Datasets:

mediabiasgroup
/

MBDef

[{},{"de":[["They tend to think it is unethical to communicate a gist they perceive as false, regardless of whether the details of the message are true (palter) or false (blatant falsehood)",[]],["The first type of misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["a person who believes vaccines are safe would perceive the statement \"The COVID-19 vaccine has killed a quarter of a million Americans\" as a blatant falsehood because (a) it has not actually killed that number of Americans (false verbatim) and (b) it implies that the COVID-19 vaccine is extremely dangerous (false gist)",[]]]},{"de":[["a central tenet of FTT is that separate cognitive processes operate in parallel on verbatim details and gist, although these processes can influence each other in some situations",["6**","7","8"]]],"rt":[["verbatim details",[]],["gist",[]]]},{"de":[["the broader gist",[]]],"rt":[["verbatim details",[]]]},{"de":[["The second type of misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["a person who believes vaccines are safe would perceive the statement \"At least 20,000 people have died after receiving the COVID-19 vaccine\" as a palter because (a) it describes an accurate statistic (true verbatim), but (b) they would dispute the implication that the COVID-19 vaccine has caused these deaths and is thus extremely dangerous (false gist)",[]]]},{"de":[["The third type of misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["a person who believes that vaccines are safe would perceive the statement, \"Not a single death has been linked to the COVID-19 vaccine\" as a truthy falsehood if (a) they knew that the AstraZeneca vaccine has been linked to death as a rare side effect [31] (false verbatim), but (b) they agreed with the statement's implied broader truth that COVID-19 vaccines are generally safe (true gist)",["31"]]]},{"rt":[["gist",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]],["parallel realities",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Authority",[]]]},{"de":[["Authority relationships are those in which the change in behaviour is ultimately due to the command to obey, regardless of the interests of either party.",[]],["The element of legitimacy is crucial to the notion of authority and is the primary means by which authority is distinguished from the more general notion of power.",[]]],"rt":[["power",[]]],"sb":[["Authoritative relationships",[]]]},{"de":[["The bandwagon effect is based on the general rule that beliefs spread and grow when people want to associate themselves with success. Opinions change according to the viewpoint adopted by the majority.",[]]],"rt":[["argumentum ad populum",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Their policies are aimed at maximising their profits through tax breaks and exemptions.",[]]]},{"de":[["The purpose of this distortion is to mislead and manipulate the decisions of future voters by discrediting politicians or degrading a democratic institution.",[]]],"sy":[["alternative facts",[]],["parallel realities",[]]]},{"de":[["This type of fallacy is used to damage an opponent's credibility.",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]],["alternative facts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["based on presenting the billionaire candidate as an ordinary citizen, an ordinary person who can understand and empathise with the concerns of the lower classes.",[]]]},{"de":[["whatever power relationship exists in an exchange relationship, it is constituted on interest, and the relationship is therefore considered to have been entered into voluntarily.",[]]],"rt":[["Authority",[]]]},{"rt":[["wealthy classes",[]]]},{"de":[["Timocracy arose as a degenerate form of aristocracy.",[]],["timocracy, as a term for current structural forms of government",[]],["The social structure of timocracies is based on a class society in which the ruling class has privileges and the lower classes have to obey strict rules.",[]],["Timocracy was originally reformist in character.",[]],["It was an innovative regime that put an end to aristocratic or monarchical power.",[]],["If timocracy is a form of political regime, substantive timocracy, it will be possible to establish universal guidelines that transcend a given historical period.",[]],["If, on the other hand, timocracy is a way of assessing a given political regime, one may or may not be in its presence, depending on the criteria used by the agent observing it at each historical moment.",[]],["This influence is exercised through donations and patronage.",[]],["the timocratic model is based on privileged elites who rule the government in an autocratic manner, as they question the effectiveness of the democratic system.",[]]],"sy":[["timocratia",[]]],"rt":[["aristocratia",[]],["tyrannis",[]],["oligocratia",[]],["democratia",[]],["regnum",[]],["timocratic processes",[]],["timocratic attitude",[]],["aristocracy",[]],["monarchical power",[]],["oligarchic",[]],["autocratic",[]]],"sp":[["politias",[]],["aristocracy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Les timocrates s'opposaient à la démocratie la considérant comme le « gouvernement des pauvres ».",[]]],"rt":[["démocratie",[]]],"sp":[["aristocratie",[]]]},{"de":[["Timokrati su bili protiv demokracije jer su je smatrali »vladom siromašnih«.",[]]],"rt":[["demokracija",[]]],"sp":[["aristokracije",[]]]},{"de":[["Die Timokraten waren gegen die Demokratie, weil sie sie als \"Regierung der Armen\" betrachteten.",[]]],"rt":[["Demokratie",[]]],"sp":[["Aristokratie",[]]]},{"rt":[["wealthy classes",[]]]},{"sb":[["Targeted Correction Direction",[]],["General Correction Direction",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The fake news must be news that does not match the facts. It is not merely a miscommunication of information that is inaccurate. Fraudulent news creators must deliberately create fake news to mislead for some benefit.",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]],["false information",[]],["distorted, false, fake, or misleading information",[]]],"rt":[["false information",[]],["online falsehoods",[]]]},{"sy":[["untrue",[]],["misleading",[]]]},{"de":[["Any opinion or statement, expressed in good faith by way of fair comment on any person or thing subjected to public criticism, shall not be deemed as false computer data.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a highly portable medium that stitched together snippets and reports from far-flung places and chronologies",[]],["could draw together different texts and cast them widely",[]]],"rt":[["serial publications",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["materially reshapes editorial choices by structuring attention, timing, and visibility",[]]]},{"de":[["human editors, metrics, interfaces, and business rules co-produce editorial outcomes rather than technology simply \"overriding\" journalists",[]],["ranking and personalization do not merely route attention; they establish de facto legitimacy criteria by rewarding relevance, timeliness, and engagement signals that may or may not align with public-interest quality.",[]],["Ranking/recommendation; engagement-driven visibility",[]],["Explains shifts in gatekeeping authority",[]],["Opaque logic limits auditability",[]]],"rt":[["Gatekeeping",[]],["ANT's distributed agency",[]],["gatekeeping, traditionally understood as the process by which editors and journalists filter information flows",[]],["legitimacy",[]],["autonomy",[]],["epistemic authority",[]]],"sp":[["Gatekeeping",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["platformization",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Algorithmic Gatekeeping",[]]],"sb":[["Algorithmic Gatekeeping",[]]]},{},{"de":[["captured both trust-eroding dynamics (e.g., opacity, personalization concerns) and mitigation mechanisms (e.g., transparency features, user controls).",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["overarching infrastructures that shape communication norms and practices",["Poell et al., 2020"]],["Platformization inherently integrates distinct economic, technological, and social logics into newsroom routines and practices.",[]],["compel news organizations to drive alignment with platform-specific visibility and engagement metrics",["Poell et al., 2020"]],["gatekeeping shifts from editors toward opaque technical systems.",[]],["offers a critical lens through which to examine how digital platforms have become central to journalistic production, distribution, and audience engagement",[]],["Explains structural influence",[]],["Platforms as infrastructures",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Multimodal detection methods",[]]],"sp":[["content patternbased",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["which originates with the media, owing to journalists' lack of fact-checking skills",["Lecheler;Kruikemeier, 2016"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["transparency mechanisms that allow them to respond directly or indirectly to society regarding the content they publish, as an exercise of responsibility.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Information barrier",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["emotional color of the text",[]]]},{"rt":[["emotional interdependence",[]]]},{"rt":[["emotional differentiation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Information barriers encompass three types: disinformation, propaganda, and misinformation",["2"]],["Information barriers encompass three types: disinformation, propaganda, and misinformation [2].",["2"]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["linguistic style and rhetorical devices",[]]]},{"sp":[["Information barrier",[]]]},{"sp":[["Information barrier",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["drawing on Goffman's [23] dramaturgical framework",["23"]]]},{"de":[["It occurs when members of a group each make a decision that is counter to everyone's preferences, because each member seeks to avoid conflict with the group under a shared misperception of collective agreement",["McAvoy and Butler, 2007","Rubin and Dierdorff, 2011"]]],"rt":[["Groupthink",[]],["pluralistic ignorance",[]],["spiral of silence",[]]]},{"de":[["can prevent disconfirmation of a belief when confronted with disconfirming evidence",["Gershman (2019)"]]]},{},{"de":[["Despite being concerned about the victim, individuals fail to assess the need for intervention because other bystanders are also waiting for everyone else to take actions (Latané and Nida, 1981).",["Latané and Nida, 1981"]],["This is considered as a byproduct of pluralistic ignorance",[]],["The familiar pattern of pluralistic ignorance is evident in this effect. Bystanders are concerned about the victim, but wait for others to intervene. They interpret others' inaction as a sign of the situation not calling for an intervention (Miller, 2023).",["Miller, 2023"]]],"rt":[["pluralistic ignorance",[]]],"ex":[["passive bystanders witnessing violent crimes, life threatening emergencies (Banyard, 2011;Schwartz and Gottlieb, 1976;McMahon, 2015), victimisation and bullying, both in real life and online (Bauman et al., 2020;Song and Oh, 2017;Machackova et al., 2015).",["Banyard, 2011","Schwartz and Gottlieb, 1976","McMahon, 2015","Bauman et al., 2020","Song and Oh, 2017","Machackova et al., 2015"]]]},{"de":[["When confronting cognitive dissonance, individuals seek to avoid the resulting discomfort",["Festinger, 1962"]],["They alter either their actions, their beliefs, or their interpretations",["Harmon-Jones and Mills, 2019"]],["The resulting inconsistency, and its psychological effects, underpin a number of dysfunctional biases and effects, such as confidence related biases, self-deception, and denial behaviour (all discussed later)",["Ramachandran, 1996","McGrath, 2017"]]],"rt":[["confidence related biases",[]],["self-deception",[]],["denial behaviour",[]],["confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They also tend to overvalue arguments that are consistent with their prior beliefs",["Nir, 2011"]],["They also tend to overvalue arguments that are consistent with their prior beliefs (Nir, 2011).",["Nir, 2011"]]],"rt":[["correlation neglect",[]]]},{"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]],["false consensus bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Deceptive behaviours",[]]]},{"sb":[["degradation, where actual beliefs are concealed in some manner",[]],["corruption, where the beliefs of others are mimicked",[]],["denial, where the information channel is blocked",[]],["subversion where interpretation is manipulated",[]]]},{"sb":[["degradation",["Kopp et al., 2018"]],["corruption",["Kopp et al., 2018"]],["denial",[]],["subversion",[]]]},{"sp":[["Deceptive behaviours",[]]]},{"de":[["denial can be confined to a single unpalatable truth",[]],["a form of self-deception",[]]],"rt":[["self-deception",[]]],"sp":[["self-deception",[]],["Deceptive behaviours",[]],["motivated cognition",[]]]},{"sp":[["motivated cognition",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They tend to overestimate support for their own views.",[]]],"rt":[["correlation neglect",[]],["Echo Chamber Effect",[]]]},{"de":[["The delusion that one's beliefs are unique and different from others is common to both false uniqueness (Section 2.5) and pluralistic ignorance.",[]]],"rt":[["pluralistic ignorance",[]]]},{"de":[["That is, they perceive themselves to be almost unique, when they are not",["Suls and Wan, 1987"]],["generally this bias refers to individuals' tendency to see themselves as superior to others on desirable attributes and behaviours (Goethals et al., 1991;Marks and Miller, 1987).",["Goethals et al., 1991;Marks and Miller, 1987"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Feedback loops have been shown to contribute to polarisation",["Rafail et al., 2024"]]],"rt":[["Microtargeting",[]],["filtering",[]]]},{"rt":[["filtering",[]],["echo chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["An exploiter will consistently deny facts and make blatantly false statements, thus undermining the victim's prior beliefs and interpretations and paving the way to promote their agenda.",[]],["In effect, the exploiter is deceptively creating uncertainty in the victim's understanding.",[]],["The Nazi and Soviet propaganda systems were large, internally coherent machines for gaslighting victim populations",["Krumin ¸š, 2018;Sinha, 2020"]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]],["post-truth",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sb":[["racial gaslighting",[]]],"ex":[["cover up extramarital affairs to their spouse",["Gass and Nichols, 1988"]],["identity-related abuse of transgender children by their parents",["Riggs and Bartholomaeus, 2018"]],["racial gaslighting to maintain white supremacy in the United Stated",["Davis and Ernst, 2019"]],["domestic violence",["Sweet, 2019"]],["suppressing whistleblowing within institutions",["Ahern, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["It leads to poor decisions, often with disastrous outcomes.",[]],["It occurs when members of a group collectively strive to achieve consensus, even if it means ignoring their own individual views, and fail to assess alternative courses of action realistically.",["Janis, 1972"]]],"rt":[["Abilene paradox",[]],["pluralistic ignorance",[]],["spiral of silence",[]]],"ex":[["the failure to anticipate the attack on Pearl Harbour in 1941, the failed invasion of the Bay of Pigs in 1961, the escalation of the Vietnam War, NASA' s decision to launch the doomed Challenger Space Shuttle, and the Watergate cover-up",["Janis, 1982"]],["failure to anticipate the attack on Pearl Harbour in 1941, the failed invasion of the Bay of Pigs in 1961, the escalation of the Vietnam War, NASA' s decision to launch the doomed Challenger Space Shuttle, and the Watergate cover-up",["Janis, 1982"]]]},{"sy":[["Overconfidence",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["has proven effective in political advertising",["Simchon et al., 2024"]]],"rt":[["filtering",[]]]},{"de":[["They evaluate information positively if it is consistent with their values, but reject or demean conflicting information",["Eagly and Chaiken, 1993"]]],"sb":[["denial and denialism are instances of motivated cognition",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Moore and Healy (2008) identified three distinct definitions of overconfidence: overestimation of one's own performance (Kruger and Dunning, 1999); overestimation of one's own performance relative to others; and overconfidence in the accuracy of one own beliefs (which they termed \"over-precision\").",["Moore and Healy, 2008"]],["Several studies have argued that the overconfidence error is an artefact of human Bayesian-like belief updating when information is uncertain",["Griffiths and Tenenbaum, 2006","Griffiths et al., 2008","Moore and Healy, 2008"]]],"sy":[["over-precision",[]],["illusory superiority",[]]],"ex":[["On difficult tasks, people overestimate their actual performances but also mistakenly believe that they are worse than others; on easy tasks, people underestimate their actual performances but mistakenly believe they are better than others.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is a group-level phenomenon (Sargent and Newman, 2021) that stems from a shared misperception among group members that gives rise to a collective error about the true opinion(s) of their peers (Miller, 2023;Kitts, 2003).",["Sargent and Newman, 2021","Miller, 2023","Kitts, 2003"]],["O'Gorman (1988) argued that pluralistic ignorance involves two social cognitive errors. First, individuals believe that others hold a different opinion; or they believe that they can assess others' opinions accurately.",[]],["Bystanders are concerned about the victim, but wait for others to intervene. They interpret others' inaction as a sign of the situation not calling for an intervention",["Miller, 2023"]]],"rt":[["false consensus",[]],["exclusivity biases",[]],["group polarisation",[]],["social identity maintenance",[]],["spiral of silence",[]],["bystander effect",[]]],"sb":[["the bystander effect",[]],["the spiral of silence",[]]],"sp":[["social cognitive error",[]]],"ex":[["alcohol consumption among college students (Prentice and Miller, 1993), attitudes towards dating and sex (Reiber and Garcia, 2010;van de Bongardt et al., 2015), gender bias amongst military cadets (Do et al., 2013), impediments to gender equality (Croft et al., 2021), academic underperformance by student athletes (Levine et al., 2014), avoidance of mental health services by police (Karaffa and Koch, 2016) and inaction on climate change (Geiger and Swim, 2016).",["Prentice and Miller, 1993","Reiber and Garcia, 2010","van de Bongardt et al., 2015","Do et al., 2013","Croft et al., 2021","Levine et al., 2014","Karaffa and Koch, 2016","Geiger and Swim, 2016"]]]},{},{"de":[["These false and misleading statements are used to gaslight the population.",[]],["The intent is to make individuals ignore their own judgment, and eventually sway public opinion towards the promoted falsehood",["Rocavert, 2019"]],["it was already an implicit feature of past Nazi and Soviet propaganda systems",["McIntyre, 2018"]]],"rt":[["gaslighting",[]],["fake news",[]],["obfuscation of facts",["McIntyre, 2018;Sismondo, 2017;D'Ancona, 2017"]],["abandonment of evidential standards in reasoning",["McIntyre, 2018;Sismondo, 2017;D'Ancona, 2017"]],["outright lying",["McIntyre, 2018;Sismondo, 2017;D'Ancona, 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["Selective exposure leads to avoiding sources of contradictory evidence, thus reinforcing their existing attitudes, values, beliefs and predispositions",["Iyengar and Hahn, 2009"]],["Selective exposure leads to avoiding sources of contradictory evidence, thus reinforcing their existing attitudes, values, beliefs and predispositions (Iyengar and Hahn, 2009).",["Iyengar and Hahn, 2009"]]]},{},{"rt":[["fast thinking",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Vocal expression on the one side and silence on the other side creates a \"spiral of silence\" on the muted topic (Noelle-Neumann, 1993).",["Noelle-Neumann, 1993"]],["Vocal expression on the one side and silence on the other side creates a \"spiral of silence\" on the muted topic",["Noelle-Neumann, 1993"]],["Some studies suggest that the spiral of silence theory addresses the impact of pluralistic ignorance on public disclosure (Noelle-Neumann, 1993;Taylor, 1982). The individual misperception that their opinion is not shared by others leads to the collective error of a silent majority being suppressed by a vocal minority (Miller, 2023).",["Noelle-Neumann, 1993","Taylor, 1982","Miller, 2023"]]],"rt":[["pluralistic ignorance",[]]],"ex":[["legal stances on abortion, preferences for a political party in national elections, addressing racial inequality (Noelle-Neumann, 1993;Moy et al., 2001;Geiger and Swim, 2016), and suppression of antiwar sentiment (Mueller, 1993).",["Noelle-Neumann, 1993","Moy et al., 2001","Geiger and Swim, 2016","Mueller, 1993"]]]},{"de":[["subversion where false interpretations and rationalisations are accepted",[]]],"sp":[["Deceptive behaviours",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The phenomenon of fake news is not a recent development.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",["21","22","23","24"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["it relies on the assumption that data is generated from a mixture of Gaussian distributions",["69"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Its further elaboration has included the aspects of vision and perception in focalization, considering it as an angle of perception that postulates the point of origin, the one who sees",["Jahn, 1996"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This specifically concerns a shared understanding of society as a whole, which conditions shared practices and a shared sense of legitimacy",["Taylor, 2004, p. 23"]]]},{},{"de":[["draw on obliging relationality in the unfolding of action: in the case of this article, involving the audience in the casting of actors, addressing, identifying, and obliging it, and thus coordinating the senses of the social scene.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The original ideal Habermas describes is based on free and equal individuals gathering at physical locations to hold a critical and rational deliberative discussion on current societal topics, to produce argumentatively achieved, unanimous public opinions, and thus, to intermediate the relationship between the state and civil society.",["Habermas, 1991"]],["For Charles Taylor, the concept of modern social imaginary refers to practices and expectations to imagine the interdependencies between separate individuals and the practices to manage that relationship. This specifically concerns a shared understanding of society as a whole, which conditions shared practices and a shared sense of legitimacy",["Taylor, 2004, p. 23"]],["notion of an indefinite space shared by unknown strangers, which covers issues of common concern and yet is set apart from the organs of state politics.",["Taylor, 2004, p. 85-87"]],["a space that includes all members of society and is also directly accessible to all members without discrimination",[]],["a new form of collective action and sense of belonging which materializes in radical secular horizontality, detached from religious or other transcendental frameworks, in the worldly time frame, as a result of joint action by principally equal individuals.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Etymologically, derived from the Greek, the word theori refers to sight, spectacle, and viewing.",[]]]},{"sp":[["microframes",[]]],"ex":[["uncrowded -crowded",[]],["inhospitable -hospitable",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing is not confined to politics. It has been considered crucial in marketing (Maheswaran and Meyers-Levy, 1990;Homer and Yoon, 1992;Grewal et al., 1994), public health campaigns (Rothman and Salovey, 1997;Gallagher and Updegraff, 2011), and other domains (Pelletier and Sharp, 2008;Huang et al., 2015).",[]],["the operationalization of framing is inherently vague (Scheufele, 1999;Sniderman and Theriault, 2004) and remains a challenging open question.",["Scheufele, 1999","Sniderman and Theriault, 2004"]],["Framing is a process of highlighting a certain aspect of an issue to make it salient",["Entman, 1993","Chong and Druckman, 2007"]],["Framing is a process of highlighting a certain aspect of an issue to make it salient (Entman, 1993;Chong and Druckman, 2007).",["Entman, 1993","Chong and Druckman, 2007"]]]},{"sp":[["microframes",[]]],"ex":[["incredible -credible",[]],["worst -best",[]]]},{"de":[["Each microframe is operationalized by an antonym pair, such as legal -illegal, clean -dirty, or fair -unfair.",[]]],"rt":[["semantic axis",["An et al., 2018"]]]},{"de":[["Microframe biases in the positive reviews generally convey positive connotations, and those in the negative reviews convey negative connotations.",[]],["provide a nuanced characterization of the text.",[]],["provide a nuanced characterization of the text",[]]],"ex":[["the illegal vs. legal microframe on an immigration issue",[]],["Liberal news media show microframe bias toward 'good' and 'rational' in news on the Democratic party, and conservative news media show microframe bias toward 'good' and 'rational' in news on the Republican party",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Namely, given corpus t on a microframe f we measure the second moment of the word contributions c w f on the microframe f for all the words in t.",[]],["provide a nuanced characterization of the text.",[]],["provide a nuanced characterization of the text",[]],["Conservative media have higher microframe intensity than liberal media, meaning that they more frequently report the illegallegal microframe of the immigration issue than liberal media do.",[]]],"ex":[["Microframe intensity of liberal and conservative media is higher when they highlight negative perspectives (i.e., 'bad' and 'irrational').",[]]]},{"sb":[["generic microframes",[]],["aspect-specific microframes",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["social sexism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["participative action of people committed to their profession helps to build this critical activism, which is essential for the ethical self-regulation of journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["self-regulation needs to be dynamic and up-to-date",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The fundamental ethical principles encompass veracity, precision, impartiality, harm reduction, and reverence for confidentiality.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["comprise a spectrum of ethical principles and codes of conduct that provide guidance for journalistic practises",[]],["The fundamental ethical principles encompass veracity, precision, impartiality, harm reduction, and reverence for confidentiality.",[]]],"rt":[["Journalistic codes of ethics",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Privacy theory underscores the significance of personal autonomy, the ability to exercise control over one's personal information, and safeguarding oneself against unwarranted intrusion.",[]],["Theoretical underpinnings of privacy are fundamental in comprehending the legal structures that safeguard individuals' rights against the dissemination of their visual representations in journalistic pursuits",["Georgiou and Zaborowski, 2017","Tilak, 2020"]],["Privacy theory, as applied in the field of journalism, posits that individuals possess a justifiable anticipation of privacy, even in areas accessible to the public, with respect to their visual representations.",[]]]},{"de":[["the dissemination of visual representations of persons, even in the absence of their explicit authorization, may be deemed legitimate on the grounds of serving the common good",["Steam, 2013","Deibert, 2019"]],["The statement acknowledges that there exist situations in which the dissemination of visual representations of persons, even in the absence of their explicit authorization, may be deemed legitimate on the grounds of serving the common good (Steam, 2013;Deibert, 2019).",["Steam, 2013","Deibert, 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The game works by preemptively exposing players to weakened doses of misinformation techniques and combining elements of perspective-taking (stepping into the shoes of someone who is trying to deceive you) and active experiential learning (creating your own media content).",[]]],"rt":[["inoculation theory",[]]]},{"de":[["we find that \"prebunking,\" or preemptively warning and exposing people to weakened doses of misinformation, can help cultivate \"mental antibodies\" against fake news.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["effectively placing uncivil opinions and ideas (such as anti-immigration expressed via racism and xenophobia) in frames of civil discourse (of democracy, nation-state, freedom of speech, rationalism, and the like)",[]]],"rt":[["civil and uncivil framing",["Krzyżanowski & Ledin, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["constructed more subtly, for example, through voicing public worries about immigrants being increasingly visible (physically) to the public, altering the physical setting of people in cities and public spaces",["Poole, 2006"]],["stressing the inability to accommodate refugees",[]]],"rt":[["neo-fascist idea of ethnic cleansing through immigration",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["discursive change",[]]],"sb":[["enactment",["Krzyżanowski, 2020a"]],["perpetuation",["Krzyżanowski, 2020a"]],["normalisation",["Krzyżanowski, 2020a"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["topoi",[]],["arguments",[]]],"sb":[["Topos of Islam, or Islamisation, underlying arguments about Islam and Islamism and its apparently direct relationship to multiculturalism and the ideologies or politics of, in particular, the left.",[]],["Topos of threat, arguing that migrants pose a physical as well as otherwise understood threat to Swedish society.",[]],["Topos of integration, framing arguments that integration in Sweden is a largely failed project and that migrants are essentially unable to integrate for cultural and other reasons.",[]]],"ex":[["demographic consequences",[]],["Islam and Islamisation",[]],["threat",[]],["integration",[]],["immigration",[]],["immigrants",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The need for reliable information to counter the increasing amounts of fake news and misinformation on social platforms has led to the development of ''fact-checkers''",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The Covid19 pandemic saw a burst of information, which the WHOfoot_0 called an ''infodemic''",["WHOfoot_0"]]]},{"de":[["a portmanteau of information and epidemiology",[]],["(a portmanteau of information and epidemiology)",[]]]},{"rt":[["Supply-side explanations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Motivated by the \"pursuit of social verification and shared reality\", individuals are\"moving to communities that reflect and reinforce their political values\" [69].",["69"]]],"rt":[["social verification",[]]]},{"de":[["the term echo chamber conveys a spatial notion of what is, in reality, a communicative practice. People do not enter an echo chamber like a room, but select communication partners or exchange information in ways that result in selective political exposure.",[]],["People do not enter an echo chamber like a room, but select communication partners or exchange information in ways that result in selective political exposure.",[]]],"rt":[["selective political exposure",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["selective political exposure",[]],["truly false consensus effect",[]]]},{"de":[["the framework highlights partisan asymmetries in epistemic motivations like dogmatism, cognitive and perceptual rigidity, needs for order and structure, need for cognitive closure, intolerance of ambiguity and others [38].",["38"]]],"rt":[["partisan asymmetries",[]],["motivated cognition framework",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["selective exposure to a biased sample of people or ideas will likely influence an individual's ability to recall earlier instances of (dissenting) attitudes or behavior",["45"]],["selective exposure was conceived as \"nonmotivational factor\" [46] based on availability",["46"]]],"sy":[["de facto selectivity",["67"]]],"rt":[["false consensus effect",[]]]},{"de":[["select communication partners or exchange information in ways that result in selective political exposure.",[]],["conservatives tend to exchange or even form their political opinions about migration in politically homogenous information environments.",[]],["the experience of threat and uncertainty should promote closed-mindedness and a need for cognitive closure and, thus, make conservatives more susceptible to selective political exposure.",[]],["This kind of exposure to specific political arguments and beliefs is characterized by a significant imbalance between pro-and counter-attitudinal content where the former prevails [10].",["10"]]],"sy":[["selective exposure",[]]],"rt":[["echo chamber",[]],["selective exposure",[]]],"ex":[["conservatives are especially likely to choose confirmative information environments when the immigration issue is at stake.",[]]]},{"rt":[["demand-side explanations",[]]]},{"de":[["Krueger and Zeiger developed a measure that correlated item endorsements, not with individuals' estimates, but with \"the differences between estimated and actual consensus\" [17], thus indicating a truly false consensus effect.",["17"]]],"rt":[["false consensus effect",[]]]},{"de":[["One if its core assumptions is that individuals are motivated to \"effectively reduce uncertainty\" [14] and that group identification is a useful means to this end.",["14"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["These stereotypes can create psychological barriers that threaten students' social identity and create feelings of incongruence between student identity and educational success",["17","36"]],["These barriers can leave members of underrepresented groups feel alienated and discouraged, affecting their persistence and performance",["17","57"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a discursive structure within persuasive messages of political figures and other elites who make appeals within the sociopolitical conversation arena",[]],["a media coverage structure. Within this incarnation, a frame serves to select particular discursive features to accompany the news coverage.",[]],["a cognitive shortcuta psychological schema, which serves in the perception of individuals-of the public-to interpret events.",[]],["framing is an individual psychological process, but it is also an organizational process and product, and a political strategic tool",["Entman et al. (2009)"]]]},{"de":[["framing is an individual psychological process, but it is also an organizational process and product, and a political strategic tool",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The work of Floyd (2011, 2019a) articulates a just securitization theory",["Floyd (2011, 2019a)"]]]},{"de":[["redirect the framing to particular constituencies",[]]],"ex":[["ideological media or rogue actors",[]]]},{"rt":[["culture, an ideology, the cyberspace, or the climate",[]]],"ex":[["an ethnic group, a political group, a religious group, or even such broad collective units as an international pact, or a civilization",[]],["a culture, an ideology, the cyberspace, or the climate",[]]]},{"de":[["fairly controversial actors-\"rogue actors\" -such as individuals linked to far-leaning political factions or militias",[]],["potential rogue actors (Entman and Usher, 2018)",["Entman and Usher, 2018"]],["fairly controversial actors",[]]]},{"de":[["This sort of process can be essentially understood as a strategic persuasive master frame that is articulated by elites and passed through media coverage, to convince various publics of the appropriateness of the employed measures.",[]],["securitization is a power grabbing tool, which allows politicians and elites to bend the democratic principles that they should uphold.",[]],["securitization handily serves as a useful strategic tool enabling certain (perhaps extraordinary) measures, which consequently fortify the competitive positions of the actors in the political arena.",[]],["Copenhagen Schools poses that securitization succeeds when the audience accepts the actor's securitizing move with threat allegation and the prescription of response measures.",[]],["compliance with the securitization",[]],["securitization of the pandemic",[]],["securitization of Pellegrini",[]],["securitization of COVID-19",[]],["contestation of the current securitization frame",[]],["through securitization, a securitizing actor persuades that a normatively worthwhile referent object is under an existential threat",["Buzan et al., 1998;Floyd, 2011Floyd, , 2019a"]],["the securitizing actor further argues that specific measures must be implemented to mitigate the threat",["Floyd, 2011(Floyd, , 2019a"]],["securitization and its measures may be negative, positive, or mixed depending on a holistic normative evaluation of the relevant circumstances",["Floyd, 2011(Floyd, , 2019a"]]],"rt":[["just securitization",[]],["health security sector",[]],["framing",[]],["securitized framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing",["Watson (2012)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["securitization",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["social protest",[]]]},{"de":[["Does the information allude to legal or judicial mechanisms as a form of control of social protest?",[]],["Does the information highlight any legal violations on the part of the intervening actors?",[]],["Does the information represent its protagonists linked to violence, crime, or felony?",[]],["the legitimacy of some social movements' actions has often been criminalized by the State's acts when, directly or indirectly, it allows the use of its institutional system -legal, political, military, media -as a mechanism to control social protest.",[]]]},{"de":[["Nevertheless, criminalization is not only articulated from the legal and political dimensions of the institutional framework, with actions such as the delegitimization of social actors in protest, the physical repression of security forces on protesters, the establishment of regulatory frameworks that allow the deliberate prosecution of particular collective actions, the counterposition of rights in the exercise of social protest or the criminal prosecution of its participants",["Alvarado, 2020"]]],"rt":[["media omission",[]],["negative connotation of actions, demands, and proposals for social change",[]]]},{"de":[["Such criminalization is manifested through police, judicial, and media strategies",["Alvarado, 2020"]]]},{"sb":[["media frames",[]],["audience frames",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["demonstrators",[]],["judges",[]],["politicians related to the current government",[]],["opposition politicians",[]],["NGOs",[]],["experts/scientists",[]],["security forces",[]],["others identified as relevant in the corpus",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["frame building",[]]],"rt":[["audience frames",["Scheufele, 1999"]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["e.g., a disabled person, a Deaf person",[]],["a disabled person, a Deaf person",[]]]},{"rt":[["Person-first language",[]]],"ex":[["a disabled person",[]],["a Deaf person",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The emphasis on social power that grounds intersectionality as theory",[]]],"rt":[["intersectional approaches",[]]]},{"de":[["metaphorical uses would usually be excluded from analysis due to their capacity to skew the types of sentiment generated by tests by producing negative-or sometimes, positive-sentiment around disability terms even when not attached to social identity.",[]]],"ex":[["the term \"disabled\" itself, when not coupled with a human subject (\"person,\" \"transgender person,\" \"woman\" or \"man\"), invariably associates with equipment (e.g., computer hard drives)",[]]]},{"ex":[["e.g., people with disability",[]],["people with disability",[]]]},{"rt":[["identity-first language",[]]],"ex":[["people with disability",[]]]},{"de":[["Sentiment analysis can import bias of its own, attribute positive or negative sentiment to utterances that human readers would disagree with.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["inoculation theory",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["online hate",[]],["harassment",[]]]},{"sp":[["online hate",[]]]},{"sp":[["online hate",[]]]},{"sp":[["online hate",[]]]},{"de":[["in which perpetrators attempt to delegitimise the participation of particular marginalised groups",[]],["expressions of online hate directed towards athletes or their representatives are characterised by researchers as a gatekeeping exercise in which perpetrators attempt to delegitimise the participation of particular marginalised groups",["Doidge, 2015","Litchfield et al., 2018","Kavanagh et al., 2019","Duvall, 2020"]]]},{"sb":[["cyber stalking",[]]],"sp":[["online hate",[]]]},{"rt":[["racism",[]],["misogyny",[]],["ableism",[]]]},{"rt":[["abuse",[]],["prejudice",[]]],"sp":[["hate",[]]]},{"sp":[["online hate",[]]]},{"rt":[["online hate",[]]]},{"de":[["performing the dual purpose of denigrating a specific group (or groups), while also fostering an atmosphere of hostility towards the targeted group(s).",[]],["examples of online hate can be distinguished from less direct and explicit forms of oppression or discrimination, including acts of prejudice, which focus primarily on preconceived ideas and beliefs directed towards another individual/group",[]],["online hate is itself widely defined and understood",[]]],"sy":[["cyber hate",[]]],"sb":[["flaming",[]],["harassment",[]],["denigration",[]],["cyber stalking",[]],["impersonation",[]],["outing/trickery",[]],["exclusion",[]],["online racism",[]],["sexism",[]],["homophobia",[]],["transphobia",[]],["sectarianism",[]]]},{"sp":[["online hate",[]]]},{"de":[["cases of what might be termed 'spontaneous hate'",[]]],"rt":[["co-ordinated hate campaigns",[]]],"sp":[["online hate",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["false positives",[]]]},{"rt":[["false negatives",[]]]},{"de":[["a phenomenon that can itself be understood as a manifestation of general negativity bias",["15"]]],"rt":[["general negativity bias",[]]]},{"de":[["the utility of negatively-biased credulity is a function of both the prevalence of hazards and the extent to which the individual is able to cope with them",[]],["a psychological mechanism that can be expected to operate as an attractor in cultural evolution",["6"]],["the utility of negatively-biased credulity is in part conditional on the base rate of fitness-reducing hazards in the individual's local environment",[]],["reflecting a pattern wherein, in the environments in which humans evolved, the costs of erroneous incredulity toward information regarding hazards would, on average, have exceeded the costs of erroneous credulity.",[]],["people are more credulous of information regarding hazards than of information concerning benefits.",[]],["negatively-biased credulity extends general negativity bias, the adaptive tendency for negative events to be more salient than positive events.",[]],["This negatively-biased credulity extends general negativity bias, the adaptive tendency for negative events to be more salient than positive events.",[]]],"rt":[["general negativity bias",[]],["negativity bias",[]]],"sp":[["negativity bias",[]]],"ex":[["individuals who believe the world to be full of hazards will find novel statements concerning hazards to be more plausible than will individuals who expect hazards to be few and far between",[]]]},{"de":[["Negativity bias can be understood as reflecting an overarching pattern wherein the avoidance of imminent fitness decrements typically has a greater effect on fitness than does the pursuit of fitness enhancements, as, in general, the latter can be pursued only after the former have been addressed",["14","15"]],["concerns salience, memorability, and motivational impact",[]],["Negativity bias can be understood as reflecting an overarching pattern wherein the avoidance of imminent fitness decrements typically has a greater effect on fitness than does the pursuit of fitness enhancements, as, in general, the latter can be pursued only after the former have been addressed [14,15].",["14,15"]]]},{"de":[["overimitation can plausibly be construed as a form of credulity operating in contexts in which information transmission is mediated primarily by behavior rather than language.",[]],["a form of credulity operating in contexts in which information transmission is mediated primarily by behavior rather than language.",[]]],"sp":[["credulity",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["ULs",[]]]},{"de":[["These techniques are increasingly used by scholars in the social sciences to study news content and political discourse more broadly",[]]]},{},{"de":[["conservative ideological frames are rarely used to oppose climate action, but at the same time these themes are not used in support of it either",[]],["conservative ideological frames are rarely used to oppose climate action, but at the same time these themes are not used in support of it either.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Kahan and his colleagues highlight several mechanisms of cultural cognition: the selective recall of supportive expert opinion, the selective imputation of knowledge and trust to sympathetic experts, and the biased search of information and assimilation of expert messages.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Reporters frequently treat topics as debates in which they present \"both sides\" in order to adhere to a journalistic norm of objectivity.",[]],["a journalistic norm of balance",[]],["the operation of a journalistic norm of balance",[]]]},{"de":[["Frames, however, are not neutral. Journalists, interest groups, environmentalists, and party elites all compete to elevate frames conducive to their interests and ideologies",["Nisbet, 2009"]]],"sb":[["economic cost",[]],["economic benefits",[]],["uncertainty frames",[]],["conservative ideological frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["frames in thought",["Chong and Druckman, 2007"]]]},{"rt":[["frames in communication",["(Chong and Druckman, 2007)"]]]},{"de":[["Framing is then about selecting some key aspects of the perceived reality and making them more salient in the process of communication",["Entman, 1993"]],["The process of framing involves two key ingredients: selection and salience. Framing is then about selecting some key aspects of the perceived reality and making them more salient in the process of communication",["Entman, 1993"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Articles were also coded as -0.5 and 0.5 if they featured both perspectives on climate science but were notably slanted in one direction or the other.",[]],["stories that reference uncertainty, but largely support the IPCC consensus (scored -0.5) and those that provide a balance of perspectives on the consensus (scored 0)",[]],["Our hand coding reveals that most of the decline in the use of uncertainty frame has been found in stories that reference uncertainty, but largely support the IPCC consensus (scored -0.5) and those that provide a balance of perspectives on the consensus (scored 0).",[]]]},{"de":[["uncertainty frames confuse the public about the state of the science, and reduce their propensity to engage in mitigation behavior",["Boykoff and Boykoff, 2007","Dixon and Clarke, 2013","Clarke et al., 2015","Dixon et al., 2015","Koehler, 2016"]]],"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["professional roles",[]]]},{"sp":[["professional roles",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the monitorial role is closely associated with established democracies as opposed to emerging ones",["Hanitzsch et al. 2019"]]],"sp":[["professional roles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["New technologies are born with different affordances, which embodies new ways of doing things that were not previously possible via older technologies",["Gane and Beer 2008"]],["However, users do not always use those technologies in the way they were intended.",[]],["Rather, users socially shape technologies based on the ways they use them",["Kline and Pinch 1996"]],["Social Construction of Technology theories reveal how users foreground their values onto the technologies they use-if they choose to use them.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["blind patriotism creates exclusive group boundaries, negative attitudes toward external groups, and denial of the nation's transgressions against others (Schatz, 2020).",["Schatz, 2020"]],["blind patriotism creates exclusive group boundaries, negative attitudes toward external groups, and denial of the nation's transgressions against others",["Schatz, 2020"]],["In other words, blind patriotism creates exclusive group boundaries, negative attitudes toward external groups, and denial of the nation's transgressions against others",["Schatz, 2020"]],["In other words, blind patriotism creates exclusive group boundaries, negative attitudes toward external groups, and denial of the nation's transgressions against others (Schatz, 2020).",["Schatz, 2020"]],["to determine whether individuals love their country irrationally",["Schatz et al. (1999)"]]],"ex":[["people with higher scores on blind patriotism had more negative attitudes toward multiculturalism, immigration, and providing cultural services to immigrants.",["Spry and Hornsey (2007)"]],["they had more positive attitudes toward cultural assimilation because they were worried about their national culture being \"contaminated\" by foreigners.",["Spry and Hornsey (2007)"]],["I would support my country whether it was right or wrong.",[]],["people with higher scores on blind patriotism had more negative attitudes toward multiculturalism, immigration, and providing cultural services to immigrants. On the contrary, they had more positive attitudes toward cultural assimilation because they were worried about their national culture being \"contaminated\" by foreigners.",["Spry and Hornsey, 2007","Spry and Hornsey (2007)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["It also helps one to consider alternative ideas, listen to the views of others, and spend more time trying to understand someone with whom one disagrees.",[]],["it shows the degree to which an individual recognizes that a particular personal belief may be wrong",["Deffler et al., 2016"]],["More specifically, it shows the degree to which an individual recognizes that a particular personal belief may be wrong",["(Deffler et al., 2016)","Deffler et al., 2016"]],["it is a balance between dogmatically rejecting information that questions one's views and giving in too quickly",["(Krumrei-Mancuso and Rouse, 2016)"]],["These traits of intellectual humility encourage people to rationally access news content instead of being caught up in an echo chamber.",[]],["More specifically, it shows the degree to which an individual recognizes that a particular personal belief may be wrong (Deffler et al., 2016).",["Deffler et al., 2016"]],["Specifically, people with a high level of intellectual humility can recognize the limitations of evidence for their beliefs and are aware that their ability to acquire and evaluate relevant information is limited (Deffler et al., 2016).",["Deffler et al., 2016"]],["More importantly, having intellectual humility does not mean \"being self-effacing or always yielding to others\"; rather, it is a balance between dogmatically rejecting information that questions one's views and giving in too quickly (Krumrei-Mancuso and Rouse, 2016).",["Krumrei-Mancuso and Rouse, 2016"]]],"ex":[["intellectual humility predicts less political bias, helping individuals to escape from the echo chamber",["Bowes et al., 2022"]],["people with high intellectual humility are more likely to review online information rationally, rather than easily believing in misinformation",["Koetke et al., 2022;Newman et al., 2022","(Koetke et al., 2022;Newman et al., 2022)"]],["samples from two American communities showed that intellectual humility predicts less political bias, helping individuals to escape from the echo chamber",["(Bowes et al., 2022)"]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Having news media literacy is important as it is the main competency that people need to rely on to avoid negativity bias",["(van der Meer and Hameleers, 2022)","van der Meer and Hameleers, 2022"]],["teenagers with higher levels of news media literacy were more critical of news reports and were likely more knowledgeable about current affairs.",["(Maksl et al., 2015)"]],["Having news media literacy is important as it is the main competency that people need to rely on to avoid negativity bias (van der Meer and Hameleers, 2022).",["van der Meer and Hameleers, 2022"]],["cultivating news media literacy helps people to have a more holistic understanding of how news is produced.",[]],["This knowledge equips people to better access, evaluate, and analyze news content.",[]],["It helps individuals to access news content objectively to avoid media manipulation.",[]],["helps individuals to access news content objectively to avoid media manipulation",[]],["news media literacy includes far more than a set of skills that aim to identify misinformation-skills that will likely be made redundant or insufficient as technologies continue to develop",["Corser et al., 2022"]]]},{"de":[["perceived threat can be seen as a competitive threat to one's actual interests and prerogatives, which in turn might increase hostility, antagonism, and discrimination against other groups.",[]],["Hence, as Semyonov et al. (2004) concluded, perceived threat can be seen as a competitive threat to one's actual interests and prerogatives, which in turn might increase hostility, antagonism, and discrimination against other groups.",[]],["self-report their perception of threat from foreigners",["Semyonov et al. (2004)"]]],"ex":[["Foreigners who live in China are a strain on the welfare system",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Within a subversive story or hegemonic tale, framing can be used to prop up or subvert hegemonic norms, and different threads of narrative can be used in subversive or normative ways.",[]],["Framing can involve word choice, imagery, and the inclusion or exclusion of certain entities or events; the overall aim is to promote a particular narrative or point of view",["Bryant, et al., 2013"]],["Framing can involve word choice, imagery, and the inclusion or exclusion of certain entities or events; the overall aim is to promote a particular narrative or point of view (Bryant, et al., 2013).",["Bryant, et al., 2013"]]]},{},{"de":[["These stories, in turn, prop up hegemonic themes and norms by retelling them in new ways, with new narrators, over and over again.",["Ewick and Silbey, 1995"]]],"rt":[["subversive stories",[]]],"ex":[["Some of the stories told about Spears were hegemonic tales; they framed Spears as out-of-control and the conservatorship as \"tough love.\"",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["counter-hegemonic",[]]],"rt":[["hegemonic tales",[]]],"ex":[["The #FreeBritney movement, taken as a whole, is itself a subversive story, with the \"particular\" Spears' fight to be free of the conservatorship and the \"general\" a misogynistic and ableist society that is hesitant to grant the marginalized autonomy.",[]]]},{"de":[["(uppdelning av folkgrupper i mindre, inbördes fientliga enheter)",["SO 17"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Stereotype",[]]]},{"sp":[["Stereotype",[]]]},{"de":[["Prejudice is usually regarded as a negative attitude",["5","6"]],["Prejudice is usually regarded as a negative attitude 5,6 ,",["5","6"]]],"rt":[["stereotype",[]]],"sb":[["benevolent prejudice",["7"]]]},{"sp":[["Stereotype",[]]]},{"de":[["In stereotypes, specific characteristics are generalized and attributed to all group members.",["3"]],["Stereotypes have been recognized as important cognitive means for organizing and processing information on the world surrounding us.",[]],["They also have a prominent social character -they are (usually, but not necessarily) collective perceptions, social and cultural constructs formed, inherited, and maintained within a certain community 1 .",["1"]],["They also have a prominent social character -they are (usually, but not necessarily) collective perceptions, social and cultural constructs formed, inherited, and maintained within a certain community",["1"]]],"rt":[["prejudice",[]]],"sb":[["social stereotypes",[]],["ethnic or national stereotypes",[]],["national stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["For Swedes and others, they have first and foremost been 'Yugoslavs', a term which is often used as a simplification and shortening of a complicated system of national and ethnic terms.",["24"]]],"sy":[["former Yugoslavs",[]],["jugoslaver",[]],["exjugoslaver",[]],["före detta jugoslaver",[]],["forna jugoslaver",[]],["juggar",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The spread of fake news on social media is one of the impacts of the digitalization of life in society.",[]]]},{"sy":[["fifth-generation human rights",[]]],"rt":[["right to correct information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this first generation, the emergence of human rights was motivated by the tyranny of the ruler at that time, which triggered resistance from the community and gave rise to revolutionary movements.",[]],["Some experts' first generation of rights is often referred to as the 'negative right', which requires the state not to intervene in realising rights.",[]],["in the first generation of human rights, there was a fear of freedom in civil and political rights.",[]],["The demands of society at that time were within social and political scopes such as the right to life, the right not to be a slave, the right not to be tortured and detained, the right of equality and justice in the legal process, the presumption of innocence, and so on.",[]]],"sy":[["negative right",[]]],"ex":[["the right to life",[]],["the right not to be a slave",[]],["the right not to be tortured and detained",[]],["the right of equality and justice in the legal process",[]],["the presumption of innocence",[]],["the right of nationality",[]],["the right of ownership",[]],["the right of thought",[]],["the right to religion",[]],["the right to education",[]],["the right to work and cultural life",[]],["the right to freedom from retroactive laws",[]],["the right to a fair judicial process",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["right to information",[]]],"sp":[["Human Rights",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Human Rights",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In Netwar, actors who engage openly and secretly attempt to disrupt, destroy or change what people, who are the target of their actions, know about the events that occur in the world around them.",["46"]],["in netwar the protagonists attempt to construct people's understanding of the events that occur according to their objectives, by utilizing the role of technology and communication.",[]],["The information revolution reflects the advance of computerized information and communications technologies and related innovations in organization and management theory. Sea changes are occurring in how information is collected, stored, processed, communicated and presented, and in how organizations are designed to take advantage of increased information. Information is becoming a strategic resource that may prove as valuable and influential in the post-industrial era as capital and labor has been in the industrial age.",["44"]],["Things that can be done in netwar include propaganda, the dissemination of fake news, public diplomacy, social campaigns, the use and utilization of media, networks or databases as well as all efforts made to influence the movement of opponents through communication networks.",["45"]],["The war that occurs in netwar is a war targeted at public opinion or elite groups, or both parties at once. Unlike war or conflict in general, the target of netwar war is a source of information and communication.",["45"]],["In short, in netwar the protagonists attempt to construct people's understanding of the events that occur according to their objectives, by utilizing the role of technology and communication.",["46"]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]],["the dissemination of fake news",[]],["public diplomacy",[]],["social campaigns",[]]],"ex":[["propaganda, the dissemination of fake news, public diplomacy, social campaigns, the use and utilization of media, networks or databases",["45"]]]},{},{"de":[["the entrance of the right to correct information becomes its different human rights generation, namely the fifth generation of human rights",[]]]},{"de":[["This right is attached to the state as a form of accountability to the people.",[]],["in a democratic society, the right to information is fundamental because it provides an opportunity for every citizen to monitor factual information.",[]],["In addition, the right to information in the legal framework is more aimed at efforts to involve the public in the administration.",[]]],"sp":[["Human Rights",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Fallacy",[]],["fallacies from diversion",[]]]},{"sp":[["semantic types of claims",[]]],"ex":[["there are x number of infections in London",[]],["the Oxford University lab has already produced a vaccine",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["fallacies",[]]]},{"de":[["confirming that appeal to fearmongering is a common rhetorical strategy facilitating disinformation and misinformation spread.",[]]],"sb":[["Evaluation-rational (ER)",[]],["Evaluation-emotional (EE)",[]],["emotional evaluations",[]],["rational ones",[]]],"sp":[["semantic types of claims",[]],["semantic type of claims",[]]],"ex":[["while California is dying … Gavin (Newsom) is vacationing in Stevensville, MT!",[]],["we've tested more than every country combined",[]]]},{"sp":[["Evaluation",[]]],"ex":[["I don't' like having to use a mask at all times",[]]]},{"sp":[["Evaluation",[]]],"ex":[["his phase 2 program is very solid",[]]]},{},{"de":[["work as indicators of misinformation and provide more systematic explanations compared to mere labels as to why news might be misleading",[]],["pointing to flows in the quantity and quality of arguments, the reasoning types at stake and the language used",[]],["indicators of misinformation that could be used as features to build systems for the automatic identification of misinformation",[]],["reveal the roots of misleading claims",[]],["Besides working as indicators of misinformation that could be used as features to build systems for the automatic identification of misinformation, fallacies reveal the roots of misleading claims, being, thus, more informative than truth barometers proposed by current human fact-checking enterprises.",[]]],"sb":[["Evading the burden of proof",[]],["Cherry picking",[]],["Red herring",[]],["Straw man",[]],["False authority",[]],["False analogy",[]],["Hasty generalization",[]],["Post hoc",[]],["False cause",[]],["Language fallacy",[]]]},{"sb":[["red herring",[]],["strawman",[]],["cherry picking",[]]],"sp":[["Fallacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Because fallacious arguments can be very close to valid ones sometimes it may be difficult to talk about clear-cut distinctions",["Boudry et al., 2015"]],["fallacious reasoning is persuasive because it follows, even if partially, the patterns and tropes of non-fallacious reasoning thereby producing arguments that are not entirely invalid or outrageously unacceptable, at least at first glance.",[]]],"sb":[["cherry-picking",[]],["post hoc",[]],["fallacies from diversion",[]],["structural",[]],["logical fallacies",[]],["language fallacies",[]]],"ex":[["fake news can be viewed as news that 'seems to be valid but is not so'.",[]]]},{"de":[["fallacy identification points directly to the roots of the misinformation problem. In particular, fallacy identification copes with the grey areas of misinformation and allows us to draw and analyze its different shades in a qualitative and constructive way that could never be achieved through the available truth barometers.",[]]]},{"sp":[["logical fallacies",[]]]},{"sp":[["logical fallacies",[]]]},{"sp":[["fallacies",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["semantic type of claims",[]]],"ex":[["the (COVID-19) cases are going up, but it's because the testing is going up.",[]],["96.3% of the Italy's COVID-19 deaths were actually caused by other diseases",[]]]},{"sp":[["semantic types of claims",[]]],"ex":[["The only reason why Italy has more cases, it is because they tested more",[]]]},{"sy":[["News literacy",[]]],"rt":[["news literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["More specifically, news literacy can \"provide a foundation to improve information consumption processes by giving social media users the tools to identify, consume, and share high-quality information regarding COVID-19\"",["Vraga et al., 2020"]]]},{"sp":[["Fallacy",[]],["logical fallacies",[]]]},{"sp":[["semantic types of claims",[]]],"ex":[["The economy will end up being destroyed",[]]]},{"sp":[["fallacies from diversion",[]],["fallacies",[]]]},{"sp":[["fallacies from diversion",[]],["fallacies",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["fallacies",[]]]},{"de":[["a produção de direitos, de reconhecimento e de acesso a serviços e atendimento por parte do Estado, estão atreladas ao modo como o Estado disponibiliza atendimento aos sujeitos precários, ou seja, exigindo deles enunciados e formulários que atestem um status, uma condição, uma internalização da dependência e uma total rendição aos aparelhos de correção e controle",["FASSIN, 2009, p.57"]]]},{},{"de":[["o enquadramento das fotografias privilegia um plano geral das pessoas diante de sua casa, ressaltando uma paisagem geográfica e humana de desolação.",[]],["os enquadramentos são de proximidade: os rostos e corpos das crianças e mulheres assumem o primeiro plano e o ambiente doméstico adquire uma nova perspectiva",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["representação",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["O \"dito\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Vulnerabilidade não é um conceito essencialmente associado a sofrimento, nem define unicamente a propensão de estar susceptível ao dano. Há potencialidade e ambiguidade nesse conceito.",[]]]},{"de":[["They are usually depicted as people whose presence in the host country brings more negative outcomes than potential benefits.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Criminality has become the ideal pretext for national authorities to raise migration controls.",[]],["The news usually employs the word \"suspect\" or \"potential delinquent,\" but, as it will be possible to observe in the section dedicated to \"news framing,\" the news is usually framed to imply the responsibility of the foreigners without a previous careful criminal investigation.",[]]],"rt":[["migration controls",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["traditional stereotypes",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["criminality",[]]],"ex":[["require visas for Venezuelans, Cubans, and Haitians",["A2","F1","H1","G3"]],["the instrumentalization of massive deportations",["F1"]],["the denial of entry at airports",[]]]},{"de":[["This positive vision could be interpreted in two ways: as a moral model, the \"good migrant,\" of how newcomers must behave in the country or as an attempt to mitigate hate towards migrants.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["xenophobia",["IMISCOE(International Migration Research Network)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It has served to echo migrants' discontent about their situation and to denounce abuses and maltreatment.",[]]],"ex":[["\"Las terribles historias de los venezolanos que acampan en San José\" -Costa Rica-(The terrible stories of Venezuelans camping in San José -Costa Rica-) (E1)",["E1"]]]},{"rt":[["racism",["IMISCOE(International Migration Research Network)"]]]},{"de":[["connectivity supporting or even substituting collectivity in today's protest movements",[]],["Such connective networks grow to the extent that people can engage in content themes that are amenable to personalization, appropriation, and collaboration through the sharing of ideas and multimedia content, as well as through access to technologies that enable such sharing.",["Bennett & Segerberg, 2013, p. 196"]]],"rt":[["Public experiences of the self",[]],["connective witnessing",[]]]},{"de":[["merges two distinct scholarly traditions, concerned with, respectively, witnessing in and through media and the deployment of digital communication technologies by protest movements",[]],["participatory and reflective act",[]],["The footage functions as a way for participants to communicate and share experiences internally. But it also works as external communication to gain public visibility, recruit more followers, and raise financial, political, and moral support.",[]],["the more inclusive understanding of this figure underlying 'connective witnessing'",[]],["Connective witnessing merges political participation and self-expression.",[]],["an attempt to take the conceptualization a step further by considering the reconfiguration of the relationship between individual and collective in personalized political participation and connective action",[]],["captures ongoing changes to acts of witnessing and political participation but also accentuates the increasing overlap between the two",[]],["one may speak of witnessing as a personalized form of political participation or personalized political participation in the form of witnessing",[]],["horizontal and decentred ordering",[]],["connective witnessing may be interpreted either as scattered documentation of specific inci-dents or as a general mode of communicating protest, since this heterogeneous material is tied together by protest as the overall subject matter and the uniformity of the narration and aesthetics.",[]],["returns to the individual first-hand eyewitness, shifts the broad notion of the witness inherent in 'media witnessing' from the audience to the audience-as-producers, and follows in the footsteps of Allan (2007), Andén-Papadopoulos (2014), and Pantti (2013) by moving beyond understanding eyewitness images in relation to their circulation in the news media and conceptualizing witnessing as a participatory act.",[]]],"rt":[["connective action",[]],["media witnessing",[]],["personalized political participation",[]],["Mass witnessing",[]],["witnessing",[]]],"sp":[["witnessing",[]]],"ex":[["citizens contributing to crisis communication and news coverage of man-made or natural catastrophe",[]],["analysis of images produced and disseminated by protesters on Ireport, CNN.com's platform for citizen reporting",[]]]},{"de":[["the photographer in citizen images emerges as an embodied collectivity, as a figure inviting herself to be imagined as 'anyone'. This structure of 'from-anyone-to-anyone' (cf. Scannell, 2000) constructs a collectivity between the depicted others and 'us'.",[]],["At the textual level, this sense of collectivity is reinforced by the captions, which make images, on the one hand, 'authorless' by attributing images to recording devices ('cap-tured by a camera phone'), content-sharing sites (e.g. 'loaded from YouTube video service') and distribution channels (e.g. 'distributed by news agency') and, on the other hand, attributing them to a collective figure (citizen, activist).",[]]],"ex":[["the bodily presence of citizen photographers is discernible as an extra textual layer in the footage in the form of breathing, shouting or pointing fingers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the con-nectivity of communicative flows needs to be foregrounded, and 'mass' may be confusing in this context by referring to both the 'mass' of communicative acts and the assembled 'mass' of people.",[]]]},{"sp":[["witnessing",[]]]},{"de":[["domestic form of witnessing",[]],["parallel to first-hand witnessing, media witnessing entails a certain responsibility",[]]],"rt":[["first-hand witnessing",[]]]},{"de":[["McDonald's interpretation of personalized politics as, on the one hand, 'public experience of the self' and, on the other, 'shared struggle for personal experience'",["McDonald, 2002, pp. 124-125"]],["action instead needs to be understood in terms of a shared struggle for personal experience",["McDonald, 2002, pp. 124-125"]],["This points to an emerging pattern of social movement where it is not 'collective identity' that is mobilized, but where action instead needs to be understood in terms of a shared struggle for personal experience.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["scholarship on witnessing is mainly preoccupied with the way and extent to which testimonies from singular individuals may be said to deal with collective experiences",[]],["utterances are recognized as paradigmatic",[]],["referring to current practices of picture making and sharing as acts of witnessing",[]],["witnessing has traditionally been conceptualized as invited (mass) media appearances, which transformed experiences into ritualized nar ratives and performances.",[]]],"rt":[["connective action",[]],["crisis communication",[]],["conflict reporting",[]]],"sb":[["connective witnessing",[]],["Mass witnessing",[]]]},{"de":[["counterfactual examples with small perturbations on target-domain data instead of relying on templates or specific datasets for bias detection",[]]]},{"de":[["a perplexity-based bias measure meant to quantify the amount of bias in generative language models along several bias dimensions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["however, there is a new turn that sees alternative media as non-binary, entering in fluid and contingent dialogue with legacy media",["Bailey, cammarts, and carpentier 2008"]]]},{"de":[["autonomy is understood as a gradual perception (heft and Dogruel 2019) that depends on different actors' position towards it in a given journalistic culture (Reich and hanitzsch 2013)",["heft and Dogruel 2019","Reich and hanitzsch 2013"]],["this article understands autonomy as a gradual process of perception that is culturally bounded.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["relational and transnational nature",[]]]},{"rt":[["interstitial spaces created by the intersection of home, diaspora, and the internet",["Oyeleye 2017, 29"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["trend in latin america, led by professional journalists who see themselves as autonomous from heteronomous forces and with high professional standards",["Medeiros and Badr 2022"]]]},{"de":[["a key element of knowledge justification",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["the pressure of algorithms in a digital world",[]]]},{"de":[["thus, illegal in cuba",[]]]},{"rt":[["professional journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["provides the analytical means to map not only human and discursive elements, but also nonhuman, material, and symbolic factors that influence social actors' ability to articulate their subjectivities and practices.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this situation, misinformation and rumors appear on the scene, along with manipulation of information with doubtful intent.",[]],["an overabundance of information -some accurate, some not -that spreads alongside a disease outbreak.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["rumors",[]],["manipulation of information with doubtful intent",[]],["misinformation and rumors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the tasks of the media in giving pictures, facts, messages and opinions about the Corona pandemic and avoiding media misinformation.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["touristification of the landscape",[]]]},{"de":[["ecotourism may be seen to capitalise on the loss of 'undeveloped' areas due to the expansion of extractive capitalist production, in the same manner as conservation generally.",[]]]},{"de":[["They consist of visual references with a strong semantic charge of the cultural relationship between society and territory.",[]],["In other words, the iconema represents the imprint of a territory, the distinctive features of the landscape.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the main goal of the discipline is to investigate both popular geopolitics produced by elites and the representations generated by non-elites",["Purcell et al., 2010"]],["the everyday manifestations of geopolitics, disseminated through diverse media channels, and the scholarly examination of said everyday geopolitics (Dittmer, 2010)",["Dittmer, 2010"]]],"rt":[["critical geopolitics",["Pickering, 2016"]]],"sb":[["the everyday manifestations of geopolitics, disseminated through diverse media channels",[]],["the scholarly examination of said everyday geopolitics",["Dittmer, 2010"]]],"sp":[["critical geopolitics",["Pickering, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["with its \"increasing importance in shaping reality\"",["Saunders 2012, p. 83"]]]},{},{"de":[["This campaign strategy can be used to create the image of public consensus where there is none, or to give a false impression of the popularity of a candidate or public policy idea",["14"]]]},{"de":[["computational propaganda, an extremely powerful new communication tool used against democratic actors and institutions worldwide",[]],["Automation, scalability, and anonymity are hallmarks of computational propaganda.",["16"]],["act against computational propaganda",[]],["monitoring disinformation and computational propaganda in elections",["41"]],["a term that neatly encapsulates this recent phenomenon-and the emerging field of study",["13"]]],"rt":[["digital astroturfing",["14"]],["State-sponsored trolling",["15"]],["disinformation",[]],["PsyOps",["13","16"]],["In-foOps",["13","16"]]],"sb":[["PsyOps",[]],["In-foOps",[]]]},{"de":[["It clarifies that this definition excludes reporting errors, satire and parody, partisan news and commentary, or illegal content.",["20"]],["It distinguishes between verifiably false news and misleading information.",[]],["countering hybrid threats, analysis, and coordinated strategic communication to spot disinformation and communicate a credible narrative",["38"]],["counter disinformation and fake news",[]],["countering disinformation in politics",["41"]],["monitoring disinformation and computational propaganda in elections",["41"]],["detect and disrupt disinformation",["41"]],["excludes reporting errors, satire and parody, partisan news and commentary, or illegal content",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["countering hybrid threats",["38"]]]},{"rt":[["PsyOps",["13"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["In-foOps",["13"]]]},{},{"sb":[["State-sponsored trolling",[]]]},{"de":[["Acceptance does not require a specific form of expression and can be either oral or written, explicit or implicit. Implicit acceptance refers to a legally valid intention where the act of acceptance is inferred from actions that align with the offer.",[]]]},{"de":[["In such cases, individuals knowingly agree to distribute false or unlawful information, often leveraging digital platforms to amplify their reach.",[]]]},{"sb":[["knowledge",[]],["will",[]]],"sp":[["mens rea",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["False information frequently intersects with misleading news or content that aims to mislead the public, blurring the lines between intentional deception and unintended inaccuracies.",["19"]],["This definition highlights the emphasis placed by UAE legislators on the intent to mislead, whether the information is entirely false or merely misleading within its context or framing.",[]],["This study uses the term to reflect entirely fabricated content and information that may be partially true but presented in a deceptive or manipulated context.",[]]],"rt":[["misleading news",["19"]]],"sb":[["Fabricated Content",["21"]],["Impersonated Content",["21"]],["Misleading Content",["21"]],["Manipulated Content",["21"]],["False Context",["21"]],["False Association",["21"]],["Satire or Parody",["21"]],["Deepfakes",["22"]],["Fabricated Content: Entirely false content, significantly diverging from the truth.",["21"]],["Impersonated Content: Involves identity theft of genuine sources.",["21"]],["Misleading Content: Information presented in a way that falsely accuses or misdirects against individuals, entities, or issues.",["21"]],["Manipulated Content: Edited or doctored materials, such as cut-and-paste modifications, designed to create a false impression.",["21"]],["False Context: Accurate information placed within a false framework or context, leading to public deception.",["21"]],["False Association: Using unrelated headlines or images to misrepresent the actual content.",["21"]],["Satire or Parody: Although not directly harmful, these can indirectly mislead audiences or propagate false information subtly.",["21"]],["Deepfakes: Content created using artificial intelligence to produce compelling but entirely fabricated material.",["22"]]],"ex":[["Fake News",["23"]],["Misleading Context",["23"]],["Fake News: Deliberately false information aimed at influencing public opinion.",["23"]],["Misleading Context: Accurate information presented within deceptive or manipulated contexts.",["23"]]]},{"de":[["Definitions of false information vary across legal, cultural, and social systems.",[]],["Describing a piece of news or information as \"false\" is often complex, as it depends heavily on subjective and artistic standards, making it challenging to establish a comprehensive and precise definition.",[]]],"rt":[["misleading news or content that aims to mislead the public",[]]]},{"sp":[["criminal intent",[]]]},{"de":[["Content that constitutes the subject of a punishable crime under the law, or whose publication, circulation, or re-circulation within the state may harm the state's security, sovereignty, or any of its interests; public health; public order; friendly relations with other states; or influence the results of elections for the Federal National Council or advisory councils in the emirates. It may also incite hostility or hatred between different groups of people, lower public confidence in the performance of any duty or task, or affect the exercise of authority by state entities or any of its institutions.",["7"]],["Information that, in itself or about an activity, including the sale of products or the provision of services, is not in compliance with Union law or the law of any Member State that complies with Union law, irrespective of the precise subject matter or nature of that law.",["8"]],["Any act or behaviour related to creating and disseminating content that disrupts public morals or offends public taste.",["10"]],["The production of short video materials that spread online and include songs, acting, comedic content, and satirical commentary, some of which contain obscene language accompanied by physical gestures or dancing, as well as addressing controversial social topics such as gender relations and family issues in a predominantly conservative environment.",["11"]],["Content that violates public order in all its aspectseconomic, political, social, religious, and public morals-is considered illegal content.",[]],["Illegal content broadly refers to any material or expression contravening the law, including hate speech, terrorism-related content, or harmful falsehoods.",[]]],"sy":[["Unlawful content",[]]],"ex":[["Hate speech and incitement to violence.",[]],["Promotion of terrorism or related materials.",[]],["Exploitation of children and unlawful sexual content.",[]],["Violations of intellectual property rights.",[]],["Dissemination of disinformation that undermines public order or societal safety.",[]],["incitement to violence",["13"]],["hate speech",["13"]],["media manipulation",["13"]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["Incentives can also take the form of services the interested party provides to the publisher or benefits such as facilitating a promotion for an employee, transferring them, lending them an apartment, or granting access to a vehicle for use.",["34"]],["The most common form of an incentive is money, but it may also be financial documents, securities, jewellery, clothing, food, or any other valuable item.",[]]],"ex":[["The most common form of an incentive is money, but it may also be financial documents, securities, jewellery, clothing, food, or any other valuable item.",[]]]},{"de":[["knowledge of the exchange must exist when receiving the benefit, whether during acceptance or request.",[]]],"sp":[["criminal intent",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["The crime of receiving incentives to publish illegal content or false information is an intentional offence that requires the mental element of criminal intent (mens rea).",[]]],"sy":[["mental element",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["the crime of receiving an incentive to disseminate unlawful or misleading material",[]],["The phenomenon of \"paid disinformation\" is of growing concern, where such content is intentionally spread in exchange for financial or moral incentives, posing threats to societal stability and undermining public trust in the digital environment.",[]]],"ex":[["deceptive online advertising, which shares core characteristics with criminally relevant disinformationnamely, the intent to mislead and the presence of economic incentives.",["9"]]]},{"de":[["Publishing can be public (available to all users) or targeted (restricted to specific groups, such as friends or followers).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Republishing may imply tacit endorsement of the original material unless proven otherwise.",[]],["It carries the same legal liability as the original publication if the individual republishing the content is aware of its illegality.",[]],["Republishing often references the source but extends the content's reach to a new audience.",[]]],"ex":[["this includes retweeting on X (formerly Twitter), sharing on Facebook, or reposting on other platforms.",[]],["For instance, this includes retweeting on X (formerly Twitter), sharing on Facebook, or reposting on other platforms.",[]]]},{"de":[["This practice involves individuals or entities soliciting the publication of false or unlawful information for monetary gain, thereby contributing to digital misinformation.",[]]]},{"de":[["The request can be made in writing or orally, with no distinction as to the form of communication, as long as the intent and demand are clear.",["29"]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["unsafe content refers to materials that may not breach legal thresholds but still pose risks to platform integrity, public confidence, or brand reputation.",[]]],"rt":[["Illegal content",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In the FJ model, individuals are represented by nodes in a network and social ties are represented by edges. Individuals update their opinions through an iterative weighted-averaging process that considers their own opinion and the opinions of their neighbors.",[]],["The model incorporates two key variables: susceptibility and strength of social ties.",[]],["In the FJ model, individuals are represented by nodes in a network and social ties are represented by edges. Individuals update their opinions through an iterative weighted-averaging process that considers their own opinion and the opinions of their neighbors. The model incorporates two key variables: susceptibility and strength of social ties.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This would reveal the agenda setting differences between the topics and the context the press appears between the two periods.",[]],["investigate the agenda setting about the European elections",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Print media are key to the setting of agendas and focusing public interest on particular subjects.",[]],["Print media is more credible than digital media because in Internet do not always have regulation and editorial standards.",[]],["So, print media are more objective because they record news with time distance and they offer adequate analysis, pluralism, commentary, interview's and documentation",["Clausen, 2003"]]],"rt":[["digital media",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["hyperpartisan media",[]],["independent media",[]],["nontraditional news outlets",[]]]},{},{"de":[["as the platform might turn into a space that provides content for users to reinforce their beliefs and potentially become more radicalized.",[]]]},{"de":[["as the algorithms mostly suggest similar content",[]],["as the algorithms follow homophily patterns and suggest more like-minded content",[]]]},{"de":[["We decided to use misinformation instead of disinformation because the difference between the two concepts is intentionality",["Jack, 2017","Benkler et al., 2018","Wardle, 2019"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["persuasive language",[]]]},{"de":[["When reading text online, we encounter persuasion in news with political framing, advertisements for sales, teaser messages and headlines for getting clicks, chat forums discussing views, political messages for votes, etc.",[]]],"sy":[["convincing",["Gass and Seiter, 2010"]],["propaganda",["Gass and Seiter, 2010"]],["advising",["Gass and Seiter, 2010"]],["educating",["Gass and Seiter, 2010"]],["manipulating",[]],["using rhetoric",[]]]},{"de":[["we propose to employ a broad definition of persuasive language across various domains, as we posit that there are commonalities in persuasive language regardless of the domain.",[]],["We distinguish it from the concept of convincingness; which is to provide strong arguments to get the receiver to reason that the evidence provided is solid. In contrast, persuasive-sounding text can be both sound and unsound, and this is not what we aim to measure in this work.",[]],["persuasive-sounding text can be both sound and unsound, and this is not what we aim to measure in this work.",[]],["In contrast, persuasive-sounding text can be both sound and unsound, and this is not what we aim to measure in this work.",[]]],"rt":[["rhetorical strategies",[]],["rhetorical devices",[]],["convincingness",[]]],"sb":[["emotional appeals",[]],["credibility appeals",[]],["loaded language",[]],["name labelling",[]],["exaggeration",[]],["minimization",[]],["logical fallacies",[]],["inclusive and exclusive Language",[]],["generalizations",[]],["clichés",[]],["slogans",[]],["comparisons",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["to generate distorted and often misleading information, which can result in heightened polarization on specific issues and division among communities.",[]]],"rt":[["misleading content",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["counterfactual invariance",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., when the model repeats the instruction without providing any answer regarding the classification.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Lexical neologisms",[]],["Morphological neologisms",[]],["Semantic neologisms",[]]]},{"sp":[["neologisms",[]]],"ex":[["'ice' to indicate petrol-or diesel-powered vehicles",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["Simplification of such complex topics as policies of the European Union can lead to belittling and eventually to dangerous \"information disorder\" caused by the misunderstanding by the end user.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"sy":[["notice-and-action procedure",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["European public sphere",[]],["Europeanization",[]]]},{"de":[["people would rather pretend to agree or not talk about controversial issues in the social group they belong to in order not to jeopardize their position in such a group.",[]]]},{"sy":[["Internet troll",["73"]]]},{},{"de":[["The intersection of copyright law and AI-generated content presents unique challenges and raises important questions regarding the ownership, protection, and legal status",["Werzansky-Orland, 2024"]]]},{"de":[["These can range from realistic portraits of people to completely fabricated landscapes or alterations of existing photographs.",[]]],"ex":[["These can range from realistic portraits of people to completely fabricated landscapes or alterations of existing photographs.",[]]]},{"de":[["have been used to manipulate public opinion, influence elections, and damage reputations",["Chesney & Citron, 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["journalistic objectivity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["potentially infringing on their moral rights or diluting their brand",[]],["where AI models mimic the work of living artists without their permission, potentially infringing on their moral rights or diluting their brand",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Both methods help detect AI-generated or manipulated content and protect intellectual property.",[]]],"rt":[["digital fingerprinting",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["false context",[]],["manipulated content",[]],["fabricated content",[]]]},{"de":[["relies on the utilization of genuine content or information. Consequently, when such information is incorporated into a different scenario, it loses its original meaning and is reinterpreted to serve the disinformation objectives of those who employ it to deceive audiences.",[]],["As a global misinformation trend, decontextualization stands out as the primary deception strategy identified by fact-checkers (Cazzamatta, 2024).",[]]],"sy":[["false context",[]]]},{"de":[["In this article, the term \"disinformation\" will be used to refer to \"information that is false and deliberately created to harm a person, social group, organization or country\" (Wardle & Derakshan, 2017, p. 20).",[]]],"sb":[["hoaxes",[]]]},{"de":[["the original function of the fact-checkers",[]]]},{"de":[["this journalistic practice is oriented towards a public service promoting education and training the citizenry to make the public both sensitive to misleading content and able to think more critically about informative",[]],["traditional watchdog role performance of fact-checking journalism",[]],["Fact-checking journalism emerged at the end of the 20th century as a practice to check political discourse during electoral context and to revitalize journalism practice to escape declarative journalism and claim essential attributes of journalism such as rigour or impartiality (Amazeen, 2019).",[]]],"rt":[["gatewatchers or gatebouncers",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Similarly, \"hoaxes\" will be used to refer specifically to disinformative content.",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["categorizes disinformation based on the nature or intent behind the falsehood.",[]],["the category",[]],["making it increasingly challenging to differentiate between truth and falsehood",[]],["this form of disinformation is particularly detrimental, as highlighted by Allen et al. (2024), who reported the negative impact of factually accurate yet deceptive content on audiences.",["Allen et al. (2024)"]]],"ex":[["Germany has not decriminalized possession and sharing of child pornography",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["notable not only for the speed of their creation and dissemination but also for the relative ease with which they can be fact-checked, owing to their typically lower level of complexity.",[]]]},{"de":[["Hence, the prioritized disinformation to be monitored by fact-checkers is that which goes from elites to citizens (top-bottom).",[]],["That means that the watchdog journalistic culture involves the practice of monitoring and holding those in power accountable through journalism.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This bias often arises from the encoding of discriminatory societal norms and values within the training data, resulting in representational harms that perpetuate stereotypes.",[]],["bias toward binary gender associations",[]],["implicit and explicit biases",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Having survived the ordeal, the protagonist emerges stronger and wiser.",[]]],"sp":[["hero's journey",[]]],"ex":[["This could be a physical object, a realization, or a special power that will aid them in the final battle.",[]]]},{"sp":[["hero's journey",[]]]},{"de":[["a characteristic that identifies political candidates especially in electoral periods, with the aim of mobilizing the vote",["(López Meri, 2016)"]]],"rt":[["fallacy",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the process of manipulation has evolved and reached a new level which materialized in the concept of fake news.",[]],["two of the most common reasons which lead to the spreading of fake news are related to financial and ideological interests.",[]],["two of the most common reasons which lead to the spreading of fake news are related to financial and ideological interests",[]],["the negative potential of fake news, which is being spread with the help of social media platforms, in undermining democracy by highlighting the fact that not all society members have the ability to select information and making rational decisions",[]],["misinformation can be spread faster and more efficiently through social media platforms when there are a high uncertainty and high demand for certain public information on issues such as crises",["Spence et al. (2016)"]],["The identification of fake news is important as it is published and promoted to misinform and for the creation of public pressure, generating direct benefits to certain groups and their economic interest.",[]]]},{"de":[["citizen journalism is a somewhat fuzzy term used in different ways by different people at different times",["p. 709","Jurrat 2012","Chadha and Steiner (2015)"]],["news reported by citizen journalists is heavily influenced by personal opinion and bias",["Phillips 2009"]],["reproducing existing news instead of reporting original content",[]],["take content from traditional media or other sources and republish the content on their sites just to receive visitors' hits",[]],["most of them fail to authenticate the content (like providing accurate facts) they produce",[]],["less afraid to express their opinions, and show their biases, if any",[]],["Citizen journalists are less afraid to express their opinions, and show their biases, if any.",[]],["opens the way for multidirectional communication between content producers and audiences",[]],["enriches the media space for interaction with citizens",[]],["Due to the nature of citizen content journalism, which thrives on social media networking, the degree of biased or skewed material exists, which may compromise the integrity of the information content compared to professional media",[]],["Although citizen journalism has been criticised for providing a narrow view on political issues, it is deemed essential in presenting alternative perspectives on politics -providing Malaysians with the opportunity to form better opinions on political issues, as well as offering them the chance to make informed decisions on politics.",[]],["Citizen journalism content is a double-edged sword, which could have both positive and negative impacts on the country.",[]],["lack of depth in citizen journalism content fails to provide a wider context to the political news, leading to tunnel vision on political issues and widespread misguided political propaganda.",[]],["the reliability of citizen journalism content includes concern for the accuracy of information.",[]],["the absence of gatekeepers not only provides citizen reporters with more liberty for content creation, but it also allows them to bypass government scrutiny as the internet has more freedom than the mainstream media space does.",[]]],"sy":[["participatory journalism",["Jurrat 2012"]],["guerrilla journalism",["Jurrat 2012"]],["open-source journalism",["Jurrat 2012"]],["citizen media",[]],["alternative journalism",[]]],"rt":[["mainstream media",[]],["professional media",[]]],"sp":[["Journalism",[]],["journalistic activity",[]]],"ex":[["Citizen Journalists Malaysia",[]],["Media Rakyat",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["double-check their (citizen journalists') facts, and the authenticity of their reports",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["To be so requires a deeper level of engagement -in-depth reading on politics and governance, conversations on the subject and self-reflection on one's political values.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Compassion generates meaning and hope amid experiences of restlessness and uncertainty.",[]],["The practice of compassion strengthens the capacity to engage in worldview dialogue and vice versa and to encounter others with respect regardless of their beliefs, to engage in mutual learning, and to cultivate a shared minimal understanding and ethos within diversity.",[]],["It encourages responses that are critical, compassionate, constructive, and oriented toward transformative social action.",[]]],"rt":[["worldview literacy",[]],["worldview dialogue",[]]]},{"de":[["challenging media messages that reproduce oppression and discrimination",["Share & Gambino, 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["In dialogue, people learn to notice how multi-point of view is needed when creating a common minimum ethos to work for the common good (Rautionmaa, 2010).",["Rautionmaa, 2010"]]],"rt":[["interfaith and inter-worldview dialogue",[]]]},{"de":[["Empathy assists to reason from other than our own starting points, assumptions and thoughts (Hickey & Suárez, 2018) that is needed to complement criticality.",["Hickey & Suárez, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["The meaning of the message therefore becomes dynamic in a sense that meaning includes both an understanding of what the source of the message is trying to communicate and how the perspective of the receiver of the message shapes their interpretation of it",["Weintraub Austin & Domgaard, 2024"]]]},{"de":[["It also implies to be resilient, to be able to detect and to combat disinformation and misinformation, hate speech, all forms of violence, including gender-based violence, harmful content and online abuse and exploitation, understanding one's rights and responsibilities on-and off-line and engaging in digital environments in a safe, effective, discerning and respectful way that enhances digital security and protects privacy.",["UNESCO, 2023"]]]},{},{"de":[["The development of critical compassion through the joint cultivation of media literacy and worldview literacy supports the ability to recognize and critically interpret the values, messages, and assumptions embedded in various forms of communication and worldviews.",[]]],"rt":[["worldview literacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it does not only give tools to observe how religions and other worldviews are reflected in the burning questions of the day, but to promote diversity of thinking and mutual co-operation.",[]]]},{"de":[["One needed dimension is also about ethical readiness and commitment to understand the motives and thinking of the other.",["Heinonen, 2010"]],["to manage and implement the rules of dialogue, a person must have social capabilities, including empathy, sensitivity and an ethical basis, to act with respect towards another",["Heinonen, 2010"]],["Religious literacy is seen as a matter of civic responsibility",["Heinonen, 2010","Seiple & Hoover, 2022","Heinonen, 2010;Seiple & Hoover, 2022"]],["It is therefore a stretchy, fluid concept and context-dependent meaning that it is formulated and applied differently depending on what surroundings and situations it occurs (Dinham & Francis, 2015).",["Dinham & Francis, 2015"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Existential questions play a central role in shaping any worldview",["van der Kooij et al., 2017"]]],"rt":[["The media in its various forms, the people we connect with, and the communities we belong to all influence our perceptions of the world in turn",["Valk, 2017"]]],"ex":[["It is a way of life that everyone develops to a greater or lesser degree of complexity as they go through life.",["Valk, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["Worldview literacy education should be an integral part of media literacy training.",[]],["combining media literacy with worldview literacy can support complexity awareness and enable a more effective transformational learning process toward a more just world.",[]],["Worldview literacy as a dialogical and educational practice makes the student better understand the diversity and dynamism of world views, as well as themselves as its social actors in plurality (Shaw, 2022)",["Shaw, 2022"]],["worldview literacy both requires and fosters critical compassion that is also needed in media literacy to create a more just world.",[]],["The practice of compassion strengthens the capacity to engage in worldview dialogue and vice versa and to encounter others with respect regardless of their beliefs, to engage in mutual learning, and to cultivate a shared minimal understanding and ethos within diversity.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["more rigid concept of assimilation",[]],["regarded too rigid and inhumane",[]],["immigrants should blend into their new country and were expected to adopt the French language, customs and way of life.",[]]],"rt":[["integration",[]],["intégration",[]]]},{"ex":[["freedom (Wierzbicka 1997), class (Williams 1976) or justice (Bennett et al. 2005)",[]],["freedom (Wierzbicka 1997)",[]],["class (Williams 1976)",[]],["justice (Bennett et al. 2005)",[]]]},{"ex":[["global warming in the context of the discourse about climate and climate change or austerity in the context of the financial crises since 2008",[]]]},{"sy":[["disintegrated",[]]]},{"de":[["Integration as a middle ground between multiculturalism (which is seen to encourage segregation) and assimilation (which was regarded too rigid and inhumane).",[]],["the management of integration and immigration matters was attributed to the Ministère de l'Intérieur (Home office). This change of attribution attests the historical shift from a social to a law-enforcement perspective.",[]]],"rt":[["multiculturalism",[]],["assimilation",[]]]},{"de":[["intégration has during the 1990s come to be largely used instead of formerly assimilation.",[]]],"rt":[["assimilation",[]]]},{"de":[["determined with the aid of statistical calculation in corpus linguistic approaches, both by frequency and comparison",[]]],"sb":[["positive keywords",[]],["negative keywords",[]]]},{"sy":[["guiding culture",[]]]},{"de":[["Consumption of fake news makes people more likely to adopt various political misperceptions (Guess et al., 2020) that can affect their subsequent behavior, including voting decisions (Weeks & Garrett, 2014).",[]],["sensational and made-up stories that mimic the format of journalism",[]],["Identifying fake news websites presents a challenge as academic consensus is yet to emerge around the best way to assess the accuracy and impartiality of online news producers.",[]],["intentionally deceptive digital misinformation and propaganda",["Egelhofer & Lecheler, 2019"]]],"sy":[["fabricated news",[]]],"rt":[["online misinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Media trust (range 1-5, MW1 = 2.32, SD W1 = 0.87 and MW2 = 2.33, SD W2 = 0.90) was also measured using an item adapted from the General Social Survey asking respondents how much confidence they had in mass media.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["political trust",[]]]},{"de":[["his ability to communicate with sources and understand the links between climate and other issues",[]]]},{"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"de":[["This framing is often used indirectly, through quotation or reasoning, so the news story includes ethical messages.",[]]],"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"de":[["framing is an interactive skill that opinion leaders or officials may develop. They are mental models in determining how to select and highlight the information framing and its use in achieving communication and organizational goals",[]],["These tools highlight specific meanings of media messages regarding the issue of media coverage, thereby identifying the public's views, ideas, and trends.",[]],["The public treats it according to its reference framing to interpret and understand those issues' rationale, causes, and consequences",["Van Gorp, 2005"]],["the public interprets this issue within the framing highlighted by those digital newspapers.",[]]],"sb":[["action and accomplishment",[]],["information framing",[]],["strategic",[]],["responsibility",[]],["human interests",[]],["Economic Consequences",[]],["Achievement",[]],["Conflict",[]],["Mixed",[]]]},{"de":[["This makes some facts more straightforward than others, thus providing explanatory signals that help to understand and recognize those issues in light of the framing provided by the media",["Feste, 2011"]]]},{"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"de":[["to support the materials published on those websites",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["antagonism",[]]]},{"de":[["\"Agonistic memory promotes radical multiperspectivity\" as \"it also incorporates the perspectives of the perpetrators, not in order to legitimise them but in order to understand the historical and socio-political conditions, as well as the passions that led to perpetratorship\"",["Bull and Cacciatori 2020, 5","5"]],["it also incorporates the perspectives of the perpetrators, not in order to legitimise them but in order to understand the historical and socio-political conditions, as well as the passions that led to perpetratorship",["Bull and Cacciatori 2020, 5"]]],"sy":[["agonistic remembering",[]]]},{"rt":[["cosmopolitan remembering",[]],["agonistic mode of remembering",[]]]},{"rt":[["antagonistic remembering",[]],["agonistic mode of remembering",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["reconciliation",[]]],"sb":[["social forgiveness",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing is not about what the audience should think but how the public should think about something",["Walter and Ophir 2019"]]]},{"de":[["news framing behaviors ensure that the representations and interpretations conveyed by the frames are part of an \"ecology of influence\" between the media and the audience",["D' Angelo 2018, xxv"]]]},{"rt":[["frame",[]]],"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the logic of non-forgiveness is a powerful tool used by the opposition to damage the candidate.",[]],["rhetoric that reflects characteristics of an attitude of non-forgiveness",[]],["emotion of non-forgiveness",[]],["try to use these as a justification to delegitimize the aspirations of a politician",[]]],"rt":[["social forgiveness",[]]]},{"rt":[["forgiveness",[]]]},{"de":[["This concept does not refer to forgetting past deeds but rather to critical engagement, not based on feelings of revenge and retribution.",[]],["In a long-lasting peace process, forgiveness can enable the successful reintegration of different groups and foster a less divided society.",[]],["The concept of social forgiveness has already been studied in different contexts of civil war and political violence worldwide",[]],["the column does not deny Petro's past but deliberately presents it as a positive characteristic of his candidacy",[]],["reinforce the call for social forgiveness for Petro, implying that the debate about his candidacy should not focus on condemning his past but rather on his current political agenda",[]],["the debate about his candidacy should not focus on condemning his past but rather on his current political agenda",[]],["internalization and embracement of social forgiveness in the political discourse",[]],["In this research, the idea of \"harming someone\" was extended to a more political context, in the sense that social forgiveness should also mean refraining from intending to sabotage the political career of the person concerned.",[]]],"sy":[["social pardon",[]]],"rt":[["non-forgiveness",[]],["forgiveness",[]]],"sp":[["forgiveness",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The more fully formed this network is (that is, the more connections are created within the group, and the more connections with outsiders are severed), the more isolated from the introduction of outside views is the group, while the views of its members are able to circulate widely within it",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Moreover, as indicated above, the hashtag is used even if the text of the Tweet has nothing to do with the label that defines it.",[]],["The hashtag infact is a founding element of the dynamics of Twitter which started using it in August 2007 before the other social networks.",[]]]},{"de":[["the World Health Organization has defined the recent crisis not only a pandemic but an infodemic",[]]]},{"de":[["They consist of information exchange processes by virtue of which the belief that a fact is true spreads simply because other people seem to believe it.",[]]]},{"de":[["-In an informational cascade, people cease relying at a certain point on their private information or opinions. They decide instead on the basis of the signals conveyed by others. It follows that the behavior of the first few people, or even one, can in theory produce similar behavior from countless followers",["op. cit., p. 99"]]]},{"de":[["Among their main arguments is the belief that pharmaceutical companies conceive vaccines for the sole purpose of profit, a belief that is periodically fueled by plots and fake news.",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["second-level agenda setting",[]]],"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{"sb":[["value framing",[]],["attribute framing",[]],["responsibility framing",[]],["strategy and issue framing",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["A common feature in most approaches to this concept is the basic assumption that we do not relate to the world in a direct and unfiltered way, but that we recognise and interpret events within existing ideas.",[]],["a way to describe the power of a communicating text",["Entman 1993: 51"]],["entails the power to define what and who are good and bad, to single out both the problems and solutions and to influence moral judgements of the events.",[]],["Framing mechanisms also thereby act to prime the ways in which future events will be perceived and have an influence on both norms and politics.",[]],["the framing tells us that this is not just a single shooting, but also a much larger problem.",[]],["the newscast on Sunday evening was literally framed as news of terror",[]]],"sb":[["problem definition",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["solution or treatment recommendation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The critical approach is abandoned in favour of a role where journalists act as masters of ceremony towards the audience to ensure that tradition is upheld",["Nossek 2008: 314"]],["Critical voices towards society or the government are stifled just as they are when the media engage in traditional media events",["Dayan & Katz 1992","Nossek 2008"]],["the media act independently in accordance with the ruling values in society and master a ceremony of mourning after the terrorist attack",[]],["where the media perform the same roles as in classic media events like royal funerals or weddings",["Nossek 2008: 326-327"]]]},{"sp":[["stance",[]],["three components of stance",[]]]},{"de":[["Predominantly realized in adjectives, adverbs and nouns, these stance resources enable the speaker to present information as true, false, important, disturbing or surprising, and create different images of social actors thus emotionalizing the speech.",[]],["They aim to connect with the audience on an emotional level, expressing shared feelings and concerns.",[]],["Attitude markers were predominantly used by Trump for emotionalizing claims by appealing to negative or positive feelings.",[]]],"sy":[["attitude",[]]],"sb":[["Assessment markers",[]],["Significance markers",[]],["Emotion markers",[]]],"sp":[["four stance features",[]],["stance features",[]],["stance",[]]],"ex":[["surprising, crucial, tragic, serious",[]]]},{"de":[["By skillfully managing the use of boosters, speakers can modulate their evaluative stance towards both the information conveyed and the audience, thus making their discourse more persuasive (Dontcheva-Navratilova, 2025).",[]],["They convey a sense of confidence and conviction, projecting an image of a leader who is decisive and sure of his knowledge and abilities.",[]],["Amplifying strength and certainty, boosters create a sense of emphasis, signaling that the speaker strongly believes in their message and is confident in its validity.",[]],["In persuasive texts such as election campaign speeches, where strong language and persuasive appeals are essential for gaining support and influencing public opinion, boosters are helpful in creating an impression of assurance and instilling trust and confidence in the audience.",[]]],"sy":[["boosting",[]]],"rt":[["significance marker",[]],["Significance markers",[]]],"sb":[["Certainty boosters",[]],["Intensity boosters",[]],["Extremity boosters",[]],["extremity markers",[]],["intensity markers",[]]],"sp":[["four stance features",[]],["stance features",[]],["stance",[]]],"ex":[["must, certainly, obviously, or I am sure",[]],["(13) It's a very important thing. I haven't even heard it mentioned in two years. That's a very important thing.",[]]]},{"de":[["which enhances the persuasiveness of claims.",[]]],"ex":[["the framing of the world in terms of dichotomies",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance",[]],["three components of stance",[]]]},{"de":[["Trump uses these resources to create both positive and negative representations.",[]]],"ex":[["the superlative adjectives the worst and the most crooked",[]],["the most secure",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["four stance features",[]],["stance",[]],["stance features",[]]],"ex":[["perhaps, maybe, it seems, or it is possible",[]]]},{"de":[["In addition to contributing to greater speaker visibility in discourse, I-utterances have \"all the reliability of first-hand claim\" (Hodge & Kress, 1993, p. 92).",["Hodge & Kress, 1993, p. 92"]],["When someone speaks from a place of I, it often feels more genuine and less contrived than a generalized statement.",[]],["This can build trust with the audience, making them more receptive to the speaker's message.",[]],["The frequent use of this type of stancetaking indicates speaker's attempt to present him/herself as a holder of discourse, thus making the claims more convincing and giving extra importance to them (Kashiha, 2022).",["Kashiha, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["These lexical items are employed to add color to claims",[]],["This heightened emotional coloring can resonate with audiences, creating a stronger emotional connection.",[]]]},{"rt":[["positive self-presentation",[]]]},{"de":[["It is influenced by existing social forces while also actively shaping those forces through its very existence.",[]]]},{"rt":[["negative other-presentation",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance",[]],["three components of stance",[]]]},{"de":[["These markers allow speakers to create a unique voice and deliberately assert their presence within the text. They contribute to developing a relationship with recipients and help to build credibility and positive images of the speaker, thus playing a significant role in arguments.",[]],["These markers allow speakers to create a unique voice and deliberately assert their presence within the text.",[]],["They contribute to developing a relationship with recipients and help to build credibility and positive images of the speaker, thus playing a significant role in arguments.",[]],["They also project an image of self-confidence and leadership.",[]],["By directly acknowledging their own perspective, speakers can appear more transparent and relatable.",[]],["Self-mention markers can also demonstrate the speaker's personal investment in their message.",[]]],"sy":[["self-mention",[]]],"sb":[["I-pronouns",[]],["Inclusive we-pronouns",[]],["Exclusive we-pronouns",[]],["I-pronoun",[]],["we-pronouns",[]]],"sp":[["four stance features",[]],["stance features",[]],["stance",[]]],"ex":[["I believe, in my opinion, or as I see it",[]]]},{"de":[["Significance markers were less frequent in the corpus and employed to emphasize the importance of some events, features, or actions",[]],["The overt marking of importance is a key feature of persuasive discourse, and election campaign speeches are a clear indication of an evaluation of the event or action.",[]],["Significance markers can persuade audiences by convincing them of the importance of specific events or actions.",[]]],"ex":[["Importantly, after decades of rising energy costs, the United States had finally attained the impossible dream of American energy independence, which soon would've turned into energy dominance.",[]],["It's a very important thing. I haven't even heard it mentioned in two years. That's a very important thing.",[]],["(12) Importantly, after decades of rising energy costs, the United States had finally attained the impossible dream of American energy independence, which soon would've turned into energy dominance.",[]]]},{"de":[["it helps control the propositional content, present viewpoints, project values, capture trust, and build the relationship with an audience, being both an act of representation and expression that constitutes a type of meaning represented in discourse",["Ajiboye & Abioye, 2019"]],["stance is a crucial metadiscursive feature",[]],["Stance is regarded as a valuable tool for enhancing the persuasiveness of claims, establish credibility, or construct authorial identities and negotiate with an audience.",[]],["The later study specified the definition by referring personal feelings, attitudes, value judgments, and assessments to this category",["Biber et al., 1999"]],["using linguistic features not only to express the speaker's own perspectives but also to engage with and shape the listener's understanding and response.",[]]],"rt":[["stancetaking",[]],["metadiscourse",[]],["hedges",[]],["boosters",[]],["attitude markers",[]],["self-mention markers",[]]],"sb":[["evidentiality",[]],["affect",[]],["presence",[]],["hedges",[]],["boosters",[]],["attitude markers",[]],["self-mention markers",[]]],"sp":[["metadiscursive feature",[]]]},{"de":[["can be exploited in election discourse with the aim to influence the voters and win them over",[]],["manipulating the stance features are of great value to the politician as it helps emphasize or de-emphasize social actions or social actors, persuade recipients into believing or doing something, and build a strong and appealing image as a leader",[]],["the strategic use of stance features is of great value to the politician as it helps emphasize or de-emphasize social actions or social actors and persuade recipients into believing or doing something.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["stance",[]]]},{"de":[["can negatively impact global public health and undermine trust in vaccination efforts",["23"]],["can contribute to harmful attitudes such as vaccine refusal and diminish trust in vaccination campaigns",["39"]]],"ex":[["depopulation",[]],["novaccine",[]],["vaccinedeath",[]],["misleading information about effectiveness, emotional narratives about safety, and conspiracy theories",["23"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["A large volume of fake news is being produced for political or economical purposes",["8","22","41"]]]},{"de":[["The task of stance detection is to identify the stance of an evidence towards a given news claim",["12","13"]],["splitting the stance detection task into two sub-tasks, related/unrelated and agree/disagree/discuss classification sub-tasks",[]],["The goal of stance detection is to categorize an overall position of a subject towards an object into one of the four classes: agree, disagree, discuss, and unrelated.",[]]],"rt":[["information retrieval",["34","42"]],["text entailment",["34","42"]],["related/unrelated",[]],["agree/disagree/discuss",[]],["relatedness detection",[]]]},{"sb":[["agree",[]],["disagree",[]],["discuss",[]],["unrelated",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["homophily",[]],["polarization",[]],["algorithmic ranking",[]]]},{"de":[["differences in its usage have been shown to reflect societal biases (Hoyle et al., 2019;Marjanovic et al., 2022).",["Hoyle et al., 2019","Marjanovic et al., 2022"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Introduces a verified state, derives R 0 for spread assessment, and employs Lyapunov functions for global stability.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Alternative media",[]]]},{"de":[["Alternative media may be diverse, pluralistic and heterogeneous, acknowledging the conflictual (rather than consensual) locus of everyday politics and echoing the recurrent and dynamic interface between multiple social actors and different alternative media practices.",[]]],"sy":[["non-mainstream media",[]]],"rt":[["nomadic",[]],["anarchic",[]]]},{"de":[["In essence, these outlets, were an attempt both to increase the opportunities for independent journalism and to generate income for precarious, mainly freelance journalists.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["clientelism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["They combine the practices and logics of legacy media with those characterizing social media (van Dijck et al., 2018) and digital media arenas where chatbots and AI solutions will be predominant also for public sector communication (Badham et al., 2024).",[]]],"sy":[["hybrid figures",[]]]},{"de":[["technology that generates new content in response to prompts",[]],["developing fresh, human-like material that can be engaged with and consumed, rather than just numerical forecasts or internal rules",["García-Peñalvo & Vázquez-Ingelmo, 2023, p. 7"]],["a technology that generates new content in response to prompts",[]]],"sp":[["AI",[]]]},{"rt":[["information disorder",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["In particular, van Dijck (2020) stressed how this process can pose challenges for the public sector, with the risk of treating common goods, such as health or education, as privatized assets encapsulated within the platform ecosystem that operates on market logics, following the principles of digital capitalism.",[]]]},{"de":[["foundational for enhancing democratic processes, promoting citizen participation, public decision-making, and building trust in institutions",["OECD, 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["This decreases the accuracy of this classifier on \"minority\" data. Such bias is thus caused by the lack of diversity in the data (Dastin, 2018).",["Dastin, 2018"]]],"rt":[["bias/unfairness in classification tasks",["Bagdasaryan et al. (2019)"]]]},{"de":[["In this approach, the model is asked to make a biased statement, instead of an unbiased statement. The resulting probability distribution is then used to change the model's initial output distribution.",[]]]},{"de":[["May et al. (2019) extended the approach of Caliskan et al. (2017) to a sentence level by inserting the attribute and target words from WEAT into template synthetic sentences such as \"This is a[n] word \".",["May et al., 2019","May et al. (2019)","Caliskan et al. (2017)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["exaggerating story details with sensational language, using phrases like \"WOW!\", \"It's worth reading\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["properties of new media",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["Misinformation",["15"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["deceptive action aimed at persuading someone to a certain behavior, usually harmful to him and those related to him",["9"]],["an action or its effect aimed at shocking someone, evoking some emotions or uncontrolled behavior in someone",["9"]],["Power of impact is to cause a change in the current assessment, approach, perception of events, their assessment, building the confidence of the credibility of the content described, and thus the reaction of the recipients in line with the expectations of the sender of the message",["13"]],["Ich funkcja jest dość szeroka -mogą wpływać na wyniki wyborów politycznych, postawy i zachowania społeczne czy notowania na giełdzie, a także osłabiać zaufanie społeczne w poszczególnych kategoriach naszej egzystencji.",[]],["treści ze zmanipulowanymi danymi, bez rzetelnych badań, które destabilizują odbiór rzeczywistości",[]]],"sy":[["false news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["false, untrue, \"false news\" or the concept of disinformation.",["7"]],["false",[]],["untrue",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["Misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["unintentional reporting errors",["16"]],["rumors that are considered as a source of information",["16"]],["conspiracy theories",["16"]],["satire that is unlikely to be misinterpreted as factual",["16"]],["false statements of politicians",["16"]],["reports that are false or misleading, but not downright false, from who disseminates them and who receives them",["16"]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["properties of new media",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",["15"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This also applies to statements of candidates for state and local government positions, especially those filled by elections; statements about public figures, public institutions, political parties and organizations operating in the public sphere; statements made during public events, as well as statements made in connection with such events.",[]]],"ex":[["This also applies to statements of candidates for state and local government positions, especially those filled by elections; statements about public figures, public institutions, political parties and organizations operating in the public sphere; statements made during public events, as well as statements made in connection with such events.",[]]]},{"sp":[["message senders",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Unlike other destructive influences, conflicts, and (or) wars, cyber warfare (cyber conflict, destructive cyber actions) is not proclaimed.",[]],["And if it begins, it does not end, being conducted continuously until one of the parties of the conflict is completely defeated or unable to continue the destructive actions.",[]],["It can be completed only in case of the destruction of cyberspace.",[]],["Unlike other destructive influences, conflicts, and (or) wars, cyber warfare (cyber conflict, destructive cyber actions) is not proclaimed. And if it begins, it does not end, being conducted continuously until one of the parties of the conflict is completely defeated or unable to continue the destructive actions. It can be completed only in case of the destruction of cyberspace.",[]]],"sy":[["cyber conflict",[]],["destructive cyber actions",[]],["cyber warfare",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Most often, the emphasis is on the irregular nature of operations, where traditional, Western understandings of conflict are masked with forces and tactics that cannot easily be traced to a state adversary.",[]],["The goals vary in the degree of destabilization desired, with some consideration for what might trigger an active response to the aggressor state.",[]],["What the US experience has shown is that incremental and covert actions can weaken the response threshold over time, allowing greater interference and destabilization without a strong and coordinated defense.",[]],["As a full-spectrum approach to understanding offensive operations, ranging from social media campaigns to conventional (kinetic) warfare, the term hybrid warfare can be used to describe a wide variety of activities.",[]],["Hybrid wars are a kind of permanent war of variable intensity across multiple sectors, with cascading, negative impacts, and synergistic effects, in which the entire population of the country and the international community are, to a certain extent, consciously or unconsciously involved.",[]]],"rt":[["fourth-generation warfare (4GW)",[]],["reflexive control",[]],["disruption",[]],["control",[]],["hybrid conflicts",[]]],"ex":[["The continuing conflict in Ukraine is often cited as one of the primary examples of hybrid warfare in recent years",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Such intense cyber informative influences cause a stressful state for many people, which is maintained for a long time with varying intensity.",[]],["exposed to various psychosomatic changes: post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD), the development of anxiety-depressive states, panic attacks, the formation of phobias, and obsessive-compulsive disorders consequences.",[]]]},{"de":[["If an enemy commander perceived that his choices were limited to certain options, successful reflexive control would occur when those options played into Russian strategy, and the decision would be easier to anticipate.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This bias generally occurs when individuals perceive risk through a social comparison process, rather than through a simple form of belief (Lipkus and Klein, 2006).",["Lipkus and Klein, 2006"]],["their optimistic bias arises when they compare the chances of risky life events occurring to themselves vs. others",[]],["optimistic bias is one of the key factors that can predict individuals' changes in perception and behavioral decisions",["Hatfield and Job, 2001"]],["This bias generally occurs when individuals perceive risk through a social comparison process, rather than through a simple form of belief",["Lipkus and Klein, 2006"]],["One such example is psychological bias, which is how people overly focus on the self when making comparative judgments (Chambers et al., 2003).",["Chambers et al., 2003"]]],"rt":[["psychological bias",[]]],"sb":[["psychological bias",[]]],"ex":[["environmental degradation",["Hatfield and Job, 2001"]],["engaging in COVID-19 prevention measures",["Fragkaki et al., 2021"]],["preventive health behaviors",["Chew et al., 2002"]]]},{"sp":[["optimistic bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["reduced underestimation of the likelihood of experiencing negative events",["Pauketat et al., 2016"]]],"sy":[["reduced perceptions of invulnerability",["Thompson et al., 2002"]]]},{"sy":[["perceived behavior control",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This kind of polarization contributes to creating a harsh political climate, where citizens believe that other people's opinions are irrational and not based on facts [38].",["38"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["have been proposed as one of the determinants for polarization on social media, and as a threat to democracy",["69"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["several authors have emphasized its holistic formative character, linking it to intellectual autonomy, moral responsibility, and democratic participation",["Ennis, 2011","Paul and Elder, 2014"]],["In education, critical thinking cannot be reduced to a set of technical skills or decontextualized logical procedures. Its development entails the ability to question assumptions, identify biases, recognize the complexity of social problems, and evaluate the ethical consequences of decisions and discourses.",[]],["In this sense, critical thinking becomes a civic competence that enables individuals to position themselves reflectively toward information, resist manipulation, and contribute to a more reasoned and respectful public debate",["Nussbaum, 2010"]],["understood as ethical discernment, makes it possible to identify these ruptures and question the narratives that legitimize them.",[]],["Beyond its strictly cognitive dimension, several authors have emphasized its holistic formative character, linking it to intellectual autonomy, moral responsibility, and democratic participation",["Ennis, 2011","Paul and Elder, 2014","Ennis, 2011;Paul and Elder, 2014"]]],"sy":[["ethical discernment",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{},{"de":[["hate speech is interpreted as a manifestation of impoverished ways of relating to language and to the other, characterized by the reduction of communicative experience to instrumental levels.",[]],["Can be interpreted as a regression to level 1, characterized by the rupture of encounter and the denial of the other as a morally valid interlocutor.",[]],["a radical negation of this level, as it breaks the bonds that sustain coexistence and mutual recognition.",[]],["This understanding integrates normative and educational approaches, and allows hate speech to be situated not only as a legal infringement or a linguistic deviation, but as a cultural phenomenon that affects the quality of communicative bonds and the recognition of the other",["Wodak, 2015","Council of Europe, 2024","UNESCO, 2023"]],["Hate speech thus appears as a radical negation of this level, as it breaks the bonds that sustain coexistence and mutual recognition.",[]]],"sy":[["hateful language",[]]],"rt":[["discursive polarization",[]]]},{"sp":[["López Quintás's levels of reality",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["Media literacy involves understanding how messages are produced, what interests and values shape them, and how they influence perceptions of reality and the construction of social identities.",[]],["This competence is especially relevant in digital environments characterized by the circulation of fake news, informational manipulation, and the amplification of extreme discourses",["Wardle and Derakhshan, 2017"]],["several authors have warned about the risk of reductionist approaches that conceive media literacy as a mere technical skill focused on error detection or factual verification.",["Buckingham, 2015"]],["From the perspective of Alfonso López Quintás's levels of reality, this transformation can be described as a transition from a predominantly objectifying and instrumental relation to media messages (level 1) toward a deeper relational experience characterized by encounter, dialogue, and shared meaning-making (level 2).",[]],["not limited to training critical consumers of information, but aspires to form responsible participants in shared communicative spaces.",[]],["contemporary approaches conceive it as the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media messages in a critical and responsible manner",["Hobbs, 2010"]],["educating in media entails teaching learners to understand messages as social constructions situated in specific cultural, economic, and political contexts",[]],["Media literacy, in this sense, is not limited to training critical consumers of information, but aspires to form responsible participants in shared communicative spaces.",[]]],"rt":[["Media and Information Literacy (MIL)",["UNESCO, 2013, 2021"]],["technical skills aimed at managing information flows",[]]],"sb":[["Media and Information Literacy (MIL)",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["theory of levels of reality",[]]]},{"sp":[["theory of levels of reality",[]]]},{"rt":[["Trinocular Perspective",[]]],"sp":[["Trinocular Perspective",[]]]},{"rt":[["Trinocular Perspective",[]]],"sp":[["Trinocular Perspective",[]]]},{"rt":[["Trinocular Perspective",[]]],"sp":[["Trinocular Perspective",[]]]},{"de":[["cognitive frameworks, through multi-themed conceptual mappings, guide the internalization and dissemination of social values",[]]]},{"sp":[["Three-Dimensional Model of metaphor",[]]]},{"sp":[["Three-Dimensional Model of metaphor",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Metaphor is a rich linguistic phenomenon that encompasses cognitive, linguistic, and socio-communicative dimensions, making it a multifaceted tool for thought and expression.",[]],["metaphor has been recognized as having linguistic, cognitive, and social properties, making it a multidimensional research object (Gibbs, 1994).",["Gibbs, 1994"]]],"rt":[["linguistic attributes of metaphor",[]],["socio-communicative function",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["mapping familiar, concrete concepts (source domains) onto unfamiliar, abstract concepts (target domains)",[]]],"rt":[["source domains",[]]]},{"sp":[["Three-Dimensional Model of metaphor",[]]]},{"de":[["Steen's model transcends the two-dimensional view of conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff, 1993;Lakoff and Johnson, 1980), highlighting the significance of the communicative dimension and enabling a more nuanced analysis of the multiple roles metaphor plays in various contexts and its impact on cognitive and communicative processes.",["Lakoff, 1993","Lakoff and Johnson, 1980"]]],"sb":[["the language dimension",[]],["the thought dimension",[]],["the communication dimension",[]]],"ex":[["For instance, the metaphor \"he is as brave as a lion\" linguistically compares a person to a lion, cognitively maps the qualities of strength and courage, and communicatively may emphasize the individual's brave qualities.",[]]]},{"de":[["The \"Trinocular Perspective\" framework has guided metaphor research from theoretical exploration to practical application, providing a highly significant and operational research paradigm for the study of metaphors.",[]],["Matthiessen et al. (2010) noted that this perspective was not only for describing grammatical categories but also served as a general method for multi-dimensional language research.",["Matthiessen et al. (2010)"]],["Halliday (1996) suggested that grammatical categories can be described from three angles: the semantic perspective from \"above\" examines the expression of meaning; the lexical perspective from \"roundabout\" analyzes relationships between grammatical categories; and the morphological perspective from \"below\" deconstructs the manifestation of language.",[]],["He (2016) restructured and expanded the three levels and trinocular structure to propose the \"Trinocular Perspective\" analysis framework for metaphor, suggesting that metaphor analysis should be conducted from three angles: the \"from below\" angle focuses on linguistic metaphors, exploring their linguistic attributes such as metaphorical constructions, density, and clusters; the \"from roundabout\" angle takes conceptual metaphors as the object, discussing cognitive attributes through metaphor networks and scenarios or stories; and the \"from above\" angle concentrates on the user identity and functions of metaphor, elucidating its social attributes.",["He, 2016"]]],"rt":[["Three-Dimensional Model",[]],["the semantic perspective",[]],["the lexical perspective",[]],["the morphological perspective",[]]]},{},{"de":[["On the level of the individual PR professional and journalist who are part of the same network and have an interdependent relation. On the organizational level where there is an interdependency between the editorial offices of the media; the PR departments of corporations and the marketing and advertising departments. Finally there is also interdependence on the macro level of society for example where the increasing professionalization of PR people take place together with the decreasing number of traditional journalists and the decreasing professionalization of the profession due to the rise of for example new journalists like citizen journalists and bloggers.",[]]]},{"rt":[["media frames",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the relationship between PR and journalism has been summarized and conceptualized by Bentele et al. (1997) in the so-called Intereffikationsmodell",[]]]},{"rt":[["news preformulation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["corporate frames",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["market journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["These concise 360-degree videos lack information, structure, and design considerations.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Immersive journalism can be distinguished into two phases: a first phase (2015-2017) marked by the birth and development of experimental productions, and a second phase (current) characterized by stagnation in production.",[]],["the most common modality involves using socially immersive videos in a 360-degree format",[]]],"sy":[["immersive nonfiction",[]]],"rt":[["immersive technology",[]],["immersion fundamentals",[]],["journalistic genres",[]],["journalism fundamentals",[]],["immersive narratives",[]],["quality productions",[]],["creative works",[]],["journalistic treatment of information",[]]],"sp":[["creative journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["fictional immersion",[]],["narrative immersion",[]],["imaginative immersion",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["sensory immersion",[]],["system immersion",[]]],"sb":[["enveloping image immersion",[]],["interactive immersion",[]],["spatial immersion",[]]],"ex":[["enveloping image immersion, interactive immersion, or spatial immersion",[]]]},{"de":[["a genre that is continually innovative, diverse, and pliant",[]],["Due to its inherent openness to creativity, the reportage genre enables greater individual expressive capability and offers the opportunity to experiment with innovative narrative forms.",[]]]},{"de":[["slow journalism is largely defined by what it is not or what it opposes: the homogenization and standardization of journalistic products and practices, fundamentally challenging fast journalism. Thus, it is a media counter-culture that resists dominant production logic and mass production.",[]],["advocating for values such as journalistic quality, reflection, depth over immediacy, and creativity over standardization",[]],["slow journalism is largely defined by what it is not or what it opposes: the homogenization and standardization of journalistic products and practices, fundamentally challenging fast journalism.",[]],["This approach has been defined across four categories: its identifying values, practices, expressive forms, and societal commitment",[]],["Thus, it is a media counter-culture that resists dominant production logic and mass production.",[]]],"rt":[["fast journalism",[]],["New Journalism",[]],["narrative journalism",[]]],"sp":[["New Journalism",[]],["narrative journalism",[]]]},{"sy":[["user experience",[]]],"ex":[["The viewer can adopt various roles: passive observer, active observer, active character, passive character, active protagonist, or passive protagonist.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["el enunciador vincula el desastre económico brasileño con el lulismo",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["En estos, el tono da autoridad a lo que se dice, según Dominique Maingueneau (2013), permitiendo al lector construir una imagen del enunciador, quien actúa como garante de lo que se expone.",[]]],"rt":[["ethos",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["users are increasingly exposed only to perspectives that align with their pre-existing beliefs",["47"]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",["47"]]]},{"de":[["users are increasingly exposed only to perspectives that align with their pre-existing beliefs",["47"]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",["47"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["individuals tend to gravitate toward information that aligns with preexisting beliefs",[]]]},{"de":[["what Bloomfield and Scott (2016, 1) call 'norm antipreneurs'",[]]]},{"de":[["A concept particularly relevant to this literature is norm contestation",[]]]},{"de":[["They are not always what McKeown (2009, 11) calls 'norm revisionists'",[]],["states do not just violate norms but actively contest the norm or even fight back against the stigma imposed on them",["Adler-Nissen 2014"]]]},{"de":[["equality of treatment, equality of opportunity, and equality of outcomes",["Búzás 2018"]]]},{},{"ex":[["pools stayed together, negating the ability to the media complained guided them to 'good news stories' only.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["framing remains a powerful influence, capable of swaying public opinion, informing policies, and ascribing identities to immigrants",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["international information services",["7"]]]},{"de":[["a strategic tool of soft power",[]],["This is carried out in the form of information messages, news and programmes (broadcasts)",[]],["exists to comprehensively inform foreign audiences about events in the country and their impact on the livelihood of its citizens, as well as to protect and promote Ukraine's national interests in the global information space.",[]]],"rt":[["public diplomacy",[]],["soft power",[]],["diplomacy of influence",[]],["state-sponsored propaganda",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["techniques of normalization, which have become the predominant means of government",["Lawler (2014, 72)"]],["can bolster the Scottish distinctiveness narrative in a way to demand from young adult migrants to conduct their own conduct along the expectations of the wider society from them",[]]],"rt":[["conduct-of-conduct",[]],["responsibilization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a process of 'responsibilization' aligned with experiencing and embodying the narrative of open, inclusive, and outward-looking Scotland among its subjects",[]],["studies it as working through threats to personal control, insecurity and governance by fear",["Pyssiäinen, Halpen, and Guilfoyle 2017"]],["studies it as working through threats to personal control, insecurity and governance by fear (Pyssiäinen, Halpen, and Guilfoyle 2017)",["Pyssiäinen, Halpen, and Guilfoyle 2017"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["obligation",[]],["permission",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In that sense they allow for assessing and making sense of everyday situations.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["with the intent to mislead recipients into treating this fallacious content as mere facts or into doubting provable facts.",[]]],"sp":[["a species of disinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Its typology has ranged from conspiracy theories about the virus to misleading or false news stories, rumors, hoaxes, claims about remedies and preventive cures, etc.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["third person effect",[]]]},{"sp":[["third person effect",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["third person effect",[]]]},{"de":[["Davison (1983) introduces the two components of the third person effect, i.e., the perceptual and the behavioral.",[]],["the third person effect is stronger if the others are perceived as less educated.",[]],["third person perception about the ability to detect misleading information in the media",[]],["It actually might make people less likely to fact-check the information they encounter in the media, since they are convinced that others, and not themselves, are vulnerable and exposed to such misleading narratives.",[]]],"sy":[["TPE",[]]],"rt":[["media credibility",[]]],"sb":[["perceptual aspect",[]],["perceptual third person effect",[]]],"ex":[["Third person effect regarding people's ability to detect fake news",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["pure logical entailment",[]]],"ex":[["For example, the hypothesis some men are playing a sport is entailed by the premise a soccer game with multiple males playing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["member-regarding frames",[]],["other-regarding frames",[]],["public-regarding frames",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]],["framing references",[]]]},{},{"de":[["When interest groups frame their messages, they simultaneously highlight some features of a reality and simultaneously downplay others. Frames can therefore be seen as strategic weapons that may help generate support for the preferred policy alternative of a group (Boräng & Naurin, 2015;Bruycker, 2016).",["(Boräng & Naurin, 2015;Bruycker, 2016)"]],["Framing concerns defining a problem in a particular way and linking this problem definition to relevant solutions.",[]]],"sb":[["issue-specific frames",[]],["member-regarding frames",[]],["other-regarding frames",[]],["economy-regarding frames",[]],["public-regarding frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing concerns defining a problem in a particular way and linking this problem definition to relevant solutions.",[]],["When interest groups frame their messages, they simultaneously highlight some features of a reality and simultaneously downplay others.",[]],["Frames can therefore be seen as strategic weapons that may help generate support for the preferred policy alternative of a group",["Boräng & Naurin, 2015","Bruycker, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["Framing concerns defining a problem in a particular way and linking this problem definition to relevant solutions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the beneficiaries of welfare services",[]]],"sp":[["citizen groups",[]]],"ex":[["associations of parents as well as students",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["other-regarding frames",[]],["economy-regarding frames",[]],["public-regarding frames",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]],["framing references",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["member-regarding frames",[]],["economy-regarding frames",[]],["public-regarding frames",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]],["framing references",[]]]},{"de":[["Political communication is, however, not only about being present, but also about expressing viewpoints in a manner that help groups achieve their goals.",[]]],"rt":[["frames",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["member-regarding frames",[]],["other-regarding frames",[]],["economy-regarding frames",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]],["framing references",[]]]},{"de":[["This method is easy to implement but suffers from unreliable content.",[]]],"sp":[["Rumor detection",[]]]},{"de":[["However, the propagation structure is usually simple and disorganized, thus sometimes failing to carry sufficient information for rumor detection.",[]]],"sp":[["Rumor detection",[]]]},{"de":[["deep learning-based rumor detection has become the mainstream of this task.",[]]],"sb":[["content-based method",[]],["propagation structure-based method",[]],["user-based method",[]]]},{"de":[["Given the prevalence of malicious users, such as social bots, in the rumor propagation process, the inaccurate modeling of user relationships limits the effectiveness.",[]]],"sp":[["Rumor detection",[]]]},{"de":[["allowing individuals to personalize their participation and interaction with the protest",[]]],"rt":[["collective action",[]],["traditional collective action",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the growing phenomenon of disinformation, which is an important element of information warfare",["Legucka, 2020"]],["Disinformation is one type of information disorder.",[]]],"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["In the case of traditional media, the professional media, disinformation spreaders had fewer chances with the implementation of their messages due to the professional verification of content at the editorial level.",[]],["were a more difficult opponent for disinformation agents due to the professional verification of information before it is posted in the pages of a newspaper or broadcast on radio or television.",[]]],"sy":[["the professional media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["representation of at-risk groups in decision-making panels",["20","53"]]]},{},{"sy":[["moderation actions",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Facebook refers to it as an inform action",["47"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["enforcement actions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Facebook refers to this as a reduce action",[]]]},{},{"de":[["outcomes are systematically bad for marginalized subgroups",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["returns the probabilities of two texts entailing, contradicting or neutral towards each other",[]]],"sy":[["RTE",["Sammons et al., 2012"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["Only generate responses that promote equality and diversity toward people with different backgrounds.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["To calculate regard, BERT (Devlin et al., 2018) is trained on human-annotated data that has been generated by GPT-2 (Radford et al., 2019) based on bias templates for gender, race, and sexual orientation. We use the resulting classifier to predict regard on gender and race (since it is not trained for political ideology). We then use these predictions to report the ratio of text generating positive, negative, and neutral regard.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this case, we evaluate the sentiment of generations when prompted with tokens that encode or represent certain protected categories. We use Valence Aware Dictionary and Sentiment Reasoner (VADER) (Hutto and Gilbert, 2014) to calculate the sentiment score of a text. Using this score, we report the sentiment ratio of the generations, which is the ratio of text generating a positive, negative, or neutral score.",[]]]},{"de":[["Unlike explicit biases, which operate under conscious control, implicit biases can affect a person's behavior without that person even being aware.",[]],["men and women alike hold implicit biases about gender that shape their attitudes and behavior, including the tendency to think of-and reference-men rather than women as experts",["Jones and Box-Steffensmeier 2014","Leslie et al. 2015","2014","2015"]],["counter implicit bias among political scientists, as evidenced through greater gender equity on syllabi, in book and journal-article bibliographies, on conference panels, and in invited talks",[]]]},{"de":[["research has defined diversity in various terms: diversity of sources on multiple platforms, diversity of opinions a user has access to, diversity in terms of genre, race, and social status of people users get in contact with, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]],["echo chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["content personalization can hinder the variety of content one has access to, which is one of the reasons users go on the Internet and use social media. Indeed, the way these systems are built makes them offer content similar to what has previously been consumed.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["hidden political (less often, economic) advertising",[]]]},{"de":[["and the degree to which they compete with each other over access to governance as crucial in deciding not only what the new post-communist state institutions look like, but whose ends they serve.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["hidden advertising in the media is not limited to sporadic orders for a propaganda article or video. Entire news packages and programs can be sold on Ukrainian television.",[]]]},{"rt":[["censorship by the owners of the media",[]]]},{"de":[["informal institutions are not necessarily rooted in cultural traditions (and many have nothing to do with culture)",[]],["they are not necessarily self-enforcing, but can be enforced externally (for example by state bodies engaged in organized state corruption)",[]],["One of them is that it is conducive for the spread of informal institutions subversive for press freedom.",[]]],"rt":[["informal rules",[]],["formal institutions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["guided in their media holdings not so much by business logic but by the desire to impact politics and political decisions.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Este nuevo concepto pretende englobar a todos aquellos mensajes que no son asumidos por la Academia o las propias plataformas como discurso de odio por ser parte de la disputa entre partidos, pero que se asientan en la misma base: un lenguaje discriminatorio en referencia a una persona o grupo en función de lo que son.",[]],["componentes de confrontación y hostilidad",[]]]},{"de":[["discursos de odio de distinto tipo e intensidad",[]],["según Miró Llinares (2016), tienen una intensidad baja",["2016"]]],"sy":[["hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["Lenguaje insultante o degradante",[]],["Metáforas y comentarios deshumanizadores",[]],["Hechos falsos",[]],["Lenguaje divisorio o de otredad",[]],["Argumento trampa",[]],["Estereotipo-Prejuicio",[]],["Justificación, bromas, trivialización de la violencia hacia 'los otros'",[]],["odio extremo",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Odio-ofensa",[]]],"rt":[["Odio extremo",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Over time, the concept has been expanded to include multiple dimensions-distributive, procedural, recognitional, restorative, and intergenerational justice (Sultana, 2022)-and has become central to both academic debates and popular mobilizations.",["Sultana, 2022"]],["the concept has been expanded to include multiple dimensions-distributive, procedural, recognitional, restorative, and intergenerational justice (Sultana, 2022)",["Sultana, 2022"]]],"rt":[["environmental degradation",[]],["social inequality",[]],["politics of movement",[]],["mobility justice",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Frames thus shape the narrative's focus and tone, influencing public perception and policy discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["narratives",[]],["stories",[]]]},{"de":[["Grounded imaginaries serve to contextualize mobility within specific socio-political and ecological settings, emphasizing situated knowledge and lived realities rather than abstract or universalized representations.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This fusion leads to the use of military means to manage humanitarian crises, which can obscure political violence and transform affected populations from rights-bearing agents into passive recipients of charity, thereby depoliticizing conflicts and reinforcing security priorities over justice",["Chouliaraki (2024)"]],["This fusion leads to the use of military means to manage humanitarian crises, which can obscure political violence and transform affected populations from rights-bearing agents into passive recipients of charity, thereby depoliticizing conflicts and reinforcing security priorities over justice.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Developed by sociologist Mimi Sheller (2018), it addresses how power and inequality shape the governance and control of movement across multiple scales-from the body and city to the nation and planet.",["Sheller (2018)"]],["Emerging from both academic research and activist efforts, mobility justice critiques uneven access to mobility and calls for equitable freedom of movement for all, and especially for marginalized communities affected by systemic violence and exclusion.",[]]],"rt":[["multi-scalar entanglements: bodies with unequal mobility (sexed, raced, gendered, classed, abled, aged, etc.); transport systems (automobility, cycling, transit, micromobility, aeromobility); urban infrastructures. (streets, energy, communication, water, food system); transnational mobility (border regimes, migration, asylum, deportation); and planetary mobility (pollution, waste, CO 2 , emissions, climate loss & damage).",[]],["climate justice",[]]],"sb":[["multi-scalar entanglements: bodies with unequal mobility (sexed, raced, gendered, classed, abled, aged, etc.); transport systems (automobility, cycling, transit, micromobility, aeromobility); urban infrastructures. (streets, energy, communication, water, food system); transnational mobility (border regimes, migration, asylum, deportation); and planetary mobility (pollution, waste, CO 2 , emissions, climate loss & damage).",[]]]},{"de":[["These approaches align with Indigenous perspectives that view nature as interconnected and intelligent, resisting simplistic portrayals of environmental fragility",["Richards & Jürgens, 2021"]]]},{"rt":[["framing",[]],["stories",[]]]},{},{"de":[["At its core, the securitarian paradigm operates through a government that rests on a logic of security and a logic of protection, on a law external to and superior to law, rooted in the legitimacy of actions aimed at protecting life.",[]],["it operates in a temporality of urgency, moving from crisis to crisis while applying standardized technical expertise ranging from military logistics to epidemiological management.",[]],["This paradigm dehumanizes migrants, representing them as existential threats to security, values, identity, culture, and resources.",[]],["The securitarian paradigm is characterized by several key features: it operates in a temporality of urgency, moving from crisis to crisis while applying standardized technical expertise ranging from military logistics to epidemiological management.",[]]]},{"rt":[["narratives",[]],["framing",[]],["stories",[]]]},{"rt":[["narratives",[]],["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["not an inherent identity but rather a rhetorical act through which individuals or groups construct themselves, or others, as vulnerable by claiming harm",["Chouliaraki (2024)"]],["She critiques this dynamic, emphasizing that the proliferation of victimhood claims often amplifies the voices of the powerful while marginalizing those of the underprivileged.",[]]],"rt":[["performative speech act",[]],["rhetorical act",[]]]},{"de":[["misrepresent realities on the ground.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a struggle to control the information activities of an adversary and an attempt to preserve one's own information infrastructure.",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]],["psychological manipulation",[]],["disinformation campaigns",[]],["the dissemination of propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["hybrid warfare",[]]]},{"de":[["the appeal to (negative) emotions is important",[]]]},{},{"de":[["clarifies the key values that the propaganda wishes to inculcate in the target audience and imposes on the audience a complete register of intuitive knowledge that allows for only one interpretation.",["13"]],["This narrative clarifies the key values that the propaganda wishes to inculcate in the target audience and imposes on the audience a complete register of intuitive knowledge that allows for only one interpretation. In order to produce the desired effect on the target audience, the myths are constantly repeated and replayed",["13"]],["This narrative clarifies the key values that the propaganda wishes to inculcate in the target audience and imposes on the audience a complete register of intuitive knowledge that allows for only one interpretation.",["13"]]]},{},{"de":[["These may be misleading claims, but they may also be true information poorly placed in context (Gerulata: Exposing Russian propaganda network in Slovakia, Gerulata (2025), at https://www.gerulata.com/exposaing-russian-propaganda-network-in-slovakia).",[]]]},{"de":[["attempts to manipulate social consciousness by constructing and perpetuating certain myths.",["13","12"]],["The myth invades every part of the recipient's consciousness, leaving no faculty or motivation untouched, and once accepted it controls the whole individual, who becomes immune to any other influences.",[]]],"rt":[["information warfare",[]]],"sp":[["information warfare",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It is based on the false notion that evil can be justified by the existence of another evil, and its main aim is to discredit the other side without responding to their arguments",["59","Aikin, Scott F.; Casey, John: What about whataboutism? Social Epistemology, (2024), pp. 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2024.2343729"]],["It is based on the false notion that evil can be justified by the existence of another evil, and its main aim is to discredit the other side without responding to their arguments (Aikin, Scott F.; Casey, John: What about whataboutism? Social Epistemology, (2024), pp. 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2024.2343729).",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Civic journalists aim to invigorate the public sphere and increase democratic participation by promoting the production of self-representations among marginalised groups.",[]],["journalists facilitate the participation of minority communities in the identification and framing of local issues and wider decision-making processes",[]]],"rt":[["journalism of conversation",[]],["journalism of information",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["journalism of information",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This power to name and define issues is linked to economic and social privilege. That is, economically and socially advantaged groups monopolise deliberations regarding issues affecting other peoples' lives and consequently reproduce and maintain their own economic and symbolic privilege",["Couldry & Curran, 2002"]]]},{"de":[["aiming to develop flexible and generalized models that leverage knowledge across multiple targets to improve the detection of new targets",["5"]],["This approach reduces the dependence on a large amount of labeled data by identifying common features among different targets, enabling the model to accurately detect stances even when data is scarce, enhancing the applicability and flexibility of the model, and providing an effective strategy for dealing with multi-topic social media",["6","7"]],["different from traditional stance detection tasks, which usually analyze stances with respect to specific targets",[]]],"sy":[["Cross-target stance classification",["12"]]],"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["although it performs well in data-rich environments, it faces the problems of high cost of data collection, technical challenges, and lack of generalization capabilities",["3","4"]]],"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{"sb":[["Cross-target stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["The issues that the media places importance on tend to have an influence on what the public will consider to be important. In other words, the media agenda sets the public agenda",["McCombs, 2005","McCombs, 2005, p.22"]],["criteria that select certain messages over others",[]],["The issues that the media places importance on tend to have an influence on what the public will consider to be important. In other words, the media agenda sets the public agenda (McCombs, 2005, p.22).",["McCombs, 2005, p.22","2005"]]],"rt":[["attributes agenda",[]]],"sb":[["the attributes agenda (an importance that is given to a certain aspect of an object or question)",[]]]},{"sy":[["second level of agenda-setting",[]]],"rt":[["framing",["Ghanem, 1997;Maher, 2001","Gutmann, 2006;Kosicki, 1993;Scheufele, 2000"]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a way of organizing and guiding social reality",["Goffman, 1974"]],["a way to categorize and select what the media says",["Scheufele, 1999","1999"]],["framing is a context in which the media chooses certain frames that will directly impact public opinion",[]],["the concept deals in several languages (such as catch phrases, metaphors, representations and visual images) and reasoning devices (such as causes and consequences, appeals to principles, or moral claims)",[]],["This process includes the framing and interpretation of news events since the news companies themselves are the ones that determine not only what to cover, but also what elements or questions about an event are worth addressing and in what way.",[]],["Scheufele (2000) states that in framing the changes to the description of a situation, even if they are mild, can affect how audiences interpret said situation.",["Scheufele (2000)"]],["Gamson (1992) says that the concept deals in several languages (such as catch phrases, metaphors, representations and visual images) and reasoning devices (such as causes and consequences, appeals to principles, or moral claims).",["Gamson (1992)"]]],"rt":[["audience frames",[]],["thought frames",[]],["individual frames",[]],["news frames",[]],["interpretive framing",[]],["issue-specific frames",[]],["generic frames",[]],["agenda-setting",[]],["priming",[]]],"sb":[["interpretive frames",[]],["news frames",[]],["interpretive framing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the newspaper articles, in relation to some issues, present a contradictory nature; i.e., discordant frames and analyses when reporting on the president",[]]],"rt":[["news frames",[]]],"sp":[["media framings",[]],["framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"de":[["the latter being more prevalent when the president tweets were the source of the newspapers' agendas under study.",[]],["Journalists refer to this as the \"news angle\", the point of view of the news text that highlights certain elements of a reality over others.",[]]],"sy":[["news angle",[]]],"rt":[["interpretive frames",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]],["media framings",[]]]},{},{"de":[["According to the World Health Organization (2023), anxiety disorders are the most prevalent mental health condition, with implications for various life outcomes, such as mental and physical health",["World Health Organization (2023)"]],["Recent data from the National Center for Health Statistics (2024) reveals that 17.7% of adults in the United States report experiencing symptoms of anxiety disorder, such as feeling nervous, anxious, on edge, or worried more than half the days or nearly every day.",["National Center for Health Statistics (2024)"]]],"rt":[["fear",[]]]},{},{"de":[["content screens, content moderation, fake news flagging, and trigger warnings, to mitigate potentially distressing experiences",["Pennycook et al., 2020"]]],"ex":[["content screens",[]],["content moderation",[]],["fake news flagging",[]],["trigger warnings",[]]]},{"rt":[["anxiety",[]]]},{"de":[["instances of threats, harassment, bullying, and various forms of discrimination",[]]]},{"de":[["This underscores the diverse manifestations of hate on social media, including aspects of personal identity and appearance.",[]]],"sy":[["hate speech",[]]],"rt":[["threats",[]],["harassment",[]],["bullying",[]],["insults",[]],["racist remarks",[]],["discrimination",[]]],"ex":[["Hateful posts make me feel somewhat anxious. I really worry for the world when I see people being aggressively homophobic or racist.",[]],["people talking down to people because of their weight or personal appearance.",[]],["I only watch videos on YouTube -those do not give me anxiety. Looking at the comments, however, will give you anxiety. People are just so mean for no reason.",[]]]},{"de":[["intentionally misleading or false content",[]]]},{"de":[["This category reflects the concern over the potential impact of misinformation, which can influence the beliefs and actions of those who encounter it.",[]]],"ex":[["I feel anxious about some fake posts and content. Some people will believe that and follow it.",[]],["The posts that are untrue or are being posted quickly without thought. Those cause me anxiety because I know a lot of people take things for face value and could cause harm this way.",[]]]},{"ex":[["I often see sensational news headlines that describe horrible news events around the world.",[]]]},{"de":[["This answer underscores the broader impact of the initial post, including the subsequent discussions and comments.",[]],["posts that contradict personal views and reinforce extreme left or right-wing views",[]]],"ex":[["I feel anxious when someone important to me posts political things that go against what I believe.",[]],["Inflammatory posts, mostly political or about social issues. Sometimes, it's just the comments on these.",[]],["Political ones definitely do that, especially during election season. I had that big time during the 2020 Election, and I expect it to be worse in 2024.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["it's also hard to see people my age living luxurious and extravagant lives. It makes me feel really awful about myself and my lifestyle. Also, seeing beautiful, fit, flawless, perfect women all the time over and over again is awful for my self-esteem, but I don't even do anything to try to limit my social media use. I just let it happen and let myself be upset, and I hate it.",[]]]},{"de":[["Another prevalent factor contributing to feelings of anxiety was upward social comparison",[]],["driven by content that portrays others with a superior status",[]],["content that portrays others with a superior status",[]]],"ex":[["content reflecting others' wealth, social status, and seemingly flawless lifestyles, including curated images of others' happiness",[]]]},{"de":[["Exposure to content that crosses ethical boundaries, posing potential harm to vulnerable individuals or animals, may elicit anxiety.",[]]],"ex":[["When I see people doing dangerous things. Like driving unsafely or jumping off cliffs. That kind of content always makes me feel anxious.",[]],["anything that people share that mentions child abuse or animal abuse, especially when there are pictures involved.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Its aim is to manipulate public opinion, altering perception, behaviour, and attitudes towards specific aspects of reality",["Ruffo et al., 2023"]],["offering a partial view to legitimize a biased perspective that overshadows others",["Aleinikov et al., 2019","Egelhofer & Lecheler, 2019"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["this prevailing reality refers to circumstances where objective facts are less important than people's personal views or emotions when it comes to forming public opinion.",["Villena (2019)"]]],"rt":[["attention economy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["source tweets",[]],["retweets",[]],["replies",[]],["mentions",[]]]},{"de":[["propaganda is strategically used to manipulate public opinion and shape narratives around wars",["6","24","53"]],["Propaganda has already been used in ancient times [30], while it is nowadays used for domestic and foreign influence.",["30"]],["Nowadays, propaganda is extensively shared through online channels due to their interaction-based structure.",[]]]},{"de":[["the rewards capture which form of interaction is used in which situation (e.g., whether a user tends to respond to a retweet by posting new content or by posting a reply)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the auditing cost reduces the quantity of information used in the economy.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["disinformation can either increase the cost or reduce the benefit of information.",[]],["the use of disinformation generates a problem of poor quality of information in the economy.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["false news",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]],["online disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["News avoidance",[]]]},{"rt":[["informed citizen",[]]]},{"de":[["Such content is typically found via legacy news outlets, such as newspapers, radio, TV, and online news sites, but is also available on social media sites.",[]]]},{"de":[["News avoidance is caused by factors at the levels of the individual citizens, the news coverage, and the broader media environment.",[]],["news avoidance is most often seen as a democratic problem, as limited news consumption is related to lower levels of political knowledge and participation, and hence, greater susceptibility to misinformation",["Damstra et al. 2023"]],["news avoidance may lead to less political knowledge and engagement and hinder positive externalities, but it also holds potential for improving mental well-being.",[]],["When news avoidance leads to low levels of general news consumption, it can result in less political knowledge and engagement and thereby a risk of unequal representation in politics",["Edgerly et al. 2018b"]],["lower knowledge may also lead to greater susceptibility to misinformation",["Damstra et al. 2023"]],["if the aggregate amount of news avoidance results in insufficient demand for news it can have negative consequences for news organizations at large, which may be forced to reduce their expenses or close specific publications.",[]],["news avoidance can lead to better wellbeing by decreasing anxiety and depression",["de Bruin et al. 2021"]]],"rt":[["news non-use",["Villi et al. 2022"]],["news consumption",[]]],"sb":[["intentional news avoidance",["Skovsgaard and Andersen (2020)"]],["unintentional news avoidance",["Skovsgaard and Andersen (2020)"]]],"ex":[["avoidance of news about the coronavirus",["Ohme et al. (2022)"]]]},{"rt":[["selective exposure",["Garrett et al. 2013"]],["avoidance of political information",["Garrett et al. 2013"]]]},{"de":[["Consequently, some people end up with a very low or non-existing news consumption, not because they do not like news, but because news are crowded out by other media content",[]]],"sp":[["News avoidance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This rating can range from calculating the average rate of the quality of the content through votes of the users (as happens with TripAdvisor reviews or Google Ratings) from the possibility to 'flag' or warn individually about misleading on inaccurate content. On those cases, when several warnings are detected, the platform includes a label or text indicating that there are doubts about the factuality of the content.",[]]],"ex":[["TripAdvisor reviews",[]],["Google Ratings",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["filter bubble",["Pariser, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["This broad concept gathers pieces of content related to news satire, news parody, fabrication, manipulation, advertising, and political propaganda (Tandoc Jr, Lim & Ling, 2018).",["Tandoc Jr, Lim & Ling, 2018"]]],"rt":[["partisan information",[]],["low quality journalism stained by sensationalism or editorial bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["echo chamber",["Pariser, 2012"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["privacy needs to be understood not only from an individual perspective, but also as a networked and negotiated practice",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In Deception attacks, multi-task coordination involves adhering to safety requirements, completing the given task, and coordinating multiple cognitions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["bias, especially implicit bias that does not include any abusive words, is more challenging to detect accurately",["Wiegand et al., 2021"]],["Implicit bias does not contain explicitly abusive languages but contains hurtful bias in semantics",["Wiegand et al., 2021"]]],"ex":[["\"Women get lower math scores than men\" contains an implicit bias towards women without explicitly toxic words.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Fake news detection",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Contentbased detection",[]],["Propagation-based detection",[]]],"sb":[["Contentbased detection",[]],["Propagation-based detection",[]]]},{"de":[["alleviating the data limitation challenge to some extent.",[]]],"sb":[["propagation-adaptive multi-domain fake news detection",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["multi-domain fake news detection",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Echo chambers help rumours spread on Twitter because users are connected to a likeminded network that is not isolated from the rest of Twitter",[]]],"rt":[["Political polarisation",[]]]},{"de":[["This definition encompasses the antivaxxers that oppose all vaccination and cautious people delaying their vaccination date; both are major public health issues for many diseases",["Dubé et al., 2013"]],["This definition encompasses the antivaxxers that oppose all vaccination and cautious people delaying their vaccination date; both are major public health issues for many diseases (Dubé et al., 2013).",["Dubé et al., 2013"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Focus on research ethics or morality, announcement of a special report about ethics, prominence attributed to religious or value perspectives, emphasis on bioethics, debate on whether to hinder scientific progress debate on the nature of human life",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the central criterion of newsworthiness in journalism in general, and with even greater emphasis in science journalism [25]",["25"]]]},{"sp":[["ethos of science",[]]]},{},{"de":[["framing effects in media shape public perceptions by making certain interpretations more salient and thus more cognitively available to readers",["Chong & Druckmann (2007)"]]]},{},{"de":[["without contextualizing them within broader patterns",[]]]},{"de":[["this results in partial exclusion.",["van Leeuwen (1996Leeuwen ( , 2008)","van Leeuwen (1996Leeuwen ( , 2008))"]],["metonymy shifts agency and responsibility for actions away from agentive actors",["Reisigl, 2006, pp. 602-603","Reisigl & Wodak, 2001, pp. 57-58"]],["this results in partial exclusion",[]]],"ex":[["referring to the press instead of journalists",[]],["the metonymy excludes an actor through a depersonalizing semantic shift, letting the object, the vehicle, stand for the person driving it.",[]],["referring to the press instead of journalists.",[]]]},{"sp":[["cognitive bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Using the passive voice together with a prepositional phrase pushes the agent into the background and shifts the focus of a sentence onto the object.",[]]],"rt":[["active formulation",[]]],"ex":[["A cyclist was hit by a driver",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["A plethora of research on the illusory truth effect suggests that the mere repetition of information increases its perceived truthfulness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It posits that pre-emptive exposure to a weakened dose of a persuasive argument can confer resistance against future attacks, much like a medical vaccine builds resistance against future illness (Compton, 2013;McGuire, 1964).",["Compton, 2013","McGuire, 1964"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the first level of agenda-setting theory [43], which states that news media set the public importance for objects based on the frequency in which these are mentioned and covered.",["43"]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",["48"]]]},{"rt":[["astroturfing",["42"]]],"sb":[["bots",[]],["cyborgs",[]],["trolls",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["framing theory",[]]]},{"de":[["Put simply, the media can be seen to provide the public not only with information about a given thing but also how that thing should be interpreted.",[]]]},{"de":[["allows for analysis of individual attitudes within an increasingly competitive environment of public opinion influences",["Chong & Druckman, 2007","Hansen, 2007"]]],"rt":[["framing theory",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["agenda setting",[]]],"sp":[["agenda setting",[]]]},{"de":[["affects the perception of the reader or audience",[]]]},{},{"de":[["explicate further qualitative data and meaning from both the physical structure of the media (layout etc.) and knowledge of the political and market environment in which it is placed, wherein journalistic reporting is most often constructed through opposing views, e.g. for or against something",[]],["sharing the attributes of discourse analysis",[]]],"rt":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["public in nature",[]],["modern interpretations differentiate from the Habermasian understanding of public space 2 as a sphere of rational debate among equal subjects for reaching a consensus.",["2"]]],"rt":[["public space",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Justification",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Justification",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The object of the argumentation can also refer to a group of individuals, an organization, an object, or an activity.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Slogans",[]]],"ex":[["Slogans such as \"Make America Great Again!\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This definition has also been adopted in other disinformation studies",["Modzelewski et al., 2024","Sosnowski et al., 2024"]],["even unintentional dissemination of false information without the goal of manipulating recipients can fuel disinformation.",[]],["In summary, disinformation is intentionally misleading by providing misleading or false information (European Commission, 2022a).",["European Commission, 2022a"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["Appeal to Authority",[]],["Appeal to Popularity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["However, even unintentional dissemination of false information without the goal of manipulating recipients can fuel disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a novel zero-shot method leveraging persuasion signals to improve disinformation detection that more effectively addresses generalization and annotated data scarcity challenges compared to supervised models.",[]],["PCoT operates through a two-stage process where the LLM first identifies and analyzes persuasion within a given text, using infused knowledge. This analysis is then utilized in subsequent reasoning to determine the presence of disinformation.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["has proved to be more effective to prevent rumination, therefore facilitating recovery from the initial undesired mood",["Strizhakova et al. 2012: 416"]]],"rt":[["expressive coping",[]],["denial",[]]],"sp":[["response-focused strategies",[]]]},{"sp":[["emotion regulation strategies",[]],["emotion regulation",[]]]},{"rt":[["Intensifying translation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["translator-oriented approach",[]]]},{"de":[["preventing the emotional reponse from being perceived or expressed by the individual",["Biassoni et al. 2016: 3"]],["has been considered one of the most effective and effortless antecedent strategies, preventing the emotional reponse from being perceived or expressed by the individual",["Biassoni et al. 2016: 3"]]],"sp":[["antecedent strategies",[]],["antecedent-focused strategies",[]]]},{"rt":[["hot anger",[]]],"sp":[["anger",[]]]},{"de":[["another effective way to reduce the carryover effects of emotions",[]]]},{"rt":[["active coping",[]],["denial",[]]],"sp":[["response-focused strategies",[]]]},{"rt":[["cold anger",[]]],"sp":[["anger",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["attenuating translation",[]]]},{"sb":[["active coping",[]],["expressive coping",[]],["denial",[]]],"sp":[["emotion regulation strategies",[]],["emotion regulation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["audience-oriented approach",[]]]},{"de":[["mass media narrative such as news is also divided into factual narratives and emotional narratives (Wearn and Shepherd, 2020).",["Wearn and Shepherd, 2020"]]],"rt":[["factual narratives",["Wearn and Shepherd, 2020"]]],"sp":[["Narrative",[]]]},{"de":[["mass media narrative such as news is also divided into factual narratives and emotional narratives (Wearn and Shepherd, 2020).",["Wearn and Shepherd, 2020"]]],"rt":[["emotional narratives",["Wearn and Shepherd, 2020"]]],"sp":[["Narrative",[]]]},{"de":[["Mass media and social media are strongly related in people's daily lives; besides that, they not only distribute information and provide influence but also affect the social structure of their interactions.",[]],["mass media has a very influential role in society",["Klinkhammer, 2020"]]],"rt":[["social media",[]]],"ex":[["the press, radio, television, and the internet",["Liu et al., 2019"]]]},{"de":[["Narrative is a part of changing ideas when conducting policy analysis",["Bé land, 2019"]],["narratives are often considered a summary of the latest observations about evidence, to ensure that the policies issued by the government are well disseminated to the public",["Wallace et al., 2020"]],["So, this narrative is related to what is usually told by a person or party about what they feel or certain issues.",[]],["Narratives are the most important part of life because storytelling is closely related to emotional life, it can also shape the process and mobilization of emotions both in groups and individuals (Feldt, 2023a).",["Feldt, 2023a"]]],"sb":[["factual narratives",["Wearn and Shepherd, 2020"]],["emotional narratives",["Wearn and Shepherd, 2020"]],["Factual narrative",[]],["emotional narrative",[]]]},{"de":[["the Narrative Policy Framework (NPF) as a valuable theoretical framework for advancing knowledge of the policy process.",[]],["A policy framework is a statement about the role of narrative in the public policy process",["McBeth and Lybecker, 2018"]],["it is a system that analyzes and builds policy narratives that focus on an opinion related to long-term changes and transitions",["Miedziński, 2018"]],["this narrative policy framework is often considered to be a \"competing narrative\" this is debated because it contains the setting, characters, storyline, and moral of life that will give rise to policy initiatives and make the policy relevant to those who read it",["Kirkpatrick and Stoutenborough, 2018"]],["the advantage of using this narrative policy framework is the integration of various levels of analysis, namely from macro, meso, and micro",["Kirkpatrick and Stoutenborough, 2018"]],["a narrative policy framework can also be a person or abstraction such as an economy, environment, city or region",["Esposito et al., 2021"]],["The purpose of this narrative policy framework is to understand how strong a particular narrative or set of narratives is, so this process uses certain narrative elements and strategies that are used as variables to make it easier to understand the components in making decisions",["Shanahan et al., 2018"]]]},{"de":[["Narrative is a part of changing ideas when conducting policy analysis",["Bé land, 2019"]],["narratives are often considered a summary of the latest observations about evidence, to ensure that the policies issued by the government are well disseminated to the public",["Wallace et al., 2020"]]]},{"de":[["Narratives that contain messages should be consistent and thorough about how and why a policy or set of policies are implemented enabling people to understand why change is happening and determine how they and their actions fit into the broader scheme of things.",[]],["Policy narratives in this case are based on the identification of codes that usually appear together, besides that the links in it are very diverse from problem definition, objectives, arguments to support or weaken a policy",["Toivonen et al., 2021"]],["Policy narrative is also considered a rhetorical device in which the development process in policy making and strategy is very strong",["Burt et al., 2021"]],["the purpose of policy narratives is to create and change information that has its own meaning with strategies that will create new perceptions for existing policies",["Burt et al., 2021"]],["policy narratives are used to emphasize an argument or a situation that really happened to change public opinion and avoid other assumptions of truth",["Rigolon et al., 2022"]],["Policy narrative is a crucial point in the bureaucratic reform process",["Boon and Verhoest, 2018;Poernomo et al., 2022;Pratama and Manurung, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["it is considered as a medium for compiling a clear narrative analysis.",[]]],"rt":[["narrative and policy process",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Because when the services provided by civil servants are not good, it will affect them.",[]],["Because with this, public trust has decreased due to unsatisfactory services provided.",[]]],"ex":[["For example, when people need a land permit quickly for any administrative process. However, because the services provided by civil servants are slow and convoluted, the targets that have been set are not running well.",[]]]},{"de":[["The situation causes inconvenience or discomfort for a person psychologically.",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{"rt":[["hybridity approach",[]]]},{"de":[["People's opinions are generally spontaneous and disorganized.",[]]],"ex":[["posting, creating memes, commenting on the fellow users' opinion on an issue, and so on.",[]]]},{"de":[["According to Festinger (quoted from West & Turner, 2018), people always avoided dissonance.",["West & Turner, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["The social media algorithm works based on selective exposure.",[]],["The social media algorithm with its optimal abilities selects information to be presented to the users and will further enrich the polarization of the community, because it reinforces the opinions and political views of each group.",[]],["polarization is strengthened by social media algorithms (filter bubble)",[]],["Social media users become friends with people on social media who share the same political choice.",[]],["Social media users live in a closed space with friends who have the same political opinions.",[]],["Social media targets audiences to small segments and directs them according to the interests and proclivities of each user.",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]],["social media algorithms",[]]]},{"rt":[["imaginative communities",[]]]},{"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]],"sp":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["First, differences between members of the political community are accompanied by groupings of homogeneous people.",[]],["Second, people with the same political choices gather in one group, and tend not to recognize other groups.",[]],["Third, these differences are often difficult to put together because political choices are seen not only as winning or losing but also as a life choice.",[]],["From the communication network data, it can be concluded that there is political polarization related to the social media users' conversations about Covid-19. Social media users are divided into pro and anti-Jokowi groups.",[]],["Social media users are divided into pro and anti-Jokowi groups. This is proven in the network visualization where the network is divided into pro and anti-Jokowi groups.",[]],["differences between members of the political community are accompanied by groupings of homogeneous people.",[]],["people with the same political choices gather in one group, and tend not to recognize other groups.",[]],["these differences are often difficult to put together because political choices are seen not only as winning or losing but also as a life choice.",[]],["Bishop described a number of characteristics of the political polarization. First, differences between members of the political community are accompanied by groupings of homogeneous people. Second, people with the same political choices gather in one group, and tend not to recognize other groups. Third, these differences are often difficult to put together because political choices are seen not only as winning or losing but also as a life choice.",[]]],"rt":[["political tribalism",["Maffesoli, 2016"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Selective exposure will ultimately sharpen the political polarization because people tend to only look for appropriate information and ignore information which is not appropriate.",[]],["The audiences who believe in the existence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq tend to choose the media which preach the existence of those weapons. On the contrary, the audience ignores media which preach the opposite.",["Kull's (2004)"]],["Social media users have a predisposition (previous political attitudes or choices), i.e. in this case pro-Jokowi or anti-Jokowi.",[]],["Users with certain political choices tend to receive the same information as their political choices, and ignore information from other political parties.",[]],["Social media users, who have been pro-Jokowi since the beginning, tend to choose positive information about Jokowi. The same thing applies to social media users who are anti-Jokowi, where they tend to choose information which criticizes Jokowi.",[]],["In order to manage such confusion and discomfort, the individuals then choose the most appropriate information to their political choices",["Bennet & Iyengar, 2008;Iyengar & Hahn, 2009"]],["In order to manage such confusion and discomfort, the individuals then choose the most appropriate information to their political choices (Bennet & Iyengar, 2008;Iyengar & Hahn, 2009).",["Bennet & Iyengar, 2008","Iyengar & Hahn, 2009"]]],"rt":[["cognitive dissonance theory",[]],["filter bubble",[]]],"sb":[["partisan selectivity",[]]]},{"rt":[["filter bubble",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["When discussing effectiveness, which is generally hard to define objectively, but for which we have some consistent feel, Black et al. argue that the term metric should be used",["2"]]],"sy":[["measure",[]]],"rt":[["measure",[]]]},{"sy":[["al-'Arabi al-Rabi'",[]]]},{"de":[["concept of \"balanced programming\" from the American journalistic practice",[]]]},{"de":[["legal regulations, self-regulations and ethical codes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["ethics as a discipline approaches the moral life in a normative manner. This means that ethics determines the norms, judges what is evil and what is good, and explains and demonstrates why it is so.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The headline is a form which is memorable and suggestive, and therefore has a great impact on the recipients of the message.",[]]],"ex":[["If the headline is untrue or partially true, it can influence on the recipient in such a way that he creates the wrong attitudes, beliefs and opinions based on the false information.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The concept of integrity is used in journalism instead of the concept of objectivity.",[]]],"sy":[["objectivity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["If this succeed to induce the acceptance of the attitudes and actions which would not be accepted by their own will, recipients becomes unfree object of manipulation.",["Labaš, Grmuša, 2011: 98-99"]]]},{},{"rt":[["quality journalism",[]],["ethics",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["ethics of journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalist's social responsibility requires that he acts, under all circumstances, in accordance with his personal conscience.",[]]]},{"de":[["Mis-and disinformation can be harmful to people's physical and mental health; increase stigmatization; threaten precious health gains; and lead to poor observance of public health measures, thus reducing their effectiveness and endangering countries' ability to stop the pandemic",["1"]],["WHO again has declared that infodemic is a new burden for humanity which is related to excessive and fake or wrong news about COVID-19.",[]],["In the COVID-19 pandemic, infodemic, rumors and misinformation spread through social media are more contagious than the virus itself.",["2","3"]],["the combination of information and epidemic",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["constituyen un ingrediente clave -desapercibido, indeseado, pero ubicuo-de la dieta mediática de la mayor parte de la población",[]]],"sy":[["noticias falsas",[]],["bulos",[]]],"rt":[["desinformación",[]],["noticias falsas",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["media frames",[]]],"sb":[["Economic",[]],["Morality",[]],["Fairness and equality",[]],["Legality, constitutionality and jurisprudence",[]],["Policy prescription and evalua-tion",[]],["Crime and punishment",[]],["Security and defense",[]],["Health and safety",[]],["Quality of life",[]],["Cultural identity",[]],["Among public opinion",[]],["Political",[]],["External regulation and reputation",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["propaganda techniques",[]]],"sb":[["Conversation Killer",[]],["Whataboutism",[]],["Doubt",[]],["Straw Man",[]],["Red Herring",[]],["Loaded Language",[]],["Appeal to Fear-Prejudice",[]],["Guilt by Association",[]],["Flag Waving",[]],["False Dilemma-No Choice",[]],["Repetition",[]],["Appeal to Popularity",[]],["Appeal to Authority",[]],["Name Calling-Labeling",[]],["Slogans",[]],["Appeal to Hypocrisy",[]],["Exaggeration-Minimisation",[]],["Obfuscation-Vagueness-Confusion",[]],["Causal Oversimplification",[]]],"ex":[["doubt and red herring",[]],["The news uses the authority of the senator to make the audience believe that he is trustworthy and reliable.",[]],["The news uses the popularity of the senator to make the audience believe that he is a good person and deserves their support.",[]],["The news uses the fear of being accused of sexual misconduct to make the audience believe that the senator is innocent and deserves their support.",[]],["The news presents the audience with a false dilemma by suggesting that the only choice is to support the senator or to believe the allegations against him.",[]],["The news exaggerates the importance of the allegations against the senator and minimizes the evidence supporting them.",[]]]},{"rt":[["sentiment",[]],["stance",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["as it is a strong predictor of actual behavior",["Ho et al., 2015"]]]},{"de":[["Audiences engage more with news stories that evoke strong emotions or have entertainment value, thereby increasing their likelihood of becoming viral",["Al-Rawi, 2019"]]],"rt":[["passing time",[]]],"ex":[["individuals shared links on Facebook because they were relaxing and entertaining.",["Baek et al., 2011"]]]},{"de":[["In the social media context, FoMO is the anxiety about losing the opportunity to participate in social interactions and acquire meaningful experiences",["Alt and Boniel-Nissim, 2018"]],["it motivates people to perform actions to maintain or enhance their social status",["Zhang et al., 2020"]],["They tend to be afraid of missing out on events, news, and status updates in social networks and tend to urgently keep an eye on them",["Abel et al., 2016"]],["users who fear missing out on trending news are more likely to engage in active information-sharing behaviors",["Zhang et al., 2020"]],["individuals seek social inclusion through engaging with widely discussed news topics",["Alt and Boniel-Nissim, 2018"]]],"ex":[["They tend to be afraid of missing out on events, news, and status updates in social networks and tend to urgently keep an eye on them",["Abel et al., 2016"]],["the fear of falling behind",["Good and Hyman, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["In the case of news sharing in social media, inattention could refer to indifferent feelings about news sources, authenticity, and the need for information verification.",[]],["Pennycook et al. (2021) indicates that people do care about accuracy but may fail to consider it when sharing news on social media due to attentional constraints.",[]]]},{"de":[["users actively share news to stay informed and provide others with valuable information",["Johannesson and Knudsen, 2021"]]]},{"sb":[["hard news",[]],["soft news",[]]],"ex":[["hard news (e.g., political, economic, and public policy)",[]],["soft news (e.g., entertainment, lifestyle)",[]]]},{"de":[["The value of news is used as a guide by journalists, who decide which aspects of events are worth reporting on and which aspects are not newsworthy.",[]]],"rt":[["proximity",[]],["social influence",[]],["unexpectedness",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["social significance",[]],["audience relevance",[]]]},{"de":[["Choi (2016), Apuke and Omar (2020) stated that, apart from socialization, pass-time gratification is the most important predictor of news-sharing behavior.",[]]],"rt":[["entertainment",[]]]},{"sp":[["news factors",[]]]},{"de":[["relevance to the audience is a concept related to meaningful events that can prompt communication among users",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["news factors",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Socializing gratification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Whiting and Williams (2013) and Lee and Ma (2012) describe social interaction as the need to converse and interrelate with others, which could address the need for belonging.",[]],["news sharing fosters online interactions and strengthens social connections",["Choi, 2016"]]],"sy":[["social interaction gratification",[]]],"rt":[["social interaction",[]],["social interaction gratification",[]]]},{"de":[["In social media, status is related to feelings of being popular and enhanced self-esteem",["Lee and Ma, 2012"]]],"ex":[["individuals were more likely to share pandemic-related information as a means of positioning themselves as informed and responsible members of society.",[]]]},{"rt":[["intention",[]]]},{"sp":[["news factors",[]]]},{"rt":[["information seeking",[]],["socializing",[]],["status seeking",[]],["entertainment",[]]],"de":[["the U&G theory is considered one of the most effective paradigms for identifying motivations underlying media use in mass communication studies",["LaRose and Eastin, 2004"]]],"sy":[["U&G theory",[]]]},{"de":[["The aim is to prevent the problems that may arise from focusing only on the individual actor, only on the content shared or only on the behaviour that is seen as suspicious, and to prevent disinformation from being understood and interpreted through a singular lens",["34"]]]},{"de":[["the main criterion that distinguishes disinformation from misinformation is the intention behind the dissemination of information.",[]],["disinformation is considered the intersection of other information disorders such as malinformation and misinformation",[]],["disinformation doesn't necessarily have to intend harm",["27"]],["the primary difference between malinformation and disinformation lies in whether the content of the information is false.",[]],["disinformation can exist outside the dichotomy of true and false, and that disinformation can be true but misleading information",["26"]],["disinformation is effective in shaping people's opinions and actions both through emotive content that appeals to people's emotions and by exploiting the dynamics of human psychology.",[]],["Disinformation can be used as a critical tool for leaders, organizations, or other actors with authoritarian tendencies to suppress and diminish rational and informed debate and consequently make their discourse more effective by removing it from a political context where rational and informed debate is dominant.",[]],["this weaponization of disinformation does not only negatively affect social cohesion by increasing social polarization.",[]],["disinformation should also be interpreted as a human rights issue",[]],["These emotional narratives can be combined with fully fabricated, altered or de-contextualized images and videos, aiming to create confusion, distrust or strong emotional reactions on the targeted group of people",["45"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]],["information disorders",[]]],"sb":[["foreign influence campaigns",[]],["political disinformation",[]],["lucrative disinformation",[]],["issue-based disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the term fake news is too broad. It is not suitable for a precise and nuanced analysis, as it is used for many different types of information, ranging from honest mistakes made by reporters and partisan political discourse to foreign actors undermining and interfering in the political process of democratic countries",["18"]]]},{"sp":[["Disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation actors",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation, disinformation and malinformation",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["It can also take a hybrid form in combination with political, ideological, or foreign influence disinformation.",["42"]]],"rt":[["political",[]],["ideological",[]],["foreign influence disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["Disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["the primary difference between malinformation and disinformation lies in whether the content of the information is false.",[]],["it is the nature of their relationship with the truth that distinguishes the two terms, as opposed to the difference between misinformation and disinformation",[]],["Even if both disinformation and malinformation have the intention of harming an actor, state or organization, in terms of their creation and dissemination objectives, it is the nature of their relationship with the truth that distinguishes the two terms",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]],"ex":[["leaks, hacking and publication of personal information.",["25"]],["leaks, hacking and publication of personal information",["25"]]]},{"de":[["During the dissemination process of misinformation, the actor sharing the information does not share the information as false or misleading information intended to cause harm",[]],["Misinformation, like disinformation, is false or misleading and can lead to social polarisation, manipulation and various negative consequences.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]]},{"sp":[["Disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation actors",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation actors",[]]]},{"de":[["responding to a particular economic model, they thus fulfilled their function of attracting visits and generating reactions by the public",["Tambini, 2017","Bakir;McStay, 2018","Guo, 2020"]]],"ex":[["Joaquín Prat, perplexed and speechless before the snow deniers: his face says it all",["El confidencial"]]]},{"de":[["disinformation is not a phenomenon limited only to the electoral or political sphere, as it extends to all strata of social life",[]],["there is a blurred border between the information (satirical or sensationalist in this case) and disinformation provided by journalistic media",["Molina et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["hoaxes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["But fact-checkers challenge old habits by adding a judgement on claims and proofs",["Singer, 2018(Singer, , p. 1070)"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["journalistic genre or style",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["journalistic genre or style",[]]]},{"sb":[["health",["Kennedy; Overholser, 2010"]]],"sp":[["a minor specialty within the profession (Fedler et al., 1998) when compared to others such as history, law, international, economics and politics",[]]]},{"sb":[["government scientific organisations",[]],["government organisations",[]],["scientific companies",[]],["university scientists",[]],["clinicians",[]],["scientific journals",[]],["media",[]],["professional associations",[]],["consumer groups",[]],["NGOs",[]]]},{"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation is a systemic, not incidental, outcome of media deregulation and political capture.",[]],["disinformation is not merely reactive but actively shapes the contours of political meaning-making, redefining Albania's geopolitical identity in the public imagination.",[]]],"sb":[["electoral disinformation",[]],["cultural disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Meanwhile, the epistemic crisis framework provides a useful lens for understanding the erosion of trust in democratic institutions and the increasing polarization of public discourse, both of which are exacerbated by the spread of disinformation.",["Benkler et al, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["The hybrid media system perspective emphasizes how traditional media, social media, and other digital platforms interact to form a complex informational ecosystem, where the boundaries between fact and fiction often blur.",["Chadwick, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["The use of informants' information also presents a variety of different views without any special treatment to certain parties.",[]]]},{"de":[["Practices which according to positivistic approach are considered as improper actions in constructionist view are seen as natural and natural journalism practices.",[]]],"rt":[["constructionist approach",[]]]},{"de":[["The production process here is seen as a complex mechanism involving internal and external media factors. The media basically has a mechanism to determine organizational patterns and rules, but the various patterns used to interpret the event cannot be separated from political-economic forces outside the media.",[]]],"rt":[["political economy approach",[]],["organizational approach",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Discourse research strategies place language not only as a tool for sending messages.",[]]]},{"de":[["framing determines how reality is present before the reader.",[]],["framing determines how reality is present before the reader. What we know about reality basically depends on how we frame the event that gives a certain understanding of an event.",[]],["Through framing constructivism approach can be seen as a process of social construction in interpreting reality.",["15"]]],"sy":[["framing analysis",[]]],"sb":[["Selection of meaningful issues in presenting an event a journalist or media crew has chosen the facts on the ground",[]],["Emphasizing the issue which means being able to observe how media workers write facts",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing analysis is used to dissect ways or ideologies of the media when constructing facts.",[]],["Gamson and Modigliani explain framing as a set of central ideas or ideas when the media understands and understands issues.",["14"]]],"rt":[["discourse analysis",[]]],"sp":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The general standard used to assess the impartiality of news lies in the balance (balance) and neutrality.",[]],["5). Honesty in conveying information (impartiality).",[]],["The general standard used to assess the impartiality of news lies in the balance (balance) and neutrality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The mass media acts as an institution of enlightenment of society, namely its role as an educational media. The mass media becomes a media that at all times educates the public to be smart, open minded and become an advanced society. Besides mass media also becomes information media, that is media that at any time conveys information to the public with open, honest and true information conveyed by the mass media to the public, then the community will become a society that is rich in information, a society that is open with information. In addition, information that is widely owned by the community makes the community a global community that can participate with a variety of abilities.",[]],["the mass media also becomes a cultural institution, an institution which at any time becomes a mouthpiece of culture, a catalyst for cultural development.",[]]]},{"de":[["Neutrality can also be seen from the use of language and images that tend not to support certain parties.",[]],["The media should avoid evaluating or using emotional words or images that will direct the audience to give a certain assessment or interpretation.",[]],["neutrality can be seen from the clear separation of facts from opinions",[]],["Neutrality can also be seen from the use of language and images that tend not to support certain parties",[]]]},{"de":[["Bias in the news can appear in various forms that are generally associated with the choice of words, images and resource persons.",[]]],"sb":[["biases related to word choice",[]],["bias in the choice of word tones",[]],["bias associated with image selection",[]],["Bias can also occur in the selection of sources or control of news sources",[]]]},{"de":[["Objective news must meet two conditions, namely factuality and impartiality.",["16"]]]},{},{"de":[["News is seen as a result of the mechanism in the newsroom. Work practices, professionalism and rules that exist in the organizational space are dynamic elements that influence the reporting. Why does the media report case A, why is it reported in a certain way, the explanation refers to the mechanism that occurs in the newsroom.",[]],["News is seen as a result of the mechanism in the newsroom. Work practices, professionalism and rules that exist in the organizational space are dynamic elements that influence the reporting.",[]]]},{"de":[["Factors such as media owners, capital and media income are considered to be more decisive in how media looks. These factors can determine what events can or cannot be displayed in the news, as well as the direction in which the tendency of media coverage is directed.",[]]],"sy":[["political economy approach",[]],["the political economy approach",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In a variety of terrorism cases, acts of violence committed by a group of people varied, ranging from committing, bombing, mass murder, rape, kidnapping, to committing suicide bombings.",[]]],"rt":[["terrorism",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["seven pillars of journalistic faith",[]]]},{"rt":[["radicalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The first three can be applied to each link of information dissemination",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The two major manifestations of an infodemic are misinformation and disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["infodemic",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["infodemic",[]]]},{"sb":[["popularization of pandemic-related knowledge",[]],["advanced construction of a rumor verification contact network",[]],["user education",[]]]},{"de":[["treats the infodemic more as a continuous process, with each stage foreshadowing the nest, leading to the exponential increase of the infodemic in the absence of governance.",[]],["Scholars have a relatively deep understanding of the definition, source, and development history of infodemic.",[]],["Infodemics, which have a negative impact not only on Internet users, but also on their cognition and mental state.",[]],["secondary disaster of the Infodemic caused by information redundancy",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["infodemic management",[]],["infodemic governance",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The two major manifestations of an infodemic are misinformation and disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["infodemic",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["infodemic",[]]]},{"rt":[["discovery",[]],["verification",[]],["rumor refutation",[]],["dissemination",[]]]},{"sy":[["Factory of news websites",[]]]},{"sp":[["linguistic category model",[]]]},{"de":[["conveys greater agency for the social actor",[]]],"rt":[["competence",[]]]},{"sp":[["linguistic category model",[]]]},{"rt":[["negative stereotypes",[]],["competence",[]],["warmth",[]],["abstract language",[]]]},{"sb":[["a biological basis of the inner underlying reality",[]],["a discreteness basis",[]],["an informativeness basis",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["linguistic category model",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["descriptive action verbs",[]],["interpretative action verbs",[]],["state verbs",[]],["adjectives",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals use more abstract language to communicate desirable ingroup and undesirable outgroup behavior, and less abstract language to communicate undesirable ingroup and desirable outgroup behavior",["Maass et al., 1989"]]]},{},{"ex":[["the framing of economic crisis of 2010 by various political actors either as a mainly political and social one, or by others as an economic one",[]]]},{"sp":[["linguistic category model",[]]]},{"de":[["The former refers to perceived ability, skill, and efficacy, and the latter to perceived intent, friendliness, and sincerity.",["Fiske et al., 2018"]]],"sb":[["competence",[]],["warmth",[]]]},{"sp":[["stereotype content",[]]]},{"de":[["often stemming from deep-seated societal prejudices",["Devine et al. 2012"]],["analyze how a computer can arrive at skewed conclusions even in the absence of identifiable demographic categories",[]]],"rt":[["skewed conclusions",[]],["biased responses",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias in Natural Language Processing (NLP)",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Annotation Bias",[]],["input representations",[]],["Model bias",[]],["bias from research design",[]]],"sp":[["Bias in Natural Language Processing (NLP)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias in Natural Language Processing (NLP)",[]]]},{"ex":[["For example, a male speaker might be taken more seriously on a topic traditionally seen as \"male-dominated\", while a female speaker might be unfairly doubted or interrupted more frequently.",[]]]},{"ex":[["For example, attributing certain behaviors, roles, or characteristics to someone simply because they are male or female.",[]]]},{"ex":[["For instance, a speaker might simplify technical information when talking to a woman based on the stereotype that women are less knowledgeable about technical subjects.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["spreading misinformation and shaping misconceptions about society and individuals",["21","53"]],["can perpetuate outdated gender stereotypes, contribute to societal inequality, and hinder progress toward gender parity.",[]]],"rt":[["race",[]],["nationality",[]],["religion",[]]],"ex":[["the sentence \"Margaret Caroline Rudd was born in Britain. She was a notorious female forger.\" [13] contains gender bias by using \"female\" to qualify the term \"forger\" which unnecessarily emphasizes gender.",["13"]]]},{"sp":[["Bias in Natural Language Processing (NLP)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias in Natural Language Processing (NLP)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Verbs that attribute high agency to the subject include develop and endorse, suggesting that the LGBTQ-aligned subjects are in control and actively making their own decisions.",[]]],"rt":[["power",[]]],"ex":[["high agency to the subject include develop and endorse",[]],["low agency when they are the subjects of passive verbs, such as face and acknowledge",[]]]},{"de":[["Scholars also differentiate between two forms of dehumanization, animalistic (likening humans to animals) and mechanistic (likening humans to inanimate objects or machines), which may differ substantially in their linguistic expressions",["Haslam, 2006"]]],"rt":[["mechanistic",[]]],"sp":[["dehumanization",[]]]},{"rt":[["bare plurals",[]]],"ex":[["the gays",[]]]},{"de":[["a pernicious psychological process that often leads to extreme intergroup bias, hate speech, and violence aimed at targeted social groups.",[]],["Disgust underlies the dehumanizing nature of these metaphors and is itself another important element of dehumanization. Disgust contributes to members of target groups being perceived as less-than-human and of negative social value",["Sherman and Haidt, 2011"]],["Both moral disgust toward a particular social group and the invocation of non-human metaphors are facilitated by essentialist beliefs about groups, which Haslam (2006) presents as a necessary component of dehumanization.",["Haslam, 2006"]],["a process that heavily contributes to extreme intergroup bias",["Haslam, 2006"]]],"rt":[["moral exclusion of out-groups",[]],["psychological distancing",["Opotow, 1990"]],["moral exclusion",["Opotow, 1990"]],["denial of agency",["Haslam, 2006"]],["essentialism",[]],["denial of subjectivity",[]]],"sb":[["negative evaluations of a target group, denial of agency, moral disgust, and likening members of a target group to non-human entities, such as vermin",[]],["denial of agency",[]],["negative evaluations of a target group",[]],["moral disgust",[]],["(implicit) invocations of vermin metaphors",[]]],"sp":[["delegitimization",["Bar-Tal, 1990"]],["moral exclusion",[]]]},{"sp":[["dehumanization",[]]]},{"de":[["a process of moral exclusion closely related to dehumanization.",[]]],"sb":[["dehumanization",["Bar-Tal, 1990"]]]},{"de":[["LGBTQ groups experience greater denial of agency in the New York Times than the institution's in-group identifier American.",[]],["people described as homosexual experience even more denial of agency than people who are described as gay.",[]],["the NRC VAD Dominance Lexicon is useful for operationalizing denial of agency because of the close relationship between these concepts.",[]],["requires an annotator to reason about another person's perceptions of the cognitive capabilities of members of the target group",[]],["three types of agency: the ability to (1) experience emotion and feel pain (affective mental states), (2) act and produce an effect on their environment (behavioral potential), and (3) think and hold beliefs (cognitive mental states)",["Tipler and Ruscher, 2014"]]],"rt":[["agency",["Tipler and Ruscher, 2014"]],["dehumanization",["Haslam, 2006"]],["denial of subjectivity",[]]],"sp":[["dehumanization",[]]]},{"de":[["elements that contribute to the objectification (and thus dehumanization) of women",[]]],"rt":[["dehumanization",[]],["psychological distancing",[]],["essentialism",[]]],"sp":[["dehumanization",[]]]},{"de":[["adjectives simply name attributes to some entity, while nouns explicitly state the entity's category membership and encapsulates other stereotypes associated with that category",["Wierzbicka, 1986","Hall and Moore, 1997","Graf et al., 2013","Palmer et al., 2017"]]],"rt":[["psychological distancing",[]],["denial of subjectivity",[]]],"sp":[["dehumanization",[]]]},{"de":[["more positive evaluation, greater agency, less association with moral disgust or vermin",[]]],"rt":[["negative evaluation",[]],["denial of agency",[]],["moral disgust",[]],["vermin metaphor",[]]],"sp":[["dehumanization",[]]]},{"rt":[["animalistic",[]]],"sp":[["dehumanization",[]]]},{"de":[["moral disgust is a mechanism by which LGBTQ people are dehumanized.",[]],["moral intuitions",["Haidt and Graham, 2007"]],["To operationalize moral disgust with lexical techniques, we draw inspiration from Moral Foundations theory, which postulates that there are five dimensions of moral intuitions: care, fairness/proportionality, loyalty/ingroup, authority/respect, and sanctity/purity (Haidt and Graham, 2007).",["Haidt and Graham, 2007"]]],"rt":[["sanctity/purity",[]],["care",[]],["fairness/proportionality",[]],["loyalty/ingroup",[]],["authority/respect",[]]],"sp":[["dehumanization",[]]]},{"rt":[["care",[]],["fairness/proportionality",[]],["loyalty/ingroup",[]],["authority/respect",[]],["sanctity/purity",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["these articles are important in constructing the institution's perspective",[]]],"rt":[["traditional journalistic reporting",[]]]},{"rt":[["agency",[]]]},{"rt":[["moral exclusion",["Opotow, 1990"]],["essentialism",[]],["denial of subjectivity",[]]],"sp":[["dehumanization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["One dimension of affective meaning is valence, which corresponds to an individual's evaluation of an event or concept, ranging from negative/unpleasant to positive/pleasant",["Osgood et al., 1957","Russell, 1980"]],["measuring valence over paragraphs using the NRC VAD lexicon labeled for 20,000 words.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Dehumanizing Metaphor",[]]],"ex":[["rats and cockroaches",[]]]},{"de":[["particularly insidious and played a prominent role in the genocide of Jews in Nazi Germany and Tutsis in Rwanda",["Harris and Fiske, 2015"]],["the vermin metaphor has been invoked by the media to discuss terrorists and political leaders of majority-Muslim countries after September 11",["Steuter and Wills, 2010"]],["dehumanizing vermin metaphor",[]],["dehumanizing concept",[]]],"sp":[["dehumanizing nature of these metaphors",[]]],"ex":[["the council had to use real ingenuity to prove that they, too, are vermin",[]],["words that seemed to compare gays to rodents",[]]]},{"rt":[["essentialism",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["otherness",[]],["xenophobia",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people have started to make decisions based on emotions and perception, relying on perception management fuelled by fake news and misinformation rather than the truth.",[]],["Post-truth is a discourse that ignores the facts, the truths, and the knowledge that affect individuals and societies.",[]],["in which lies are told indiscriminately and facts are hidden",[]]],"sy":[["post-truth age",[]],["post-truth era",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Post-truth politics can adopt racist and libertarian discourses at one time and racist and totalitarian discourses at another.",[]]],"rt":[["manipulation",[]],["fake news",[]],["social media",[]],["propaganda",[]],["xenophobia",[]],["racist discourse",[]],["othering",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["La amplitud de la agenda de atributos y la esencia de esos atributos incluidos en la cobertura informativa indican la calidad de la cobertura noticiosa para crear un público informado.",[]],["La agenda informativa de atributos ideal abarca una amplia agenda de atributos, no solo esbozos de uno o dos.",[]]],"rt":[["Agenda-Setting de atributos",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["primer nivel de la Agenda-Setting",[]],["segundo nivel de la Agenda-Setting",[]]]},{"de":[["la consideración explícita del concepto de agenda de atributos de los medios puede ser una guía útil para editores, directores de información y reporteros.",[]],["puede ser útil para los periodistas",[]],["puede hacer avanzar la amplitud, el alcance y la calidad de las noticias",[]]],"rt":[["agenda de atributos",[]],["efectos de agenda en la formación de la opinión pública",[]]]},{"de":[["los estudios del primer nivel de los problemas que son objeto de cobertura mediática han superado con creces a los de segundo nivel. Dentro del segundo nivel, los estudios sobre el medio ambiente son minoritarios, ya que representan menos de una quinta parte de todos los estudios de la Agenda-Setting de los atributos (Kim et al., 2017).",["Kim et al., 2017"]],["Este estudio de dos problemas medioambientales en Colombia, la contaminación del agua y la gestión de residuos, se fundamentó en la Agenda-Setting de los atributos.",[]],["la consideración explícita del concepto de agenda de atributos de los medios puede ser una guía útil para editores, directores de información y reporteros.",[]]],"rt":[["segundo nivel de establecimiento de la agenda",[]]],"sp":[["segundo nivel",[]]]},{"de":[["elementos persuasivos",[]],["las características individuales de un problema en la agenda de atributos de los medios de comunicación también pueden influir en la relevancia de la percepción de este problema entre el público.",["Ghanem, 1997"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Agenda-Setting",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Agenda-Setting",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Emphasizing a particular aspect can deliver a distorted view toward the issue even without the use of biased expressions.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["news slant",[]]]},{},{"de":[["have been shown to be useful for detecting fake articles, as well as for predicting the political bias and the factuality of reporting of news media",["Horne et al., 2018","Baly et al., 2018a"]]],"ex":[["factives",["Hooper, 1975"]],["assertives",["Hooper, 1975"]],["implicatives",["Karttunen, 1971"]],["hedges",["Hyland, 2005"]],["Wiki-bias terms",["Recasens et al., 2013"]],["subjectivity cues",["Riloff and Wiebe, 2003"]],["sentiment cues",["Liu et al., 2005"]]]}]