Datasets:

mediabiasgroup
/

MBDef

[{},{"rt":[["agent",[]]]},{"sp":[["Moral Foundation Theory (MFT)",[]]]},{"rt":[["intentional",[]]],"sp":[["Event Status",[]]]},{"de":[["they are the ones who shape the direction of research in a field by determining what types of work will be published (or not)",["Spender 1981"]]],"rt":[["editors, boards, referees",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["User credibility is crucial in online social networks (OSNs)",[]],["Within OSNs like social media, where content creation and opinion expression are unrestricted, credibility is multifaceted, encompassing qualities that establish trust",["11","12","13"]]]},{},{"de":[["Agenda-setting theory is used to examine how economic issues, particularly inflation, cost-of-living pressures, and trade tensions, are prioritized within media discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["second-level agenda-setting",[]]]},{"de":[["Rather than dictating what audiences think, media influence what they think about, shaping the public agenda (Cohen, 1963).",["Cohen, 1963"]]]},{"de":[["This multiplicity of voices creates a contested attribution environment, where responsibility is actively debated rather than neutrally described.",[]]],"sp":[["Entman's framing model",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["problem definition",[]],["causal attribution",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]],"sb":[["problem definition",[]],["causal attribution",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]]},{"de":[["episodic frames may personalize economic challenges or achievements",[]]],"rt":[["thematic framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing theory",[]],["framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["framing processes generate distinct interpretive narratives that shape public understanding of economic leadership",[]],["According to Entman (1993), framing an issue is selecting certain aspects of a perceived reality and making them more prominent in ways that promote particular problem definitions, causal interpretations, moral evaluations, and treatment recommendations.",[]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]],["framing functions",[]]],"sb":[["episodic framing",[]],["thematic framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["explains how these topics are contextualized for audiences.",[]],["Framing theory informs how these aspects are interpreted-how responsibility is assigned, leadership is evaluated, and responses are portrayed as credible or contested.",[]],["framing an issue is selecting certain aspects of a perceived reality and making them more prominent in ways that promote particular problem definitions, causal interpretations, moral evaluations, and treatment recommendations.",[]],["While agenda-setting addresses issue prominence, framing theory explains how meaning is constructed once issues enter public discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]]],"sb":[["episodic framing",[]],["thematic framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["social frameworks",[]]]},{"de":[["This perspective emphasizes that the media influence not only which issues are considered important but also which attributes of those issues or political actors are emphasized",[]],["Later theoretical developments extended agenda-setting beyond issue salience to include attribute salience, also known as second-level agenda-setting.",[]]],"sy":[["attribute salience",[]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]],["framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["natural frameworks",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["thematic frames emphasize macroeconomic conditions, global pressures, or long-term policy trajectories.",[]],["In contrast, thematic framing situates events within broader structural, institutional, or historical contexts, directing attention toward systemic causes and policy solutions.",[]]],"rt":[["episodic framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing theory",[]],["framing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["favoring a specific viewpoint",[]]]},{},{"de":[["biases arising from cross-language differences",[]]],"rt":[["cross-language biases",[]]]},{"de":[["linguistic features such as euphemism, sarcasm, metaphor, and other forms of figurative language",[]]],"rt":[["linguistic features",[]]],"ex":[["euphemism",[]],["sarcasm",[]],["metaphor",[]]]},{"de":[["Acceptable responses, for example, acknowledged the diversity of social groups without taking sides",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["source domain",[]],["target domain",[]]]},{"sp":[["metaphors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It involves the source domain INSTABILITY, referring here to rapid and often unexpected fluctuations in emotions. The unpredictability and inconsistent nature of INSTABILITY is mapped onto the FLUCTUATING EMOTIONAL STATES caused by hot flashes during menopause. Just as something unstable is prone to sudden changes or lacks a consistent pattern, emotional lability here is characterized by rapid, unpredictable shifts in mood and feelings.",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing explains the mechanisms by which language and selected images in the construction of a specific kind of discourse promote a particular interpretation of the presented events (Entman, 1993;Bogetić, 2018;Porto, 2023).",["Entman, 1993","Bogetić, 2018","Porto, 2023"]]]},{},{"de":[["Framing explains the mechanisms by which language and selected images in the construction of a specific kind of discourse promote a particular interpretation of the presented events",[]],["This essential function of metaphor is itself described metaphorically as 'framing' by Semino et al. (2018), who highlight its ability to shape our perception and interpretation of specific aspects of our lives.",["Semino et al. (2018)"]]],"ex":[["Thibodeau showed that framing crime as a VIRUS rather than a BEAST influenced a shift to the favoring of social reforms over punitive measures",[]],["Jiménez et al. found that depicting immigration as a FLOOD, as in «a wave of refugees», could lead to increased support for barriers on the US-Mexico border",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Hot flashes, mood swings, plus hormonal and physical changes are framed as OBSTACLES, hence describing menopause as a DISRUPTIVE FORCE in daily life, emphasizing its unpredictability and the physical and emotional challenges that accompany it.",[]]],"rt":[["DISRUPTIVE FORCE",[]],["OBSTACLES",[]],["THREAT",[]],["ENEMY",[]],["ADVERSARIAL FORCE",[]]],"ex":[["the brain compared to a MALFUNCTIONING MACHINE",[]],["an UNEXPECTED OBSTACLE",[]]]},{"de":[["This perspective serves to articulate a profound sense of loss and the upheaval associated with the end of maternal functions (as if you suddenly cease to be a mother), changes in bodily and sexual functions, and the broader experience of aging. It touches on the emotional experiences of women, highlighting grief, confusion, and a sense of disconnection from one's past self, suggesting a departure from societal ideals of youth and vitality, and intensifying the sense of loss and re-evaluation of self-identity.",[]]]},{"de":[["This framing is vividly illustrated in the metaphor of roller-coaster-like mood swings, highlighting as it does the supposedly erratic and extreme nature of women's emotional changes, and thus drawing on a social stereotype and suggesting a lack of control and stability that casts women in a light of helplessness and vulnerability.",[]]],"ex":[["roller-coaster-like mood swings",[]]]},{"de":[["In this sense, it conveys the notion that hormones are our number one enemy. Indeed, this framing presents menopause as a period of hormonal imbalance, leading to emotional disorders such as irritability and depression, and draws on ideas of internal strife and discord.",[]]],"rt":[["hormonal imbalance",[]],["TRIGGERING MECHANISM",[]],["NON-LINEAR DYNAMICS",[]],["IMBALANCE",[]]]},{"de":[["This process involves comparing and projecting knowledge onto mental mappings, akin to creating a mental diagram that links abstract concepts with more familiar experiences for easier understanding.",[]],["metaphor involves a «highlighting and hiding» facet (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980), selectively emphasizing certain aspects while downplaying others, and thus contributing significantly to the ideological relevance of metaphors.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This process involves comparing and projecting knowledge onto mental mappings, akin to creating a mental diagram that links abstract concepts with more familiar experiences for easier understanding.",[]]]},{"rt":[["target domain",[]],["underlying domains",[]]]},{"rt":[["source domain",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["Disinformation and misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The crisis frame also represents the Federal Governments response to accusations of deception and the launch of an inquiry into whether they had lied to the Australian people about the reason to go to war.",[]],["When frames contain such highly conflictual content, defensive behaviors of the recipient are activated and thus the persuasive role of the frame is reduced",["Eagly andChaiken, 1993, 436, in Jasperson et al., 1998, 219"]]]},{"de":[["Such cues can occur either directly or indirectly, and include verbal, written and symbolic devices",[]],["the media framing process can influence and form public opinion during times of war and international policy disputes",["1998, 207"]],["media framing of an issue not only brings information to readers but also presents interpretation of that information in a way that allows for public discussion and the formation of public opinion",[]]]},{"de":[["This frame is described as 'justification' as much of the discussion details the Federal Government's responses to initial criticisms and questions.",[]]]},{"de":[["an organisation can be described as legitimate \"when it is endorsed and supported by a segment of society large enough to ensure its effectiveness\"",["1992,700"]]],"sb":[["legitimacy of authority",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the news media present a particular frame or perspective through which the population is able to learn about themselves, institutions and other societies",["Tuchman (1978( , in Ferguson, 2000, 232) , 232"]],["framing operates by providing contextual cues that guide decision making and inferences drawn by message audiences",["Hallahan (2000, 208)"]],["through the process of media framing the news media present a particular frame or perspective through which the population is able to learn about themselves, institutions and other societies",["Tuchman, 1978, in Ferguson, 2000, 232"]]]},{},{"de":[["The frame comprised of press releases and newspaper articles that simply reported the Government's reasoning for going to war and other important developments without any overt form of media bias.",[]]]},{"de":[["frames are not just communication tools; they are mental models understood as forms of knowledge that underline a particular vision of the world based on the choice of certain words and therefore generate specific expectations and attitudes.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a cognitive gap has opened up between expectations and reality, which lies on a non-objective and sometimes emotional interpretation of the facts.",[]]]},{"de":[["if some issues pose a threat to anyone's political ideology, he or she will fight them tenaciously; if instead they go in favor of his or her worldview, he or she will accept them without much objection.",[]],["people resist information that challenges their beliefs, especially if it comes from opposing political factions or conflicting values.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Ultimately, political correctness implies the attempt to sweeten verbal or non-verbal language, above all by purifying it for the protection of the sensitivity or self-esteem of some.",[]],["It is mainly a matter of mutual respect between people, cultures, religions, and nations, which necessarily requires a rational study of reality, a deep psychological understanding, and a sense of empathy that must be continuous and uninterrupted.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["promoting and guiding towards a particular causal interpretation or moral judgement, with a strong ideological footprint",["Liu 2017: 453"]]]},{"de":[["Conventional frames can be compelling in the coherent interpretation of discourse by language users",["van Dijk 1977b: 128"]]]},{"de":[["promoting and guiding towards a particular causal interpretation or moral judgement, with a strong ideological footprint",["Liu 2017: 453"]]],"rt":[["gatekeeping",[]]],"sb":[["thematic frames",[]],["episodic frames",[]],["attribution of a responsibility",[]],["human interest frame",[]]]},{"de":[["among the actors able to influence and shape messages are markets, audiences, but also public relations, governments, and interest groups",["Shoemaker and Vos 2009: 76"]],["the gatekeeping role of news agencies",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["human interest frame",[]]],"sp":[["Framing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They comprise three layers: cognitive attributes (the perceived characteristics of the nation), affective attributes (the liking or disliking of the object), and action attributes (the responses to the object) (Scott 1965: 100).",["Scott 1965: 100"]],["resulting from constant cultural negotiation",["De Cillia et al 1999"]]],"ex":[["cognitive attributes (the perceived characteristics of the nation), affective attributes (the liking or disliking of the object), and action attributes (the responses to the object)",["Scott 1965: 100"]]]},{"rt":[["transediting",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["transediting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["help audiences to see more clearly the way issues connect with societal and structural factors",["Lee and Basnyat 2013: 121"]],["thematic frames would have improved the readers' understanding of the problem",[]]],"rt":[["episodic frames",[]]],"sp":[["Framing",[]]]},{"sb":[["situational transediting",[]],["cultural transediting",[]],["Particularly interesting from a translation perspective are \"situational transediting\", which adapts the target text to its intended function in the new social context",[]],["and \"cultural transediting\", which adapts the target text to the needs and conventions of the target culture (Stetting 1989: 377).",["Stetting 1989: 377"]]]},{"de":[["Deep-learning suggests that videos of this kind are created using artificial intelligence by providing information to an algorithm that works with a machine-learning method.",["Deepfake 2020"]],["-the picture and voice may not be in perfect synchrony -the movement of the speaker's mouth is unnatural -there may be unusual pixel patterns at the edge of people or objects -the speakers' face is unnaturally motionless -the subject never blinks, or blinks unnaturally -the eyes of the speaker are blunt.",["Deepfake 2021"]]],"sb":[["the substitution of faces",["Deepfake 2021"]],["the reanimation of faces",["Deepfake 2021"]],["removing diverse details",["Deepfake 2021"]],["creating fictitious faces",["Deepfake 2021"]]],"ex":[["a picture being made of the person in question, or their voice, which is then adjusted in a video or picture with the contribution of artificial intelligence, often depicting them in a compromising position to shame or blackmail them",["Nyitrai and Rucska 2020, 1-8"]],["Deepfake can involve cases like a picture being made of the person in question, or their voice, which is then adjusted in a video or picture with the contribution of artificial intelligence, often depicting them in a compromising position to shame or blackmail them",["Nyitrai and Rucska 2020, 1-8"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Fake news can be considered a weapon for raging information warfare, either against the governance of internal procedures or for the disruption of international or foreign connections.",[]],["Experienced cybercriminals also transferred disinformation with fake news, with the ultimate objective always being to gain more profit.",[]],["Exaggerating, sensational titles; eye-catching, tabloid-style text; the correct or incorrect use of terms; fake URLs imitating real websites; expressive pictures often featuring celebrities; and the use of all caps, excessive punctuation, and spelling mistakes can all arouse suspicion",["Veszelszki 2017"]],["Persuasive strategies, references to apparently credible sources (lawyer friend, large company), pseudoscientific evidence, offering money (XY pays you one dollar for each forwarded message), threatening with bad luck, an irresistible headline, an egregious picture, and a mysterious lead can all suggest fake news too",["Veszelszki 2011"]]],"sy":[["disinformation",["Fehér and Király 2017, 39"]]]},{},{"de":[["Forensic linguistics is the most applied field in studies of the language of legal processes, and usually covers two tasks: the analysis of linguistic evidence, and the detection of the perpetrators of linguistic crimes, such as threatening, bribery, abetting, requesting sexual services, blackmailing, verbal harassment, and hate speech.",[]]]},{"de":[["Its roots are derived from the diversities of the individual competences, the various socialisation procedures, the social network of the individual, and the differentiation within certain social groups, which could all be analysed at every linguistic level",["Fliegauf and Ránki 2007, 139"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["analyzing the connections between different meanings, the attribution of new meanings to specific concepts, and the potential political and social ramifications of such reshaping of meaning.",[]],["to examine the reciprocal construction of safety and emotions in news articles about civil society's engagements for safety and how the practice of articulation positions various signs in relation to one another.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such representations risk contributing to de-politicizing unsafety, by articulating it as a local problem to be solved through individual and community efforts rather than through political change.",[]]]},{"de":[["emphasizing civic commitment as both a practical and emotional investment, signifying care and responsibility for others",[]]]},{"de":[["Emotions, as a relational phenomenon, are constructed through collective action, with individuals acting together to develop shared emotional repertoires",["2019"]],["emotions as socio-cultural practices that are relational and closely intertwined with gendered and racialized power relations",["2014"]]],"rt":[["affect",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Through emotional regimes, these representations contribute to shape the subject of the responsible citizen, particularly the engaged woman and local community member, whose emotional responses are translated into moral and civic action.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Emotions, as a relational phenomenon, are constructed through collective action, with individuals acting together to develop shared emotional repertoires",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["language of fear",[]]]},{"rt":[["language of engagement",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We consider representation as a site of struggle, where meanings are (re) negotiated and reflect broader social and political issues",[]]]},{"de":[["The responsible, active citizen is implicitly contrasted with the disengaged other, not participating.",[]],["the individual behind the initiative, the person who acts, assumes responsibility, and engages in the name of safety.",[]]],"sy":[["engaged citizen",[]]]},{"de":[["The engaged women taking action are represented as ideal neoliberal self-governing subjects",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["vulnerable areas",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They are also often portrayed as disconnected from mainstream society and problematized as threats to social cohesion",["Dahlstedt, 2019"]]],"rt":[["socioeconomically disadvantaged areas",[]]]},{"de":[["it is generally preferred at the EU level.",[]],["it is generally preferred at the EU level",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an alternative political belief system akin to ideology",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Hate speech propagation is an extremely harmful behavior that can result in discrimination, social strife, and human genocide",[]],["Hate speeches fall under various categories, including ethnicity, religion, race, sexual orientation, and others, and are directed against a specific individual or group with a high level of hatred",[]]],"sb":[["ethnicity",[]],["religion",[]],["race",[]],["sexual orientation",[]]]},{"de":[["With this type of manipulation, people are deceptively misled and often presented with the truth, but in reality, it is a lie",["Tkácová et al., 2023"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["culture industry",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["hyperreal public",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It serves accumulation rather than distribution; severs consumers from common facts and opinions; channels mobilization into populism against the policy state; and makes freedom a burden to escape.",[]],["By displacing public deliberation and pragmatic policy-making, neoliberal reason imposes a false, contradictory, and irrational unity.",[]],["It identifies rationality exclusively with market processes; instead of intervening directly in the economy, the juridical state actively maintains rules of competition.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It identifies rationality exclusively with market processes; instead of intervening directly in the economy, the juridical state actively maintains rules of competition.",[]],["The central program of neoliberal governmentality is the absolute generalization of competition as a universal behavioral norm.",[]],["neoliberalism intervenes to make competitive mechanisms regulate every moment and point in society.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["pseudo-participation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["simulated participation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["exploits precarity, corrupts democratic norms, and licenses misdirected aggression.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Facebook, Twitter, Instagram",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["susceptible users",[]],["gullible users",[]]]},{},{"de":[["often used for risk communication related to vaccination",["Vivion et al., 2020"]],["debunking is a recommended strategy to combat misinformation",[]],["is often used for risk communication related to vaccination",["Vivion et al., 2020"]],["and is often used for risk communication related to vaccination (Vivion et al., 2020).",["Vivion et al., 2020"]]]},{"rt":[["perceived trustworthiness",[]]],"ex":[["a company's honesty",[]]]},{"de":[["short messages, which can be more easily disseminated via social media, for example, are also a promising strategy to combat misinformation and increase vaccination intentions during a pandemic.",[]]],"rt":[["debunking misinformation",[]],["correcting misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["the scientifically untrue misinformation that the new gene-based Covid-19 vaccines would interfere with the human genome has been a widely circulated message on social media",["Reuters Staff, 2020"]],["the scientifically untrue misinformation that the new gene-based Covid-19 vaccines would interfere with the human genome has been a widely circulated message on social media (Reuters Staff, 2020).",["Reuters Staff, 2020"]]]},{},{"sp":[["media literacy",["7","8"]]]},{"de":[["media literacy should not be limited to decoding media texts; rather, it should cultivate critical thinking and active engagement, encouraging audiences to explore the deeper meanings embedded in media messages",["10"]],["media literacy comprises two core components: media competency and media text analysis.",[]]],"rt":[["media competency",["7","8"]],["media text analysis",["7","8"]]],"sb":[["media competency",["7","8"]],["media text analysis",["7","8"]]]},{"de":[["All three domains of communicative action, such as information acquisition, transmission, and selection, were covered in this section.",[]]],"rt":[["information acquisition",[]],["transmission",[]],["selection",[]]],"sb":[["information acquisition (information seeking and attending)",[]],["transmission (information forwarding and sharing)",[]],["selection (information forefending and permitting)",[]]]},{"de":[["I can make a difference in the problematic situation of fake news",[]]],"sp":[["situational perceptions",[]]]},{"sp":[["new media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["new media literacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Tandoc et al. (2018) agree that fake news involves intentional deception.",["2018"]],["fake news creators are non-media actors who design sensational, but apparently real, communication in order to mislead the public without having had the intention of either revealing their identity or the falsehood.",["2018"]],["The manipulation can be achieved by distorting the true facts of an issue in favour of a particular party or by providing inaccurate facts that subsequently influence readers' opinions or views on the given topics",["2017"]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["rumour",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["rumour",[]]],"sb":[["news satire and news parody",[]]]},{"sp":[["new media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["new media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["I can see how fake news affects me",[]]],"sp":[["situational perceptions",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These competencies enhance critical thinking and problem-solving abilities",["Varis, 2010"]]],"rt":[["reading and writing skills",[]],["audiovisual literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]],["information literacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["digital interactivity, virtuality, and networkability are the features of new media",["Lister et al. (2009)"]]]},{"de":[["new media literacy involves critical thinking, which can be a way to activate an individual's existing knowledge through reflective thinking",[]],["Critical thinking in new media literacy enables individuals to comprehend information thoroughly.",[]]],"rt":[["critical thinking",[]]],"sb":[["functional consumption (FC)",[]],["critical consumption (CC)",[]],["functional prosumption (FP)",[]],["critical prosumption (CP)",[]]]},{"de":[["Past experience has provided me with guidelines for dealing with fake news",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["constraint recognition",["Kim & Grunig, 2011"]]]},{"sb":[["problem recognition",[]],["constraint recognition",[]],["involvement recognition",[]]]},{"rt":[["problem recognition",[]],["constraint recognition",[]],["involvement recognition",[]],["referent criterion",[]],["situational theory of publics (STP)",["Grunig, 1997"]]],"sp":[["situational theory of publics (STP)",["Grunig, 1997"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["shadow public",[]],["shadow publics",[]]]},{"rt":[["sociocultural practice",[]]]},{"rt":[["interpretive frames",[]]],"sb":[["interpretive frames",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["shadow public",[]]]},{"rt":[["community",[]]],"sb":[["symbolic public",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["These shadow publics are not easily identifiable as composite groups but exert significant persuasive power by virtue of the authority ascribed to them.",[]],["manifesting at particular points in the media discourse and subsequently dissolving back into an amorphous community as media attention shifts elsewhere.",[]],["What defines a shadow public is not its form of appearance -it can be both concrete and symbolic, material and imagined -but its relation to framing and, therefore, the process of meaning-making in journalism.",[]],["Sometimes they are implicitly deemed to be a group within society that has an interest in the issue, and that experiences or will experience some type of consequences in relation to the story development.",[]],["Shadow publics are, in essence, amorphous groups organized by media discourse.",[]],["Representatives of a shadow public are often sources of information in the news -their presence is based on expertise in the matter.",[]],["manoeuvred by the shadow public which, at times, puts the spotlight on race quite explicitly",[]],["This shadow public is also invoked in the reporting of the 'other' in positive terms as that of the happy, well-settled migrant.",[]],["publics presented and constructed by the media have a similar fluid existence, manifesting at particular points in the media discourse and subsequently dissolving back into an amorphous community as media attention shifts elsewhere.",[]]],"rt":[["phantom public",[]],["counter public",[]]],"ex":[["the shadow public in this report is that of scientists, seen as experts whose views are presented as facts.",[]],["the invocation of the shadow public that claims to speak for the common good of the nation as a whole",[]],["non-criminal, non-ethnic New Zealand as a shadow public",[]],["construct a generic white New Zealand shadow public which is presented as different from a discursively demarcated immigrant public",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The framing of such shadow publics gives certain groups the voice of legitimacy, enhanced by the presentation of a scientific view as fact rather than opinion, and the use of a technical vocabulary.",[]],["the use of shadow publics reinforced the marginalization",[]],["two sets of media-created shadow publics that played an active role in legitimizing and marginalizing certain positions on immigration as well as on GM",[]],["the shadow publics are in fact very visible as experts and sources of legitimacy",[]],["The manner in which the news media represents their views conceals their values, objectives, biases, prejudices, and agendas",[]],["Yet, these publics are neither necessarily objective nor neutral.",[]],["The manner in which the news media represents their views conceals their values, objectives, biases, prejudices, and agendas.",[]],["these publics derived their strength and credibility from being represented as Universal voices of reason and rationality who spoke for the \"common good\".",[]],["journalists position as the imagined centre of the society, and therefore who become the focus of the news stories they write.",[]],["The report refers to 'the main reasons given' without identifying who has given them, thereby creating and concurrently legitimizing a shadow public.",[]],["Existing within the shadow and not being seen as a public is clearly an advantage for these groups.",[]],["Unlike specific publics with a clearly defined agenda, these publics derived their strength and credibility from being represented as Universal voices of reason and rationality who spoke for the \"common good\".",[]],["shadow publics that journalists position as the imagined centre of the society, and therefore who become the focus of the news stories they write.",[]]],"rt":[["neutral experts",[]],["lobby groups",[]],["publics",[]],["counter public",[]],["specific publics",[]]],"ex":[["In the case of immigration, this shadow public encompassed a section of Pakeha/European New Zealanders whose views were deemed to be representative of 'mainstream' New Zealand.",[]],["In GM, the shadow public constructed by the media were those members of society deemed technophiles who espoused the neoliberal economic agenda of the state.",[]],["the shadow public in this report is that of scientists, seen as experts whose views are presented as facts.",[]],["a group of people who share the beliefs and values of what the newspaper believes to be the beliefs and values of 'New Zealand' as a whole.",[]],["the unnamed shadow public that steers the framing towards a certain kind of immigration, making a clear distinction between desirable and undesirable forms of immigration.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["discourse practice",[]]]},{"de":[["Generated by a discursive structure of media and the political and cultural dynamics that surround them, a symbolic public becomes open to strangers who can self-identify through the same discourse",["Calhoun, 2002"]]]},{"rt":[["peripheralization",[]]]},{"rt":[["white PR",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the purpose of fake news is to mislead or to deceive a particular public, and its structure is fluid and adaptative. Thus, it can consist of information that is real but is presented in such a way that the overall information is fake, or the text can be accompanied by pictures that have no actual relationship with the narrative presented.",["Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]],["the purpose of fake news is to mislead or to deceive a particular public, and its structure is fluid and adaptative.",["Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]]],"sy":[["false news",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["propaganda",["Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]],["news satire",["Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]],["news parody",["Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]],["news fabrication",["Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]],["photo manipulation and advertising",["Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]],["public relations",["Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]],["photo manipulation",["Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]],["advertising",["Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]],["false connection",[]],["misleading content",[]],["false context",[]],["imposter content",[]],["manipulated content",[]],["fabricated content",[]],["satirical (parodied) content",[]]]},{"sy":[["clickbait",["Wardle, 2017"]]],"sp":[["Fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Fabricated news, on the other hand, has only one goal which is to misinform its publics",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["the substantial difference between fabricated news and news parodies is that between the latter and its audience there is, frequently, a silent agreement upon the fact that the presented information is fake, and its only purpose is fun. Fabricated news, on the other hand, has only one goal which is to misinform its publics",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["News satire programs and tv-shows are based on the presentation of current information displayed in a way that generates laughter among its audiences.",[]],["These shows are embodied in the context of an actual news bulletin, with a frontman sitting behind a desk; the difference is that the anchor is not presented as a journalist or as an investigator but as an entertainer or a comedian",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["News satires have their starting point on something that is true, only for the data to be changed afterwards into something that is only partially correct, with the help of humour and exaggerations",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]]],"rt":[["news parodies",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["the Comedy Central show or The Daily Show",[]]]},{"sp":[["Political efficacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Political efficacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Political alienation",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sb":[["political powerlessness, which refers to one's conviction that he/she cannot change the political doings",["Finifter, 1970"]],["political meaninglessness, which refers to the unpredictability of the political actions",["Finifter, 1970"]],["perceived political normlessness, related to one's beliefs that the states laws are inefficient",["Finifter, 1970"]],["political isolation, referring to the denial of the current state laws widely accepted",["Finifter, 1970"]],["political powerlessness",[]],["political meaninglessness",[]],["perceived political normlessness",[]],["political isolation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["political efficacy consists of two sides: one of them refers to the perceived competence, which represents the ability of an individual to understand the political agenda, while the other refers to the perceived effectiveness, which is the individuals' belief that their actions can change the shapes of politics",["Balmas, 2014"]]],"rt":[["perceived competence",["Balmas, 2014"]],["perceived effectiveness",["Balmas, 2014"]]],"sb":[["perceived competence",[]],["perceived effectiveness",[]]]},{"sp":[["Political alienation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Political alienation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Political alienation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["both are based on facts which are promoted as objective but are presented only from one side or perspective, with the purpose of persuading the targeted audience, rather than informing it",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["Third Person Perception",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["black PR",[]]]},{"de":[["The consequences of this type of sensational journalism practised in the USA have been long time subject of debate for American historians",["Auxier, 1940"]]],"sy":[["sensational journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["The significant qualification to build up for this situation, is the nearness of a consensual understanding between the, at least two accomplices who share in the demonstration.",[]]],"sb":[["subjugation and choking",[]],["electric shock of different body parts",[]],["marking (to leave blemishes on the body)",[]],["cutting, scarring, and suffocation",[]]],"ex":[["These incorporate, yet are not restricted to, subjugation and choking, electric shock of different body parts, marking (to leave blemishes on the body), and cutting, scarring, and suffocation",["Bauer, 2018"]],["subjugation and choking, electric shock of different body parts, marking (to leave blemishes on the body), and cutting, scarring, and suffocation (Bauer, 2018).",["Bauer, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["This sensitive information has the potential to be greatly misused and exploited by those who may hold a grudge against the person whose information has been leaked. It may even be used by people as a means of simply entertaining themselves by causing distress to another person.",[]]],"ex":[["the usage of the address to order large, expensive orders of food from establishments to incur distress and unease in the victim",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The term itself is non-legal and very vague and all-encompassing.",[]],["It is usually utilised in cases where the exact information may be not known except that there may be an aspect of sex involved.",[]],["It may also be used as a means of using general linguistics to refer to the crime due to the sensitive nature of the topic.",[]],["Sexual violence in general terms is used differently by different groups of people. As such, it is pertinent to state that this term does not have a set definition aside from the generally agreed upon the statement as mentioned above.",[]],["This will mean that different people will present different perspectives in response to the same terms used",["(Scully, 2013)"]],["Sexual violence in general terms is used differently by different groups of people.",[]]]},{"de":[["the prevalence of affordable and reliable computational devices and ready access to the internet has resulted in a mirroring.",[]],["This mirroring consists of the physical environment being recreated and, in many ways, has it been enhanced through the utilisation of the technical aspects which computers present.",[]]]},{"de":[["The calls commonly present scenarios of extreme distress or dangers which would prompt the law enforcement agencies to respond with tactical action.",[]]],"ex":[["many people have been the subjects of raids which have been conducted on them by the police due to callers making claims of there being danger present at the premises",[]]]},{"sp":[["Populism",[]]]},{"sp":[["Populism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Furthermore, it is characterized by simplifying issues in a black-and-white manner. Negativity is deemed to be more attention-arousing than balanced reporting. It typically takes an underdog angle of the less-privileged who are portrayed as being exploited by the elites.",[]]],"rt":[["Populism",[]]]},{"de":[["Populism has been described as a \"thin ideology\" (Stanley, 2008) that seems to be irrational by relying on political emotions rather than thoroughly weighed arguments.",[]]],"rt":[["Media populism",[]]],"sb":[["Good populism",[]],["Bad populism",[]],["Ugly populism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Picking on scapegoats has the potential of nurturing suppression and even violence.",[]]],"sp":[["Populism",[]]]},{"de":[["It entails examining the patterns of reasoning, rhetorical devices, and persuasive strategies employed to support a specific viewpoint or sway the audience's views and attitudes.",[]]]},{"de":[["The shift from the argumentation to the conclusion is justified by it.",[]],["This strategy is essential for categorizing arguments that appear convincing and is frequently used in prejudiced speech directed at marginalized groups.",[]]]},{"de":[["It entails having unfair prejudicial opinions about people or groups because of their racial or ethnic heritage (Van Dijk, 1993).",["Van Dijk, 1993"]],["It entails having unfair prejudicial opinions about people or groups because of their racial or ethnic heritage",["1993","Van Dijk, 1993"]]],"rt":[["us versus them",[]],["othering",[]]]},{"de":[["CDA acknowledges that language is imbued with power dynamics and is therefore not neutral.",[]],["It recognizes that diverse power dynamics and ideologies impact media discourse and can mold how social groups like refugees are portrayed.",[]],["Through the examination of language and discourse employed in news stories, CDA seeks to reveal implicit prejudices, preconceptions, and ideological frameworks that could sustain either favorable or unfavorable depictions of refugees.",[]],["CDA acknowledges that language is imbued with power dynamics and is therefore not neutral. It recognizes that diverse power dynamics and ideologies impact media discourse and can mold how social groups like refugees are portrayed.",[]]]},{"de":[["It integrates linguistic research with an investigation of the social processes and historical background that influence discourse over time. Discourse Historical approach primarily seeks to understand how discourse reflects and reproduces historical events, ideologies, and power dynamics.",[]],["It integrates linguistic research with an investigation of the social processes and historical background that influence discourse over time.",[]],["Discourse Historical approach primarily seeks to understand how discourse reflects and reproduces historical events, ideologies, and power dynamics.",[]]],"rt":[["nomination",[]],["prediction",[]],["perspectivation",[]],["mitigation",[]]],"sp":[["Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)",[]],["critical discourse analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["exposing horrific events is another way to achieve humanization",["Hajer & Versteeg, 2005"]]],"rt":[["Victimization",[]],["Individualization",[]]],"ex":[["The UN claims that 75,000 children are compelled to leave their nation every day. (Metro, 25 May 2022).",[]],["A family who is unable to keep their cats with them is thinking about returning to Ukraine. (The Times, August 2022).",[]],["Nine-year-old migrant from Ukraine, very shocked by the fighting, she was mute for six weeks. (London Evening Standard, June 2023).",[]]]},{"rt":[["Humanization",[]],["Victimization",[]]],"ex":[["After a police search, a family of refugees from Ukraine reunites with their seven-year-old Yorkshire Ellie, who was taken five days after they landed in the UK. (The Sun on Sunday, July 2022).",[]],["After escaping a conflict zone, Tetiana and Anna, two Ukrainian sisters, are pursuing their aspirations of becoming well-known skaters. (Metro, May 2023).",[]]]},{"de":[["It entails analyzing the words used to minimize or lessen accountability, blame, or unfavorable assessments.",[]],["Hence, mitigation is a discursive technique that can be used to control or shape how people perceive certain actions or events, frequently advancing the agendas of particular players or social groups.",[]],["mitigation is a discursive technique that can be used to control or shape how people perceive certain actions or events, frequently advancing the agendas of particular players or social groups.",[]],["It entails analyzing the words used to minimize or lessen accountability, blame, or unfavorable assessments. CDA's linguistic perspective of language as a center of ideology and power is linked to mitigation.",[]]],"sy":[["repair strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["Lexical selections, rhetorical devices, and discursive structures are some of these tactics.",[]],["Lexical selections, rhetorical devices, and discursive structures are some of these tactics. Researchers can infer whether particular viewpoints are emphasized or marginalized in a discourse by examining these components (Frawley & Lantolf, 2005;Reisigl & Wodak, 2008).",["Frawley & Lantolf, 2005","Reisigl & Wodak, 2008"]]],"sy":[["perspectivation",[]]]},{"de":[["These strategies aim to assign positive or negative, derogatory, or complementary labels to people, events, and procedures.",[]]]},{"de":[["readers will find it easier to relate to and sympathize with the characters.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["served to reinforce this positive view of refugees.",[]],["Martin (2002) defined Topos as reservoirs of generalized notions from which given arguments can be produced about critical discourse analysis.",["2002"]]],"sy":[["Topos",["2002"]]],"ex":[["concept, interpretation, threat, humane aspects, justice, liability, weighting, finances, numerals, law and rights, culture, and usefulness.",[]]]},{"de":[["another technique for developing humanization and individualization tactics is to emphasize a victim as a regular, innocent person (victimization)",["14"]]],"rt":[["Humanization",[]],["Individualization",[]]]},{"de":[["can stifle press freedom and discourage critical journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["antidisinformation laws, which are frequently less about curbing disinformation and more about muffling opposing viewpoints.",[]],["frequently less about curbing disinformation and more about muffling opposing viewpoints",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["state machinery is co-opted to propagate narratives that primarily benefit those in authority, undermining the interests of the general public and creating a dangerous imbalance in the communication ecology.",[]],["Disinformation is by design misleading, crafted with the express purpose of pushing a specific agenda",["Fallis, 2015"]],["It is calculated and cunning, often blending fact with fiction to lend an air of plausibility.",[]],["the instrumental role governments play in crafting and disseminating false narratives as a deliberate tool of propaganda.",[]],["the deliberate dissemination of falsehoods aimed at deceiving or swaying public opinion",["Kapantai et al., 2021"]],["calculated, systematic, and state-sanctioned",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["state-driven",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["media functions not merely as a backdrop to behavior, but as an affective infrastructure shaping perception, emotion, and decision-making",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["in this case, mapping biological instinct onto social behavior",[]],["when conceptual metaphors become entrenched, they stop merely describing the world and begin to constitute its emotional and moral coordinates",[]],["These metaphors do not merely describe migration; they prescribe emotional orientations and legitimate behavior within culturally specific value systems.",[]]],"ex":[["\"escape\" (Vietnam), \"service\" (Philippines), \"survival\" (Myanmar), and \"responsibility\" (Malaysia)",[]]]},{"de":[["absorbed by youth as normative filters for interpreting life choices, especially migration.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["authoritarian (combining both autocracy types)",[]],["we group these into two supercategories: authoritarian (combining both autocracy types)",[]]],"sb":[["Closed Autocracy",[]],["Electoral Autocracy",[]]],"sp":[["regime types",[]]]},{"sy":[["democracy-authoritarianism spectrum",[]]]},{"de":[["an adapted version of the Fscale (Adorno et al., 1950), a psychometric tool for measuring authoritarian attitudes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we assign each leader to one of four regime types: Closed Autocracy, Electoral Autocracy, Electoral Democracy, or Liberal Democracy.",[]]],"rt":[["authoritarian",[]],["democratic",[]]],"sb":[["Closed Autocracy",[]],["Electoral Autocracy",[]],["Electoral Democracy",[]],["Liberal Democracy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["LLMs often appear to adopt a looser interpretation, treating it as a proxy for historical significance or leadership stature.",[]],["LLMs often appear to adopt a looser interpretation, treating it as a proxy for historical significance or leadership stature",[]],["can also be understood merely as an influential or famous person rather than someone worthy of emulation",[]]],"sy":[["inspirational and exemplar",[]]]},{"sp":[["refusal behavior",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These clues to how the event must be interpreted form its framing, highlighting certain aspects and blurring others, and are susceptible to presenting many forms with different scopes: they can refer to a concrete object, or be about symbolic and cultural constructions that serve as a context to a wide range of narratives",["2017","2017, p. 22"]]]},{"de":[["These clues to how the event must be interpreted form its framing, highlighting certain aspects and blurring others, and are susceptible to presenting many forms with different scopes: they can refer to a concrete object, or be about symbolic and cultural constructions that serve as a context to a wide range of narratives",["2017, p. 22"]]]},{"ex":[["the images in our minds",["1922 cited by Colling, 2001, p. 89"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Techniques such as voice-over or single shots can foster alignment, helping audiences understand the motivations and emotional stakes underlying acts.",[]]],"sp":[["Structures of Sympathy",[]]]},{"de":[["Allegiance does not require approval of their methods, but rather a broader sympathy with their cause or well-being. Films can encourage allegiance by highlighting injustices that characters are resisting and the ethical dilemmas they face.",[]]],"sp":[["Structures of Sympathy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This encompasses violence against property or people, regardless of direct connection to environmental harm. Acts may be shown, planned, or discussed, but must be central to the plot.",[]],["frame eco-tage and eco-terrorism as not only morally wrong, but apocalyptic",[]],["portray eco-tage and eco-terrorism positively, framing nature as something to protect from human greed and exploitation",[]],["desperate but ultimately futile acts against unstoppable human expansion",[]],["responses to state and corporate inaction",[]]],"sy":[["monkeywrenching",["26"]],["vandalism",["26"]],["sabotage",["26"]]],"rt":[["eco-terrorism",[]],["environmental violence",[]],["radical environmentalism",[]],["monkeywrenching",[]],["vandalism",[]],["sabotage",[]]]},{"de":[["The term 'eco-terrorism' was coined in 1983 by libertarian activist Ron Arnold, and first entered US legislative discourse in 1988, when Senator James McClure invoked it during congressional testimony on the Anti-Drug Abuse Act. 20",["20"]],["By 2002, the FBI had adopted the term, and it was frequently used in government hearings and the media alike to describe both real and anticipated acts of environmental violence. 21",["21"]],["Loadenthal suggests this separates it from the traditional public understanding of terrorism, believing the popularisation of the term 'eco-terrorist' to be an intentional framing by those in power, using language to 'inform the wider society as to how they are meant to interpret social movements.' 23",["23"]],["overblown, inaccurate, and fear mongering depictions of bomb-throwing masked vigilantes occupies much of the discussion of 'eco-terrorism'.",["53"]],["This encompasses violence against property or people, regardless of direct connection to environmental harm. Acts may be shown, planned, or discussed, but must be central to the plot.",[]],["frame eco-tage and eco-terrorism as not only morally wrong, but apocalyptic",[]],["portray eco-tage and eco-terrorism positively, framing nature as something to protect from human greed and exploitation",[]],["desperate but ultimately futile acts against unstoppable human expansion",[]],["responses to state and corporate inaction",[]],["The term 'eco-terrorism' was coined in 1983 by libertarian activist Ron Arnold, and first entered US legislative discourse in 1988, when Senator James McClure invoked it during congressional testimony on the Anti-Drug Abuse Act.",["21"]]],"sy":[["environmental violence",[]],["radical environmentalism",[]]],"rt":[["eco-tage",[]],["environmental violence",[]],["radical environmentalism",[]],["environmental activism",[]]]},{"de":[["In this context, it involves clarifying who commits the violence, what the acts entail, and how each relates to real-world forms of environmental violence that audiences might encounter or plausibly imagine.",[]]],"sp":[["Structures of Sympathy",[]]]},{"de":[["This study draws on Murray Smith's Structures of Sympathy to examine how eco-tage and ecoterrorism, and their perpetrators, are portrayed in influential fiction films.",[]]],"sb":[["recognition",[]],["alignment",[]],["allegiance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["predicting the political leanings",[]]]},{},{"de":[["identifying individuals' stances towards specific targets from the given text (Thomas et al., 2006;Walker et al., 2012;Hasan and Ng, 2013).",[]],["Stance detection is a useful task for ideology analysis because co-partisans are generally positive towards each other and negative towards counterpartisans",["Aref and Neal, 2021"]],["identifying individuals' stances towards specific targets from the given text",["Thomas et al., 2006","Walker et al., 2012","Hasan and Ng, 2013"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["event-level detection",[]]],"sp":[["cross-document misinformation detection",[]],["misinformation detection",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["document-level detection",[]]],"sp":[["cross-document misinformation detection",[]],["misinformation detection",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["logical-positivist correspondence theory",[]]]},{"de":[["describing the communicators' aims somewhat differently as \"intent to harm\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it has been used to describe parodies of news, satire, deliberately deceptive messages and simple errors, advertising and public relations messages disguised as news, etc.",["Perez-Rosas, Kleinberg, Lefevre, & Mihalcea, 2017","Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018","Wardle, 2018"]],["the term is ideologically problematic and rather redundant with regard to earlier concepts.",[]],["the field is often defined by these news items actually being untrue, and they are considered relevant just because they are false.",[]],["also used as a political invective",[]]],"sy":[["floating signifier",[]]],"sb":[["fake news\" in the narrow sense",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["normative attitude towards the epistemic value of statements",[]],["symmetry",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The principle of symmetry has been established in the sociology of scientific knowledge as part of the so-called Strong Program: Our belief in the correctness of a statement cannot explain others' belief -or disbelief",[]]]},{"rt":[["knowledge democracy",[]]]},{"sy":[["aktuelle Disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The adoption of key messages is in itself relevant in health crisis communication. It can be regarded as an indicator of social media users' awareness, acceptance or support regarding containment measures.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["unsourced content generated by users",[]]],"sb":[["unsubstantiated health consequences of the Covid-19 vaccination (efficacy, side effects)",[]],["the disease or pandemic itself (trivialization, denial)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The misinformation consists primarily of unsubstantiated health consequences of the Covid-19 vaccination (both efficacy and side effects), and, less often, of trivialisation or denial of the pandemic.",[]],["descending subcategories 'misinformation' (2nd level)",[]]],"sb":[["vaccination: unsubstantiated health effects",[]]],"sp":[["not conducive to containment goals",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Reputation can be distinguished along dimensions, such as competence and trustworthiness.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Such content trivialises exclusion, violence, and hate against Jews by turning it into a matter of recognisable humour.",[]],["The impact of memes and memetic vernacular, among other discursive and communication styles, surpasses the boundaries of groups such as the far and alt-right, but it also reaches the mainstream, consequently desensitising the latter to exclusionary and violent ideologies (e.g. antisemitism) and discourses (e.g. dehumanisation of victims)",["Miller-Idriss 2017: 25"]],["Such an approach to meaning-making is intended to expand the limits of public tolerance of the trivialisation and banalisation of hate, violence",["Tuters 2019: 39"]],["as well as to encourage the normalisation of hate-driven ideologies",["May and Feldman 2019: 28"]],["drives the banalisation of hatred and violence against and dehumanisation of Jews.",[]]]},{"de":[["a process of concealment of blatant and visible antisemitism takes place, largely by relegating clearly articulated expressions (e.g. Jews control the world, or the Holocaust never happened) to alternative semiotic resources (i.e. dog whistles and encrypted language; visual and iconographic resources), relying in this process on a degree of shared knowledge to decrypt and understand what is happening.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["cryptic messaging",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The representations of Jews also includes conspiracy theories, which revolve largely around the conception that Jews control the world or certain aspects of it (i.e. banks, media, forced migration towards Europe, and non-normative gender identities).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["detaching taboo symbols (e.g. Nazi iconography) from their general historical meaning",["Tuters 2019: 42"]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech can take many shapes and forms, including \"subtle as not to be obviously abusive or insulting\"",["Parekh 2012: 40"]],["the abusive, insulting, and angry form of hate speech does not necessarily need to be expressed explicitly, but rather shown through \"ambiguous jokes, innuendoes, and images\", rendering its form rather bland and subtle",["ibid.: 41"]]]},{"ex":[["capital I and lower-case l in \"WeII\"",[]],["é and e in \"Jéwish\"",[]],["(e.g. capital I and lower-case l in \"WeII\", é and e in \"Jéwish\").",[]]]},{"ex":[["Joo instead of Jew",[]],["Some of the words might be deliberately misspelled as well (e.g. Joo instead of Jew).",[]]]},{"ex":[["emojis are used to refer to Jews (i.e. Juice emoji, Star of David, or Israeli flag), or to essentialist representations of Jews (e.g. Pinocchio emoji as a big nose/lying reference).",[]]]},{"de":[["As identity markers, encoded resources on TikTok (visual, auditory, and textual) are deployed to identify the boundaries of a discursive community and/or subculture.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Juden",[]],["Guten Tag",[]],["(e.g. \"Juden\", \"Guten Tag\").",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["memetic vernacular refers to the \"casual\" deployment (of parts of) memes in the phrasing of, among other things, comments, profiles, and captions.",[]],["memes and memetic vernacular tend to fulfil three foundational functions on TikTok: concealment of blatant hate speech and ideology by using humour to bypass censorship, the banalisation of hate and violence, and the marking and reinforcement of (collective) identities.",[]]]},{"ex":[["soap instead of Jew",[]],["(e.g. soap instead of Jew; \" Austrian painter\" instead of Adolf Hitler ), descriptions (e.g. \"big nose people\").",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Both as part of the antisemitic rhetoric or on its own",[]]]},{"ex":[["as, among others, captions to antisemitic posts (e.g. \"I am Jewish and proud!! Have a totally joyful day\"; \"#proudtransnonbinary #Jewtok #Jewish \") or as usernames (e.g. \"Transgender black gay jew\").",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["both for humorous and for concealment purposes",[]]],"ex":[["\"Jas the Gews\" instead of \"Gas the Jews\"",[]],["\"Kate Hikes\" instead of \"Hate Kikes\"",[]],["\"Jas the Gews\" instead of \"Gas the Jews\", or \"Kate Hikes\" instead of \"Hate Kikes\".",[]]]},{"sy":[["Totally Joyful Day",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["represents social actors (e.g. Holocaust victims)",[]]]},{"de":[["In an IAT, participants must classify stimuli into categories as quickly as possible, where faster responses indicate that there are stronger associations between those concepts (Arkes and Tetlock, 2004).",["Arkes and Tetlock, 2004"]]],"ex":[["For example, in a Race IAT, which contrasts prototypical black or white personal names, people consistently respond more quickly to black names paired with negative concepts (e.g., \"Jamal\" and \"disgusting\"), compared to white names paired with negative concepts (e.g., \"Brad\" and \"disgusting\"), and vice versa for pairings with positive concepts, indicating stronger negative associations in the minds of participants toward black names (Greenwald et al., 1998).",["Greenwald et al., 1998"]]]},{"de":[["It is a persuasive communication technique employed by individuals, organizations, or governments to shape public opinion and advance specific agendas.",[]]]},{"de":[["often associated with lower levels of institutional trust",["Dubois et al. (2020)"]],["due to their more volatile and less regulated nature, tend to be viewed with greater skepticism",[]]],"sb":[["Online Social Networks",[]],["Digitally Native News Platforms",[]],["citizen journalism and alternative media",[]],["news aggregators and search engines",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The interdependence between these communication modalities gives rise to a hybrid media system (Chadwick, 2017), in which the dynamics of information production and circulation interact in a complex manner, shaping trust in institutions.",[]],["in which the dynamics of information production and circulation interact in a complex manner, shaping trust in institutions",["Chadwick, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["The contemporary media system is characterized by a hybrid model in which traditional media integrate digital strategies, while digital media frequently repurpose content produced by traditional outlets.",[]]]},{"de":[["institutional trust is essential for political legitimacy and social stability",[]],["This trust, however, is not static and varies according to factors such as transparency, perceived effectiveness and integrity of institutions",["Easton, 2017"]],["For Luhmann (1979), trust in institutions is a way of reducing the complexity of the social world.",[]],["Institutions are seen as simplifying mechanisms, as they allow individuals to delegate responsibilities and feel secure about complying with social norms, even without continuously monitoring their functioning.",[]],["It depends on a combination of factors, such as the perceived transparency, integrity and effectiveness of institutions, as well as the way in which the media shape the public perception of these institutions.",[]],["institutional trust is a more abstract type of trust, focused on systems and organizations that act on behalf of a collectivity",[]]],"rt":[["trust in the media",[]]],"sp":[["Trust",[]]]},{"de":[["This form of trust is based on direct interactions and depends on factors such as reputation, prior knowledge and the perception of the other party's integrity and benevolence",["Harder et al., 2017"]]],"sp":[["Trust",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["trust emerges as a mechanism for simplifying social complexity and is essential for decision-making in situations where direct control is not possible.",[]]],"sb":[["interpersonal trust",[]],["institutional trust",[]]]},{"sp":[["media trust",[]]]},{"de":[["Institutional trust can be understood as citizens' belief that social and political institutions function fairly, transparently and effectively, fulfilling their functions in accordance with society's expectations (Grönlund & Setälä, 2011).",["Grönlund & Setälä, 2011"]]]},{"sp":[["media trust",[]]]},{"sp":[["media trust",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation and fake news became popular terms to help generate domestic awareness against foreign information operations globally.",[]],["disinformation and its associated terms are used to exaggerate an existing threat and create a rallying discourse meant to channel the attention of divided threat.",[]],["disinformation is alleged to have become a new strategic glue intended to help Western nations pool together their increasingly diverging interests and resources in support of a common cause.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["information warfare",[]],["information operations",[]]]},{"de":[["bridge terms",[]]],"rt":[["problematic information",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["information war",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation and its associated terms, like misinformation, fake news, and information war, get securitized, receiving disproportionate levels of attention in the policy domain.",[]],["disinformation is being securitized in the West (especially in NATO) to the extent that the 'war on terror' was securitized through the 2000s.",[]]],"rt":[["insecurity frames",[]],["securitizing acts",[]],["amity-enmity relations",[]],["disinformation",[]],["information warfare",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["conceptualizing affect as the actions and effects of emotions through cultural and political practices",["Ahmed 2013"]],["affect is what emotions enact",[]],["In short, affect is what emotions enact.",[]],["affect is deeply imbricated with the politics of controlling human movement.",[]],["Affect's force lies in its ability to exceed the frameworks through which raciality is made legible, disrupting the colonial order that relies on coherent, governable categories",["Da Silva 2014"]],["It is not simply about feeling, but about power-since affect circulates through bodies, media, institutions, and policies, shaping public perceptions, racial constructions, national boundaries, and ultimately, who is deemed deathworthy.",[]],["affect works as a technology of governance, securing the state's ability to justify deterrence, externalization, and the active abandonment of Black single young men to death at sea.",[]],["Affect's force lies in its ability to exceed the frameworks through which raciality is made legible, disrupting the colonial order that relies on coherent, governable categories (Da Silva 2014).",["Da Silva 2014"]]]},{"de":[["These economies align bodily space with social space, mediating the relationship between the individual and the collective. As affects circulate politically, they form networks of sedimented yet dynamic meaning about collective bodies across time-space, carrying social force and political power.",[]],["the affective economies that structure raciality",[]],["resentment, panic, anxiety, and disgust were generated as affective economies illustrated through the \"migrant ontoepistemology\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this sense, affect works as a technology of governance, securing the state's ability to justify deterrence, externalization, and the active abandonment of Black single young men to death at sea.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Blackness is a referent to slavery and therefore a referent to the colonial context",["Elg 2021, 115"]],["Blackness, as an epistemic force, unsettles the very categories through which inclusion and exclusion are determined, exposing the enduring violences of white colonial modernity and unsettling its attempts to render its own histories discontinuous, distant, or resolved",["Elg 2021","Akomolafe 2024"]],["Without engaging the onto-epistemic stakes of Blackness, migration research risks reproducing the same colonial logics it seeks to critique.",[]],["meaning that its very invocation carries with it multiple temporalities, collapsing past and present into a persistent historical condition.",[]],["Blackness, as an epistemic force, unsettles the very categories through which inclusion and exclusion are determined, exposing the enduring violences of white colonial modernity and unsettling its attempts to render its own histories discontinuous, distant, or resolved (Elg 2021;Akomolafe 2024).",["Elg 2021","Akomolafe 2024"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["I suggest that the representation of migrant subjects in print media and policies is deeply intertwined with perceptions of their \"inherent nature.\" So much so that terms like \"immigrant,\" when repeatedly linked with descriptors like \"illegal,\" begin to signify specific and distinct characteristics of all \"immigrants.\"",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["reinforcing power dynamics and inequalities",["Hall 1997"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Contrast-making",[]]]},{"de":[["evokes the association to the eastern (Soviet) block of communist (socialist) countries that was formed after World War II and which was popularly called béketábor 'peace camp' in Hungariana",[]]],"sy":[["peace camp",[]]]},{},{"de":[["As a result of this specialized communication process, the language of propaganda is function-oriented and its focus is always put on the objectives that are to be achieved.",[]],["Defined as such, the language of propaganda is not a purely linguistic construct, but a multimodal tool able to make use of the visual and audiovisual output as well.",[]],["Its aim is to deliberately and systematically shape perceptions, (dis)inform, create knowledge and direct behavior in order to elicit a response that favors the intentions of those who implement it (Stanley 2015, Cole 2022, Diesen 2022)",["Stanley 2015","Cole 2022","Diesen 2022"]],["the language of propaganda is function-oriented and its focus is always put on the objectives that are to be achieved. These include shaping and manipulating public opinions.",[]],["the language of propaganda is not a purely linguistic construct, but a multimodal tool able to make use of the visual and audiovisual output as well.",[]],["According to Forni (2023), a typical feature of propaganda language is that it seems reasonable and commonly accepted by most of the people to whom it is addressed.",["Forni (2023)"]]]},{"sp":[["conceptualizations",[]]]},{"de":[["It evokes the association to the eastern (Soviet) block of communist (socialist) countries that was formed after World War II and which was popularly called béketábor 'peace camp' in Hungariana semantic calque from the language of Soviet propaganda.",[]]]},{"de":[["Hungary is portrayed as a force for peace battling against the Western war machine.",[]]]},{"de":[["In the language of Hungarian propaganda, the political opposition is referred to as being 'pro-war'",[]]],"sb":[["háborúpárti baloldal 'pro-war left'",[]],["háborúpárti ellenzék 'pro-war opposition'",[]],["háborúpárti politikusok 'pro-war politicians'",[]],["háborúpárti liberálisok 'pro-war liberals'",[]],["háborúpártiak",[]]]},{"de":[["primarily modeled by means of very simple, axiological in their nature, and propaganda-friendly WAR IS BAD vs. PEACE IS GOOD metaphorizations .",[]],["not able to brainwash the subjects exposed to the propaganda stimulus or reprogram their minds, but rather, they allow new information to be incorporated into the previously existing knowledge by being correlated with already familiar experience and reinforce well known stereotypes.",[]]]},{"de":[["On one hand, if female politicians exhibit gender-congruent traits, they are evaluated unfavorably on masculine traits, which in turn may reduce their chances to be elected or promoted to higher executive positions (Rosenwasser & Dean, 1989). On the other hand, if they emphasize their masculine traits, they are penalized for lacking femininity (Eagly & Karau, 2002).",["Rosenwasser & Dean, 1989","Eagly & Karau, 2002"]]]},{},{"de":[["gender stereotypes in news coverage can hurt women's electoral chances and hinder female politicians from excelling in leadership positions, contributing to the underrepresentation of women in politics.",[]]]},{"de":[["gender-linked traits stem from individuals' observations of women and men in their family and occupational roles",["Eagly, 1987"]],["feminine and masculine personality, cognitive, and physical traits",[]]],"rt":[["gender stereotypes",[]],["political traits",[]]],"sb":[["feminine physical traits",[]],["masculine personality traits",[]],["Feminine personality traits",[]]],"sp":[["trait stereotypes",[]]],"ex":[["feminine (e.g., compassionate, weak leader)",["Kahn & Goldenberg, 1991"]],["masculine (e.g., ambitious, aggressive)",["Kahn & Goldenberg, 1991"]]]},{},{"de":[["the qualities that are more relevant to their profession",[]],["leadership, competence, integrity, and empathy",[]]],"rt":[["gender-linked traits",[]]],"sb":[["leadership qualities",["Funk, 1999;Kinder, 1986"]],["competence",["Funk, 1999;Kinder, 1986"]],["integrity",["Funk, 1999;Kinder, 1986"]],["empathy",["Funk, 1999;Kinder, 1986"]],["leadership traits",[]]],"sp":[["trait stereotypes",[]]],"ex":[["leadership, competence, integrity, empathy",[]],["leadership qualities",[]],["competence",[]],["integrity",[]],["empathy",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["black propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["a subsidiary model of political decision making",["Habermas (2013: 149)"]]]},{"de":[["misleading users, attracting attention and manipulation for various purposes",[]],["the petty human need to be right",[]]],"sy":[["false information",[]]],"sb":[["Fake news as a hybrid genre that mixes informative content with fiction for satirical or humorous effect",["Vozab (2017: 4)"]],["Fake news as intentional dissemination of falsehoods for propaganda purposes",["Vozab (2017: 4)"]],["Fake news as media content from biased media that is constructed to consistently conform to a particular political worldview and leads to certain conclusions",["Vozab (2017: 4)"]]]},{"de":[["Media literacy further develops the skills of conscious decision-making under exposure to media content and its critical analysis, while it also creates opportunities for self-expression and production of media content; it is particularly important to use positive influences and prevent possible harmful effects of media exposure.",[]],["Media literacy helps develop critical thinking skills, which include understanding the ways in which media messages shape our culture and society, recognising media strategies, noticing the ways in which media owners formulate content, detecting persuasive techniques at hand, recognising distorted information, misinformation and parts that are not clearly stated, evaluating media messages according to one's own set of experiences, skills, beliefs, and values, creating and disseminating one's content, and advocating for media justice",["Letinić et al., 2016"]],["the development of cognitive, ethical, aesthetic and philosophical skills and knowledge.",["Zgrabljić Rotar (2005)"]],["It is amiss to reduce media literacy to the technical ability to use language in written or spoken form or to use different IT platforms.",[]],["The academic literature on media literacy offers a number of definitions of the phenomenon, but not one is universally accepted.",[]],["the most effective means of combating fake news",[]],["It is amiss to reduce media literacy to the technical ability to use language in written or spoken form or to use different IT platforms. Media literacy is about critically analysing and evaluating media content and being able to create the content, not just critically consume media publications.",[]]],"sb":[["technical competencies",[]],["critical thinking/acceptance skills and practises",[]],["content production",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Under specific circumstances, particular narratives and behavioral schemata may receive heightened political endorsement, distinguishing themselves from others and establishing a new normative framework.",[]]],"rt":[["narrative templates",[]]],"sb":[["traditionalist schema",[]]]},{"de":[["Their involvement in the political process, even in wars and large-scale economic experiments, is superficial.",["Surkov, 2019"]]],"rt":[["deep state",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the 'myriad possibilities of the past affecting the present in ways that most people remain unaware of.'",["Erll, 2022, p. 2"]],["myriad possibilities of the past affecting the present in ways that most people remain unaware of.",["Erll, 2022, p. 2"]],["In collective memory studies, it was developed by Erll (2022) when she brought up the essential role of non-commemorative memory in understanding collective memory. When using this term, she referred to the 'myriad possibilities of the past affecting the present in ways that most people remain unaware of.' (Erll, 2022, p. 2).",["Erll, 2022"]]],"rt":[["narrative templates",[]]]},{"de":[["Within these life scripts, distinct gender expectations and responses to both anticipated and unanticipated life events emerge.",[]]],"sy":[["stock of behavioral schemata",[]]],"rt":[["script",[]]],"sp":[["script",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Each nation has its own set of specific events, and repetitious discourse about them gives rise to schemas that travel from generation to generation and affect national memory.",[]]],"sy":[["narrative templates",[]]],"ex":[["the 'Expulsion-of-Alien-Enemies' narrative template that underlies much of official and non-official Russian narratives about events over the centuries. This narrative template consists of a story of Russians living peacefully, then the emergence of an existential threat from a foreign enemy, followed by Russians' being forced to struggle heroically with this enemy alone and leading to victory and expulsion of the enemy in the end.",[]]]},{"de":[["Each nation has its own set of specific events, and repetitious discourse about them gives rise to schemas that travel from generation to generation and affect national memory.",[]]],"sy":[["Narrative schemata",["Wertsch, 2021"]]],"rt":[["implicit memory",[]],["behavioral schema",[]]],"ex":[["For instance, when exploring Russian collective memory, Wertsch (2021) has described the 'Expulsion-of-Alien-Enemies' narrative template that underlies much of official and non-official Russian narratives about events over the centuries.",["Wertsch, 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["they consistently emphasized that men's roles were centered around combat, while women's responsibilities were limited to housekeeping and child-rearing.",[]]],"sy":[["old traditionalism schema",[]]]},{"rt":[["life script",[]]]},{"de":[["encompass not only folklore and myths but also a diverse array of narratives concerning historical events and quotidian practices",[]]],"rt":[["behavioral schema",[]]]},{"de":[["where men engage in warfare and women wait supportively, contrasts sharply with the dynamics of World War II, to which Russian state propaganda and President Putin frequently refer.",[]],["a longstanding traditionalist gender schema: 'men must fight, women must wait.'",[]]]},{"de":[["This schema can be described as a life practice with stringent gender roles and expectations, wherein the socially acceptable model for men is that of a brave soldier and breadwinner, while for women, it is that of a housekeeper, child raiser, civic worker (or housewife), and patient waiting spouse.",[]]],"rt":[["behavioral schema",[]]],"sp":[["behavioral schema",[]]]},{"de":[["This schema can be described as a life practice with stringent gender roles and expectations, wherein the socially acceptable model for men is that of a brave soldier and breadwinner, while for women, it is that of a housekeeper, child raiser, civic worker (or housewife), and patient waiting spouse.",[]]]},{"de":[["Gathering and use of information is often instrumental, and people process what they know based on what they need to know to reach financial goals, a specific grade in a class, entry into a profession, determine how to vote, and other decisions that people must make.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This design is the obverse of time delays and limits as it accelerates time requiring faster viewing of content and almost no time for response.",[]]]},{"de":[["identifies in early twentieth century advertising fantasies of industrial production, mechanization, and expanding civilization",[]]]},{"de":[["Within copyright law, fair use mediates scarcity and abundance",[]]]},{"de":[["rested on the scarcity of broadcast frequencies that stemmed from the limitations from the radio spectrum.",[]]]},{"de":[["One dimension of contemporary abundance is what is popularly referred to as the information glut.",[]]],"rt":[["Information poverty",[]]]},{"de":[["As more digitization has led to an abundance of websites, podcasts, visual content, electronic books, and streaming music, all easily available for a subscription, through shared services, like YouTube, or via surreptitious means, the typical consumer finds themselves unable to process and distinguish among all the options.",[]]],"rt":[["information glut",[]]]},{"de":[["Theories of abundance fall into what Professor Fried calls non-consequentialist thinking, which reject utilitarianism's emphasis on aggregating individual interests in making policy choices.",[]]],"rt":[["theorists of abundance",[]]]},{"de":[["We can think of a nudge as controlling the speed through which choices are made.",[]],["Instruments for guiding information management can create nudges toward desirable content, promoting either slow or fast thinking and the regulation of the speed of content consumption.",[]]],"rt":[["time architecture",[]]]},{"de":[["Scarcity traditionally has mapped onto limits on freedom.",[]],["Under the language of scarcity, limits promote outcomes, for example through rights to exclude, deprivation of a benefit, or imposition of a burden.",[]],["scarcity and abundance are rhetorical constructs that inform different regulatory institutions.",[]],["Scarcity is distinct from absolute deprivation, and abundance, from unbounded and infinite possibility.",[]]],"rt":[["distinct from absolute deprivation",[]],["abundance",[]]]},{"de":[["We can describe self-regulation as effective forms of time management, knowing when to just turn the noise off and find shelter in modulated silence.",[]],["To revert back to Whybrow's analogy to chocolate cake, self-regulation is a selfimposed regimen of diet, exercise, and information abstinence. This regimen would include strategies such as scheduled viewing, limits on devices, content blockers, or discrimination choices of platform selection.",[]]],"sy":[["selfimposed regimen of diet, exercise, and information abstinence",[]]],"ex":[["scheduled viewing, limits on devices, content blockers, or discrimination choices of platform selection.",[]]]},{"de":[["Modern regulatory approaches, I argue, seek to channel the freedom afforded by time shifting through targeted scarcity that controls the unfettered sprawl of abundance.",[]],["Architecture regulates free time, providing a light-handed regimen that channels one's play into nuggets of engagement.",[]],["Time architecture also imposes a schedule on how time is used.",[]],["Time architecture can be dynamic in addition to the static design of delays, limits, and compartmentalization.",[]]],"sb":[["time scarcity",[]],["time abundance",[]]]},{"sp":[["time architecture",[]]]},{"de":[["What the VCR allowed was escape from the limitations of broadcast time of television programming.",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["generic",[]]]},{"de":[["The conflict frame is commonly used in news because journalistic practice emphasises telling 'both sides of the story,' and because creating an interesting story with tension requires presenting the good and bad or the right and wrong",["Neuman et al., 1992","(Neuman et al., 1992)"]],["The presence of conflict is repeatedly referred to as one important news criteria when selecting which events will be news stories",["de Vreese and Holli, 2001","(de Vreese and Holli, 2001)"]],["the conflict frame not only constructs reality full of tension and juxtapositions but also, in 'telling both sides of the story', offers different solutions to questions on social policy.",[]]]},{"de":[["international media outlets often portrayed trade union representatives as the main critics of basic income and the experiment, as they usually had reserved or negative attitudes towards both.",[]]]},{"sp":[["generic",[]]]},{"de":[["The economic frame is used in news stories because the economic consequences of chosen policy options are seen to have significance for the audience",["Neuman et al., 1992","(Neuman et al., 1992)"]],["The international media often framed the Finnish experiment from a broader economic perspective.",[]],["The background information provided in this framing typically focuses on economic challenges, such as the economic recession Finland has faced in recent years.",[]],["Journalists apply the economic frame because the economic consequences of the issue -in this case, the basic income experiment in Finland -could have significance for members of the public.",[]]],"sb":[["employment frame",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["media framing",[]],["frame-building",[]],["selection and salience",["Entman (1993)"]]],"sb":[["media frames",[]],["individual frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["syntactical structure",[]],["script structure",[]],["thematic structure",[]],["rhetorical structure",[]]]},{"rt":[["issue-specific",[]]],"sb":[["economic consequence",["Semetko and Valkenburg, 2000"]],["conflict",["Semetko and Valkenburg, 2000"]],["human interest",["Semetko and Valkenburg, 2000"]],["morality",["Semetko and Valkenburg, 2000"]],["responsibility",["Semetko and Valkenburg, 2000"]]]},{"sp":[["generic",[]]]},{"de":[["By using stories on an issue's human impact, it is possible to include direct expressions of emotions and evaluative statements in news articles, when journalists tend to avoid making these statements themselves in the name of objectivity",["Neuman et al., 1992","(Neuman et al., 1992)"]],["The human-interest frame described the Finnish experiment mainly from the perspective of its participants. When using this type of framing, participants' stories were mainly positive, and they often expressed that they felt lucky to be chosen as part of the experiment.",[]],["With this framing, a voice was given to people who had experienced periods of unemployment and struggled with the bureaucracy of social security.",[]],["The human-interest frame makes a news story more appealing by highlighting individuals' experiences to evoke both emotions and opinions.",[]],["By using stories on an issue's human impact, it is possible to include direct expressions of emotions and evaluative statements in news articles, when journalists tend to avoid making these statements themselves in the name of objectivity (Neuman et al., 1992).",["Neuman et al., 1992"]]],"ex":[["social and political decisions are presented using human stories, cases, and exemplars, which are said to be more effective than statistics presented in news articles",["de Vreese, 2014"]],["With this type of frame, social and political decisions are presented using human stories, cases, and exemplars, which are said to be more effective than statistics presented in news articles",["de Vreese, 2014"]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["With this frame, the basic income experiment is treated in terms of international media attention. Journalists describe international reporting on the Finnish experiment and the observations and representations of Finland and the Finnish people in the international media.",[]],["Finnish tabloids in particular reported on the experiment in terms of the international attention it gained. These articles usually summa-rised international media coverage on the issue and pointed out that Finland and the Finnish people have been noticed worldwide.",[]],["These articles usually summa-rised international media coverage on the issue and pointed out that Finland and the Finnish people have been noticed worldwide.",[]]],"sp":[["issue-specific frame",[]]]},{"rt":[["generic",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Media frames can also be described as devices that help journalists organise a flood of information (Gitlin, 1980).",["Gitlin, 1980"]]],"sy":[["the media frame is 'a central organizing idea or story line that provides meaning to an unfolding strip of events…. The frame suggest what the controversy is about, the essence of the issue.'",["Gamson and Modigliani (1987: 143)"]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["framing a news story means to select an aspect to reality and make it salient. Entman suggests that framing accomplishes this by defining problems, diagnosing causes, making moral evaluations, and recommending remedies.",[]]]},{"sp":[["generic",[]]]},{"sp":[["generic",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["With this frame, political decision-making should make use of the results of scientific research, and scientific research should be conducted in such a way that it can be utilised in political decision-making.",[]],["In this frame, the experiment is significant because it not only generates knowledge on basic income but also on incentive traps and the well-being of the unemployed. Accordingly, political decision-makers can apply this knowledge when planning social security reform.",[]],["The vision of the future is often one in which automation and robotisation have replaced human labour, and basic income is needed to secure citizens' livelihood.",[]],["This framing sees the use of scientific research in political decision-making to be of primary importance.",[]],["This presents the experiment as a value-free project or a tool for generating knowledge to influence policymaking.",[]]],"sp":[["issue-specific frame",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The \"we\" group is always portrayed as righteous and superior, while \"they\" are framed as the source of problems-the villains.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attitude",[]]]},{"de":[["Positive -Negative",[]]],"ex":[["curang [cheating], kotor [dirty], fiksi [fiction], aroma busuk [foul smell], korupsi [corruption], kebohongan [lies], kampus jelek [bad university]",[]]]},{"de":[["Attitudes include three areas of meaning: affect, judgment, and appreciation.",[]]],"sb":[["affect",[]],["judgment",[]],["appreciation",[]]]},{"de":[["They often use tactics such as spreading disinformation, amplifying false narratives, and engaging in coordinated online activities to sway the perceptions and behaviours of the public.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["modalities",[]]]},{"de":[["serves as a way to depersonalize specific figures and institutions, distancing the writer from the subject and amplifying the impression of dislike and disapproval.",[]],["the use of abstract entities and generalized vocabularies, such as \"someone like this\" or \"this government body,\" is not solely for concealing identities.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Kawal dan menangkan Amin [support and win Amin]",[]],["Lihat [Look]",[]]]},{"de":[["The dominance of declarative clauses in this research reflects the common strategy of presenting disinformation as factual and authoritative",[]]]},{"sb":[["monogloss",[]],["heterogloss",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Graduation",[]],["graduation system",[]]]},{"de":[["This can be achieved through the use of adverbs, exaggerated numbers, or emotionally impactful language.",[]]],"sp":[["Graduation",[]],["graduation system",[]]]},{"de":[["These nominalized elements can then function as participants in the clause, allowing for more abstract and condensed ways of representing actions or qualities, making it seem like a more detached phenomenon rather than a deliberate act",[]]],"ex":[["election",[]],["fraud",[]]]},{"rt":[["monogloss",[]]],"sp":[["Engagement",[]]]},{"ex":[["must or supposed to",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["out-group",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Positive -Negative",[]]],"ex":[["kasihan [pity], licik [cunning], licin [slick], ga waras [insane], orang-orang kalah [losers], kualitasnya jauh dibawah Ganjar dan Anies [far below the quality of Ganjar and Anies], bingung jawab [confused in answering], linglung [dazed], pikun [senile], koncoism [cronyism], nepotisme [nepotism], fitnah [slander], mencengangkan [dismaying], terburuk [the worst], dzolim [oppressive/unjust], jahat [evil], loss lambene [loose-lipped], tidak menghargai orang [disrespectful], IPK 2,3 [GPA 2.3], dagangan tidak laku [not selling], melawak [joking around], halu [delusional]",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["modalities",[]]]},{"de":[["By placing evaluative, emotional, or emphasized information at the beginning of the clause, rather than the Subject, the audience becomes more focused on that information and perceives the following content through a framed perspective.",[]]],"sb":[["Topical Themes",[]],["Interpersonal Theme",[]],["Textual Theme",[]]]},{"rt":[["ideational",[]],["interpersonal",[]],["textual",[]]]},{"sb":[["low epistemic modality",[]],["deontic modalities",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["heterogloss",[]]],"sp":[["Engagement",[]]]},{"rt":[["in-group",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It encompasses the theme-rheme structure (how a message is introduced and developed), the focus of information (what is highlighted as important), and the use of cohesive devices (such as conjunctions and reference words) to ensure the text flows logically and coherently.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["theme-rheme structure",[]],["cohesive devices",[]]],"sb":[["unmarked Theme",[]],["marked Theme",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["marked Themes",[]]]},{"de":[["often gives a neutral impression, making the conveyed message seem purely informational.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["social media posts exploit Verbal processes through selective quoting and removing context. These distortions create disinformation that appears authentic because it is based on real statements, but they mislead the public by altering the original meaning.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["reality TV",[]]]},{"de":[["The media framing of this \"common sense\" simplified account of complex social problems",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["an ideal fact-based one retrieves to check whether the hotline accepts reports of dog meat selling",[]]]},{"de":[["the post and evidence vectors are fed into an inference module, which is often designed to capture the complicated interactions such as coherence and conflicts between 𝑃 and 𝐷 (e.g., [27,56]). The output vectors of inference module f, which implicitly represent the relationship of the post-evidence pairs, is used for final prediction.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["an ideal pattern-based model tends to predict the veracity relying more on the highly frequent use of exclamation marks or the words that urge readers to repost (\"repost quickly\")",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["They can recognize different emotional traits such as joy, surprise, irritation, etc.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["rumor",[]],["clickbait",[]],["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["rumor",[]],["clickbait",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["through the use of such operators, argumentative values enter into the semantic structure of the sentence. These operators provide sentences with an orientation toward a certain type of conclusion that cannot be deduced merely from the informative content of the sentence concerned",["Eemeren et al. 2014, 491"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["disinformation plays a role equivalent to military operations in hybrid conflicts",["Konstantevych et al. 2022"]],["has taken on the status of a full-fledged weapon",[]],["disinformation activities will gain growing importance, especially through the use of new technologies.",[]],["one of the basic operational methods of intelligence services, used both in wartime and peacetime",[]],["disinformation takes the form of a more or less elaborate argument",[]],["tailored to support a preconceived thesis, which is a common disinformation technique",["Kuczma 2016"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["tactical",[]],["strategic (long-term)",[]],["Strategic disinformation, often deployed in peacetime and aimed at long-term goals, involves spreading false information to create a distorted view of reality and, as a result, an erroneous assessment of the situation (Chlebowicz 2012).",["Chlebowicz 2012"]],["Strategic disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Headlines highlight the most important information in the text while also activating models and scripts.",[]],["Since the information contained in the headline sits at the top of the macrostructure hierarchy, it is also the most easily remembered by readers, which may be particularly significant from the perspective of strategic disinformation (van Dijk 1988, 228).",["van Dijk 1988, 228"]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation activities",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",["Wardle and Derakhshan 2017, 20"]]]},{"rt":[["malinformation, which is true but used to cause harm (Wardle and Derakhshan 2017, 20)",["Wardle and Derakhshan 2017, 20"]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",["Wardle and Derakhshan 2017, 20"]]]},{},{"de":[["units with procedural meaning \"determine the way in which human cognition should process the information provided by units with conceptual meaning\"",["Portolés 2010, 282"]]]},{},{"de":[["the operators serve a realizing function; that is to say, they enhance the strength of the argument.",[]]]},{"de":[["defined within the framework of hybrid conflict",[]]],"rt":[["hybrid conflict",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Topoi encompass general rules, shared knowledge within a given community, and common-sense principles embedded in the repository of implicit knowledge",["Gutiérrez Ordóñez 2002, 275"]]]},{"de":[["Topoi encompass general rules, shared knowledge within a given community, and common-sense principles embedded in the repository of implicit knowledge",["Gutiérrez Ordóñez 2002, 275"]],["the topos that underpins the Western narratives of NATO alliance protecting the interests and citizens' security, with justification for increasing defense spending",[]]],"ex":[["+defense spending, +safety for soldiers",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["linguistic bias",[]]]},{"de":[["One way through which a labeled category acquires and keeps its stereotypic associations is determined by what information is shared in communication about category members.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This cognitive representation may include observable, perceptual features of the category members (e.g., skin color, clothing). However, much of the work on the consequences of stereotypes has focused on the influence of trait attributes (e.g., emotional, reckless, competent) that are part of a stereotype, which corresponds to high-level social information that generalizes across individuals and situations.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Deduction occurs when information at the highest level (i.e., a category stereotype) is applied to draw conclusions about individual category members (i.e., usually called stereotyping).",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["When a group of individuals is repeatedly referred to with a given linguistic label (e.g., immigrants), it will gain in entitativity, which in turn facilitates stereotype formation (cf. Crawford et al., 2002).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such politically correct substitute terms usually have a euphemistic connotation, but tend to lose their positive meaning over time when the label becomes associated with the same negative stereotypic associations, thus creating the need for repeated replacements.",[]]],"ex":[["labels for mental disability (moron, mentally retarded, mentally challenged, learning difficulties, special needs) or race (from the use of the N-word as a derogatory group label to the use of the label 'people of color'",["Maass et al., 2014"]]]},{"de":[["i.e., expectancy consistent behaviors based on stereotypes about Northern and Southern Italians are described at a higher level of abstraction than expectancy inconsistent behavior",["Maass et al., 1995","Maas et al., 1996"]]]},{"de":[["Generic sentences combine generic labels with a characteristic and thereby express generalizations both across individual category members and situations (e.g., Boys play with trucks; Girls are sweet).",[]]],"ex":[["Boys play with trucks; Girls are sweet",[]]]},{"sy":[["Generic sentences",[]]]},{"de":[["When information is assumed to be given, it is either omitted or referenced briefly or in general terms. When information is new, in contrast, it is likelier to be marked",[]]]},{"de":[["once an aggregate of individuals is labeled using a (generic) noun label, it is likelier perceived as a meaningful, coherent group (i.e., high entitativity)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Recipients are sensitive to these subtle variations and infer higher essentialism from abstract compared to concrete descriptions.",[]],["Any behavior can be described in concrete terms, using action verbs (e.g., she kicks him) or using increasingly more abstract terms like state verbs (e.g., she hates him) or adjectives (e.g., she is aggressive).",[]]],"ex":[["she kicks him",[]],["she hates him",[]],["she is aggressive",[]]]},{"de":[["is one way to achieve this relevance",["Gibbs & Bryant, 2008","van der Henst, Carles, & Sperber, 2002"]]]},{"de":[["This means that language choice, in referring to and describing a target, varies as a function of the social category in which this target is categorized, or to whether the target's characteristics and behaviors fit with an activated stereotype or not.",[]],["the word 'systematic' indicates that these differences in language choice are general patterns, as opposed to anomalies by individual speakers.",[]]],"sy":[["biased language use",[]]],"sb":[["biases in linguistic labeling",[]],["biases in describing behaviors and characteristics of categorized individuals",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["linguistic biases in labeling and behavior descriptions may reveal that the addressee is being categorized and (implicitly) associated with (negative) stereotypic characteristics.",[]],["Such biases (e.g., particularly based on race, gender, sexual orientation) have been described as microaggressions.",[]]],"ex":[["particularly based on race, gender, sexual orientation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Campbell (1958) originally argued that perceived category entitativity is derived from perceptual Gestalt principles similarity (e.g., in group members' appearance like skin color or physique), physical proximity, collective movement, and common fate among category members.",["Campbell (1958)"]],["more recent broader definitions, state that perceived category entitativity may also, in addition to observable perceptual features of group members, arise from assumed commonality in unobservable aspects of group members",["Brewer, Hong & Li, 2004"]],["In other words, it refers to the perceived \"groupness\" or \"unity\" of a group or category, or how closely tied together its members seem to be",[]],["perceived category entitativity may also, in addition to observable perceptual features of group members, arise from assumed commonality in unobservable aspects of group members (Brewer, Hong & Li, 2004).",["Brewer, Hong & Li, 2004"]],["various studies suggest that these biases, particularly the SEB (Hamilton & Sherman, 1996), LEB (Spencer-Rodgers, Hamilton, & Sherman, 2007), and LIB (Moscatelli & Rubini, 2011;Rubini, Moscatelli, & Palmonari, 2007) are stronger when the described target category is high (vs. low) in perceived entitativity.",["Hamilton & Sherman, 1996","Spencer-Rodgers, Hamilton, & Sherman, 2007","Moscatelli & Rubini, 2011","Rubini, Moscatelli, & Palmonari, 2007"]],["noun labels (as compared to adjective or descriptive labels) function to denote within-group similarities, and distinctions between categories and thereby imply a relatively high perceived category entitativity.",[]],["when the boundaries that differentiate the categories are sharp and fixed (i.e., high entitativity)",[]]],"sy":[["Perceived group entitativity",[]]],"rt":[["perceived homogeneity",[]],["(shared) social category cognition",[]]]},{"de":[["high perceived essentialism means that the properties and characteristics that are associated with a category are perceived to have a high degree of immutability (Kashima, 2004).",["Kashima, 2004"]],["One believes that category members possess a set of internal, dispositional and immutable characteristics that are stable across individual members and situations.",[]],["Higher perceived essentialism then relates to beliefs that these specified characteristics are stable, unchangeable, and dispositional, and have a high repetition likelihood across category members and situations",[]],["the linguistic form of category labels relates in predictable ways to perceived category entitativity, stereotype content, and essentialism.",[]],["when they are perceived to have unchangeable and true essential characteristics (Yzerbyt et al., 2004)",["Yzerbyt et al., 2004"]]],"rt":[["perceived immutability",[]],["stereotype content",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["(shared) social category cognition",[]]]},{"de":[["This cognitive component can be distinguished from an affective or evaluative response towards a social category",["Amodio & Devine, 2006"]]]},{},{"de":[["The framework distinguishes different types of communicative biases (focusing on content and linguistic form of category labels and behavior descriptions), which have hitherto been studied in largely independent fields.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["stereotypes are in essence products of collections of individuals, as they become consensually shared across large numbers of people within (sub) cultures",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Stereotypes are particularly consequential because they are socially shared across large groups of people.",[]],["That is, people in the same context (i.e., within the same [sub-] cultures) appear to hold similar beliefs and expectancies about social categories",["Hogg & Reid, 2006","Oakes, Haslam, & Turner, 1993"]]]},{},{"de":[["The stereotype-consistency bias can thus follow from a motivation to reach consensus and agreement with a conversation partner",["Ruscher, 1998"]],["The consequence of this bias in communication content is that members of (sub)cultures will be exposed relatively more to congruent information of shared stereotypes, which leads to a continuous confirmation of existing stereotypic associations.",[]]],"rt":[["stereotype-consistent information",[]],["stereotype-inconsistent information",[]]]},{"de":[["generics, compared to both individual and no-label, induced stronger category-characteristics links (i.e., stereotype content).",[]],["Repeated exposure to a category label along with certain characteristics creates or reinforces cognitive linkages between the category and characteristics (stereotype content)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such explanations of stereotype-inconsistent behavior are aimed at clarifying the apparent inconsistency, which is not needed for stereotype-consistent behavior.",[]]],"ex":[["the man is crying, because he has a rough day",["Hastie, 1984","Hamilton & Sherman, 1996","Sekaquaptewa, Espinoza, Thompson, Vargas, & von Hippel, 2003"]],["e.g., the man is crying, because he has a rough day",[]]]},{"sy":[["deduction",[]]]},{"de":[["Subtyping is linguistically usually reflected in the use of modified noun labels like \"friendly hooligan\" or \"tough woman\" (adjective + noun) or compound nouns like \"career women,\" \"desk officer\" or \"math girl\" (noun + noun).",[]]],"ex":[["\"friendly hooligan\"",[]],["\"tough woman\"",[]],["\"desk officer\"",[]],["\"math girl\"",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Attitude",[]]]},{"sp":[["Assimilation",[]]]},{"sb":[["Attitude",[]],["Engagement",[]],["Graduation",[]]],"sp":[["Systemic Functional Linguistics",["White, 2007"]]]},{"sb":[["collectivisation",[]],["aggregation",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Affect (people's feelings)",[]],["Judgement (people's character)",[]],["Appreciation (the value of things)",[]],["Affect",[]],["Judgement",[]],["Appreciation",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal Theory",[]]]},{"sp":[["expand",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Assimilation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Appreciation",[]]]},{"de":[["portraying Ar-Rawda attack within the framework of a conflict where there are two parties each of which is assumed to have their own 'defensible' case.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Engagement acknowledges alternative positions, but with varying degrees.",[]]],"sb":[["dialogically contract",[]],["expand",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["attribution",[]]],"sp":[["Engagement",[]]]},{"de":[["News reporters use framing to enable them to highlight a few elements whereby to produce a narrative that reinforces a particular interpretation.",[]],["Since framing, according to Page (1996), is the skilful manipulation of covering an event from the angle that best suits the reporter's standpoint, it was essential that we employ it in this study as one of the tools to exhibit the event(s) as presented through the reporter's lens.",["1996"]]]},{"rt":[["worthy",[]],["unworthy",[]]]},{"sy":[["worthy",[]]],"rt":[["hierarchy of victimisation",[]]],"ex":[["He singled out old women and young children to be perceived as 'vulnerable, defenceless and worthy of sympathy'.",["Christie (1986)"]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["social esteem",[]],["social sanction",[]]],"sp":[["Attitude",[]]]},{"de":[["It also obfuscates agency and responsibility for the action.",[]]],"sy":[["process nouns",[]]],"rt":[["process nouns",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Appreciation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["it should be \"carried out by an organisation … with 'subnational or non-state entity\"",["p. 43"]]]},{"sy":[["unworthy",[]]],"rt":[["hierarchy of victimisation",[]]]},{"de":[["The difference between fake news and real news mainly lies in the authenticity of content, sources of information, purpose, and influence.",[]],["Fake news often lacks reliable sources and attracts clicks with provocative headlines, with the aim of manipulating public opinion, creating chaos, or gaining economic benefits.",[]]],"rt":[["real news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The difference between fake news and real news mainly lies in the authenticity of content, sources of information, purpose, and influence.",[]],["Its purpose is to objectively report events and provide valuable information to the public.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["which often lacks overtly abusive language, presents a greater challenge for accurate detection",["Wiegand, Ruppenhofer, and Eder 2021"]]]},{"de":[["News media use it frequently to refer to the cost of pursuing governmental policies and it reflects the 'preoccupation with the bottom line, profit and loss'",["Neuman, 1992: 63"]],["These percentages represent the average presence of economic consequences frame and the average visibility of the economy in the outlets, for the days of the sampling.",[]],["News media use it frequently to refer to the cost of pursuing governmental policies and it reflects the 'preoccupation with the bottom line, profit and loss' (Neuman, 1992: 63).",["Neuman, 1992: 63"]]],"rt":[["generic frames",["De Vreese, 2005"]],["news framing",[]]],"sp":[["generic frames",["De Vreese, 2005"]]]},{"de":[["people will be relying more on media to obtain information about an issue that they do not experience with one way or the other, while media effects will be weaker for people with a lot of experiences with an issue",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["visibility of the economic issues in the outlets",[]]]},{"de":[["These models have a tendency to disregard contextual information that contradicts or is infrequently reported in the pretrained corpus, while excessively relying on (biased) parametric knowledge (Longpre et al., 2021) to make unfaithful predictions and perpetuate bias.",["Longpre et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["connotations of special medical status",[]],["medical labels for recently medicalized disorders",[]]],"sy":[["medical terminology",[]],["medical labels",[]]],"sp":[["medical terminology",[]]],"ex":[["myalgic encephalopathy",[]],["Erectile Dysfunction Disorder",[]]]},{"rt":[["reason",["4"]]]},{"sy":[["de facto truth",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["end up producing a kind of self-deception, from which the distinction between truth and lie becomes extremely difficult and complex.",[]]],"rt":[["self-deception",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["it is no longer the plumb line for building and using discourses in the public sphere.",[]],["to account for a quick, almost \"intuitive\" understanding of a situation where the previously recognized and cultivated \"truth\" no longer prevails; it is no longer the plumb line for building and using discourses in the public sphere.",[]],["public debates no longer anchored in a supposed objectivity of facts, but in circumstantial versions immersed with the most ardent feelings and affections",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["rational truth",[]],["factual truth",[]],["argumentative discourse",[]],["media image",[]]],"ex":[["the Brexit victory, a term used to describe the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union",["14"]],["Donald Trump's election victories, both as a Republican candidate and as president of the United States",["14"]]]},{"de":[["Once confined to the political realm, these communication techniques and their specific mode of operating images seem to have spread throughout various realms of life.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["while the liberal press plays a much more intermediary role in prominently private discourses assembled with the public, Habermas claims that the era of mass media completely changes this dynamic as it begins to create its own public sphere, thereby modifying all its old operating logic.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["such a lie embodies, especially in political diplomacy, very definite objectives such as the destabilization of the enemy",["11"]]],"rt":[["modern political lie",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Negative campaigning has been shown to lead to a backlash effect, where the attacking party is evaluated lower",["26"]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",["8"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",["7"]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["fake news can be a genre (pseudo-journalistic disinformation) as well as a label (used to delegitimize news media)",["8"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",["8"]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",["7"]]]},{},{"de":[["suggesting that respondents were not receptible to media alone, but may need an opinion leader or interpersonal interaction to influence them",[]]],"sy":[["two-step flows of communication theory",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["false or misleading information",[]]]},{"de":[["when people become more knowledgeable about fake news, they are more likely to carefully check the news before sharing it.",[]],["people who are more aware of fake news are less likely to share unverified information",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Socialization and a sense of belonging are what drive people to share information on social media sites (Doise & Lorenzi-Cioldi, 2020), which often leads to the sharing of fake news (Tandoc et al., 2019).",["Doise & Lorenzi-Cioldi, 2020","Tandoc et al., 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["While the ease of finding information tailored to an individual's preferences can lead to the \"filter bubble\" effect, it might also limit people's exposure to diverse options and opinions",["Gao et al., 2022"]],["consequential limitation in content diversity",[]],["it might also limit people's exposure to diverse options and opinions (Gao et al., 2022).",["Gao et al., 2022"]]],"ex":[["AI would recommend the stuff that you would usually watch. You should try something new, so you won't be watching or hearing the same thing over and over. It will be more diverse. And you will see more diverse opinions as well.",[]]]},{"sp":[["TE model",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Sometimes such links exaggerate the actual content they link to or they point out a shocking title to the web visitor.",[]],["An incomplete or confusing text link, sometimes over exaggerated by the publisher, leaves the web visitors frustrated or disappointed because the reached article does not meet their expectations (as suggested by the text or image link).",[]],["negative phenomenon",[]],["not an objective phenomenon, but rather influenced by people's opinions, values, and emotions, as well as their cultural background",["11"]],["clickbait and low-quality media articles do use emotion to engage with the readers, trying to monopolize their views and opinions.",[]],["To increase the reader's curiosity and to draw more attention to the bait, sometimes publishers overuse an informal or colloquial language.",[]],["In contrast, non-clickbait articles use a more formal, rigorous language, maybe even specialized, to objectively report a series of events.",[]],["is not an objective phenomenon, but rather influenced by people's opinions, values, and emotions, as well as their cultural background as it is presented in [11]",["11"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["thin content",[]],["gossip",[]],["unfounded rumours",[]]],"ex":[["a bait link can propagate in a search engine result page (SERP) [1], in a social network news feed or, when shared, in users' posts in social media.",["1"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["uncivilised politically, socially, and economically",[]]]},{"de":[["neither fish, nor fowl, semi-oriental, not fully European but semideveloped, and semi-civilized",[]]]},{"de":[["portrayed the Romanian psyche as having 'no room for sentimentality', and this 'harsh reality' meant that horses were destined for slaughter in abattoirs",["Fagge 2013"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["overtly negative portrayals",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Such essentialist perceptions can lead to the erroneous premise that these traits and attributes are deeply rooted and natural, thus contributing to the formation of prejudice and a schism between social groups",["Rothbart and Taylor 1992","Haslam et al. (2000)"]],["Leyens et al. (2001) argue that essentialist perceptions can equally entail the denial of human attributes to out-groups.",["Leyens et al. (2001)"]]]},{"de":[["This Eurosceptic view tends to be emotive, patriotic, and sometimes xenophobic",["Wall 2012"]]]},{},{"de":[["discerns the social and power relations embedded in food, particularly the 'different degrees of hierarchy, inclusion and exclusion, boundaries and transactions across boundaries'",["Douglas 1972, 61"]],["Taboos can bring cohesion to societies and a sense of belonging to groups (Douglas 1966), as well as a 'feeling of control over situations where ordinary mortals have little or none' (Allan and Burridge 2006, 9).",[]]],"rt":[["casting of blame",[]],["differentiation around food and between groups",["Douglas 1966, 81"]],["different degrees of hierarchy, inclusion and exclusion, boundaries and transactions across boundaries",["Douglas 1972, 61"]]]},{},{"de":[["mindset of constructing social distinctions and retaining the 'other'",["Buchowski 2006, 466"]]],"ex":[["construction of the Eastern European as a cultural 'other' bound them with a pattern of differentiation that cast them as anything but European.",[]]]},{"de":[["'people understand some attributes and social categories in terms of fixed underlying and identity-determining attributes'",["Bastian and Haslam 2005, 229"]],["'people understand some attributes and social categories in terms of fixed underlying and identity-determining attributes', which may then have implications for the formation of stereotypes and prejudices",["Bastian and Haslam 2005, 229"]]]},{"rt":[["internal others",[]]]},{"de":[["construed as an opportunist in the expanding EU",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["alterity",[]],["binaries",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Journalists feel a sense of duty to inform the public, which is linked to \"people's right to know\"",["Fahmy et al., 2024","Mäenpää, 2022"]],["Ethical decisions about depicting death and suffering balance the duty to inform with the responsibility to care.",[]],["limited by practical constraints and resources: safety, access, finances, and time",[]]],"rt":[["responsibility to care",[]],["ethics of justice",[]],["ethics of care",[]]]},{"de":[["In situations involving close contact with people experiencing war, violent death, fear, suffering, grief, and potential trauma, the photographers were more likely to ask for permission to photograph, avoid capturing sensitive and graphic material, and highlight the subject's privacy.",[]]],"rt":[["responsibility to care",[]]]},{"rt":[["duty to inform",[]]]},{},{"de":[["focusing on the experiences of common people and seeking to create an understanding of the human costs of war",[]]],"sp":[["traditional war reporting",[]]]},{"rt":[["Photographic witnessing",[]]]},{"rt":[["visual frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["journalistic witnessing",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["gluttony over grief",["Cami, broadcasting","Teka, tabloid","Sivo, tabloid","Leno, newspaper"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Fake news are currently discussed in the United State of America, particularly in the context of the 2016 presidential election [67,68] and is now the subject of an adaptation of legislation in France since the attempts to manipulate public opinion during the French 2017 presidential elections [69].",["67","68","69"]],["Fake news seems to be more shared than their debunks in terms of number of accounts reached, but the phenomena is reversed at the community level: the spread of fake news tends to be confined to fewer communities than other political news.",[]],["the fake news phenomena seems rather limited both in terms of volume (order of magnitude of 0.1%) and in terms of the diversity of the communities concerned.",[]],["it seems to cover propaganda, disinformation and false allegation in the media.",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]],["disinformation",[]],["false allegation",[]],["debunks",[]]]},{"rt":[["social learning",[]],["social influence",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["imitation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["social learning",[]]]},{"sp":[["propaganda narratives",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["propaganda narratives",[]]]},{"sp":[["propaganda narratives",[]]]},{"de":[["It creates overlapping labels, making it difficult for the model to learn.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["propaganda narratives",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the way people write and speak about events, entities, and their experiences is unique and subjective.",[]],["the choice of words definitely reflects social and personal perspectives, opinions, and stances",[]]],"rt":[["perspectives",[]],["opinions",[]],["stances",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["women are bad drivers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["range between 0 and 1",[]]]},{"de":[["During a pandemic, when facts are often mixed with rumours, it becomes challenging to learn essential information about an issue",["p. 10"]],["Health-related uncertainties give birth to a new phenomenon that is addressed as infodemic (a portmanteau of \"information\" and \"epidemic\"). In this situation, both true and false information galore.",["(Al-Zaman, 2020, p. 1)"]]],"sy":[["infodemic (a portmanteau of \"information\" and \"epidemic\")",[]],["misinformation",["p. 1"]],["disinformation",["p. 1"]],["false news",["p. 1"]],["inaccurate news",["p. 1"]],["rumor",["p. 1"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["fixação de sentido",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["framing",[]]]},{"sy":[["leiturasenquadramento",[]]]},{"sy":[["enquadramento",[]],["enquadrar",[]]],"rt":[["Agenda-setting",[]]]},{"rt":[["enquadramento",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["combina a biografia com a sua personalidade, obra e imagem",["Cascais, 2001, p. 150"]]]},{"de":[["A personagem jornalística 'representa' idealmente um ser humano, identificado, com 'existência real'",[]]]},{"de":[["The spread of false or misleading content-broadly, referred to as fake news, poses significant threats to democratic institutions, public health, and societal trust [1].",["1"]]]},{"de":[["Desenvolveu cartazes, panfletos, jornais e radiodifusão em línguas moçambicanas (a Rádio Voz Africana, em ondas curtas e médias, que alcançava todos os distritos da Província, também a Rádio Pax, ligada à Diocese da Beira e a Rádio Aero Clube da Beira), emitindo-se mensagens anti-FRELIMO e que procuravam minar a sua luta.",[]],["As autoridades administrativas e militares responsáveis pela ação psicológica desenvolveram e divulgaram os seus instrumentos de cima para baixo. Por meio de banjas, panfletos, cartazes, difusão de informação na rádio, melhoria do nível de vida e assistência à população, caracterizada por habitação (aldeias), apoio à saúde, acesso à educação e atividade econômica, presença militar para garantir a segurança e controle da população, bem como influenciar a imprensa internacional",[]]],"rt":[["contra-subversão",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Não tinham cidadania; eram obrigados a ter consigo uma caderneta (bilhete de identidade) e sujeitos a todos os regulamentos do Regime do Indigenato. Esse regime impôs obrigações de trabalho, negou o acesso a certas zonas das cidades depois de escurecer, bem como o direito de reunião e associação, e restringiu os indígenas a locais limitados de entretenimento ou reunião.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["one can believe that an event happened without remembering it (such as believing you were born).",[]],["One can also recollect something without believing it really happened (such as remembering seeing Santa Claus come down the chimney as a child).",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Developing robust detection mechanisms resilient to adversarial manipulation requires adversarial training, outlier detection, and anomaly detection techniques.",[]]]},{"de":[["On social media platforms, users may choose to remain anonymous by not disclosing their real names or personal information.",[]],["Anonymity makes it difficult to trace the source of rumors back to specific individuals or entities.",[]],["Rumors spread by anonymous users may be more difficult to debunk or refute, as there is no clear source to hold accountable for spreading false information.",[]],["Additionally, anonymous individuals may feel emboldened to spread rumors without fear of consequences, contributing to the proliferation of misinformation online.",[]]],"rt":[["pseudonymity",[]]]},{"de":[["It refers to a scenario where there are no instances of concealing one's infection status, except for cases where recovery from infection occurs and cannot be distinguished.",[]]]},{"de":[["Tracking the cross-platform propagation of rumors and coordinating detection efforts across different platforms presents technical, logistical, and jurisdictional challenges.",[]],["Tracking rumors across multiple platforms requires integrating data from disparate sources, each with its own data format, access restrictions, and API limitations.",[]],["Rumors may manifest differently on different platforms, with content format, language, and user engagement variations.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This labeled data is crucial for training and evaluating rumor-detection models",["147"]],["Obtaining reliable ground truth data for rumor detection is challenging due to the subjective nature of labeling rumors.",[]],["Ground truth data may be sparse or unreliable, hindering the development of accurate detection models.",["147"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Effectively combining diverse data modalities and extracting meaningful features from heterogeneous sources pose challenges for developing integrated detection models.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["By integrating textual, visual, and metadata features, multimodal models capture rich and diverse information that enhances the effectiveness of rumor-detection efforts.",[]]]},{"de":[["These could involve infected nodes deliberately hiding their infection status or the introduction of noise in infection situations where infected nodes probabilistically report their status differently",[]]]},{"de":[["Each social media platform has its own application programming interface (API) with specific limitations on data access, including rate limits, data format restrictions, and access to historical data.",[]],["Different social media platforms support various types of content formats, including text, images, videos, links, and hashtags.",[]],["Social media platforms have distinct network structures, user demographics, and engagement metrics that influence the spread of rumors.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They may contain elements of truth but are more often exaggerated, distorted, or entirely fabricated.",[]],["The lack of credible evidence or confirmation characterizes rumors.",[]],["They are based on hearsay, speculation, or incomplete information, making their accuracy uncertain.",[]],["Rumors typically spread quickly and informally within social networks, often fueled by curiosity, fear, or uncertainty.",[]],["As rumors circulate, they may undergo changes, adaptations, or embellishments.",[]],["Rumors often emerge in situations of ambiguity or anxiety, where people seek explanations or reassurance.",[]],["They can reflect underlying social tensions, fears, or desires within a community.",[]],["In this survey, we consider that rumors can take various forms, including false news stories, misleading claims, and unverified information.",[]]],"rt":[["false news stories",[]],["misleading claims",[]],["unverified information",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["gossip about individuals",[]],["news events",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["false health-related rumors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Rumor detection aims to distinguish between factual information and rumors, which may be inaccurate, misleading, or entirely false.",[]],["Rumor detection involves analyzing various sources of information, such as social-media posts, news articles, and user-generated content, to determine the credibility and reliability of the information being shared [8].",["8"]],["Rumor detection involves analyzing various sources of information, such as social-media posts, news articles, and user-generated content, to determine the credibility and reliability of the information being shared",["8"]],["Rumor detection aims to distinguish between factual information and rumors, which may be inaccurate, misleading, or entirely false. Rumor detection involves analyzing various sources of information, such as social-media posts, news articles, and user-generated content, to determine the credibility and reliability of the information being shared [8].",["8"]]],"rt":[["rumor-detection problem",[]],["rumor source detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Hence, the rumor source can be an individual, a media outlet, a social-media post, or any other source disseminating information.",[]]],"ex":[["the rumor source can be an individual, a media outlet, a social-media post, or any other source disseminating information.",[]]]},{"de":[["These algorithms leverage various techniques from machine learning, NLP, network analysis, and data mining to analyze large volumes of textual and network data and distinguish between true and false information.",[]]]},{"de":[["the rumor-detection problem in social networks involves identifying and mitigating the spread of false or unverified information within online communities.",[]]],"sy":[["RD problem",[]]],"rt":[["rumor detection",[]],["rumor source detection",[]]]},{"de":[["the rumor-detection problem in social networks is a complex and dynamic challenge that requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining techniques from computer science, social-network analysis, and communication studies.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This problem is an inference problem that involves finding the source of a rumor after it has sufficiently spread in the network",[]]]},{"de":[["The process typically involves initially planting several sensor nodes in the network [124]. As information spreads, these nodes collect data on who transmitted what information and when and then relay this information to the administrator.",["124"]]]},{"de":[["The structure of the network, including its size, density, centrality, and modularity, influences the spread of rumors.",[]],["Social networks evolve over time, with connections forming, breaking, and evolving dynamically.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["By identifying linguistic cues, semantic inconsistencies, and stylistic anomalies, style-based detection helps uncover the subtle characteristics of misinformation and improve the effectiveness of rumordetection efforts.",[]]]},{"de":[["These changes may include modifications to the content of the rumor, shifts in sentiment or tone, and variations in the propagation speed and reach.",[]],["Rumors evolve rapidly, with new information being added, modified, or debunked as they spread.",[]]]},{"de":[["Tracing the temporal dynamics of rumor propagation and source attribution requires aligning timestamps, tracking changes in content and context, and accounting for delays and latency in information dissemination",["156"]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["taboo words",[]]]},{"rt":[["profane or blasphemous",[]]],"sp":[["category related to religion",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["taboo words",[]]]},{"de":[["Lexically, the term refers to someone who gives false testimony in court.",[]]]},{"sy":[["Linguistic forensics",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech includes prohibited language such as sexual references, profanity, blasphemy, animal names, ethnic, racial, and gender insults, and insulting comments to perceived psychological, physical, or social deviations.",[]]]},{"sp":[["taboo words",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["behavioral taboos",[]]],"sp":[["taboos",[]]]},{"rt":[["profane or blasphemous",[]]],"sp":[["category related to religion",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["taboo languages",[]],["taboo words",[]]]},{"de":[["Furthermore, if this ban is broken, it poses a risk",["Resticka & Nurdiyanto, 2020"]]],"rt":[["social ritual for obedience",["Brodersen, 2019"]],["restrictive behaviors in dangerous situations",["Brodersen, 2019"]],["a means of protecting individuals in danger",["Brodersen, 2019"]],["safeguarding society from those who pose a threat",["Brodersen, 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["sexual references",[]],["profanity or blasphemy",[]],["animal names",[]],["ethnic, racial, or gender slurs",[]],["references that insult anything considered taboo, including psychological, physical, or social deviation",[]],["profane or blasphemous language",[]],["ethnic-racial-gender slurs",[]],["insulting references to perceived psychological, physical, or social deviations",[]],["ancestral allusion",[]],["substandard vulgar terms",[]],["offensive slang",[]]]},{"rt":[["taboo language",[]]],"sb":[["sexual references",[]],["profane or blasphemous",[]],["animal names",[]],["ethnic-racial-gender slurs",[]],["insulting references to perceived psychological, physical, or social deviations",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["taboos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["New mechanisms for information sharing have consequences for contagion",[]]]},{"de":[["Activities in response to social media posts include retweets/shares, likes/favorites, and replies/comments. These activities all reflect specific user actions such as endorsing a post or expressing a divergent opinion.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In recent years the ratio has attracted growing interest by tech-journals and internet researchers, although this has largely been relegated to news articles and industry blog posts.",[]],["tweets that are considered ratioed",[]]],"rt":[["ratios",[]],["non-ratioed tweets accumulated a ratio greater than 1 (N retweets /N replies > 1)",["Fig 8"]]]},{"de":[["The rise of deep fakes has become a growing concern for society because of their ability to spread misinformation, which may cause harm to organizations and individuals",["1"]],["The rapid expansion of social media platforms and the increasing availability of online content have made it easier for deep fake material to spread quickly and influence public perception.",[]],["The widespread availability of sophisticated deep learning algorithms has made it possible to create deep fakes that are nearly indistinguishable from genuine content, making it challenging to discern truth from falsehood in the digital sphere",["2"]]],"sb":[["face-swap deep fakes",[]]]},{"de":[["has become a powerful tool for manipulating individuals and damaging reputations.",[]]]},{"sp":[["deep fakes",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["strategic communication scholarship highlights the potential of framing, storytelling, and community -based narratives to enhance the visibility of sustainability messages",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In tourism communication, framing determines whether destinations are perceived primarily through lenses of leisure consumption, cultural authenticity, or environmental value.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we train a veracity assessment model to assign a True or False label to the claim.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["may lead people to reject or reinterpret corrective messages in ways that reinforce their existing beliefs",[]]],"sp":[["Cognitive biases",[]]]},{"de":[["play a critical role in the spread of falsehoods",[]],["confirmation bias, where individuals seek out information that confirms their pre-existing beliefs",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive biases",[]]]},{"de":[["poses significant threats to information integrity",[]],["These AI-generated media have been implicated in spreading false information across various domains, including politics and health",[]]]},{"de":[["reduces their susceptibility to false claims",[]]]},{"de":[["This limits their exposure to corrective information.",[]],["As a result, misinformation becomes more persistent and harder to correct.",[]]]},{"de":[["This phenomenon, characterized by an overabundance of information-both accurate and false-created confusion, fear, and mistrust among the public",["Infodemic, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["Improving public resilience to misinformation requires education on media literacy, critical thinking skills, and the ability to discern credible sources from unreliable ones.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["are essential to controlling misinformation.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["las plataformas digitales intervienen en la legitimación de determinados cuerpos e identidades mediante mecanismos de discriminación algorítmica y exclusión visual",["Benjamin, 2019"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The World Health Organization (WHO) coined the term",[]]]},{"de":[["It is identified through understanding the similarity of the headline and body of news content or article",["22"]],["It is identified through understanding the similarity of the headline and body of news content or article [22].",["22"]]]},{},{"de":[["harmful effects of disinformation include threats to democratic political processes and democratic values in general, undermining trust in institutions and in digital and traditional media",[]],["hindering informed decision-making by citizens",[]],["deployed by state and non-state actors as a key tool for exerting influence",["European Commission 2018b"]],["intervenes with the democratic order by dominating and distorting public discourses and corrupting the process of democratic decision-making concerning central issues of public interest",[]],["increases polarization in society and decreases trust in mainstream media and institutions",["Vériter, Bjola, and Koops 2020"]],["temptation of governments to infringe upon civil liberties",["Vilmer et al. (2018)"]]],"sy":[["fake news",["European Parliament, 2015"]]],"rt":[["hybrid warfare",[]]]},{"de":[["hybrid warfare implies that Russia is fomenting this tension between Belarus and Poland; in other words, Lukashenka and his team are attacking the EU on behalf of Russia.",[]],["the era of hybrid warfare was introduced by the few to ensure that the existing imbalance would not only develop but become almost irreversible -an irreversible process -in the interests and favor of the minority.",[]]],"sy":[["hybrid warfare",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation campaigns",[]],["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The disseminator of misinformation believes that he or she is disseminating correct, factual information.",[]],["According to IATE, misinformation is \"information that is incorrect or misleading but not intentionally so.\"",[]],["In contrast to disinformation, misinformation is distorted or falsified information that is not intentionally manipulated (for some purpose or profit). The disseminator of misinformation believes that he or she is disseminating correct, factual information.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["methodology for constructing ethical, social, and political alternatives because it promotes the development of critical collective consciousness and strengthens the effectiveness of normative actions",[]],["Latin American critical media education emphasizes the understanding of the hegemonic forms of production and dissemination of messages, information, and content, the interconnections between power, communication, the market, digital ecosystems, and platforms, the confusion between social relations and connectivity, and the effects that the simple actions of blocking, canceling, and stigmatizing through hate messages produce on an individual and collective level in terms of limiting the full expression of the concept of culture and democratic freedom",[]],["provides the possibility of recovering dialogue and responsible and conscious confrontation, of building together practices directed towards self-respect and respect for others, of constructing a horizontal and critical exercise in the use of digital media that, in collaboration with institutional and legal strategies, could offer proposals for solutions transcending geographical limits.",[]],["Latin American critical media education emphasizes the understanding of the hegemonic forms of production and dissemination of messages, information, and content, the interconnections between power, communication, the market, digital ecosystems, and platforms, the confusion between social relations and connectivity, and the effects that the simple actions of blocking, canceling, and stigmatizing through hate messages produce on an individual and collective level in terms of limiting the full expression of the concept of culture and democratic freedom.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the trademarks of hate speech are generalization, discrimination, and intolerance.",[]]]},{"de":[["it provides the possibility of recovering dialogue and responsible and conscious confrontation, of building together practices directed towards self-respect and respect for others, of constructing a horizontal and critical exercise in the use of digital media that, in collaboration with institutional and legal strategies, could offer proposals for solutions transcending geographical limits.",[]]]},{"de":[["the growth of online hate speech limits the sociopolitical participation and enjoyment of fundamental rights of Latin American women social leaders and political candidates",[]],["online hate has tangible effects, even if hidden behind a virtual society's multifaceted world.",[]],["The exponential growth of the online hate speech phenomenon, linked to global trends due to long-term mutations concerning culture, common meanings and identities, communication processes, and new dominant technological elites, generates concerns and considerations on the need for joint efforts at multiple levels to deal with these dynamics.",[]],["Online hate speech influences social relations and civic commitment modalities and forms.",[]],["hate speech promotes extreme socio-cultural behavior patterns and severe limitations on individual freedom",[]],["it influences both public opinion and women's political careers, representing a symbolic obstacle to the full exercise of their rights",["Macías and Valdespino 2019, 8"]]],"rt":[["information disorder",[]]],"ex":[["#caprichosas (capricious)",[]],["#desquiciadas (unbalanced)",[]],["#psicópatas (psychopathic)",[]],["#retrasadas (retarded)",[]],["#femilocas (union of feminist + crazy)",[]],["#asesinas (murderesses)",[]],["#feminazi (from the union of feminists + nazis)",[]],["#putas (prostitutes)",[]],["#desenfrenadas (unbridled)",[]],["#rataenferma (diseased rat)",[]],["#marimacho (lesbians)",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["digital public sphere",["Bruns and Highfield 2016","2016"]]]},{"de":[["It highlights the significance of language as a source of power and explores how language usage can contribute to social control and psychological impacts (Mullet, 2018;Willig, 2000).",["Mullet, 2018","Willig, 2000"]],["CDA emerged from the integration of diverse theories, leading it to be predominantly recognized as a theoretical framework (Fitriani et al. 2021).",["Fitriani et al. 2021"]],["The emphasis on CDA reflected a commitment to critically examine the language used in anti-vaccine discourses, revealing the implications of textual analysis on anti-vaccine COVID-19 news in American and Indonesian online media.",[]],["By focusing on CDA, the research aimed to unveil the macrostructure, superstructure, and microstructure in the discourse on antivaccine COVID-19. This approach enabled a nuanced examination of how language constructed and disseminated specific narratives, contributing to a deeper understanding of textual analysis concerning anti-vaccine sentiments during the ongoing pandemic.",[]],["CDA is a qualitative analytical technique concerned with describing, analyzing, and explaining how discourse perpetuates social inequality (Wodak & Meyer, 2008).",["Wodak & Meyer, 2008"]],["Specifically, CDA has been used to analyze how language operates within society, delineate linguistic processes within social contexts, and unveil underlying ideologies and politics.",[]]]},{"de":[["ideologies, as conceptualized by Van Dijk (2006), are not abstract concepts but integral dimensions of the social identity and self-image of various societal groups.",["2006"]],["In this research, the ideology of anti-vaccine sentiment related to COVID-19 was connected to three core contextual dimensions: historical, institutional, and social.",[]]]},{"de":[["Analyzing the thematic content of a text forms the basis for understanding the entire narrative. It is within macrostructures that the main topics or overarching ideas conveyed in news reports or articles are found.",[]],["Macrostructures are pivotal in determining the overall coherence of a piece of work",["Van Dijk, 1988"]],["In the macrostructure domain, significant differences became apparent, particularly regarding the coverage of anti-vaccine COVID-19 topics by American and Indonesian online news platforms.",[]],["It showed the most significant information presented in the texts.",[]],["Analyzing the thematic content of a text forms the basis for understanding the entire narrative.",[]],["It is within macrostructures that the main topics or overarching ideas conveyed in news reports or articles are found.",[]],["Macrostructures are pivotal in determining the overall coherence of a piece of work (Van Dijk, 1988).",["Van Dijk, 1988"]]]},{"de":[["The microstructure encompasses the local meanings within a text, ranging from the meanings of individual words and word groups to clauses, sentences, and their interconnections.",[]],["According to Van Dijk (1991), these variations in meaning-related features are intrinsic to news reporting and cannot be separated from it.",["Van Dijk, 1991"]],["It is within the microstructure that ideology permeates all aspects of meaning, often remaining concealed until scrutinized through discourse analysis",["Van Dijk, 1991"]],["Within the microstructure, linguistic elements such as dysphemism, euphemism, active voice, passive voice, nominalization, pronouns, sentence structures, and more play a crucial role in shaping the discourse's meaning.",[]],["It is within the microstructure that ideology permeates all aspects of meaning, often remaining concealed until scrutinized through discourse analysis (Van Dijk, 1991).",["(Van Dijk, 1991)","Van Dijk, 1991"]],["These elements are crucial for understanding how discourse is constructed and how meaning is conveyed within news reports.",[]],["the microstructure analysis, which examined linguistic intricacies, uncovered interesting disparities in linguistic strategies between American and Indonesian online news sources.",[]],["It focuses on lexical choices (words), sentence structures, semantics, and rhetorical features employed to construct a narrative.",[]]],"rt":[["dysphemism",[]],["euphemism",[]],["active voice",[]],["passive voice",[]],["nominalization",[]],["pronouns",[]],["sentence structures",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The superstructure also includes various schematic features, such as headlines, leads, primary events, background information, verbal reactions, and conclusions",["Van Dijk, 1991","Aini & Widodo, 2018","Firmansyah & Degaf, 2024"]],["it was noteworthy that both American and Indonesian online news adhered to a similar structural framework. Each news article included standard elements such as headlines, leads, main events, background information, verbal reactions, and conclusions.",[]],["It outlines the critical components and arrangement of a story or narrative.",[]],["The news superstructure typically comprises three main sections: the introduction, which sets the stage for the story; the body, which contains the substantive information; and the conclusion, which offers the outcome or summary of the story.",[]],["The superstructure also includes various schematic features, such as headlines, leads, primary events, background information, verbal reactions, and conclusions, which can be further dissected for analysis (Van Dijk, 1991;Aini & Widodo, 2018;Firmansyah & Degaf, 2024).",["Van Dijk, 1991","Aini & Widodo, 2018","Firmansyah & Degaf, 2024"]]],"ex":[["The news superstructure typically comprises three main sections: the introduction, which sets the stage for the story; the body, which contains the substantive information; and the conclusion, which offers the outcome or summary of the story.",["Van Dijk, 1991","Aini & Widodo, 2018","Firmansyah & Degaf, 2024"]]]},{"de":[["This perspective places social cognition as the bridge between society and text. Van Dijk contended that social collectives, including groups, organizations, and institutions, possess various social cognitions that must be considered when conducting CDA (Van Dijk, 2001).",["Van Dijk, 2001"]],["Central to CDA, according to Van Dijk, is the understanding of ideological frameworks and power relations encoded within language (Van Dijk, 2000, cited in Jahedi et al., 2014).",["Van Dijk, 2000, cited in Jahedi et al., 2014"]],["Van Dijk's CDA model comprises three fundamental aspects or structures: text, social cognition, and social context.",[]]]},{"de":[["This perspective places social cognition as the bridge between society and text.",[]],["Central to CDA, according to Van Dijk, is the understanding of ideological frameworks and power relations encoded within language (Van Dijk, 2000, cited in Jahedi et al., 2014).",["Van Dijk, 2000","Jahedi et al., 2014"]]],"sb":[["text",[]],["social cognition",[]],["social context",[]]]},{"de":[["Communitarianism provides criticism of, and an alternative to, liberal theory",[]],["It emphasises the 'restraining principles' of minimising harm and being accountable, and it promotes the ethics of care in attempts to restrain news media that are often insensitive to story subjects and sources",["Ward, 2009, p. 300"]]]},{},{"rt":[["deliberative journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["Such journalism would also report on crises and social problems, but in a way that identifies the causes and possible solutions, so that citizens are not overwhelmed by negative news that suggests their societies are being buried by intractable problems.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["positive solidarity",[]]]},{"rt":[["conflict sensitive reporting",[]],["use and abuse of media in vulnerable societies",[]]]},{"rt":[["negative solidarity",[]]]},{"de":[["the proposed framework is envisaged as a balancing or harmonising model existing within or alongside conventional journalism, adding additional scope to its traditional Fourth Estate role.",[]],["Responsible conflict reporting conceptualises conflict as part of a larger framework shaped and influenced by historical as well as current factors, with long-term socio-economic and developmental implications.",[]]],"rt":[["peace journalism",[]],["conflict sensitive reporting",[]],["deliberative journalism",[]],["development journalism",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["rumours",[]]]},{"sp":[["rumours",[]]]},{"sp":[["rumours",[]]]},{},{"de":[["believability refers to the extent to which a rumour is likely to be perceived as truthful.",[]]]},{"de":[["Certainty, as we annotated it in the context of rumours, measures the degree of confidence expressed by the author of a tweet.",[]],["The author can express different degrees of certainty when posting a tweet, from being 100% certain, to considering it as a dubious or unlikely occurrence.",[]]],"rt":[["Modality",["33"]]],"ex":[["Certain, when the author is fully confident or the author is not showing any kind of doubt",[]],["Somewhat certain, when they are not fully confident",[]],["Uncertain, when the author is clearly unsure",[]]]},{"sb":[["denying tweets",[]],["appeals for more information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Evidentiality in the context of a rumour determines the type of evidence (if any) provided by an author of a tweet.",[]],["It is important to note that the evidence provided has to be directly related to the rumour being discussed in the conversation and any other kind of evidence that is irrelevant in that context is not annotated here.",[]]],"ex":[["First-hand experience, when the author of the tweet claims to have witnessed events associated with the rumour",[]],["Attachment of a URL pointing to evidence",[]],["Quotation of a person or organisation, when an accessible source is being quoted as a source of evidence",[]],["Attachment of a picture",[]],["Quotation of an unverifiable source, when the source being mentioned is not accessible, such as \"my friend said that. . .\"",[]],["Employment of reasoning, when the author explains the reasoning behind their view",[]],["No evidence, when none of the other types of evidence is given in the tweet",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Agreed, when the author of the response supports the statement they are responding to",[]],["Disagreed, when the author of the response disagrees with the statement they are responding to",[]],["Appeal for more information, when the author of the response asks for additional evidence in relation to the statement they are responding to",[]],["Comment, when the author of the response makes their own comment without a clear contribution to assessing the veracity of either the tweet they are responding to or the source tweet",[]]]},{"rt":[["rumour diffusion",[]]],"sb":[["'pipe-dream' rumours",["18"]],["'bogy' rumours",["18"]],["'wedge-driving' rumours",["18"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It is hence different from the rumour's truth value and reflects the view of the author of the source tweets towards the rumour's veracity.",[]]],"rt":[["Polarity",["33"]]],"ex":[["Supporting, when the author of the source tweet supports the content of the statement",[]],["Denying, when denying it",[]],["Underspecified, when the author's view is unclear",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["research highlights distinct behaviors among authors of HS, who tend to exhibit higher activity levels, use specific and non-trivial language, and maintain dense connections within their networks",["Mathew et al. 2020","Ribeiro et al. 2018"]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["I couldn't agree more to what you are saying.",[]],["No, please don't do that.",[]]]},{"ex":[["I am sure they will fight about it.",[]],["Of course it is true.",[]],["I am sure they will fight about it. Of course it is true.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Hate the end result, but #thegame always delivers. always. best rivalry in sports",[]],["While these are kind of notes to myself, you might still find them useful.",[]],["The result is fairly good, but it could be better.",[]],["While these are kind of notes to myself, you might still find them useful. The result is fairly good, but it could be better.",[]]]},{"de":[["annotators tend to agree more when annotating explicit coherence relations",[]]],"rt":[["implicit coherence relations",[]]],"ex":[["because, for this reason",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["If you use this Kim Kardashian hashtag thing it's an instant unfollow",[]],["If it's nice tomorrow, we will go.",[]],["I will be happy, if Mike visits Granny tomorrow.",[]],["If it's nice tomorrow, we will go. I will be happy, if Mike visits Granny tomorrow.",[]]]},{"rt":[["explicit coherence relations",[]]]},{"ex":[["I really need to start utilizing a day minder",[]],["I must hand back all the books by tomorrow.",[]],["This wine should drink well for two more decades.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["@lazycat99 I knew someone would catch that reference. Well done!",[]],["My guess is that the guests have already arrived.",[]],["The meeting should not last longer than 2 hours.",[]],["That ought to be fine.",[]],["My guess is that the guests have already arrived. The meeting should not last longer than 2 hours. That ought to be fine.",[]]]},{"ex":[["One mustn't be much concerned with living, but with living well... Socrates to Crito, in Plato, 'Crito', 48b",[]],["I saw Mary talking to Elena yesterday.",[]],["According to the news, the rate of interest is not going up.",[]]]},{"de":[["Stance is a multidimensional concept involving a broad range of related notions such as modality, evaluation and sentiment.",[]],["a binary phenomenon of the speaker's pro/con positioning in relation to a topic, an idea or an event",[]],["the very complex concept that stance is",[]]],"rt":[["modality",[]],["evaluation",[]],["sentiment",[]],["subjectivity",[]],["intersubjectivity",[]]],"sb":[["necessity",[]],["prediction",[]],["source of knowledge",[]],["uncertainty",[]],["contrariety",[]],["hypotheticality",[]],["certainty",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The markers are based on a two-fold analysis of the BBC data: first, the extraction of the statistically significant lexical items per category and, second, the identification of the stance-related lexical chunks by one of the annotators",[]],["This list includes a range of stance markers from relatively clear ones (but and if) to items that do not refer to a specific stance category (that, show and think).",[]]],"ex":[["then (e.g., If you're not willing to risk it all then you do not want it bad enough)",[]],["would (e.g., It would be cute if they didn't draw on me)",[]],["may, maybe, might, must, needs, probably, said, then and while",[]]]},{"de":[["human performance in communication",[]]],"rt":[["modality",["Facchinetti et al. 2003","Marín-Arrese et al. 2014"]],["sentiment",["Taboada 2016"]],["modality (Facchinetti et al. 2003;Marín-Arrese et al. 2014)",[]],["evaluation (Hidalgo-Downing 2012; Fuoli 2018)",[]],["evidentiality (Ekberg and Paradis 2009)",[]],["sentiment (Taboada 2016)",[]],["evaluation",["Hidalgo-Downing 2012","Fuoli 2018"]]]},{"ex":[["Please, do give my love to him.",[]],["You lazy bastard.",[]],["Get lost.",[]],["You lazy bastard. Get lost.",[]],["Please, do give my love to him. You lazy bastard. Get lost.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Stand up special starts in 20 mins. I think 7 on West Coast. 10 on East. I actually have no fucking idea",[]],["We have enough time, haven't we?",[]],["There might be a few things left to do.",[]]]},{"ex":[["I wish I could join you next summer.",[]],["I prefer to stay in a cheap hotel.",[]],["I wish I could join you next summer. I prefer to stay in a cheap hotel.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we ought to restrict ourselves to describing how things are; never taking the additional step of prescribing how we think they ought to be.",[]]],"sy":[["Hume's guillotine",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Learning about hierarchy and how it is marked is a critical aspect of both language acquisition and social development throughout life.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["sarcastic expressions often obscure the real intent of a message and hinder accurate classification.",[]],["Sarcasm is heavily reliant on context and frequently influenced by cultural allusions, conversational background, or multimodal cues, thereby complicating cross-domain generalisation.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["it is mainly employed to attract users to access a specific website to increase traffic and, consequently, boost revenue",["26","24"]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sb":[["Linguistic-based features",[]],["Visual features",[]]]},{"sb":[["Linguistic-based features",[]],["Visual features",[]]]},{"rt":[["Modern Standard Arabic (MSA)",[]]]},{"de":[["While both refer to inaccurate or fake information, disinformation is created with malicious intent, whereas this is not necessarily the case with misinformation",["25","19"]],["disinformation is created with malicious intent, whereas this is not necessarily the case with misinformation",["25","19"]],["While both refer to inaccurate or fake information, disinformation is created with malicious intent, whereas this is not necessarily the case with misinformation [25][19].",["25","19"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",["25","19"]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["false news",[]]],"sb":[["hoax",[]],["rumor",[]],["spam",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["clickbait",[]],["satire",[]],["propaganda",[]],["hyperpartisan",[]]]},{"sp":[["Network-based features",[]]]},{"de":[["They consist of fabricated information that has been purposefully created to appear true, and because they involve highly intricate and large-scale fabrications, they frequently cause substantial material harm to the victim",["20"]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["particularly in the political arena, denoting strong partiality toward individuals, parties, circumstances, or events",["32"]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Linguistic-based features",[]]]},{"sb":[["Lexical features",[]],["syntactic features",[]],["semantic features",[]]],"sp":[["Content-based Approaches",[]],["Content-based features",[]]]},{"de":[["While both refer to inaccurate or fake information, disinformation is created with malicious intent, whereas this is not necessarily the case with misinformation",["25","19"]],["for example, by mistake or updating specific knowledge without intentionally misleading",["23"]],["While both refer to inaccurate or fake information, disinformation is created with malicious intent, whereas this is not necessarily the case with misinformation [25][19].",["25","19"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",["25","19"]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sb":[["stance network",["57","58"]],["co-occurrence network",["47"]],["friendship network",["59"]]],"sp":[["Social Context-based Features",[]]]},{"sp":[["Social Context-based Features",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["This form of discourse often incorporates a substantial amount of irony",["28"]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["Linguistic-based features",[]]]},{"sb":[["User-based Features",[]],["Post-based features",[]],["Network-based features",[]],["User-based",[]],["Post-based",[]],["Networkbased",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["advertisements, malicious links, or content of poor quality",["22"]]]},{"sp":[["Network-based features",[]]]},{"sp":[["Social Context-based Features",[]]]},{"sp":[["complex contagion",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The cognitive cascade model, by giving each individual agent a cognitive model to direct belief update, allows a level of expressiveness above existing simple and proportional threshold contagion models typically used in network cascade analysis.",[]]]},{"de":[["incoming belief strengths must be close to existing belief strengths to yield an update",[]]],"rt":[["dissonance-related contagion functions",["76","81"]]]},{"sb":[["proportional threshold contagion",[]],["absolute threshold contagion",[]]],"sp":[["social contagion",[]]]},{"de":[["allowed us to run simulation models of networked populations of agents whose belief strength in a given proposition is influenced by an external agent",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["often called misinformation or disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Proportional threshold contagion says nothing about the innate infectiousness of any belief, but rather the infectiousness of the connections surrounding any agent.",[]],["the proportional threshold contagion neighbor threshold",[]]],"rt":[["simple contagion",[]],["cognitive contagion",[]]],"sp":[["complex contagion",[]]],"ex":[["collegiate drinking behavior",["68"]],["diffusion of health information or technological innovations",["78"]]]},{},{"de":[["studies have shown both evidence of its existence [53][54][55] (often with small effects), and against it [8,52,56].",["53","54","55","8","52","56"]]],"rt":[["bias-confirming media",[]]]},{"de":[["Simply being connected to an individual who holds a belief engenders a probability, p, that the belief may spread to you.",[]],["The chance of spread for simple contagion.",[]]],"sy":[["independent cascade",[]]],"rt":[["proportional threshold contagion",[]],["cognitive contagion",[]]],"sp":[["social contagion",[]]]},{"de":[["social contagion effects",[]]],"sb":[["simple contagion",[]],["complex contagion",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["medical misinformation",[]],["anti-vaccination propaganda",[]]]},{"sb":[["generic democratization",[]],["linguistic democratization",[]]]},{"sp":[["democratization",[]]]},{"de":[["linguistically oriented, approach to democratization",[]],["generic democratization in the form of editorial choice in the transformations of Gladstone's speech to achieve the different propaganda strategies of the newspapers.",[]],["feature a marked linguistic democratization attaching to Gladstone -he is represented as a family man not, like Disraeli, as a man devoid of family and wed to power.",[]],["switches one set of linguistic markers of power, those based on social and political position, to markers indexing the more subtle, but nonetheless socially real, power relations of gender and family.",[]]],"rt":[["linguistic markers of power",[]],["generic democratization",[]]],"sp":[["democratization",[]]],"ex":[["decline in usage of titular nouns used as a prefix to names",["Leech et al. (2010: 259)"]]]},{},{"de":[["the many ways in which a human face is given to the news",[]]]},{"de":[["we extend it here to the choice of performance mode",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["When a social practice is represented in language, it is transformed -an account of the social practice is given.",[]]],"rt":[["social practice",[]]]},{"de":[["It involves the concept of hereditary transmission of the style of life in terms of occupation, status, and social interaction, and is commonly associated strongly with last names of persons",["3"]],["It involves the concept of hereditary transmission of the style of life in terms of occupation, status, and social interaction, and is commonly associated strongly with last names of persons 3",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["The word 'dahi' (yogurt) is assigned feminine forms of verbs and adjectives in western dialects and masculine forms in Eastern dialects of Hindi.",["Hall, 2002"]]]},{"ex":[["'teacher' is 'adhyapak' if male and 'adhyapika' if female",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["metaphorical expressions which reflect an underlying conceptual metaphor",[]]],"ex":[["the conceptual metaphor SOCIAL MEDIA IS A LOUDSPEAKER",[]],["The conceptual metaphor SOCIAL MEDIA IS A FREE SOCIETY",[]]]},{"de":[["metaphors are not merely linguistic devices that adorn literary works with poetic expressions, but they also structure our thinking",["Lakoff and Johnson (1980)"]],["In CMT, our conceptual system, which concerns our thought and action, is metaphorical, hence playing an influential role in our everyday communication, and metaphors govern how we conceptualise our experience, problems and emotions (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).",["Lakoff & Johnson, 1980"]],["metaphors govern how we conceptualise our experience, problems and emotions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["conventional metaphors are lexicalised",[]],["implying that conventional metaphors are codified in dictionary sources",[]],["conventional metaphors are established within a language community and require less cognitive effort to understand them, or they are the ones which can be readily or obviously identified",["Charteris-Black, 2004"]]],"rt":[["lexicalised",[]]],"sp":[["metaphor",[]]]},{"de":[["describes conventionality as a continuum, and therefore, at the opposite end of highly conventional metaphors are highly unconventional or novel metaphors",["35"]]]},{},{"rt":[["critical discourse analysis (CDA)",[]]]},{"rt":[["metaphor",["Charteris-Black, 2004"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Metaphor",[]]]},{},{"de":[["phenomenon of thinking instead of being purely linguistic expressions",["Kövecses, 2010"]],["structuring, restricting and even creating reality",["Kövecses, 2017, p. 13"]],["metaphor is produced in our everyday communication",[]],["\"structuring, restricting and even creating reality\"",[]],["Linguistically, a metaphor includes reification (using something concrete to refer to something abstract), personification (using something animate to refer to something inanimate) and depersonification (using something inanimate to refer to something animate).",["Charteris-Black, 2004"]],["Pragmatically, \"a metaphor is an incongruous linguistic representation that has the underlying purpose of influencing opinions and judgments by persuasion; this purpose is often covert and reflects the speaker's intentions within particular contexts of use\"",[]],["Cognitively, he views a metaphor as the result of \"a shift in the conceptual system\" which is based on \"the association between the attributes of the referent of a linguistic expression in its original source context and those of the referent in its novel target context\"",[]],["the role of metaphor in argumentation and persuasion",[]],["metaphors are important in highly precise and abstract academic texts to give a clear description in abstract instances, convey messages, give explanations, establish the writer's stance and persuade readers",[]],["metaphor empowers writers with expression and persuasion",[]],["metaphors were used to enhance the persuasiveness of an argument and link subject knowledge with the topic",[]],["earning trust, simplifying issues to comprehensible ones, implying evaluations of issues in order to establish an argument, triggering emotions that are favourable to the speaker, forming coherence in texts, representing issues through an ideology and providing narrative-based representations so that they create a myth",[]],["illustrating the abstract or complex concepts, arousing emotions to influence readers to perceive the issue in a way desired by the writers, implying positive evaluations of the writers' stance and framing the issue as an ideology.",[]],["signal more complex meaning making",[]]],"sy":[["meaning making tools",["Redden, 2017"]]],"rt":[["conventional metaphors",[]],["novel metaphors",[]],["ideational",[]],["interpersonal",[]],["textual",[]],["rhetorical tools",[]],["cognitive instruments",["Charteris-Black, 2004. p. 27"]]],"sb":[["ideational",[]],["interpersonal",[]],["textual",[]],["conventional metaphors",[]],["novel metaphors",[]]],"ex":[["The sun was a toddler",["Aristotle, as cited in Charteris-Black, 2014"]],["Her heart was a secret garden",["Aristotle, as cited in Charteris-Black, 2014"]],["Men's words are bullets",["Aristotle, as cited in Charteris-Black, 2014"]],["\"He is a lion\"",["p. ix","Kövecses, 2010"]],["\"The sun was a toddler\"",[]],["\"Her heart was a secret garden\"",[]],["\"Men's words are bullets\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["signal more complex meaning making and thus can be useful as a means of qualitative data collection and analysis",["Redden (2017, p. 1)"]]]},{"de":[["cannot be found in dictionaries or in everyday communication",[]],["related to creativity",[]],["novel, vivid, innovative, poetical, creative or living metaphors",["198"]]],"sy":[["creative usages of words",["65"]]],"rt":[["creativity",["Ahlgren et al., 2021"]]],"sp":[["metaphor",[]]]},{"rt":[["metaphor",["Charteris-Black, 2004"]]]},{},{"rt":[["metaphor",["Charteris-Black, 2004"]]]},{"de":[["caused by the change in the use of a word or phrase from an expected context or domain of its occurrence to an unexpected context or domain of its occurrence",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["filter-type blogs",[]],["personal journal",[]],["filter-type blogs, where bloggers post content external to their lives",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["narrative frame",[]]]},{"de":[["Furthermore, he posits that frames serve four functions: to state problems, determine causes, make moral judgements and suggest remedies.",["Entman, 1993"]]],"rt":[["schemas",[]]]},{"de":[["not in the vein of framing effects, which focuses on the influence of frames on audiences' attitudes and behavior",["Scheufele, 1999"]],["They are the outcome of strategic communication decisions; namely what information to select and to give salience to when crafting a message",[]],["Entman (1993) identified four locations of frames: the communicator, who, consciously or unconsciously, is guided by frames and/or schemas; the text, which may reinforce frames in stock phrases, stereotypes or thematic schemas; the receiver's mind, which may hold personal schemas related to the information, the frame, or the communicator; and culture, where commonly evoked frames become shared schemas.",[]],["Furthermore, he posits that frames serve four functions: to state problems, determine causes, make moral judgements and suggest remedies.",[]]],"rt":[["framing effects",["Scheufele, 1999"]]]},{},{"sp":[["narrative frame",[]]]},{"de":[["produces a news product that is negative (so it is controversial), detached (so it is objective), technical (so it is standardized) and official (it is dependent on experts and political elites as sources)",[]]]},{"de":[["At least two of the demands derived from this basic statement justify what a profession requires of itself and of society: exclusivity and credibility",["Hughes, 1971"]],["Professional credibility is also the basis for a profession's insistence on autonomy, including the internal adjudication of its members.",[]],["A profession thus claims it is the sole possessor of the appropriate tools to take care of its publics.",[]],["Those recognized as members of a given profession are expected to dedicate all their time and energy to their work, motivated by public rather than private interests",["Boode, 1972"]],["demands derived from this basic statement justify what a profession requires of itself and of society: exclusivity and credibility",["Hughes, 1971"]],["Isolation of a profession from other occupations preserves its special social status and the hierarchical relations between itself, the public and other occupations. Such isolation is accomplished by creating a unique cultural framework (e.g. symbols and professional jargon) and by defining rigid and stringent behavioral norms that obligate members of the profession",[]]]},{"de":[["mental tool by which previous knowledge and experiences organize new information and construct themes or models for efficient understanding and memory",["Bartlett (1932)"]],["Bartlett (1932) first proposed schemas as a mental tool by which previous knowledge and experiences organize new information and construct themes or models for efficient understanding and memory.",[]],["Social groups as well as individuals have schemas -societal functions, roles, positions, ethnicity, class, gender -any personal attribute or distinction that defines membership.",[]]],"rt":[["Social groups as well as individuals have schemas -societal functions, roles, positions, ethnicity, class, gender -any personal attribute or distinction that defines membership",[]]],"sb":[["Self-schemas reflect the group's shared norms, experiences and expectations",["Van Dijk, 1988","Van Dijk, 1988: 100-2"]]]},{"sp":[["schemas",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Beyond altering the truth, this type of action is expected to cause serious digital difficulties for citizens",["Stoddard et al., 2021"]],["fake news in the educational field",[]],["the Fake News phenomenon is not a local problem",[]],["Fake News is intended to deceive the people who receive it.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we do not refer to speakers' gender identity but exclusively to their preferred linguistic expression of gender",[]]],"sy":[["female",[]],["male",[]]],"rt":[["female",[]],["male",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This bias not only hampers the performance of the system by producing erroneous translations of gender-marked words, but also has significant societal implications.",[]]]},{"de":[["those words that refer to the first-person-singular referent",[]]]},{},{"de":[["under-representation of women and diminished visibility of their linguistic repertoire",["Blodgett et al. (2021)","Savoldi et al. (2021)"]]],"rt":[["allocational harms",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["In the example above, ChatGPT should have predicted that the tweet is [IN FAVOR] of Trump.",[]]]},{"de":[["Detecting the stance of a text with respect to a certain topic is vital to many NLP tasks (Hardalov et al., 2022).",["Hardalov et al., 2022"]],["This task is a well-explored research problem, where early studies employed various machine learning and deep learning techniques (Hardalov et al., 2022).",["Hardalov et al., 2022"]]],"rt":[["implicit tweet stance",[]]]},{"ex":[["In this example, the reasoning is correct, but ChatGPT used the [IN FAVOR] label towards the wrong topic.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The emerging consensus is that empathy involves understanding the mental state of another person, feeling and resonating with their emotions, while maintaining a differentiation between themselves and the other person (or group).",[]]]},{"de":[["There is a strand of thought where VR is thought of as an 'empathy machine' (Bevan et al., 2019), the idea being that placement of people in the situations of disadvantaged or discriminated-against groups using VR would result in an increase in their empathy toward those groups.",["Bevan et al., 2019"]]]},{"de":[["Place illusion and plausibility, although orthogonal, can be considered as two dimensions of the illusion of presence",[]]],"sb":[["place illusion",[]],["plausibility",[]]]},{"de":[["An important role of immersive journalism could be to reinstitute the audience's emotional involvement in current events.",[]],["it can lead to a deeper understanding of a controversial issue, lead to greater sentiment, greater anger at a perceived injustice, and change attitudes based on new information.",[]],["It is not a substitute for traditional video journalism but offers another technology for journalists to exploit in order to present the news.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the video itself was deliberately designed to heighten plausibility, the illusion that the depicted events were really happening.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["empathy",["Singer and Klimecki, 2014"]],["sympathy",["Singer and Klimecki, 2014"]],["compassion",["Singer and Klimecki, 2014"]]]},{"de":[["A score is derived for each piece of text, for example, as the average score over all the relevant words in the text, though modified by natural language analysis to take account of negations and other grammatical constructs.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["contextomized quotes",[]]]},{"de":[["a contextomized quote in a news headline can serve as an editorial slogan, misinforming public opinion",[]]],"rt":[["contextomy",[]]]},{"de":[["a \"common spin tactic\" of news reporters promoting their political agenda (McGlone, 2006, p. 332)",["McGlone, 2006, p. 332"]]],"rt":[["contextomized quote",[]]]},{"de":[["manifests news stories' neutrality, factuality, and objectivity (Zelizer, 1989)",["Zelizer, 1989"]]],"rt":[["contextomy",[]],["contextomized quote",[]]]},{"rt":[["contextomized quote",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Stance detection, the problem of automatically identifying positions or opinions in text, is becoming increasingly important for social media (e.g., Twitter), as more and more people turn to it for their news.",[]]],"rt":[["zero-shot stance detection",[]],["cross-target stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["diaspora communities do not entirely assimilate into the host country, nor entirely sever their ties with the homeland.",[]],["This indicates their existence is no longer transitory or chaotic. Instead, it is perceived as permanent, organized, and interactive, which makes them different from migrants.",[]],["These frameworks center the experience of the diaspora, which includes sustained emotional or collective bond with the homeland, the story of forced or voluntary migration, and the experience of living as a minority in the host country.",[]]],"rt":[["migrants",[]]]},{"de":[["the identity of a diaspora is often shaped by the expectation of establishing a stable future in the host country while remaining in contact with the country of origin.",["Baytok (2024)"]]]},{"de":[["how this differs from a status of mere migration or guesthood",[]]]},{"de":[["Certain groups disseminate manipulative images or fabricated news that are intended to other people or groups by constructing a narrative of righteousness.",[]],["which may heighten tensions within the diaspora",[]]],"sy":[["false information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The identity construct in Anderson's theory determines that citizens feel a sense of belonging, even if they have never met one another prior to being displaced.",[]]],"ex":[["Syrian expatriates in Türkiye actively campaign and engage in political action to organize humanitarian aid for Syria, which helps them reconnect with their homeland.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an orientation that emphasizes negative peace",[]]],"rt":[["positive peace",["1969","Galtung 1969"]]],"ex":[["stop the war and ensure security",[]]]},{"de":[["proposed by Manuel Castells",[]],["The network society paradigm suggests that diaspora members can generate their discourse and build collective action or solidarity networks independent of traditional hierarchical structures.",["Castells (2010)"]]]},{},{"de":[["Lynch and McGoldrick's theory of peace journalism seeks to transform the violence-centered language frequently found in conflict reporting, which typically labels parties as indisputably good or bad",["Lynch and McGoldrick 2005"]]]},{"rt":[["negative peace",["1969","Galtung 1969"]]]},{"de":[["indicates that many Syrians simultaneously envision a long-term future in Türkiye while preserving emotional and cultural ties with Syria",[]]]},{"sy":[["multiple affiliations",["Cohen 1997","Al-Ali 2007","Cohen 1997;Al-Ali 2007"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Like all forms of discrimination and xenophobia, Islamophobia is part of an ever-evolving, multifaceted and elusive process that takes different forms; and is expressed through various manifestations, based on a multitude of underlying factors and shifting influences.",[]]],"rt":[["discrimination",[]],["xenophobia",[]]],"ex":[["One example of the process of profiling and stereotyping the 'Other' is Islamophobia.",[]]]},{"de":[["The idea of fearing a certain group of people because of their culture, race, traditions, religious beliefs, or simply because they are different",[]]]},{"de":[["In CAT terms, communicative behaviors can be accommodative or non-accommodative.",[]]]},{"de":[["Because convergence enhances the effectiveness of communication and enables speakers to \"seek approval, affiliation and/or interpersonal similarity as a manner of reducing social distance,\" it is perceived to be more efficient as well as more cooperative than divergence",["Soliz and Giles 2014: 108"]]],"rt":[["divergence",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["accommodation",[]]]},{"de":[["the paper takes Bednarek and Caple's (2017) Discursive News Values Analysis (DNVA) theoretical framework as a point of departure",[]]]},{"rt":[["convergence",[]]]},{"sp":[["accommodation",[]]]},{"de":[["recurrent tools for Noah to actively, and semiodiscursively, participate in the digital public sphere.",[]],["artefacts of visual rhetoric, image macro memes are ideologically versatile and can indeed be understood as \"essentially speech acts\" (Grundlingh 2018:147); they require the \"context of the meme (the text and the image) to be interpreted within the context of the larger communication\" (159).",["Grundlingh 2018:147","159"]]]},{"de":[["these memes acquire prominence in the eventual interpretation and Trump's images elucidate what the super-imposed text amplifies, often radically.",[]]],"sy":[["sub-genre of memes",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["accommodation",[]]]},{"de":[["multimodal",["Wiggins and Bowers 2015"]],["polyvocal",["Milner 2013a(Milner , 2013b)"]],["intertextual, and humorous",["Shifman, Levy and Thelwall 2014"]],["technology-mediated artifacts",["Gal, Shifman and Kampf 2016"]]],"sy":[["signifiers",["Dawkins 1976"]],["artifacts",["Jenkins 2006"]],["genres",["Wiggins and Bowers 2015"]],["cultural capital",["Nissenbaum and Shifman 2017"]]]},{"de":[["technology-mediated artifacts",["Gal, Shifman and Kampf 2016"]],["multimodal",["Wiggins and Bowers 2015"]],["polyvocal",["Milner 2013a","Milner , 2013b"]],["intertextual",[]],["humorous",["Shifman, Levy and Thelwall 2014"]],["Memes, as a portmanteau of mimesis and genes",[]]],"sy":[["a unit of cultural transmission",["Dawkins' (1976)"]]],"rt":[["memetics",[]],["memefication of politics",["Dean 2019"]],["memefication of political discourse",["Bulatovic 2019"]]],"sb":[["Internet memes",[]],["audio memes",["Abidin and Kaye 2021"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["about what is newsworthy from a 'discursive perspective'",["Benarek and Caple 2016"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a common phenomenon that usually dominates the learning signals for neural extractive summarizers",[]],["the sentence positional information tends to dominate the actual content of the sentence in model prediction",["Jung et al., 2019","Grenander et al., 2019","Zhong et al., 2019a,b"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["communicate which aspects of an issue are deemed relevant and how one should express themselves when thinking about or discussing this issue",[]]]},{"de":[["This process affects how individuals understand an issue",[]]],"sy":[["audience frame",["Druckman, 2001"]]],"rt":[["issue frames",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the driving force behind this tendency is often argued to be motivated reasoning (Taber and Lodge, 2006).",["Taber and Lodge, 2006"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["portrays migrants as war victims and is generally focused on refugees' motivations and backgrounds",[]]],"rt":[["immigration news framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news is a source of spam capable of influencing perception, knowledge, and measuring methods [1].",["1"]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["fake news about vaccines and their side effects",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Poor people... / White people...",[]]]},{"ex":[["Women don't know how to drive./ Men know how to drive.",[]]]},{"de":[["In addition to that it was explored how taking on different roles, i.e., impersonation, impacts the bias scores of the models.",[]]]},{"ex":[["The elderly man... / The young athletic man...",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["the lack of images or text in a given post",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Compared with the author's communicative intention, the discourse unit in the core position is in a relatively important position, and there are different discourse relationships between the core discourse unit and the satellite discourse unit.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["utility motivated choice of connection",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["periphery",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["focus on meaning-making mechanisms that shape hate speech and its online dynamic",[]],["We analyze the data by relying on the terminological toolkit of cultural semiotics, which emphasizes the meaning-making mechanisms that shape hate speech and influence its online dynamic.",[]]]},{"de":[["the terms 'hate speech' and 'hate crime' do not have universal definitions and are thus interpreted differently by the Member States",["Psaila et al., 2015"]],["hate speech invokes the other with the purpose of excluding them and preserving the established self-description of a given Facebook page.",[]]],"rt":[["hate crime",[]],["xenophobic expressions",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["meaningful absence",[]]]},{"rt":[["center",[]]]},{"de":[["the role of self-description for the selected Facebook pages as meaningful semiotic unities (reproducing the idea of Croatianness)",[]],["manifested in the formation of culture-specific regulations, laws, myths, customs, institutions, etc.",[]],["it is manifested in the formation of culture-specific regulations, laws, myths, customs, institutions, etc.",[]],["In simpler terms, the mechanism of self-description shows us how stories of ourselves and cultures come to be and what are the central, dominant ones in a given period.",[]]],"ex":[["dictionaries, canons, grammars, institutions, museums, laws, and websites",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Deepfakes can be used for many malpractices such as blackmail, politics, social media, etc. These can lead to widespread misinformation and can be harmful to an individual or an institution's reputation.",[]],["Though content faking isn't recent, deepfakes use advanced ML and AI generation techniques to influence or produce social media content that can easily deceive the naked eye.",[]]]},{"de":[["These biases can lead to self-reinforcing cycles and expose readers to only one side of an issue.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Fake news have serious consequences, such as potential influences on the readers' health and political decisions",["36"]]]},{},{"de":[["Gender bias in media can severely impact perceptions of professions and role models",["39"]],["as well as voting decisions",["23"]]],"sp":[["Group bias",[]]]},{"sb":[["gender bias",[]],["racial bias",[]],["religious bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Usually, hate speech is induced by using linguistic bias",["30"]]],"rt":[["linguistic bias",[]]]},{"de":[["as a majorly subjective concept [48], or as a general word choice communicating stereotypes [5]",["48","5"]],["Generally, linguistic bias is expressed through specific word choice that reflects the social-category cognition applied to any described group or individual(s)",["5"]],["Generally, linguistic bias is expressed through specific word choice that reflects the social-category cognition applied to any described group or individual(s) [5]",["5"]]],"sy":[["bias by word choice",[]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Media bias is often related to content favoring a particular viewpoint or ideology (e.g., political) [34]",["34"]],["media bias being a complex construct in total",[]]],"rt":[["many different tasks exist in the media bias domain",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Research has shown that racial bias in news coverage can severely impact affected minorities, such as strengthening stereotypes and discrimination",["8","29"]]],"sp":[["Group bias",[]]]},{"de":[["While text-level context bias examines the bias present within an individual article, reporting-level bias focuses on systematic attention given to specific topics.",[]],["reporting-level bias focuses on systematic attention given to specific topics.",[]]],"sy":[["reporting-level bias",[]]]},{"de":[["These biases can be used to portray a particular opinion in a biased way by criticizing one side more than the other, using inflammatory words, or omitting relevant information.",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news can be difficult to detect because it often resembles legitimate news in terms of presentation, website design, and use of images",["7"]],["Fake news is a complex and multidisciplinary phenomenon that requires an integrated approach for a full understanding.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["news satire",["6"]],["news parody",["6"]],["fabrication",["6"]],["manipulation",["6"]],["advertising",["6"]],["propaganda",["6"]]]},{"de":[["understanding the factors influencing fake news identification should be approached multidimensionally from a sociological perspective.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news recognition",[]],["fake news detection",[]]]},{"de":[["yields synergistic effects or mitigates unintended cross-bias amplification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The concept of steering vectors has its roots in earlier work on manipulating hidden states in language models.",[]],["To this end, each contrastive pair in our training setup consists of a question from BBQ where only the answer letter (\"A\", \"B\" or \"C\") differs, with the positive being the less stereotypical direction.",[]]],"rt":[["bias mitigation methods",[]],["fine-tuning",[]],["prompting",[]],["domain specific methods",[]]],"sb":[["stimulus + prompt vectors",[]]]},{"de":[["We prepend each prompt with the sentence \"Consider the bias related to {axis} in the following.\" to elicit declarative knowledge from the model.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this case, the primary purpose is the influencing of the public opinion",[]],["disinformation supported by the journalist community",[]],["spreading of fake news and disinformation in social media",[]]],"rt":[["Misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sb":[["Sensational content for commercial intent",[]],["sponsored by states or governments",[]],["false information of no ideological background or purpose and their primary goal is to direct user traffic to certain websites in order to benefit from online advertising revenue",[]]]},{"de":[["Various authors have focused on two main dimensions of the phenomenon: levels of facticity and deception.",[]],["the orientation basis of researchers is related to the level of truth that a certain news has and to the degree of deception it carries.",["Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]],["fake news imitates traditional news in some elements, such as timing, contrast or negativity of the event, and significance, or importance.",[]],["fake news uses the inverted pyramid pattern just like real news",["Tandoc, Thomas, & Bishop, 2021"]],["the phenomenon of fake news",[]],["threat to the functioning of democracy",[]],["spreading of fake news and disinformation in social media",[]]],"sy":[["false information",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["fabricated information",[]],["manipulation",[]],["satirical news",[]],["humorous news",[]],["advertisement",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["Misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Specific algorithms determine how content is shared, recommended, or displayed to users. The algorithms consider factors such as content popularity (likes, comments, shares), user interaction history with content, and the sharing behavior of users' friends or followers",["Foog, 2021","Yang, 2024"]]]},{"de":[["These are usually based on superstition and have no scientific basis.",[]]]},{"de":[["often without providing valuable or accurate information.",[]]],"ex":[["You Will Never Guess What This Celebrity Did Last Night!",[]],["\"You Will Never Guess What This Celebrity Did Last Night!\"",[]]]},{"de":[["enhance their ability to distinguish and reason out the authenticity of information and the intentions behind its dissemination",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They often contain sensationalized headlines and aim to generate clicks and shares.",[]]],"ex":[["BREAKING NEWS: Aliens Found on Mars!",[]],["\"BREAKING NEWS: Aliens Found on Mars!\"",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["spam",[]]]},{"de":[["They often promise quick fixes or miraculous results",[]]],"ex":[["Drinking lemon water every morning will cure all your illnesses!",[]],["\"Drinking lemon water every morning will cure all your illnesses!\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["is widely recognized as the most effective measure to tackle fake information",["UNESCO, 2022"]]],"rt":[["information identification",["Grizzle et al., 2013"]]],"sb":[["media literacy",[]],["information literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["the intentional dissemination of erroneous information",["Yuan, 2022"]],["It refers to the intentional dissemination of erroneous information and comes in the following forms: false content, misleading intent, and organized action",["Yuan, 2022"]],["It refers to the intentional dissemination of erroneous information and comes in the following forms: false content, misleading intent, and organized action (Yuan, 2022).",["Yuan, 2022"]]],"sy":[["false information",["Wu et al., 2019"]],["disinformation",["Wu et al., 2019"]],["fake news",["Wu et al., 2019"]],["spam",["Wu et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["false information",[]],["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["spam",[]]],"sb":[["false content",["Yuan, 2022"]],["misleading intent",["Yuan, 2022"]],["organized action",["Yuan, 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["They can gain attention and trust from relevant groups and exert significant influence on the spread of information.",[]]]},{"de":[["This can include doctored images, false quotes, or distorted facts.",[]]]},{"de":[["These aim to defraud users.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a general term for social networking websites and communication platforms on which users share insights, experiences, and opinions.",[]]],"rt":[["social sharing",[]],["algorithm-based sharing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["enfatizar las motivaciones y estrategia de actores políticos",["De Vreese & Elenbaas, 2008"]],["es el encuadre responsable de activar el cinismo político entre las y los votantes",[]],["Se codificó la presencia del encuadre de juego estratégico en piezas informativas que mencionaron encuestas o metáforas deportivas o bélicas, o que mencionaron recursos o estrategias de campaña.",[]],["las dinámicas que influencian la cobertura de juego estratégico se relacionan con actores políticos y campañas en el nivel nacional (Aalberg et al., 2012;Schuck, Boomgaarden et al., 2013) -es decir, cuando hay más en juego.",[]],["el framing de juego estratégico se intensifica cuando las noticias tienen que competir con los deportes y el entretenimiento por la atención de las audiencias",[]],["metáfora del juego para entender y reportar las campañas",[]]],"rt":[["encuadre temático",[]]],"sb":[["el encuadre de juego o de carrera de caballos",[]],["el encuadre estratégico",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["establecimiento de la agenda (agendasetting)",[]]],"sb":[["procesos de construcción de encuadres noticiosos (frame-building)",[]],["procesos a través de los cuales estos encuadres llegan a las mentes de las personas (frame-setting)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Even so, not all facts are considered newsworthy, and many facts are considered to have no news value because the event or fact is considered to be something that happens on a regular basis.",[]]],"rt":[["information",[]]]},{"de":[["The stimulus process for the senses, the stimulus received by the senses will be transmitted directly to the brain by the sensory nerves. This is referred to as a physiological process.",[]],["Following that, the process takes place in the brain as the center of consciousness, so that individuals are aware of what they see, hear, or feel (Lipmann, 1994).",[]],["the final stage of the perception process is that an individual is aware of what he sees, hears, or feels, which is the stimulus captured through the senses.",[]],["Thus, perception is the interpretation, evaluation, and stimulus that influences a person's perception of an object (Mulyana, 2008b).",["Mulyana, 2008b"]],["perception can be described as a response stimulation theory, with perception being a response after the message or information has entered the human brain.",[]]],"ex":[["various responses will be obtained from perceptions that can be taken by individuals in various forms, such as in responding to news",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["users who tend to share fake news often use more informal language, while those who check facts tend to use more positive language and causality terms.",[]]]},{"sy":[["Zhongguo",[]],["middle country",[]]]},{"de":[["the word ündüsten (minzu) is claimed to be or meant to stand for a supra-ethnic nation, its strong association with a particular ethnic ancestry is not easy to sever.",[]]],"sy":[["Zhonghua minzu",[]]],"rt":[["Chinese nation",[]]]},{"de":[["represents the state's prioritisation of the linguistic dimension of PRC citizenship",[]]],"rt":[["national common language",[]]]},{"sy":[["national language",[]]]},{"de":[["conflates the Han nationality, the formation of which has been associated with the Qin dynasty",[]]]},{"sy":[["Han Chinese",[]]]},{"sy":[["nationality",[]]]},{"de":[["a tie facilitating the interaction, interchange and intermingling of various nationalities.",[]],["transcends the boundary of [any] one particular nationality (minzu) in both its scope of usage and function, and it is an important carrier (zaiti) of Chinese national culture (Zhonghua minzu wenhua) and a communication tool.",[]]],"rt":[["guojia tongyong yuyan",[]],["Mandarin Chinese",[]],["Han Chinese",[]],["Zhonghua minzu wenhua",[]]]},{"sy":[["neitelig hel (Ch.: putonghua)",[]],["khitad hel (Han language)",[]]],"rt":[["guojia tongyong yuyan",[]]]},{"de":[["composite of peoples who either share the same ancestor (e.g. the Yellow Emperor, Peking Man) or have been living in a perpetual state of 'contact, exchange and intermingling' for thousands of years",[]],["so fully drenched with Han-ness and assimilatory ideology in the propaganda texts that the recruited Mongolian neutral word dumdadu itself is destabilised",[]],["Despite the early Han nationalists' narrow and racial definition of Zhonghua minzu as solely referring to a pure Han race, the meaning of the term quickly expanded, due to the geopolitical situation in the first few decades of the twentieth century.",[]]],"sy":[["Chinese nation",[]]],"rt":[["dumdadu-yin ündüsten",[]]]},{"de":[["began to take on the meaning of ethnicity with a clear connotation of a common ancestry, customs and language.",[]]],"sy":[["minzu",[]],["ethnicity",[]],["nationality",[]]]},{"rt":[["Catalan nationalism",[]]],"sp":[["Catalan nationalism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["state and political actors in 81 countries are using social media to spread computational propaganda.",["16"]]]},{"ex":[["96 % of online deepfake videos consisting of non-consensual, celebrity pornography.",["9"]]]},{"rt":[["supply-side of disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["digital literacy includes media, news, and information literacy",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["trolls",[]]]},{"de":[["recent social bots are more similar to human-operated accounts because AI is being used to create a hybrid of automated and human-driven behaviors.",["14"]]],"sp":[["bots",[]],["social media bots",[]]]},{"sy":[["sock puppets",[]]],"ex":[["Russian intelligence operated a Twitter sock account under the name of Jenna Abrams, which had 70,000 followers, to influence conservative voters during the 2016 US elections.",["6"]]]},{"rt":[["Demand-Side of Disinformation",[]]]},{"sb":[["robo-trolls",[]]]},{"rt":[["producer stereotype",[]]]},{"de":[["many of the past women of Bond have been highly sexualised and eroticised as objects of desire",[]],["revealing of how the media defines women by their looks and sexuality",[]],["today's Bond Girl is strong and empowered",["Funnell and Johnson 2020: 96"]]]},{"rt":[["Bondian filmmaking",[]]]},{"de":[["the producer is often seen as a highly suspect figure",["2004: 33"]],["The producer represents the unfortunate vulgarity of commercial film-making, an unwelcome reminder of film's showground origins, its lack of cultural capital",["ibid."]],["The role of the producer has been both caricatured and misunderstood, hence the absence in accounts of British cinema and Film Studies",["2017: 139"]]],"sy":[["The phallocentric pop-culture cliché of the cigar-chomping, interfering, philistine producerpart stereotype, part affectionate lampoon -still looms large",["2012: 1"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They identified six distinct message frame types, including emotional, problem/solution, outcome, value-based, distance, and social norm frames.",[]]],"sb":[["emotional",[]],["problem/solution",[]],["outcome",[]],["value-based",[]],["distance",[]],["social norm",[]]]},{"de":[["These studies collectively underscore the nuanced and context-dependent nature of message framing, offering valuable insights into the art of persuasive business communication while raising questions about the consistency of message framing effects in communication.",[]],["raising awareness and promoting behavioural change in the realm of marine conservation",[]],["identify the advertisers' stance through the framing of messages",[]]],"rt":[["theory of frame analysis",[]],["Framing",[]],["discursive techniques",[]],["language choices",[]]],"sb":[["Positive message framing",[]],["negative message framing",[]]]},{"de":[["the use of negative message framing and imagery contributed to higher perceived efficacy ratings compared to text-only and positively framed health warnings, underlining the power of negative framing in this domain.",[]]],"sp":[["Message framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["Message framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["representational bias",[]],["distributive bias",[]],["explicit bias",[]],["implicit bias",[]]],"sb":[["representational bias",[]],["distributive bias",[]],["explicit bias",[]],["implicit bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In these countries, language revival is not only about linguistic restoration but also about the re-establishment of a distinct national identity (Warditz and Goritskaya, 2021;Tsimpli and Kambyl, 2013;Bayramova, 2011).",["Warditz and Goritskaya, 2021","Tsimpli and Kambyl, 2013","Bayramova, 2011"]],["where languages, once suppressed or marginalized, are revitalized to assert cultural identity and national sovereignty (Huss et al., 2003).",["Huss et al., 2003"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["as they are shaped by historical colonial legacies and the need to balance national unity with the preservation of minority languages.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["irony",[]],["sarcasm",[]],["hyperbole",[]],["euphemisms",[]],["contrasts",[]],["metaphors",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation is usually tied to various actors' ideological, political, or economic interests, with country-specific waves of dissemination",["AFP et al., 2020","Smith et al., 2020"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we use the term misinformation throughout this study to refer broadly to any type of false information -including disinformation",["Brennen et al., 2020"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["links characters and plot elements to affective audience responses",[]]]},{"de":[["Understanding content as a network of information layers",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["subtext",[]]]},{"ex":[["flickering pixels",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["interpersonal communication",[]],["mass communication model",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These effects are often linked to their elicitors in content, but how the brain mediates between content and effects has traditionally been ignored.",[]]],"ex":[["short-term memory (e.g., recalling last night's news)",[]],["long-term memory (e.g., remembering a childhood TV show)",[]],["a change in attitude",[]],["a belief (e.g., being more open to immigration after watching a refugee drama)",[]],["behavior (e.g., donating money to charity after viewing an ad)",[]]]},{"de":[["neuroscience to examine the neural mechanisms of media effects",[]],["how the resulting message effects in single individuals aggregate into",[]],["the term media effects is used to refer to individual-level as well as population effects",["Bryant and Oliver, 2008"]],["how exposure to media changes memories, attitudes, or behaviors.",[]],["Of note, the term media effects is used to refer to individual-level as well as population effects (Bryant and Oliver, 2008).",["Bryant and Oliver, 2008"]]],"rt":[["media processing",[]],["media neuroscience",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the effect equivalent to that of defamiliarization that occurs in belle letters",["Guillermo 2010","Erdinast-Vulcan 2013"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["These, and to some degree other bias techniques analyzed here, defy the quantitative approach; their propagandistic nature could be disputed.",[]]],"sy":[["models",[]]],"rt":[["presuppositions",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It is dependent on the previous stories, and the news by itself constitutes a foundation for other stories to come.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In order to detect and analyze presuppositions in the current headline corpus, we turn to Steven Levinson's pragmatics triggers, i.e. proper names/definite descriptions, quantifiers, temporal clauses, change-of-state verbs, as well as to his elaborated findings on presuppositions shortlisted to a few dozen",[]]],"rt":[["implicatures",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Since only a fraction of events are mentioned in the news, this selection itself produces a partial view of the world, influenced, among others, by mass consumption and the call for sensationalism",[]]]},{"de":[["as opposed to written, or more academic, is usually seen as more trustful and natural",[]],["In the case of reading news, spoken language seemingly removes the asymmetry of power and knowledge, introduces cooperation between the news consumer and the social institution of news-making.",[]]]},{"de":[["the key effect to consider is fake news discernment",["Guay et al., 2023","Lin et al., 2023"]],["The basic logic goes that for a factor to be relevant specifically to fake news, it must have a stronger effect when news is fake than when it is real, as quantified by a significant interaction with news veracity.",[]]],"ex":[["the proportion of shared stories that are fake",[]]]},{"de":[["This made actual contribution to the dissemination of fake news online.",[]]],"ex":[["updating personal status, geolocation, sharing photos and videos",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["information sharing",[]],["socialization",[]],["altruism",[]],["self-promotion",[]],["status-seeking",[]],["instant information sharing",[]],["information seeking",[]],["self-expression",[]]]},{"de":[["where protection, verification, and resistance are embedded in social relationships, cultural knowledge, and shared risk",[]]]},{"de":[["enhance resilience more effectively than individual or purely technological solutions",[]]]},{"de":[["in hybrid models that went beyond mere logistical changes",[]]]},{"de":[["The model emphasizes relationships, rituals and resilience as pillars of freedom of the press, not technology",["Mohamed et al., 2020"]]]},{"sy":[["intentional consensus",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["offers a way to understand how communities and journalists watch over power.",[]]],"ex":[["Journalists using body cameras to document military persecution in Papua are examples of this strategy",["10.54392/ajir2611 Indonesia (Wang et al., 2023)"]]]},{},{"de":[["based on conditional use, proportionate response, and dissemination after publication",[]]]},{"de":[["While effective in reducing wiretapping in newsrooms, these strategies pose moral conundrums in terms of accountability, transparency, and collateral damage",["AJE Ethics Report, 2023"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["internal political efficacy",[]]]},{"de":[["The possibility of being surprised by information one was not interested in beforehand",[]]]},{"de":[["Once given the chance, they might actually avoid all information that they are not strictly personally interested in.",[]]]},{"rt":[["external political efficacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Based on rational-choice theory",[]],["increased exposure to a specific type of source does not necessarily lead to avoiding other sources for the same purpose",[]]],"rt":[["rational-choice theory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["classic parables that became symbols of the start of the Cold War.",[]],["They are an integral part of political rhetoric, reacting to or taking advantage of universal human concerns about threats to life, health, property, or moral and religious values and traditions.",[]],["Conspiracy theories as an element of propaganda mirrored fears about the real threat of another global conflict, but they were also a tool used to legitimise current government power.",[]],["conspiracy theories contained information about genuine threats",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumours",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["allegations around perfectly functioning global conspiracies lasting decades or centuries",[]]]},{"de":[["Conspiracy theories can be thought of as a subgroup of rumours with similar subjects and the fact that categorical judgments cannot be made about the truth or accuracy of the information, claims or beliefs, is typical.",[]]],"sp":[["rumours",[]]]},{"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["the equivalent effect of conspiracy theories",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"de":[["Deliberateness and a relatively heavy emphasis on manipulation distinguish propaganda from casual conversation or the free and easy exchange of ideas.",["6"]],["At its origin stands a specific group intending to utilise such fabrications as a means of achieving political and ideological goals.",[]],["Propaganda sought to gain trust by stoking normal human fears about threats to life, health, property or morals.",[]],["competition for military, economic and moral superiority over combatants on opposite sides of the Iron Curtain",[]],["tool used to legitimise current government power",[]],["wave of propaganda-based scapegoating and the promotion of conspiracies",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumours",[]]]},{"sb":[["Great Red Scare",[]],["Second Red Scare",[]]]},{"sy":[["hearsay",[]]],"sb":[["conspiracy theory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The perpetrator consciously tries to get the victim to the point of being caught in the fraud by using language and arguments that are in line with his or her prejudices and moods.",["7","5"]]]},{"de":[["This technology can for example superimpose faces and voices onto videos, creating hyper-realistic but artificial representations.",[]]]},{"sy":[["slow journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["This approach focuses on well-researched content that encourages critical thinking and deeper public engagement",["Manias-Muñoz et al., 2023","Mendes & Marinho, 2024"]],["slow journalism is comparable to simmering a story over a low flame: it requires time and patience, allowing journalists to craft deeper, more reflective narratives that stand in contrast to the superficiality often found in the rush of daily news.",["Albalad-Aiguabella (2018)"]],["slow journalism is perceived as a deliberate response to the erosion of journalistic standards, offering depth, verification, and narrative quality as distinguishing features.",[]],["In response to the increased emphasis on rapid dissemination and high-volume content characteristics of digital platforms, slow journalism provides a counterbalance through its commitment to comprehensive reporting, narrative storytelling, and meticulous fact-verification",["Le Masurier, 2016"]],["This approach promotes critical thinking, public engagement, and trust through well-researched, thoughtful content",["Rosique-Cedillo & Barranquero-Carretero, 2015"]],["Through the prioritization of meticulous narrative development, contextual evaluation, and openness, slow journalism serves as a considered antidote to the shallowness prevalent in contemporary digital media",["Manias-Muñoz et al., 2023"]],["Slow journalism's commitment to thorough fact-checking and comprehensive reporting helps mitigate the spread of misinformation by providing audiences with reliable and well-contextualized information",["Romero-Rodríguez et al., 2022","Santos, 2023"]],["By fostering a more deliberate and reflective approach to news consumption, slow journalism encourages audiences to engage critically with the information they receive, thereby reducing the impact of misleading or false content",["Markelius et al., 2024"]],["Slow journalism emphasizes the exploration of the multiple dimensions of a narrative rather than merely presenting the superficial aspects represented by headlines.",[]],["Slowing down, they said, is a deliberate resistance to superficiality, not nostalgia.",[]],["offers a necessary corrective to these trends",[]],["slow journalism is being deliberately incorporated into newsroom practices across various media ecosystems, especially within independent and digitally native organizations, as a strategy to rebuild public trust",[]],["Slow journalism serves as our most effective instrument for fostering depth, context, and, ultimately, the preservation of democracy itself",[]],["slow journalism emerges as an essential antidote to misinformation crisis",[]],["slow journalism can be regarded as a crucial supporter of journalism's democratic functions",[]],["slow journalism serves not only as a response to the challenges associated with technological acceleration, but also as a proactive approach aimed at re-establishing connections with audiences through in-depth analysis, reflective practices, emotional ties, and high-quality storytelling",[]],["reclaiming the values of research, critical analysis, and narrative depth",[]],["a mode of resistance, presenting a deliberate approach to humanizing information and addressing the superficiality fostered by platform-driven news environments",[]],["a comprehensive cultural and ethical position dedicated to maintaining the civic responsibilities and democratic roles of journalism",[]],["enabling more nuanced interpretations, enhancing storytelling depth, and fostering stronger audience engagement",[]],["addresses more extensive societal demands for reliable and substantial narratives within a context characterized by an overabundance of information",[]],["adaptive innovation that aligns with societal demands for trustworthy and reflective information",[]]],"sy":[["Quality journalism",[]]],"rt":[["in-depth reporting",[]],["narrative storytelling",[]],["verification",[]],["the depth, reflection, and contextualization",[]],["long-form journalism",[]],["human-centered storytelling",[]],["narrative construction",[]],["narrative depth",[]]],"sb":[["Slow journalism as resistance",[]]],"ex":[["slow cooked dish",[]],["Programs such as the 5W initiative illustrate a continual demand for comprehensive and introspective narrative construction",[]]]},{"de":[["social media algorithms that reinforce echo chambers, where users primarily see content that aligns with their pre-existing beliefs",["13"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["contribute to impulsive sharing, indicating that these platforms exacerbate impulsivity in spreading unverified information",[]]]},{},{},{},{}]