilitate European imperialist projects in the Muslim world, giving way to prejudice against the Muslim population within the West.",[]],["It has now come to represent a governance strategy in which political elites and state functionaries use rhetoric to instill fear of Islam in the public, causing the general population to be prejudiced against Muslims on a societal level, making Muslims in society unacceptably foreign to the dominant culture, and thus transforming the existing social order into an Islamophobic one.",[]],["Later, it was used to facilitate European imperialist projects in the Muslim world, giving way to prejudice against the Muslim population within the West. It has now come to represent a governance strategy in which political elites and state functionaries use rhetoric to instill fear of Islam in the public, causing the general population to be prejudiced against Muslims on a societal level, making Muslims in society unacceptably foreign to the dominant culture, and thus transforming the existing social order into an Islamophobic one.",[]]],"sy":[["neo-Islamophobia",[]],["Orientalism",["3"]],["a form of Orientalism",[]]],"rt":[["Orientalism",[]]],"sp":[["Orientalism",[]]]},{"de":[["This strategy is a three-part process: first, discursive practices to define Islam as a source of terror and to convince the audience (public) of Muslims being a horde of chained devils ready to attack the West at any moment; second, normalizing and routinizing these definitions through security practices directed at Islamic subjects or objects; and third, the public's insecurities about Islam and Muslims as a result of these practices.",[]],["This means the West is entering a new phase of Islamic fear, where people are forced to hate Islam and everything it stands for.",[]]],"rt":[["Islamophobia",[]]],"sp":[["Islamophobia",[]]]},{"de":[["initially used to justify European political actions against the Ottoman Empire and, later, after its decline, to support their imperialist pursuits in the Muslim world.",[]],["initially served as a discursive strategy parallel to European political powers' fight against Ottoman expansionist threats into Europe.",[]],["focused increasingly on the great ages of the past.",[]],["a geopolitical strategy",["14"]]],"sy":[["Islamophobia",["3"]]],"rt":[["Islamophobia",[]]]},{"de":[["This points to the state-centric process of securitization, which begins with discourse and ends with practices.",["25"]]]},{"de":[["This process influences public perception and opinion, particularly in political contexts (Schlehofer et al., 2011) and spreads across borders.",["Schlehofer et al., 2011"]]],"rt":[["media frames",[]],["media framing",[]]],"sb":[["media framing is not gender neutral",[]]],"ex":[["Female politicians are frequently subject to gender-biased coverage and stereotypical language",["Carlin & Winfrey, 2009","Falk, 2010","Schlehofer et al., 2011"]]]},{"de":[["and play a crucial role in the portrayal of political figures.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Words that incorporate information from context generalize well in contextualizing language models, whereas words which do not incorporate contextual information generalize poorly.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Media literacy has been widely acknowledged as a lifelong learning competency essential for empowerment, creativity, and informed citizenship",["Hobbs, 2010"]],["Consequently, media education must focus on equipping learners with the competencies required to become both critical consumers and responsible producers of media content.",[]],["Some respondents, in expressing their understanding of media literacy, placed greater emphasis on digital and technical skills such as content creation, fact-checking, and verification.",[]],["media literacy should not be perceived merely as an academic construct but as a vital tool for strengthening the democratic values of society.",[]],["media literacy remains a dynamic and evolving construct within the broader field of media and communication studies.",[]],["media literacy should be formally recognised as an essential and emerging skill within India's higher education policy",[]],["media literacy should no longer be treated as a peripheral or optional skill. Instead, it must be recognised as a core educational priority in preparing future communicators, journalists, and opinion leaders.",[]],["Integrating media literacy competencies across higher education -particularly within Mass Communication programmes -enhances students' critical and analytical abilities and strengthens their capacity for informed judgement.",[]],["Media literacy has been widely acknowledged as a lifelong learning competency essential for empowerment, creativity, and informed citizenship (Hobbs, 2010).",["Hobbs, 2010"]],["Others, however, adopted a broader outlook, defining media literacy as an intellectual framework that encompasses critical thinking, analytical reasoning, ethical judgment, and participatory engagement with information consumed from diverse sources (Hobbs, 2021;Mihailidis et al., 2021).",["Hobbs, 2021;Mihailidis et al., 2021"]]],"rt":[["mis/disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This stratification based on skin color has significant implications for all aspects of life, including money, education, and marriage opportunities for light-skinned women",["55","57"]]]},{"de":[["the interpretation and representation of meaning are inherently shaped by cultural contexts",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["traditional gender roles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It exemplifies societal norms and expectations pertaining to gender roles and behaviors.",[]],["Gender representation in the textbook provides distinct portrayals of women and men through descriptive content.",[]],["The depiction of gender in a textbook may be observed through the physical characteristics of the characters and the attributes ascribed to them [17].",["17"]],["Physical characteristics such as haircuts and clothing, which are extremely stereotypical according to cultural context, can occasionally serve as a basis for categorization [18].",["18"]]],"ex":[["For instance, common male hairstyles include having a beard, a mustache, and super short hair, whereas common female hairstyles include braiding long hair and adding bows or ribbons to the hair. Male usually wears pants while female wears skirt or dress.",[]],["In most cases, religious identification is denoted by physical representations, such as a woman covering her hair with a hijab or a man donning a peci.",[]]]},{"de":[["influenced by the societal roles and responsibilities individuals are capable of fulfilling",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["prevailing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["men are assigned prominent positions in the public domain, assuming responsibilities as leaders and dads who exercise authority over their families, children, and possessions",["93"]]]},{},{"de":[["Physical appearance can influence how people are perceived by others and can impact their social interactions and opportunities",["34"]]],"ex":[["Male characters were often portrayed with short hair, dark skin, curly hair, and facial hair, while female characters were portrayed with long, straight hair and fair skin.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["influencers",[]],["individuals",[]],["officials",[]],["groups",[]],["companies",[]],["institutions",[]]],"ex":[["influencers",[]],["individuals",[]],["officials",[]],["groups",[]],["companies",[]],["institutions",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation should be seen as part of the cybersecurity threat and risk landscape.",[]],["In the discussion, the term \"disinformation\" is used as the discussion focuses on misleading or inaccurate information intentionally created and distributed on social media within a country and how the parties affected by such a cybersecurity threat should respond.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["Malinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The term 'fake news' is commonly used to discredit the media.",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["this neologism (information + epidemic = infodemic)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Many actors of misinformation believe what they are sharing and are not intentionally spreading false information",["Hook and Verdeja, 2022"]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["It is used to influence public opinion to help a person, organization, or government.",[]],["Propaganda creation is often associated with governments, but individuals and organizations outside of politics may use propaganda as well.",[]],["The purpose of propaganda is to encourage people to promote a political cause or to think in a particular way and turn people away from a political cause (Bentzen, 2022).",["Bentzen, 2022"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["algorithms that determine what users see",[]]]},{"sb":[["community apps such as Facebook and Twitter",[]],["media-sharing channels like YouTube and Instagram",[]],["messaging apps such as WhatsApp",[]],["hybrid platforms like Telegram",[]]],"ex":[["community apps such as Facebook and Twitter, media-sharing channels like YouTube and Instagram, messaging apps such as WhatsApp, and hybrid platforms like Telegram",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["social media misinformation (SMM)",[]]]},{"rt":[["social media disinformation (SMD)",[]]],"sb":[["social media disinformation (SMD)",[]]]},{"de":[["also implies that agenda-setting effects should be visible on an individual level.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["issue importance",[]]]},{"de":[["generate optimal opportunities for selective exposure of media content",["Dimitrova et al., 2014"]]],"ex":[["blogs",[]],["parties' websites",[]],["politicians' Facebook",[]],["Twitter",[]],["You Tube channels",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Another type of intervention is capability interventions that seeks to mitigate misinformation sharing by building competences or resistance against the rhetorical techniques and strategies that are used to mislead people through misinformation",[]],["the common denominator is that they go beyond merely priming accuracy motivations by providing concrete tools, actionable advice, or psychological competences to mitigate misinformation sharing.",[]],["capability interventions go beyond the motivational component of accuracy nudges: They build capabilities by providing education (i.e., increasing knowledge) and training (i.e., imparting skills and tools) to avoid misinformation sharing.",[]],["capability interventions aim to build reflective motivation where citizens contemplate and plan how to implement advice behaviorally.",[]],["While these interventions are often rooted in distinct theoretical frameworkssuch as inoculation theory or digital media literacythe common denominator is that they go beyond merely priming accuracy motivations by providing concrete tools, actionable advice, or psychological competences to mitigate misinformation sharing.",[]],["In other words, while the assumption behind accuracy nudges is that people already have the competence to avoid sharing misinformation and simply are in need of motivationoriented reminders, capability interventions go beyond the motivational component of accuracy nudges: They build capabilities by providing education (i.e., increasing knowledge) and training (i.e., imparting skills and tools) to avoid misinformation sharing.",[]]],"rt":[["inoculation theory",[]],["digital media literacy",[]],["accuracy nudges",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Coping appraisals",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["agenda setting theory",[]]]},{"de":[["At first 'frame' is intended as a conceptual structure for organizing one's outlook in terms of providing the categories to become a reality.",[]],["Framing is to focus the attention of those in the field of meaning.",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing is to focus the attention of those in the field of meaning.",[]],["Framing theory suggests that how something is shown to influence individual choices in decision making.",[]],["Framing is a communication concept that brings others to accept one meaning and others. The process of this form usually derived the communication resources to define and build a political issue or public controversy",[]],["Framing is a communication concept that brings others to accept one meaning and others.",[]]],"rt":[["priming approach",[]]],"sp":[["Framing Theory",[]]]},{"de":[["framing is a paradigm and is considered as the second stage of agenda setting.",[]],["this theory can explain the actual treatment of the issue based on the frame.",[]],["the use of framing to find resources that framed the frame up to the description of how a time frame described an impact on society",[]]],"rt":[["agenda setting theory",[]]]},{"rt":[["public agenda",[]],["policy agenda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Framing news pattern often be the starting point to the media agenda and the impact of pattern formation will become effective orientation for displaying news reader",[]]],"sy":[["framing of news",[]]],"rt":[["priming approach",[]]]},{},{"de":[["whose rituals contributed to create a sense of belonging among the masses.",["16"]]]},{},{"de":[["creation of Italian comics that reflected Fascist rhetoric, while maintaining the dynamism and exotic look that Italian readers had grown to love to preserve the allure of its popular magazine",[]],["the result of complex forces at play, ranging from reaction to the crisis of European society to the sacralisation of politics, and from the exaltation of actions and virility to the ideal of the creation of a new order.",["18"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Van Zoonen (1992) also identifies a dominant framing pattern construing feminists as social deviants.",["Van Zoonen (1992)"]]],"rt":[["demonisation frame",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the notable discrepancy between the official governmental optimism with regards to gender equality and the experiences of young women in their everyday lives",[]]]},{},{"de":[["journalists construct the symbolic representations of society that members of the public use to make sense of events and issues.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["post-feminist frames",[]]]},{"sy":[["infodemic",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Maximum balance is achieved when both classes (violent and nonviolent) contain an equal number of examples for each gender. In contrast, maximum disparity occurs when one gender is entirely absent from one of the classes.",[]],["measurements computed for statistical parity and representation parity",[]]],"rt":[["statistical parity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The difference version highlights disparities by showing the absolute differences in the probabilities between gender groups, offering a clear view of the magnitude of imbalance in concrete terms.",[]],["In contrast, the ratio version emphasizes relative magnitudes, illustrating the proportional relationship between the probabilities of assignment for the two gender groups, which can be particularly informative for understanding the scale of disparity.",[]],["measurements computed for statistical parity and representation parity",[]]],"rt":[["representation parity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Users in the region of interest are not affiliated with pages but browse different sources while consuming the content they are interested in.",[]]],"sp":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["Users in the region of multi-topic selective exposure are affiliated with one or few pages while spanning many topics.",[]]],"sp":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["Users who display selective exposure tend to focus their attention on the information provided by a limited number of sources (e.g. news outlets) despite being aware of the presence of a wide array of alternatives.",[]],["Focusing on a single topic rather than on different ones entails a heterogeneity in the distribution of the user's activity that can be directly associated with the mechanism of selective exposure.",[]],["a good proxy for selective exposure is a measure that quantifies heterogeneity in the distribution of users' activity across different elements; namely, topics or pages.",[]],["In general, selective exposure in randomized data is weaker than in real data where the consumption of contents from few news outlets (i.e. selective exposure) seems to derive from deliberate actions of the users, as observed in [14], rather than from random choices.",[]],["Panel A: average values of selective exposure to topics with respect to users' activity show that increasing activity levels correspond to lower selective exposure, i.e. users concentrate on a higher number of topics.",[]]],"rt":[["heterogeneity in the distribution of the user's activity",[]]],"sb":[["Multi-topic selective exposure: high selective exposure to pages and low selective exposure to topics.",[]],["Single-topic selective exposure: high selective exposure to pages and high selective exposure to topics.",[]],["Exposure by interest: low selective exposure to pages and high selective exposure to topics.",[]],["multi-topic selective exposure",[]],["single-topic selective exposure",[]],["exposure by interest",[]]],"ex":[["a user who focuses his/her activity on a single topic (or page) would display higher selective exposure than a user who interacts with multiple topics.",[]],["For instance, a user who focuses his/her activity on a single topic (or page) would display higher selective exposure than a user who interacts with multiple topics.",[]]]},{"de":[["Users in the region of single-topic selective exposure are affiliated with one or few pages but they tend to focus their attention on specific content.",[]]],"sp":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{},{"de":[["relying on \"emotional and evaluative means of influence\"",["18"]],["knowledge disseminated through education is independent of one's interests.",[]],["Education does not force opinions and does not control the implementation of imposed attitudes; it provides a choice and may even retreat if the ideas and attitudes being broadcast are not accepted.",[]],["Within the framework of education, various forms of communication are available, including interactive methods like discussions and debates.",[]],["The key element in education is the recipient of information, the one who is being educated.",[]],["Education does not force opinions and does not control the implementation of imposed attitudes; it provides a choice and may even retreat if the ideas and attitudes being broadcast are not accepted. Within the framework of education, various forms of communication are available, including interactive methods like discussions and debates. The key element in education is the recipient of information, the one who is being educated.",[]],["knowledge disseminated through education is independent of one's interests. Education does not force opinions and does not control the implementation of imposed attitudes; it provides a choice and may even retreat if the ideas and attitudes being broadcast are not accepted.",[]]],"rt":[["persuasive communication",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["propaganda is based on the assumption that the propagandist is, de facto, better informed and holds the authority to determine what changes should be introduced",[]],["Propaganda shapes certain behavioural patterns and attitudes, with the propagandist taking on a central role.",[]],["Unlike education, propaganda is a one-way communication [12], not involving interaction.",["12"]],["the most important point is, perhaps, that propaganda always serves someone's interests.",[]],["This is not mere information dissemination; rather, it is a one-sided and assertive broadcasting of a particular standpoint.",[]],["In addition, the most important point is, perhaps, that propaganda always serves someone's interests.",[]],["The identified propaganda clichés were based on repetition and partly on intimidation (due to the inclusion of an emotional component or objective data).",[]],["Unlike education, propaganda is a one-way communication [12], not involving interaction. In addition, the most important point is, perhaps, that propaganda always serves someone's interests. This is not mere information dissemination; rather, it is a one-sided and assertive broadcasting of a particular standpoint.",["12"]],["propaganda is based on the assumption that the propagandist is, de facto, better informed and holds the authority to determine what changes should be introduced. Propaganda shapes certain behavioural patterns and attitudes, with the propagandist taking on a central role. Unlike education, propaganda is a one-way communication [12], not involving interaction. In addition, the most important point is, perhaps, that propaganda always serves someone's interests. This is not mere information dissemination; rather, it is a one-sided and assertive broadcasting of a particular standpoint.",["12"]]],"rt":[["persuasive technology",[]],["persuasive communication",[]],["education",[]]]},{},{"de":[["can encompass directing attention towards specific actions that can be interpreted as a call to action.",[]],["Beyond intimidation and reliance on official information sources",[]]]},{"de":[["the strategy of public education was also actively implemented in the discourse of the three publishers",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Os estudos sobre desinformação, inicialmente a definiam como falta de informação, mas a partir dos anos 2000, as pesquisas relacionadas ao tema introduziram aspectos mais abrangentes, dada a complexidade do fenômeno, como informação distorcida, imprecisa, descontextualizada, e apelativas às crenças pessoais e emoções (Heller; Jacobi; Borges, 2020).",["Heller; Jacobi; Borges, 2020"]],["engloba diferentes aspectos de conteúdo enganoso, impostor, fabricado, de conexões falsas, descontextualizado, manipulado, de teorias da conspiração e de mito",["Grizzle et al., 2021"]],["caracterizando-a como instrumento de manipulação",["Grizzle et al., 2021, p. 151"]],["desinformação engloba diferentes aspectos de conteúdo enganoso, impostor, fabricado, de conexões falsas, descontextualizado, manipulado, de teorias da conspiração e de mito",["Grizzle et al., 2021"]],["a desinformação engloba diferentes aspectos de conteúdo enganoso, impostor, fabricado, de conexões falsas, descontextualizado, manipulado, de teorias da conspiração e de mito (Grizzle et al., 2021)",["Grizzle et al., 2021"]]],"rt":[["informação incorreta",[]],["infodemia",[]],["fake news",[]],["notícias falsas",[]],["informação incorreta (misinformation)",[]],["má informação (malinformation)",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["As fake news se apresentam na forma de fragmentos de documentos descontextualizados, manchetes sensacionalistas disponibilizadas, vídeos ou postagens de desconhecidos que afirmam ter informações privilegiadas de fontes seguras divulgadas em apps de mensagem instantânea e redes sociais.",[]],["a criação e o compartilhamento são feitos pelos próprios usuários sem controle algum",["Tomaél;Alcará;Silva, 2021"]],["mimetizações de notícias total ou parcialmente falsas, e até mesmo descontextualizadas, são fabricadas e difundidas premeditadamente com a única função de enganar.",[]],["Candidatos a cargos políticos o termo para descrever qualquer informação contrária à suas posições e/ou que abordem aspectos negativos dessas pessoas públicas e partidos",["Vosoughiv; Roy; Aral, 2018"]],["o termo engloba também o aspecto de chavão político e ideológico empregado para minar a credibilidade de veículos de notícia, de jornalistas e até mesmo de qualquer indivíduo que tenha opinião contrária",["Tandoc et al., 2018","Molina et al., 2021"]],["mimetização do formato de notícia que leva o sujeito a acreditar que é uma informação factual",["Lazer et.al, 2018"]],["propósito de manipulação vide a perda de racionalidade",["Domingos, 2022"]],["engloba questões relacionadas à notícias falsas",["Grizzle et al., 2021, p. 151"]]],"sy":[["notícia/informação falsa",[]],["conteúdo falso ou errôneo",["Grizzle et al., 2021, p. 148, tradução nossa","Grizzle et al., 2021"]],["notícias falsas",["Grizzle et al., 2021, p. 151"]]],"rt":[["desinformação",[]]],"sp":[["desinformação",[]]],"ex":[["fragmentos de documentos descontextualizados, manchetes sensacionalistas disponibilizadas, vídeos ou postagens de desconhecidos que afirmam ter informações privilegiadas de fontes seguras divulgadas em apps de mensagem instantânea e redes sociais.",[]]]},{"rt":[["desinformação",[]]]},{"de":[["This shift reflects what Tursunaliyevich (Tursunaliyevich, 2025) calls the cognitive awakening phase of MIL development.",["Tursunaliyevich (Tursunaliyevich, 2025)"]]]},{},{"de":[["MIL is not merely a skillset, but a framework rooted in constructivist theories of learning. It supports learners in co-constructing knowledge, questioning sources, and engaging with content through a lens of skepticism and analysis",[]],["MIL also integrates critical pedagogy, emphasizing the role of education in promoting agency and consciousness-raising in students' digital experiences.",[]]],"rt":[["critical literacy",[]],["verification skills",[]]]},{"de":[["The viral nature of content shared via social media has exacerbated the challenge, contributing to misinformed behaviors and distorted perceptions of truth.",[]]]},{"de":[["statements on key policy issues that directly or indirectly contradict real facts",[]],["misleading statements by politicians",[]]]},{"de":[["direction opposite of what the content of the information would imply for extremely salient issues, such as WMD in Iraq in 2005 and vaccine safety.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["fact checking can correct biases in factual knowledge introduced by politically-charged alternative facts.",[]],["fact checking's success in correcting factual knowledge does not translate into an impact on voting intentions.",[]]],"ex":[["For instance, the article in newspaper Le Monde which fact checked the statement by Marine Le Pen on the proportion of men among refugees, embedded true facts in a short narrative containing several paragraphs.",[]]]},{"de":[["Backfiring can be explained by motivated cognition",[]],["where information is evaluated in a biased way to reinforce pre-existing views",[]]],"sy":[["self-confirming bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["mechanisms avoiding costly cognitive dissonance",[]],["the failure to update the beliefs even in the presence of the bad news",[]]]},{"de":[["The effect of salience is similar to the \"availability heuristic\"",[]],["the story or the argument linking the facts and the conclusions",[]],["different from priming",[]]],"rt":[["priming",[]],["availability heuristic",[]]]},{"de":[["mechanisms avoiding costly cognitive dissonance",[]],["the manufacturing of signals that can be interpreted as the objective proof of desired conclusions",[]]]},{"de":[["mechanisms avoiding costly cognitive dissonance",[]],["choosing to avoid information sources that contradict the preferred beliefs",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news can easily misguide public opinion, cause the crisis of confidence, and disturb the social order",["Vosoughi et al., 2018"]]]},{"de":[["The approaches for fake news detection can be divided into two categories: social-based and content-based.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["evidence-based classification",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["open mode propagation",[]]]},{"rt":[["rumors",[]]]},{"rt":[["constrained mode propagation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["nodes corresponding to microblog posts, each represented as a continuous vector, and edges representing the direction of propagation and providing the context to individual posts.",[]],["provide valuable clues on how an original message is transmitted and developed over time",[]]]},{"de":[["To classify propagation trees, we can calculate the similarity between the trees, which is supposed to reflect the distinction of different types of rumors and non-rumors based on structural, linguistic and temporal properties.",[]]],"rt":[["propagation tree",[]]]},{"de":[["This unverified information may eventually turn out to be true, or partly or entirely false.",[]]],"sb":[["false rumor",[]],["true rumor",[]],["unverified rumor",[]]]},{"de":[["people could be trapped in their own opinions and reinforce their pre-existing beliefs by limiting exposure to other news articles having different opinions.",[]],["a fundamental reason that leads to serious social polarization by hindering positive and active communications among people",["7,9,14,15,22,68"]]]},{},{"de":[["the accurate provision of news articles with different political stances would not only (1) have people experience diverse political stances but also (2) allow researchers to investigate ways to support news consumption in a balanced standpoint from people's experiences and behaviors",["45"]],["The political stance prediction can be seen as a special case of document classification.",[]],["given a news article 𝑎, predict its political stance",[]]],"sp":[["document classification",[]],["typical supervised learning task",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Es un ritual lleno de estética, simbolismo y emoción.",[]],["Es un patrimonio cultural internacional y aúna todas las manifestaciones culturales posibles: poesía, literatura, música, cine, arte de la sastrería…",[]],["Ha inspirado a artistas, escritores e intelectuales de todas las latitudes y épocas.",[]],["desde el punto de vista histórico, artístico y social, la tauromaquia es comparable con el teatro o con cualquier otra actividad cultural sujeta a los gustos del público y de los artistas que la ejecutan.",[]]],"sy":[["el arte de lidiar los toros",[]]],"rt":[["el arte de lidiar los toros",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it is an often-overlooked type of media or cultural material, which invites interdisciplinary and critical engagement within area studies, where it can be placed 'in dialogue with other cultural texts' (Sturken 2012, 359)",["Sturken 2012, 359"]],["digital content is being used by some favela residents in Rio de Janeiro to engage in the production of a differential meaning and visibility for favelas and their residents, and their relationship to the city.",[]]],"sy":[["waste materials of everyday communication",[]]]},{"de":[["-where the community is defined by its location, culture, language, or area of interest",["Ballantyne 2002, 2"]]]},{"de":[["locality as process (rather than inherent characteristic)",[]]],"sy":[["(network) locality",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["the view from the 110th floor of the World Trade Centre in New York, or Medieval and Renaissance paintings which presented an imagined vision of the city",[]]]},{"de":[["Toxic speech has gained substantial attention, focusing on its detrimental effects and prevalence across online platforms.",[]],["The role of voice in conveying toxic speech is significant, encompassing intonation, tone, and nuances closely tied to emotions.",[]],["Toxic speech often exhibits discernible patterns in pronunciation analogous to emotions such as happiness or anger",["15"]]],"sy":[["offensive language",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["sarcasm",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Fake accounts are usually opened for lack of trust, fear or hiding from anyone, protecting oneself from the potential loss of important news and accessing information by hiding.",[]]],"sy":[["fake profiles",[]],["false profiles",[]]],"rt":[["stalker",[]],["cyberbullying",[]],["gamers",[]],["spammers",[]],["pornography",[]],["digital reputation",[]],["media manipulation",[]],["cybercrime",[]]],"sb":[["fake, manual or artisan profiles (created by people)",[]],["those generated and manipulated manually and automatically (bots or robots)",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["fake accounts",[]]],"sb":[["fake, manual or artisan profiles (created by people)",[]],["those generated and manipulated manually and automatically (bots or robots)",[]]],"ex":[["stalker",[]],["cyberbullying",[]],["gamers",[]],["spammers",[]],["pornography",[]],["digital reputation",[]],["media manipulation",[]],["cybercrime",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Each category has a set of predefined aspects.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In the typical setting of MDS, the input is a set of news documents about the same topic. The output summary is a piece of short text document containing several sentences, generated only based on the input original documents.",[]]]},{"de":[["We investigate this problem known as reader-aware multi-document summarization (RA-MDS).",[]],["One challenge of the RA-MDS problem is how to conduct salience estimation by jointly considering the focus of news reports and the reader interests revealed by comments.",[]]],"rt":[["multi-document summarization (MDS)",[]]],"sp":[["multi-document summarization (MDS)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["in which individuals consider information plausible without fully verifying its accuracy",[]],["Acceptance is distinct from exposure and engagement, as individuals may encounter misinformation without fully believing it, yet still consider or rely on it when forming political judgments.",[]],["acceptance reflects whether information is provisionally believed or considered credible.",[]],["acceptance represents cognitive evaluation",[]],["it does not necessarily indicate behavioral engagement",[]]],"sy":[["cognitive evaluation",[]]],"rt":[["exposure",[]],["engagement",[]],["misinformation engagement",[]]],"sb":[["provisional or conditional acceptance",[]]]},{"de":[["Overall, acceptance of fake news is associated with exposure to misleading digital content, social media network amplification, and psychological responses to politically charged information.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In political communication research, message comprehensibility influences how individuals process and evaluate political information circulating online.",[]],["Studies indicate that information that is cognitively accessible and clearly structured tends to be perceived as more credible, which can affect how individuals interpret political narratives encountered on social media platforms",["Kozyreva et al., 2020","Ecker et al., 2022"]],["voters often rely on information that appears clear, coherent, and sufficient when evaluating political messages.",[]],["comprehensibility may function as a cognitive mechanism that contributes to the acceptance of fake news by reducing cognitive barriers to belief.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["culture should be understood as a contextual and interpretive framework that shapes how voters process political information in digital environments.",[]],["culture does not function as a direct predictor of fake news acceptance but rather as an interpretive lens through which political information is understood, evaluated, and discussed within digital communication environments.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["poses significant risks to democratic processes by shaping political attitudes, distorting public discourse, and influencing voter behavior",["Tandoc et al., 2018","Nyhan, 2020"]],["misinformation circulating on social media platforms poses a substantial threat to democratic institutions by shaping voter perceptions and political attitudes during electoral periods",["Guess et al., 2020","Guess et al., 2020a","Guess et al., 2020b"]],["the widespread circulation of fake news on social media can shape public beliefs and societal perceptions of information credibility, influencing how individuals interpret political narratives and evaluate competing political claims in online environments",[]],["Social media environments facilitate the dissemination of misinformation through user engagement behaviors.",[]],["Digital platforms enable the easy sharing and redistribution of misinformation across online networks, increasing its circulation within social communities",["Chaudhuri et al., 2024"]],["Habitual social media use also contributes to the dissemination of misinformation, as repeated sharing practices increase the likelihood that individuals will redistribute false information encountered online",["Ceylan et al., 2023"]],["platform affordances such as algorithmic amplification and engagement features encourage the spread of misleading content across social networks",["Wu et al., 2025"]]],"sy":[["misleading information",[]],["misleading content",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Heuristic processing is associated with increased susceptibility to misinformation, particularly when content is emotionally engaging, visually appealing, or socially endorsed",["Ecker et al., 2022","Martel et al., 2020"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This mode of exposure has important cognitive implications: incidental exposure reduces the likelihood of systematic processing and increases reliance on heuristic strategies",["Kozyreva et al., 2020"]],["a common feature of algorithm-driven platforms that prioritize engagement and watch time",["Searles and Feezell, 2023"]]],"rt":[["heuristic strategies",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["NML",["Shahzad and Khan, 2024"]]],"rt":[["web literacy",["(Shahzad and Khan, 2024)","Shahzad and Khan (2024)"]],["digital literacy",["(Shahzad and Khan, 2024)","Shahzad and Khan (2024)"]],["social media literacy",["(Shahzad and Khan, 2024)","Shahzad and Khan (2024)"]],["NML",["(Shahzad and Khan, 2024)","Shahzad and Khan (2024)"]]]},{"de":[["acceptance and use are related but distinct stages of misinformation engagement.",[]]],"sb":[["acceptance",[]],["use",[]]]},{},{"de":[["shaped by political learning, informational experience, and familiarity with electoral processes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["individuals rely on clarity, coherence, and perceived informational sufficiency as heuristic cues when assessing credibility",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["psychological inoculation",["van der Linden et al., 2020"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["conditional acceptance",[]]],"sp":[["acceptance",[]]]},{"sy":[["prebunking",["(van der Linden et al., 2020)","van der Linden et al., 2020"]]]},{"de":[["Selective exposure has been associated with increased political polarization and susceptibility to misleading narratives, particularly when users are repeatedly exposed to ideologically consistent content",["Azzimonti and Fernandes, 2023"]]]},{"rt":[["social endorsement heuristics",[]]]},{"rt":[["social endorsement cues",[]]],"ex":[["likes, shares, and comments",[]]]},{},{"de":[["While acceptance reflects belief or provisional belief in misinformation, use represents the behavioral dimension of misinformation engagement.",[]],["use represents behavioral engagement",[]]],"rt":[["acceptance",[]]]},{"de":[["represents the behavioral dimension of misinformation engagement",[]]],"sy":[["behavioral engagement",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["time series model",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation campaigns often aim to impede their political participation.",[]],["Disinformation campaigns prey on people's uncertainty and emotional responses",["Bergstrom & West, 2020","Linvill & Warren, 2019"]],["disinformation purveyors increasingly use fake outlets (Alba & Nicas, 2020) and fake local hashtags (Starbird et al., 2019) to replace real, local journalism that is disappearing from communities, particularly those with less affluence (Abernathy, 2020).",["Alba & Nicas, 2020","Starbird et al., 2019","Abernathy, 2020"]],["messages intentionally designed to provoke their emotions and promote social media sharing",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Black people could not die from COVID-19; it was man-made to achieve population control; herbal remedies could contain it; and 5G radiation caused it.",[]],["Black households received robocalls on election day 2010 suggesting that the governor's supporters could stay home because he already had won the election",["Broadwater, 2011"]],["heavily Black Jefferson County was targeted with text messages promoting false polling site changes",["Morales-Doyle & Frederick, 2018"]],["hashtags invoking Black Lives Matter or posing as Black activists to motivate sharing that magnifies disinformation",["Linville & Warren, 2019","Starbird, Arif, & Wilson, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["This is different from believing misinformation, which is innocently spread, inaccurate information that can result from confusing or incomplete information sharing.",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation campaigns often promote election boycotts, attack mainstream candidates and promote third-party candidates. They also encourage tribalism to attack other groups",["Diresta et al., 2018"]]]},{"de":[["General media literacy skills are associated with COVID-19 knowledge and political engagement",[]],["science media literacy is associated with less acceptance of COVID-19 disinformation.",[]],["Media literacy skills appear important for empowering and informing communities of color.",[]],["media literacy skills can be empowering despite systemic barriers to formal education and other resources.",[]],["It refers to critical thinking about media sources and content, including the meaning of stylistic characteristics, the content's accuracy and completeness, the source's implied values, and the context in which messages have been shared.",[]]],"sb":[["science media literacy",[]],["science-specific media literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["communication against his torically oppressed groups in terms of racism",["Kindermann, 2023, p. 814"]],["formed on the basis of threatening the receiving country and thus forming a negative image of a war refugee with the aim to deny them access to help and asylum",[]],["online hate speech expressed via stereotypical nominations and preju dices in the first year of the war is aimed at forming a negative and even harmful image of the Ukrainian war refugees and discouraging people from helping or receiving refugees.",[]],["might be regarded as a tool of propaganda in hybrid war.",[]],["form a negative image of refugees in order to evoke various fears, negative feelings and unwillingness to help or accept them.",[]],["aimed at polarisation and the exclusion of the Ukrainian war refugees.",[]]],"sy":[["discriminatory speech",["Kindermann, 2023, p. 814","Kindermann, 2023"]]],"rt":[["incitement to hatred",[]],["contempt",[]],["discrimination",[]],["violence",[]],["genocide",[]],["crimes against humanity",[]],["insults",[]],["ridicule",[]],["slander",[]],["stereotypical nominations",[]],["prejudice",[]]]},{"rt":[["prejudice",[]]]},{"de":[["the negative image of the Ukrainian war refugees is based on the prejudice that they are and will be more attractive for employers than the Lithuanians.",[]],["prejudice that the Lithuanian government cares more about the Ukrainians than about their own citizens, the Ukrainians will occupy Lithuania and expel the Lithuanians from their own country, the Ukrainians will deprive the Lithuanians of jobs.",[]]],"ex":[["possible future scenarios where refugees will not be able to integrate into the European labour market, will destroy Christianity and even destroy the old continent",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["partisan learning",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In some media environments it is easier for citizens to find content that matches their preferences, for example in terms of ideological leaning, while it is more difficult in other media environments.",[]],["it is a reminder that empirical findings of selective exposure from any particular media environment and country, with its specific opportunity structure for selective exposure, cannot be transferred to media environments and countries with other opportunity structures for selective exposure.",[]],["it highlights and offers a framework for further research on how opportunitiesa macro-level variableinfluence and moderate the importance of individual preferences and abilitiesmicro-level variables.",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]],["media environment",[]]]},{"de":[["learning about the proposals of parties with whom voters agree ideologically",[]]],"sy":[["one-sided campaign learning",[]]],"rt":[["general campaign learning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The research question at heart of this study concerns selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, increasing media supply makes media consumers more likely to select content in line with their preferences (Bennett and Iyengar 2008;Iyengar and Hahn 2009;Mutz and Young 2011;Prior 2007).",[]]],"sb":[["selectivity based on political ideological preferences",[]],["selectivity based on political interest",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Miller (1996) relates information quality to the degree to which information users' needs are addressed and lists ten dimen-sions for information quality: accuracy, timeliness, completeness, coherence, format, accessibility, compatibility, security, and validity.",["Miller, 1996"]],["The AIM Quality methodology for information quality assessments identifies four key quality components: intrinsic, contextual, representational, and accessibility",["Y. Lee, Strong, Kahn, & Wang, 2002"]],["The IS success model defines five dimensions of contextual information quality, including completeness, ease of understanding, personalization, relevance, and security",["Delone & McLean, 2003"]],["accuracy, timeliness, completeness, coherence, format, accessibility, compatibility, security, and validity.",[]],["ten dimen-sions for information quality: accuracy, timeliness, completeness, coherence, format, accessibility, compatibility, security, and validity.",[]],["four key quality components: intrinsic, contextual, representational, and accessibility (Y. Lee, Strong, Kahn, & Wang, 2002).",["Y. Lee, Strong, Kahn, & Wang, 2002"]]]},{"de":[["information re-sharing can be viewed as co-joining of two informing acts, where the focal actor first acts as a client. Then, depending on the framing of the received message, the client may act as a sender and transmit the message to additional clients with or without reframing it",[]]],"rt":[["information disclosure on SNS",[]]]},{},{"de":[["because SNS users rarely have an opportunity to ascertain the correctness of information, they may perceive information as reliable if they have confidence in the reliability of the information source",[]]]},{"de":[["explicitly recognizes that social and environmental factors, as well as psychological characteristics of the sender and the client play an important role in the informing process as they influence the framing of the message",[]]]},{"de":[["Information is of value if makes a difference and leads such a user to alter her/his behavior or way of thinking",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Relevance is often dependent on users' interests, and information that is relevant for some users may be irrelevant for others",[]]]},{"de":[["they may perceive information as reliable if they have confidence in the reliability of the information source (Knight & Burn, 2005).",["Knight & Burn, 2005"]]]},{"de":[["whereby users share content that is posted by other SNS users or third parties",[]]],"sy":[["retweeting",["Suh, Hong, Pirolli, & Chi, 2010"]],["sharing",["Suh, Hong, Pirolli, & Chi, 2010"]],["re-vining",["Suh, Hong, Pirolli, & Chi, 2010"]],["re-blogging",["Suh, Hong, Pirolli, & Chi, 2010"]]]},{"sy":[["individuals with low risk-taking propensity",[]]]},{"de":[["Risk-taking propensity is a non-stable and non-constant dispositional attribute that can change over time",["Sitkin & Weingart, 1995"]],["decision makers exhibit more risk-taking propensity (are more risk-seeking) when pursuing positive opportunities",[]],["Individuals with higher risk-taking propensity are comfortable with a relatively higher level of risk than low-risk-propensity individuals and typically engage in more risky behaviors",["Chen et al., 2011"]],["Risk-averse individuals, i.e., individuals with low risk-taking propensity, tend to focus more on examining potential negative outcomes (losses) compared to risk-seeking individuals who tend to focus more on examining potential positives outcomes (gains).",["Sitkin & Pablo, 1992"]],["risk-taking propensity describes how individuals deal dealing with uncertainties and their readiness to bear risk (Ahmed, 1985).",["Ahmed, 1985"]]],"sy":[["risk-averse individuals",[]],["risk-seeking individuals",[]]]},{"de":[["the sharing of personal information by a user",[]]]},{"de":[["Self-disclosure includes sharing of personal information such as dispositions, states, events, home addresses, phone numbers, relationship statuses, personal photos and videos, and locations",["Chen, 2013"]],["Self-disclosure behavior can be characterized by its intent, as well as by the amount, honesty, depth, and valence of the disclosed information",["Posey et al., 2010"]]],"ex":[["dispositions, states, events, home addresses, phone numbers, relationship statuses, personal photos and videos, and locations",["Chen, 2013"]]]},{},{"rt":[["intuitive reasoning",[]]]},{"sb":[["conjunction bias",[]],["selfretribution bias",[]],["false causality bias",[]],["optimism bias",[]]]},{"de":[["closely related to the belief in the paranormal (e.g., precognition, witchcraft, telekinesis, superstitions)",[]]],"rt":[["belief in the paranormal (e.g., precognition, witchcraft, telekinesis, superstitions)",["Rogers, Fisk, and Lowrie (2018)"]]],"ex":[["considering the act of thinking about a friend (event 1) who unexpectedly calls (event 2) as an extraordinary event that can only be explained by something supernatural such as luck or destiny",["Fisk; Lowrie, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["many fall into the teleological bias of explaining socio-historical events from the perspective of hypothetical secret conspiracies",[]]],"rt":[["teleological thinking",[]]],"ex":[["believing that AIDS was created by the US government for population control",["Rezende et al ., 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"rt":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"de":[["Typically, its origin is challenging to trace, capitalizing on the general population's lack of critical discernment",["Gelfert, 2018","Schiele, 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["the latter being particularly important in decision-making, although flawed due to the propensity to infer and invent causes and intentions, minimize doubts, tendency to believe carelessly, maximize emotional effects, etc.",["Kahneman, 2011"]],["flawed due to the propensity to infer and invent causes and intentions, minimize doubts, tendency to believe carelessly, maximize emotional effects, etc.",["Kahneman, 2011"]]],"rt":[["analytical reasoning",[]]],"ex":[["walking or cycling",[]],["imagining the traffic situation when returning home after a day of work",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["unlike the temporal mutability of science, pseudosciences are characterized by static ideas and concepts that conveniently change only when there is pressure from a group who holds power; they can be learned in a short space of time due to their little elaborated knowledge; pseudosciences are worked on in isolation because they do not overlap with other areas of research, which occurs, for example, between psychology and neuroscience in relation to the study of the mind; Contrary to what happens in science, pseudosciences do not act in a self-doubting, self-correcting and self-perpetuating manner, prioritizing the search for absolute truths.",["Mario Bunge (2017)"]]],"rt":[["science denial",[]],["science denial is a form of manifestation of pseudosciences",["Hanson (2021)"]]],"sb":[["non-scientific approaches with the aspiration to be called science (e.g. scientific creationism or intelligent design, ufology, astrology, psychoanalysis, homeopathy, etc.)",["Martin Mahner (2007)","Mahner (2007)"]],["approaches that do not present scientific claims , but denote equality or superiority to scientific knowledge (e.g. traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture, etc.)",["Martin Mahner (2007)","Mahner (2007)"]],["those that address supernatural techniques (e.g. esotericism, tarot, faith healing, etc.)",["Martin Mahner (2007)","Mahner (2007)"]]],"ex":[["non-scientific approaches with the aspiration to be called science (e.g. scientific creationism or intelligent design, ufology, astrology, psychoanalysis, homeopathy, etc.)",[]],["approaches that do not present scientific claims , but denote equality or superiority to scientific knowledge (e.g. traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture, etc.)",[]],["those that address supernatural techniques (e.g. esotericism, tarot, faith healing, etc.)",[]],["homeopathy, astrology, theories about ancient astronauts, etc.",["Hanson (2021)"]]]},{"rt":[["pseudoscience",[]]],"sp":[["pseudoscience",[]]],"ex":[["homeopathy, astrology, theories about ancient astronauts",[]],["denial Holocaust, climate change denial, anti-vaccine movements",[]]]},{"de":[["allowing a well-informed citizen to be able to interpret the scientific information brought by the media and to have a notion of principles about the role of the media in the mediation of scientific knowledge, the importance of experts' point of view, the possibility of news being created to overshadow genuine science, etc.",["Höttecke;Allchin, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["Such bias can also induce the false perception that supernatural forces can be understood and even controlled, such as believing in the superstition that knocking on wood can make it impossible for bad events to happen.",[]]],"rt":[["belief in the paranormal",[]]]},{"rt":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"de":[["can make it difficult to adopt scientific concepts and encourage the acceptance of conspiracy theories",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["we aggregate all these resulting words into biased concepts, by clustering the most common biased words based on their embedding similarity.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Manosphere",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Language bias in multilingual NLP refers to systematic disparities in model performance across languages.",[]],["Language bias is particularly problematic in factchecking contexts, where accurate performance in low-resource languages is crucial for equitable access to trustworthy information.",[]],["LLMs consistently favor high-resource languages due to imbalanced training corpora and optimization strategies.",[]],["The implications of language bias are profound: users in underrepresented linguistic communities are less likely to benefit from accurate fact-checking, exacerbating global information inequities.",[]],["This phenomenon, referred to as language bias, occurs when models systematically favor high-resource languages, such as English, Chinese, or Spanishover underrepresented ones, leading to uneven model behavior and outcomes",["Xu et al., 2025"]]]},{"rt":[["retrieval bias",[]]]},{"de":[["The task of retrieving previously fact-checked claims (PFCD) was introduced by Shaar et al. (2020), who developed the first benchmark and demonstrated its utility for reducing redundant verification efforts.",[]]]},{"de":[["In PFCD, this means the model might systematically favor or recall a subset of popular or easily phrased debunks, regardless of whether they truly match the input post.",[]],["we analyze how frequently different claims are retrieved in the top-K results to identify retrieval biases",[]],["This bias can lead to reduced topical coverage and overlooked relevant claims, especially for underrepresented narratives.",[]],["In our context, retrieval bias manifests when a model systematically retrieves some claims (e.g., those with high semantic similarity, profile topics, or generic phrasing) more often.",[]]],"rt":[["generation accuracy",[]],["retrieval success",[]],["popularity bias in recommender systems (RS)",["Klimashevskaia et al., 2024"]],["popularity bias",[]]],"ex":[["if a model frequently matches unrelated posts to a well-known debunk about vaccine safety simply because that debunk appears often in data or is phrased generically, this indicates retrieval bias.",[]],["some claims-especially those with generic phrasing and high topical prevalence are disproportionately retrieved.",[]]]},{"de":[["-Seeks to silence a minority. -Criticizes a minority (without a well founded argument). * Criticizes a minority and uses a straw man argument. * Blatantly misrepresents truth or seeks to distort views on a minority with unfounded claims.",[]]]},{"rt":[["precision-recall tradeoff",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech is defined as",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This includes slurs targeted towards specific LGBTQ+ communities, such as transphobic slurs.",[]]],"sb":[["transphobic slurs",[]]]},{"de":[["where a model flags content likely to infringe platform rules, which is then reviewed by humans who decide whether or not to moderate it",["Lai et al., 2022"]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech moderation",[]],["cost-recall tradeoff",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["indicates a degree of regional reporting, likely reflecting China's vast regional differences and local news needs, yet still operating within the boundaries set by the central government",[]]],"sp":[["Models of journalistic role performance",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This reporting style merges illusions of presence, plausibility, and the appropriation of the virtual body, immersing audiences within a computer-simulated environment that obscures their awareness of the actual physical space around them.",[]],["Immersive journalism is thus characterized by a first-person perspective and the diminished role of media (generally the journalist), creating a \"self-narrative\" form of information engagement.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["excels in providing context and analysis, indicating a need for Chinese media to explain complex social issues and policies in a manner that aligns with government priorities",[]]],"sp":[["Models of journalistic role performance",[]]]},{"de":[["This concept emphasizes how journalists' roles are manifested in the content they create, reflecting their actions and decisions in real-world scenarios.",[]],["As the value-laden characteristics of news productions, journalistic role performance is framed under six roles across three conceptual domains active-passive stance of journalists, relationship between journalists and the authorities, and roles to audiences",["Mellado and Hellmueller, 2015"]],["This concept emphasizes how journalists' roles are manifested in the content they create, reflecting their actions and decisions in real-world scenarios. As the value-laden characteristics of news productions, journalistic role performance is framed under six roles across three conceptual domains active-passive stance of journalists, relationship between journalists and the authorities, and roles to audiences",["Mellado and Hellmueller, 2015"]]],"rt":[["active-passive stance of journalists",[]],["relationship between journalists and the authorities",[]],["roles to audiences",[]]],"sb":[["interventionist, service, watchdog, loyal-facilitator, infotainment and civic",["Mellado and Hellmueller, 2015"]],["interventionist",[]],["service",[]],["watchdog",[]],["loyal-facilitator",[]],["infotainment",[]],["civic",[]],["the interventionist model, which involves the journalist's active participation in shaping public opinion, where news productions take a clear stance or promote particular viewpoints",[]],["the watchdog model, characterized by monitoring those in power, often through investigative journalism that scrutinizes authority and holds institutions accountable",[]],["the loyal-facilitator model, in which journalists support the government or other powerful institutions by promoting official policies, with a focus on fostering national development and social cohesion",[]],["the service journalism model, which provides practical information and advice, offering content such as consumer tips or lifestyle guidance to help audiences navigate everyday life",[]],["the infotainment journalism model, which blends entertainment with news, addressing the public as spectators by prioritizing sensational, emotionally charged, or visually stimulating content",[]],["the civic-oriented model, aimed at encouraging civic engagement by fostering public debate and informing citizens of their rights and responsibilities",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The high frequency of the loyal-facilitator model in supporting activities suggests a strong alignment with governmental and public policy support, closely related to the overall orientation and policy environment of Chinese media, where the press often acts as a mouthpiece for state propaganda",["Jirik, 2016"]],["suggests a strong alignment with governmental and public policy support",[]]],"sp":[["Models of journalistic role performance",[]]]},{"de":[["They categorized 12 news values into several characteristics such as meaningfulness, unexpectedness, and threshold.",[]],["These characteristics are independent of each other and collectively define the principles that guide news production.",[]],["As society and culture evolve, news values change accordingly",["Park and Kaye, 2023"]],["In the new digital context, the original elements of news value theory, such as timeliness, significance, and proximity, have become less effective in explaining contemporary news practices",["Yu et al., 2024"]],["strategically designed to maintain social stability and promote national achievements",[]],["Galtung and Ruge (1965) proposed the widely known criteria to guide the news selection process, providing a systematic way to understand why certain events become news while others do not. They categorized 12 news values into several characteristics such as meaningfulness, unexpectedness, and threshold. These characteristics are independent of each other and collectively define the principles that guide news production.",["Galtung and Ruge (1965)"]]],"rt":[["meaningfulness",[]],["unexpectedness",[]],["threshold",[]]],"sb":[["exclusivity -stories uniquely obtained by the news organization",[]],["bad news -stories with negative events",[]],["conflict -stories that cover disputes and confrontations",[]],["surprise -stories that highlight unexpected or unusual elements",[]],["audio-visuals -stories with engaging visuals, videos, or infographics",[]],["shareability -story likely to be widely shared and discussed on social media platforms",[]],["entertainment -soft stories designed to amuse or engage audiences",[]],["drama -stories involving unfolding events like accidents",[]],["follow-up -stories providing updates to previous reports",[]],["the power elite -stories about influential figures, organization, or institutions",[]],["relevance -stories concerning cultural, social, or historical connections of the stories to the audience",[]],["magnitude -stories reflecting the large scale or significant impact of an event",[]],["celebrity -stories involving well-known people",[]],["good news -stories emphasizing positive developments",[]],["news organization's agenda -stories that align with the news outlet's ideological, commercial, or strategic objectives",[]]],"ex":[["power elite, bad news, magnitude, and media agenda",[]],["exclusivity, bad news, conflict, surprise, audio-visuals, shareability, entertainment, drama, follow-up, the power elite, relevance, magnitude, celebrity, good news, news organization's agenda",["Harcup and O'Neill, 2016"]],["exclusivity",[]],["bad news",[]],["conflict",[]],["surprise",[]],["audio-visuals",[]],["shareability",[]],["entertainment",[]],["drama",[]],["follow-up",[]],["the power elite",[]],["relevance",[]],["magnitude",[]],["celebrity",[]],["good news",[]],["the news organization's agenda",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["allows audiences to virtually enter the scene, providing a more engaging and comprehensive understanding of events",["De la Peña et al., 2010","Kukkakorpi and Pantti, 2021","Shin and Biocca, 2018","Sirkkunen et al., 2016"]]]},{},{"sp":[["motivated reasoning",[]],["theory of motivated reasoning",["Taber & Lodge, 2006"]]]},{"de":[["can be an effective strategy to curb misinformation across national contexts such as the United States",["Pennycook et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["accuracy motivations-a normative ideal for an informed citizen",[]]],"rt":[["user agency",[]]]},{"de":[["the content needed to both identify misinformation and provide information on why it is false.",[]],["Content merely saying \"this is fake news\" or \"this is misinformation\" was labeled as 0.",[]]],"ex":[["A video that falsely claims Joe Biden wore a wire during last night's debate has been shared thousands of times on Facebook. The clip shows a shirt crease.",[]],["Mark Zuckerberg's claim that QAnon is *just now* evolving from misinformation to violence is patently false. An armed QAnon supporter blocked traffic at the Hoover Dam bridge in June 2018. The FBI called it a domestic terror threat in May 2019.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["partisan motivation",[]],["accuracy motivation",[]]]},{"sp":[["motivated reasoning",[]],["theory of motivated reasoning",["Taber & Lodge, 2006"]]]},{"de":[["The party politics discussion covered discussions about how misinformation benefited or harmed political groups, attribution of blame on a party/politician, and partisan politicians' attacks on one another.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this type of discussion, misinformation is seen as an arena where political strategies play out and a place that reflects political (dis)advantages.",[]],["The party politics discussion covered discussions about how misinformation benefited or harmed political groups, attribution of blame on a party/politician, and partisan politicians' attacks on one another.",[]],["merely mentioning political parties, politicians, or elections to state factual information was not treated as a sufficient signal of party politics discussion unless the content explicitly discussed party conflict and political (dis)advantage",[]]],"ex":[["@Facebook throttled progressive news in favor of right-wing disinformation sites",[]],["The Biden campaign is pressing Facebook to remove posts by Trump and slamming the company as the nation's foremost propagator of disinformation about the voting process.",[]]]},{"ex":[["exposing people to fact checks",["Bode & Vraga, 2015"]],["banning elite accounts that repeatedly spread misinformation",["Dwoskin & Timberg, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["Platform actions aiming at reducing the harm of misinformation quickly become a fertile ground for debates over political bias and censorship.",[]]],"rt":[["action-based discussions",[]]],"ex":[["exposing people to fact checks",[]],["banning elite accounts that repeatedly spread misinformation",[]]]},{"ex":[["misinformation makes people believe that there is an election fraud",[]]]},{"de":[["The central concern in this discussion is not political gains or losses, but the verifiable truth itself, and the negative consequences that might flow from not believing the verifiable truth.",[]],["Such discussions can be either on an individual level (e.g., \"He admitted that he wanted to kill a 'random white person' after watching the fake news\") or a collective level (e.g., \"COVID-19 disinformation is everywhere. And it's undermining our response in the US\").",[]]],"ex":[["misinformation makes people believe that there is an election fraud",[]],["poisons your mind",[]],["polarizes the public",[]]]},{"de":[["Such strategic frame in news coverage can decrease knowledge, increase cynicism, and demobilize the public",["Zoizner, 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["The user agency discussion can express both accuracy and partisan concerns about misinformation.",[]]],"ex":[["offering tips on discerning fabricated headlines or encouraging people to read fact checks",[]],["asking social media users to \"be aware of\" misinformation",[]],["warning people to \"watch out for\" certain rumors recently circulating online",[]],["encouraging people to read and share corrections/facts with others (e.g., \"join my page to watch live fact-check\")",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Otherwise, a model should be considered gender-biased.",[]]],"rt":[["representational harm",["Blodgett et al., 2020"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["manipulative capability",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["manipulative capability",[]]]},{"ex":[["results of recent public rallies in Russia in 2017",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["manipulative capability",[]]]},{},{"de":[["existence of lexical phantoms as words without denotation, the real subject of denomination (Normann 1994)",["Normann 1994"]]],"rt":[["lexical phantoms",[]],["selfreferentiality",["Baudrillard 1981"]]]},{},{"de":[["The main objective of the information generation is primarily to address the managerial challenges of changing social, economic, and political realities.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["They are characterized by the mentality saving, defense of own behavior, the satisfaction of aggressive trends, the group stress exit strategy, the imprecision, the falsehood, the emotional-evaluative character, the relative resilience.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["bot-assisted humans",[]]]},{"de":[["News containing erroneous information, which does not suggest a responsible party or an alternative version of the incident, is not considered as disinformation.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["propaganda news",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["producers and consumers",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such paid commentators are referred to as trolls",["21","23"]],["non-democratic governments allegedly hire online commentators to spread speculation, propaganda, and disinformation so as to push agendas and manipulate public opinion [28,35].",["28,35"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["journalism aims to inform the public based on verification and public interest",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["mainstream news content such as politics, economics, society, and law.",[]]]},{"de":[["messages about public policy, social movements, traditional values, and community behavior recommendations",[]],["propaganda or advocacy-oriented content seeks to persuade, mobilize, or shape attitudes",[]]],"sy":[["advocacy-oriented content",[]]],"rt":[["journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["the kind of information that tends to go viral but often raises questions about accuracy",[]]]},{"de":[["It allows a degree of plausible deniability for the user, either in outright denial of its meaning, or a plea of ignorance to its true meaning.",[]]],"ex":[["the use of the term 'family values' to signal traditional Christian values and rejection of LGBT rights",[]],["'racial self interest' to gesture towards the far-right notion of 'the great replacement'",["Novara Media, 2019"]],["Ronald Reagan's use of the term 'welfare queen' a coded message used to refer to single, black mothers",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Central on the spectrum is 'policy', spreading either side through 'popular', 'acceptable', 'radical', and 'unthinkable'.",[]]],"sy":[["the window of discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a reimagination of the notion of the 'Lone Wolf' terrorist, a single deranged individual acting alone, in which the responsibility for the act is borne by the (usually white, christian, male) perpetrator alone.",[]]]},{"de":[["religion (belief or faith) also promotes skepticism and the poor attitude of COVID-19 in Africa.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["participation",[]]]},{"de":[["But by outlining a normative concept of agonism -in contrast to antagonism -",[]]],"rt":[["antagonism",[]]]},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["participation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Internet trolls use flaming expressions in the hope that opponents will bite and thus spark heated and antagonistic discussions.",[]]]},{"de":[["Keeping in mind that frames are dialogic, dynamic and unstable",[]],["Frames are more dialogic, more dynamic and more unstable than ideologies are",["Oliver & Johnston, 2000, p. 38"]],["frames orient and guide interpretation and are thus more context dependent than ideologies",["Oliver & Johnston, 2000, p. 41"]]],"rt":[["ideologies",[]]],"sb":[["media frames",[]],["individual frames",[]],["collective action frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["ideologies are systems of meaning making, whole systems of beliefs and ideas and how they refer to each other",[]],["ideology points to content",[]]],"rt":[["frames",[]]]},{"de":[["underlines their participation as a kind of fantasy (see Carpentier, 2014).",["Carpentier, 2014"]]]}] |