File size: 201,666 Bytes
714cbfe | 1 | [{"sp":[["participation frames",[]],["frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Internet trolls use flaming expressions in the hope that opponents will bite and thus spark heated and antagonistic discussions.",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words some of the participants behaved like Internet trolls",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["participation frames",[]],["frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["participation",[]]]},{"de":[["Participation therefore also has a subjective and emotional side to it, something that underlines affinity and sexual identity as important aspects when trying to understand broader political participation.",[]],["participation changes when it migrates to the Internet because of the possibility of anonymity, automatic archiving and easy access to other communities",["Kozinets, 2011, p. 100"]]],"sb":[["participation initiated from within representative democratic institutions",[]],["participation initiated from outside the Parliament but with an outspoken aim to influence public decision-makers",[]],["participation initiated from a more popular culture sphere, not primarily set up for political purposes",[]],["participation initiated from within representative democratic institutions and practices",[]]]},{},{"de":[["frames help rendering events and occurrences meaningful, organize experience (and communication) and thus also guide participation in particular situations by simplifying and condensing the world in ways that mobilize, motivate and make participation meaningful",[]],["used in a diagnostic way, to identify problems in different issues",[]],["used in a prognostic way as they had solutions to these problems in built in the frames",[]],["clearly motivational as they indeed triggered a lot of action in the discussion threads",[]]],"rt":[["collective action frames",[]]],"sb":[["media frames",[]],["individual frames",[]]],"ex":[["Fewer immigrants would cure youth unemployment for example or more socialist measures for that matter or making it less attractive to live on unemployment benefits if you belonged to the right end of the frame.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["fabricated, reconfigured, satire, parody",["Brennen et al., 2020"]]]},{"de":[["portrayed Spaniards and Catholicism disreputably in part to curb the expansion of the Spanish Empire in the Americas. Deliberately misinterpreting Islamic, Jewish, and Catholic cultures in Iberia, the Black Legend mythology leveraged US (as well as Dutch, British, French, and other) imperial interests in the western hemisphere, while mobilizing a specific form of anti-Catholic emotion that was already common in US and other Anglo-Saxon cultures.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["characterizing the eight centuries as an «extended experience»",["1968: 226"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Irving to laud the specific cultural relics, architecture, poetry, music, gastronomy, among other cultural material, by labeling them Moorish",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the message contains false or partially false information, and the purpose of the communication is to influence recipients, to change their beliefs so they are in line with the intention of the disinformant and bring them benefits.",[]],["disinformation to describe more systematic disruptions of information flows",["Bennett & Livingston, 2018"]],["Public harm includes threats to democratic processes as well as to public goods such as Union citizens' health, environment or security.",[]],["Disinformation does not include inadvertent errors, satire and parody, or clearly identified partisan news and commentary",["European Commission, 2018"]],["The desired effects of disinformation activities reflect the interests of a specific actor",[]],["one of the tools of influence foreign states use",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["hybrid threats",["European Council, 2015"]]]},{"de":[["The result is a framework that simplifies, structures and explains the reality presented",["Olczyk, 2021"]],["it means making a piece of information more noticeable, meaningful, or memorable to audience",[]],["frame theory predicts that the use of certain interpretation patterns in messages influences the recipients' perception of the reported reality",["Olczyk, 2010"]],["framing involves selecting specific fragments of reality and emphasising them in the transmitted information to influence recipients: 'it means making a piece of information more noticeable, meaningful, or memorable to audience'.",["Entman (1993)"]]]},{"de":[["Narratives do more than describe events; they construct the way we perceive, remember and communicate them. They influence our reactions, involvement, demands and -more broadly -how we shape the socio-political environment",["Kaiser & McMahon, 2017"]],["Narratives do more than describe events; they construct the way we perceive, remember and communicate them.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["hybrid threats",["European Council, 2015"]]]},{"de":[["Affirmative style thus reflects an agreement or general positive reaction towards the content by audiences.",[]],["This style refers to the audience members' affirmative reaction to the post: to the content, the action of publishing the post, or the connotations it provides for the viewer. Affirmative style thus reflects an agreement or general positive reaction towards the content by audiences.",[]]],"sp":[["post-publication gatekeeping practices",[]]],"ex":[["A great photo",[]],["I love this picture",[]],["Lovely footage",[]],["It is always a pleasure to see old photos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["they are conversations regardless of their conversationlike nature, that is, they might be short and asynchronous",["Giles et al., 2015"]],["conversational gatekeeping could be considered a process in which the audiences join in forming the final journalistic product, entailing that journalists also take part in the process",[]],["Journalists and audiences negotiate and create conversational norms jointly as well as define what kind of content is deemed appropriate on a platform or news media profile.",["Salonen and colleagues (2022)","Salonen et al., 2022"]],["They see the social media posts made by news media as digital summons, or a kind of trigger, that invites audiences to interaction and conversations.",[]]],"sb":[["affirmative",[]],["critical",[]],["corrective",[]],["invitational",[]],["affirmative style",[]],["invitational style",[]],["critical style",[]],["corrective style",[]]],"sp":[["post-publication gatekeeping",[]]]},{"de":[["Typically, the unclarity has been solely expressed by the audience members: They engage in conversational gatekeeping to correct the information or add missing information on the news or posts made by news media.",[]],["This style refers to both audience members' and news media's attempts to correct something or inquire about unclear issues. Corrective style thus alludes to unclarity in the actions or choices made by the news media or audience members in the post or in the comments.",[]]],"rt":[["affirmative",[]],["critical",[]],["invitational",[]]],"sp":[["post-publication gatekeeping practices",[]]],"ex":[["one of the newspapers communicated that a grocery store chain opens their doors regionally early in the morning specifically for groups at high-risk for Covid-19. An audience member attempted to correct the headline by saying that the action is nationwide.",[]]]},{"de":[["From the perspective of post-publication gatekeeping, audiences are guarding the newspapers' gates by trying to affect the traditional gatekeeping process: what comes through the news media's gates and also how it is framed.",[]],["This style was performed by audiences to criticise published content or other actions of the newspaper on Instagram. The criticism targeted the items in the posts, the framing of the topic, visuals, or the access to the news story advertised in the post.",[]]],"rt":[["affirmative",[]],["corrective",[]],["invitational",[]]],"sp":[["post-publication gatekeeping practices",[]]],"ex":[["why certain people were given publicity",[]],["why the newspaper promoted an unrecommended activity (e.g., ice skating under debatable weather conditions)",[]],["why a Finnish member of the European Parliament was given media coverage",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["gatewatching",[]]],"rt":[["gatewatching",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["By commenting and challenging the accuracy of the shared image, for example, they also perform post-publication gatekeeping practices.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["gatebouncing",[]]],"rt":[["gatebouncing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the invitational style is also portrayed as a reasonable social media strategy to increase interaction, and through that, visibility.",[]]],"rt":[["affirmative",[]],["critical",[]],["corrective",[]]],"sp":[["post-publication gatekeeping practices",[]],["conversational gatekeeping",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["post-publication gatekeeping practices of journalists and their audiences, particularly when they take place in and through conversations on digital platforms",[]],["It is a process taking place in the digital news environment that is formed around a diverse constellation of platforms and technologies.",[]]],"sp":[["gatekeeping",[]]]},{"de":[["The styles represent the variety of post-publication gatekeeping practices that takes place between audiences and news media.",[]],["audiences are not only informing the newsrooms about what is important content or not (affirmative and critical styles) and what kind of content potentially needs to be corrected or revised (corrective style), which has been earlier recognised as the gatewatching or gatebouncing functions (Bruns, 2005(Bruns, , 2018;;Vos, 2020), but that news media and audiences are also jointly creating meanings around these posts.",["Bruns, 2005(Bruns, , 2018;;Vos, 2020"]]],"rt":[["conversational gatekeeping",[]]],"sb":[["affirmative style",[]],["critical style",[]],["corrective style",[]],["invitational style",[]]]},{"ex":[["News is consumed on a bus or while lying in bed",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["visual editors' gatekeeping functions are now partly shared with amateurs. That is, legacy media still perform traditional (pre-publication) gatekeeping functions by selecting, presenting, and disseminating images captured by professionals, but images are also disseminated (post-publication) by citizen journalists and audiences.",[]],["News media can decide with which kinds of visuals they invite audiences to interact.",[]]],"rt":[["post-publication gatekeeping",[]]]},{},{"de":[["overgeneralised image of monolithic and continual misrepresentation",["17"]]],"rt":[["Orientalism",[]]],"ex":[["the ambivalent lands between what is properly East and properly West, a bastard borderland",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["proved difficult due to resource scarcity, both financially and staffwise",[]],["community management is often delegated to young journalists or journalism trainees",[]],["active community management practices",[]]],"rt":[["audience engagement",[]],["Community building",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["news values",[]]]},{"de":[["This strategy is widely adopted by media organizations in many countries, as it encourages journalists to experiment on TikTok while incorporating the sounds, filters, and visuals which TikTok audiences have come to know and appreciate (Negreira-Rey et al., 2022;Vazquez-Herrero et al., 2020).",["Negreira-Rey et al., 2022","Vazquez-Herrero et al., 2020"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["core journalistic values",[]]]},{"de":[["This strategy, then, by and large, mirrors what Newman (2022) identifies as the newsroom-led approach to TikTok journalism of broadcasters and established news providers.",[]]]},{"rt":[["relevance",[]]]},{"de":[["featuring informative, well-researched, and fact-checked content in combination with design features which boost shareability and audience engagement.",[]]]},{"rt":[["proximity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["scholars frequently use it to analyze Facebook, Twitter/X, YouTube, Instagram, and TikTok",["Anter, 2023","Lewis & Molyneux, 2018"]],["concentrating on the abovementioned many-to-many platforms as they encourage content generation by and public interactions between users.",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook",[]],["Twitter/X",[]],["YouTube",[]],["Instagram",[]],["TikTok",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["editorial",[]],["column",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The French AD demarcates, continues the author, a linguistic materiality and, at the same time, a historical materiality, to the discursive object.",[]]]},{"de":[["AD crucially relies on the concepts and methods of linguistics, but this is not, evidently, a very discriminating trait. In fact, other dimensions need to be taken into account; AD relates to texts produced: -in the framework of institutions that strongly restrict enunciation; -in which historic conflicts are crystallized, etc.; -that delimit an own space outside the inter discourse.",[]],["relates to texts produced: -in the framework of institutions that strongly restrict enunciation; -in which historic conflicts are crystallized, etc.; -that delimit an own space outside the inter discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["linguistics",[]],["historical materialism",[]],["psychoanalysis",[]]]},{"sy":[["inter discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["such social arrangements are intended to justify the assertion about the inferiority of women to men, an inferiority that would justify wage and political asymmetries, etc.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["it was predominantly used to refer to political propaganda created by anti-establishment media sources.",[]]]},{"rt":[["traditional news media",[]],["alternative sources",[]]]},{"de":[["While heuristics are generally adaptive and useful for navigating complex environments with limited information, they can introduce biases and errors.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["One interpretation holds that (heuristic) judgment is steered not only by the actual contents of thought (e.g., stereotypes as discussed above), but also by the meta-cognitive experience of processing this content (e.g., Alter and Oppenheimer, 2009;Pearson and Dovidio, 2013).",[]],["The increased effort for the processing of such accent may induce an overall less favorable evaluation of the speaker-which can spill over to the level of perceived credibility of the message.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["news media assigns importance through the processes of news selection, the relative positioning of news and the frequency of coverage provided.",[]]],"rt":[["media framing",[]]]},{"de":[["The news media in this sense is seen both as a reflection of Bangladeshi social attitudes and a factor influencing future changes in attitude.",[]]]},{"de":[["framing essentially involves selection and salience",[]]],"sp":[["media framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the news media not only tells \"readers what to think about\" as posited in agenda setting theory, but they do indeed frame news in such a way so as to influence how readers or their audience think.",[]],["media frames are 'largely unspoken and unacknowledged, organise [sic] the world both for journalists who report it and, in some important degree, for us who rely on their reports'",[]]],"rt":[["news frames",[]],["individual frames",[]],["agenda setting theory",[]],["agenda setting",[]]],"sb":[["framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["repetition influences belief at a conceptual level rather than a surface level",[]]]},{"rt":[["explicit, easily explainable knowledge",[]]]},{"de":[["help to understand the mechanisms proposed by SCCT for anticipating publics' response to crisis communication strategies",[]]],"sb":[["reputation heuristic",[]],["persuasion intent heuristic",[]],["persuasive intent heuristic",[]]]},{"de":[["Source and content credibility are critical to establish positive postcrisis outcomes.",[]],["The scale included the elements accuracy, objectivity, importance, currency (up-to-date), believability, and coverage.",[]]],"rt":[["source credibility",[]]],"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{"de":[["Hence, credibility can either refer to the credibility of the content that is communicated-i.e., content credibility-or the credibility of the communicator-i.e., source credibility.",[]]],"rt":[["content credibility",[]],["source credibility",[]]],"sb":[["content credibility",[]],["source credibility",[]]],"sp":[["source credibility",[]],["content credibility",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The rationale behind this is that when the organization is not involved in the crisis, they will not suffer any damage from the crisis.",[]]]},{"de":[["The organization might accomplish this by arguing that the crisis is not as bad as the public might think, or that the organization lacked control over the situation",["Coombs, 2007"]]]},{},{"sb":[["reputation heuristic",[]],["persuasive intent heuristic",[]]],"ex":[["reputation",[]],["endorsement",[]],["consistency",[]],["expectancy violation",[]],["persuasive intent",[]]]},{"de":[["Organizations aim to contain the rapid succession of negative and complex events without intensifying the crisis, to protect the organization from financial and reputational damage",[]]]},{"de":[["enhanced credibility facilitates the development of a more favorable organizational reputation",[]],["crises-response strategies that are perceived as more credible are more likely to reduce reputational damage",[]]]},{"sp":[["cognitive heuristics",[]],["heuristics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Rebuild strategies are believed to be central to renew reputational assets.",[]],["Expressing concern for those affected by the crisis and reinforcing this compassion though compensation or apologies tend to reduce feelings of anger",["Coombs & Holladay, 2008"]]]},{"de":[["Reputations, in turn, are widely recognized valuable and intangible assets, because they attract customers, talent, and top-employees, and create competitive advantage",["Fombrun & van Riel, 2004"]],["any crises, as it disrupts the organization's operations, is a threat to the reputation",["Coombs, 2007"]],["organizational reputations are formed through the information that is received about the organization",["Fombrun & van Riel, 2004"]]]},{"sy":[["authority",["Sundar (2008, p. 84)","Sundar, 2008"]]],"sp":[["cognitive heuristics",[]],["heuristics",[]]]},{"de":[["Source and content credibility are critical to establish positive postcrisis outcomes.",[]],["Research on source credibility has focused on the expertise and trustworthiness of the communicator, casu quo the source, as perceived by the public (Yang, Kang, & Johnson, 2010).",["Yang, Kang, & Johnson, 2010"]]],"rt":[["content credibility",[]]],"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["mental lexicon",[]]]},{"de":[["hierarchical organisation of concepts interconnected when sharing semantic features",[]]],"rt":[["Cognitive networks",[]]]},{"de":[["online users end up being more susceptible to confirmation bias and thus acquire mostly information already suiting their pre-existing knowledge",["Hills 2019"]]]},{},{"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["the mental lexicon is used by social media users whenever they express their knowledge through online messages.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Semantic salience or prominence characterises concepts that are key for individuals to understand a greater extent of knowledge and its influence over cognitive representations is a crucial research direction",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Cognitive networks can identify semantic frames as communities of tightly interconnected concepts (Correa and Amancio, 2019; Ribeiro et al. 2020; Citraro and Rossetti 2020) or network neighbourhoods (Stella 2020)",[]]]},{"sy":[["prominence",[]]]},{"rt":[["AI-driven accounts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["ya sea tratando las noticias falsas, o analizando el proceso de fact-checcking o investigando acerca de bulos y distribución de contenido",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["noticias falsas",[]],["bulos",[]],["distribución de contenido",[]]]},{"de":[["Each of these domains can be described in terms of its constellation of actors, its thematic framing (i.e. what the members of the figuration \"do\"), and its mediated and nonmediated forms of communication.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["focus on individual users' negotiations about the benefits of ICTs",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["view media use in terms of rituals and meanings",[]]]},{"de":[["plays out through the interplay of choices based on preferences, habits and routines, and structural dynamics of media-derived strategies",["Webster, in press"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["news repertories",[]]],"sb":[["news repertories",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["news repertoires are not stable, but emergent.",[]],["enquiries about how news repertoires are negotiated at the level of the individual are best approached not in a Boolean sense of what is or is not a repertoire but rather in terms of what experiential significance do routinized news media activities have, how does this develop, and what types of change and instability in the media environment and the individual lifeworld have a destabilizing impact on formerly durable enactments.",[]],["It is a term that creates space to consider diverse modes of audience participation, distinct gratifications, and differentiated engagement.",[]],["From the ensemble of media that are available at a given point of time in their culture, people gradually build up a set of media (such as news brands, TV programs, weekly magazines, radio broadcasts, social media, etc.) into a repertoire which they routinely and habitually draw on in everyday life (cf. Bird, 2011).",["Bird, 2011"]],["And it is a term which prefigures a social dimension of shared approaches toward navigating the digital landscape.",[]]],"sy":[["news repertories",[]]],"rt":[["interpretive repertories",[]]],"sp":[["media repertoires",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["view technologies and content formats being taken up within social contexts",[]]]},{"de":[["focus on individualistic attitudes and behaviours",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Faceswap (Wang et al., 2020), Deepfaker (Hsu et al., 2018), and Deep FaceLab (Güera & Delp, 2018)",["Wang et al., 2020","Hsu et al., 2018","Güera & Delp, 2018"]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["instead of restricting just for sensory media (e.g., text, image).",[]]]},{"sy":[["social context",[]]],"rt":[["social context",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["opinión pública",[]],["espiral del silencio",[]]]},{"rt":[["opinión pública",[]],["agenda setting",[]]]},{"sy":[["encuadres noticiosos",[]]]},{"de":[["Muriel-Saiz et al. (2018) destacan la importancia de la inferencia de la manipulación de la información, el encuadramiento subjetivo, el estilo en la redacción, los enfoques y la creación de imaginarios distorsionados.",["Muriel-Saiz et al. (2018)"]]],"rt":[["agenda setting",[]],["espiral del silencio",[]]]},{"de":[["este enfoque nos permite recuperar el saber de la experiencia cotidiana, para dar cuenta del pensamiento social respecto a ciertos sujetos, procesos u objetos, tomando en cuenta diversos elementos, como la penetración de la ciencia y la importancia de las comunicaciones",["Jodelet, 2020"]],["este enfoque nos permite recuperar el saber de la experiencia cotidiana, para dar cuenta del pensamiento social respecto a ciertos sujetos, procesos u objetos, tomando en cuenta diversos elementos, como la penetración de la ciencia y la importancia de las comunicaciones, tal como lo propuso Moscovici (Jodelet, 2020).",["Jodelet, 2020"]]],"rt":[["elementos de los paradigmas crítico, positivista y hermenéutico",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the figure of the cascade is a heuristic tool that illuminates snapshots of significant moments in the unfolding of a public issue online",[]]]},{"de":[["he describes a flow process occurring within a network of actors in which frames are produced and then propagated.",[]]],"rt":[["news framing as a series of collective trajectories that he characterized using the metaphor of the cascade",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["information cascade",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["vertical integration",[]]],"ex":[["for instance, a newspaper buying another media outlet such as a radio station",[]],["a newspaper buying another media outlet such as a radio station",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["is often based on machine-based algorithms, human judgments, or a mix of both",["2015: 3"]]]},{},{"de":[["platform studies (Gillepsie 2010; Helmond 2015) emphasize how the programmable nature of Web platforms shapes the trajectories of online information by allowing or constraining the circulation of data flows.",[]],["emphasize how the programmable nature of Web platforms shapes the trajectories of online information by allowing or constraining the circulation of data flows.",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation, propaganda, and power struggles are also part of the public sphere.",[]]]},{"de":[["The new parameters include social media platforms, aggregators (and other curated portals), algorithmic filters (that select and display content based on set parameters), and bots (automated programs that publish content online).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These news feeds operate like data plugs, flowing content from a news source to an aggregator and screening it through a set of filters and keywords.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["given a textual claim, claim image, text document, and document image",[]]]},{"de":[["SRL is a well-explored area within the NLP community.",[]],["A typical SRL system first identifies verbs in a given sentence and then marks all the related words/phrases haven relational projection with the verb and assigns appropriate roles.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Framing is described as how the media packages and presents information or messages to the public",["30"]],["Framing is described as how the media packages and presents information or messages to the public (30).",["30"]]]},{},{"de":[["for the press to determine what issue is publicly discussed, journalists intentionally become selective of the topic or event to put in the public domain, and also determine how such information is presented to them",[]],["for the press to draw public attention to a specifically selected event, the need to reinforce such report becomes expedient to determine the positive or negative perception about such event",[]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting media theory",[]]]},{"rt":[["social constructionist",[]],["symbolic interactionism",[]],["frame analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["the word Japa simply means: to quickly flee a difficult situation, and this word is a simple term used by many young Nigerians who are willing to or have already left the country in search of a greener pasture.",[]],["In a clearer perspective, the word Japa originates from the Yoruba language which means to run, flee, or escape.",[]],["Japa word takes its meaning or evolution from the aspiration of young Nigerians who are of the view that leaving the country is the best way to escape the many problems Nigerians are facing due to bad governance which has birthed crises such as corruption and socio-economic and sociopolitical issues thereby resulting into bad economy, unemployment, underemployment, insecurity of lives and properties etc",["14"]],["the word Japa originates from the Yoruba language which means to run, flee, or escape.",[]]]},{"de":[["today referred to as the Japa syndrome across all cultures, tribes, and schools of thought",[]]],"sy":[["Japa",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Japa syndrome",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["emphasis frame",[]]]},{"de":[["responsibility frames can attribute responsibility for health issues to at least three levels: 1) the individual, 2) the social network, and 3) society.",[]],["attributing responsibility for depression or diabetes to the social network",[]]],"rt":[["responsibility attributions",[]],["individual-level attributions",[]],["social and societal level frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The social network frame did not alter the recipients' previous attributions but made causes and solutions at the social network level more accessible or solidified previous attributions.",[]]]},{"rt":[["social exclusion",[]],["blame",[]],["structural discrimination",[]]]},{"de":[["it focuses on garnering clicks through sensationalist claims; pushing an ideological agenda through propaganda; or spreading conspiracies to sow distrust in mainstream information sources",[]],["\"junk\" information offers a more expansive analytic than misinformation in understanding the turn against mainstream news in the spread of information across the web",[]],["Instead, it focuses on garnering clicks through sensationalist claims; pushing an ideological agenda through propaganda; or spreading conspiracies to sow distrust in mainstream information sources.",["Benkler et. al. (2018)"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["propaganda",[]],["sensationalism",[]],["conspiracy",[]]]},{"de":[["they provide an ideological spin on low-quality newswire companies referred to as \"pink slime journalism,\" which had a brief surge in popularity in the early 2010s",["Cohen, 2015"]]],"sy":[["pink slime journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["a group of ideologically-charged, misinformation-laden channels",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["junk information",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["hyperpartisan",[]]]},{"de":[["This category was further divided based on a rough indication of political and ideological biases, based on an expert list informed by such media and news bias sources as Allsides.com, Media Bias Fact Check and NewsGuard.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These news sources are algorithmicallygenerated websites with similar content, layouts, and origins, and push conservative issues on the web; they provide an ideological spin on low-quality newswire companies referred to as \"pink slime journalism,\" which had a brief surge in popularity in the early 2010s",["Cohen, 2015"]]],"sy":[["pink slime",[]]]},{"sp":[["junk information",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["junk information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["One of the most identified risks is subversion of national security through foreign-sponsored disinformation campaigns",["OECD, 2022"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["RT spread the fake news in its Spanish language program according to which Sweden would like to leave the EU.",["11"]]]},{"sy":[["broad political strategy",[]]]},{"de":[["especially as social media disaggregated the old patterns of communication and the new actors can directly reach out to the population of other countries.",[]]]},{"de":[["efforts have been made to improve media literacy among schoolkids and youngsters, develop resilience and address fake news on time.",["10"]],["Media literacy in the society, i.e. being able to make difference between truth and distorted messages, is an essential component of resilience.",[]],["is an essential component of resilience.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the role of the former can only be assessed in light of the latter and the relationship between the two.",[]],["uses non-military means to achieve politico-military goals",[]],["the broadening of the ways and means of power",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["public discourse tracking",[]]]},{"rt":[["populism",[]]],"sp":[["populism",[]]]},{"de":[["democratic resilience is that quality of a democratic system that can stand despite the narrowest intersection of agreement on the issues that matter.",[]]],"rt":[["diversity (of groups, individuals)",[]],["learning",[]],["community participation and inclusion",[]]]},{"de":[["analysing or tracking public discourse through the lens of narrative and framing",[]]],"sy":[["issue-framing",[]]],"rt":[["issue-framing",[]]],"sp":[["narrative",[]]]},{"rt":[["populism",[]]],"sp":[["populism",[]]]},{"sy":[["framing",[]]],"rt":[["Framing",[]]],"sp":[["narrative",[]]]},{"rt":[["populism",[]]],"sp":[["populism",[]]]},{"de":[["the objective of the study is typically to discover and decompose narratives arising in political discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["framing analysis",[]],["narrative tracking",[]],["issue-framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["populism",[]]],"sp":[["populism",[]]]},{"de":[["However, more recent authors contend that populism is a latent construct that can only be truly identified via a multi-dimensional tool.",[]]],"rt":[["populism narrative",[]]],"sb":[["Manichean worldview",[]],["Indivisible people",[]],["General will",[]],["People-centrism",[]],["Anti-elitism",[]],["Manichean worldview: \"Politics is a moral struggle between good and bad\"",[]],["Indivisible people: \"The ordinary people to be indivisible (i.e., the people are seen as homogenous)\"",[]],["People-centrism: \"Sovereignty should lie exclusively with the ordinary people (i.e., the ordinary people, not the elites, should have the final say in politics)\"",[]],["Anti-elitism: \"Anti-elite dispositions\"",[]]]},{"de":[["all surveillance carries harm (Richards, 2013) either because of a chilling effect on civil liberties (Penney, 2016), or by introducing unhealthy power dynamics due to information asymmetries.",["Richards, 2013","Penney, 2016"]]],"sy":[["spying",[]]]},{"de":[["the most frequent personal attack on Arabic Twitter is to call a person an animal name",[]]]},{"rt":[["offensive language",[]]],"sp":[["offensive language",[]]]},{"de":[["This includes also vulgar and swear words.",["c"]]],"rt":[["malicious content",[]],["hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]],["vulgar",[]],["violent tweet content",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["profanity",[]]]},{"de":[["cast the group as \"monsterous\" outsiders and in some cases beyond help and only worthy of severe sanctions",[]]]},{"de":[["An important finding from this literature is that media coverage stimulates public interest in and understanding of a wide range of issues",["McCombs et al. 2011"]]]},{"de":[["Format is the most important component as it determines the selection, organization, and presentation of information and requires reporting to be \"evocative, encapsulated, highly thematic, familiar to audiences, and easy to use\"",["2004,294"]],["with format, flow, and grammar being its core components",["Altheide (2004, 294)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["\"In a world of concentrated wealth and major conflicts of class interest, to fulfil this role requires systematic propaganda\"",["1"]]]},{"rt":[["monitorial",["et al.'s (2009)"]],["facilitative",["et al.'s (2009)"]],["collaborative",["et al.'s (2009)"]]],"sp":[["monitorial, facilitative, collaborative, and radical roles",[]]]},{"de":[["Engels's concept of social murder contains four elements: a) capitalism creates living and working conditions that kill; b) ruling authorities and the bourgeoisie are responsible for these conditions; and c) since they are aware of these effects, yet do nothing to change them; d) are guilty of social murder",["Engels 1845(Engels /2009)"]],["Two primary concepts of social murder were identified. The first is true to Engels's conception that social murder is driven by the capitalist economic system with its inevitable exploitative social relations. The second sees social murder as resulting from problematic public policy without explicit reference to capitalist exploitation.",[]],["preventable deaths that resulted from mishandling of the COVID-19 pandemic",[]],["generates excess mortality amongst the working class and poor",[]],["because they already know what will cause these deaths, they do not have any preventative measures",[]],["failure to address older persons' needs constitutes social murder",["Faragher (2017)"]],["changes to disability benefits that increase suicide rates as social murder",["Bloom (2018;2019)"]],["relates current austerity-driven policies in Ontario to social murder",["Raphael (2018)"]],["loss of work results in social murder",["Shah (2016)"]],["failure of the ruling elite class to address climate change",["Sputnik News Service (2021a)"]],["resulting from cost-of-living increases, poor living standards, poverty and corruption",[]],["government responses to the pandemic as representing social murder",["Abbasi 2021"]],["suicide should be considered 'social murder' in many cases",["Yongshik 2003, 1","1"]],["The identification of two primary concepts of social murder paralleled findings of the social murder concept in academic journals (Medvedyuk et al. 2021).",[]],["Engels's concept of social murder",[]],["Engels's concept of social murder contains four elements: a) capitalism creates living and working conditions that kill; b) ruling authorities and the bourgeoisie are responsible for these conditions; and c) since they are aware of these effects, yet do nothing to change them; d) are guilty of social murder (Engels 1845(Engels /2009)).",["Engels 1845(Engels /2009)"]]],"rt":[["rape",["Winkler 1991"]],["settler colonialism",["Wolfe 2006"]],["capitalist exploitation",[]],["problematic public policy",[]],["structural violence",["Nicolson (2019)"]]],"sb":[["capitalist exploitation",[]],["problematic public policy",[]],["true to Engels's conception that social murder is driven by the capitalist economic system with its inevitable exploitative social relations",[]],["resulting from problematic public policy without explicit reference to capitalist exploitation",[]],["social murder as capitalist exploitation",[]],["problematic public policy concept",[]]],"ex":[["the GTF deaths constituted social murder",[]],["the death of miners at New Zealand's Pike River disaster was a result of government officials and the trade union bureaucracy colluding with those benefiting from the capitalist economic system, thereby constituting social murder",[]],["premature death that can come with poverty",[]],["cost-of-living increases, poor living standards, poverty and corruption",["Bulgarian News Agency 2018b"]],["Spending cuts, deregulation, outsourcing: between them they have turned a state supposedly there to protect and support citizens into a machine to make money for the rich while punishing the poor",[]],["You failed to be honest about your government's level of preparedness, failed to prevent infections coming in from abroad, failed to lead by example by shaking hands and not wearing a mask, failed to provide us with adequate PPE, failed to be transparent and not corrupt by giving PPE contracts worth billions to friends and donors without any experience",["Meyerson 2021"]],["Rising suicide rates among the poor and underprivileged are a product of the rapid collapse of the middle class due to an economic meltdown",["Yongshik 2003, 1"]],["Grenfell Tower Fire as Social Murder",[]],["labour and ecological exploitation during the COVID-19 pandemic, austerity measures and benefit cuts in the UK, and growing rates of suicide in Korea due to poor working conditions and labour insecurity",[]],["suicide should be considered 'social murder' in many cases",["Yongshik 2003, 1"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Intuitively, WEAT takes a list of tokens that represent a concept (in our case, extracted events) and verifies whether these tokens have a shorter distance towards female attributes or male attributes.",[]],["A positive value of WEAT score indicates that female events are closer to female attributes, and male events are closer to male attributes in the word embedding, while a negative value indicates that female events are closer to male attributes and vice versa.",[]]],"rt":[["WEAT score",[]]]},{"de":[["the words, \"建设 jian she\" \"构建 gou jian\"(build ) have the basic meaning of making structure by putting pieces together, which are metaphorical when talking about legal system. Their basic meaning is transferred to contextual meaning.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The vehicle term\"执 zhi\" (hold) is repeated in this segment to construct systematic ENFORCEMENT metaphor to talk about law enforcement.",[]],["the word \"执 zhi\" (hold) has basic meaning of keeping or supporting something by using hands or arms. It is metaphorical when used in the context of law enforcement.",[]]]},{"de":[["emphasizes the metaphorical conceptualization of legal system",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a metaphor scenario can be regarded as the combination of some sort of event with a set of conventional expectations, attitudes and evaluations",["Cameron et al, 2010"]]]},{"de":[["looking up the lexical unit (words or phrases) in a dictionary for its more basic meaning -in this sense, the basic meaning tends to be more concrete (related to human beings' intuitive senses: of imagining, seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling, and tasting) , related to bodily action, more precise, historically older; (2) its meaning in the discourse context; (3) an incongruity or contrast between the basic meaning and contextual meaning, and a transfer from the basic to the contextual meaning.",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["SUPPORT metaphor",[]],["CONTROL metaphor",[]],["BUILDING metaphor",[]],["ENFORCEMENT metaphor",[]],["MOVEMENT metaphor",[]],["SAFEGUARD metaphor",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the words, \"加强 jia qiang\" (strengthen), \"加大 jia da\" (strengthen), \"力度 li du\" (strength) are used in the context of law enforcement. Their basic meaning of \"exerting physical force on objects\" is transferred to contextual meaning of \"making something powerful\".",[]]]},{"sb":[["SUPPORT metaphor",[]],["CONTROL metaphor",[]],["BUILDING metaphor",[]],["ENFORCEMENT metaphor",[]],["MOVEMENT metaphor",[]],["SAFEGUARD metaphor",[]]],"sp":[["PHYSICAL ATION metaphor",[]]]},{"de":[["The word, \"体系 ti xi\" (system) has the basic meaning of natural organization (e.g., biological system).",[]]]},{"sy":[["semantic",[]]],"sb":[["metaphor framing",[]],["metaphor scenarios/stories",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Conflict disclosure",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In fine-grain aggression detection, classifying offensive language and hate speech is challenging.",[]]],"rt":[["offensive language",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the training corpus is directly re-balanced by swapping or removing bias-related words and counterfactual data augmentation (CDA)",[]],["In this way, the training corpus is directly re-balanced by swapping or removing bias-related words",[]]]},{"de":[["In 300 examples, it only happens when there are several masked tokens.",[]]]},{"de":[["For a given pretrained encoder, FairF learns a fair filter (FairFil) network, whose inputs are the original embedding of the encoder, and outputs are the debiased embedding.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an aggregation of biasword perturbation using MLM and fine-tuning classification",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["social biases",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["distinct influence of informational and lexical bias in news media writing styles",[]]],"rt":[["lexical bias",[]]],"sp":[["political bias",[]]]},{"de":[["distinct influence of informational and lexical bias in news media writing styles",[]]],"rt":[["informational bias",[]]],"sp":[["political bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["neighboring sentences",[]]]},{"ex":[["Donald Trump",[]],["Romney Campaign",[]],["Secure America Now",[]]]},{"sb":[["event-based target-aware (EBTA) contexts",[]]]},{"de":[["The components that contribute to attitude shaping come from self-interest, social identification, feelings, beliefs, experience, and knowledge",["Wang, Riaz et al., 2021"]],["as a diagnostic of previous perceptions and experiences",["Bentler & Speckart, 1979"]],["and which acts as a precedent for intention and behavior",["Ajzen & Fishbein, 1973"]],["attitude has been considered as a holistic element and a partial result, which is influenced by media, the audience, and the social environment",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sb":[["disinformation created without a basis in fact (e.g., fake news) that may contribute to reinforcing prior beliefs",["Di Domenico, Sit, Ishizaka, & Nunan, 2021"]],["disinformation created on the basis of real facts which are distorted in such a way that they alter the description of the central facts (e.g., conspiracy theories)",["Di Domenico, Sit, Ishizaka, & Nunan, 2021"]]],"ex":[["fake news",["Di Domenico, Sit, Ishizaka, & Nunan, 2021"]],["conspiracy theories",["Di Domenico, Sit, Ishizaka, & Nunan, 2021"]]]},{"sy":[["false",[]],["junk",[]],["fabricated news",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["From the user's perspective, dependency manifests itself through frequent use of social networks, the ease of sharing information they find relevant, and a concern with staying up to date and constantly informed",["Apuke & Omar, 2020"]]],"sb":[["social networking site (SNS) dependency",[]]]},{"rt":[["media dependency",[]]]},{},{"de":[["to distinguish between fake and real news, individuals need to develop competencies and acquire skills to assess the veracity of published information",["Kim et al., 2018;Zanuddin & Shin, 2020"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["mass media can generate parasocial interaction when the live broadcast of a message gives the receiver the illusion that they are having a face-to-face interaction with someone from their primary group (family and friends)",["Horton & Wohl, 1956"]],["this illusion of intimacy, which is initiated during viewing or through the exchange of messages, is often valued in the medium term as if it were a real interpersonal relationship",["Dibble, Hartmann & Rosaen, 2016"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["it assumes that the audience will play an active role, in the sense that they consume media content to achieve some kind of desire or gratification and are therefore responsible for their consumption",["Dhir, Khalil, Lonka & Tsai, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["which models homophily and divergence",[]]],"ex":[["left-right",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["political communities tend to form groups with a high homophily",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["a retweet on Twitter",[]],["a like on Facebook",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["pseudo-profound bullshit",[]]],"ex":[["we are in the midst of a self-aware blossoming of being that will align us with the nexus itself",[]],["consciousness is the growth of coherence, and of us.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["permeates much of our online existence, from helpful purchase suggestions on Amazon to the ads inserted into other websites by Google based on one's recent search history.",[]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation in the post-truth era can no longer be considered solely an isolated failure of individual cognition that can be corrected with appropriate communication tools.",[]],["Misinformation misinforms, with potentially adverse impact on individuals and society.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["buttressed by statements from politicians and parts of the news media.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["cyber-bullying",[]]]},{"de":[["the idea of technocognition is to design better information architectures that can build bridges between the socially-defined epistemic islands that define the post-truth era.",[]]]},{"de":[["One particularly toxic form of online behavior, known as trolling, has repeatedly been associated with several or all of the dark tetrad of personality attributes; namely, narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism",["Buckels, Trapnell, & Paulhus, 2014","Craker & March, 2016","Synnott, Coulias, & Ioannou, 2017","Buckels, Trapnell, & Paulhus, 2014;Craker & March, 2016;Synnott, Coulias, & Ioannou, 2017"]]],"sp":[["cyber-bullying",[]]]},{"de":[["This form of discrimination manifests itself in various dimensions, affecting access to resources, rights, and opportunities, and perpetuating social exclusion.",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]],["Expressing itself, for example, as Limited Access to Resources; Social Stigmatization; Labor Inequality; Violence and Crime; Lack of Political Representation, among others.",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]]],"rt":[["Limited Access to Resources",[]],["Social Stigmatization",[]],["Labor Inequality",[]],["Violence and Crime",[]],["Lack of Political Representation",[]],["intersectional discrimination",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]],["class-based discrimination can intersect with other forms of discrimination, such as racism or sexism, exacerbating the difficulties faced by individuals belonging to multiple marginalized groups.",[]]],"ex":[["Limited Access to Resources; Social Stigmatization; Labor Inequality; Violence and Crime; Lack of Political Representation",[]]]},{"de":[["Discrimination against women can be expressed in different areas, such as Economic Inequality; Gender Violence; Access to Education; Political Representation; Cultural Norms and Stereotypes; among others.",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]]],"rt":[["Economic Inequality",[]],["Gender Violence",[]],["Access to Education",[]],["Political Representation",[]],["Cultural Norms and Stereotypes",[]],["intersectional discrimination (women who belong to minority groups may experience additional forms of discrimination, which further complicates their situation)",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]]]},{},{"de":[["This form of discrimination manifests itself in various dimensions and contexts, affecting the daily lives and fundamental rights of LGBTQ+ people.",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]],["Gender-based discrimination can be expressed as violence and harassment; legal inequality; social stigmatization; unequal access to services; non-positive media representation; among others.",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]]],"rt":[["violence and harassment",[]],["legal inequality",[]],["social stigmatization",[]],["unequal access to services",[]],["non-positive media representation",[]],["intersectional discrimination",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]]],"sb":[["gender-based discrimination can intersect with other forms of discrimination, such as racism or poverty, exacerbating the difficulties faced by individuals belonging to multiple marginalized groups.",[]]]},{"de":[["We understand that there is hate speech if it has statements of an intense and irrational nature of rejection, enmity, and abhorrence against an individual or against a group, being the targets of these expressions for possessing a protected characteristic.",[]],["the phenomenon of hate speech",[]],["hate speech messages represented 9% of the original dataset",[]],["hate speech detection task faces subtle, non-slur, slang related language attacking transgender people",[]]],"ex":[["the prevalence of regional slurs in classist and misogynistic discourse appears to indicate the importance of incorporating regional context to improve hate speech detection.",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech detection, from the NLP perspective, has to deal with languages crossed by variants, slang, slurs, and other specific modalities found",["Nunberg, 2018","Diaz-Legaspe, 2020"]],["tries to capture a complex social phenomenon",[]]]},{"de":[["This discrimination can be both individual and institutional and can occur in various ways",[]],["This discrimination can be both individual and institutional and can occur in various ways:",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]]],"rt":[["Antisemitism",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]],["Arabophobia",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]],["Islamophobia",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]],["Afrophobia",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]],["Antisemitism, Arabophobia, Islamophobia and Afrophobia.",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]]],"sb":[["Individual racism",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]],["Institutional racism",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]],["Structural racism",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]],["Cultural racism",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]],["Xenophobia",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]],["Xenophobia (rejection or fear of people from other countries or cultures)",[]],["Antisemitism",[]],["Arabophobia",[]],["Islamophobia",[]],["Afrophobia",[]]]},{"de":[["regionalisms are likely to be matched with slang slurs which both the BETO and the LLMs (particularly, GPT-3.5) leverage for this detection task.",[]],["regionalisms in form of slurs against WOMEN (trola, yegua, abortera) are also very common.",[]],["These slur, regional expressions may make the task of flagging hateful speech easier compared to comments lacking it.",[]]],"ex":[["eg. \"pelotudo\" for \"asshole\"",[]],["\"pelotudo\" for \"asshole\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["Racism",["Presidencia de la Nación, 2006"]]]},{},{"rt":[["Mis-information",[]],["Mal-information",[]],["fake news",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation that threatens to subsume (or, as Tovërlani and Muhaxheri put it, \"flip,\" 60) reality into hyperreality.",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news is frequently associated with Donald Trump's presidency and is often viewed as a novel extension of the digital media landscape",["1"]],["interpreting fake news as a kind of existential threat to the personal security of global citizens and a sense of well-being",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["hyperreality",[]]]},{"de":[["intertwining of actual and 'media events'",["3","Yanchenko (2022)"]],["an experience of high strangeness",[]],["hyperreality influences not only media routines, but also diplomatic processes",[]],["l experience of daily life as a result of continuous exposure to hyperreality through media.",[]]],"rt":[["hyperreal",[]],["post-truth",[]],["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["propaganda",[]],["simulacra",[]],["media reality",[]],["virtual reality",[]]],"ex":[["The widely popular and often used photo filters on Instagram provides another example of hyperreality in the Israeli-Palestinian context, which normalize political reality in their own way.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Dis-information",[]],["Mis-information",[]],["fake news",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["media reality has increasingly occupied cognitive space to the detriment of science in recent years",[]]],"rt":[["hyperreality",[]],["virtual reality",[]]]},{"rt":[["Dis-information",[]],["Mal-information",[]],["fake news",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["underscores the fragmentation of audiences that results from commoditizing news on social media",[]],["equivalence of hyperreality and posttruth on social media.",[]]],"rt":[["hyperreality",[]],["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["precession of simulacra",[]]],"rt":[["hyperreality",[]]],"sb":[["pure simulacrum",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, the signifiers freely float without referencing what was signified (16).",["16"]],["In other words, the signifiers freely float without referencing what was signified",["16"]]]},{"de":[["what I refer to as surrealism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the definition of bias introduced by Innis, which circumscribes the specific property of the medium as influence, tendency, distortion, and bias.",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["we are witnessing the transformation of social mechanisms of information exchange and sharing that are increasingly based on the concept of homophily: the architectures of online platforms favor communicative exchanges between likeminded people with whom cognitive dissonance is not generated, but on the contrary are more interesting due to social similarity.",[]],["homophily fosters the reinforcement of false beliefs, so that interconnections move within closed spaces and echo chambers (Quattrociocchi and Vicini, 2017).",["Quattrociocchi and Vicini, 2017"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["in the post-truth era, objective facts lose importance in the process of building public opinion over pre-packaged slogans, emotionalism, or personal beliefs.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["stems from the act of digital dispossession",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The technology as a Kantian category of the world view is probably too expansionary and centralized, absorbing everything that has not yet been adequately understood and categorized, regardless of whether its roots and nature are technological or not",["Morozov, 2011, p. 281"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These calls encourage individuals to seek additional or alternative sources of information, verify facts, and examine evidence to make informed decisions that best suit one's individual circumstances.",[]],["Support for \"doing your own research\" may be an expression of anti-expert attitudes rather than reflecting beliefs about the importance of cautious information consumption.",[]],["DYOR may be a manifestation of contempt for elites rather than an affirmation of the importance of independent research.",[]]],"sy":[["DYOR",[]],["DYOR perceptions",[]]],"ex":[["Anyone can be an expert on something if they do enough research",[]],["I prefer to do my own research rather than rely on experts and intellectuals",[]],["The opinions of people who have done their own research are just as valid as the opinions of experts and intellectuals",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["self-certification is needed to ensure that participants don't share posts they believe are false",[]],["self-certification was highly effective.",[]],["Experiments 1 and 3 showed that self-certification increased sharing discernment more than accuracy prompts and Experiment 3 showed that it increased sharing discernment as much as media literacy training, without requiring the training and retraining necessary for the media literacy intervention to work.",[]],["we would argue that self-certification is a more practical intervention.",[]],["Self-certification restricts freedom of speech in that people are prevented from sharing social media posts that they have indicated are false.",[]],["This means that the user is the one to decide what is true so cannot be silenced by an authoritarian regime designating posts as false to prevent them being shared.",[]],["Self-certification addresses this concern by devolving the decision as to whether the social media post is true or not to the user. This means that the user is the one to decide what is true so cannot be silenced by an authoritarian regime designating posts as false to prevent them being shared.",[]],["Self-certification addresses this concern by devolving the decision as to whether the social media post is true or not to the user.",[]]],"sy":[["self-censorship",["20"]]],"rt":[["accuracy prompts",[]],["fact-checking",[]],["accuracy nudges",[]],["media literacy training",[]],["sharing discernment",[]]]},{"ex":[["if a participant has an 80% probability of sharing true social media posts but only a 20% probability of sharing false social media posts their sharing discernment is 60%",["1"]]]},{},{"sp":[["periodismo de datos",[]]]},{"rt":[["verificaciones",[]]],"sb":[["reportajes",[]],["noticias",[]],["análisis",[]]]},{"sp":[["periodismo de datos",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["periodismo de datos",[]]]},{"de":[["los usuarios se encuentran abrumados por las noticias, bien por las temáticas -guerra de Ucrania, desastres, política -, bien por el volumen",["Newman et al., 2022;2023;2024"]],["un fenómeno denominado \"news avoidance\"",[]]]},{"de":[["se basa en cuatro discursos -periodismo, tecnología, empresa y ciudadanía (Hannaford, 2023)",[]],["punta de lanza en la lucha contra la desinformación sobre COVID-19",[]],["fuerte vinculación del periodismo de datos con el contenido contextual (55,51% del contenido), por encima de las verificaciones (30,17%)",[]],["la gran mayoría incorpora técnicas de periodismo de datos",[]],["observar el grado de desarrollo del periodismo de datos en una publicación",[]],["periodismo de datos como refuerzo del periodismo de calidad en tiempos de desinformación",[]],["Uno de los principales valores del periodismo de datos es el de sostenerse sobre el rigor del método",[]],["equipos multidisciplinares con competencias avanzadas en programación, visualización, data mining, hoja de cálculo, IA",[]]],"rt":[["periodismo digital",[]],["fact-checking",[]],["contenido contextual",[]],["verificaciones",[]],["visualizaciones",[]],["la acción de verificación",[]]],"sb":[["compilación",[]],["limpieza",[]],["contextualización",[]],["combinación",[]],["comunicación",[]]]},{},{"de":[["piedra angular en la acción de ambas disciplinas",[]]],"sb":[["Explicación y acceso a metodología",[]],["Explicación y acceso a fuentes",[]],["Acceso a datos brutos",[]],["Acceso a datos tratados",[]]]},{"sy":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{"sp":[["periodismo de datos",[]]]},{"de":[["we defined a biased QE metric as",[]]]},{"de":[["measure bias in the MT system as the frequency each gender is represented in the generated hypothesis.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we focus on the intra-sentential case, where the gender identity of the referent is resolved by the source sentence itself.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["as opposed to misinformation, which is inaccurate information that is disseminated without any attempt to deceive",["Rodríguez-Ferrándiz, 2023"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",["Rodríguez-Ferrándiz","2023","Rodríguez-Ferrándiz, 2023"]]]},{"sp":[["MIL",[]]]},{"sp":[["MIL",[]]]},{"sp":[["MIL",[]]]},{"de":[["The result is that the media content/information consumer is empowered to make quality decisions about their news and information consumption.",[]]],"rt":[["MIL",[]]]},{"de":[["they are also transparent and rely on independent research, making them credible and influential entities",["Walter","et","al.","2020"]]]},{"de":[["Factchecking are initiatives that have been positioned as central to data verification",["Ruiz & Sánchez, 2019"]]],"rt":[["data verification",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",["Rodríguez-Ferrándiz","2023","Rodríguez-Ferrándiz, 2023"]]]},{"de":[["just trusting personal conviction is a poor way of assessing the authenticity of news and information and will likely lead to misinformation.",["Bryanov and Vziatysheva (2021)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a primary criterion for studying media positionality, stemming from the media's informing role",["Curran & Redden, 2025"]],["classification of media, based on the literature on media roles and organized around the criteria of facticity, loyalty, plurality, and solidarity.",[]]]},{"rt":[["parallel competition",[]]]},{"de":[["has developed alongside mass communication, with aesthetic and stylistic norms that associate certain gestures, wardrobe, terminology, color palettes, fonts, hairstyles, and decor with news",["Broersma, 2010","Cameron, 1996"]]],"ex":[["pink slime journalism",["Darr, 2023"]],["\"pseudo media\"",["Palau-Sampio, 2023"]]]},{"de":[["This second criterion stems from the media's watchdog role",["Bennett & Serrin, 2005"]],["classification of media, based on the literature on media roles and organized around the criteria of facticity, loyalty, plurality, and solidarity.",[]]],"sp":[["media positionality",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["facticity",[]],["loyalty",[]],["plurality",[]],["solidarity",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["media positionality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Little space for counterviews locates media outlets closer to propaganda operations",[]]]},{"sp":[["media positionality",[]]]},{"de":[["GFL tries to change these stereotypes by using neutral words, fair character representation, and language that respects individuals' identities",["Vela-Plo & Ortega-André s, 2025"]]]},{"de":[["portraying men in dominant or authoritative positions, such as leaders, scientists, or decision-makers, while women were often depicted as caregivers, assistants, or passive figures",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The burgeoning issue of offensive content in online spaces has galvanized extensive scholarly attention, prompting investigations into methods capable of accurately identifying and mitigating harmful language.",[]]]},{"rt":[["denunciations",[]],["harassment",[]]]},{"de":[["digitally mediated visibility is a collaborative and decentralized endeavour, with several types of actors sharing no institutional or ideological alignment recirculate content originally posted to a social media account.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Mediated visibility may serve as a kind of force multiplier for leveraging harm against a target or a community.",[]],["In particular, these mechanisms further serve to persecute and marginalize women and members of disadvantaged communities.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The punishment to such breaches and transgressions were mostly non-physical spectacle of the dishonoured family, such as posters on the door, social isolation, expulsion from the pact and the registration of evil deeds.",[]]],"rt":[["neighbourhood surveillance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The framework for the uses and gratifications are: a) To explain how people use the media to meet their needs. b) To understand the motives for their dependence on the media. c) To identify the consequences that resulted from the needs, motives and dependence.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The essence of rumors is in their ambiguity so that the ambiguity of evidence makes the process of spreading rumors more widely Nkpa (1975). The ambiguous expression of news challenges the audience.",[]],["The ambiguity arises when either the news is received in distorted form or the person received contradictory news, and or one cannot understand such news.",[]]]},{"de":[["Anticipation-based words are words that (1)coming or acting in advance (for example, clouds anticipant of a storm). (2) Expectant (for example, anticipating: a team anticipant of victory).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Evidentiality is a grammatical category that its role is to show the source of information.",[]]]},{"de":[["A punctuation mark is usually used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high volume (shouting) or to show emphasis.",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["(1)'bi-'/im-(e.g, impolite), (2)un-, in-(e.g., injustice), no-), (3)'zed-'/unti-(e.g., unti-security), (4)'gheir-'/un-(e.g., Unnecessary), (5)'ne-'/'na-'/not(e.g., nemidanam/I do not see, nasalem/unhealthy), (6) hich-/no-(e.g., nobody), (7)la-/without.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They make us feel scared, encouraged, aroused, angry, and so on.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["When a rumormonger creates a rumor, there is a clear sign in the sentence that indicates that he has personally seen or heard what he speaks about it, or it is the result of his reasoning and speculation. These signs are SVs that create evidentiality in rumors.",[]],["These verbs describe one of the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste.",[]]],"rt":[["evidentiality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Therefore, rumormongers utilized these types of words to create a sense of hesitation in the audience and engage minds.",[]],["rumormongers utilized these types of words to create a sense of hesitation in the audience and engage minds.",[]],["The adjective tentative is used to describe what is unclear.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Words that indicate the lack of sureness about someone or something.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Media framing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Effective event leverage for image benefits requires host destinations to implement strategies to influence event media coverage in the lead up, during, and after the event",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["How media text producers, such as journalists, construct frames that appear in media texts is the core element of the frame building concept",["Scheufele, 1999","Scheufele & Tewksbury, 2007"]],["the frame building process is different under different conditions, in different contexts, and among different journalists",[]]],"rt":[["media framing",[]],["frame construction",[]],["frame-setting",[]],["frame sending",[]]],"sp":[["media framing",[]]]},{"de":[["media producers draw on a frame repository -the culturally congruent frames they have at their cognitive disposal -to make sense of the information that forms the basis of media reports (Bruggemann, 2014).",["Bruggemann, 2014"]],["These were culturally congruent and cognitively available frames used to process issues related to the 2018 FIFA World Cup host nation.",[]]]},{"rt":[["frame setting",[]]],"sp":[["frame building",[]]]},{"rt":[["frame sending",[]]],"sp":[["frame building",[]]]},{"ex":[["metaphors",[]],["exemplars",[]],["stereotypes",[]],["depictions",[]],["word choice",[]],["expressions",[]],["visual images",[]]]},{"rt":[["generic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Media framing research is, therefore, focused on the organising principles of what is included and excluded in a text",["Reese, 2001"]],["In communications, it has been suggested that framing is an extension of agenda setting, which details how media reporting can influence what audiences think (McCombs, Shaw, & Weaver, 1997).",["McCombs, Shaw, & Weaver, 1997"]],["However, others contend that framing is distinct from agenda setting because it is not just concerned with what issue is made salient in a communication, but also with how issues are characterised, and the influence this has on audience interpretations (Scheufele & Tewksbury, 2007).",["Scheufele & Tewksbury, 2007"]],["Media framing research is, therefore, focused on the organising principles of what is included and excluded in a text (Reese, 2001).",["Reese, 2001"]]],"rt":[["agenda setting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["lower-order processes",[]]],"sp":[["emotional intelligence (EQ)",[]],["emotional intelligence",[]]]},{"sy":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["higher-order processes",[]]],"sp":[["emotional intelligence (EQ)",[]],["emotional intelligence",[]]]},{"de":[["an affective contagion that infects and spreads through the body politic",[]],["the affective, asignifying particles emitted from Trump's face transmit empty populist, alt-Right slogans as an affective contagion that infects and spreads through the body politic.",[]],["the affective contagion receives reciprocal energy with which to mutate.",[]],["the analogical modeling of misinformation as contagion addresses the question of language and the body more comprehensively. It maps the commingling of the body, semiotics, and the digital",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["makes manifest Guattari's insistence on the constant interaction among physiological and semiotic components",["Watson 2009: 76, 86"]],["prefaces meaning by asserting \"'it's just like that,' an expression of a semiological coup de force establishing that, once and for all, 'that' will always mean something,\" cementing semiotic components in a highly stratified system of signification indicative of \"the reigning socio-semiotic order\"",["Guattari 2011: 77"]],["per se [does] not signify and [does] not convey information, although [it] work[s] alongside semiotic elements like signifiers and information\" as a unique mechanism that intensely inscribes language within the body",["Watson 2009: 76"]],["The inchoate redundancies are rendered through the face's socio-semiotic physiognomy.",[]],["the posts re-articulate themselves through Trump's disembodied, mediatized face.",[]],["the posts' dissemination is facilitated through a Right-wing faciality that spreads misinformation through the digitized public and shapes its sociopolitical reality.",[]]]},{"de":[["inaccurate communications that primarily function through affect to intervene in the sociopolitical field, with the aim of broader dissemination.",[]],["Misinformation's re-posted, incoherent redundancies thus pair with its homogenizing resonance that spreads across the Right's political spectrum, this \"recentres and disempowers the semiological redundancies and empties them of content, but at the same time, machinically super-empowers them by granting them autonomy\"",["99-100"]],["Online echo chambers function like all-encompassing feedback loops of misinformation, intensifying the global paranoia of Right-wing theories.",[]]],"rt":[["slogans",[]],["memes",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["spirit cooking",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Initially conceived on 4Chan and 8Chan's /pol/ boards, the QAnon conspiracy began as a cryptic amalgam of transfigured memes and slogans from the 2016 presidential election.",[]],["QAnon distinguishes itself from previous misinformation through its highly affective socio-semiotics that reconfigured and channeled the so-called meme magic of Trump's campaign.",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["began posting about Trump's shadow war against a cabal of satanic, liberal elites leading a global sex-trafficking ring.",[]]]},{"de":[["as a significant health risk during a pandemic",["309"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["authoritarianism -as a property of the individual rather than a feature of political systems",[]]]},{"de":[["selective exposure involves consuming agreeable viewpoints but not necessarily avoiding balanced messages that pair agreeable and disagreeable views",["Garrett, Carnahan, & Lynch, 2013"]],["selective exposure to information",[]]],"sb":[["consuming non-political or entertainment news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The corpus approach is utilised in ecolinguistic research because it offers analytical techniques for identifying recurring and prominent language usage patterns built as common beliefs, influencing human perceptions and actions in relation to the environment.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Keywords reflect and pertain to the subject matter under discussion, in this case, climate change/crisis and global warming, and analysing them has emerged as a potent technique for discerning the central theme of discourse",["Hamed, 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["The nominalisation is used to obscure human agency causing greenhouse gas emissions.",[]],["The nominalisation genericises the agency of CC and GW mitigations.",[]],["This strategy constructs an abstract issue beyond people's direct experience",[]],["used to obscure human agency",["Kramar, 2023"]],["intersects with strategies used in academic discourse to provide sufficient and sophisticated information",["Billig, 2008;Gray & Biber, 2013;Heidari Kaidan et al., 2021"]]],"rt":[["academic discourse",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Each frame represents a specific perspective, context, or interpretation.",[]]],"sb":[["Economic",[]],["Capacity and Resources",[]],["Morality",[]],["Fairness and Equality",[]],["Legality, Constitutionality, Jurisdiction",[]],["Policy Prescription and Evaluation",[]],["Crime and Punishment",[]],["Security and Defense",[]],["Health and Safety",[]],["Quality of Life",[]],["Cultural Identity",[]],["Public Sentiment",[]],["Political",[]],["External Regulation and Reputation",[]],["Other",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{"de":[["It plays a crucial role in influencing how people interpret and react to information presented in news articles.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["According to Entman (1993), it can \"make a piece of information more noticeable, meaningful, or memorable to audiences\".",["1993"]],["It plays a crucial role in influencing how people interpret and react to information presented in news articles.",[]]],"sy":[["Media framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["digital and social media are not just about empowerment or selfexpression. They may be about creativity, but they are also about surveillance -about companies gathering data about what all of us are doing, click by click.",[]]],"sp":[["critical thinking",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news is a form of clickbait.",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These companies operate, not in the traditional way of media companies, by selling content (although they are doing that as well), but by gathering and selling data.",[]],["if the service is free, then you are the product -or at least your data is the product that is being bought and sold.",[]]],"sy":[["communicative capitalism",[]],["platform capitalism",[]],["surveillance capitalism",[]]],"rt":[["communicative capitalism",[]],["platform capitalism",[]],["surveillance capitalism",[]]]},{"de":[["On one level, fake news is a form of clickbait.",[]]],"sp":[["clickbait",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Media education is much more ambitious and more comprehensive that this.",[]],["While it does promote creative uses of media, it is centrally concerned with critical thinking.",[]],["Media education isn't just about the individual learning to cope: it's also about demanding change.",[]],["Media education can provide part of this bigger picture. It has a clear critical framework, which is both coherent and comprehensive; and, as I have shown, it can be extended to encompass newly emerging issues.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Studying media language takes us beyond the view of the internet as a free space where people simply 'express themselves'.",[]]],"sp":[["critical thinking",[]]]},{"de":[["frequently regarded as a substitute for centralized regulation",[]],["an apparently democratic alternative: markets cannot be regulated, so consumers need to regulate themselves",[]],["Media literacy was reduced to a matter of internet safety and basic digital skills, especially for disadvantaged people.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["critical thinking",[]]]},{"de":[["This takes us beyond the view of digital media as mere 'information' technologies.",[]]],"sp":[["critical thinking",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The framer renders that perspective more salient by invoking a \"value, theme, stereotype, or symbol that serves to organize and connect topic-relevant information\"",["D'Angelo, 2017, 1","(D'Angelo, 2017, 1)"]]],"rt":[["schema theory",[]]]},{"de":[["The framer renders that perspective more salient by invoking a \"value, theme, stereotype, or symbol that serves to organize and connect topic-relevant information\" (D'Angelo, 2017, 1).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["comprehensively affected by multiple factors, including the characteristics of the rumor itself, the psychological factors of the audience, the social environment, and factors related to information dissemination.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It includes aspects such as information acquisition, interpretation, critical awareness of content, basic scientific literacy, and information discernment",["Scott & Mumford, 2007"]],["It includes aspects such as information acquisition, interpretation, critical awareness of content, basic scientific literacy, and information discernment (Scott & Mumford, 2007).",["Scott & Mumford, 2007"]],["In the face of major public health events, if the public has a good media literacy, they can choose reasonable channels to access and interpret information, possess the ability to rationally discern the authenticity of information, and possess the ability to question passively accepting media influence, thus developing critical thinking and forming 'antibodies' against false information (Kuang & Wu, 2021).",[]],["media literacy is a factor that effectively inhibits the spread of rumors.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is characterized by repeated violations of social rules, defiance of authority, and the rights of others.",["1"]]],"sb":[["production and spreading of hoaxes, fake news, and false reviews",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news often uses strong or outrageous content, so-called clickbait",[]]]},{},{"de":[["There are two basic properties of fake news related to this definition, namely the authenticity of the message, according to which we can retrospectively verify false information and the intention under which fake news is created.",[]]],"rt":[["Satirical news",["3"]],["Rumors",["3"]],["Conspiracy theories",["3"]],["Misinformation",["3"]],["Hoaxes",["3"]]]},{},{"sy":[["FN",[]]]},{"sy":[["FP",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["They are designed specifically for the purpose of manipulating and spreading false messages.",[]]]},{"sy":[["TP",[]]]},{"de":[["Importantly, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca did not consider such ambiguity as imperfection to be eliminated or resolved, but rather as a productive place for both generating and evaluating arguments (see also Haller, 2017).",["Haller, 2017"]]],"ex":[["justice, freedom, truth, and goodness",["Perelman & Olbrechts-Tyteca, 1969"]],["concepts such as justice, freedom, truth, and goodness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["deliberate forms of manipulation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",["Jack, 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["Political actors have concurrently appropriated the label of fake news as a means of discrediting media institutions and political opponents",[]],["imprecise",[]],["polarising",[]],["provocative",[]],["polluted",[]],["cliché",[]],["diluted",[]],["gradually shifted from being useful for making factual descriptions of the world to becoming too loaded and value-laden following its adoption by politicians",[]],["it means so many different things. It has also become a term that people use -also politicians -to just throw at each other… It has become diluted, you could say.",[]],["the term has gradually become value-laden",[]],["journalists using the term to describe a range of overarching fears and threats with little conceptual clarity",["Bratich, 2020;Creech, 2020;Farkas, 2023b"]],["the journalists viewed the term fake news as having gradually shifted from being useful for making factual descriptions of the world to becoming too loaded and value-laden following its adoption by politicians.",[]]],"rt":[["post-truth",[]],["misinformation",[]],["gaslighting",[]],["junk news",[]],["information disorder",[]],["computational propaganda",[]],["cyber influence operations",[]],["coordinated inauthentic behaviour",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["some interviewees stated that they prefer this term as a nuanced alternative to fake news, others described it as too negatively loaded and biased for journalists to use while staying objective.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such mirror theories, however, are difficult to maintain in practice, Carlson (2017: 54) argued, since journalists not only present a string of facts, but also curate and make sense of the world",["Carlson (2017: 54)"]]],"rt":[["epistemic authority",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",["Jack, 2017"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["both of the metrics have been used to represent a user's influence or power in a network",["23"]]],"sp":[["social capital",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["like-minded attitudes",[]]],"sy":[["like-mindedness",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["modularity [17]",[]],["community boundary connectivity [20]",[]],["random walk controversy [21]",[]],["community performance [22]",[]]]},{"de":[["trust",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The aim of this attack is to make targeted user trust credible information less while using more of non-credible information.",[]]]},{"de":[["The aim of this attack is to make targeted user trust credible information less while using more of non-credible information. To launch an S attack, the attacker will always forward false opinions, as discussed by ω F in Section III-B, to consistently increase the volume of disinformation.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["propaganda techniques",[]],["cognitive and information distortion",[]],["logical fallacies",[]]],"ex":[["red herring, obfuscation, causal oversimplification, and strawmen",[]]]},{"de":[["cannot be easily characterized by specific lexical patterns",[]],["necessitates a contextual understanding of the tweet",[]],["you use an unrelated topic to counter my rebuttal",[]]],"sy":[["fallacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["expected to operate according to the basic principles governing the rest the rest of society, especially in relation to justice, fairness, and reigning notions of desirable social and cultural values",[]],["media texts carry multiple meanings and are open to a range of interpretations",[]],["power to shape the nature of social consciousness and public opinion",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["is the most striking manifestation of the digital cultures",["Bosch (2010, p. 269)"]]]},{"de":[["obsessed with the control of women",[]]]},{"de":[["a new form of mediated communication that gives the audience understand how such discourses may shape and limit the ways in which individuals and institutions can think, speak or reinforce their identities and power structures",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube",[]]]},{"de":[["involved in teaching females to be inferior to males and limiting the roles and responsibilities that men are able to take up",["Ghaill and Haywood (2007, p. 173)"]]]},{"de":[["ML approaches to data and model bias predominantly view bias as a technical flaw that needs to be mitigated in order to create fair ML systems",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["removing data bias causes harm by erasing evidence of historical injustice",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["matrix of domination",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["intersectional feminism",["33","34","62"]]],"sb":[["intersectional feminism",["33","34","62"]]],"sp":[["critical theory",[]]]},{"rt":[["explicit forms of biased language",[]]]},{"sp":[["matrix of domination",[]]]},{"sp":[["matrix of domination",[]]]},{},{"de":[["provides a structure around which to conceptualize power relationships between individuals, communities, and organizations that create social biases, oppressing some and privileging others.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["gender biased social structures resulting in datasets that encode gender biases and models that have gender biases engineered into them",["60","61","113"]],["Research on sexism in computing has demonstrated the socio-technical nature of bias, with gender biased social structures resulting in datasets that encode gender biases and models that have gender biases engineered into them",[]]]},{"sp":[["matrix of domination",[]]]},{"sy":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{},{"de":[["AI algorithms underpinning social media platforms and news aggregators are increasingly refining their ability to personalize content based on user's preferences and previous interactions.",[]]]},{"de":[["AI technologies have fundamentally altered content production in Indonesia, enabling the creation of text, images, and videos at an unprecedented scale and speed.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["mention",[]]]},{"sy":[["subjectivity analysis",[]],["opinion mining",[]]]},{"sb":[["Twitter",[]],["Facebook",[]]]},{"de":[["Infodemics are concerning because the spread of false or misleading information has the capacity to change transmission patterns (Kim et al., 2019) and consequently the scale and lethality of a pandemic.",["Kim et al., 2019"]],["the spread of false or misleading information has the capacity to change transmission patterns (Kim et al., 2019) and consequently the scale and lethality of a pandemic",["Kim et al., 2019"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Internet governance is decentralized and split into four types of institutions that attempt to regulate cyberspace: state regulatory institutions, companies and trade organizations such as the so-called tech giants, non-profit organizations such as ICANN or the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), and \"grassroots bodies\"",[]]],"rt":[["state regulatory institutions",[]],["companies and trade organizations",[]],["non-profit organizations",[]]],"sp":[["Internet governance",[]]]},{"de":[["The NSA/Snowden case involved classified, strategic, and sensitive activity that was affected by severe misconduct and a strong societal impact with high agenda-setting capabilities and proved highly consequential in terms of inciting changes in policy or social conduct.",[]]],"ex":[["having the facts come to light through whistleblowing was an important factor in the event's materialization into a scandal with high social costs.",[]]]},{"de":[["According to this classification, a score of 0,5 indicates a neutral text (without a predominant display of positive or negative sentiments); scores closer to 0 indicate negative sentiment, and scores closer to 1 express positive sentiment.",[]],["The Microsoft Azure sentiment analysis tool generates a variable that describes the sentiment in each article/headline ranging from 0,0 to 1,0. Numbers close to 0 indicate negative sentiment (e.g., anger, criticism, and sadness, among others), numbers close to 1 indicate positive sentiment (e.g., joy and cheer), and 0.5 indicates neutrality.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["grounded in the Persuasive Press Inference (PPI) framework",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["this figure is created often-far more often than any other figure-in dialogue with individual converts.",[]]],"sp":[["Convert Figure",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In some cases it is mentioned that extremist converts also formerly had a Christian background.",[]]],"sp":[["The figure of the extremist",[]]],"ex":[["the Dutch ice-skater René Ruitenberg or the Dutch singing couple Elly and Rikkert",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["these are archetypical figures, that is, exaggerations of recurring trends, which do not necessarily appear 'literally' in the newspaper articles.",[]]],"sb":[["the authentic seeker who seeks religion for intrinsic reasons",[]],["the exemplary convert who is a model to born believers",[]],["the cultural other whose conversion is ascribed more to a cultural shift than a religious one",[]],["the victim who was tricked into conversion against their will",[]],["the opportunist who converts for personal gain",[]],["the extremist whose strict religious observance is potentially harmful",[]]],"sp":[["archetypical figures",[]]]},{"de":[["cultural others are assumed to not be able to bridge different worlds.",[]],["The cultural other is usually a convert to Islam (59 %) and tend to be more often men (47%) than women (27%).",[]],["Both Christian and Muslim cultural others are almost equally talked about than talked with.",[]]],"sb":[["Christian cultural other",[]],["Muslim cultural other",[]]],"sp":[["Convert Figure",[]]]},{"de":[["exemplary converts are just about equally talked with (46%) as they are talked about (54%)",[]],["A common theme in the framing of exemplary Muslim converts is that of the move from petty criminal to virtuous civilian.",[]],["From the perspective of the journalist, 'exemplary' seems to mean \"harmless, socially engaged, timid\".",[]],["From the perspective of converts, as inferred from interviews, it rather means: following the five pillars, deepening faith, becoming a better Muslim in general.",[]]],"sy":[["exemplary believer",[]]],"rt":[["bridge builders",[]],["professional Muslim",[]]],"sb":[["bridge builders",[]],["professional Christians",[]],["exemplary Muslim convert",[]]],"sp":[["Convert Figure",[]]],"ex":[["Billy Graham and George Bush",[]],["modern martyrs who are or who would be willing to face violence, exclusion and the death penalty for their convictions",[]],["Yusuf/Cat Stevens",[]]]},{"de":[["extremists are understood to have taken their religious observance so far as to be shocking and potentially harmful.",[]]],"sp":[["Convert Figure",[]]]},{"de":[["Frames enable readers to see and recognise religious converts, who are thus made intelligible.",[]],["Frames are performed, and are thus vulnerable to \"breaking apart\", reversal and subversion",["2009,(10)(11)(12)"]]]},{"de":[["Frames enable readers to see and recognise religious converts, who are thus made intelligible.",[]]]},{"de":[["Judith Butler conceptualises intelligibility",[]]]},{"de":[["We understand media discourses thus in a Foucauldian manner",[]]]},{"de":[["In some cases, the agency of Muslim extremists is nevertheless questioned, as they are often simultaneously framed as victims who have been \"brainwashed\" by their partner, friends, or groups like Sharia4Belgium.",[]],["Whereas Muslim male extremists are often framed in proximity to cultural others who stand out from their environment due to their physical appearance or radical beliefs, female Muslim extremists are more often framed as victims whose conversions are portrayed as influenced by male Muslim partners.",[]]],"sp":[["The figure of the extremist",[]]],"ex":[["Muslim extremists can be well-known individuals who took a radical turn in their lives, such as the singer Yusuf Islam.",[]]]},{"de":[["For the Christian opportunist, conversion is usually a means of gaining certain benefits or privileges.",[]],["Opportunists are far more often talked about (82%) than talked to (18 %).",[]]],"sp":[["Convert Figure",[]]]},{"de":[["we first of all assume that religious conversion is often considered to be",[]]]},{"de":[["The framing of extremists seems close to that of the exemplary convert in terms of devotion, but extremists are understood to have taken their religious observance so far as to be shocking and potentially harmful.",[]]],"sb":[["Muslim extremist",[]],["Christian extremist",[]]]},{"de":[["The convert's desires and choices are completely determined by others.",[]],["the figure of the victim is assumed to lack any capacity for autonomous action or decision making.",[]],["converts are referred to as passive, as if they did not themselves decide actively about their conversion. This means that the conversion is narrated as forced, and the convert is represented as 'convinced' , 'manipulated' or 'indoctrinated' , thus as having been converted by others.",[]],["The victim has little voice of her/his own, because other authorities decide about her/his fate, such as the Dutch immigration service.",[]],["The victim emerges when the convert is repressed and victimised by others; and/or when the conversion itself is presumably the result of the convert's conformation to mechanisms outside of her/his control.",[]]],"sp":[["Convert Figure",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{"de":[["the formation of filter bubbles is not the outcome of any single layer, but a recursive system jointly shaped by (1) motivated cognitive processing, (2) interpersonal and identity-based aggregation, and (3) algorithmic amplification of emotionally charged preferences.",[]]]},{"de":[["emotion is not a secondary or peripheral variable but a cross-layer force that shapes what individuals seek, how groups cohere, and what algorithms learn to reinforce.",[]],["filter bubbles should be understood as interaction systems rather than as the linear effect of cognition, sociality, or algorithms alone",[]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]],"sb":[["search-driven filter bubbles",["Ekström et al., 2024"]]],"ex":[["When filter bubbles provide psychological security and identity affirmation, they can stabilize meaning and belonging; yet, when they become emotionally charged and morally polarized, they intensify outgroup hostility and erode the possibility of shared public reality.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["making attitudes more extreme after encountering dissent",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["potentially producing more durable and emotionally charged polarization than public-facing platforms.",[]]],"ex":[["WhatsApp or Telegram",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["FDA, with its foundations in post-structuralism, aims to examine how objects (things) and subjects (people) are constructed through language use.",[]]]},{"de":[["An underlying epistemological foundation of FDA is that knowledge is socially constructed.",[]],["taking a Foucauldian approach requires taking up an epistemological position that acknowledges our knowledge of the world is unavoidably produced through the organisation of language.",[]],["Discourses facilitate and limit, enable and constrain what can be said by whom, when and where",[]],["FDA enables researchers to focus on the availability and genealogy of discursive resources within a culture, something that can be considered the discursive economy.",[]],["FDA, with its foundations in post-structuralism, aims to examine how objects (things) and subjects (people) are constructed through language use.",[]],["FDA enables a tracing of the genealogy of ideas -how things we consider to be common-sense, or knowledge, come to be",[]],["FDA enables us to examine the productive nature of these knowledges through practices of subjectification and action.",[]],["FDA encourages an inspection of the potential affects and effects of these discursive constructions: what are the implications for individuals living within these discursive economies",[]]],"sy":[["Foucauldian inspired discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["MFA draws on elements of existing framing research from communication exploration alongside an incorporation of features relevant to psychology, such as narrative and characterisation (Giles and Shaw 2009).",["Giles and Shaw 2009"]],["The first stage of an MFA is to identify the screening process.",[]],["The second stage of an MFA is to identify specific units of time that could be regarded as the source or origin of a story.",[]],["An important feature of an MFA is the identification of key individuals, those figures who recur frequently in the data set.",[]],["An MFA also asks the analyst to consider who the audience is and who they are invited to identify with.",[]]]},{"de":[["these can be specific incidences on which the search strategy can focus",["Giles and Shaw 2009"]],["these can be specific incidences on which the search strategy can focus (Giles and Shaw 2009). News pegs can be multiple, enabling the analysis to capture a news story as it 'evolves' or to consider a topic from a longitudinal perspective.",[]],["specific incidences on which the search strategy can focus",["Giles and Shaw 2009"]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["attracting public attention",[]],["misleading the public",[]],["manipulating public opinion",[]]]},{"sy":[["false news",[]]],"rt":[["information disorder theory",[]]],"sb":[["malicious fabrication",[]],["unintentional misrepresentation",[]],["deliberate manipulation",[]]]},{"de":[["The nodes in the false news dissemination are mainly humans.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This theory emphasises that emotional reactions precede deep cognitive processing.",[]]]},{"de":[["The nodes in the false news dissemination are mainly humans.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The rows represent the classes of the gold labels; the columns represent the classes observed by the annotator.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["international inequality",[]],["center and periphery",[]],["developed and underdeveloped",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news has a hidden motive that mutilates the individual or an organization.",[]],["Fake news is either in the format of text, image, video, etc.",[]],["Fake news is comprised of noisy and unstructured data so pre-processing is an essential step to clean and make the data into a structured form which eases the detection process",[]],["the raise of fake news leads to spread of fake information in the social media and the literally affects the mind state of people which affects the economic growth of individual and the nation",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["insertion",[]],["deletion",[]],["modification",[]]]},{"de":[["automated accounts controlled by algorithms or humans",[]]]},{"de":[["where products become vessels of patriotic masculinity.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["highlights how audiences may interpret these narratives differently depending on their cultural and ideological positions.",[]]]},{"de":[["often entails both visibility and dominance in meaning-making roles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["projects masculinity as quiet, powerful presence rather than outward domination.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["MCDA is especially appropriate for analyzing media texts where language, image, and sound function interactively to construct ideological meaning.",[]],["prioritizes in-depth, qualitative scrutiny over statistical generalization",["Wodak & Meyer, 2016"]]]},{},{"de":[["is a key mechanism in this process",["Byun, 2016","Martin, 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["creates spaces where masculinity is framed not through speech or action, but through composure and embodied control.",[]]]},{"de":[["By making the decision-making process more transparent, users can gain trust in the model and assess its reliability.",[]]],"ex":[["DL models, such as neural networks, are often considered black boxes because they are complex and difficult to interpret.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["user comments",[]],["number of reposts",[]],["number of likes",[]],["number of clicks",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The main objective is to distinguish between accurate and deceptive claims by examining the credibility and veracity of the information presented",["10","13"]],["The main objective is to distinguish between accurate and deceptive claims by examining the credibility and veracity of the information presented [10]- [13].",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["conspiracy theories",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["misinformation",[]],["partially true claims",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the text feature that has been taken from the complete message collection.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The user's social network is the source of their features.",[]]]},{"sb":[["adversarial debiasing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["offensive language",[]],["hate speech",[]],["cyberbullying",[]]]},{"ex":[["the term inútil (\"useless\") is a context-dependent offensive term. Note that this last term is classified as context-dependent offensive because it also may be employed in a non-offensive context, such as \"this smartphone is useless\" or \"the process is useless for this task\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["abusive language",[]],["offensive comment",[]]]},{"de":[["Moreover,Westwood et al. (2018) demonstrated that partyism influences behaviors and non-political judgments.",[]]]},{"de":[["The message that fat people have a disease that should be treated and eliminated conveys sympathy or pity for them rather than dignity and respect",[]]]},{"de":[["It rejects medicalizing terms like \"obesity\" and asserts that people of all sizes-like all genders and races-deserve equal treatment and respect, regardless of their ability or desire to engage in health-promoting behaviors",[]]]},{"de":[["may be especially persuasive in combatting stigma",[]],["offers the alternative perspective that fatness is value-neutral or even desirable, and that weight discrimination is unacceptable",[]]],"rt":[["disease framing",[]]]},{"de":[["rejects medicalizing terms like \"obesity\" and asserts that people of all sizes-like all genders and races-deserve equal treatment and respect, regardless of their ability or desire to engage in health-promoting behaviors",[]],["offers the alternative perspective that fatness is value-neutral or even desirable, and that weight discrimination is unacceptable.",[]]]},{"de":[["As people process language, they draw inferences about the communicator's intentions, trusting that the language used to describe the topic at hand was chosen to be relevant and informative",["Grice, 1975","Goodman and Frank, 2016","Christiansen and Chater, 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["increased support for him and decreased support for his accuser, but only for participants who explicitly cited the label as influencing their evaluations",["Flusberg et al., 2022b"]]]},{},{"de":[["individuals often base their decisions on others' actions rather than their own information (Bikhchandani et al., 1992;Easley et al., 2010).",[]]]},{"de":[["with a rating scale ranging from 1 (not informative) to 5 (very informative)",[]]]},{"de":[["Inspired by the information cascade phenomenon (Bikhchandani et al., 1992), which suggests that local context is more influential.",["Bikhchandani et al., 1992"]]]},{"de":[["with a rating scale ranging from 1 (not misleading) to 5 (very misleading)",[]]]},{"de":[["e.g., comments, propagation patterns",[]],["In general, it can be regarded as a multi-classification task.",[]]]},{"de":[["e.g., comments, propagation patterns",[]],["It sheds light on information spread, user reactions, and interaction dynamics around the claim.",[]]]},{"de":[["with a rating scale ranging from 1 (not sound) to 5 (very sound)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Differently put, credibility is a perception, rather than being an intrinsic quality within a particular channel or source",["Westerman et al., 2014"]],["The term 'credibility' is often associated with qualities of reliability, trust, believability, accessibility and openness (Kim & Brown, 2015).",["Kim & Brown, 2015"]]],"sy":[["perceived credibility",[]]],"rt":[["perceived credibility",[]]],"sb":[["source credibility",[]],["message credibility",[]]]},{"de":[["Organizations could provide online platforms on which individuals can evaluate the organization, product or brand, which could persuade individuals to share their knowledge and experiences with their peers, thereby developing electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) (Hajli, 2018).",[]]],"sy":[["online reviews",[]],["recommendations",[]],["opinions",[]]]},{"sy":[["online reviews",[]],["recommendations",[]],["opinions",[]]],"rt":[["social word-of-mouth (sWOM)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The determinant concerned here necessitates that an organization stays abreast with issues that could directly influence it, as well as with its extent of knowledge regarding contemporary societal, democratic, and political issues.",[]]]},{"de":[["The concept of homophily, which relates to the element of dynamism highlighted earlier, is associated with phrases such as \"similarity breeds connection\" (McPherson et al., 2001) and \"like to associate with like\", meaning that one's demeanor tends to resemble that of family, friends and acquaintances (Kossinets & Watts, 2009).",["McPherson et al., 2001","Kossinets & Watts, 2009"]]],"rt":[["dynamism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This definition highlights that invitational rhetoric should be accepted as a communication exchange in which the communicative parties create an environment of growth and change (Bone et al., 2008).",["Bone et al., 2008"]],["Similarly, invitational rhetoric refers to the quality of respecting others' inputs on social media.",[]],["Organizations should, in short, strive to respect others' inputs and to build understanding (Kim & Brown, 2015).",[]],["invitational rhetoric should be accepted as a communication exchange in which the communicative parties create an environment of growth and change",["Bone et al., 2008"]]]},{"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{"de":[["Organizational credibility is often related to organizational reputation; some even argue that it is derived from reputation.",[]],["Organizational credibility & additional social media determinants",[]]],"rt":[["organizational reputation",[]],["social media determinants",[]]],"sp":[["source credibility",[]]]},{"de":[["Picard (2015) argues that social media have the potential to overcome the limitations of mass communication by means of humanizing communication, thus displacing the qualities of \"artificiality and alienation\" associated with mass communication.",[]],["which serves to showcase its transparency and altruism",["Kim & Brown, 2015"]],["social organizational credibility could be enhanced if organizations humanize its communication on social media",["Picard, 2015"]],["social organizational credibility could be enhanced if the organization manages to create a sense of unity among its users, by means of posting information in which users appear to have a common interest",["Chon & Kim, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["The factor also points to the immediacy of the information that is available on social media.",[]]]},{"de":[["Both connections and followers could also aid in the making of social corrections, which implies trying to contest inaccurate information about the organization concerned, to mitigate misperceptions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["explore the proposed determinants of social organizational credibility purposefully among active social media users.",[]],["Such credibility also includes organizational credibility determinants in the social media context of homophily, personable interaction, informed conversation and apt sWOM.",[]],["This conceptualization of social organizational credibility provides a more holistic understanding of organizational credibility in the social media context",[]],["The conceptualization of social organizational credibility extends the existing body of literature on organizational credibility by offering direction as to how social media users evaluate an organization's credibility on social media.",[]]],"sp":[["organizational credibility",[]]]},{"de":[["sWOM has the unique advantage of referability, with support for the entries being available globally for an unlimited time (Hajli, 2018).",[]],["the credibility of sWOM could be improved by the contributions made by other social media users.",[]],["As social media users engage with specific social media platforms, they provide contributor profile to these platforms, which gives more source credibility to the evaluation and participation of social media users (Hajli, 2018).",[]],["sWOM, arguably, relates to homophily; social media users with high homophily partake in sWOM with other social media users (Ismagilova et al., 2020).",[]]],"sy":[["Evaluations, comments and experiences generated by social media users",[]]],"rt":[["homophily",["Ismagilova et al., 2020"]],["electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Source credibility is often paralleled with the attributes of the communicator, which are awarded by the information user, and include expertise and competence, trustworthiness, attractiveness, believability and power",[]],["In the context of the present discussion, source credibility relates to the characteristics of the communicator (the organization) that influence the receiver's acceptance of the message involved (Kreegimäe et al., 2019).",["Kreegimäe et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["message credibility",[]]],"sb":[["organizational credibility",[]]],"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{"sy":[["social word of mouth",["Hajli, 2018"]]],"rt":[["homophily",["Ismagilova et al., 2020"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the groundedness of the generated sequence, f (y, k)",[]],["Groundedness is analogous to the precision of knowledge",[]]],"rt":[["precision of knowledge",[]]]},{"de":[["poses a significant risk to the reliability of the texts generated by these models.",[]],["This phenomenon, often referred to as hallucination, poses a significant risk to the reliability of the texts generated by these models.",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["fueling the creation of fake news",["Kietzmann et al., 2020","de Ruiter, 2021"]],["It can also be understood as the potential manipulation of genuine content by relying on various deep learning techniques. The content draws on a variety of sources, including text, images, audio, and video.",[]],["It can also be understood as the potential manipulation of genuine content by relying on various deep learning techniques.",[]]],"sb":[["(i) complete face synthesis",["Juefei-Xu et al., 2021"]],["(ii) manipulation of various characteristics or features of a setting",["Juefei-Xu et al., 2021"]],["(iii) identity swapping",["Juefei-Xu et al., 2021"]],["(iv) re-enactment or the swap of different expressions",["Juefei-Xu et al., 2021"]],["complete face synthesis",["Juefei-Xu et al., 2021"]],["manipulation of various characteristics or features of a setting",["Juefei-Xu et al., 2021"]],["identity swapping",["Juefei-Xu et al., 2021"]],["re-enactment or the swap of different expressions",["Juefei-Xu et al., 2021"]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",["Aïmeur et al., 2023"]],["mal information",["Aïmeur et al., 2023"]],["false information",[]],["mal-information",[]],["deepfakes",[]]],"sp":[["pseudoinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["which have a direct impact on individual societies, companies, and citizens.",[]],["Fake news remains a scourge that strongly affects all sectors of activity, having a negative impact on the well-being of society, business environments, and organizations, in other words, on the well-being of people in general.",[]]],"rt":[["deep fakes",[]],["misinformation",[]],["false information",[]],["incorrect information",[]]],"sb":[["false information",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["mal-information",[]],["deepfakes",[]]]},{"sy":[["malformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",["Aïmeur et al., 2023"]],["disinformation",["Aïmeur et al., 2023"]],["false information",[]],["deepfakes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the personalization capabilities of AI facilitate targeted misinformation campaigns.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["false information",[]],["disinformation",["Aïmeur et al., 2023"]],["mal information",["Aïmeur et al., 2023"]],["mal-information",[]],["deepfakes",[]]],"sb":[["fabricated content",["Shao et al., 2018"]],["manipulated content",["Shao et al., 2018"]],["imposter content",["Shao et al., 2018"]],["false context",["Shao et al., 2018"]],["misleading content",["Shao et al., 2018"]],["false connection",["Shao et al., 2018"]],["satire",["Shao et al., 2018"]]],"sp":[["pseudoinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A fresh perspective on news literacy as a useful instrument for denying false information, actively empowering users with the skills and mindset to fact-check news on social media.",["Kozyreva et al. (2020)"]]]},{"de":[["only 0.04% of authors were responsible for the development (i.e. creation and related research) of over half the body of knowledge",["7"]]]},{},{"de":[["we draw from Guo et al. [34] to differentiate between three core (sequential) tasks",[]]],"sp":[["Algorithmic Misinformation Detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["social cyber-security",["12"]]]},{"de":[["Under-scrutiny of the claims reported by, of interest to, or about a particular group can lead to a distributive injustice for sources of evidence, seekers and subjects of information, as a key moderator of the informational good (fact-checking) is not being distributed evenly amongst groups.",[]]]},{"sp":[["informational justice",[]]]},{"de":[["a disproportionate lack of attention to claims flagged by a community could constitute an epistemic injustice, which may additionally result in some of the injustices listed above for the same individuals and/or communities, when their role in relation to a claim is multi-faceted.",[]]]},{"sb":[["testimonial injustice",[]]],"sp":[["informational justice",[]]]},{"de":[["In the case of a false negative, in which no action (like labeling) is performed on potentially misleading information, significant harms are likely to be felt by seekers and subjects of information.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["IMPB",[]]]},{"de":[["this multifaceted notion identifies three key dimensions of justice-participatory, recognitional, and distributive",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In information ecosystems",[]]]},{"de":[["may result from a choice of metric, e.g. the most frequently searched items, or from ambiguity in the formulation of survey questions used to collect check-worthiness labels.",[]],["Allen et al. [2] find that, while individual laypeople do tend to show considerably more bias and inconsistency than experts, a relatively small, politically balanced crowd yields an average label that is highly correlated to the average label of a few professional fact-checkers.",["2"]],["obtaining labels from laypeople induces a measurement bias",[]]]},{"de":[["This is because the sources cannot contribute to or participate in the broader informational exchange at the same rate as others.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["failing to assess these claims could result in a recognitional injustice, by enabling inaccurate representations of members of society.",[]]]},{"sp":[["informational justice",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Depending on the system design and the stage of the misinformation detection pipeline, this stakeholder may be a user of a platform who flags a claim (e.g., a twitter post), a fact-checker who independently analyzes the claim, a crowd worker surveyed to assess the veracity of the claim, or the author of an article that provides a stance towards the claim.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Subjects can be individuals or groups, or they can be conceptual topics.",[]]]},{"sp":[["epistemic injustice",[]]]},{"de":[["we draw from Guo et al. [34] to differentiate between three core (sequential) tasks",[]]],"sp":[["Algorithmic Misinformation Detection",[]]]},{"de":[["news articles are not shared (verbatim or partial) across communities, but the event or topic often is",[]]],"rt":[["counter-narratives",[]]]},{"de":[["While in the past content sharing in the mainstream media was used to meet demand, be timely, and keep up with competing news agencies, it may be used more maliciously in today's news environment.",[]],["For example, just as bot-driven misinformation in social networks, content sharing can be used to make particular stories or narratives seem more important, more widely reported, and thus, more credible.",[]]],"sy":[["content republishing",[]],["imitation",[]],["replication",[]]]},{"rt":[["competing narratives",[]]]},{"rt":[["content sharing",[]]]},{"de":[["the news is homogeneous within communities and diverse in between, creating different spirals of sameness.",[]],["the homogeneous view of news (or to borrow a term from (Boczkowski 2010): \"spiral of sameness\") still exist",[]]]},{"de":[["In general, our results show that the news is homogeneous within communities and diverse in-between, creating different spirals of sameness.",[]],["These different spirals have multiple sources working simultaneously to amplify alternative narratives about current events as well as to undermine the credibility of some high quality news outlets.",[]]]},{"de":[["Clickbait posts tend to spread inaccurate or misleading information to manipulate people's attention and emotions, which greatly harms the credibility of social media.",[]]]},{"de":[["The primary objective of clickbait detection is to extract crucial linguistic features from textual content.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the 9 different Connotation Frame relationship types for which we have annotations: P(w → o), P(w → s), P(s → o), V(o), V(s), E(o), E(s), S(o), and S(s).",[]],["a representation formalism to organize these rich dimensions of connotation using typed relations",[]]],"rt":[["perspective",[]],["effect",[]],["value",[]],["mental state",[]]]},{"de":[["a representation framework to organize the rich dimensions of the implied sentiment and presupposed facts.",[]],["a novel system of connotative frames that define a set of implied sentiment and presupposed facts for a predicate",[]]],"sy":[["connotative frames",[]]],"rt":[["implied sentiment",[]],["presupposed facts",[]],["typed relations",[]],["schema and script theory",["Schank and Abelson, 1975"]],["frame semantics",[]]],"sb":[["value V(x)",[]],["effect E(x)",[]],["mental state S(x)",[]]],"ex":[["Perspective of Writer towards Subject",[]],["Effect on Subject",[]],["Value of Subject",[]],["Mental State of Subject",[]]]},{"de":[["measured implied sentiment in online journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["more specific and nuanced aspects of sentiment such as connotation (Feng et al., 2013), good and bad effects (Choi and Wiebe, 2014), and evoked sentiment (Mohammad and Turney, 2010)",[]]],"sb":[["connotation",["Feng et al., 2013"]],["good and bad effects",["Choi and Wiebe, 2014"]],["evoked sentiment",["Mohammad and Turney, 2010"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["recalling the attack on the Twin Towers",[]]]},{"rt":[["recollection",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["suggestion-induced false memories",["Mangiulli et al. 2022"]]]},{"rt":[["verbatim traces",[]]],"ex":[["remembering a person being hit by a car",[]]]},{"de":[["the likelihood of false memory formation relied on the degree of 'fit' between a person's opinions about the character performing the event and their thoughts regarding the behaviour displayed during the event.",[]]],"rt":[["false memories",[]]]},{"de":[["theory of motivated reasoning, asserting that cognitive biases predispose individuals to believe false statements that align with their ideological beliefs",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This category comprises mainly cases of figurative language, a phenomenon related to the use of words with a diverging meaning from their literal use in order to express colorful images and emotions (Dancygier and Sweetser, 2014).",["Dancygier and Sweetser, 2014"]],["they often stem from the underspecified meaning of lexical items in the sentence pairs to be labeled",[]],["Ambiguity:",[]]],"sb":[["Analogy",[]],["False Assertion",[]],["Rhetorical Question",[]],["Sarcasm",[]],["Word Play",[]],["Reported Speech",[]],["does the text include a figure of speech that comprehends mechanisms of comparison (included: simile and metaphor) or is the user referring to someone with a periphrasis (e.g., \"orange monkey\", \"bunker boy\" for Donald Trump)?",[]],["does the user express the opposite of what they think or something wrong with respect to a context?",[]],["does the text include a question asked in order to make a point rather than to elicit an answer?",[]],["is the text employed to communicate the opposite of its surface meaning in a humorous way or to mock someone/something?",[]],["does the text include any acronyms, alliterations or puns?",[]],["does the text report something someone else stated? For example a newspaper headline?",[]],["figurative language",[]]]},{"de":[["Analogy:",[]]],"sp":[["Ambiguity",[]]]},{"sp":[["No Context",[]]]},{"de":[["As regards anaphoric expressions, instead, the interpretation of the textual content is determined by that of the antecedent",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Personal Bias",[]],["Swearing",[]],["Threatening",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["No Context",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, users express the opposite of what they think or something false and exaggerated in relation to the context.",[]],["False assertion:",[]]],"sp":[["Ambiguity",[]]]},{"sp":[["Ambiguity",[]]]},{"sy":[["disagreement",[]]]},{"de":[["Missing Information:",[]]],"sb":[["Ungrammatical",[]],["No context",[]],["Not complete",[]],["does the text include typos or non standard expressions nullifying its comprehension?",[]],["some parts are missing: is the text not complete?",[]]]},{"de":[["No context:",[]]],"sp":[["Missing Information",[]],["Context sensitivity: Missing Information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["this category can be inferred because it is very likely to occur when the text to be labeled belongs to a divisive topic, such as politics, covid-19, social movements, etc.",["(Wich et al., 2020)"]],["its relevance is probably related to the fact that the annotated tweets deal with controversial topics",[]],["the two classes are equally challenging when annotators' beliefs and background come into play.",[]],["Although it is not easy to identify cases of disagreement due to personal biases, in particular when annotators are unknown, this category can be inferred because it is very likely to occur when the text to be labeled belongs to a divisive topic, such as politics, covid-19, social movements, etc.",[]],["Personal Bias:",[]]],"sp":[["Subjectivity",[]],["Bias and Desemanticization: Subjectivity",[]]],"ex":[["politics, covid-19, social movements, etc.",["Wich et al., 2020"]],["\"racist\", \"fascist\", \"clown\", \"pathetic\", \"liar\", \"pig\"",[]],["(no vax, wearing or not wearing masks)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Word Play",[]]]},{"de":[["It can be ambiguous because it can be mistaken as something written by the same author of the text to be annotated.",[]],["Reported Speech:",[]]],"sp":[["Ambiguity",[]]]},{"de":[["Rhetorical question:",[]]],"sp":[["Ambiguity",[]]]},{"de":[["Sarcasm needs context and other extralinguistic expressions like pauses and intonation to be understood and it features a disproportion of emphasis regarding the real situation, giving a caustic effect (Gibbs, 1986).",["Gibbs, 1986"]],["Sarcasm:",[]]],"sp":[["Ambiguity",[]]]},{"de":[["Sloppy Annotation (Label = Sloppy_Annotation) -Noise:",[]]],"sb":[["Noise",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the most frequent causes of disagreement are task-specific: in our dataset, they are mostly due to annotators' subjectivity and their perception of what is offensive",[]],["We group in this category cases of disagreement due to the annotators' identity, beliefs and background, which have been recognised as leading to biased judgments",[]],["Subjectivity:",[]]],"sb":[["Personal Bias",["Wich et al., 2020"]],["Swearing",[]],["Threatening",[]],["does the text contain specific words that can be interpreted in a subjective way by the annotator (for example: \"racist\", \"fascist\", \"clown\", \"pathetic\", \"liar\", \"pig\") or refer to specific, critical opinions (no vax, wearing or not wearing masks)?",[]],["does the text include swearing words (for example: \"prick\", \"turd\", \"crap\", \"bullshit\", \"moron\", \"dumb\")? Does it include ableist insults such as \"retarded\", \"psycho\" and expressions containing \"shit\" (for example: \"cut the shit\", \"don't know shit\").",[]],["does the text contain linguistic violence (for example: \"shut up\", \"get out\", \"you are going to prison\")?",[]]]},{"de":[["Swearing:",[]]],"sp":[["Subjectivity",[]],["Bias and Desemanticization: Subjectivity",[]]],"ex":[["\"prick\", \"turd\", \"crap\", \"bullshit\", \"moron\", \"dumb\"",[]],["\"retarded\", \"psycho\"",[]],["\"cut the shit\", \"don't know shit\"",[]]]},{"de":[["texts containing linguistically violent expressions or threats",["(Storey, 1995)"]],["Threatening:",[]]],"sp":[["Subjectivity",[]],["Bias and Desemanticization: Subjectivity",[]]],"ex":[["\"shut up\", \"get out\", \"you are going to prison\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["Context sensitivity: Missing Information",[]]]},{"de":[["Word Play:",[]]],"sb":[["puns",[]],["alliterations",[]]],"sp":[["Ambiguity",[]]]},{"rt":[["ERASER benchmark",[]]]},{"de":[["snippets (rationales) of the text marked by the annotators who support the label",[]],["The top 5 is selected as it is the avg. length of the annotation span in the dataset.",[]]]},{"de":[["Here, we select toxic and normal posts from the test set that mention the community under consideration. The ROC-AUC score of this set will provide us with the Subgroup AUC for a community.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["echo chambers entice their members with the allure of unwavering certainty and simplistic consistency",["Nguyen, 2020"]],["In relinquishing these epistemic goals, echo chambers entice their members with the allure of unwavering certainty and simplistic consistency (Nguyen, 2020).",["Nguyen, 2020"]]]},{"rt":[["capacities",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A fact-checker must be proficient in using a variety of tools, interpreting statistical data, comprehending the structure of scientific articles, grasping academic sources, and maintaining a general understanding of developments in the world of science.",[]]]},{"rt":[["individual autonomy",[]],["civics",[]]],"sb":[["self-efficacy",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["trust",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["There is an ongoing debate on what exactly is being learnt with these inoculators as some studies suggest a positive effect while other ones reveal that they promote scepticism instead of resistance against fake news.",[]]]},{"de":[["GBL is an ideal disinformation inoculator thanks to the use of interactivity and storytelling to present complex virtual scenarios",["Lewandowsky and van der Linden, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["When a situation is 'framed', certain facts are highlighted, connected to each other and together imbued with a specific meaning.",["23"]]]},{"de":[["more intense framing activities",[]],["negative news framing",[]]]},{"de":[["differing frames, i.e. interpretations, of squatter conflicts",[]]]},{"de":[["Squatters are usually aware of this and have developed an extensive repertoire of media interventions since the 1960s.",[]]]},{"de":[["the term refers to the fascination and fear that is evoked among outsiders when groups come together 'out of the blue', transgress social norms, violate rules and challenge authorities.",["67"]],["Above all, the term refers to the fascination and fear that is evoked among outsiders when groups come together 'out of the blue', transgress social norms, violate rules and challenge authorities.",["67"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["defined as ThruPlays / 3-second video plays",[]]]},{"de":[["defined as 3-second video play / number of impressions",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["psychological inoculation",[]]],"rt":[["prebunking",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation contains significantly more negative emotions than nonmanipulative content",["Carrasco-Farré, 2022","Fong et al., 2022","Kauk et al., 2025","Mcloughlin et al., 2024","Vosoughi et al., 2018"]]]},{"de":[["preemptive exposure to a weakened dose of the techniques used to produce misinformation along with strong refutations or tips on how to spot them",[]],["brief prebunking videos can be scaled inexpensively and deployed as ads to many thousands of social media users in the context of a scroll feed where attention to accuracy may be limited",["Searles & Feezell, 2023"]],["aimed to inoculate users by forewarning them of emotional manipulation on social media",["Roozenbeek et al., 2022"]],["using a weakened-dose example of fearmongering",["Roozenbeek et al., 2022"]]],"rt":[["inoculation theory",[]]]},{"de":[["video-form fake news has more modalities and thus more information. We need to select the most informative clues from multiple modalities and fuse heterogeneous information to understand the news content and detect fake news.",[]],["different from traditional video platforms such as YouTube, short video platforms provide advanced video-editing functions (e.g., text box and virtual background) for users to conveniently modify the videos. It weakens the discriminability of the visual content in measuring its truthfulness as both fake and real news videos could be modified and exhibit editing traces.",[]],["fake news videos typically contain real news videos where only some frames or the accompanying titles have been maliciously modified to alter their meanings",[]],["different from traditional video platforms such as YouTube, short video platforms provide advanced video-editing functions (e.g., text box and virtual background) for users to conveniently modify the videos. It weakens the discriminability of the visual content in measuring its truthfulness as both fake and real news videos could be modified and exhibit editing traces. Moreover, fake news videos typically contain real news videos where only some frames or the accompanying titles have been maliciously modified to alter their meanings",[]]],"sy":[["video-form fake news",[]]],"rt":[["traditional text-based or text-image fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["These conditions are multifaceted and include social, cognitive, political, environmental, cultural, historical, technological, and temporal contexts etc.",[]]]},{"de":[["They are typically detailed and present elaborate account of the issues they focus on, and represent issues that newspapers consider as most important.",[]]]},{"de":[["multidisciplinary approach that underscores the interplay between discourse and power dynamics",["van Dijk, 2008"]],["helps to systematically investigate power relations and ideologies embedded in discourse",["Johnson and McLean, 2020"]]],"sb":[["Tuen van Djik's socio-cognitive approach",[]],["Norman Fairclough's dialectical-relational approach",[]],["Ruth Wodak's discourse-historical approach",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["They represent the official position of a newspaper that guide readers as they engage on the issue and indicate that a newspaper considers a particular issue as important.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["protest paradigm",[]]]},{"de":[["This approach focuses on negative aspects of protests, and emphasise issues in protests such violence and destruction, disruption of public order, looting, vandalization and killings, etc.",[]],["the pattern of negative news coverage as indicated by the protest paradigm is conditional and depends on contextual and systemic characteristics… specific to protest topic, newspaper location, and time.",["Kilgo and Harlow, 2019","2019, 521"]],["violent protests naturally have high potentials of attracting the protest paradigm in press coverage, vice versa.",[]]],"rt":[["pro-protest coverage",[]]]},{"de":[["the finer details of discourse representation, which on the face of it is merely a matter of technical properties of grammar and syntax of texts, may be turned to social determinant and social effects.",["1995, 65"]],["in which 'the finer details of discourse representation, which on the face of it is merely a matter of technical properties of grammar and syntax of texts, may be turned to social determinant and social effects.'",[]],["the finer details of discourse representation, which on the face of it is merely a matter of technical properties of grammar and syntax of texts, may be turned to social determinant and social effects",["65"]]]},{"rt":[["Context",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["LGBT",[]],["LGBTQ",[]],["GLBT",[]],["Homosexual",[]],["Genderqueer",[]],["Pansexual",[]]]},{},{"de":[["implies that LGBT issues have become intrinsically politicized and frequently collocated in contexts of legislation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Transvestite-a term now considered derogatory in modern social contexts (barring reclamation by the community) but included in the study due to its common use in older news articles",[]]],"sy":[["Transgender",[]],["Transsexual",[]],["Transvestite",[]],["Trans Man",[]],["Trans Woman",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["celebritisation",[]]]},{"sy":[["ephemeral celebrities",[]]]},{},{"de":[["frames represent models of interpretation allowing a change of perspective and representing universal knowledge",["22"]],["frames as such are anchored in the cognitive system of each individual",["23"]],["significantly affected by super-individual social processes, i.e., individual cognitive experience confronted with the common cognitive experience.",["23"]],["the knowledge of a frame allows the manner of the portrayal of an individual, a group or a situation to be predicted; and vice versa, the awareness of the idea of how a 'subject should go through' is related to a particular frame as a repertoire of the means suitable for that",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["celebrity-in-chief",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The application of this theory to recent events in Palestine denies any notion of a historical basis for the intifada, claiming instead that Palestinians are acting out of instinctual and inexplicable behaviour inculcated by their \"volatile\" Arab and Islamic civilization.",[]]],"ex":[["by placing the September 11 crisis in particular and the question 'Why is the U.S. so unpopular in the Middle East?' in general within the framework of Islam and the clash of civilizations, one can avoid the dreaded P word -Palestine -and the even more dreaded term 'Occupied Territories.'",["25"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["has dominated political discourse since the start of the second intifada",["27"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Fact-checking seeks to make public figures accountable for the truthfulness of any statements",["UNESCO, 2018"]],["Fact-checking seeks to make public figures accountable for the truthfulness of any statements (UNESCO, 2018).",["UNESCO, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["the complex nature of fake news, which often includes fabricated content, dubious sources, or unverifiable references",[]]],"sy":[["Khao Plom",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["Khao Plom",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["linguistic features",[]]]},{"de":[["exploits the rapid spread of information online, often outpacing the verification processes that traditional media outlets adhere to",[]],["distinguishing between true and false information, considering the intent behind the information dissemination, whether it be to mislead, harm, or manipulate public opinion.",[]]]},{"de":[["This process involves distinguishing between true and false information, considering the intent behind the information dissemination, whether it be to mislead, harm, or manipulate public opinion.",[]]]},{"de":[["In contrast to lead bias, position bias seeks to decipher if models are over-utilizing sentences from any section(s) of the input articles, instead of just the leading segment.",[]],["a model's output summary can only be considered positionally biased if it overwhelmingly uses sentences from section(s) of the input that the human-written (or gold) summaries do not use themselves.",[]],["Position bias captures the tendency of a model unfairly prioritizing information from certain parts of the input text over others, leading to undesirable behavior.",[]]],"rt":[["lead bias",[]]],"sb":[["lead bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["experiencing repeated and severe abuse based on gender, such as race, age, disability, sexuality, profession, or personal beliefs",["56"]]]},{},{"de":[["misogyny, generally understood as mocking or disparaging women, is a necessary component of patriarchal society.",["13"]],["Women's mental health is negatively affected by misogyny, which is also a type of online harassment.",[]],["that includes prejudice against them as well as mental, physical, and verbal assault",["13"]]],"sy":[["gender-based hate speech",[]]],"rt":[["gender-based hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["online harassment",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate crime",[]]]},{"de":[["harsh language and new types of misogyny aimed at women and members of marginalized communities",[]],["misogynistic comments against women, linking them to the SME theory, which addresses user engagements on digital platforms that fosters social interactions across distances and time.",[]]],"sb":[["flaming, revenge porn, and defamation.",[]],["flaming",[]],["revenge porn",[]],["defamation",[]]],"ex":[["flaming",[]],["revenge porn",[]],["defamation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["When users engage with messages, profiles, posts, and comments on platforms like Facebook, it is all part of this engagement.",[]],["Users can think of ways to interact, including responding to posts, sharing, liking, and commenting.",[]],["The SME theory, developed by Paul M. Di Gangi and Molly M. Wasko in 2016, shines a light on how users engage with one another on social media.",[]],["They suggest that technological advancements significantly influence users' engagement with social media.",[]],["At its core, SME theory emphasizes the growing involvement of users as social media platforms continue to expand",["30"]],["The theory highlights the importance of social interaction and user involvement in shaping the digital landscape",["31"]],["it is also about communication, as it helps create a space for user interactions.",[]],["SME theory emphasizes the growing involvement of users as social media platforms continue to expand",[]]],"rt":[["user experience",[]]]},{"sp":[["signaling theory",[]]],"ex":[["the relationship between observing somebody lifting a heavy object and physical strength.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["context indicators",[]]]},{"rt":[["Content indicators",[]]]},{"sp":[["signaling theory",["18","69,87"]]],"ex":[["self-descriptions in online social networks, where users can easily pretend to be older or younger.",["18"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["reading less and learning more",["84"]],["One of the most promising non-technical solutions against misinformation that has emerged in recent years",[]],["The technique is informed by the finding that professional fact-checkers make better decisions and need less time because they step out of a website and use additional information from other sources to make an informed assessment.",[]],["those who read laterally scan a website and then use other websites to judge the original site's credibility.",[]],["For Wineburg and McGrew, this lateral reading means reading less and learning more. Unlike those who stay on a specific page to evaluate a website's reliability, those who read laterally scan a website and then use other websites to judge the original site's credibility.",[]]]},{"sb":[["false information",[]],["false connections",[]],["misleading content",[]]],"ex":[["an invented incident involving foreigners and crimes",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The reliability criteria for news websites presented in this paper can help users recognize websites that, while appearing to provide news, may not adhere to journalistic standards and may provide biased or false information for political or monetary gain.",[]]],"sb":[["Content",[]],["Political Alignment",[]],["Writing Style",[]],["Authors",[]],["Self-Description",[]],["Professional Standards",[]],["Advertisements",[]],["Ownership",[]],["Sources",[]],["Reputation",[]],["Design of Website",[]]]},{"ex":[["public broadcasting, newspapers of record, and public authorities",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["assessment signals",["18"]],["conventional signals",["18"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["repetition loops footage to obscure illicit activity",[]]],"sp":[["video tampering",[]]]},{"de":[["substitution injects objectionable material (e.g., nudity, violence) to circumvent detection",[]]],"sp":[["video tampering",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["follows the agenda-setting argument that",[]]],"rt":[["intermedia",[]],["online agenda-setting",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]]]},{"de":[["segments of the public that are more interested in climate change and find it more personally important",[]],["Issue publics are central to mass media agenda-setting as they are more attentive and, hence, should be more susceptible to news coverage of the issue",["Kim, 2009"]],["climate issue publics are more susceptible to mass media influence",[]],["Given their concern and high need for orientation, they are more likely to search for and read climate change news and accept cues about the issue's importance.",[]],["Issue publics are central to mass media agenda-setting as they are more attentive and, hence, should be more susceptible to news coverage of the issue (Kim, 2009).",["2009","Kim, 2009"]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]],["non-issue publics",[]],["opinion leaders",[]],["discussion partners",[]],["agendasetting",[]]],"ex":[["The climate issue publics, in other words, consist of citizens who are relatively well-informed about causes, consequences, and possible solutions to the climate crisis, and perceive it as personally important.",[]]]},{"de":[["High salience does not entail a particular underlying rationale or policy preference, merely that many people find the issue important. Aggregate salience thus cuts across worldviews and political opinions and can be dynamic even where strong and stable opinions are prevalent",[]]]},{"de":[["are unaffected by media coverage, which suggests that the mass media's agenda-setting power is restricted depending on subaudience and issue.",[]]],"rt":[["issue publics",[]]]},{"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This descriptive absence is particularly overrepresented among incidents involving shooters racialized as Black (see Figure 1).",["Figure 1"]]]},{"de":[["This descriptive language serves to contextualize and humanize white but not Black shooters as part of larger family and community systems.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Language choices are revealing about speakers' social attitudes",[]]],"ex":[["If a café advertises \"gingerbread people,\" instead of \"gingerbread men\" (example adapted from Papineau et al., 2022), people may make inferences about the social views of the café owners based on their avoidance of the traditional masculine term.",["Papineau et al., 2022"]],["a speaker using the pronoun they to refer to a colleague who identifies as nonbinary, reflecting the speaker's acceptance of nonbinary identities",[]]]},{"ex":[["In online social networks, for example, an individual creating her new homepage tends to link it to sites that are close to her interests (i.e., preferences).",[]]]},{"rt":[["polarization",[]]],"sp":[["polarization",[]]]},{"rt":[["polarization",[]]],"sp":[["polarization",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["self-selection",[]]]},{"rt":[["pre-selection",[]]]},{"ex":[["an EG network tends to be a unidirectional star-like structure with a few high-degree nodes",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In an age of neural targeting, digital overload, and AI-accelerated persuasion, cognitive sovereignty must be treated as both a strategic resource and a fundamental human right.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They are displayed as histograms showing the distribution of emotions experienced by all individuals in a society or a group of interest at a particular time, enabling visual identification of the most frequently experienced, dominant emotions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is a conceptual and methodological framework that integrates insights from cognitive neuroscience, the psychology of emotion, and strategic communication studies to enhance the effectiveness of influence, persuasion, and resilience-building in complex defense and security environments.",[]],["EBSC provides a structured, operationalizable approach that explicitly links emotional processes with cognitive mechanisms of decisionmaking, enabling the design of communications that are both scientifically grounded and strategically targeted.",[]]]},{"de":[["EBSC is conceptualized as a Large Language Model (LLM)-based systematic approach to strategic communications, which senses the emotional climate of target populations via social-sentiment analysis algorithms applied to various open digital sources; interprets and contextualizes this emotional climate; conducts design and development of appropriate output messages; delivers these messages across mass media; assesses their impact; and adapts them in a real-time closed loop, under supervision of accountable human decision-makers.",[]]]},{"ex":[["threat, injustice, betrayal, dignity, efficacy, fairness",[]],["threat",[]],["injustice",[]],["betrayal",[]],["dignity",[]],["efficacy",[]],["fairness",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["fear into preparedness",[]],["anger into justice-seeking",[]]]},{"de":[["strategic communications that incorporate an emotionally based strategy may play a more important role in conflict management, making traditional approaches more influential and effective.",[]]]},{"de":[["cultural instruments as counter-narrative tools aimed at increasing media literacy, reducing susceptibility to hostile propaganda, and restoring the country's positive image in the international space",[]],["cultural diplomacy should be viewed as a soft power tool and a component of a holistic system of strategic communication that ensures resistance to disinformation",[]],["cultural diplomacy programmes aimed at upholding trust, mutual understanding, and democratic frameworks in the region.",[]],["culture appears as a means of soft influence, namely an element of image policy that creates a favourable background for dialogue.",[]],["Currently, cultural diplomacy forms a protective information environment and reduces the effectiveness of enemy manipulations.",[]],["Therefore, cultural interventions are able to influence the deeper levels of public perception and neutralise disinformation narratives by replacing them with stronger positive meanings.",[]],["cultural diplomacy as a strategic tool in countering disinformation",[]],["Cultural diplomacy can function as a fullfledged component of the information security system",[]],["Cultural diplomacy can function as a fullfledged component of the information security system.",[]],["It could respond to disinformation and create a positive information environment that reduced the vulnerability of society.",[]],["Its effectiveness was based on the ability to combine emotions, knowledge, tradition, innovation, historical memory, and digital communication formats.",[]],["cultural diplomacy, an area that has traditionally been associated with soft power and the formation of a positive image of the state, but later began to perform the functions of information security, narrative counteraction and strengthening social resilience (Vetrynskyi, 2017).",["Vetrynskyi, 2017"]],["culture in modern conflicts ceases to perform an exclusively representative function and instead acquires the characteristics of a security tool capable of influencing cognitive processes, framing events, and the dynamics of international support.",[]]],"rt":[["information security",[]],["soft power",[]],["strategic communications system",[]],["framing",[]],["narrative theory",[]],["disinformation analysis",[]],["strategic communication",[]]],"sb":[["partnership cross-border model, in which the partner state acted as a counter-communicator in countering disinformation directed against Ukraine",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["narrative",[]]]},{"rt":[["discursive and narrative processes",[]],["frame formation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["mechanisms of narrative resilience, the interaction of cultural and information codes, collective memory, and the symbolic environment in shaping the public's ability to resist manipulation",[]]],"rt":[["soft power",[]]]},{"de":[["interpreted culture as a tool for building trust and international reputation of states.",[]],["the attractiveness of culture could be a source of international influence no less than economic or military factors.",[]]],"rt":[["cultural diplomacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["cultural diplomacy",[]]]},{"de":[["It is considered to be one of the most dangerous weapons capable of bringing harm to both society and people",["3"]],["Its prevalence increases during crises as crises represent a perfect time for spreading fake news and rumors, especially when knowledge of a problem is limited and ambiguous.",[]],["The propagation of fake news had a negative influence on public health throughout this crisis, increasing tension, rage, anxiety, panic, and depression",["2"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["rumors",[]]],"sb":[["false health information",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Perspective-taking",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The score ranges from 1 (least stereotypical) to 5 (most stereotypical).",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["perspective-taking",[]]]},{"rt":[["Imagine-other process",[]]]},{"de":[["Perspective-taking has shown positive influence in improving intergroup relationships (Todd and Galinsky, 2014), decreasing sterotype expressing (Galinsky and Moskowitz, 2000), reducing prejudge (Vescio et al., 2003), and combating racial bias (Todd et al., 2011).",["Todd and Galinsky, 2014","Galinsky and Moskowitz, 2000","Vescio et al., 2003","Todd et al., 2011"]],["it demands a significantly higher computational overhead, chiefly because it necessitates enabling the LLM to engage in perspectivetaking.",[]],["once the LLM constructs a relevant context with a group of audiences (whether it be a media platform or an online forum, given that there are diverse audiences), it can effectively engage in perspective-taking even with the most concise prompts facilitating this process",[]]],"sb":[["the \"imagine other\" technique (dubbed PET-IO)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["inspires LLMs to integrate diverse human perspectives and self-regulate their responses.",[]]],"sb":[["PET-IO (PErspective-Taking: Imagine Others)",[]],["PET-IS (PErspective-Taking: Imagine Self)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Toxic sentences can cause emotional harm, perpetuate harmful stereotypes, and contribute to a negative or hostile environment.",[]],["The score ranges from 1 (least toxic) to 5 (most toxic).",[]]]},{"de":[["The facilitative role draws on an understanding that the journalist is responsible to society and 'perhaps contributes to the public's decision making in a crisis'.",[]]],"sb":[["storyteller role",[]]],"ex":[["when journalists operate in a storyteller role when mitigating coverage of 'dangerous actors'.",[]],["when journalists operate in a storyteller role when mitigating coverage of 'dangerous actors'",[]]]},{"de":[["contributed to a serious vaccine hesitancy problem in many countries, particularly where education is limited",["Estella, 2020"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Countries that are net contributors to the EU (that is, they pay more to the EU budget than they receive) have a higher degree of conflict framing in their news coverage.",[]],["news that is framed in terms of conflict",[]],["actual content characteristics",[]]],"rt":[["mere news exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["One reason for this is that conflict between political actors has high news value and attracts attention.",["5"]],["The news media tend to focus on stories in which there is conflict -where two sides can be pitted against one another.",["6"]],["The presence of conflict in a story not only signals relevance to audiences but often also serves to meet journalistic standards of critical and balanced reporting.",["7"]]]},{"de":[["conflictdriven news is not only a natural and almost inherent feature of election campaigns. It can also be a mobilizing feature.",[]]],"sy":[["conflict framing",[]],["conflict news",[]]],"rt":[["conflict news, including potential controversies",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["burglar alarm metaphor",["54"]]]},{"de":[["We pursue our interest in the conditional nature of the mobilizing effect of conflict news framing by focusing on the evaluations of the EU.",[]],["Thus in the present study we expect conflict framing to have more of a mobilizing effect on voters in countries in which baseline levels of polity evaluations in media coverage are more favourable compared to countries with more negative evaluations.",[]],["an alternative indicator for polity evaluations in a country, which is not itself derived from media content, we also consider to what extent a country has a net benefit as a result of its EU membership",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Weakening a call to action involves changing what is expected of the reader of the verdict",[]],["Neutralising a call to action takes the focus off the reader entirely.",[]]],"ex":[["let's focus on promoting peaceful and respectful discourse.",[]],["advocate for stricter testing protocols",[]],["hope that stricter testing protocols are implemented",[]],["we must continue to keep an eye out for potential side effects of the vaccines",[]],["the experts must continue to keep an eye out for potential side effects of the vaccines",[]],["we must continue to advocate for those struggling to make ends meet",[]],["compassion and understanding for those struggling to make ends meet is crucial",[]]]},{"ex":[["it's important to continue advocating for fair treatment and stability in employment.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a classification task",[]]]},{"de":[["Producing a verdict, i.e. a factual explanation for a claim's veracity and doing so in a constructive and engaging manner is a very demanding task.",[]]],"sy":[["explanation",[]]],"rt":[["overkill backfire effect",["Lombrozo, 2007","Sanna and Schwarz, 2006"]]]},{"de":[["a generation task",[]]]},{},{"de":[["el poco impacto de los procesos de democratización sobre la estructura de propiedad, y los vínculos entre medios tradicionales y elites como factor explicativo de la consolidación de grandes corporaciones mediáticas",["Márquez y Guerrero (2014)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["hyperlocal journalism",["cf. Nip, 2006"]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["citizen journalism",[]]],"rt":[["hyperlocal media",[]]]},{"de":[["they are mostly web-based, have been started as alternatives to legacy media often with an emphasis on citizen participation and seek to drive civic engagement in some form",["cf. Nip, 2006"]],["they are web-based alternatives to legacy media and include citizen participation",[]]],"sy":[["citizen journalism",["cf. Nip, 2006"]]],"rt":[["citizen journalism",[]],["civic/public journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["local newspapers",[]],["local media ecosystem",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Using this model makes it easier to grasp the intricate flow of information between different media outlets, which can be both the traditional legacy media and other media sources, such as hyperlocal sites, blogs, citizen journalist websites and so forth.",[]]],"rt":[["news diffusion",[]]]},{"rt":[["syndicated",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["non-syndicated news items",[]]]},{"sy":[["junk news",[]],["pseudo-news",[]],["hoax news",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["digital literacy",[]]],"ex":[["news consumption",[]],["political information-seeking",[]],["civic awareness",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["information manipulation",[]]]},{"de":[["emerges as a crucial tool for safeguarding society against the adverse effects of manipulation, as evidenced by comparative studies of European and Kazakhstani media systems (Sultanbayeva et al., 2025)",["Sultanbayeva et al., 2025"]]],"rt":[["digital literacy",[]],["critical thinking",[]]]},{"rt":[["text",[]],["culture",[]],["receiver",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["local news sources, unlike national sources, carry an obligation to represent the interests of local communities",["Kim et al. (2011)"]],["Media frames highlight or focus a receiver's attention on some aspects of a story or issue in favor of others, helping people make sense of an issue and understand implications and policy solutions",["Nisbet, Brossard, and Kroepsch 2003;Scheufele 1999","Nisbet, Brossard, and Kroepsch 2003","Scheufele 1999"]],["they are the narrative elements of the topic that are highlighted and the lens through which the media and public examine the topic",[]],["Who the public is shapes the frames that are ultimately selected",[]],["Recall that framing is a media process where issues are selected and \"made sense of\" for the reader.",[]]],"rt":[["local and national news framing",[]],["media framing",[]],["frame building",[]]],"sb":[["communicator",["1993"]],["text",["1993"]],["culture",["1993"]],["receiver",["1993"]]],"ex":[["National news sources framed immigration as a health threat to the nation during covid-19 significantly more often than local news sources, while over half of the local news sources framed covid-19 as a health threat to immigrant communities.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["covid-19 as a threat to immigrant communities within the nation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["específicamente cuando quien ingresa es transformado en un sujeto \"incontrolable\" y, en cuanto tal, debe ser expulsado o no admitido.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["No son por tanto límites fijos ni naturales, puesto que se ajustan, remueven o refuerzan de acuerdo con los vaivenes de la historia.",[]],["Sus significados y narrativas también varían de acuerdo con quien los enuncie, los ponga en práctica y los viva.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["enfoque de control migratorio",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["As the use of clickbait often occurs in relation to advertisements and incomplete or even false information, clickbait often collides with the principles of Independence and Truth",["40"]],["which can misinform readers if they do not read the full story",["10"]],["Clickbait can also take place in nontext cues with pictures that attract attention before headlines or other text is read",["40","51"]],["Clickbait makes use of peripheral cues that do not require much cognitive capacity but trigger arousal",["12"]],["clickbait in its prevalent meaning is sludge",[]],["the use of clickbait could be perceived as a form of spam with unwanted side effects",[]]],"sy":[["sludge",[]]],"rt":[["clickbait strategies",[]]],"ex":[["The 10 reasons why everyone should drink coffee",["22"]],["A woman had stomach pains. Doctors discovered it was something she swallowed-a decade ago",["23"]],["investigated features might have caused a click and then disappointment with the content",["27","57"]]]},{"de":[["basis for further advances in the field of digital nudging",[]],["the usage of clickbait to convince users towards the fulfillment of their social responsibility (e.g., by reading certain hard news) can be seen as a digital nudge.",[]]],"rt":[["Digital nudges",[]],["nudging",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Soft news",[]]],"ex":[["politics and economics",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["digital nudge",[]]],"ex":[["the usage of clickbait to convince users towards the fulfillment of their social responsibility (e.g., by reading certain hard news) can be seen as a digital nudge.",[]]]},{"rt":[["hard news",[]]],"ex":[["lifestyle and entertainment",[]]]},{"de":[["quality outlets have adopted characteristics of the tabloid press, which is referred to as tabloidization in the media theoretical context",["20"]]]},{},{"de":[["the idea is to post a message that is provocative, offensive, or menacing with an intent to mislead the audience.",[]]],"rt":[["harmful content",[]]],"sb":[["textual",[]],["visual",[]],["a combination of both",[]],["a meme",[]]],"sp":[["harmful content",[]]]},{"sy":[["sentiment analysis",[]]],"rt":[["natural language processing (NLP)",[]]],"sp":[["data mining",[]],["branch of data mining",[]]]},{"sy":[["Opinion mining",[]]]},{"de":[["Social structures and social relations can be modeled into social networks",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Psychological scholars, however, confirmed the existence of the tendency that individuals are more willing to provide greater aid when an identifiable person is observed under hardship than to a large, vaguely defined group with the same need.",[]]]},{"sb":[["individual level-and group level-storytelling",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["has a range of adverse impacts including preventing them from pursuing life-long goals (Puhl & Heuer, 2010) and increasing health risks of functional disability (Schafer & Ferraro, 2011)",["Puhl & Heuer, 2010","Schafer & Ferraro, 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["The rise of GenAI intensifies what we call the bypass effect",[]]]},{"rt":[["Selective exposure",["62"]]]},{"rt":[["technical service providers",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["the algorithmic systems that quietly extract behavioral data and predict user actions for profit",[]]],"rt":[["informational capitalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["nudges",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These solutions range widely in terms of technical methods used, including various types of machine learning models using the content in news articles and claims [1], [4], [14], deep neural network models utilizing social features of shared news [15], source-level ranking models [3], and knowledge-graph models for fact-checking [2].",["1","4","14","15","3","2"]]]},{"de":[["When assessing trust, an individual may rely solely on their own evaluation of the information, especially if the source is not trusted, in which case confirmation of the reader's own beliefs as well as other heuristics may play a large role [27].",["27"]],["Trust for sources is a complex concept as well, evaluated on multiple axes, such as the alignment of the source's values with the reader or their perceived competence.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["nudges are small changes in the choice architecture that work with cognitive biases in decision making.",[]]],"rt":[["choice architecture",[]]],"ex":[["Putting fruit at eye level counts as a nudge. Banning junk food does not.",["13"]],["Putting fruit at eye level counts as a nudge.",[]],["Banning junk food does not.",[]]]},{"de":[["To count as a mere nudge, the intervention must be easy and cheap to avoid.",[]],["Nudges are not mandates.",[]],["nudges are small changes in the choice architecture that work with cognitive biases in decision making",[]]],"ex":[["Putting fruit at eye level",[]],["the ordering of items in a list",["33"]],["keeping the status quo",["13"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the 'driver struck pedestrian with vehicle' active voice construction is agentive",[]],["using non-agentive descriptions of events were associated with observers attributing both less blame and lower assignment of financial liability than agentive descriptions of events.",[]],["using non-agentive descriptions of events were associated with observers attributing both less blame and lower assignment of financial liability than agentive descriptions of events",["Fausey & Boroditsky (2010)"]]],"rt":[["non-agentive descriptions",[]]],"ex":[["the 'driver struck pedestrian with vehicle' active voice construction",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["thematic framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["using non-agentive descriptions of events were associated with observers attributing both less blame and lower assignment of financial liability than agentive descriptions of events",["Fausey & Boroditsky (2010)"]],["The 'vehicle struck pedestrian' passive voice construction is non-agentive",[]],["using non-agentive descriptions of events were associated with observers attributing both less blame and lower assignment of financial liability",[]]],"rt":[["agentive descriptions",[]]],"ex":[["The 'vehicle struck pedestrian' passive voice construction",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Thematic framing and description that is agentive and does not blame the deceased is an example of the prospective, consequentialist perspective",[]]]},{"ex":[["description that is non-agentive and blames the deceased is an example of the retrospective, retributivist perspective",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["episodic framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing pedestrian traffic fatalities episodically rather than thematically, non-agential descriptions of traffic crashes and transferring responsibility to pedestrians for their own deaths are indicators of windshield bias.",[]],["Attributing responsibility to a vehicle rather than to the driver is one of the several indicators of this distortion in news coverage that they identify impressionistically.",[]],["windshield bias operates by reporting traffic crashes involving the driver's vehicles and pedestrians by privileging vehicle over pedestrian transportation and diminishing driver responsibility and increasing pedestrian responsibility for traffic crashes.",[]],["too much of the reporting takes the perspective of drivers and not pedestrians",[]],["less description that names and humanizes the deceased, less detailed description of the time and place of crashes, episodic framing, and non-agentive description",[]],["Drivers may respond to the questions of police and reporters but the deceased cannot. In-depth investigations of pedestrian traffic fatalities by police or reporters are rare. They are 'routine and unsexy' as only marginally newsworthy.",[]],["journalism which presents pedestrian traffic fatalities from the perspective of drivers rather than that of pedestrians (Schmitt, 2020).",["Schmitt, 2020"]],["the typical news article both makes the deceased a person rather than statistic and offers details about the time and place of their death, yet it also treats their death as an event isolated from similar events and implicitly assigns responsibility to the vehicle rather than its driver.",[]]],"rt":[["agenda setting",[]],["framing",[]],["naming the deceased pedestrian",[]],["describing the deceased pedestrian",[]],["blaming the deceased pedestrian",[]],["reporting the pedestrian death as the result of a vehicle rather than a driver striking the pedestrian",[]],["failing to describe the context of pedestrian death",[]],["episodic rather than thematic reporting",[]],["episodic framing",[]],["non-agentive",[]],["retrospective, retributivist perspective",[]]],"ex":[["the attribution of responsibility in the article is a classic example of windshield bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["AI is notorious for producing texts not consistent with reality and with confused facts",[]],["hallucinations, which are intrinsic to how LLMs work and models will probably never be free from them.",[]],["Hallucinations can be interpreted as just factual errors or alternative models of the world.",[]]],"sy":[["delusion",[]]],"rt":[["delusion",[]]],"ex":[["when a given 'universe' has to be created as in fantasy novels",[]]]},{"de":[["by reducing the costs of propaganda campaigns by scaling them",[]]]},{"de":[["art 17 has been referred to as the 'abuse clause'",[]]]},{"sy":[["abuse clause",["82"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["member states need to have a calibrated system to handle different kinds of hate speech, in alignment with the ECHR. Such systems should allow for calibrations regarding hate speech that is illegal under criminal law, hate speech that could be actionable under administrative or civil law, and harmful expressions that would not be considered hate speech under the ECHR.",["39"]],["what is considered hate speech (where restrictions are legitimate) but still analyzed under art 10",[]],["Here the scope is broader than the Code of Conduct, and includes speech that 'incite, promote, spread or justify violence, hatred or discrimination' toward someone because of their age, disability, sex, gender identity and sexual orientation as well.",["38"]],["the Code of Conduct provides a definition that indicates certain racist expressions and xenophobia.",[]]],"rt":[["incitement to violence",[]],["racism and homophobia",[]]],"sb":[["gravest forms of hate speech",["80"]]]},{"de":[["These actors are obligated to remove, or otherwise restrict access to, illegal content uploaded on the platform, when aware of such content.",[]]],"ex":[["depictions of child sexual abuse, stalking, unlawful non-consensual sharing of private images, as well as terrorist content and hate speech",["18"]]]},{"de":[["responses to notifications from users of illegal content should be strictly targeted, in the sense that it should serve to remove or disable access to the specific items of information considered to constitute illegal content, without unduly affecting the freedom of expression and of information of recipients of the service.",[]]]},{"de":[["the Court starts to develop a case law for sexual orientation as hate speech, stating that:",["74","75"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",["74"]]]},{"sb":[["digital media, such as social media and video games",["Greitemeyer & Mügge, 2014"]]]},{"sb":[["care",[]],["fairness",[]],["loyalty",[]],["authority",[]],["sanctity",[]]]},{"de":[["We draw upon moral foundations theory (Graham et al., 2013) to provide a nuanced understanding of the multidimensional nature of moral character.",["Graham et al., 2013"]],["Research has shown that media content can differentially activate these foundations, leading to shifts in moral attitudes and behaviors",["Graham et al., 2013"]]],"rt":[["moral character",[]]],"ex":[["exposure to media that emphasizes the care foundation, such as stories of compassion and nurturing, has been found to increase prosocial behavior and empathy",["Greitemeyer, 2011"]]]},{"de":[["Social cognitive theory has been used to explain how exposure to prosocial media content, such as altruistic behavior or moral reasoning, can promote the development of positive moral values",["Gentile et al., 2009"]]]},{"de":[["an innovative tool aimed at improving democratic well-being",[]],["a professional reform movement that has reached the heart of US elite media",["Graves, 2013"]],["a new democratic institution or tool",["Amazeen, 2020"]],["a counter-offensive to false and misleading information",[]],["a practice linked to traditional journalism, as a counter-offensive to false and misleading information",[]],["verifying everything in a more common way, in a more systematic way and, I want to believe, in a more truthful way.",[]],["some authors refer to fact-checking as a professional reform movement that has reached the heart of US elite media (Graves, 2013)",["Graves, 2013"]],["a form of \"niche journalism\"",[]]],"sb":[["verifying political claims",["Graves, 2016","2017","Nieminen","Rapeli, 2019"]],["debunking hoaxes",["Nicey, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["innovative media accountability instruments",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["less developed commercial news media markets, a higher level of interpenetration between news media and various kinds of political interests, a less developed journalistic profession, and high levels of state intervention in the media sector",["Nielsen, 2016","Nielsen, 2016, p. 6"]],["It is also characterized by \"less developed commercial news media markets, a higher level of interpenetration between news media and various kinds of political interests, a less developed journalistic profession, and high levels of state intervention in the media sector\" (Nielsen, 2016, p. 6).",["Nielsen, 2016, p. 6"]]]},{"de":[["As well as being a matter of ethics, ensuring the right of reply can be beneficial to the accuracy and comprehensiveness of verifications",[]]],"ex":[["nuances have been added to certain fact-checks from talking to the politician",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["is not something subsidiary or superficial to the \"content\", or populist \"ideology\", but rather the constitutive feature that makes any ideological worldview possible",["Laclau 2007:12-13"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["material-contextual component",[]]],"ex":[["'Defending the country/nation from an invasion is something good, while abandoning the invaded country is something bad'",[]]]},{"sb":[["extreme",[]],["radical rightwing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["realized in terms of a maxim such as: 'If X similar to Y is doing Z, then Y should do Z too'",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["CDS",[]],["Critical Discourse Studies (CDS)",[]]],"sp":[["CDS",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the abundant literature usually agrees that",[]],["populism relies on a clear distinction between in-groups (\"the people\") and out-groups (\"the elite\"), and that it can be articulated from the left, right, and center of the ideological scale (Rovira Kaltwasser et al. 2017).",["Rovira Kaltwasser et al. 2017"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Addressing synthetic media and AI-driven persuasive content that may distort scientific information or simulate authenticity.",[]],["Developing AI literacy especially in evaluating AI-generated content, affordances, and risks of AI-generated content extends broader media literacy efforts aimed at detecting mis-and disinformation",["OECD, 2025"]],["research must expand its focus to include AI literacy as a component of climate change education",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]],"ex":[["deepfakes",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["FLICC taxonomy",[]],["techniques of science denial",["Diethelm & McKee, 2009"]]]},{"de":[["researchers conceptualize climate change misinformation less as a deficit of scientific knowledge and more as a challenge of credibility evaluation",[]]]},{"de":[["This cognitive bias reinforces confirmation bias",["Damico & Baildon, 2022"]],["Pre-existing beliefs and identities can shape the reception of information in ways consistent with identity-protective cognition, leading individuals to preferentially accept information that aligns with their social or ideological group and to discount contradictory evidence",["Damico & Baildon, 2022"]]],"rt":[["identity-protective cognition",[]]],"sp":[["identity-protective cognition",[]]]},{"sp":[["FLICC taxonomy",[]],["techniques of science denial",["Diethelm & McKee, 2009"]]]},{},{"sb":[["topic rebuttals",[]],["technique rebuttals",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Claims that climate change or a global warming does not exist, when knowingly disseminated to mislead.",[]]]},{"sp":[["FLICC taxonomy",[]],["techniques of science denial",["Diethelm & McKee, 2009"]]]},{"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["repeated exposure to misinformation can trigger the illusory truth effect",["Pennycook et al., 2020"]]]},{"sp":[["FLICC taxonomy",[]],["techniques of science denial",["Diethelm & McKee, 2009"]]]},{},{"de":[["perceived as highly relevant for future professional practice, particularly as it was perceived to be aligned with education for sustainable development",["Bernsteiner et al., 2023;Schubatzky & Haagen-Schützhöfer, 2022"]]],"sb":[["prebunking or inoculation interventions",[]],["reactive strategies",[]],["Preventive strategies",[]]]},{"rt":[["debunking",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["FLICC taxonomy",[]],["techniques of science denial",["Diethelm & McKee, 2009"]]]},{"de":[["Media informational reasoning varies individually, is guided largely by motivated interests and political identity, relies on strategies such as bias detection and consensus checking, and is minimally influenced by cultural, ethnic, or gender identities.",[]]]},{"de":[["Conventional media literacy instruction already underscores the importance of attending to the credibility of sources, emphasizing how distinguishing trustworthy information from biased, misleading, or fabricated sources",["Osborne & Pimentel, 2023"]],["media literacy (Brodsky et al., 2021;Potter, 2010), as well as inoculation and debunking approaches (Cook, 2016), dominate as intervention-oriented frameworks.",[]],["focusing on learners' abilities to evaluate sources, detect misleading framing of climate change, and critically engage with content such as social media posts, online news, or platform-specific formats",[]],["N = 9 studies explicitly operationalize media literacy constructs, focusing on learners' abilities to evaluate sources, detect misleading framing of climate change, and critically engage with content such as social media posts, online news, or platform-specific formats (e.g., Abed & Barzilai, 2023;Kresin et al., 2024;Kresin et al., 2025).",["Abed & Barzilai, 2023","Kresin et al., 2024","Kresin et al., 2025"]]],"rt":[["AI literacy",[]]],"ex":[["cautioning about pseudoscientific claims encountered in advertising, entertainment, and promotional media, practices that are directly transferable to the detection of climate change misinformation, e.g., through lateral reading",["Allchin, 2023","Brodsky et al., 2021"]],["evaluating who is behind the information, their expertise,and credibility, e.g., civic online reasoning",["McGrew, 2020"]],["lateral reading",[]]]},{"de":[["In the following, the term misinformation is used as an umbrella term to encompass all forms of climate change denial, regardless of intent.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information",[]]],"ex":[["Claims that climate change or a global warming does not exist.",[]]]},{"sy":[["inoculation interventions",[]]]},{"sp":[["Preventive strategies",[]]]},{"rt":[["topic rebuttal",[]]],"sp":[["debunking",[]]]},{"rt":[["topic rebuttals",[]]]},{"rt":[["technique rebuttal",[]]],"sp":[["debunking",[]]]},{"rt":[["technique rebuttals",[]]]},{"de":[["LLMs frequently inherit biases present in their training data",[]],["these models tend to reflect and even exacerbate social biases related to race, gender, and other demographic factors",[]],["In the context of narrative generation, gender bias is particularly concerning, as it can influence how characters are portrayed and the agency attributed to them",[]],["language models not only inherit but often amplify gender biases present in their training data",[]],["Prior studies have shown that models tend to depict male characters as more intellectual and female characters in terms of appearance, reinforcing harmful stereo-types",[]],["tend to perpetuate and potentially amplify existing biases learned from their training data.",[]],["perpetuate and, in some cases, amplify existing gender imbalances and stereotypes present in their training data.",[]]],"rt":[["word embeddings",[]],["coreference resolution tasks",[]],["narrative generation",[]]],"sp":[["social biases",[]]],"ex":[["associations linking male terms with cognitive processing, professional success, and risk-taking are more pronounced in the generated texts, while connections between female terms and emotional expression, domesticity, and caregiving remain strong.",[]]]},{"de":[["This is calculated as the proportion of gender mismatches between the original and generated texts, providing information on potential inconsistencies or biases in gender attribution.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["LIWC offers a structured psycholinguistic lexicon, we acknowledge that dictionarybased approaches inherently operate with a degree of contextinsensitivity.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["while it increases gender-neutral descriptions, it also introduces greater uncertainty in gender inference.",[]],["Prompt engineering has emerged as a lightweight and highly effective alternative for steering model outputs toward fairer results without the need for retraining.",[]],["allows for real-time intervention without requiring retraining or extensive computational resources",[]]]},{"de":[["The WEAT metric itself, while a standard method for quantifying biases in word embeddings, also has known limitations [Ethayarajh et al., 2019], such as potentially conflating different types of associations into a single measure and sensitivity to the choice of word sets.",["Ethayarajh et al., 2019"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Politicians or certain political groups often use language that can trigger fear or hatred of people or groups",["Brison, 2013","R. K. Rahardi, 2020b"]]],"sp":[["Hate speech",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate speech",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Face harassment has a heavier level of impoliteness than simply threatening face. The impact of a threat to face is limited to embarrassment and discomfort, which may result in one's reluctance to communicate and interact with the threat of one's self-esteem symbol. So, the impact of a threat to face is lesser when compared to the impact of face harassment. Face harassment can have a legal impact because it relates to a person's dignity and self-esteem.",[]],["Face harassment has a heavier level of impoliteness than simply threatening face.",[]],["Face harassment can have a legal impact because it relates to a person's dignity and self-esteem.",[]]]},{"de":[["Therefore, the perspective of form and meaning becomes significant and is seen as fundamental in the formalism paradigm.",[]]]},{"de":[["Language can have heuristic functions, poetic functions, textual and personal functions, and many other functional perspectives born due to the linguistic paradigm shift towards this functionalism paradigm",[]]]},{"de":[["In our society, hate speech is usually attached to insult others.",[]],["Besides insulting individuals, hate speech can also be directed at the government or authorities.",[]]],"sb":[["Insults and Harassment",[]],["Propaganda",[]],["Threats of violence",[]],["Discriminatory treatment",[]],["Ostracization",[]],["Conspiracy",[]],["Abusive socio-political rhetoric",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["In the perspective of language functions, of course, this form of language does not support the essential function of language.",[]],["Language, which should have an essential function as a barrier to cooperation and a guardian of harmonious relations between people, is damaged by the outbreak of hate speech, as shown in the data.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["the visual dimension",[]],["the aural dimension",[]],["the gestural dimension",[]],["the spatial dimension",[]],["the linguistic dimension",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Therefore, it is said that the meaning of intent in pragmatics is context-bound, not context-free",[]]],"rt":[["culture-specific pragmatics",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["This study identifies slurs as primary linguistic devices within hate speech that incite tension and diminish respect among people",["Rahardi, 2019"]],["Slurs are often rooted in deepseated biases or frustrations and are employed as expressions of personal or political animosity, reflecting the speaker's intent to harm and marginalize",["Haugh & Bousfield, 2012"]],["the pragmatic function of slurs in socio-political discourse reveals their role in exacerbating conflict and diminishing the quality of interaction in the public sphere.",[]],["provoke immediate reactions and can disrupt rational discussion",[]],["the pragmatic meaning of slurs in socio-political contexts often carries an underlying tone of resentment or dissatisfaction with prevailing political figures or ideologies",[]],["contribute to an atmosphere where language functions as a weapon rather than a medium of dialogue",[]],["contribute to a culture of impoliteness in public discourse",[]],["encourage a breakdown in societal cohesion, potentially leading to escalated conflict and social division",["Marchiori & Latora, 2000"]],["become normalized in public discourse, shifting societal expectations of acceptable language and creating a hostile communicative environment",[]]],"rt":[["socio-political hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["manifestations of forms and pragmatic meanings of socio-political hate speech in public spaces as a form of language preservation",[]],["The manifestation of socio-political hate speech includes slurs, harassment, propaganda, satire, cynicism, sarcasm, and satire.",[]]],"sb":[["slurs, harassment, propaganda, satire, cynicism, sarcasm, and satire",[]],["slurs",[]],["harassment",[]],["propaganda",[]],["satire",[]],["cynicism",[]],["sarcasm",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["generic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["frames tend to make causal claims. By defining problems and identifying remedies for their solution, they present claims about reality and the relations between policy problems and solutions",["Entman 1993: 52"]],["Frames can be seen as strategic weapons as they may help generate favourable opinions about the preferred policy alternative of an advocate.",["Bruycker 2017: 6","Jerit 2008"]],["Policy actors frame by selecting and highlighting some features of a reality and thus simultaneously call attention to particular aspects of an issue and direct attention away from other aspects",["Boräng et al. 2014: 190;Entman 1993: 54","Boräng et al. 2014: 190","Entman 1993: 54"]]]},{"de":[["Frames can be seen as strategic weapons as they may help generate favourable opinions about the preferred policy alternative of an advocate.",[]]],"sb":[["issue-specific",[]],["generic frames",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["logic of pluralism",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["logic of corporatism",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["generic frames",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["generic frames",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["cause groups constantly suffer from collective action problems to gain new members and ensure the flow of resources, their frame choice will reflect the public goods for which cause groups are fighting",["Klüver et al. 2015: 485"]],["As cause groups constantly suffer from collective action problems to gain new members and ensure the flow of resources, their frame choice will reflect the public goods for which cause groups are fighting",["Klüver et al. 2015: 485"]]],"sy":[["cause groups",["Klüver et al. 2015: 485"]],["cause -or public interest -groups",["Klüver et al. 2015: 485"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["public interest -groups",["Klüver et al. 2015: 485"]]],"sb":[["identity groups",[]],["leisure groups",[]]],"ex":[["chemical corporations or workers in a specific sector",[]]]},{"de":[["Clickbait shows characteristic stylistic and lexical features: 'forward-referencing', heavy use of demonstrative pronouns, adverbs, interrogatives, and imperatives (Blom and Hansen, 2015), as well as extensive use of personal pronouns (e.g. 'you'), numbers, and celebrity references (Chen et al., 2015).",["Blom and Hansen, 2015","Chen et al., 2015"]],["this differs from the concept of headline incongruence described here",[]],["expressly designed to withhold information to entice the reader to read on, or in most cases, to click.",[]]],"rt":[["sensationalism",[]]],"ex":[["You'll Never Believe Who Tripped and Fell on the Red Carpet.",["9"]],["Here's What Happens When You Put A Few Little Kids In A Room With 2 Dolls In 2 Different Colors.",["10"]],["Which Real Housewife Are You Based On Your Birth Month",["11"]]]},{"sb":[["fabricated or manipulated content",[]],["satire",[]]]},{"de":[["do not involve misinformation or fabricated content within the article, but rather properties of the headline and its relation to the content.",[]]],"rt":[["disagreement",[]],["clickbait",[]],["sensationalism",[]]]},{"de":[["incongruent with the details of the story",[]]],"sy":[["headline incongruence",[]]]},{"de":[["Sensationalist news is generally considered negatively in the journalism literature (see e.g. Wang and Cohen, 2009), as content which \"triggers emotion for the reader (Vettehen et al., 2008) and treats an issue in a predominantly tabloid-like way\" (Kilgo et al., 2016).",["Wang and Cohen, 2009","Vettehen et al., 2008","Kilgo et al., 2016"]],["content which \"triggers emotion for the reader (Vettehen et al., 2008) and treats an issue in a predominantly tabloid-like way\" (Kilgo et al., 2016).",["Vettehen et al., 2008","Kilgo et al., 2016"]]],"rt":[["clickbait",[]]],"ex":[["A sausage a day could lead to cancer: Pancreatic cancer warning over processed meat",["13"]],["Rise of the hugger mugger: Sociable thieves who cuddle while they rob",["14"]],["£100 to play truant! Schools accused of bribing worst pupils to stay away when Ofsted inspectors call",["15"]]]},{"de":[["Stance is certainly relevant to task of incongruence detection, but we argue that it is not sufficient for our task, as the headlinearticle relation may be incongruent in ways separate from (dis)agreement.",[]]],"rt":[["headline incongruence",[]]]},{"de":[["interactions within amplification stations such as news media and public commentary",[]],["These stations act as filters that shape the transmission and reception of risk signals, ultimately influencing public perception and societal responses",["Kasperson et al., 1988","Song et al., 2012"]]],"rt":[["social stations",[]]],"ex":[["media, experts, civil society, and personal networks",[]],["media, government, and public discourse",["Kasperson et al., 1988","Song et al., 2012"]],["news media",[]],["public commentary",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["GAI may exacerbate the digital divide, impacting individuals and communities with varying access to and acceptance levels of this technology.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Ultimately, the construction of self-injury in terms of risk denies self-injury -and its practitioners -meaningful engagement.",[]]]},{"de":[["the term self-harm is increasingly used to refer to \"a broad category of behaviors encompassing any deliberate damage caused to oneself regardless of intent\" (Staniland et al., 2021, p. 2) and is thus considered to be inclusive of suicide attempts.",["Staniland et al., 2021, p. 2"]],["self-harm, inclusive of suicide attempts",[]]],"ex":[["self-poisoning, strangulation, suffocation, self-cutting, and self-burning, with and without suicidal intent",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["any meaningful response to selfinjury, or the harm that precipitates it, must be grounded in a social justice perspective, otherwise we simply recreate the conditions of harm",["Inckle, 2020, p. 232"]],["The improvement of conditions for life (which shape and distribute distress) are therefore central to a social justice engagement with self-injury.",[]],["challenges constructions of self-injury as risk in favour of models of compassionate engagement and contextualizes self-injury within harmful social and political structures, systems, and institutions.",[]],["recognizes and seeks to improve social and political conditions of distress, while promoting harmreduction principles for the problem of self-injury.",[]]],"ex":[["equitable access to high-quality healthcare, food, education, housing, and childcare for all, regardless of citizenship status, income, or geographic location",[]],["improved conditions for workers and living wages for all",[]],["environmental and climate justice",[]],["an end to gender-based, racial, and colonial violence",[]]]},{"de":[["Viewing self-injury as a response to experiences of oppression, violence, trauma, and distress complicates accounts of self-injury as an individual pathology or as a fad brought on by social media.",[]],["Viewing self-injury as a response to experiences of oppression, violence, trauma, and distress complicates accounts of self-injury as an individual pathology or as a fad brought on by social media. Instead, such an approach situates self-injury within social and political contexts which inform distress and suffering, thus opening up space to identify and challenge harmful social and political structures.",[]]]},{"de":[["Viewing self-injury as a response to experiences of oppression, violence, trauma, and distress complicates accounts of self-injury as an individual pathology or as a fad brought on by social media.",[]],["Instead, such an approach situates self-injury within social and political contexts which inform distress and suffering, thus opening up space to identify and challenge harmful social and political structures.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["While agenda setting refers to the amount of issue coverage",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["those frames \"makes the world beyond direct experience look natural\"",["Gitlin 6"]],["framing focuses on the production of meanings influencing attitude and behaviour defining public opinion.",[]],["As a macro construct, framing addresses presentation of information by media professionals in a way that reduces the complexity of issues for their audience.",[]],["framing focuses on the production of meanings influencing attitude and behaviour defining public opinion",["176"]],["The basic premise laying behind the concept of framing is that selecting and highlighting bilig SPRING 2023/ISSUE 105 certain aspects of an issue while excluding others, framing can shape public's interpretation of reality including the issues in the political realm.",[]],["framing, taking the media coverage a step further, is based on the assumption that media influence public perception through providing interpretation frames to consider the issues from a particular point of view.",[]]],"rt":[["agenda setting",[]]],"sb":[["macro level",[]],["micro level",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The process of news production process starts with gatekeeping addressing a selective power",[]],["The process of news production process starts with gatekeeping addressing a selective power and continues with agenda setting in which gatekeepers decide how much salience to give news story.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["false information",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Conspiracy theory differs from the two other categories because its key characteristic is the narrative describing obscure plots of social manipulation (for example, the conspiracy that China created the virus to win World War III)-and it does not matter whether the narrative is based on distorted factual information or completely false content.",[]],["its key characteristic is the narrative describing obscure plots of social manipulation (for example, the conspiracy that China created the virus to win World War III)-and it does not matter whether the narrative is based on distorted factual information or completely false content.",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["the conspiracy that China created the virus to win World War III",[]]]},{"de":[["It is created intentionally to influence public opinion.",[]],["Accordingly, disinformation is dangerous because it might negatively affect the public sphere",["Tucker et al., 2018"]],["disinformation about Covid-19 on WhatsApp in Brazil followed a pattern of framing the pandemic as a conspiracy and its combat measures as strategies to undermine Bolsonaro's government.",[]]],"sb":[["distortion-content",[]],["fabricated information",[]],["conspiracy theory",[]],["distortion",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{"de":[["such as information out of context, false connections, information biased reconfigured in some way",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["such as fake audios and made up information",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["prodavanje magle",[]]]},{"rt":[["mamilice",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["clickbait",[]]]},{"de":[["naslovom zavaravaju i nevjerodostojno najavljuju sadržaj",[]],["ostvarila direktna materijalna korist koja se mjeri brojem klikova, sekundama kroz koje se čitatelj zadržava na članku i utjecajem koji se kasnije prodaje oglašivačima",[]],["senzacionalistička komponenta",[]],["senzacionalistički elementi",[]],["senzacionalistička prezentacija",[]],["alibi za nerad",[]],["kako bi potaknule na čitanje kvalitetnih tekstova",[]],["u njemu naglašava funkcija privlačenja nauštrb funkcije informiranja",[]],["mamilica iznevjerava načelo korespondencije njezina sadržaja sa sadržajem članka",[]],["oblikovanje mamilice kao iskaza između laži i istine, čime gubi obavijesnu funkciju",[]],["mamilice koja ukazuje na posve bezvrijedan sadržaj",[]]],"sy":[["clickbait",[]],["clikcbait",[]]],"rt":[["prodavanje magle",[]],["bullshit",[]]]},{},{"de":[["bullshit (prodavanje magle) zamućuje razliku između laži i istine",[]],["pojam prodavanja magle veoma složen jer uključuje i jezičnu praksu, i teoriju istinitosti, i razumijevanje psihologije autora i recipijenta",[]],["zamućuje razliku između laži i istine",[]],["uključuje i jezičnu praksu, i teoriju istinitosti, i razumijevanje psihologije autora i recipijenta",[]]],"sy":[["bullshit",[]],["kenjaža",[]],["bullshitting",[]]],"rt":[["bullshit",[]]]},{"sp":[["delayism",[]]]},{"rt":[["Climate misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["climate disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Lamb et al. (2020) have found four main delayist discourses often spread through misleading or deceptive strategies.",["Lamb et al. (2020)"]]],"sy":[["the new climate denial",["CAAD (2024)","CAAD, 2024"]]],"sb":[["redirecting responsibility",[]],["supporting non-transformative options",[]],["discrediting climate policies",[]],["blunt climate surrender",[]],["redirecting responsibility towards others",[]]],"ex":[["delayism appears in almost three-fourths of all deceiving or misleading accounts of climate change on YouTube",["CCDH, 2024"]]]},{"sp":[["delayism",[]]]},{"de":[["Social actors and organisations can foster disinformation by misinterpreting, decontextualising or drawing partial conclusions from data.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["blaming migrants and other socially minoritised majorities for threatening the conservation of the national territory and pointing to the Global South (rather than wealthy industrialised nations) as responsible for major environmental destruction",["Turner and Bailey, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["pointing to the Global South (rather than wealthy industrialised nations) as responsible for major environmental destruction",["Turner and Bailey, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["Inspired by Hitler's vegetarianism and the nazi 'blut und boden' slogan, these groups appeal to anti-globalisation, xenophobic and gastronativist discourses anchored around the terroir and organic farming",["Forchtner, 2018","Dumitrescu, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["people can unknowingly circulate disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The post-factual paradigm often appeals to ordinary people's experiences and common sense while dismissing scientific facticity (Bergmann, 2020;Hameleers, 2020;Prasad, 2019).",["Bergmann, 2020","Hameleers, 2020","Prasad, 2019"]]]},{"sp":[["delayism",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["implicit public agenda",[]]]},{"rt":[["vertical media",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["explicit public agenda",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["horizontal media",[]]]},{"sp":[["opinion-based queries",[]]]},{"sp":[["Discrepancies in facts",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Shared Facts",[]],["Contradictory Facts",[]],["Exclusive Facts",[]]],"sp":[["information conflicts",[]]]},{"sb":[["Neutral",[]],["Opinionated",[]]]},{"sp":[["Discrepancies in facts",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["inter-context",[]],["intra-memory",[]],["context-memory",[]],["discrepancies in facts where same event in different languages contains different or conflicting facts due to differences in cultural and historical narratives",[]],["conflicting perspectives and opinions where complex geopolitical issues, may have documents describe the same event with different perspectives and opinions in different languages",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["opinion-based queries",[]],["Diverse opinions and perspectives",[]]]},{"sp":[["Diverse opinions and perspectives",[]]]},{"sp":[["Discrepancies in facts",[]]]},{"sp":[["Story frames",[]]]},{"sy":[["sizing",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["CNN factor",["Hawkins 2002"]]]},{},{"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]]]},{"sp":[["Story frames",[]]]},{"de":[["as people with clear positive or negative beliefs interpreted the same events in line with their existing attitude position",["Poortinga & Pidgeon (2004)"]]]},{"ex":[["surveyed news media articles for the presence of both affective and cognitive elements through textual or content analysis",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["unknown risk",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The definition of a frame tends to vary from one study to another, depending on the research interest.",[]]],"rt":[["narrative structure",[]]],"sb":[["cognitive elements",[]],["affective elements",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Through frames, therefore, news media may highlight certain points of view and marginalize others",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["because there are diminishing returns to time spent processing information from media stories and there are increasing amounts of information",[]]]},{"de":[["news media can act as so-called amplification stations by focusing on potential risks. In turn, the amplified risk can lead to behavioral responses that cause secondary impacts and ripple effects.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["framing strategies",["Fairclough and Mădroane (2020)"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The media's framing of current affairs plays a major role in setting the political agenda, and also influences how problems are conceived and examined.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["contextual component",[]]]},{"rt":[["proces paz",[]],["acuerd paz",[]],["justici paz",[]],["negoci paz",[]]],"ex":[["jurisdiccion especial paz",[]],["firm acuerd paz",[]],["paz establ durader",[]],["proces paz farc",[]],["marc juridic paz",[]],["acuerd paz farc",[]],["implement acuerd paz",[]],["especial paz jep",[]],["paz gobiern farc",[]],["acuerd paz gobiern",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["graph representation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Factuality Veracity",[]]]},{"sp":[["Factuality Veracity",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["claim-level",[]],["article-level",[]],["user-level",[]],["medium-level",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Factuality Veracity",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["psychological inoculation",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["false conspiracy theories that the virus was bioengineered in a lab in Wuhan",["Andersen et al., 2020","Cohen, 2020","Andersen et al., 2020;Cohen, 2020"]],["that the 5G cellular network is causing or exacerbating symptoms of COVID-19",["BBC News, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["a preemptive refutation of counter-arguments (or prebunking)",["Compton, 2013"]]],"sy":[["preemptive refutation",[]],["preemptive refutation of counter-arguments",["Compton, 2013"]]]},{"sp":[["psychological inoculation",[]]]},{"sy":[["prebunking",[]]],"sb":[["prophylactic inoculation",[]],["therapeutic application",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["bromas",["Salaverría et al. (2020)"]],["exageraciones",["Salaverría et al. (2020)"]],["descontextualizaciones",["Salaverría et al. (2020)"]],["engaños",["Salaverría et al. (2020)"]]]},{"de":[["contrastar los bulos y desinformaciones generadas a partir de la pandemia",[]]],"sy":[["bulos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["hacer frente a la \"infodemia\"",[]]]},{},{}] |