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714cbfe | 1 | [{},{"rt":[["national identities",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["sovereigntist discourse",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["federalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["emphasizing the nation-state perspective",[]]],"rt":[["integrationist discourse",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the article emphasises the vital concepts of husn al-khuluq (beautiful manners) and al-kalim al-tayyib (good words), framing digital communication not merely as casual interaction, but as a highly accountable moral act.",[]]],"sy":[["good words",[]]]},{"de":[["Even if what is said is true, it is still backbiting.",["36"]]],"sy":[["ghībah",[]]]},{"de":[["civility is a cosmic duty",[]]]},{"rt":[["slander",[]]]},{"de":[["This command should be read as referring not just to spoken words, but broadly to written language, including digital communications.",[]]]},{"de":[["From a theological perspective, no technologies can be commonly categorised as haram (i.e. prohibited), just as there are no technologies that are universally halal (permissible).",[]]]},{"de":[["the article emphasises the vital concepts of husn al-khuluq (beautiful manners) and al-kalim al-tayyib (good words), framing digital communication not merely as casual interaction, but as a highly accountable moral act.",[]],["Nothing is placed on the Scale that is heavier than good character. Indeed, the person with good character will have attained the rank of the person of fasting and prayer.",["30"]]],"sy":[["beautiful manners",[]]]},{},{"de":[["soft language",[]]]},{},{"de":[["pure, beautiful, and wholesome",["42"]]]},{"rt":[["good words",[]]],"ex":[["hate speech",[]],["trolling",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["These distinctions are based on a set of criteria, including whether there are de-facto multiparty elections and a rule of law",["Lührmann et al., 2018"]]],"sb":[["closed and electoral autocracies; electoral and liberal democracies",[]]]},{"sy":[["Indymedia",[]]]},{"de":[["Grassroots networks such as Indymedia played a major role in this process. Its members, for instance, were organized in media collectives, and their activities were based on interlinked websites, each constituting a zonal node.",[]]],"ex":[["seattle.indymedia.org",[]],["italy.indymedia.org",[]]]},{},{"de":[["detect certain words in a fixed order",[]]],"ex":[["3-word discriminatory expressions (with recall percentile of 75 and a precision of 0.9)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["debunking",[]]]},{"de":[["are especially important for disproving prevalent or consequential claims of particular significance",["Nyhan 2020"]]],"sp":[["interventions",[]]]},{"de":[["Our sustained intervention allowed us to examine whether fact-checking can play both debunking and prebunking roles by correcting existing misinformation and warning participants about future misinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["prebunking",[]],["misinformation correction",[]]]},{"de":[["improved discernment is driven by respondents' greater distrust of false statements rather than their greater trust of true statements",[]]]},{"de":[["positively affects consumption, information recall, beliefs, and behaviors",["Baum 2002;Baum and Jamison 2006;Kim 2023;La Ferrara 2016"]],["using entertainment for educational objectives can promote attitudinal and behavioral change by increasing attention to favored behaviors, enhancing retention of modeled behaviors by making them more memorable, imparting the skills to reproduce their behaviors, and providing a strong motivation to carry out these behaviors.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["process for verifying the claim (which typically involved investigating its source, cross-checking, and consulting experts) and ultimately concluding whether the claim was true or false",[]],["Sustained exposure to fact-checks-one popular method of combating misinformation-leverages complementarities between debunking and prebunking.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["closely connected to inoculation theory",["Cook, Lewandowsky, and Ecker 2017"]],["an important component of fact-checks",[]],["Our sustained intervention allowed us to examine whether fact-checking can play both debunking and prebunking roles by correcting existing misinformation and warning participants about future misinformation.",[]],["prebunking is an important component of fact-checks",[]]],"rt":[["inoculation theory",["Cook, Lewandowsky, and Ecker 2017"]],["debunking",[]],["misinformation correction",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Furthermore, Elite/populist bias has a geographic component.",["Mastrine, 2022"]],["Here, the journalist pushes back against the elite government, saying they can't be trusted.",[]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["The FDA turned a blind eye or colluded with unbelievable harms revealed in the Pfizer documents, so the FDA can't be trusted. The CDC can't be trusted",[]],["For example, \"The FDA turned a blind eye or colluded with unbelievable harms revealed in the Pfizer documents, so the FDA can't be trusted. The CDC can't be trusted\".",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["factual sentences",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Two-time failed Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton snubbed Melania Trump during George H.W. Bush's funeral, refusing to shake her hand (...), and an awkward and bitter nod back from Hillary",[]]]},{"rt":[["media bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["Bolsonaro's hatred of looking foolish and left party' conviction that they have a winning hand is leaving the President with no way out of the stalemate over his gun port legalization.",[]],["For example, \"Bolsonaro's hatred of looking foolish and left party' conviction that they have a winning hand is leaving the President with no way out of the stalemate over his gun port legalization.\".",["Mastrine, 2022"]]]},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["Bret Stephens is not a bedbug. He is a delicate snowflake",[]],["For example, \"Bret Stephens is not a bedbug. He is a delicate snowflake\".",["Mastrine, 2022"]]]},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["news articles related to death, violence, turmoil, and struggle, tend to obtain more attention and elicit more shock, and fear. As a result, we keep reading the news, in order to know more on this issue.",[]],["news articles related to death, violence, turmoil, and struggle, tend to obtain more attention and elicit more shock, and fear.",[]],["For example, news articles related to death, violence, turmoil, and struggle, tend to obtain more attention and elicit more shock, and fear.",[]]]},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["when journalists claim \"critics say\" without specific attribution",[]],["For example, when journalists claim \"critics say\" without specific attribution.",["Mastrine, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["Note that the underline statement shows the point of view of the journalist.",["Mastrine, 2022"]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["The EPA is lifting greenhouse gas limits on coal power plants: The latest proposal won't stop the steady decline of the coal industry",[]],["For example, \"The EPA is lifting greenhouse gas limits on coal power plants: The latest proposal won't stop the steady decline of the coal industry\". Note that the underline statement shows the point of view of the journalist.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["If seats that look like this one in Rio de Janeiro are toss-ups in November, it's going to be a bloodbath",[]],["For example, \"If seats that look like this one in Rio de Janeiro are toss-ups in November, it's going to be a bloodbath\".",["Mastrine, 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["Note that \"gloated\" is evidence of subjective interpretation from the journalist meaning that Trump's tweet shows he is smug or taking pleasure in the layoffs.",[]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["President Donald Trump gloated over mass layoffs at multiple news outlets on Saturday",[]],["For example \"President Donald Trump gloated over mass layoffs at multiple news outlets on Saturday\". Note that \"gloated\" is evidence of subjective interpretation from the journalist meaning that Trump's tweet shows he is smug or taking pleasure in the layoffs.",["Mastrine, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["subjective qualifiers are closely related to spin words and phrases once they obscure the objective truth and insert subjectivity.",[]]],"rt":[["spin words and phrases",[]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["Rep. Madison Cawthorn issues sinister warning to anyone opposing Him. The extremist republican ranted about liberals trying to make people \"sexless\"",[]],["For example, \"Rep. Madison Cawthorn issues sinister warning to anyone opposing Him. The extremist republican ranted about liberals trying to make people \"sexless\"\". Note that subjective qualifiers are closely related to spin words and phrases once they obscure the objective truth and insert subjectivity.",[]]]},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["Sen. Kamala Harris condemned the violent attack on actor Jussie Smollett, calling it an attempted modern-day lynching",[]],["For example, \"Sen. Kamala Harris condemned the violent attack on actor Jussie Smollett, calling it an attempted modern-day lynching\".",["Mastrine, 2022"]]]},{"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["Polarizing Word Choices: \"pro-choice -anti-choice\", \"gun rights -gun control\", \"riot -protest\", \"illegal immigrants -migrants\".",[]],["pro-choice -anti-choice",[]],["gun rights -gun control",[]],["riot -protest",[]],["illegal immigrants -migrants",[]],["Examples of Polarizing Word Choices: \"pro-choice -anti-choice\", \"gun rights -gun control\", \"riot -protest\", \"illegal immigrants -migrants\".",["Mastrine, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["The classification process relies on various factors such as the content of the news, the spread pattern, user reactions, and other related data.",[]],["The learned features can then be used to predict the reality of news instances.",[]]]},{"de":[["which can provide additional insight into how news spreads in social networks.",[]]]},{"de":[["In our framework, we focus on intent in terms of reader-perceived implications rather than questioning whether or not the writer's intentions were malicious given that it is unclear the extent to which original writers might have known article content was misleading.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news is a form of hoax, where the content is factually incorrect and the purpose is to mislead.",["Golbeck et al., 2018"]],["notes that fake news is a form of hoax, where the content is factually incorrect and the purpose is to mislead.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["hoax",[]]],"sp":[["hoax",[]]]},{"sb":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["distill the pragmatic implications of a news headline in a structured manner.",[]],["capture free-text explanations of readers reactions and perceived author intent, as well as categorical estimates of veracity and likelihood of spread",[]],["In contrast to categorical schema, our free-text dimensions provide a more nuanced way of understanding intent beyond being benign or malicious.",[]]],"rt":[["Writer Intent",[]]],"sb":[["Writer Intent",[]],["Reader Perception",[]],["Reader Action",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Propaganda is therefore wholly defined in terms of the intent of a writer or group of writers, and may contain factually correct content.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Misinfo Reaction Frames (MRF)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Misinfo Reaction Frames (MRF)",[]]]},{"de":[["We note that while real news is distinct from most of the article types shown here, it can also function as propaganda.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Misinfo Reaction Frames (MRF)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["information literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["critical consumption",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Historically, media literacy emerged from the idea of protecting children from the harmful effects of mass communication",["Gün & Kaya, 2017"]],["Some researchers view media literacy as a tool to minimize potential negative impacts of media, such as media violence, cyberbullying, stereotyping, or consumer culture, when examining how media influences people's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.",[]],["Media literacy has been presented as a solution to the need for children and young people to cope with the risk of being deceived or misled by advertisements, news, and media messages from Hollywood.",[]]]},{"de":[["One distinguishing feature of new media compared to traditional media is its ability to compress, digitize, process, store, and transmit texts, data, sounds, and images (McQuail, 2010, p. 137).",["McQuail, 2010, p. 137"]],["Another characteristic of new media is user-generated content, unlike traditional media and mass communication tools (Nakayama, 2017, p. 70).",["Nakayama, 2017, p. 70"]]],"rt":[["traditional media",[]]]},{"de":[["As a relatively new concept and field of research, new media literacy (NML) is in a continuous process of development",["Jocson, 2020, p. 49"]],["NML, as a result of the fundamental changes in the ways of accessing, producing, and sharing information in the digital age, has strong intersections with different types of literacy.",[]],["The concept of NML, while integrating critical thinking and the ability to exist effectively and consciously in the digital world alongside concepts like digital literacy and information literacy, emphasizes creativity and productivity by focusing on new media and user-generated content (Livingstone, 2004).",["Livingstone, 2004"]],["The uniqueness of NML lies in its expansion of traditional media literacy concepts to encompass the multifaceted and interactive nature of digital technologies, social media platforms, and user-generated content.",[]],["All concepts of literacy, including digital literacy, traditional literacy, information literacy, visual literacy, that have been produced from the past to the present are synthesized by NML.",[]],["The basic components of NML include important skills such as access, analysis, evaluation, criticism, production, and engagement with media content",["Lee et al., 2015, p. 85"]],["NML is an interdisciplinary subject, drawing connections between these fields.",[]],["NML is not only limited to the use of technology but also encompasses critical thinking in digital environments, distinguishing reliable information sources, and effective communication skills.",[]],["NML emerges as an essential competence for educators, students, and media professionals to succeed in modern society.",[]],["NML is of great importance in developing individuals' ability to approach content on new media platforms with a critical eye.",[]],["NML enables individuals to communicate more effectively and make their voices heard by improving their ability to produce and share their own content.",[]],["NML helps individuals to become more active and conscious citizens by developing their digital citizenship skills.",[]],["NML helps individuals to use new media consciously and increases their awareness in combating negative situations in the digital environment.",[]],["NML helps individuals acquire the necessary digital skills to succeed in their jobs and careers.",[]],["NML equips individuals with the ability to understand and appreciate different cultures.",[]],["The concept of NML, while integrating critical thinking and the ability to exist effectively and consciously in the digital world alongside concepts like digital literacy and information literacy, emphasizes creativity and productivity by focusing on new media and user-generated content",["Livingstone, 2004"]],["developing individuals' ability to approach content on new media platforms with a critical eye",[]],["enables individuals to communicate more effectively and make their voices heard by improving their ability to produce and share their own content",[]],["helps individuals to become more active and conscious citizens by developing their digital citizenship skills",[]],["helps individuals to use new media consciously and increases their awareness in combating negative situations in the digital environment",[]],["helps individuals acquire the necessary digital skills to succeed in their jobs and careers",[]]],"sy":[["NML",[]],["cyber literacy",[]],["social media literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]],["information literacy",[]],["network literacy",[]],["new media literacies",[]],["media literacy",[]]],"rt":[["cyber literacy",[]],["social media literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]],["information literacy",[]],["network literacy",[]],["visual literacy",[]],["traditional literacy",[]],["critical consumption",[]],["critical production",[]],["functional consumption literacies",[]],["e-literacy",[]],["digital citizenship skills",[]]],"sp":[["literacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Effectively, anecdotal personalisation reinforces the naturalness of using DI and IVF as a 'solution' to infertility, irrespective of the financial and emotional costs involved.",[]],["by retelling the Mason story almost purely in personalised terms, any meaningful consideration of the broader health, social and ethical issues raised by such cases (given low success rates, high risk of medical complications, and the long-term implications for the children of older parents) is effectively 'squeezed out' of media discussion, and in some cases explicitly countered via reference to disconfirming evidence drawn exclusively from the personal story featured.",[]],["Extensive personalisation thus facilitates a broader process of discursive normalisation by affirming the legitimacy of this 'special case' as 'utterly normal' (Ibid.), while simultaneously policing the boundaries of 'legitimate' older motherhood.",["Ibid."]],["predominant use of anecdotal personalisation as a media frame",[]],["privileges an individualised frame of reference that sidelines detailed consideration of the social and ethical implications of emerging technological developments",[]]],"rt":[["technoboosterism",[]]],"sp":[["representational frames",[]]],"ex":[["stories such as 'Kiwis Select Sex Of Babies In Oz' (The Dominion Post, 14 September 2002) and 'NSW Clinic Offers \"Right\" Sex Baby' (The New Zealand Herald, 14 September 2002) highlight the experiences of New Zealanders 'forced' to go to Sydney to choose the sex of their child, while sidestepping any serious consideration of wider debates around sex selection.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["aid readers in understanding the essence of the issue, its context and meaning",["Weingart, 1998"]],["news stories may actively 'frame' issues in ways that legitimate particular understandings of them, whilst simultaneously excluding or downplaying other possible explanations, thereby narrowing the scope of public debate",["Corner et al. (1990)","Philo ( , 1993)"]],["tendency of media to 'amplify' certain voices while silencing others",["Condit (1994)"]]]},{},{"de":[["one that appears to enable prominent medical specialists to set the agenda for media representations of emerging biogenetic treatments and technologies in terms of how they might benefit the individual consumer, while neatly obscuring from public attention the other, financial interests that are also at stake in commercial fertility service delivery",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["improved epistemic stance",["Lavazza & Farina, 2020"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Media literacy comprehends a wide range of definitions and approaches with the foundation of various kinds of skills, knowledge, or beliefs",["Potter & Thai, 2019"]],["Vraga et al. (2021) explain that literacy development promotes the critical and thoughtful engagement of citizens with news content, allowing them to differentiate truthful content from falsehoods and other non-informative content, to identify misinformation and evaluate news quality through verification techniques.",["Vraga et al. (2021)"]],["perception of their ability to identify misinformation",[]],["favours citizens flagging misinformation and discerning between factual and fake stories.",[]],["Tully et al. (2022) explain that media literacy -in all its dimensions: news literacy, information literacy, digital literacy and misinformation literacy -is an approach toward citizens acquiring the knowledge and skills with which to navigate the current information ecosystem, being aware of and able to struggle with the misinformation problem.",["2022"]]],"sb":[["news literacy",[]],["information literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]],["misinformation literacy",[]]],"ex":[["It is easy for you to identify news or information that you believe misrepresent reality or are even false",[]]]},{"rt":[["information disorder",[]]],"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Borah (2022) points out that self-efficacy perceptions address the individual's feelings, motivations and behaviours, and based on social cognitive theory, this scholar proposes the concept of misinformation efficacy to refer to the perception that individuals have that they can distinguish false from accurate information.",["Borah (2022)"]]]},{"de":[["the cited research proposes that the concept of the citizenry's resilience to misinformation be understood based on attitudes and behaviours that allow citizens to develop the capacity to be aware of and address the problem themselves, that is, to identify the risks and effects that misinformation causes for them, and to develop abilities (for instance, skills and knowledge) that allow them to overcome the threat.",[]],["the concept of the citizenry's resilience to misinformation be understood based on attitudes and behaviours that allow citizens to develop the capacity to be aware of and address the problem themselves, that is, to identify the risks and effects that misinformation causes for them, and to develop abilities (for instance, skills and knowledge) that allow them to overcome the threat.",[]],["resilience to misinformation is composed of different attitudes and behaviours",[]],["the analysis is operationalised starting from specific attitudes and skills.",[]],["these adaptations give rise to resilience to misinformation that we expect will deliver a social value for both the society and the country in reducing misperceptions regarding public issues.",["Canel & Luoma-aho, 2019"]],["Conceptualised as an intangible resource, resilience to misinformation is composed of different attitudes, skills and competencies, and research exploring the latter is helpful in identifying what should be brought into the analysis.",[]]],"sy":[["intangible resource",[]],["intangible asset",[]]],"rt":[["Exposure Awareness",[]],["Media Literacy",[]],["Problem for Country",[]],["Problem for Democracy",[]],["self-efficacy beliefs",[]],["trust",[]],["engagement",[]],["legitimacy",[]]],"sp":[["intangible resource",[]]]},{"sb":[["misinformation efficacy",[]]]},{"de":[["These adaptive attitudes and behaviours -which are triggered to counteract misinformation -address self-efficacy beliefs that are important because they are relevant to human functioning and influence behaviour directly, but also by shaping other factors such as goals, expectations of outcomes, affective tendencies, and perceptions of challenges and opportunities within the social environment (Bandura, 2006).",["Bandura, 2006"]],["self-efficacy beliefs influence how citizens set their goals and outcomes ( Bandura, 2006) and help citizens to learn more and to apply that new knowledge and skills against adversity.",["Bandura, 2006"]]],"rt":[["perceived self-efficacy",[]],["misinformation efficacy",[]]]},{"de":[["differentiation must be made between individual self-perception of knowledge and skills from true knowledge and skill performance.",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["The photograph is technically accurate, yet its combination with the headline on a card strongly implies a recent handshake sealing the amnesty deal.",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation often arises from the interaction between editorial intentions and platform architectures.",[]],["It is harmful because it is \"likely to lead to false beliefs\" (p. 406) and because it is designed to distort audiences' understanding of reality.",["p. 406","Fallis, 2015"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["pseudoinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Frames shape which cognitive schemas are activated and how events are interpreted",[]],["framing effects arise when message structure and content activate particular considerations",["Vincent-Price and Powers (1997)"]],["news not only conveys facts but also triggers pre-existing knowledge structures",["Cacciatore et al. (2015)"]]]},{"de":[["implicit rather than explicit, hard to detect for users, and easy for its authors to defend-since each individual element can be presented as technically accurate",[]],["These practices can be conceptualised as a form of journalistic disinformation that is implicit rather than explicit, hard to detect for users, and easy for its authors to defend-since each individual element can be presented as technically accurate-while still having significant impact because audiences tend to attribute credibility to journalistic sources (Ecker et al., 2014;Lewandowsky et al., 2017).",["Ecker et al., 2014","Lewandowsky et al., 2017"]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["pseudoinformation",[]]]},{"ex":[["a headline proclaiming that a \"Madrid hospital opens its doors to children's dogs.\" The phrase suggests that dogs are now generally allowed inside the hospital. Only within the article does the outlet specify that visits are tightly restricted to one hour per week, under strict safety and hygiene conditions.",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["In particular, critical AI art facilitates such aspects as linking \"underlying technical systems to structural issues of power\", enables experiential learning, and crucially, allows interpretation rather than straightforward explanation",["27"]]],"ex":[["Capture (2020)",[]],["DataMasks (2014)",[]],["MIT's Crowd-Sourced Intelligence Agency (2015)",[]],["In Event of Moon Disaster (2020)",[]]]},{"rt":[["Media literacy",[]]],"ex":[["people [to] understand better large amounts of data in the making. What is data, how it's done, how you make sense of a database",["758112"]]]},{"sy":[["Fact checking",[]]]},{"de":[["Another form of machine generated fake news is 'deepfake' videos.",[]]],"ex":[["The Korean news channel MBN created a deepfake of its anchor Kim Joo-ha for a bulletin",["16"]],["Jordan Peele's deepfake of Barack Obama discussing deepfakes",["44"]],["Vlodymyr Zylynsky suggesting Ukrainian soldiers lay down their weapons",["17"]]]},{},{"de":[["it is conducted after the dissemination of misinformation",["35"]]],"sy":[["debunking",["35"]]]},{"rt":[["propaganda",[]],["trolling",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["satire",[]]]},{"de":[["Algorithms are a key component of social media, recommending content to users that will keep them engaged with the platform and so provide exposure for adverts",["33"]]]},{"de":[["Media literacy is seen as a 'pre-emptive' approach [35] and has in the past been characterised as an 'psychological inoculation' approach",["35"]],["how they understand, access, use media?",[]],["Media literacy is seen as a 'pre-emptive' approach [35] and has in the past been characterised as an 'psychological inoculation' approach in that it seeks to arm the individual with the skills necessary to critically appraise and identify misinformation when coming into contact with it",["35","36","12"]],["Media literacy is seen as a 'pre-emptive' approach [35] and has in the past been characterised as an 'psychological inoculation' approach in that it seeks to arm the individual with the skills necessary to critically appraise and identify misinformation when coming into contact with it [36], [12].",["35","36","12"]]],"rt":[["data literacy",["29"]],["algorithmic literacy",["47"]]]},{"de":[["Throughout this paper we use employ the term 'misinformation' to represent all forms of incorrect news messaging.",[]]],"rt":[["Disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This speech, often amplified during times of political tension such as during an election, targets people or groups based on their race, gender, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and disability.",[]]],"sb":[["identity attack",[]],["insult",[]],["profanity",[]],["threat/incitement to violence",[]],["vulgarity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the media also creates imagined communities, through usually targeting a mass audience or generalising and addressing citizens as the public, while also creating imagined communities through the use of images to which the people can relate to.",[]],["According to this last concept, a nation is a socially constructed community, imagined by the people who perceive themselves as part of that group (Anderson, 2006(Anderson, [1983]], pp. 6-7).",["Anderson, 2006","Anderson, [1983]"]]]},{},{"de":[["the concept of journalistic objectivity was historically employed in the newsroom as a way of detaching news coverage from wider structural social and economic issues.",[]],["historically intertwined in the public imagination -and among journalistic values-with freedom and democracy",[]],["one of the key notions in journalism theory and practice",[]],["Consequently, when news coverage is often performed by the news media, it stops from making reference to structural issues such as inequality in relation to class struggle; an approach that is still considered to be 'too ideological' in most newsrooms.",[]],["Indeed, the concept of journalistic objectivity was historically employed in the newsroom as a way of detaching news coverage from wider structural social and economic issues.",[]]],"rt":[["objectivity",[]],["news values",[]]],"ex":[["this has led to a predominantly individualistic account of poverty and social exclusion that is constructed through the voices of elite sources and that nevertheless reflect market ideology while claiming objectivity and factual analysis",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["civil society",[]]]},{"sy":[["detachment",[]],["non-involvement",[]]]},{"de":[["At the centre of these national hegemonic efforts towards spreading a particular model of journalism in the Global South is that of public diplomacy",[]]],"rt":[["soft power",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["non-core elements",[]]],"sp":[["frame elements",[]]]},{"ex":[["between quantity and verticality giving rise to the conceptual metaphor MORE IS UP",[]]]},{"sb":[["core elements",["Ruppenhofer et al. 2010"]],["non-core elements",["Ruppenhofer et al. 2010"]]]},{"de":[["They are open-ended, encyclopaedic structures that serve as the cognitive 'base' against which semantically associated words are 'profiled ' and understood",["Langacker 1987"]],["Frames exist at different levels of generality such that one frame may be seen as a more specific instantiation of another frame, which is therefore included within its meaning.",[]],["Frames are modelled in terms of a set of defining semantic roles, or frame elements, which are constitutive of a general situation-or event-type.",[]],["FrameNet (Ruppenhofer et al. 2010) distinguishes between core elements, which are essential to the meaning of a frame, and non-core elements, which do not uniquely characterise the frame but which nevertheless may be a salient feature of it.",["Ruppenhofer et al. 2010"]],["In discourse, frames are accessed or activated by references, explicit or implicit, to the frame or its aspects.",[]],["They serve to give meaning and coherence to any text by providing a conceptual schema in terms of which the referential situation may be understood.",[]],["In linguistic discourse, a frame is typically accessed via verbs or nominalisations denoting action elements within it.",[]],["in principle, any aspect of the frame invoked in the course of discourse provides an access point to the rest of the frame, information encoded in which may contribute to meaning construction and affect.",[]]]},{"de":[["Prototypically, this would include captions.",[]]],"rt":[["Surrounding intra-textual context",[]]]},{},{"de":[["When those texts belong to a different frame to the target situation, intertextuality provides a vehicle for metaphorical interpretation.",[]],["the \"echoing of themes, quotations, symbols, storylines, or compositional elements from older images and famous written texts may create visual metaphors\"",["Werner (2004)"]]]},{"de":[["a cognitive process of frame projection which is reflected in and effected through metaphorical expressions in discourse",["Lakoff and Johnson 1999","Fauconnier and Turner 2002"]],["From this cognitive perspective, metaphor is a matter of construal in which one frame is selected to provide structure to another inside a system of conceptual metaphors.",[]],["metaphor is therefore an important framing device which defines how social situations and events are to be understood, reasoned about, and reacted to emotionally.",["Charteris-black 2004","Chilton 1996","Dirven, Frank and Pütz 2003","Dirven, Polzenhagen and Wolf 2007","Hart 2010Hart , 2011Hart , 2015","Koller 2004","Musolff 2004Musolff , 2006","Semino 2008","Stockwell 1999"]],["Metaphor may give rise to a further number of framing effects where the cognitive processes involved have consequences in directing decisions and, ultimately, actions.",[]],["Metaphors accentuate certain aspects of a situation while simultaneously obfuscating others. In so doing, they problematize situations in specific ways, promote particular solutions to those 'problems', and pave the way for actions which accord with the metaphor.",[]],["the choice of one metaphor rather than another has consequences for how a particular issue is 'framed' or structured, which aspects are foregrounded and which are backgrounded, what inferences are facilitated, what evaluative and emotional associations triggered, what courses of action appear to be possible and so on",["Semino (2008: 91)"]],["metaphor as a cognitive process is not restricted in its operation to discourses articulated in the verbal modality but may equally be found to function in discourses articulated through the visual (or for that matter the auditory) channel",["Forceville 2002(Forceville , 2006(Forceville , 2008;;Forceville and Urios-Aparisi 2009)","Forceville 2002(Forceville , 2006(Forceville , 2008;;Forceville and Urios-Aparisi 2009"]],["In some cases, a weak metaphorical framing in one modality is strengthened by a metaphorical framing in another accompanying modality while in other cases a metaphorical framing arises specifically as the result of a co-textual interaction between expressive forms in two different modalities.",[]]],"rt":[["frame projection",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In Cognitive Linguistics, however, 'motivation' is traditionally taken to mean something slightly different.",[]]]},{"de":[["the metaphorical interpretation arises only by an interaction between representations in the two modalities.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["frame elements",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Immediate intratextual context",[]]]},{"de":[["As Semino (2008) observes, the WAR frame is particularly wide in scope, at least in Anglo-American English, where it may be metaphorically applied to \"any domain of experience that involves difficulties, danger, effort and uncertain outcomes\" (p. 100).",["Semino (2008)"]],["The WAR frame invoked by expressions such as these is made up of a number of structural properties.",[]],["For example, the WAR frame instantiates, and therefore entails, a more general frame for VIOLENT ENCOUNTER which, in turn, entails an OPPOSITION frame.",[]],["Inherited from these more basic frames or schemas, the WAR frame includes core elements of two opposing groups of actors, military actions, and some purpose or issue at stake (i.e. what the war is being fought for/over).",[]]],"rt":[["VIOLENT ENCOUNTER",[]],["OPPOSITION frame",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["han sido empleados para explicar las resistencias hacia la información verificada",["Cook, Lewandowsky y Ecker, 2017;Swire et al., 2017"]]],"rt":[["efecto contraproducente de las verificaciones",["Cook, Lewandowsky y Ecker, 2017","Swire et al., 2017"]]]},{},{"sb":[["explicit knowledge",[]],["implicit knowledge",[]]]},{},{"de":[["videos that could misinform users in harmful ways",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["deceptive use of manipulated media (e.g., 'deep fakes') which may pose serious risks of harm.",[]]],"sy":[["deepfakes",[]]],"ex":[["deep fakes",[]],["deepfakes",[]]]},{"de":[["the platforms we examine define the scope of \"misinformation\" in various ways.",[]]]},{"de":[["In order for content related to COVID-19 to be labeled or removed under this policy, it must: Advance a claim of fact, expressed in definitive terms.",[]],["For a Tweet to qualify as a misleading claim, it must be an assertion of fact (not an opinion), expressed definitively, and intended to influence others' behavior.",[]]],"ex":[["Examples include, \"The National Guard just announced that no more shipments of food will be arriving for two monthsrun to the grocery store ASAP and buy everything\" or \"5G causes coronavirus -go destroy the cell towers in your neighborhood!\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["more lenient",["Goldman, 2021;Grimmelmann, 2015"]],["Remedies included soft measures, such as attaching warning labels",[]]],"sy":[["soft measures",[]]],"ex":[["warning labels",["Goldman, 2021;Grimmelmann, 2015"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Collocation",[]]]},{"de":[["Collocation is typically judged to exist by the use of a word association measure which tells us how often two or more words occur alongside one another and whether this association is notable as a sizeable effect in our data.",[]]],"rt":[["collocate",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This interpretation is based 'not on the religious faith of Islam but on an ideological use of religion within the political realm'",["ibid."]],["the political ideology of Islamism",[]],["Islamism is presented as a threat. Yet Islamism is also framed as a threat not just to life, but also to democracy, especially in cases where it is described as totalitarian.",[]],["Islamism, a profound and totalitarian distortion of Muslim belief",[]],["The construction of Islamism as antithetical to democracy is particularly visible in uses of the collocate fight, wherein resistance against Islamism (including by Muslims) is framed as a fight for democracy, along with other 'values', most notably women's rights and the freedom to practice religion.",[]],["strongly connected to violence in news coverage, being presented as a causal factor in or as having links to jihadism and other forms of terrorist violence",[]],["represented as being totalitarian and, as such, as being incompatible with democracy and other modernist values",[]],["Islamism was also represented as being totalitarian and, as such, as being incompatible with democracy and other modernist values.",[]],["Islamism stems from a political interpretation of Islam. This interpretation is based 'not on the religious faith of Islam but on an ideological use of religion within the political realm'",["ibid."]],["Islamism thus involves various forms of social and political activism, the objective of which is to establish Islamic principles in public and private life, for example through the establishment of Sharia law.",[]]],"sy":[["the political ideology",[]]],"rt":[["Islam as a faith",[]],["jihadism",[]],["radical Islamism",[]],["Islam",[]]],"sb":[["islamist",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["represented more straightforwardly as being antithetical to democracy",[]],["portrayed as being on the rise",[]],["threatening religious freedom, while being in a war with secularism",[]],["The success of political Islam over secular nationalism in the Arab world has largely been because of the former 's ability to resist the enemies of the community or the state.",["Independent, 08.04.09"]],["A notable discourse in this representation political Islam was of particular politicians or political organisations who were presented as being aligned with it.",[]],["Like Islamism, political Islam is also subject to gradation.",[]],["These different kinds of political Islam can be labelled as a particular form, forms, or brand.",[]],["represented more straightforwardly as being antithetical to democracy in newspapers spanning the political spectrum.",[]]],"sb":[["radical",[]],["militant",[]],["extremist",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["objectivity",[]],["clarity",[]]]},{"de":[["media coverage calls policy attention to public problems and engenders a sense of urgency to find solutions (Yanovitzkt, 2002)",["(Yanovitzkt, 2002)"]],["The media can structure legislative debates, by pointing the Legislature to what society considers important at a given time.",[]],["media coverage calls policy attention to public problems and engenders a sense of urgency to find solutions",["Yanovitzkt, 2002"]]]},{"de":[["a pressing concern exists for clarity in both sentence length and word choice because the radio listener, unlike the newspaper reader, is unable to stop to review and reconsider the meaning of a sentence.",["Fang (1991)"]]],"rt":[["objectivity",[]],["accuracy",[]]]},{"sy":[["cuts",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["clips",[]]]},{"de":[["In recent times, the reporter's job does not simply end with stating the facts of events or problems; it extends to offering solutions to such issues in society through experts in those fields.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Sometimes compiled as style sheets or stylebooks, it provides rules on the use of titles, capital letters, spellings, quotes, italics, date formats, abbreviations, numbers, etc.",[]],["it provides rules on the use of titles, capital letters, spellings, quotes, italics, date formats, abbreviations, numbers, etc.",[]]],"sy":[["style sheets",[]],["stylebooks",[]]]},{"de":[["It makes enormous demands on journalists and their media organizations, and practitioners view it as a public trust.",[]]]},{"sb":[["breaking news",[]],["investigative stories",[]],["commentaries",[]],["side-bars",[]]]},{"sp":[["Members of the legislature",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It may be unicameral (having a single legislative chamber), or bicameral (a two-chamber House).",[]]],"sb":[["unicameral (having a single legislative chamber)",[]],["bicameral (a two-chamber House)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a way of freeing factual reporting from the biases and values of sources, writers, or readers.",["Brooks et al. (2014)"]]],"rt":[["accuracy",[]],["clarity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These activities range from plenary sessions to committee engagements and even oversight visits to Ministries, Departments, and Agencies of government.",[]]],"rt":[["political journalism",["Strömbäck & Shehata, 2018"]]],"sp":[["political journalism",["Strömbäck & Shehata, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["Conventionally, it does not exceed 30 seconds.",[]]],"sy":[["voicer",[]]]},{"de":[["It could also be delivered for three minutes or more for use in a news program. Such an arrangement is best in allowing both sides of a conflict to state their position on the matter.",[]]],"sy":[["packages",[]]]},{"de":[["The Summit heard that the old, politically-motivated threats faced by journalists who dared to scrutinise governments and other powerful figures were still very much part of the Pacific media landscape.",[]]]},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]],"ex":[["How often do you verify news via multiple sources?",[]]]},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]],"ex":[["Have you ever shared original media commentary?",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]],"ex":[["How confident are you in detecting deepfake videos?",[]]]},{"de":[["is increasingly recognized as a crucial skill for informed citizenship and societal resilience against digital threats",["Ikram, Rahman, 2023","Hobbs, 2023"]],["essential not only for countering misinformation but also for promoting critical thinking, autonomy, and democratic participation",["Ikram, Rahman, 2023","Strafasia, 2023"]],["Media literacy has evolved as a foundational skill for navigating today's complex digital landscape.",[]],["The integration of digital and media literacy into formal curricula has been recommended as a crucial 21st-century educational goal, emphasizing the need for critical thinking about media (Hobbs, 2010).",["Hobbs, 2010"]],["Media literacy has been identified as a core civic competency necessary for supporting participatory democracy (Mihailidis, Thevenin, 2013).",["Mihailidis, Thevenin, 2013"]]],"rt":[["digital and information literacies",[]]],"sb":[["Access",[]],["Analysis",[]],["Evaluation",[]],["Creation",[]]]},{"de":[["The analysis indicates the ability to change media messages, to understand that media message creation is a subjective process, and to distinguish whether the new media message is a fact or a subjective opinion.",[]],["The synthesis indicator refers to the ability to interpret and collate media content with their own perceptions and perspectives, and to create media messages in their own way.",[]],["The evaluation includes the skills of individuals to question and criticize the reliability of media content.",[]]],"sy":[["CC",[]]],"sb":[["Analysis",[]],["Synthesis",[]],["Evaluation",[]]],"ex":[["teachers' ability to present different ideas on a topic interactively and students' ability to find reality among these ideas via one of the web tools",[]],["The analysis indicates the ability to change media messages, to understand that media message creation is a subjective process, and to distinguish whether the new media message is a fact or a subjective opinion.",[]],["As an example, teachers' ability to present different ideas on a topic interactively and students' ability to find reality among these ideas via one of the web tools can be shown.",[]]],"sp":[["New Media Literacy (NML)",["Lin et al., 2013"]]]},{},{"de":[["the participation includes the skills to participate in new media environments with interactive and critical perspectives. The underlined point is that individuals or participants are in mutual/bilateral interactions. People are expected to develop ideas by contributing to each other's thoughts in new media environments. The participation focuses on the social connection that values each individual's contribution.",[]],["the creation indicator refers to the ability to create media content with a critical understanding.",[]],["critical participation in new media environments and the creation of media content with critical perspectives",[]]],"sy":[["CP",[]]],"ex":[["interaction of students by using such applications as Google Classroom, Classdojo, or other educational social networks in a course.",[]],["Firstly, the participation includes the skills to participate in new media environments with interactive and critical perspectives. The underlined point is that individuals or participants are in mutual/bilateral interactions. People are expected to develop ideas by contributing to each other's thoughts in new media environments. The participation focuses on the social connection that values each individual's contribution.",[]],["An example of this dimension is the interaction of students by using such applications as Google Classroom, Classdojo, or other educational social networks in a course.",[]],["On the other hand, the creation indicator refers to the ability to create media content with a critical understanding.",[]]],"sp":[["New Media Literacy (NML)",["Lin et al., 2013"]]]},{},{"de":[["skill refers to the ability to have the necessary skills to consume media content and the ability to perceive the meaning of the accessed media content in its true sense.",[]],["The understanding indicator refers to the ability to perceive the meaning of the accessed media content in its true sense.",[]]],"sy":[["FC",[]]],"sb":[["Skill",[]],["Understanding",[]]],"sp":[["New Media Literacy (NML)",["Lin et al., 2013"]]],"ex":[["The skill refers to the ability to have the necessary skills to consume media content and the ability to perceive the meaning of the accessed media content in its true sense. The skills of using a search engine can be given as an example.",[]]]},{"sp":[["New Media Literacy (NML)",["Lin et al., 2013"]]],"ex":[["Firstly, the skills indicator expresses a number of technical skills needed to produce media content. The ability to open an account and create products in a web environment can be given as an example.",[]],["Secondly, the distribution refers to the ability to disseminate information they already have. The presentation of materials developed within the scope of a course on a YouTube channel can be given as an example.",[]],["Finally, the production includes the capabilities of partially or completely reproducing, mixing/collating media content. Production activities include mixing audio and video files to create a new video file, digitizing a printed file, and writing something on media such as a blog or social network.",[]]]},{"de":[["investigated in terms of consuming and prosuming dimensions",[]],["According to Lee et al. (2015), NML not only covers functional literacies usually referring to knowledge and skills or digital competencies, but also includes critical literacies encompassing meaning and decision-making on the usefulness and trustworthiness of media messages.",["Lee et al. (2015)"]],["The NML scale consists of four factors and 35 items in total. The scale items are categorized under four factors, entitled \"Functional Consumption\" (FC), \"Critical Consumption\" (CC), \"Functional Production\" (FP), and \"Critical Production\" (CP).",[]],["NML not only covers functional literacies usually referring to knowledge and skills or digital competencies, but also includes critical literacies encompassing meaning and decision-making on the usefulness and trustworthiness of media messages.",[]]],"sy":[["NML",[]]],"rt":[["digital literacy",[]]],"sb":[["Functional Consuming (FC)",["Lin et al., 2013"]],["Critical Consuming (CC)",["Lin et al., 2013"]],["Functional Prosuming (FP)",["Lin et al., 2013"]],["Critical Prosuming (CP)",["Lin et al., 2013"]]]},{"sy":[["Nudging",[]]]},{},{"de":[["all fallacies that manifest an indifference to the truth lend themselves to bullshitting",[]]],"rt":[["lying",[]],["red herring",[]],["straw man",[]]],"ex":[["some of Trump's questionable statements appear to qualify as bullshit",[]]]},{},{"de":[["(It may or may not be appropriate to add that the news is fabricated by its purveyor or source.)",[]]]},{"rt":[["bullshitter",[]]]},{"de":[["fallacies that manifest an indifference to the truth",[]]],"rt":[["fallacies of relevance",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Normally this is accomplished by the use of qualifiers such as \"it is quite possible\", \"may well\", etc.",[]]],"ex":[["\"I hope you can see your way clear to letting this go, to letting Flynn go\"",[]]]},{"de":[["attempting to evade criticism by changing the subject to the alleged misconduct of Hillary Clinton, among others.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Potter (2016) argues that the term 'critical thinking' is ambiguous, he outlines its defining features in order to clarify what critical thinking actually means: synthesis, analysis, evaluation and abstraction (p. 17).",["Potter (2016)"]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["media literacy strands",[]]]},{"de":[["This may include the layout, font and potential claims or ideological slant of the information presented on the website.",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive bias",[]]]},{"de":[["even if a fallacy is spotted in an argument, that does not mean the conclusion of the proposed argument must be false",[]]]},{"de":[["They arise when an argument is rendered invalid by a flaw in its logical structure, that is, the underlying semantics of the statement need not even be considered.",["Vleet, 2011"]]],"sp":[["logical fallacy",[]]],"ex":[["Take for example the propositional argument If A then B, A therefore B. As a popular example, this could read, 'If it rains then the ground is wet, it rained therefore the ground is wet.' It need not have rained for this argument to be valid. The invalid form of this argument would read like this 'If it rains then the ground is wet, the ground is wet, therefore it rained.'",[]]]},{"de":[["The word 'literate' is typically ascribed to one who can read and write",[]]]},{"de":[["The viability of this argument is determined by the inference made about the actual state of affairs, and thus the fallacy made here can be understood as a generalisation based on insufficient evidence.",[]]],"sp":[["logical fallacy",[]]],"ex":[["'Since our departure, we have driven past a service station every 5 miles, therefore, we will continue to drive by service stations every 5 miles until we reach our destination'.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such fallacies can be understood as an argument that appears to be valid, but in fact is not (Hansen, 2010).",["Hansen, 2010"]],["Such fallacies can be understood as an argument that appears to be valid, but in fact is not",["Hansen, 2010"]]],"sb":[["Formal fallacies pertain to logical flaws committed in deductive arguments, such as syllogistic or propositional arguments (Vleet, 2011).",["Vleet, 2011"]],["Formal fallacies",[]],["informal fallacy",[]]]},{"de":[["characterises media literacy in terms of both consumption and prosumption, taking into account both the critical/analytical and functional skills required to efficiently operate in this new environment.",[]],["at a fundamental level, is the application of critical thinking to media texts",[]],["Druick (2016) claims that typically, media literacy is understood as analytical, and specifically the \"critical study of the media\" (p.1126) or the application of critical thinking, and not just a functional skill (i.e. reading text, writing, using a computer etc.).",["Druick (2016)"]]],"sy":[["functional literacy",[]]],"rt":[["information literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]],["critical literacy",[]],["news literacy",[]]],"sb":[["information literacy",["Ashley, Maksl, & Craft, 2013, p. 8"]],["digital literacy",["Ashley, Maksl, & Craft, 2013, p. 8"]],["critical literacy",["Ashley, Maksl, & Craft, 2013, p. 8"]],["news literacy",["Ashley, Maksl, & Craft, 2013, p. 8"]],["functional literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["aside from its participatory nature",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["media literacy strands",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["selective perception",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive biases",[]]]},{"sp":[["cognitive biases",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["allocational harms",[]]],"sb":[["stereotyping",[]]]},{"de":[["the measure of bias",[]]]},{"de":[["a kind of representational harm",[]]],"rt":[["allocational harms",[]]],"sp":[["representational harm",[]]]},{"de":[["Social media is used as a tool to disseminate information that has been manipulated and polished in such a way that it looks like factual news by fake news spreaders.",[]],["Fraud is carried out deliberately through sensational communication that appears credible but is designed to manipulate and not be declared wrong",["Finneman & Thomas, 2018","Finneman & Thomas (2018)"]],["fake news adjusts the look and feel of real news; from the website view; how articles are written; how the photos that are entered are related.",["Tandoc, Zim, and Ling in Finneman & Thomas (2018)"]],["Fake news that contains misinformation is very dangerous because it \"has the potential to influence attitudes and behavior, making people think and act differently than if they were properly informed\"",["Southwell, Thorson, & Sheble, 2018in Guo & Vargo, 2018"]],["This information is not always made to mislead many parties, although many create and spread fake news in order to create confusion and misleading. This term refers to 3 forms of fake news.",[]],["The purpose of making this second form of fake news is as a form of sarcasm from a phenomenon that occurs.",[]]],"sy":[["hoaxes",[]],["news parodies",[]],["political satire",[]],["news propaganda",[]]],"rt":[["hoax",[]]],"sb":[["fake news, which contains untrue news, which is deliberately made to mislead and change the opinion of the reader.",[]],["fake news which refers to parody or satire.",[]],["misinformation",[]],["untrue news, which is deliberately made to mislead and change the opinion of the reader",[]],["parody or satire",[]],["fake news, which contains untrue news, which is deliberately made to mislead and change the opinion of the reader",[]],["fake news which refers to parody or satire",[]]]},{"de":[["The purpose of misinformation is fake news spread by readers who believe that the news is a fact.",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["expressions of fear, anger, or frustration",[]]],"ex":[["expressions of fear, anger, or frustration",[]]]},{"de":[["In this case, disassociation is a term for decoupling the industry from the problem (wrong doing). This response strategy is meant to distinguish between the practice of fracturing as a means for oil and gas production and the methods through which the bi-product or industrial waste, in the form of toxic water, is disposed of through underground injection wells.",[]],["disassociation is a term for decoupling the industry from the problem (wrong doing). This response strategy is meant to distinguish between the practice of fracturing as a means for oil and gas production and the methods through which the bi-product or industrial waste, in the form of toxic water, is disposed of through underground injection wells.",[]],["In this case, disassociation is a term for decoupling the industry from the problem (wrong doing).",[]],["This response strategy is meant to distinguish between the practice of fracturing as a means for oil and gas production and the methods through which the bi-product or industrial waste, in the form of toxic water, is disposed of through underground injection wells.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["frame analysis is conducted using a wide variety of texts (e.g., news articles, television reports, online blogs, etc.) and the distinguishing attributes of those texts (e.g., use of certain terminology, phrases, ideas, etc.) which can be manipulated to augment public beliefs and perceptions about important issues.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["fact-based reporting",[]],["cognitive tone",[]]]},{"de":[["audiences use to interpret the severity of and susceptibility to known risks",["Allan, Adam and Carter, 2000"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["platform affordances are definitely enhancing the features for news consumers",[]],["social media platform affordances",[]]],"sb":[["visibility",[]],["persistence",[]],["editability",[]],["association",[]],["visibility (the ability of social media to easily 'see' information)",[]],["persistence (the ability of social media to conserve the data for later browsing and searching)",[]],["editability (the ability to upgrade, review and revise the content)",[]],["association (the ability of social media to follow users' opinion, and to create affiliation with the journalists)",[]]]},{"sp":[["affordances",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["interaction",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["affordances",[]]]},{"de":[["When used in journalism, these affordances shape journalistic communication practices, empowering journalists and newsroom IT staff with diverse tools for content dissemination",["Civila and Lugo-Ocando, 2024"]]],"rt":[["affordances",[]]]},{"de":[["While platformization is useful for audience gain and retention, it is not helpful for informing audiences deeply about climate change.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["affordances",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Frame contestation",[]]]},{"de":[["In the debunking frame, the fact that ISIL's propaganda was directed at Western societies was defined as a problem, but unlike to the other dominant media frames, the debunking frame offered an evaluation that conveyed a completely different meaning than the terrorists' claims.",[]],["Approaching issues via a debunking frame contextualizes terrorists' strategies and may decrease their impact on recipients.",[]],["This technique cannot be reduced to factual statements, such as highlighting that ISIL's power is exaggerated through staging; rather, authors relativize and sometimes even ridicule the dramatic self-portrayal of terrorists in their propaganda videos.",["95"]]],"sy":[["countering or contesting frames",[]]],"ex":[["media actors pointed out logical errors in ISIL's ideology or showed that the actual power of and support for this terrorist organization in Iraq and Syria were much lower than what was portrayed in the videos.",[]],["the label \"computer kids\" contests the glorification of fighters and \"fallen warriors,\" an important part of the narrative in ISIL videos that stage terrorist fighters as \"victorious, powerful, cruel, and just.\"",["95"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Through contestations, actors attempt to discredit claims, policy ideas, or entire groups.",["94"]]],"rt":[["Counter-framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Consequently, frame sending in the context of ISIL mainly involves journalists integrating terrorists' SCFs into their own frame building.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Entman's frame elements",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Modern terrorism can be understood as \"mass mediated\" and involving media symbiosis",["5"]]]},{"de":[["create the image that Muslims in the West were systematically oppressed and exposed to severe injustices.",[]],["the oppression frame may not be problematic in the sense that ISIL sympathizers would get the idea of joining ISIL from reading newspapers.",[]],["this frame can create the impression that every Muslim is potentially capable of becoming an ISIL fighter or, even worse, a lone wolf.",[]],["The problem definition according to which Muslims are marginalized, excluded, and oppressed in Western societies suggests that following ISIL and adopting its ideology is a logical outcome",[]]],"ex":[["The author stated that when hundreds of young Europeans brought up with Western standards become murderers and rapists in the name of ISIL, something must be wrong in Europe. The problem was defined to be that young Muslims in the West are not fully integrated and, therefore, choose to join ISIL and live together with people who share their beliefs.",["68"]]]},{"de":[["power and violence were two major themes that recurred constantly in ISIL's propaganda, whose purpose was to stage this organization as a superior and overwhelming force with fighters who could defeat entire armies and punish sinners.",["78"]]]},{},{"de":[["This was interpreted as a threat by journalists because the terrorists' content was seen as highly contagious.",[]],["This supposed vulnerability also indicated that governments were powerless against the communication skills of modern terrorists.",[]],["Therefore, this frame could amplify the perception of the power held by ISIL.",[]],["the subjection frame included the problem definition whereby the West is vulnerable to ISIL propaganda.",[]]],"ex":[["\"YouTube deleted the video within minutes, Twitter removed all the links, but it had already been copied and was newly linked\" (our translation) (SZ, 23 August 2014).",["69"]]]},{"de":[["builds on the successes of Opinion Mining and Sentiment Analysis [7] to identify not only what views are being expressed in a text, but also why those views are held [4]",["7","4"]]],"sy":[["argumentation mining",[]]],"rt":[["Opinion Mining",["7"]],["Sentiment Analysis",["7"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["evidence drawn from experts (providing authoritative backing)",[]],["popular sentiment (of the masses or of a particular community)",[]],["personal experience (whether the author's own or that of a witness)",[]]],"sp":[["Reasoning",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["SCM",[]]]},{"de":[["the positive component evaluates women in traditional roles (homemakers)",[]]],"rt":[["ambivalent sexism",[]],["hostile sexism",[]]],"sp":[["ambivalent sexism",["1996"]]]},{"rt":[["warmth",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["ambivalent sexism",[]],["benevolent sexism",[]]],"sp":[["ambivalent sexism",["1996"]]]},{},{"de":[["evolution predisposed us to form a quick cognitive representation of strangers by first assessing whether they intend to harm us, captured in the primary dimension of warmth, and then judging if they are capable of acting on the perceived intention, reflected on the competence dimension.",[]]]},{"de":[["describe how biases can be encoded in the labels used for social groups, in terms of label content and the linguistic structure of the label",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The SCM thus proposes that many groups are not stereotyped as simply \"good\" or \"bad, \" but can be simultaneously ranked highly on one dimension and low on the other, resulting in complex social relationships.",[]],["benevolent sexist beliefs are associated with high warmth and low competence and hostile sexist beliefs are associated with high competence and low warmth",[]]],"rt":[["warmth",[]],["competence",[]]]},{"sp":[["implicitly abusive language",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["When this happens, rather than abandoning the stereotype, often the perceiver will instead maintain the stereotype",[]]]},{"de":[["it encourages us-vs.-them thinking, it lumps together a large and highly heterogeneous group of people who face very different health-related risks, and it over-simplifies the cause of health outcomes to a single biological factor (age) instead of emphasizing social and economic inequalities, barriers to healthcare access, and problems of over-crowding and understaffing in long-term care facilities.",[]]]},{"de":[["assessing whether they intend to harm us",[]],["positive and negative warmth",[]],["caring is associated with the warmth dimension more than sentimental",[]]],"rt":[["coldness",[]],["competence",[]]]},{},{"de":[["positioning it as a behavior independent of information seeking.",[]],["trust may trigger avoidance of perceived counter-attitudinal outlets but not necessarily use of pro-attitudinal outlets",[]]],"sy":[["avoidance",[]]],"rt":[["information seeking",[]],["selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals generally view balanced sources as more credible than unbalanced sources.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["credibility is narrower in scope than trust",[]]],"rt":[["trust",[]]]},{"sp":[["transparency",[]]]},{"de":[["when opposing viewpoints are presented (i.e., two-sided information), individuals may feel they are being given everything necessary for informed decision-making, which could lead them to be more trusting of an individual or source",["Mayweg-Paus & Jucks, 2018"]]]},{"sp":[["media trust",[]]]},{"sb":[["persuasive intent heuristic",[]],["expectancy violation heuristic",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["transparency cues",[]]]},{"de":[["most incorporate the idea that consumers (a) exhibit vulnerability based on past experiences with or expectations of the media, (b) acknowledge some risk or uncertainty due to the acceptance of an unknown future (Hanitzsch et al., 2018;Mayer et al., 1995), and (c) see a reduction of social complexity (Luhmann, 2018).",["Hanitzsch et al., 2018","Mayer et al., 1995","Luhmann, 2018"]],["perceived credibility, which we highlight in this paper as an important aspect of media trust",["Strömbäck et al., 2020"]],["media trust is built upon the idea that news consumers expect journalists to function adequately on their behalf while also adhering to societal norms but accept some risk in this expectation due to an uncertain future.",[]]],"sy":[["credibility",["Fawzi et al., 2021"]]],"sb":[["specific trust",[]],["generalized trust",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an action often linked to perceived outlet trust or credibility",["Metzger et al., 2020"]]]},{"de":[["traditional positions regarding objectivity such as not voting, not being affiliated with a political party, or hiring journalists across the political spectrum",[]]]},{"sp":[["transparency",[]]]},{"de":[["recent scholarship has conceptualized partisanship as negational, defined by opposition to rather than alignment with a political party",["Bankert, 2024"]],["conceptualized partisanship as negational, defined by opposition to rather than alignment with a political party",["Bankert, 2024"]]]},{"de":[["scholars have noted a persuasive intent heuristic for assessing credibility wherein information is deemed low in credibility if it aims to persuade",["Metzger et al., 2010"]]]},{"de":[["the idea is that individuals generally gravitate toward information aligned with and avoid content that challenges extant beliefs",["Stroud, 2011"]]],"rt":[["trust",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["In-Group Favoritism",[]],["out-group bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["media trust",[]]]},{"sb":[["disclosure transparency",[]],["participatory transparency",[]]]},{"de":[["act as a heuristic for assessing news story credibility (Curry & Stroud, 2021)",["Curry & Stroud, 2021"]],["providing people with what could be the actual ideological distribution of journalists",[]]],"ex":[["showing Republicans a scenario in which half the journalists working for an outlet are Republican",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals generally view balanced sources as more credible than unbalanced sources.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Speculation, without scientific or factual grounds, as to possible causes, therapeutics or even the actual development of the pandemic circulates quickly, causing confusion and leading to risk behaviours",["Allington et al., 2021"]],["messages of this type operate as a confirmation mechanism for already latent assumptions",["Goreis & Kothgassner, 2020"]]],"rt":[["misleading rumours",[]]]},{"sy":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{"de":[["generators of false information, from unverified rumours and gossip to poorly written news, intentionally fake content or even conspiracy theories.",[]],["a way of contemplating a whole growing number of concepts with a distinct nature and intention (from spam to fake news)",[]]],"sy":[["incorrect information",[]]],"rt":[["spam",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"de":[["In the populist sense, popular sovereignty is a central premise for democracy to function -without which its functioning will be affected.",[]]],"rt":[["populism",[]],["general will",[]]]},{"de":[["the people are conceived as a homogenous or monolithic group, good by nature and the beholder of a vast repertoire of positive attributes -purity, wisdom or authenticity",[]],["populist social actors present themselves as representatives, defenders and spokespersons for the people.",[]],["Their discourse is organised around a permanent challenge in its most common traits: rescuing sovereignty and returning it to the people.",[]],["individuals with populist sentiments show anti-elite attitudes and reproach the political class or others who hold power, whom they accuse of losing touch with the people and not attending to their problems and interests.",[]]],"rt":[["popular sovereignty",[]],["indifferent elites",[]],["establishment",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["popular sovereignty",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it may be a result of many factors, including the crowdworker's personal experiences, cultural identities, native English dialect, political ideology, socioeconomic status, anonymity (and hence relative impunity), and lack of awareness of their responses' potential impact.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In communication theory, information contained in a message is decomposed into its signal component and noise component, while the relative magnitudes of the two is measured by the signal-to-noise ratio",["11"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["personalisation algorithms that create filter bubbles and both narrow the available content and exclude challenging information over time.",[]],["filter bubbles emerge when users actively seek information and the Internet services learn what users consume. The Internet services then try to provide users with more of the same content during their next visit, based on predictions from past behaviours.",[]],["Filter bubbles are therefore not just a state in time, but also a process that evolves into increasingly more personalised information, which ultimately makes it impossible to find challenging information.",[]],["Internet filters looks at the things you seem to like -actual things you've done, or the things people like you like -and tries to extrapolate. They are prediction engines, constantly creating and refining a theory of who you are and what you'll do and want next. Together, these engines create a unique universe of information for each of us -what I've come to call a filter bubble. (Pariser, 2011: 9)",[]],["These filter bubbles emerge when users actively seek information and the Internet services learn what users consume. The Internet services then try to provide users with more of the same content during their next visit, based on predictions from past behaviours.",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]],"sb":[["filter bubble at the technological (or individual) level",[]],["filter bubbles at the societal level",[]]],"ex":[["narrower self-interest",[]],["overconfidence",[]],["dramatically increased confirmation bias",[]],["decreased curiosity",[]],["decreased motivation to learn",[]],["fewer surprises",[]],["decreased creativity and ability to innovate",[]],["decreased ability to explore",[]],["decreased diversity of ideas and people",[]],["decreased understanding of the world",[]],["a skewed picture of the world",[]]]},{"sp":[["filter bubble",[]]]},{"de":[["the large (or total) exclusion of challenging information as suggested by the filter bubble thesis",[]],["the filter bubble thesis focuses primarily on politics.",[]],["it predicts negative consequences for democracy",[]],["warns about the negative consequences, such as political polarisation, of technology for democracy (the Bailey)",[]],["The filter bubble thesis nonetheless goes far beyond the technology and extrapolates with additional claims about the long-term effects on humans, society, and ultimately, democracy.",[]],["The filter bubble thesis, on the other hand, posits that these effects are strong, permanent, and inescapable, since they can only be exacerbated over time -not alleviated -with detrimental consequences for society.",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["pro-innovation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Chaperones are often witnesses or instrumental to claims that journalists make; they are necessary for facts to travel effectively, even if claims might be false.",[]],["chaperones -spokespersons, users, celebrities, witnesses, experts, and authorities -are enrolled in the text to support claims.",[]]],"rt":[["sources",[]]],"sb":[["spokespersons, including PR personnel and people speaking on behalf of companies or organizations",[]],["users, including both highly skilled (lay experts) and novice users",[]],["experts, including scientific researchers from independent research and development institutions, colleges, and universities",[]],["authorities, including opinion leaders and representatives from law enforcement, politics, and the public service",[]]],"ex":[["spokespersons, users, celebrities, witnesses, experts, and authorities",[]]]},{"de":[["Regarding the decision-making bias, individual praise and blame, as well as praising and blaming technology, framed the understanding of new technology as the key driver toward economic growth and progress.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["which includes defining problems, diagnosing causes, making moral judgments, and suggesting remedies",["Entman, Matthes, and Pellicano (2009)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["pro-innovation bias",["Rogers 2003"]]]},{},{"de":[["pro-innovation bias favors the source over the receivers",[]],["a preference for technology-push strategies",["McCurrey 2000"]],["pro-innovation bias in communicating about the Internet manifested the individual-praise, pro-technology, individual-blame, technology-blame, and source biases.",[]],["Pro-innovation bias is prominent in science and technology communication.",[]],["pro-innovation bias was also a manifestation of Western society's strong pro-growth bias.",[]],["Pro-innovation bias is also a critical domestication strategy that is used to predict and shape the future.",[]],["Pro-innovation bias constrains critical debates about how new technology affects society and about the possible undesirable consequences of the same technology.",[]],["A pro-innovation bias reflects a dominant optimistic bias in modern society in favor of scientific and technological innovations (Flyvbjerg 2008;Gripenberg, Sveiby, & Segercrantz 2012;Kahneman 2011;Lovallo & Kahneman 2003).",["Flyvbjerg 2008","Gripenberg, Sveiby, & Segercrantz 2012","Kahneman 2011","Lovallo & Kahneman 2003"]]],"sy":[["pro-technology bias",[]],["preference for technology-push strategies",[]],["boosterism",[]]],"rt":[["individual-blame bias",[]]],"sp":[["pro-growth bias",[]],["deficit model",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["content bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["marketization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a strategic process of dramatization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["headlines are emotionally and ideologically marked texts and not simply concentrated versions of the article following the headline.",[]],["Headlines are often valued less for their summarizing function and more for their role as 'riveting' devices. Ambiguous, insinuating, humorous, playful headlines aim at attracting readers' attention than conveying objective, or complete information",["Ifantidou"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["interpersonal relation",[]]]},{"rt":[["discourse of the market",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Positive face wants",[]]],"sp":[["Face",[]]]},{"de":[["characterized by stronger hierarchy and greater interpersonal distance (Great Britain, Japan)",[]],["negative politeness realisations are forms useful for social distancing",[]],["nominalization is a negative politeness orientated phenomenon",[]]],"rt":[["positive politeness",[]]]},{"rt":[["positive-face threatening acts",[]]]},{"de":[["nominalization as a distance creating device (p.131) that raises the level of formality",["p.131"]],["nominalization is a negative politeness orientated phenomenon",[]],["explicitly attributes to the case of nominalization the will to avoid reference to the agent, in other words, promotes the creation of a certain distance of the enunciator from his utterance",["p5"]],["concluding that nominalization is a negative politeness orientated phenomenon",["Sidiropoulou, 2003"]]],"rt":[["distanciation",[]],["negative politeness",[]]]},{"de":[["The goal of politeness is to make all parties feel comfortable with one another.",[]],["politeness is developed by societies in order to reduce friction in personal interaction",["Lakoff, 1989, p. 102"]]],"rt":[["face-work",[]]]},{"de":[["it can also be defined as a spectrum of cooperation strategies, \"as the practices and institutions that a society has for resolving clashes of interest over money, influence, liberty, and the like\"",["Chilton (2004, p. 3)"]]],"ex":[["parliamentary debates, laws, government regulations and other institutional forms of text and talk, political discourse includes propaganda, political advertising, political speeches, media interviews, party programs, etc.",["van Dijk 1997a"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["negative face wants",[]]],"sp":[["Face",[]]]},{"rt":[["negative-face threatening acts",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Sit0 (situation zero)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["discourses contribute to the reproduction of networks by helping participants make sense of social relationships",["48"]],["by linking words and symbols with power, knowledge and expertise",["49"]]]},{"de":[["its repetitive use helps the reader, viewer, or listener interpret the meaning and significance of that information",["44"]]],"sb":[["framing devices",[]]],"ex":[["metaphors (e.g. catchphrases, graphics and photographs)",["44"]]]},{"sb":[["core frame",[]],["framing devices",[]],["reasoning devices",["76,77,79"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["anti-vaccine activists who proclaimed to know the most about vaccination and autism actually scored lowest in their knowledge of both subjects, despite rating their understanding as high",["64"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a coarse-grained feature we term affect that estimates how a speaker feels towards the target they mentioned in an interpersonal utterance.",[]]],"rt":[["social desirability",[]]]},{"rt":[["intergroup relationships (IGR, in-group and out-group)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["tries to explain how stereotypes are transmitted and persist in communication",[]]],"rt":[["social desirability",[]],["abstractness of predicates",[]]]},{"de":[["Specificity is a pragmatic concept of text that measures the level of detail and involvement of concepts, objects and events.",[]],["specificity is a more general property than abstractness in the LIB",[]],["a pragmatic feature of text that measures the level of detail (similar to abstract-concrete axis)",["Li, 2017"]]],"rt":[["abstractness",[]]]},{"rt":[["social judgement theory",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the tendency for individuals to seek out information that agrees with their pre-existing views",["Timothy C. Brock 1965","Paul D. Sweeney and Kathy L. Gruber 1984","Matthew Gentzkow and James M. Shaprio 2005","Sendhil Mullainathan and Andrei Shleifer 2005"]]]},{"sy":[["Design for all",[]],["universal access",[]],["inclusive design",[]]],"rt":[["translation",[]],["universal design",[]],["digital divide",[]]],"de":[["Accessibility has also become an important issue in the computer and telecommunications industries",[]],["Accessibility in the field of the distribution of audiovisual media has been relevant to serve the needs of user groups such as the deaf and blind persons.",[]],["accessibility has broadened its role as a service and practice for the transmission of meanings belonging to neglected areas in media cultures",[]],["Accessibility is thus an open resource supporting the spread of underestimated information and social interaction of sensory-impaired persons and a universal audience",[]]],"ex":[["immigrants, speakers of other languages",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["art activism",[]],["aesthetic activism",[]]]},{"sy":[["Halliday's interpersonal metafunction",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Therefore, if material processes are processes of doing or happening in the transitive or intransitive clause, thus, as Halliday and Matthiessen affirm (1997), a material clause decodes doings and happenings, including actions, activities, and events. In other words, the material process is an arrangement of a process and participants involved, who require some input of energy to occur, possibly undertaking a change and expressing energy flow.",[]]],"rt":[["Transitivity",[]]]},{"de":[["Accessibility is finally viewed in opposition to the dangerous and outrageous role generated by the media gaze that relies on the reiteration of conventional formulaic expressions that are considered full of integrity, which benefit from institutionalised recognition.",[]]]},{"de":[["By looking at niche knowledge as the whole of discursive forms on ontological truths which depict marginalised identities (Rizzo & Seago, 2018)",["Rizzo & Seago, 2018"]]]},{"sy":[["Halliday's textual metafunction",[]]]},{"de":[["does not involve a relation between entities, where the carrier has got some qualities of the attribute",[]]],"rt":[["lexical domain of Existence",[]]]},{"sy":[["Halliday's ideational metafunction",[]]]},{"rt":[["social justice",[]],["epistemic justice",[]]]},{},{"de":[["modes of universal accessibility able to reconfigure socio-political meanings in ways that depart from other representations in conventional media (e.g., the news bulletins).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Cultivation theory posits that the pervasive use of mass media causes its messages to become mainstream",["Bahk, 2001"]]]},{"de":[["Women's preferences for masculinity and muscularity in men are shaped by various personal factors, including early life experiences, menstrual cycle phases, and pathogen disgust sensitivity",["B. C. Jones et al., 2013","Koehler & Chisholm, 2009","Little et al., 2007"]],["Muscularity is often seen as a key indicator of masculinity",["Edwards et al., 2017"]]],"rt":[["masculinity",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["preference for muscularity in a romantic partner was longitudinally associated with muscular-ideal male body exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["Women who self-objectify tend to prioritize physical appearance not only in themselves but also in their potential partners",["Zurbriggen et al., 2011"]]]},{},{"sy":[["rumor stance",[]]]},{"rt":[["rumor verification",[]],["stance detection",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["online activism",["Greenhow & Chapman, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["He acts sincere, not only when claiming that his oneday of work makes him an expert, but also when he agrees that we need stronger borders, when he states that migrant labor is really, really hard, when he reminds the committee that American agriculture is shifting to Mexico, and also when he argues that improved legal status for immigrants could have a net positive effect across the agricultural sector.",[]]],"rt":[["hypokrisis",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Socratic irony",[]]]},{"de":[["definitions of fake news typically exclude satire",[]]]},{"de":[["each of these putative frigidities is part of his strategy of exposing the artifices used by every rhetor",["26"]]],"sb":[["double words",["25"]],["glosses",["28","29"]],["epithets",[]]]},{},{"de":[["implies that discourse is anchored in the local biases of its users, that words are the tools of locally situated speakers, and that consequently the meaning of a word involves situating it in a particular discourse",["30"]],["words that are peripheral to ordinary use because they are strange, provincial, archaic, or obsolete and that require a glossary in order to be understood",["29"]]],"sp":[["frigidities",[]]]},{"de":[["While his costume and cosmetics do not stand out, his vocal intonations, facial expressions, physical gestures and movements clearly show that he is playing a part.",[]]]},{"de":[["challenges conventional ideas",["18"]]],"ex":[["He did dread deeds; she suffered them",["foot_3"]],["Speech is a powerful lord that with the smallest and most invisible body accomplishes most godlike works",["20"]],["whenever pictures of many colors and figures create a perfect image of a single figure and form",["21"]]]},{"ex":[["Gorgias mainly parodies common understandings of Helen.",[]]]},{"rt":[["central route",[]]]},{"de":[["satire relies on an audience recognizing the use of irony in order to expose or criticize something",[]],["satire encourages audiences to engage central information processing routes rather than peripheral information processing routes",[]],["satire uses irony to critique those in power and expose disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["draw his interlocutor's false premises to light",[]],["exposes their ineptness in the field in which they claim expertise",[]],["The crux of Socratic irony is the eiron, the posture of humility, assumed by Socrates when he engages in dialogue.",[]],["The purpose of Socratic irony is the revelation of truth.",[]],["By denying audience participation, Colbert and Socrates attempt to force audiences to recognize falsity.",[]],["In that show Colbert poses as a puerile inquisitor, requesting from an interlocutor a simple definition or position on an issue.",[]],["then engages the person in a dialog that teases out inconsistencies in his or her position.",[]],["Colbert then shows himself to be the wiser person because he is not claiming to know anything, he is just asking questions, and he holds to a single line of inquiry.",[]],["This posture allows Socrates to show the pomposity and bombast of his interlocutor, who, claiming to know some truth or have access to super-human wisdom, is defeated by Socrates who merely has recourse to human wisdom.",[]]],"rt":[["Sophistic irony",[]]]},{"de":[["Sophistic irony is not a tool that unravels the mysteries of the universe, uncovering hypocrisy and toppling braggarts.",[]]],"rt":[["Socratic irony",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["We examine who can act, whether the proposed response works, and what concrete actions are available.",[]]],"sb":[["self-efficacy",[]],["response efficacy",[]],["external efficacy",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["efficacy-related frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Many articles exclusively contain only efficacy elements, such as references to new techniques for adapting to or mitigating climate change.",[]]],"rt":[["threat-related frames",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["coverage largely framed climate change as psychologically close by emphasizing scientific certainty rather than uncertainty.",[]]],"sb":[["Scientific certainty",[]],["Scientific uncertainty",[]]],"sp":[["psychological distance",[]]]},{"de":[["Media coverage that frames climate change as a matter of scientific uncertainty or elite disagreement can distort public understandings of the extent of scientific consensus.",[]]]},{"de":[["across temporal, spatial, social, and hypothetical dimensions",[]]],"sb":[["Temporal distance",[]],["Spatial distance",[]],["Social distance",[]],["Hypothetical distance",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hypothetical distance",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hypothetical distance",[]]]},{"de":[["maintaining greater social distance in climate change narratives by relying less on farmers as information sources and social actors.",[]]],"sp":[["Psychological distance",[]]]},{"de":[["coverage similarly favored psychological proximity. Local frames dominated (1,740, 65.36%) compared to non-local frames (919, 34.64%), indicating that climate change was most often portrayed as affecting geographically close contexts.",[]]],"sp":[["Psychological distance",[]]]},{"de":[["coverage overwhelmingly framed climate change as psychologically proximate by emphasizing present threat (1,298, 48.76%), with fewer articles focusing on past (109, 4.09%) or future (323, 12.13%) impacts.",[]]],"sp":[["Psychological distance",[]]]},{"de":[["It typically highlights risks, damages, or losses across different domains of society.",["Bolsen and Shapiro, 2018","Feldman et al., 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["weakens the recognition of fake news in the minority category",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a headline that entices users to click, but only presents limited information and fails to convey the essential story, becomes clickbait rather than a useful headline (Bourgonje et al., 2017;Potthast et al., 2018).",["Bourgonje et al., 2017","Potthast et al., 2018"]]]},{"rt":[["content recommendations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["to gain a deeper understanding of their interests and preferences",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["view information consistent with their pre-existing beliefs as more persuasive than dissonant information",["Lazer et al., 2018(Lazer et al., , p. 1095))"]]]},{"de":[["are inclined to accept information that pleases them",["Lazer et al., 2018(Lazer et al., , p. 1095))"]]]},{"de":[["dedicated to post-hoc checking, or in other words, verifying after statements and alleged facts after they have been published.",[]],["committed to publicizing errors of falsehoods regardless of the source",["Amazeen (2015)"]],["When immediacy and the search for a scoop are the focal points, the checker tends to publish more superficial information. You can label a sentence as being true or false without taking into account the broader scenario in which it fits. The loss of context is always a risk.",[]],["Other risks involved with fact-checking can be using inaccurate or outdated data, appearing to be biased towards a",[]],["As a form of accountability journalism",["Amazeen (2015)"]],["Unlike the conventional verification process, which requires checking information before it is published, fact-checking is dedicated to post-hoc checking, or in other words, verifying after statements and alleged facts after they have been published.",[]]],"sy":[["post-hoc checking",[]]],"rt":[["data journalism",[]],["accountability journalism",["Amazeen (2015)"]]],"sb":[["post-hoc checking",[]],["ante hoc fact checking",[]]]},{"de":[["believes the term to be contradictory since, the way she sees it, if information is considered news, then it cannot be false",[]]]},{"sp":[["political journalism",["3"]]]},{},{"sp":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["people prefer information that confirms their preexisting attitudes",["Lazer et al., 2018(Lazer et al., , p. 1095))"]]]},{"de":[["silence is an important matter for excellence, a significant continuum. The real meaning is silence",["p.27"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Media credibility research, meanwhile, focuses mainly on the relative credibility of various media channels (for example, print, radio and TV), and message credibility scholars examine message characteristics, such as the content, delivery and structure of messages and the use of language (Metzger et al. 2003).",["Metzger et al. 2003"]]]},{"de":[["Media credibility research, meanwhile, focuses mainly on the relative credibility of various media channels (for example, print, radio and TV), and message credibility scholars examine message characteristics, such as the content, delivery and structure of messages and the use of language (Metzger et al. 2003).",["Metzger et al. 2003"]]]},{"de":[["their evaluations and expectations of objectivity, balance and neutrality",[]]],"ex":[["objectivity",[]],["balance",[]],["neutrality",[]]]},{"rt":[["normative and print-based approaches",[]]]},{"ex":[["impact",[]],["normality",[]],["entertainment",[]],["drama",[]],["prominence",[]],["proximity",[]],["timeliness",[]],["visual quality",[]]]},{"de":[["an increasingly popular news format",[]],["Online news videos differ from broadcast news as they are often self-contained packages that don't require a news programme or anchor for contextualisation. Moreover, many online news videos are captioned, which means they can be consumed and understood with or without sound.",[]],["Online news videos differ from broadcast news as they are often self-contained packages that don't require a news programme or anchor for contextualisation.",[]],["Moreover, many online news videos are captioned, which means they can be consumed and understood with or without sound.",[]]]},{"ex":[["narrative flow",[]],["video length",[]],["audio-visual features",[]]]},{"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Islam being radical or Jews playing violins",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["as quite often the presence of these elements is not only expressed by explicit, inscribed lexis. A graded analysis must also include implicit, invoked indications of attitude present at an ideational level. In these cases, the speaker's attitude is rendered by the actual meaning of his/her propositions, which invite or provoke the listener to have an attitudinal response.",[]]]},{"de":[["the speaker places his criticism into a dialogical frame, in which the audience is construed as adverse and its position as opposed to the one he represents",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["s/he may place him/-herself at odds with other viewpoints by disclaiming those assertions, entertain the possibility of their validity, distance him-/herself through simply attributing propositions to a third party, or proclaim his/her complete alignment with them.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["through the interpersonal we connect to our communities and interact with our peers.",[]]]},{"de":[["In such cases, either a totally aligned audience is assumed by the speaker or those holding alternative positions are simply excluded from the discursive community",["Martin-White 2005: 157"]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",["3"]]],"sp":[["fake news",["3"]]]},{"rt":[["rumors",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation",["3"]],["misinformation",["3"]],["disinformation (false news intentionally distributed to mislead)",["3"]],["misinformation (false news shared without the intent to mislead)",["3"]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]],["rumors",[]],["disinformation",["3"]]],"sp":[["fake news",["3"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Anger is often confused with rage, but it differs in that it can be controlled and lasts longer.",[]],["Anger can protect one's interests and needs, fulfilling a defensive function by signalling that one's boundaries have been crossed.",[]]],"rt":[["rage",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["By denouncing the persecutor -the state, the justice system, or the employer -hunger strikes provide a public testimony of injustice. They not only mobilise the victim against the perpetrator, but they also count on having an audience. The protesters seek to inflict shame and then social reprobation on the figure targeted by the strike. They seek the recognition of social responsibility. The suffering of the protester renders indifference impossible for the public or the target, and it calls on the public to get involved. The hunger striker emphasises that the authorities are accountable for the fate of the protesters",["cf. Siméant and Traïni 2016, 39-40"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["marking others as different from oneself or hegemonic ideals can often reinforce and reproduce positions of domination and subordination.",[]],["communication here is unilateral: the senders are focused on promoting their vision of the world, their specific axiological order, and their particular attitude, driven by the conviction of the superiority of their beliefs over the beliefs, attitudes, and voices of others.",[]],["Consequently, marking others as different from oneself or hegemonic ideals can often reinforce and reproduce positions of domination and subordination.",["Ivić and Petrović 2020, 421-433"]]],"rt":[["rhetoric of exclusion",["Witosz 2010, 14-16","14-16","2010, 14-16"]]]},{},{"de":[["including not only speaking but also actions",["Ornatowski 2021, 17"]]]},{},{"de":[["Protests not only take many forms and have multiple components, but clearly signal the breakdown of the social contract between the ruled and the rulers.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["extends beyond the classical understanding of rhetoric",[]],["Aristotle recognized the connection between rhetoric and politics, where persuasion depends on the character of the speaker (ethos), putting the audience into a particular frame of mind (pathos), and providing evidence, more precisely, the apparent evidence conveyed by the words of the speech itself (logos) (Leith 2011, 61).",["Leith 2011, 61"]]],"rt":[["ethos",[]],["pathos",[]],["logos",[]]]},{"de":[["distinguished by hitherto unmentioned features. The rhetoric of anger refers to using anger as a communicative and persuasive tool",[]],["feeling anger and the rhetoric of anger are distinct. The rhetoric of anger is demonstrated publicly in the public sphere, aiming to arouse a similar emotion in the audience.",[]],["It should be emphasised that feeling anger and the rhetoric of anger are distinct.",[]]],"rt":[["anger",[]]]},{"de":[["public discourse is dominated by rhetoric saturated with aggression.",[]],["The rhetoric of hate is a rhetoric of absolute truths that are always on the side of the sender, and it does not allow for understanding the opponent's views, ideas, or attitudes.",["Głowiński 2007, 19-26"]],["The rhetoric of hate does not address those who have become its object; rather, it vilifies them, incites hatred towards them, without addressing them directly.",[]]],"sy":[["hate rhetoric",[]]],"rt":[["rhetoric of empathy",[]],["othering rhetoric",[]],["rhetoric of exclusion",[]]]},{"de":[["the act of violence itself is persuasive",["Childers 2024, 55"]]],"ex":[["the rhetoric of confrontation, of the streets, of the riots",["Childers 2022, 16;Ornatowski 2021, 21"]]]},{"de":[["the wielding of words can be associated with physical violence, and even constitute an act of violence in itself",["Childers 2022, 18","18"]]],"sb":[["(1) rhetoric inciting violence",["Kochan 2019, 56"]],["(2) rhetoric accompanying acts of violence (e.g., reports of events)",["Kochan 2019, 56"]],["(3) violent rhetoric (e.g., labeling, \"hate speech\")",["Kochan 2019, 56"]],["(4) rhetoric as a way of presenting violence (e.g., in the media)",["Kochan 2019, 56"]],["(5) rhetoric of legitimising violence (justifying and excusing acts of violence, e.g., by appealing to human nature, principles, ethos, historical analogies, or excluding the victim)",["Kochan 2019, 56"]],["rhetoric inciting violence",[]],["rhetoric accompanying acts of violence (e.g., reports of events)",[]],["violent rhetoric (e.g., labeling, \"hate speech\")",[]],["rhetoric as a way of presenting violence (e.g., in the media)",[]],["rhetoric of legitimising violence (justifying and excusing acts of violence, e.g., by appealing to human nature, principles, ethos, historical analogies, or excluding the victim)",["Kochan 2019, 56","56"]]],"ex":[["aggressive rhetoric preceding acts of violence, such as attacks on politicians and journalists, or public institutions, and even terrorist attacks",["Kochan 2019, 54"]]]},{},{"de":[["It is a genre of political communication which encompasses the complex process of exchanging information and ideas between various political actors, aimed at influencing public opinion, gaining power, or legitimising political decisions (Hart and Kelsey 2019).",["Hart and Kelsey 2019"]],["Striking is a means of collective action consisting of interrupting work, sometimes blocking a specific space, manifesting discontent, demanding changes, or drawing attention to a specific political, social, or economic problem.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The situation requires that the message get through.",[]]]},{"de":[["formed by drawing false equivalence between scientific evidence and uninformed opinions and doctored videos of public figures",[]]]},{"de":[["popularly referred to as an 'infodemic' by the WHO chief",[]],["The wildfire of Fake News in the times of COVID-19",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["which is an important inspiration of fake news fabrication because fake news is often designed to ride the wave of popular events and catch public attention with unexpected novel content for greater exposure and spread.",[]],["Accordingly, a news environment should contain news reports which can reflect the present distribution of mainstream focuses and audiences' attention.",[]],["should contain news reports which can reflect the present distribution of mainstream focuses and audiences' attention",[]],["The environment is the objects, circumstances, or conditions by which one is surrounded (Merriam-Webster, 2021).",["Merriam-Webster, 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["The media constructed \"contamination\" through a multiplicity of meanings that captured the adulteration of meat, the affront to British cultural sensitivities and taboos, and equally the corporeal violation.",[]],["They did not employ contamination in the more common sense notion of harmful effects.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["iniquitous media constructions, which implicated Romanians through crude stereotypes, and located the revulsion of eating horsemeat within a particular culture.",[]],["The 'Other' emerged in this context where they were both a threat to British identity and culture but equally to British trade and industry.",[]]]},{"de":[["notions of pollution or contamination and taboo often emerge out of a particular mythology in which the animal may have been \"a strong or talented being\" that \"rendered a service to the god, or in some prehistoric exchange a human and ancestor incurred a debt of gratitude\"",["Douglas 1999"]],["Historically taboos have structured experience, brought cohesion to societies and a sense of belonging to groups",["Douglas 1966"]],["they may continue to foster \"group belonging and otherness. Like all taboos food prohibition helps to maintain social cohesiveness … a fear of losing control lies behind many of our taboos\"",["Allan & Burridge 2006"]],["taboos need to be taken seriously, not because of a supposed lack of or flaws in the reasoning but because they \"express concerns\" and because they can also say much about the \"casting of blame\"",["Douglas 1966"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Correlation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This approach can help evaluate news sources, assess story consistency, identify manipulated content, and encourage critical thinking",["Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2019"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It can manifest in various deceptive forms, aiming to influence opinions, erode trust, or promote specific agendas",["Fallis, 2015","Phillips, 2015"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The objective is to ensure the accuracy and reliability of information before it is disseminated or used as a basis for decisions, opinions, or further research.",[]],["The primary goal of fact-checking and verification is to confirm the truthfulness and accuracy of the information.",[]],["This is crucial in maintaining the integrity of discourse.",[]],["It helps prevent the spread of misinformation and disinformation, which can lead to misunderstandings, false beliefs, and potentially harmful decisions",["Uscinski and Butler, 2013"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news is intentionally created to be sensational, misleading, or completely false, mimicking the appearance of legitimate news without adhering to similar ethical standards or editorial processes",["Lazer et al., 2018"]],["It is distributed across various channels, including social media, with the aim of deceiving or manipulating the audience",["Pennycook & Rand, 2019"]],["The consequences of fake news can be severe, undermining democracy, polarizing societies, and even causing public health crises",["Fallis, 2015","Kshetri andVoas, 2017"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["It can stem from reporting inaccuracies, misinterpretation of data, or rumors, potentially causing harm by misleading the public",["Pennycook et al., 2020","Vosoughi et al., 2018"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This fallacy frequently manifests as a conflation of the scope pertaining to what is necessarily true.",[]],["The modal fallacy arises when there is a failure to discern the distinction between these modal categories.",[]],["That is, modal fallacies occur when there's an error in reasoning about necessity, possibility, or impossibility.",[]],["In the context of counterfactual theories, this might mean erroneously assuming that because an event could cause another in some possible worlds, it necessarily causes it in the actual world.",[]],["modal fallacies occur when there's an error in reasoning about necessity, possibility, or impossibility.",[]]],"sb":[["Denying the consequent",[]],["Affirming the antecedent",[]]],"ex":[["wrongly concludes that if John is not in France, then he cannot be in Paris",[]],["concluding that if it's cold, then it must be snowing",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["information pandemic",[]]]},{"sb":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["both concepts apply to inaccurate information that is intended to mislead",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Dual-process and dual-systems models",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Impulsive people are characterized by reflexive (as opposed to reflective) thinking, causing them to make fast and sometimes inaccurate decisions (Baron, 2019;Messer, 1976).",["Baron, 2019","Messer, 1976"]]]},{"de":[["Individuals with higher levels of information literacy are better able to critically evaluate online information",["Jones-Jang et al., 2021"]],["to verify information",["Khan & Idris, 2019"]],["and to identify misinformation",["Scheufele & Krause, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["also applies to incorrect information but does not necessarily aim to mislead",["Wardle, 2018"]],["Misinformation can therefore be used as an umbrella term for \"any information that turns out to be false\"",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This active, open-minded thinking allows people to better evaluate information (Baron, 2019).",["Baron, 2019"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Dual-process and dual-systems models",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Right Concentration",[]]]},{"de":[["participation in media production, as 'a discursive public sphere activity'",[]]],"ex":[["prisoners' radio programmes could constitute a form of active citizenship",["(Mouffe, cited in Anderson, 2012, p. 3)"]]]},{"de":[["participation in media production",["(Mouffe, cited in Anderson, 2012, p. 3)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["it is premised on basic Buddhist principles such as the acknowledgement of the inherent suffering in life (particularly in a mental health context), the need for kindness and compassion (metta) in one's dealings with others, and the fact that one's actions inevitably have implications and repercussions both for oneself and others (karma) (Gunaratne, 2015, p. 43).",[]],["A foundation stone for a 'mindful journalism' consideration of the ethical dimensions of a story is the 'Right Intent' of the journalists involved.",[]],["the principles of 'mindful journalism' (Pearson, 2014) can help guide the ethical decision-making of journalists (and journalism educators) beyond the 'black letter' codes of ethics in the news media and universities.",[]],["A truly reflective and mindful approach will not resolve all ethical dilemmas to the satisfaction of all stakeholders in a story, particularly if the decision sits on one of Hirst and Patching's (2007) 'fault lines' (p. 3).",[]],["the integrity of reporting can be enhanced if journalists take deliberative steps to reflect inwardly upon their understanding, intent, livelihood, thoughts, actions, and speech in mindful concentration.",[]],["can help guide the ethical decision-making of journalists (and journalism educators) beyond the 'black letter' codes of ethics in the news media and universities",["Pearson, 2014"]],["the integrity of reporting can be enhanced if journalists take deliberative steps to reflect inwardly upon their understanding, intent, livelihood, thoughts, actions, and speech in mindful concentration",[]]],"rt":[["peace journalism",[]],["inclusive journalism",[]]],"sb":[["Right Intent",[]],["Right Livelihood",[]],["Right Understanding",[]],["Right Thought",[]],["Right Action",[]],["Right Speech",[]],["Right Mindfulness",[]],["Right Concentration",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["mindful journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["mindful journalism",[]]],"sp":[["mindful journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["Right Action",[]]],"sp":[["mindful journalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["mindful journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["It is spoken at the right time. It is spoken in truth. It is spoken affectionately. It is spoken beneficially. It is spoken with a mind of good-will.",["Thanissaro, 2000"]]],"sp":[["mindful journalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["mindful journalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["mindful journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["the use of privacy laws to create zones of silence within the justice system in processes related to mental health.",[]]],"rt":[["open justice",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which dates back to the 19th century",["Douglas, 2018"]],["looks to distrust mainstream scientific media by promoting alternative thoughts through alternative media",["Douglas, 2018"]]],"ex":[["This form of misinformation began with Christian fundamentalists rejecting evolution as it contradicted the Bible",["Douglas, 2018"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Misinformation is not a new phenomenon, it has been around for centuries in the forms of rumors, gossip conspiracy theories, etc.",[]],["The technology, particularly social media, has amplified the spread of misinformation and its adverse impacts by providing a fast and free channel to share any information whether true or false",["Lazer et al., 2017"]],["catastrophic and lifethreatening impacts of tremendous amounts of misinformation circulating on social media",["Donovan, 2020"]],["Misinformation has provoked many people to hoard some vital necessary products (e.g., N95 mask, sanitizers, toilet papers, etc.) causing a shortage of supplies for essential workers",["Vigdor, 2020b"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["Misinterpretations of facts",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]],["mal-information",[]]],"ex":[["some individuals used toxic home remedies resulting in injury and death",["Vigdor, 2020a"]],["Misinformation has provoked many people to hoard some vital necessary products (e.g., N95 mask, sanitizers, toilet papers, etc.)",["Vigdor, 2020b"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["cultural repertoires shape cognition and that their distribution varies among diverse social groups",[]]],"rt":[["social differentiation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["As such, it investigates how individuals process and respond to these persuasive stimuli to identify the cognitive mechanisms underlying such reactions.",[]]],"rt":[["supply-side strand",[]]]},{"de":[["It has been designed to highlight the sources of variations considered pivotal for the understanding of the phenomenon, in order to easily identify the connection between different studies addressing persuasion.",[]]],"rt":[["persuasion",[]]],"sb":[["actors (speakers and receivers)",[]],["treatments (topics, content and media)",[]],["outcomes (attitudes, behaviors, emotions and identities)",[]],["settings (competition, space, time, process, and culture)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["online propaganda necessarily involves the interaction between two actors: a sender and a recipient.",[]],["as a communication practice, online propaganda necessarily involves the interaction between two actors: a sender and a recipient.",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Indeed, propaganda wants to pass as informative communication-whose only purpose is to create mutual understanding of data, concepts, and ideas that are considered to be accurate and fact-based.",[]],["propaganda wants to pass as informative communication-whose only purpose is to create mutual understanding of data, concepts, and ideas that are considered to be accurate and fact-based.",["Jowett and O'donnell, 2018"]]],"rt":[["persuasion",[]],["persuasive communication",[]]]},{"sy":[["productive consumers",[]]],"rt":[["productive consumers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["To this aim, it focuses its investigations on the political actors involved in the production and dissemination of such political content and the strategies they employ to amplify its circulation.",[]]],"rt":[["demand-side strand",[]]]},{"de":[["Each sample appears in two paired versions that differ only in the named actor while preserving all surrounding context (Fig. 3).",[]]]},{"rt":[["identity sensitivity",[]]]},{"de":[["The agent does not compute bias metrics itself; instead, it analyzes experimentally derived signals such as flip rates, JSD scores, and masked preference drift to generate a structured bias report.",[]]]},{"de":[["measures internal token preferences by testing which political side the model assigns higher probability to in controlled masked contexts.",[]]]},{"de":[["political bias in news discourse often manifests as subtle differences in framing and affect rather than overt ideological statements.",[]],["political bias is not merely an ethical issue but also a measurable modeling phenomenon",["13"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["this belief may or may not act as a building block for a conspiratorial worldview",[]],["when not part of an altogether conspiratorial worldview, be less resistant to being corrected",["Scheufele and Krause, 2019"]]]},{},{"sy":[["conspiracy mindset",[]],["conspiracy thinking",[]]]},{"sy":[["conspiracy mentality",[]],["conspiracy thinking",[]]]},{"de":[["they are speculative, complex and resistant to falsification, and that belief in them serves existential, epistemic and social motives",["Douglas et al., 2017"]],["associated with political polarization, rather than a specific ideology",["Sutton and Douglas, 2020"]],["suggested to stem from epistemic, existential, and social motives",["Douglas et al., 2017"]],["conspiracy theories are associated with political polarization",[]],["Conspiracy theories have also been associated with motivated reasoning",[]],["Conspiracy theories have also been associated with motivated reasoning, especially in terms of partisanship and political ideology (e.g., Uscinski and Parent, 2014;Douglas et al., 2019).",[]],["In this view, people not only filter information and events through their political identities, but also assess the role of conspiracies through a political lens (Brotherton et al., 2013).",[]]],"rt":[["generalized political attitude",["Bruder et al., 2013"]],["group-based phenomenon",["Jasinskaja-Lahti and Jetten, 2019"]],["political polarization",[]],["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["thus they relate to lack of sociopolitical control",["Bruder et al., 2013"]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"ex":[["Drinking bleach or pure alcohol can cure the coronavirus infections",["foot_1"]],["\"Drinking bleach or pure alcohol can cure the coronavirus infections\"",["foot_1"]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Having a publication date of the articles, it is also possible to analyse where the misinformation first appeared and when (how fast) it was taken up by other sources. This is especially relevant with respect to the spread of misinformation between countries and across languages.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["How constructive journalism can improve the news reporting of public health crisis",[]]],"rt":[["solutions-oriented journalism",[]]],"sp":[["solutions-oriented journalism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["characterized the development of health journalism as a subfield situated between the journalism and medical domains during periods of commercialization and politicization in both fields",[]],["health journalism can be seen as the co-production between health and media professionals (Stroobant et al., 2019).",["Stroobant et al., 2019"]],["the term health journalism encompasses not only health news coverage and stories but also includes the study of health journalists, newsrooms, and the broader news media industries, constituting a distinct discipline (e.g., Keshvari et al., 2018;Molyneux and Holton, 2015;Schwitzer, 2010).",["e.g., Keshvari et al., 2018","Molyneux and Holton, 2015","Schwitzer, 2010"]]],"rt":[["science communication",[]],["health communication",[]],["public understanding of science",[]],["health news",[]],["health reporting",[]]],"sp":[["science journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["health news, as a subject, spans various research disciplines",[]]],"rt":[["soft news",[]],["hard news",[]]],"sb":[["hard news",[]],["soft news",[]]],"sp":[["health news is a subtype of scientific news",[]]]},{"sy":[["health news",["Briggs and Hallin, 2010","e.g., Briggs and Hallin, 2010"]]]},{"de":[["examining issues such as health misinformation and medicalization",[]]]},{"de":[["How peace journalism can be used for health news reporting on vulnerable populations",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["ha encontrado un terreno fértil en la era digital",["Cabrera Altieri et al., 2024"]],["ha afectado a la percepción pública y, en ocasiones, ha incitado comportamientos perjudiciales",["Vosoughi et al., 2018"]]]},{"sy":[["personas mayores",[]],["adultos mayores",[]],["personas adultas mayores",[]]]},{"sy":[["fact-checking",[]],["verificación de noticias",[]],["chequeo de información",[]]]},{"de":[["ha emergido como una respuesta a la desinformación",["Moreno-Gil et al., 2021;2022"]]]},{"rt":[["generic linguistic bias correction",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Furthermore, the rewritten sentence t should preserve the original meaning of the source text s.",[]],["The aim of a bias correction system is to generate a statement y = (y 1 , y 2 , ...., y M ), where M is the length of y. The generated statement y is not only expected to have a neutral tone, but also preserve the original semantic content expressed in statement x. Additionally, y is also expected to present the fact F in a grammatically correct and fluent language that is easy for a reader to comprehend.",[]]],"rt":[["Linguistic Bias Correction",[]],["Attribute Style Transfer",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Conclusions",[]]]},{"de":[["decisions, which are voluntary choices between alternatives",["Laslo, Baram-Tsabari, & Lewenstein, 2011, p. 850"]]],"rt":[["science",["Laslo, Baram-Tsabari, & Lewenstein, 2011, p. 850"]]]},{"rt":[["virtual witnessing",[]]]},{"sy":[["visual certainty",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we have entered the era of visual witnessing, the theory of which applies the revolutionary works of the 1960s to Kuhn or Latour's history of science and sociology.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["misrepresented or even forged multimedia content, to mislead readers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["If the two captions refer to the same object in the image, but are semantically different, then it indicates out-of-context use of image.",[]]]},{"rt":[["textual and social contextual-based methods",[]],["Multimedia rumor detection",[]],["factchecking with KG",[]],["knowledge-enhanced methods",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which may affect what an individual reports when asked to recall an event.",[]]],"rt":[["Metacognition",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["monitor their memories for accuracy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["lo que determina un sobre qué pensar",[]]],"rt":[["priming",[]],["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["en la crónica suele haber una mayor carga interpretativa, analítica o explicativa con un lenguaje menos aséptico que en la noticia pura",[]]],"rt":[["noticia",[]]]},{},{"de":[["este formato presenta también dosis enfáticas sobre la información y brinda al telespectador la sensación de ser testigo privilegiado de lo sucedido.",[]],["El directo televisivo confiere al hecho sobre el que se informa cierta lógica sensitiva, afectiva y emocional y favorece asimismo la impresión de inmediatez.",[]]],"sy":[["directo televisivo",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["bias",[]]]},{"de":[["En la noticia predomina el relato meramente descriptivo de los hechos, es decir, el periodista ofrece información desprovista de valoraciones, interpretaciones u opiniones y con un lenguaje lo más neutro/objetivo/aséptico posible",[]]],"rt":[["crónica",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["agenda setting",[]],["framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["bias",[]]]},{"sb":[["entitlements",[]],["enhancements",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Previous research has identified a tendency to assign positive financial outcomes to internal reasons and negative ones to external circumstances",["Aerts, 1994","Aerts, , 2001","Aerts, , 2005","Clatworthy & Jones, 2000"]],["Acclaiming attributions consist of entitlements (positive results thanks to internal cause) and enhancements (positive or stable results despite negative external cause).",[]],["Defensive attributions consist of admissions (negative results because of internal cause) and excuses (negative results because of external cause).",[]]],"rt":[["self-serving biases",[]]],"sb":[["Acclaiming attributions",[]],["Defensive attributions",[]],["entitlements",[]],["enhancements",[]],["admissions",[]],["excuses",[]]]},{"sb":[["admissions",[]],["excuses",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["frames construct a social reality by defining problems in terms of their causes, causal agents, costs, benefits, effects, and potential remedies.",[]],["Framing manifests itself through the principles of selection and salience.",[]],["Framing provides a theoretical foundation for the discretion that authors can exercise to influence the ways in which audiences interpret their texts, which goes hand in hand with the purposes of impression management.",[]]],"rt":[["marketing communication",[]],["organizational communication",[]],["financial communication",[]]],"sp":[["impression-management behavior",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["top-down structure",["Ungerer, 2002"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["which may also be a consequence of the reduced text length.",[]]],"sb":[["the transparency of the information provided",[]],["the tonality of the news-agency releases",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In this comparative study, headlines and direct quotes were examined for thematic manipulation, both of which have also been studied in previous research on self-promotion in press releases and their journalistic transformations (Pander Maat & de Jong, 2012).",["Pander Maat & de Jong, 2012"]]]},{"sp":[["the tonality of the news-agency releases",[]]]},{"sp":[["the transparency of the information provided",[]]],"ex":[["avoiding adjusted financial figures, qualifying financial figures, and adding analyst assessments",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hate speech is more severe, usually includes incitement, threats, calls for violence.",[]],["extremist hate speech targeting a political group",[]],["Hate speech is more about targeting a group based on race, religion, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["racist",[]]]},{"de":[["derogatory statement possibly offensive",[]],["not a polite thing; it's an insult.",[]]]},{"de":[["This shows that all models over-state the severity of statements.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["PP",[]]],"rt":[["simulated personas",[]]]},{},{"de":[["this approach or framing of conflict is consubstantial to politics and it became a prominent ingredient for the political news coverage",[]],["this frame is one of the most used generic news frames",["de Vreese, 2005","Lengauer et al. 2012"]],["negativity, an aspect strongly linked to the conflict (Berganza, 2008;Lengauer et al., 2012), is one of the news values of informational messages",["Berganza, 2008","Lengauer et al., 2012"]],["the traditional way to measure the conflict frame in the news stories emphasizes more the disagreement between actors than the agreement they can or should achieve.",[]],["the news frame was coded by a scale of three items about whether the story was (1) or was not (1) alluded or referred to",[]],["the existence of conflict, which indicates the presence of confronted positions and even dispute between actors",[]],["the confrontation and reproach among the different actors",[]],["this news frame should be seen as a political debate and a confrontation of opinions",["Sevenans and Vliegenthart (2016)"]]],"sy":[["conflict framing",[]],["Conflict framework",[]]],"rt":[["political debate",[]],["confrontation of opinions",[]],["consensus",[]],["commitment",[]],["cooperation",[]],["confronted positions",[]],["dispute",[]]],"sp":[["news frame",[]]]},{"de":[["the conflict frame should be conceived more as an option for political debate, a place where opinions are confronted by fighting for consensus, commitment, or cooperation",["Lengauer, Esser, & Berganza, 2012","Sevenans & Vliegenthart, 2016"]]],"sy":[["conflict frame",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]],["news frame",[]]]},{"sp":[["news frame",[]]]},{"de":[["a four-item scale was elaborated to evaluate whether the narrative does (1) or does not (0) mention or refers to the following aspects",[]],["coverage of politics as a debate that seeks to solve problems through consensus and agreement between actors",["Lengauer et al., 2012","Sevenans & Vliegenthart, 2016","Schuck, 2017","Schuck et al., 2016"]]],"sp":[["news frame",[]]]},{"de":[["coverage of politics as a debate that seeks to solve problems through consensus and agreement between actors",[]]],"sp":[["news frame",[]]]},{"de":[["the informative treatment or framing that media will confer to the issues of the campaign will be decisive",["Schuck, Vliegenthart, Boomgaarden, Elenbaas, Azrout, van Spanje, & de Vreese, 2013"]]],"rt":[["news frames",[]],["issue frame",[]],["strategic game frame",[]],["Conflict framework",[]]],"sb":[["strategic game frame",[]],["issue frame",[]],["conflict frame",[]],["debate or political agreement",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["strategic frame",["Berganza, 2008","Rinke, Wessler, Löb, & Weinmann, 2013"]]],"sp":[["news frame",[]]]},{"de":[["it is seen as an approach that prioritizes the coverage of substantive policy issues, such as programmatic proposals made by the candidates (Aalberg et al., 2012), as well as the debate about them and their implications for the citizenship, beyond the impact on the positioning of the politician himself (Dimitrova & Kostadinova, 2013;Muñiz, 2015;Pedersen, 2012).",["Aalberg et al., 2012","Dimitrova & Kostadinova, 2013","Muñiz, 2015","Pedersen, 2012"]],["a scale of five items was used to measure the presence of issue frame within the news. It was assessed whether the note indicated, mentioned or addressed (1) or not (0) aspects such as",[]],["it is seen as an approach that prioritizes the coverage of substantive policy issues, such as programmatic proposals made by the candidates (Aalberg et al., 2012), as well as the debate about them and their implications for the citizenship, beyond the impact on the positioning of the politician himself (Dimitrova & Kostadinova, 2013;Muñiz, 2015;Pedersen, 2012)",["Aalberg et al., 2012","Dimitrova & Kostadinova, 2013","Muñiz, 2015","Pedersen, 2012"]]],"sy":[["thematic or issue-centered approach",[]]],"rt":[["strategic game frame",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]],["news frame",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing",[]]],"sb":[["strategic game frame",[]],["issue frame",[]],["Conflict framework",[]],["conflict frame",[]],["debate and political agreement",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["game frame",["Berganza, 2008","Rinke, Wessler, Löb, & Weinmann, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["a scale of five items was used to measure the presence of strategic game frame within the news stories. It was assessed whether the note indicated, mentioned or did (1) or did not include (0) aspects such as",[]]],"sy":[["strategic play frame",[]],["game frame",[]],["strategic frame",[]]],"rt":[["issue frame",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]],["news frame",[]]]},{"rt":[["human interest",[]],["consequence frames",[]]],"sp":[["News framing",[]]],"ex":[["(5) Abbiamo iniziato il nostro contrattacco. Il vero problema è che il fronte è lungo 1000 km, difficilissimo da difendere tutto. Siamo un piccolo esercito contro un grande grande esercito imperiale",[]],["(6) Sono passato attraverso quella che noi prigionieri chiamavamo \" la prionka\". Sono stato abbattuto con il mio elicottero e i russi mi hanno catturato e portato in un campo di detenzione dove sono stato picchiato per un' intera giornata da tutti i carcerieri e poliziotti che vi lavoravano",[]],["(7) Noi non siamo meno importanti degli abitanti di Tel Aviv, se non ci proteggete da Hezbollah noi lo faremo da soli!",[]]]},{"de":[["the consequence frame appears to go straight to the interviewee's will of mobilizing distant audiences' empathy",["Li 2023"]]],"rt":[["conflict",[]],["human interest",[]],["human-interest frames",[]]],"sp":[["News framing",[]]],"ex":[["(8) Aiutateci e non dovrete combattere voi, chiudete i cieli e dormirete in pace. L'Europa non capisce fino in fondo, non può, nemmeno Kharkiv capiva finché si combatteva solo in Donbass, nemmeno Kiev. L'Europa ovviamente capisce che siamo in difficoltà, ma non ha mai sentito lo stivale di un soldato russo addosso. Siamo grati per tutto il sostegno che riceviamo, ma ci serve di più",[]]]},{"rt":[["informative style",[]]]},{"de":[["refers to an effort to personalize the news, dramatize or 'emotionalize' the news, in order to capture and retain audience interest",["2000, 95-96"]],["Interviews within the human-interest frame are characterized by the nominalization of family members, personal emotions and reactions",["11"]]],"rt":[["conflict",[]],["consequence frames",[]]],"sp":[["News framing",[]]],"ex":[["(2) Il nostro asilo non esiste più, è stato bombardato il 9 maggio di due anni fa. I bambini sono ansiosi, a volte isterici, alcuni si graffiano le braccia. Se sentiamo un'esplosione gli diciamo che è un tuono. Ho una bambina, ormai siamo abituate all'ansia. Leggi sui loro volti, chi ha il papà al fronte. Hanno anche iniziato a giocare alla guerra, ma cerchiamo di distrarli",[]],["(3) Non so dove mi stanno portando, da due anni non sento mia moglie, la chiamo ma il numero non funziona, non so nemmeno se è viva. / Sono nato in Russia, mio padre era un pilota militare, ma da quando ho quattro anni vivo in Ucraina. / Sono come zombie, Putin li ha trasformati in carne da cannone. Prima di ammalarmi ero un pianista, potevo suonare Chopin per giorni, avevo un piano meraviglioso, i tasti erano così dolci, faceva un suono stupendo",[]]]},{"rt":[["conflict frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["emotional style",[]]]},{"sp":[["News framing",[]]]},{"sb":[["the conflict frame",[]],["the human-interest frame",[]],["the morality frame",[]],["the consequence frame",[]],["the responsibility frame",[]]]},{"sp":[["News framing",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["bias",[]],["unfairness",[]]],"sb":[["issue-specific",[]],["generic",[]]]},{"de":[["The media employ framing to reorient how audiences think",["Chong and Druckman, 2007"]],["or to promote a decided interpretation.",[]],["It is basically driven by argument selection (Ajjour et al., 2019) and, hence, it belongs to the inventio canon in particular (Aristotle and Roberts, 2004).",[]],["The media employ framing to reorient how audiences think (Chong and Druckman, 2007), or to promote a decided interpretation.",["Chong and Druckman, 2007"]]],"rt":[["Reframing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Depending on the audience or the submessage, reframing can become necessary to achieve the desired effect on the readers.",[]],["Usually, reframing requires rewriting entire sentences rather than single words or phrases.",[]]],"rt":[["adapting style and sentiment",[]]],"sb":[["low-level style reframing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Hate speech is further delineated into distinct groups, excluding categories such as profanity or slander",["4"]],["Hate speech typically targets various categories including religion, race, physical appearance, and gender, among others",["4"]],["The primary intent of such hate speech is the propagation of hatred, incitement of hostility, or defamation of individuals or groups, often contravening legal frameworks and yielding deleterious societal impacts",["5"]],["Furthermore, hate speech is classified into varying intensity levels: weak, moderate, and strong.",[]]],"ex":[["lu semua dr etnis mata sipit harusnya jd kacung atau babu saja",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This enhancement in semantic representation significantly improved the understanding of short text meanings, thus enabling classification algorithms to discern hate speech from non-offensive content more accurately.",[]],["The expansion of short texts for hate speech detection has emerged as a significant research interest, aiming to bolster the extraction of relevant information and facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of sentence context.",[]]],"rt":[["query expansion (QE)",["20"]]],"sb":[["global analysis",[]],["local analysis",[]],["Knowledge-based approach",[]],["Word embedding-based approach",[]],["Hybrid-based approach",[]]],"ex":[["a process of synonym replacement, whereby words or phrases were substituted with semantically comparable alternatives.",[]]]},{"sp":[["type of coverage",[]]]},{"de":[["perceived as 'enemies within' who pose a noticeable threat to society",["Greer & Jewkes, 2005"]]],"rt":[["otherness",[]]]},{"sp":[["type of coverage",[]]]},{"rt":[["thematic frame",[]]]},{"de":[["Moreover, women are most likely to be killed in the context of a continuing, physically abusive relationship.",[]],["as intimate femicide is the main cause of the murder of women",[]]]},{"rt":[["implicit meanings rooted in the social and cultural context of the situation",["Van Dijk, 2001"]]]},{"de":[["This lack of visibility of foreign victims, and the sketchy depiction of Israeli Arab victims, fits the conception of 'other' women who are affiliated to minority groups that are socially marginalized.",[]]],"rt":[["otherness",[]]]},{"de":[["concentrating on the issue within a broader social context",[]]],"sp":[["type of coverage",[]]]},{"de":[["The thematic frame is essential since it can contribute to public awareness, and may promote social response.",[]]],"rt":[["episodic frame",[]]]},{"rt":[["co-text",[]],["inter-text",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["ideology consists of both implicit and explicit views on reality",[]],["discursively constructed ideological webs \"serve the purpose of framing, validating or legitimating attitudes and actions \"",[]],["ideology consists of both implicit and explicit views on reality.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["news can be regarded as a selective presentation of recent events that happen in the world and are deemed relevant or interesting for the audience",[]],["news depends on institutional constraints, professional routines, conditions of information accessibility, specific journalistic and discursive choices, and a sense of relevance in relation to the idealized reader and news values",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["pragmatic discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Thus it comprises also intertextual and contextual analysis.",[]]]},{"de":[["from Figure 4 we can infer what is the articles coverage, and inspect the similarities between the related articles within each cluster and in contrast with the other document clusters.",[]]]},{"de":[["While presented as accounts or reliable metaphors of reality, alternative images are in fact intentionally misleading. Alternative images do not need to be totally false (in the sense of manipulated, altered, or plainly \"invented\") to convey a deceptive message. The falsity or deception of an image, we show in this article, is not a property of the image itself. Rather, the deception forms part of a relational, multimodal, and contextual network of images and messages.",[]],["In this sense, we will focus in this article on how alternative images alter reality, thus having a performative nature.",[]],["misleading social decoupages",[]],["Our online and offline research revealed that alternative images play a crucial role in building trust and consolidating disinformative narratives by creating communities of disinformation.",[]],["While presented as accounts or reliable metaphors of reality, alternative images are in fact intentionally misleading. Alternative images do not need to be totally false (in the sense of manipulated, altered, or plainly \"invented\") to convey a deceptive message.",[]]],"sy":[["alternative facts",[]]],"rt":[["relational network",[]],["multimodal relations",[]],["false narratives",[]],["relational",[]],["multimodal",[]]],"sb":[["authentic images",[]]],"ex":[["the image of the infinite crowd",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["alternative images",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation is intentional and premeditated.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["does not describe a linear and individual process of genesis, formation, and (eventually) destruction of images",["Canals (2021, 202)"]]]},{"de":[["actions designed and undertaken to face the political influence of alternative images. The specificity of these actions-which vary from carnivalesque embodied manifestations to street interventions and visual verification techniques-lies on the fact that they react to alternative images either by creating and mobilizing new images or by implementing visual technologies aimed at assessing the reliability of images.",[]],["The specificity of these actions-which vary from carnivalesque embodied manifestations to street interventions and visual verification techniques-lies on the fact that they react to alternative images either by creating and mobilizing new images or by implementing visual technologies aimed at assessing the reliability of images. In other words, they fight images through images.",[]],["The specificity of these actions-which vary from carnivalesque embodied manifestations to street interventions and visual verification techniques-lies on the fact that they react to alternative images either by creating and mobilizing new images or by implementing visual technologies aimed at assessing the reliability of images.",[]]],"ex":[["carnivalesque embodied manifestations",[]],["street interventions",[]],["visual verification techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["It is through acts of intensification that images acquire new significance and roles, thus recursively affecting the context in which they find themselves.",[]]]},{"de":[["Such influence operations do not necessarily make false claims, push propaganda, or launch attacks on adversaries. Rather, they present as multimedia content, familiar metanarratives of the kind often seen in disinformation campaigns",["Gaw et al. 2023"]],["Covert influence operations use alternative images to construct a \"parallel reality\" beyond the false/truth distinction in which a (false) sense of \"reality\" is enhanced by their dissemination and circulation.",[]],["Such influence operations do not necessarily make false claims, push propaganda, or launch attacks on adversaries. Rather, they present as multimedia content, familiar metanarratives of the kind often seen in disinformation campaigns (Gaw et al. 2023). Covert influence operations use alternative images to construct a \"parallel reality\" beyond the false/truth distinction in which a (false) sense of \"reality\" is enhanced by their dissemination and circulation.",["(Gaw et al. 2023)"]],["Such influence operations do not necessarily make false claims, push propaganda, or launch attacks on adversaries. Rather, they present as multimedia content, familiar metanarratives of the kind often seen in disinformation campaigns (Gaw et al. 2023).",["Gaw et al. 2023"]]],"rt":[["covert networked disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The former has to do with the principle of referentiality (how images relate to external reality); the second with the one of intensification (how they are transformed when put in circulation).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["that may include parodic imitation and ironic camouflage",["Shifman 2014;Kien 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["may lead individuals to assume news to be credible and allow fake news to prevail",["Choi & Lim, 2019"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["overconfidence effect",[]]]},{},{"de":[["trust in institutions on social media may relate to reasons for sharing unverified information on social media through a reduced motivation to authenticate information",["Pennycook & Rand, 2021"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["overconfidence in detecting lies could help lies spread.",["Serra-Garcia & Gneezy, 2021, p. 3160"]],["individuals feel adept at detecting misinformation, lowering their attention to wrongful information",[]]]},{"de":[["This highlights the importance of individuals' confidence in their ability to identify false information as a factor influencing reasons for sharing unverified information.",[]],["trust may lead to a higher perceived self-efficacy, which lowers individuals' attention for the accuracy of the information and in turn is positively related to reasons for sharing unverified information.",[]]],"rt":[["Self-efficacy",[]]],"ex":[["It is easy for me to spot information that is not true.",[]],["Thanks to my knowledge, I can recognize information that is not true.",[]]]},{"ex":[["I share unverified information because the information is consistent with my beliefs/assumptions",[]],["I share unverified information because the information is new and eye-catching.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["institutional trust might be conceptualized as generalized trust",["Lounsbury, 2023"]],["trust can be viewed as a general belief and feeling of confidence that institutions will perform actions that will result in positive outcomes",["Anderson & Narus, 1990","Gefen et al., 2003","Pappas, 2017"]]],"sy":[["generalized trust",["Lounsbury, 2023"]]],"sp":[["dispositional trust",[]]]},{"sp":[["promoter role",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["One resource used in the practice of this role, and particularly among female journalists, is a lifestyle trend characterized by positioning oneself on social media as a person who lives a certain lifestyle, enjoying experiences and high quality products that tend to be inaccessible to most people.",[]],["Here the key element is showing a certain lifestyle and not necessarily promoting a brand for business purposes. This strengthens \"distinction\" in the sense developed by Bourdieu, that is, differentiation of prestige within society (Bourdieu, 1984).",[]],["In that way, journalists can draw a line between themselves and the audience, reinforcing their elite position. Taking advantage of such position, journalists also include lifestyle content that creates a bridge between their followers and their exclusive experience.",[]],["showing the celebrity world of the media to their followers deploys a game linked to social distances from power where the journalist can use their social media to acquire a form of prestige.",[]],["It brings the followers closer to the lifestyle of elites while marking the privileged position of the journalist within society. In other words, it articulates the need for the journalist to be close and far away at the same time (Olausson, 2018).",["Olausson, 2018"]],["positioning oneself on social media as a person who lives a certain lifestyle, enjoying experiences and high quality products that tend to be inaccessible to most people.",[]],["Here the key element is showing a certain lifestyle and not necessarily promoting a brand for business purposes.",[]]],"sb":[["Journalists publish content related to their daily lives, showing themselves to be a person just like everyone else. This is especially common on Instagram and occurs only marginally on Twitter.",[]]],"ex":[["some journalists show images of themselves with famous people who are inaccessible to most audience members as part of what has been defined as celebrification (Mellado;Hermida, 2022b;Olausson, 2018).",[]],["a sports journalist publishes a photo of himself on Instagram in which he appears on the set of his TV program with other well-known professionals from Chile.",[]],["another sports journalist taking a selfie with a famous soccer player and coach who is now a sports commentator.",[]],["some journalists show images of themselves with famous people who are inaccessible to most audience members",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["social identity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The main practices that this role deploys are trying to be funny, the use of deliberate jokes, making fun of themselves or others, and generating fun responses to potential comments from followers.",[]]]},{"de":[["humor and especially irony emerge as communication practices used across the board. This strategy nurtures interaction with audiences in that followers actively seek out humor (Images 18 and 19).",[]],["the presence of the joker is much more closely linked to irony and political critiques on Twitter, while Instagram allows for self-expression and for journalists to play, wearing costumes or creating parodies of themselves and others (Image 20).",[]],["Indeed, the presence of the joker is much more closely linked to irony and political critiques on Twitter, while Instagram allows for self-expression and for journalists to play, wearing costumes or creating parodies of themselves and others",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["professional identity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["promoter role",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["advertising products",[]],["professional branding",[]]]},{"de":[["At the same time, in cases in which an authority or legal agencies could have an impact, the goal is to call the attention of the corresponding entities/officials to a specific case in order to address the specific needs that people have in their daily lives.",[]],["Our ethnographic work revealed that the service role manifests on two levels. The first is related to specific needs that are shared or directly impact people.",[]],["A second level addresses the service role as a form of helping others with an inclination to support individual causes in which the beneficiary of the assistance is very specific.",[]],["the goal is to call the attention of the corresponding entities/officials to a specific case in order to address the specific needs that people have in their daily lives.",[]],["The first is related to specific needs that are shared or directly impact people.",[]]],"sp":[["journalistic roles",[]]],"ex":[["one journalist published a call to donate plasma on Instagram in order to support efforts to treat a person sick with Covid-19.",[]],["Another journalist shared information about a campaign to donate computers to students without such devices so that they could continue to attend school (virtually) during the pandemic.",[]],["efforts to promote the sale of a department in a specific sector of the city.",[]],["asking for support for a young journalist who is looking for a job.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Today, by contrast, social identity is a complex construction that requires a great deal of dedication and creativity (Howard, 2000).",["Howard, 2000"]],["Various authors, particularly social psychologists, have argued that identity is always in a process of construction and reformulation in a constant dialogue between the subject and their social environment (Lynch, 2007).",[]]]},{"rt":[["asynchronously",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Adaptive resilience enables continuity but risks normalising degraded conditions by showing that journalism can function, albeit diminished, under adverse circumstances.",[]],["It protects professional identity by avoiding the risks of more engaged coverage.",[]],["Resilience thus takes the form of accommodation-professional survival achieved by accepting platform demands as unavoidable rather than open to change.",[]],["resilience operates primarily as a defensive mechanism rather than organised resistance to deteriorating conditions.",[]],["While it enables professional continuity, it may do so at the cost of normalising the very conditions that erode journalism's democratic capacity.",[]],["adaptive resilience as a coping mechanism to safeguard professional practice",[]],["the findings underscore the absence of transformative resilience, namely the capacity to alter structural conditions rather than merely endure them.",[]],["It constitutes neither passive endurance nor active resistance but strategic navigation within constraint.",[]]],"rt":[["transformative resilience",[]],["platform logics",[]]],"sp":[["resilience",[]]],"ex":[["simplified framing, outcome-focused storytelling, and human-interest narratives",[]]]},{"rt":[["platform logics",[]]]},{"de":[["Rather than relying primarily on editorial judgment, news visibility is increasingly determined by opaque algorithmic systems designed to maximise engagement",["Napoli, 2019"]]]},{},{"ex":[["participatory budgeting (PB), citizens' assemblies, referenda, and study circles",["2017","2016"]],["participatory budgeting (PB)",[]],["citizens' assemblies",[]],["referenda",[]],["study circles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["journalism is helpful when it expands and improves people's opportunities.",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalism helps individuals to understand the world around them",["Hess & Gutsche, 2018"]],["functions as a force for both social control and social change, making it central to the workings of a democracy",["Thomas, 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["mechanism that enhances transparency and accountability by involving citizens in policy and fiscal decision-making processes",[]]],"ex":[["First introduced in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 1989",[]]]},{},{"de":[["homogenising force",[]],["Platformisation acts as a unifying force that overrides national differences",[]]]},{"sp":[["platformisation of the web",[]]]},{"de":[["turning imagined publics into continuously measured and optimised data points",["Napoli (2011)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Transformative resilience would entail collective rather than individual adaptation, addressing systemic constraints through regulatory reform, sustainable public funding, and institutional safeguards for editorial independence",["McChesney, 2015","Pickard, 2020"]]],"sp":[["resilience",[]]]},{"rt":[["defence motivations",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["clickbait",[]]]},{"de":[["The clickworthiness nudge alleviates this issue by highlighting news that is not merely diverse but also appealing.",[]],["it takes advantage of not just the position bias but also other heuristic selection biases that relate to the content and presentation of news articles.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["accuracy motivations",[]]]},{"rt":[["injunctive norms",[]]]},{},{"de":[["how, why, when and for whom are they likely to (not) work.",[]]],"sb":[["algorithmic nudges",[]],["presentation nudges",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["diversity values",[]]]},{"rt":[["diversity traits",[]]]},{"de":[["The gatekeeper's nudge prioritises news diversity and thus makes diverse articles more prominent.",[]]],"rt":[["algorithmic gatekeeping",["Bozdag, 2013"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["descriptive norms",[]]]},{"de":[["Acknowledging that users' acceptance of diverse recommendations is limited, the latitude of diversity describes the range of articles with diverse viewpoints with which users are still open to engage in a given situation.",[]]]},{"de":[["In NRSs, such interventions could take various forms of texts that highlight the importance of diverse news diets as a crucial part of good citizenship (e.g. pop-ups, messages next to the newsfeed or more subtle labels and ribbons attached to particular articles).",[]]],"rt":[["Norm salience",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Indicators, such as likes, shares, ratings or most-read labels, can serve as powerful social norms that increase article selection",["Van der Meer et al., 2020"]]],"sb":[["likes",[]],["shares",[]],["ratings",[]],["most-read labels",[]]],"ex":[["likes, shares, ratings or most-read labels",[]]]},{"de":[["Popularity nudges can serve as powerful heuristic cues that make articles appear more interesting, relevant or important",["Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2005"]]]},{"rt":[["algorithmic nudges",[]]],"sb":[["Model citizen nudge",[]]],"sp":[["diversity nudges",[]]]},{"de":[["or attitudes.",["Stroud, 2017: 1"]]],"sy":[["confirmation bias",[]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{"sb":[["feedback on one's media diet",[]],["feedback on news items",[]],["explanations",[]],["exploration features",[]]]},{"sy":[["peripheral processing",[]]],"rt":[["System 2 thinking",[]]]},{"sy":[["rational elaboration",[]]],"rt":[["System 1 thinking",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["y ∈ {0, 1} denotes class labels, where y = 1 indicates rumor, and y = 0 otherwise. Our goal is to learn the function F (p i ) = y to predict the label of a given post p i .",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["comparisons",[]],["judgmental comments",[]],["sarcasm",[]],["jokes",[]],["whataboutery",[]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is not necessarily intentional or part of specific political strategies, but rather is a more subtle and polished discourse (Agudelo and Olbrych, 2022;Siapera, 2019).",["Agudelo and Olbrych, 2022","Siapera, 2019"]],["It is not necessarily intentional or part of specific political strategies, but rather is a more subtle and polished discourse (Agudelo and Olbrych, 2022;Siapera, 2019). Ambient racism includes banal forms of racialized expressions that emerge in everyday social relations (Essed, 1991), and it is often accompanied by denials that it is racist (Siapera, 2019) based on the right to free speech (Titley, 2020).",["Agudelo and Olbrych, 2022;Siapera, 2019","Essed, 1991","Siapera, 2019","Titley, 2020"]],["It is not necessarily intentional or part of specific political strategies, but rather is a more subtle and polished discourse",["Agudelo and Olbrych, 2022;Siapera, 2019"]],["Sharma (2018) proposed the term \"ambient racism\" to conceptualize the construction of race at the micro level of online communication.",[]]]},{"de":[["used as a dog-whistle term for a global elite of conspirators, or simply for Jewish control",["29"]]]},{},{"de":[["conspiracy thinking is fomented in online networks where imaginaries of race and nation are linked to notions of political power and secrecy.",[]]],"ex":[["the circulation of conspiracy content relates old anti-Semitic fantasies of Jewish power to contemporary immigration policies.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["digital racism is a part of the \"mediated construction of reality\" (Couldry and Hepp, 2017).",["Couldry and Hepp, 2017"]],["Finally, at the macro level of digital racism, conspiracy thinking connects immigration to ideas of political secrecy and betrayal.",[]],["The assessment of digital racism at the meso level considers the ways in which sociological, political and socio-technical intersections between different networks, political actors/organizations and social groups become perceptible online.",[]],["the online circulation of conspiracy thinking reinforces digital racism and adds a quasi-rational framework of political and systemic critique.",[]]],"rt":[["cultural politics of emotions",["Ahmed, 2004"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They are embedded in users' everyday jargon and content production, and build on racial, ethnic and cultural signifiers of inclusion/exclusion.",[]]]},{"de":[["The ethnocratic imagination of fascist masculinity demanded \"protection\" of the white woman's body and sexuality in order to ensure the reproduction of a \"white\" nation.",[]]],"rt":[["masculine discourses",[]],["masculine aesthetics",[]]]},{"de":[["It is linked to nationalist imaginaries that see the female body as a symbol of the nation's borders (Sager and Mulinari, 2018) and immigrants as posing a physical threat to native women (Horsti, 2017).",["Sager and Mulinari, 2018","Horsti, 2017"]],["feminist arguments can be used to promote antiimmigration policies and discriminatory attitudes toward immigrants on the basis that the immigrants' patriarchal cultures are incompatible with Western societies.",[]],["It is linked to nationalist imaginaries that see the female body as a symbol of the nation's borders",["Sager and Mulinari, 2018"]],["immigrants as posing a physical threat to native women",["Horsti, 2017"]]],"rt":[["patriarchal chauvinism",[]]],"ex":[["The bodies of native women \"are seen as worthy of protection, while the racialized (male) Others' bodies are seen as threatening the safety of the women of the nation\" (Sager and Mulinari, 2018).",["Sager and Mulinari, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["a continuation of the idea that demographic change is the driving force that poses an existential threat to native populations.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Nativist attitudes and discourses are not necessarily tied to more elaborate historical conceptions of the nation, as in nationalism. Instead, they are embedded in ethnocratic visions of monoculturalism and ethnic homogeneity.",[]],["Nativism is also expressed in ideas that portray demographic change as an existential threat, specifically that immigrants will outnumber native populations and impose their foreign cultures on Western societies",["Ekman, 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["provides explanations of how the affective dimensions of digital technology have enabled and reinforced the construction of race, culture, religion, etc., and thus propelled wide-spread notions of inclusion/exclusion, practices of othering and discrimination",[]]]},{"de":[["allow for seemingly rational arguments and narratives that support a wider set of conspiracy claims",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Most fake news stories are intentionally created and are likely to spread through sequential sharing by social media users.",[]],["The creation of fake news can be socially, politically or financially motivated.",[]],["fake news is created and circulated by platforms motivated more by financial incentives than by journalistic norms.",["2017"]],["It is created for social, political and financial reasons.",[]],["fake news in social media may mislead inattentive readers.",[]],["fake news is consumed enthusiastically by readers for whom it reinforces existing beliefs",["Verstraete et al., 2017"]],["fake news is often intentionally created by imitating true news.",[]],["fake news is often intentionally created by imitating true news",[]]],"rt":[["political instrument to delegitimize the news media",["2019"]],["misperceptions",[]]],"sb":[["hoax",["Verstraete, Bambauer, & Bambauer, 2017"]],["propaganda",["Verstraete, Bambauer, & Bambauer, 2017"]],["trolling",["Verstraete, Bambauer, & Bambauer, 2017"]],["satire",["Verstraete, Bambauer, & Bambauer, 2017"]],["pseudo-journalistic disinformation",["2019"]],["intentional and unintentional fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["linguistic approach examines such leakage occurrences within the news content.",[]]],"sb":[["natural language processing",[]],["sentiment analysis",[]],["lexical and content similarity",[]],["style similarity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Because dissonance is highly uncomfortable, individuals experiencing it should be motivated to reduce or resolve the dissonance.",[]],["Festinger identified two paths to reduce dissonance: (1) changing behaviors or cognitions to achieve consonance and (2) avoiding further information and situations that would generate dissonance.",[]]],"sb":[["changing behaviors or cognitions to achieve consonance",[]],["avoiding further information and situations that would generate dissonance",[]]]},{"sy":[["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["a short-term affective response to counter-attitudinal stimuli",[]],["sympathetic nervous system activation marked by heightened skin conductance has been viewed as a likely indicator of dissonance arousal.",[]],["sympathetic nervous system activation marked by heightened skin conductance has been viewed as a likely indicator of dissonance arousal",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["effortful processing and emotional regulation, key mechanisms of motivated reasoning",[]],["Motivated reasoning theories assume counter-attitudinal information creates dissonance that people are motivated to reduce through biased processing",["Kunda, 1990;Leeper & Slothuus, 2014"]]],"rt":[["biased processing",[]]]},{"de":[["a fundamental assumption of selective exposure is that people avoid counter-attitudinal information because it creates dissonance",["Hart et al., 2009"]]]},{"de":[["Gleichzeitig wird hervorgehoben, dass besonders bei der Produktion von Online-Inhalten neue Potenziale für die allgemeine Öffentlichkeit berücksichtigt werden sollten",["Livingstone, 2003"]]],"sp":[["Media Literacy",["Livingstone, 2003"]]]},{"de":[["jedoch werfe diese immer auch politische Fragen nach den Grundlagen dieser kritischen Beurteilung auf. So sei u. a. zu diskutieren, ob aufgrund ästhetischer, politischer, ideologischer oder wirtschaftlicher Grundlagen eine Beurteilung vorgenommen wird.",["Livingstone (2004)"]]],"sp":[["Media Literacy",["Livingstone (2004)"]]]},{"de":[["das Konzept sei im Gegensatz zum medienpädagogischen Kompetenzbegriff tendenziell stärker an Debatten rund um das Decodieren von Medienbotschaften geknüpft",["Ganguin et al., 2020"]],["Media Literacy nicht so sehr auf eine Eigenschaft oder Fähigkeit individueller Nutzer*innen reduziert werden könne, sondern auch der Prozess der Ko-Produktion im Rahmen der interaktiven Auseinandersetzung zwischen Technologie und Nutzer*innen im Fokus von Analysen stehen sollte.",["Livingstone (2003, S. 2)"]]],"sy":[["Medienkompetenz",[]],["deutschsprachigen Medienkompetenzbegriff",[]]],"rt":[["Decodieren von Medienbotschaften",["Ganguin et al., 2020"]]],"sb":[["Access",[]],["Analysis",[]],["Evaluation",[]],["Content Creation",[]]]},{"de":[["Diese kritische Auseinandersetzung umfasst drei verschiedene Ebenen. Erstens die analytische Ebene, um gesellschaftliche Prozesse angemessen zu erfassen. Zweitens die reflexive Ebene, um das analytische Wissen auf sein eigenes Handeln anzuwenden. Drittens die ethische Ebene, d. h. das analytische Wissen sowie der reflexive Rückbezug auf soziale Verantwortung",["Baacke, 1996, S. 120"]]],"sp":[["Medienkompetenz",[]]]},{"sp":[["Medienkompetenz",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Big Five personality model",[]]]},{"sp":[["Big Five personality model",[]]]},{"de":[["homogeneous clusters, known as echo chambers",["Cinelli et al., 2021"]],["When social media users preset specific topics and viewpoints in the interaction process, they will choose the information they trust and agree with and eventually form a small network group with internal environmental consistency, known as an echo chamber",[]],["in echo chambers, nodes tend to connect to nodes in clusters and form homogeneous communities preferentially.",[]],["echo chambers enhance selective exposure and group polarization.",["Bessi (2016)"]],["Echo chambers have the potential to reinforce, and in some cases amplify, users' thoughts, beliefs, or behaviors.",[]],["In this study, we defined an echo chamber as a group of users who engaged in retweeting at least two related events (Choi et al., 2020;Gao et al., 2023b), with users who were @-mentioned by echo chamber members also considered part of the same echo chamber (Osterbur and Kiel, 2021).",["Choi et al., 2020","Gao et al., 2023b","Osterbur and Kiel, 2021"]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]],["homophily",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["users with an openness personality trait are more likely to display optimism when facing frustration and are more likely to take a positive approach when encountering difficulties.",["Li et al., 2021"]]],"sp":[["Big Five personality model",[]]]},{"de":[["The sub-processes involved in opinion mining utilize techniques such as subjectivity, opinion orientation, and target detection to identify data suitable for sentiment analysis from documents.",[]]]},{"de":[["people tend to focus on confirming their views while ignoring the opposing views of others",["Zajonc (1968)"]],["When social media grants users the power of choice, they tend to consume content that aligns with their personal preferences",["Vaccari et al., 2016"]],["Research on selective exposure emphasizes the fact that, compared to face-to-face interactions, social networks display a greater diversity of viewpoints.",[]]],"rt":[["homophily",[]]]},{"de":[["mechanism for taking the turn when the journalist is still speaking, as a way of resolving overlap when both interactants are speaking, and in disprefered responses to particular lines of questioning",["Rendle-Short, under review"]],["a 'highly recurrent practice across various forms of resistance'",["Clayman (2001: f4)"]]]},{},{"de":[["Such challenges are combative in form, often prefaced by the disjunction, 'but', thus emphasising the opposing perspective being presented to the politician and the overhearing audience.",[]],["IRs need to do additional work to legitimise the challenging nature of their turn.",[]],["because of the initial unsourced nature of their challenge, they need to demonstrate that they are still maintaining a neutralistic stance.",[]]],"rt":[["adversarialness",[]],["disputatious challenges",[]]],"sb":[["interruptive",[]],["unsourced",[]],["footing shift",[]],["appealing to fact or what could be considered common knowledge",[]],["converting the challenge into a question preface",[]]]},{"sy":[["hostility",["personal communication"]]],"sp":[["aggressiveness",[]]]},{"rt":[["adversarialness",[]]],"sb":[["adversarialness",["4"]]]},{"de":[["This shift in footing (Clayman, 1992;Goffman, 1981) enables her to incorporate the public into her rationale for asking the question, as she does more specifically when she says, 'WHAT DO YOU SAY TO THEM toda:y,' (line 21).",["Clayman, 1992","Goffman, 1981"]]]},{"sy":[["adversarialness",[]]]},{"sp":[["adversarial challenges",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["objectivity and the provision of unbiased news coverage is held up as the ideal to which journalists should aim.",[]]],"sy":[["neutralism",[]]]},{"de":[["thus by adding a question, the IR is able to change the unsourced assertion from a statement that could be interpreted as presenting his own opinion, to a preface to a complex question. This subsequent question, therefore, helps to counteract any previous interpretation that the challenge might represent the journalist's own opinion, by transforming the action-in-progress into one whose 'official' purpose is to solicit the IE's viewpoint rather than to express a viewpoint in its own right.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["adversarial challenges",[]]]},{"de":[["intended to attract visitors to engage on the article's site and read the entire story",[]]],"sy":[["dogmatic and aggressive rhetoric in fake news stories",[]]]},{"de":[["false news takes the shape of information subjected to journalistic distortion and manipulation.",[]],["The phrase \"fake news\" is described as",[]],["The term \"fake news\" has been there for decades, even though in the past, it was more commonly referred to as \"disinformation,\" \"propaganda,\" \"yellow journalism,\" \"conspiracy theories,\" or \"hoaxes.\"",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["yellow journalism",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["hoaxes",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["incorrect information",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["often carried out by knowledgeable professionals",[]],["The realization task (also known as the evaluation of the integrity of a news article or claim) validates the validity of the material by matching it with several credible resources.",[]]],"sy":[["The realization task",[]],["evaluation of the integrity of a news article or claim",[]]]},{"sb":[["circumstantial ad hominem",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The more personalized politics creates the more personalized campaign of the ideas.",[]]],"rt":[["personalization of politics",[]]]},{"de":[["The personalization proceeds more rapidly in majority systems are focused more sharply on the role of television, which stresses the simplification of choice between one party and the other.",[]],["growing personalization of politics above ideas and ideology -another trend that reduces public enthusiasm for parties",[]],["personalization of politics by a party leader creates a synergy and media exposure; demands public attention, and thus it requires personalization of other parties' political attitudes too.",[]],["the more personalized politics usually means the more distracted political life in general",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["personalization of politics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This occasion has been led by irretrievable increasing of human expectations which to be met by the press for the press via re-making press productions (Boorstin, 1987: 3-11).",["Boorstin, 1987: 3-11"]]],"ex":[["During the referendum propaganda war, there were several political pseudo-events; height fight, villa fight.",[]]]},{"de":[["These issues impact the reliability of event data used in studies of political movements and collective violence in two specific ways: selection bias and description bias.",[]]],"rt":[["selection bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["offers the compilers greater latitude and freedom to report on sensitive political topics that could damage the public image and compromise the authority of local Party organizations and officials.",[]]]},{"de":[["given that their internal reference status means that they are not available for public view and can only be circulated among Party bureaucrats above a certain rank, they can arguably be treated as more reliable sources of information compared to most openly published documents.",[]],["offers the compilers greater latitude and freedom to report on sensitive political topics that could damage the public image and compromise the authority of local Party organizations and officials.",[]]],"sy":[["internal-discussion versions",[]],["internal review drafts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These issues impact the reliability of event data used in studies of political movements and collective violence in two specific ways: selection bias and description bias.",[]]],"rt":[["description bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Bull Shitting",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["signifier in the current political climate",[]],["discursive means of rejecting the entire premise of a critical question or an issue",[]],["This usage evokes scenes in which the former President Trump used the term at White House press briefing when he wished to dismiss a question entirely.",[]],["the term's verbal deployment as a discursive means of rejecting the entire premise of a critical question or an issue",[]],["the term fake news is primarily associated with the idea that the scientific consensus, as reflected in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) annual reports, is a \"hoax.\"",[]],["The term fake news has been harnessed as a form of networked political spamming by those aiming to attack and discredit the scientific consensus on anthropogenic climate change (Al-Rawi, 2020).",["Al-Rawi, 2020"]],["the term's verbal deployment as a discursive means of rejecting the entire premise of a critical question or an issue.",[]]],"sy":[["floating signifier",[]],["contested discursive tool",[]],["hollow buzzword",[]]],"ex":[["Theclimate change 'emergency' is fake news.",[]],["Because it makes better headlines to blame it on climate change. #FakeNews.",[]],["the columnist may not directly be questioning the scientific consensus but rather casting doubt on the political feasibility of promises around mitigation.",[]],["Climate change is a myth! #FakeNews. The thermometers are rigged! I want a recount! Tell the penguins it's their responsibility to affect their own continent not the rest of the world!",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people believe that \"they can indirectly stay informed about public affairs -despite not actively following the news",["Gil de Zúñiga et al., 2017"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["have a more blended approach to news consumption, using both traditional media and digital platforms to seek out new information",["Buturoiu et al., 2023c"]]]},{"de":[["the ideal media diet should include a balance between long-form, detailed content and short-form, quick updates, particularly to mitigate the risks of misinformation often associated with shorter media formats.",[]],["This concept goes beyond the quantity of news consumption and revolves around the quality and diversity of information.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["can cause exhaustion, anxiety, and disengagement at the level of citizens.",[]],["Information overload is strongly linked to the patterns outlined above, specifically to selective exposure to news and news avoidance",["Xu et al., 2024"]]],"rt":[["selective exposure to news",["Xu et al., 2024"]],["news avoidance",["Xu et al., 2024"]]]},{"sp":[["news avoidance",[]]]},{"sy":[["Millennials",["Antunovic et al., 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["associated with misperceptions and lower political knowledge and participation",["Betakova et al., 2025"]],["raises serious concerns about uninformed and disengaged citizens -which is definitely detrimental to democracy",["Robertson, 2025","Toff et al., 2023"]],["avoiding news that is negative, repetitive or sensationalist. In line with findings from other studies, this avoidance behavior is a coping mechanism for managing emotional well-being in an environment of information overload",[]]],"sb":[["intentional news avoidance",[]],["unintentional news avoidance",[]]]},{"de":[["This tendency can reinforce pre-existing attitudes and lead to a narrowing of perspectives, which in turn has important implications for the democratic process.",["Steppat et al., 2022"]],["greater levels of selective exposure are often linked to a higher likelihood of becoming trapped in echo chambers",["Cinelli et al., 2021"]],["selectively expose themselves to information that confirms their prior beliefs and limit exposure to opposing viewpoints",[]],["selective exposure demonstrates an active effort to regulate the psychological impact of the news overload",[]],["demonstrates an active effort to regulate the psychological impact of the news overload",[]]],"rt":[["polarization",[]],["echo chambers",[]]]},{"sp":[["news avoidance",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This mechanism relies more on cognition than affect.",["20**"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Based on each entity, its ideology, and sentiments, you can decide whether an event supports or opposes the article's ideology.",[]],["If a left entity is praised or a right entity is attacked by the author, you should label the event as counter-partisan.",[]]],"rt":[["partisan event",[]]]},{"sp":[["Events",[]]]},{"sb":[["Partisan events",[]],["Counter-partisan events",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Based on each entity, its ideology, and sentiments, you can decide whether an event supports or opposes the article's ideology.",[]],["in a right article, if a left entity is attacked or a right entity is praised by the author, you should label the event as a partisan event.",[]]],"rt":[["counter-partisan event",[]]],"ex":[["in a right article, if a left entity is attacked or a right entity is praised by the author, you should label the event as a partisan event.",[]]]},{"de":[["Authors reveal their ideology when including partisan events that benefit their ideology or foil their opposite ideology.",[]]],"sp":[["Events",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It involves building and investing in media infrastructure that leads to the creation of a trusted relationship; successful establishment of the audience is an effect by itself.",[]]],"rt":[["persuasive communication",[]]]},{"de":[["Facebook ads provide accounts with a way to push posts to people who do not already follow them, and can be targeted to viewers by country, interest, or other demographic criteria.",[]]]},{"rt":[["facilitative communication",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["terms are analyzed to understand how they are used and how they can influence public opinion.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["conflict-framed articles",[]]]},{"de":[["Discourse analysis is done as we wanted to identify and analyze how words and terms are used to describe a situation or an event.",[]],["discourse analysis is used to identify how the media report, namely how politicians talk about the war and how these discourses can influence public opinion and government policies",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In the context of war reporting, narrative analysis is important because it is about understanding how opposing camps construct their narratives and how these narratives can influence the public.",[]]]},{"de":[["one of the obstacles to impartial and fair reporting",["Lee and Maslog (2005)"]]]},{"de":[["the PJ is the kind of journalism that goes beyond the traditional press conferences organized mainly by the two parties",[]],["PJ follows the nonviolent responses to conflict",[]],["the PJ is the kind of journalism that goes beyond the traditional press conferences organized mainly by the two parties.",[]]],"sy":[["PJ",[]]],"rt":[["war journalism",[]]],"sp":[["war journalism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["tends to justify an elite propaganda that peace can only be achieved through war",["Lynch & McGoldrick in Lynch & Galtung, 2010"]],["The WJ also tends to justify an elite propaganda that peace can only be achieved through war (Lynch & McGoldrick in Lynch & Galtung, 2010)",["Lynch & Galtung, 2010"]]],"rt":[["peace journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["where journalists and ENGO personnel can 'talk freely'",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Traditional expectations regarding gender roles can also reinforce gender imbalance. The wife may feel burdened to maintain the relationship, while the husband's responsibility for loyalty tends to be less considered. Moreover, a society that emphasizes the wife's loyalty as a key element in the success of a marriage can create injustice in assessing cases of infidelity. Responsibilities for household dynamics and efforts to maintain the relationship may also weigh more heavily on the wife.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["where traditional values place women as objects whose purity must be preserved.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Mills' feminist perspective refers to how women are described in a narrative context, with a focus on the concept of subject-object and the writer-reader positions in the text.",[]]]},{"de":[["dominance of the subject in narrating events",[]]],"rt":[["writer-reader positions",[]]]},{"de":[["will determine how the text is structured and how meaning is applied in the overall text.",[]]]},{"de":[["Its offensive and/or obscene discourse motivates potentially damaging activities and could also lead to illegal actions such as defamation or fraud (Lamson et al., 2022).",["Lamson et al., 2022"]],["This speech diminishes the quality of democracy, spreading prejudice and intolerance (Said-Hung et al., 2023).",["Said-Hung et al., 2023"]],["Comments against Penélope Cruz on the X social media platform represent hate speech because they offend Cruz while unfolding ideological misogynistic content against her.",[]],["Its offensive and/or obscene discourse motivates potentially damaging activities and could also lead to illegal actions such as defamation or fraud (Lamson et al., 2022). This speech diminishes the quality of democracy, spreading prejudice and intolerance (Said-Hung et al., 2023).",["Lamson et al., 2022","Said-Hung et al., 2023"]],["a harmful manner of communication",[]]],"rt":[["discriminative ideals",[]],["misogynistic content",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech that stigmatises the actor",[]],["hate speech with veiled or implicit threats",[]]]},{"rt":[["discrimination",[]],["stereotypes",[]],["gender violence",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["closed class",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["which can be inflected by means of feminine or masculine morphology (e.g it: la/il nuova/o amica/o -the new friend)",[]]]},{"rt":[["deliberate",[]]],"sp":[["sharing types",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["Intentional sharing behavior",[]]]},{"de":[["respondents still might remember their behavior and adjust their perception or response accordingly",[]]]},{"rt":[["accidental",[]]],"sp":[["sharing types",[]]]},{"de":[["Existing explanations for deliberate sharing imply that other preferences outweigh any preference for truth telling",["19","20"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["actual sharing behaviour",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a) prvotno, jezik se proučava na nadrečeničnoj razini.",["Fairclough, 1995, str. 10-11"]],["c) naposljetku, diskursu je važno da je jezik ostvaren u specifičnom kontekstu jer se način na koji se jezik upotrebljava mijenja ovisno o kontekstu.",["Fairclough, 1995, str. 10-11"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Osobine koje se pripisuju ženama jesu emotivnost, empatičnost, marljivost i praktičnost, a muškarci su opisani kao usmjereni na cilj, agresivni, odlučni te racionalni",["Popović i Šipić, 2013, str. 213-214"]]],"rt":[["emotivnost",[]],["empatičnost",[]],["marljivost",[]],["praktičnost",[]],["usmjereni na cilj",[]],["agresivni",[]],["odlučni",[]],["racionalni",[]]],"ex":[["Medijski su naslovi za vrijeme izvještavanja o smrti pisali i o \"Bandićevoj nasljednici u suzama\"",[]],["političarke se diskursno konstruira kao povrijeđene, nemoćne i slabe",[]]]},{"sb":[["ženi odanoj stranci",[]],["stručnjakinji",[]]],"ex":[["političarke koje odbacuju stereotipe koje se tiču tipično žena te na temelju svog znanja i iskustva stvaraju imidž stručnjakinje",[]]]},{"de":[["Radi se o temama koje se političarkama postavljaju češće negoli političarima kao što su socijalna ili obiteljska politika, ljudska prava i obrazovanje, pri čemu kandidatkinje strateški koriste taj okvir kako bi se prikazale svojim glasačima u što boljemu svjetlu",["Popović i Šipić, 2013, str. 221"]]]},{"sy":[["djeteta",["Wood, 1994, str. 36"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["U ovoj kategoriji moguće je izdvojiti tri političarke -Vesnu Škare Ožbolt, Anku Mrak Taritaš i Marinu Pavković. Marini Pavković i Anki Mrak Taritaš u prilog idu odgovori u maniri znanstvenog stila te autoritativan nastup.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["čime se potvrđuje marginaliziranost žena u političkoj sferi",[]]]},{},{"de":[["attacks at the character and word levels, including flipping upper-lower case, using homoglyphs, misspelling words",[]],["character-level attacks involving Cyrillic injection",[]]],"rt":[["word-level attacks",[]]],"sp":[["adversarial attacks",[]]],"ex":[["Cyrillic injection",[]],["flipping upper-lower case",[]],["using homoglyphs",[]],["misspelling words",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["storytelling format",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["word-level attacks involving paraphrasing",[]]],"sy":[["paraphrasing",[]]],"rt":[["character-level attacks",[]]],"sp":[["adversarial attacks",[]]],"ex":[["paraphrasing",[]],["replacing synonyms",[]]]},{"rt":[["Trustingness",["4"]]]},{},{"de":[["misinformation within them spreads exponentially from a larger and larger host population of people who have been misinformed.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Misinformation models enable researchers to understand the nature of this phenomenon better and predict its spread so that it may be countered more efficiently.",[]]],"sb":[["Agent-based models (ABM)",[]],["graph-based models",[]]]},{"de":[["can be used as a proxy for racial identity when user race is not reported.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["fairness metrics for the classifiers on each dataset using the threshold of Pr(AAE ≥ 0.8) for texts belonging to the AAE dialect using Blodgett et al. 's model [4]",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["RWA, on the other hand, focuses on submission to authority, conventionalism and obedience to those in power",[]],["RWA focuses on in-group submission",["Altemeyer, 1998;Sidanius & Pratto, 1999"]],["RWA can be understood as a need for inter-group cohesion by submission to authority",[]]],"ex":[["teachers, political leaders and parents",[]]]},{"de":[["someone who score high on SDO would support existing social groupings and suggest that we should not strive for equality.",[]],["SDO is a motive for out-group dominance.",[]],["SDO emphasizes dominance over outgroup",["Altemeyer, 1998;Sidanius & Pratto, 1999"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the classification of clickbait is a highly subjective endeavor.",[]],["clickbait headlines do not necessarily have to be fake news; they may contain genuine information but in an exaggerated fashion",["Dong et al., 2019"]],["clickbait-style by using hyperbolic words like 'craze' and alluring phrases like 'Explore how you can do that too.'",[]],["may contain genuine information but in an exaggerated fashion",["Dong et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"sb":[["question",[]],["Bait & Switch type titles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The most characteristic features of a ballad are assigning value to the personal, remarkable and rebellious, emphasis on a democratic sense of justice and its themes, including people in their existential border situations, family topics, etc.",[]]]},{"sy":[["memoirs",[]]]},{},{"de":[["merges prose, poetry and often also music",[]],["assigning value to the personal, remarkable and rebellious, emphasis on a democratic sense of justice and its themes, including people in their existential border situations, family topics, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["Old French danced songs (chanson balladée)",[]],["lyro-epic ballads or legends",[]],["news ballads spread at market fairs",[]],["distributed commonplace books",[]],["dramatic or lyrical romantic ballads",[]],["literary narrative",[]],["sentimental newly composed ballads",[]]]},{},{"de":[["as people often remembered only the climax or some more remarkable part of a longer song, the rest was told in prose form, often accompanied by personal comments and rumours that spread in the local community.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Depending on the style and place of performance, such songs have been called street or news ballads",[]]]},{"de":[["rumours, jokes, urban legends, songs and parodies of songs, commercial advertisements, digitally edited images, cartoons, etc.",["Frank 2011: 7"]]]},{"rt":[["folk ballad",[]],["rumours",[]],["oral and written traditions",[]]]},{"de":[["their aim was to mediate topical shocking events, in particular accidents or murders, thus serving as rumours, news and entertainment all in one",[]]],"rt":[["rumours",[]],["news",[]],["entertainment",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["considered real when it shares an image that legitimately represents the event it refers to",[]]],"sy":[["real posts",[]]]},{"de":[["identified as fake when it shares an image that does not represent the event it refers to (e.g., maliciously tampering with images and reposting previously captured images in a different event)",[]]],"sy":[["fake posts",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["insults and threats",[]]]},{"de":[["Specifically, Ev equals to the number of likes -the number of dislikes for Reddit, and Ev equals to the sum of the number of likes and the number of retweets for Twitter.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The phenomenon of \"Fauxtography\" first appeared in the 2006 Lebanon War when digitally manipulated photographs were used in news articles [9].",["9"]],["a post that conveys a misleading message to the viewers of the post. In particular, a post is a fauxtography if the image of the post i) directly supports a false claim, or ii) conveys misinformation of a true claim.",[]],["the unique challenge of fauxtography detection, where real images can also be leveraged to convey misleading messages.",[]]],"rt":[["image forgery",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["taking photos of a staged event, using images from another irrelevant event, using digital editing tools (e.g., Photoshop) to manipulate the image, applying special photography technique (e.g., wide-angle close-ups) to take photos to exaggerate the event, and generating fake images with advanced computer vision technology (e.g., Deepfake).",[]],["taking photos of a staged event",[]],["using images from another irrelevant event",[]],["using digital editing tools (e.g., Photoshop) to manipulate the image",[]],["applying special photography technique (e.g., wide-angle close-ups) to take photos to exaggerate the event",[]],["generating fake images with advanced computer vision technology (e.g., Deepfake)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["they may perceive belief-consistent disinformation (that feels subjectively accurate) to be 'an exception'",[]]]},{"de":[["Unless it is known by the user to be disinformation, they may not readily perceive a piece of belief-consistent content as something that could potentially deceive others.",[]]],"sy":[["belief-consistent disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["belief-consistent disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["disinformation categories",[]],["participants are interacting with false material that they have been told is not true",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["false or misleading information for the time the study took place",[]],["Content containing false or misleading information",[]],["misinformation that appeared 'favourable' towards the government",[]],["misinformation relating to the threat of the COVID-19 virus",[]],["participants are interacting with false material that they have no reason to believe is untrue",[]],["has often been used in a generalised way to reflect a collection of false and misleading information",[]],["has often been used in a generalised way to reflect",[]],["misinformation (e.g. where the content is not necessarily known to be disinformation)",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["imagery used out of context",[]],["incorrect statistics",[]]]},{"de":[["manifestations of cultural and religious traditions of minorities",[]]],"sy":[["forced marriage",[]]],"rt":[["forced marriage",[]]]},{"sy":[["child",[]],["early",[]],["teen",[]],["minor",[]],["adolescent",[]],["forced marriage",[]]]},{},{"de":[["results in blame attribution towards victims",["2019"]]],"rt":[["thematic framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["utilize forced marriage to denote coercive adult marriages",[]],["Forced marriage can entail physical violence, death threats, and kidnapping, however, more common are emotional blackmail, isolation, social ostracism, and cutting off financial and educational access",["TCJ 2017"]],["manifestations of cultural and religious traditions of minorities",[]]],"sy":[["child",[]],["early",[]],["teen",[]],["minor",[]],["adolescent",[]],["arranged marriage",[]]],"rt":[["arranged marriage",[]],["gender violence",[]]],"sb":[["coercive adult marriages",[]]],"sp":[["gender violence",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["intimate partner and family violence",[]],["sexual violence",[]],["harassment",[]],["stalking",[]],["human trafficking",[]],["child marriage",[]],["genital cutting",[]],["forced marriage",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This narrative recognized child marriage in the US as a manifestation of patriarchy (control of girls' bodies and sexuality), poverty, and social norms (pregnancy, childbirth within marriage).",[]]]},{"de":[["This narrative recognized child marriage in the US as a manifestation of patriarchy (control of girls' bodies and sexuality), poverty, and social norms (pregnancy, childbirth within marriage).",[]]]},{"rt":[["episodic framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["employed by Sheng et al. (2020) for bias reduction",[]],["adversarial triggering methods do decrease the BiasScore across all benchmark datasets",[]],["Human evaluation is able to verify that adversarial triggering is effective",[]],["The search process then consists of iteratively calculating the loss on the labeled examples and using the gradient at the embedding layer to swap tokens at each trigger position such that the loss for desirable examples (based on classifier label) is reduced, and that of undesirable generations is increased.",[]]],"rt":[["self-debiasing",[]]]},{"de":[["To distinguish bias from related societal harms such as offensiveness, we define \"bias\" in this work as",[]],["We acknowledge that there are many potential definitions of bias, and that an LLM treating all users completely identically regardless of demographics may not be the most desirable goal: for instance, one could imagine a model needing to handle certain topics with extra care and sensitivity in order to avoid any chance of regurgitating painful stereotypes against specific marginalized communities.",[]]],"rt":[["offensiveness",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["respect",[]],["esteem",[]]]},{"de":[["self-debiasing and adversarial triggering methods do decrease the BiasScore across all benchmark datasets",[]],["the self-debiasing approach increases BiasScore on all benchmark datasets except Regard",[]],["the self-debiasing technique is mostly effective in smaller LLMs",[]],["First, several carefully designed prompts are prepended to the input prompt to encourage the language model to produce toxic generation, e.g. \"The following text contains rude, disrespectful, or unreasonable language\". Second, the probabilities of tokens considered likely in the initial toxic generation are reduced, which enables the model to produce a second, non-discriminative continuation.",[]]],"rt":[["adversarial triggering",[]]]},{"de":[["output generations with different rates of toxicity",[]],["improvement on toxicity and immorality metrics",[]]],"rt":[["negative regard",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["cross-document content analysis",[]],["narrative comparison",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["coreference",[]],["temporal",[]],["causal",[]],["subevent",[]]]},{"de":[["presentation of biased information that reflects ideological leanings",[]]],"rt":[["lexical bias",[]]]},{"de":[["usage of emotional or biased words",[]]],"rt":[["informational bias",[]]]},{"de":[["The prevalence of media bias has harmful effects on both individuals and society, such as misleading audiences, intensifying societal polarization, and undermining democratic values",["Kuypers, 2002","Druckman and Parkin, 2005","Lei and Cao, 2023","Entman, 2007","Emami et al., 2020"]]]},{"de":[["has harmful impact on both individuals and the society, such as misleading readers, intensifying societal polarization, and undermining democratic values",[]]],"sp":[["unwanted bias",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["neutralized summary",[]]]},{"de":[["To calculate polarization score, an ideology classifier is trained on the AllSides dataset (Baly et al., 2020), where a classification head is built on top of the BERT language model to classify articlelevel ideology into liberal, center, and conservative.",[]],["The polarization score is computed as the predicted probability of the polarized class, i.e. the sum of predicted probability of liberal and conservative classes. The polarization score ranges from 0 to 1, with 1 indicating full ideological polarization (liberal or conservative) and 0 indicating no polarization (neither liberal nor conservative).",[]]]},{"ex":[["before, after, and overlap",[]]]},{"de":[["typically involves both legal and illegal content, as defined by companies in their terms of service.",[]],["In short, content moderation implies that social media companies set the boundaries for their users' freedom of expression based on their community standards rather than the criteria prescribed by human rights law.",[]]],"rt":[["content regulation",[]]]},{"de":[["largely concerned with removal of illegal content -thus enforcing the boundaries for freedom of expression",[]]],"rt":[["content moderation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The GNI's approach has been to help companies enact policies that anticipate and respond to situations in which host country law and practice differ from international human rights standards.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["International human rights law obligates states to act in certain ways or refrain from certain acts in order to protect the human rights of individuals.",[]]],"rt":[["freedom of expression",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Since 2012, UN resolutions have iterated that human rights, including freedom of expression, must be protected online as well as offline (UNHRC, 2012).",["UNHRC, 2012"]]],"rt":[["freedom of expression",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["proceso de adaptación a nuevas tecnologías y plataformas",[]],["compendio de destrezas, competencias y actitudes",["Gutiérrez y Tyner, 2012: 35"]]]},{"de":[["fenómeno del clickbait que algunos autores entienden como un «subgénero» de las noticias falsas bajo un sello mediático",["McDougall et al., 2019: 209"]]],"sb":[["descontextualizaciones dolosas (desinformación generada a costa de sacar expresiones o citas de su contexto para provocar reacciones determinadas)",[]]],"sp":[["noticias falsas",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["desacreditación",[]]]},{"rt":[["clickbait",["McDougall et al., 2019: 209"]]]},{"sp":[["discriminación basada en los años",[]]]},{"de":[["han destacado por su capacidad para satisfacer intereses informativos como un complemento ludonarrativo a las noticias tradicionales",[]],["este formato se ha enfrentado con frecuencia a las dudas sobre su eficacia discursiva (Wiehl, 2014), su tendencia a la simplificación informativa (Meier, 2018) o a los riesgos de la trivialización que conlleva la merma de los principios profesionales del periodismo. Incluso, a la falta de credibilidad inherente a un tipo de producto más vinculado al entretenimiento (Wiehl, 2014).",["Wiehl, 2014","Meier, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["mediante técnicas como las propias de la ludificación",[]],["estrategias de prebunking frente a la desinformación",[]]],"rt":[["debunking",[]],["estrategias de prebunking",[]]],"sp":[["estrategias preventivas contra la diseminación de la mentira",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This problem occurs with data from even the same domain, making it difficult to construct a robust detection model.",[]],["This study proposed a new bias concept, Diachronic Bias",[]],["the detection models trained on such a dataset have difficulty detecting novel fake news generated by political changes and social changes; they may possibly result in biased output from the input, including specific person names and organizational names.",[]]],"rt":[["political bias",[]],["racial bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["recognizing textual entailment",[]]]},{"ex":[["25% of the news stories linked in tweets posted just before the 2016 U.S. presidential election were either fake or extraordinarily biased.",["Bovet and Makse (2019)"]],["fake news related to President Obama in 2013",["CNBC, 2013"]],["presidential election in 2016",["Bovet and Makse, 2019"]],["COVID-19 in 2020",["Shahi et al., 2020"]]]},{"de":[["a stark incongruity between text and image is evident. This inconsistency also existed between text and the retrieved image contexts such as chemotherapy, therapy, and liver cancer that deviate from the textual description.",[]],["which is a readily understandable pattern",[]]],"sp":[["deceptive patterns",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the diverse and unique features manifested within fake news articles stem from various deceptive patterns employed during their creation",[]]],"sb":[["image manipulation",[]],["cross-modal inconsistency",[]],["image repurposing",[]]]},{"de":[["mechanisms underlying fake news fabrication",[]],["Therefore, we employ image reverse search to retrieve the contextual information of images from the Web.",[]]],"sp":[["deceptive patterns",[]]],"ex":[["it actually depicts an unnamed mother, daughter, and maid in Johannesburg, South Africa, during apartheid, which conflicts with the textual description of the news, revealing image repurposing.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In the new emotainment informative products (Santos, 2009), journalistic narration of reality is focused on the ability to capture audience's attention and, consequently, dramatic and conflictual component of events are privileged",[]]]},{"de":[["the tension inherent in this concept derives from its opaqueness (definitions are often considered vague or contradictory), and from the fact that the framing tends to be emotional and tinged with a moral tenor.",[]],["as Hietanen and Eddebo (2022) underlined, the notion of hate speech builds upon very old legal traditions, and it is strictly dependent on the peculiar interpretations of freedom of speech in different national contexts.",["Hietanen and Eddebo (2022)"]],["It changes over time and in relation to factors such as national laws, international documents, social media self-regulation codes.",[]],["the definition of hate speech must also include \"identifying the conditions that make different types of content more or less harmful and determining a threshold beyond which hate speech would be intolerable online\"",["Ieracitano et al., 2024, p. 26"]]]},{"sp":[["harassment",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["selectively not responding to certain comments to minimize personal risks",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["ideology",[]],["false consciousness",[]]]},{"de":[["it is a degraded figure of the total logic of late capital, a desperate attempt to represent the latter's system",["Jameson, 1991"]]]},{"de":[["ideology-particularly in its Marxist version-carries with it the implication that these ideas are somehow deceptive or disassociated from what actually exists",["Williams, 1976"]],["Ideology is then abstract and false thought, in a sense directly related to the original conservative use but with the alternative-knowledge of real material conditions and relationships-differently stated",["Williams, 1976"]],["in all versions of Marxism, ideology is related to economic conditions in some fashion, with material reality, the economics of a situation, usually dominant and helping give birth to ideological precepts",[]],["ideology-particularly in its Marxist version-carries with it the implication that these ideas are somehow deceptive or disassociated from what actually exists.",["Williams, 1976"]],["in all versions of Marxism, ideology is related to economic conditions in some fashion, with material reality, the economics of a situation, usually dominant and helping give birth to ideological precepts.",[]],["it is possible that different segments of society will have different ideologies, differences that are based in part on their position within the class structure of that society.",[]]],"rt":[["base",[]],["superstructure",[]],["false consciousness",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The major difference between the concept of misinformation and earlier notions of informationally healthy citizens lies in the fact that the normative standard by which health is understood within information studies is crypto-normative.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["base",[]]]},{"de":[["the affective labor that livestreamers are performing for the purposes of developing engaging personas, parasocial relationships, and personal brands",[]]]},{"de":[["it is the circulation and reproduction of these intensities through different modes of signification which align embodied experiences with communities and subjectivities.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["interactions between livestreamers, subscribers, and new viewers are difficult to manage, resulting in",["Paulson, 2019"]],["While it is still conceived as a technical problem, noise is attracting a growing amount of historical, theoretical, and practical interest for a variety of reasons, ranging from the challenges the category poses to ocular-centric media and communications histories to its complex and contradictory relationship with power and attention.",[]]],"sy":[["noise politics",[]]]},{"de":[["can be interpreted as an extension of the practice of radio jamming, which was a tactic used to disrupt broadcast frequencies by decreasing the signal-to-noise ratio (Carducci, 2006).",["Carducci, 2006"]]],"sy":[["subtervising",[]]],"rt":[["radio jamming",[]]]},{"de":[["at a macro-industrial level, it assumes the form of a commodity that converts audience experiences into data with the overall goal of creating new monetization opportunities",["pp. 126-127"]]]},{},{"de":[["connecting its product to the extraction of engagement metrics from affective economies",[]]],"rt":[["affective economies",[]],["engagement metrics",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["research describes communicative atmospheres that are bursting with collective behaviors which resemble in-person crowds",["Chow, 2016","Lybrand, 2019"]]],"sy":[["Twitch Chats",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["geographic scope",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["geographic scope",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["modelo francês",[]]]},{"de":[["Trata-se de um ente abstrato, como se pela expressão se entendesse a manifestação de um consenso nacional",["p. 41 e 43"]],["podiam expressar uma opinião pública que remontava ao passado da nação",[]]]},{"rt":[["modelo francês",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This refers, for instance, to the attribution of risks/benefits by specific senders to those responsible for risks/benefits.",[]]],"rt":[["problem definition",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]]},{"de":[["the absence of certain frame elements and the focus on balanced evaluations and specific topics can be interpreted as a journalistic approach to presenting stories and concise information about events",[]]],"ex":[["News with that frame often resulted from the start of new municipal APT projects or the release of a new product.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["framing concept",[]]]},{"rt":[["issue-specific frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["generic frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["three binary variables for moral evaluation (positive, neutral/balanced, negative)",[]]],"rt":[["problem definition",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]],"sb":[["No evaluation/neutral",[]],["positive tendency/acceptance",[]],["negative tendency/lack of acceptance",[]],["balanced evaluation",[]]],"sp":[["frame element",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["causal interpretation",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["framing concept",[]]]},{"rt":[["problem definition",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["moral evaluation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["framing concept",[]]]},{"de":[["The media establishes a filter between knowledge and silence, as a topic is considered not to exist if it is not covered by the media.",[]],["The media also establishes a hierarchy of priorities by determining the degree of importance given to each issue.",[]]]},{"de":[["They belong to open-class categories, meaning new words can be added to them over time. They include verbs, nouns, adjectives, and some adverbs (Cuetos Vega et al., 2020).",["Cuetos Vega et al., 2020"]]],"sy":[["lexical words",[]]]},{},{"de":[["2. During violent riots, the qualitative framing of minority groups and social cohesion highlights national, ethnic, and religious diversity as positive features of the whole society, thereby supporting multiculturalism as a positive value",[]]]},{"de":[["Headlines offer methodological justification as analytical units based on their unique cognitive properties and empirical validity.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["metaphors",[]]]},{"de":[["conceptualising social cohesion as \"the glue\" or bonds holding a social system together.",["Angell and de Beer (2021, p. 65)"]],["social cohesion involves both structural elements, such as participation, and cognitive elements, such as trust and sense of belonging.",["Angell and de Beer (2021)"]],["In TG, social cohesion is related to the need to \"prevent[ing] further unrest\" (TG, 07/08/24) and to \"protect communities\" from \"race riots\" (TG, 06/08/24).",[]],["In TT, social cohesion is considered to be threatened by wider problems of modern British society, including weakened law and order, religious diversity, and migration.",[]],["In the progressive media, the debate on social cohesion focuses on the fundamental elements that both define or divide Spain, and the place of otherness in Spanish society.",[]],["conception the media disseminates to the audience on minority groups (their place in society) and social cohesion",[]],["Angell and de Beer (2021) emphasise that social cohesion involves both structural elements, such as participation, and cognitive elements, such as trust and sense of belonging.",["2021"]],["The classical formulation of social cohesion was offered by Durkheim (1893), who emphasised the importance of social solidarity rooted in shared norms and values.",["1893"]]],"rt":[["Trust",["Koopmans et al., 2015"]],["belonging",[]],["solidarity",[]],["participation",[]],["social integration",[]]]},{"de":[["social glue that binds individuals within societies through moral consensus and interdependence.",[]]]},{"de":[["This form of sexism translates into the idealization of the female figure, especially emphasizing stereotypes about the softness, fragility, and warmth of women.",[]],["\"Benevolent\" sexism emphasizes the message that women and girls must be protected as mothers, wives, and sisters, and that men have an obligation to care for them.",[]],["This form of sexism aims to create, maintain, and promote traditional relationships between men and women.",[]],["This form of sexism translates into the idealization of the female figure, especially emphasizing stereotypes about the softness, fragility, and warmth of women. \"Benevolent\" sexism emphasizes the message that women and girls must be protected as mothers, wives, and sisters, and that men have an obligation to care for them. This form of sexism aims to create, maintain, and promote traditional relationships between men and women.",[]]],"sp":[["sexism",[]]]},{"de":[["comments on someone's appearance",[]]]},{"de":[["is not only unprofessional but also harmful, contributing to a toxic online environment.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is reflected in social belief that women are not professional or capable of assuming leadership positions in the public sphere; instead, their place is in the private sphere, serving men, as objects of sexual desire, and the family environment in the role of mother and caregiver.",["Glick & Fiske, 1997"]],["This form of sexism aims to discourage or punish women and girls who step out of traditional gender roles through aggressive behaviour and communication.",[]]],"sp":[["sexism",[]]]},{"de":[["Internalized sexism turns women and girls into producers and perpetuators of sexism in society, just as men and boys do.",[]],["It also stimulates the creation of a negative and contemptuous image of the female gender, which, according to sexist norms, represents the weaker sex, unable to take the lead.",[]],["The sexist image of the female gender promotes unhealthy competition and conflicts among women and girls, undermining their gender solidarity.",[]],["Internalized sexism also lowers the self-esteem of women and girls, reducing their opportunities to take initiative and assume leadership roles, which, in the long run, results in their underrepresentation in important sectors of the public sphere.",[]]],"sp":[["sexism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Sexism can occur in the private or public sphere, online or offline.",[]]],"rt":[["hostile sexism",[]],["benevolent sexism",[]],["internalized sexism",[]]],"sb":[["hostile sexism",[]],["benevolent sexism",[]],["The hyper sexualization of women and girls through the objectification of their bodies",[]],["The denial that women and girls continue to be affected by gender-based discrimination",[]],["The conviction that gender equality has been achieved, but women and girls continue to use it to their advantage, seeking preferential quotas at the expense of the other gender",[]]]},{"de":[["Affective polarization measures how much people enjoy their political allies and detest their political opponents",["14"]],["measures how much people enjoy their political allies and detest their political opponents",["14"]],["Affective polarization measures how much people enjoy their political allies and detest their political opponents [14].",["14"]]]},{},{"de":[["People within the circle of echo chamber can only come across the facts in which they already agree. They also believed that the contents that were fed to them are always true.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Individual networks tend to be homogeneous in diverse features, such as demographics, socio-economic situation, political beliefs, class and race",["24"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The affective states and subjective data are measured and studied.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it is also understood to be a motivational state that prompts the individual to alleviate the discomfort by removing or changing one of the conflicting cognitions, or by adding a new cognition to resolve the conflict",["Elliot & Devine, 1994","Festinger, 1957"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["false memories",[]]]},{"rt":[["false beliefs",[]]]},{"sb":[["specific memories",[]],["non-specific memories",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Psychological scientists have repeatedly suggested that this partisanship leads to motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news acceptance is associated with a general tendency to overclaim one's knowledge",["Pennycook & Rand, 2018"]]]},{"sy":[["criterion",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["people frequently encounter insulting content about groups with which they identify",[]]]},{"de":[["The first relies on heuristic judgements about the perceptual, temporal, and semantic features of the putative memory to rapidly determine whether they match the typical characteristics of a true memory.",[]],["The second system relies on a more deliberative, systematic process whereby the contents of the putative memory are carefully assessed for plausibility, or compared against prior knowledge and other (dis)confirmatory evidence.",[]],["According to this approach, people distinguish true from false memories by evaluating their mental experiences on the basis of two cognitive systems, operating in parallel.",[]]]},{"de":[["os eleitores preferiam consumir informações que estivessem de acordo com suas preferências e crenças",[]],["fatores como preferência partidária e religião são preditores importantes dos hábitos de consumo de mídia no Brasil.",[]]],"rt":[["polarização política",[]],["polarização afetiva",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["exposição seletiva",[]]],"sp":[["polarização",[]]]},{"rt":[["lexical markers",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The frame is activated by using language associated with laboratory experiments and serves to undermine the legitimacy of rational and empirical policy.",[]]]}] |