File size: 215,793 Bytes
714cbfe | 1 | [{"de":[["has become common in many conspiracy theories about government",[]]]},{"de":[["language and framing were inseparable",["1976"]],["language that fits that worldview activates that worldview, strengthening it",["2004"]]],"rt":[["issue framing",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["government frame",[]]]},{"de":[["Issue framing is a powerful way for advocates to appeal to the value systems of constituency groups to evoke their support.",[]],["Framing a debate in a particular way leads an audience's attention in one direction and not another in order to cultivate a desired response.",[]],["tactical ways for savvy framers to appeal to message recipients' deeply held moral beliefs in order to trigger their emotions and sway them towards a particular perspective (Haidt, 2012;Lakoff, 2008).",["Haidt, 2012","Lakoff, 2008"]],["a powerful means of shaping public perceptions and attitudes about political issues (Brewer & Gross 2005;Nicholson & Howard 2003;Sniderman & Theriault, 2004).",["Brewer & Gross 2005","Nicholson & Howard 2003","Sniderman & Theriault, 2004"]]],"sy":[["issue framing",[]]],"rt":[["metaphors",[]],["lexical perspective",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["source domains",[]],["target domains",[]]]},{"de":[["play a central role in the construction of social and political reality",["1980","p. 159"]]],"rt":[["source domains",[]],["target domains",[]],["lexical markers",[]]]},{"de":[["Metonymy is used particularly in political discourse when a nominalized actor is used to represent a broader group",[]]],"ex":[["it is the Common Core itself that becomes the actor, a metonymy in which the Common Core is personified and acts as a proxy for transmitting ideology",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["is another effective means by which the actors behind something can be concealed (Machin & Mayr 2012).",["Machin & Mayr 2012"]]]},{"de":[["deals with all the meanings that are assumed as given",["p. 107"]]],"sy":[["pre-constructed elements",["1995","Fairclough (1995)"]]]},{"de":[["evoking images of the cold war, and the US's ideological campaign against the Soviet Union, these tweets speak to social conservatives who view America as holding a distinctive cultural set of values that convey a sense of moral hierarchy in the world, where western values are seen as superior to other cultural systems, and education needs to be protected from the infiltration of these foreign value systems.",[]]],"rt":[["government frame",[]],["war frame",[]]]},{"de":[["Radial categories are generally ways in which the overarching frame manifests itself and builds upon and reinforces the overarching frame.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["target domains",[]]]},{"rt":[["target domains",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["context",[]],["message",[]],["contact",[]],["code",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The images awakened in the war frame call to mind the struggles over who should dictate what is taught in America's schools.",[]]],"rt":[["war metaphor",[]],["war imagery",[]],["propaganda frame",[]]]},{"de":[["The war metaphor is useful for opponents of a reform because it raises the specter of unwanted intrusion, positioning opponents as defenders and victims of aggression, while casting the aggressors as less civilized and morally in the wrong.",[]]]},{"de":[["Advocates' loyalty therefore lies with the individual, the organization, or the idea that they seek to promote and not necessarily with what is perceived as right or true. Just as lawyers defend the interest of their clients in a court of law, advocates typically defend the interest of their 'clients' in the court of public opinion (Hutton 1999).",["Hutton 1999"]],["communicators who are perceived by an audience to be strongly committed to particular values are seen by their audience as having a knowledge bias as well as a reporting bias (Eagly, Chaiken et al. 1978, Eagly andChaiken 1993).",["Eagly, Chaiken et al. 1978","Eagly andChaiken 1993"]],["Advocates' loyalty therefore lies with the individual, the organization, or the idea that they seek to promote and not necessarily with what is perceived as right or true.",[]]],"rt":[["knowledge bias",[]],["reporting bias",[]],["expertise",[]]]},{"rt":[["expert role",[]]]},{"sy":[["axe grinders",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["they found credibility to be affected by expertise (capable of being believed) as well as trustworthiness (worthy of belief, confidence) (1953).",["1953"]],["In this way, credibility is not just a quality residing with the communicator but also within an audience's perception of the communicator at a particular time (Hart, Friedrich et al. 1983, McCroskey andTeven 1999)",["Hart, Friedrich et al. 1983","McCroskey andTeven 1999"]],["credibility is not just a quality residing with the communicator but also within an audience's perception of the communicator at a particular time (Hart, Friedrich et al. 1983, McCroskey andTeven 1999)",["Hart, Friedrich et al. 1983, McCroskey andTeven 1999"]]],"rt":[["legitimacy",[]],["knowledge",[]],["expertise",[]],["trustworthiness",[]],["reliability",[]]]},{"rt":[["advocate role",[]]]},{"de":[["The sources of this expertise most often include \"the social and natural sciences, policy analyses, government reports, and research coming from universities, think tanks, and consulting firms\" (Weible 2008:616).",["Weible 2008:616"]]],"rt":[["credibility",[]]]},{},{"de":[["interest groups and think tanks must strive to earn credibility due to ideological commitments.",[]],["whose members may include individuals, firms, or governmental institutions (idem).",[]],["The public legitimacy of interest groups is closely linked to their representativeness, i.e. to the fact that interest groups speak and act on behalf of their members.",[]],["From this also follows that an interest group's leadership must keep the majority of group members satisfied at all times, and make sure that group's political goals and strategies are in line with members' desires (Jordan, Halpin et al. 2004).",["Jordan, Halpin et al. 2004"]]]},{"rt":[["reporting bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["explicitly linking potentially biased claims (Eagly, Chaiken et al. 1978, Eagly andChaiken 1993) to more authoritative, and presumably objective, documentation",["Eagly, Chaiken et al. 1978","Eagly andChaiken 1993"]]]},{},{"rt":[["knowledge bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Three elements of this definition highlight aspects of Danish think tanks that are central for the current study's purpose: their claimed autonomy, their intent to advocate, and their focus on knowledge production and dissemination.",[]],["think tanks typically underscore their independence in their web-based selfpresentations.",[]],["the majority of Danish think tanks are ideologically committed (Blach-Ørsten and Kristensen 2016).",["Blach-Ørsten and Kristensen 2016"]],["Most produce evidence-based expertise which is relevant for public policy, and which they seek to promote in political fora, such as the news media, to gain legitimacy and support for their ideas (Arnoldi, 2005in Kelstrup 2016:9).",["Arnoldi, 2005in Kelstrup 2016:9"]]],"rt":[["consultancies",[]],["interest groups",[]]],"sb":[["policy",["Kelstrup 2014:37"]],["advocacy",["Kelstrup 2014:37"]],["universities without students",["Kelstrup 2014:37"]],["party-affiliated",["Kelstrup 2014:37"]]]},{"sy":[["noticias falsas",[]],["bulos",[]]]},{"de":[["combinan diferentes dispositivos, lenguajes y funciones",["2012"]]]},{"de":[["creando un entorno propicio para la propagación de bulos",["2021","Avaro, 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["stories with this agricultural frame were relatively common in the early years of our study period, appearing, as a secondary code, in 16% of flooding stories in the 1980s.",[]]],"ex":[["a 02.02.1988 story in the Times, headlined \"Heavy storms deepen farmers' gloom\", led by noting that \"millions of acres of farmland are under water\" before describing the efforts of farmers to cope with flooded crops, delays to spring planting, and added winter feed costs from livestock unable to graze waterlogged pastures.",[]]]},{"de":[["At times this economic frame entirely eclipsed the wider human costs of flooding.",[]]],"rt":[["money beat",[]]],"ex":[["the Financial Times (27.06.2007) described how \"businesses and households face long disruption.\"",[]],["a Times (26.10.1998) story, headlined \"Britain faces a repair bill of £400m\", would have had to read quite carefully to note that at least 11 lives had also been lost in the downpours over the previous weekend.",[]]]},{"de":[["Taken as a noun, the concept of a 'frame' directs critical attention to the substrate of prior norms and commitments through which perception is filtered and sensemaking organized.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["comments",[]],["user profiles",[]],["platform characteristics",[]],["propagation patterns",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["tents and food",[]],["the participants required to facilitate large-scale protest action and extended encampments in cities across the country",[]]]},{"de":[["a form of misinformation",[]],["can mislead the public and cause significant economic and social disruption",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["In becoming patterned, the reliance on specific sources continually feeds the power of the sources to speak authoritatively, thereby reproducing the dominance of hegemonic narratives and limiting the spectrum of diverse voices.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["journalism of independent verification",["Carlson, 2009"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["journalists in Pakistan used and filtered a variety of international sources to gather and verify information providing a 'cosmopolitan' perspective in their coverage.",[]],["global risk journalism was put in a crisis mode which infused the responsibility to cultivate solidarity and cohesion (Hallin et al., 2021;Viehmann et al., 2022) missing out on critical reporting",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Animalization metaphors have the coercive potential of dehumanizing the Other, and providing justification for some racist/supremacist attitudes.",[]]],"sb":[["represent (alleged) criMinals as aniMals (i.e., not fully human)",[]]],"ex":[["represent (alleged) criMinals as aniMals (i.e., not fully human)",[]]]},{"de":[["It originates with the institutional communicator's intent to influence the knowledge, beliefs and attitudes of the collective of recipients by constructing semiotic representations in such a way that they serve the former's own interests.",[]],["It originates with the institutional communicator's intent to influence the knowledge, beliefs and attitudes of the collective of recipients by constructing semiotic representations in such a way that they serve the former's own interests. It often relies on the sender's exploitation of the position of power or trust, together with their privileged access to various symbolic resources that can be drawn on to magnify the effect on the receivers.",[]],["coercion here is not taken to mean manipulation in its most insidious sense of making the receiver do something that is against their best interests",["van Dijk 2006"]],["relying on conventionalized conceptualizations (as well as on easily retrievable \"common\" knowledge) is typical of communicators that intend to reproduce representations by facilitating a relatively unreflective processing of verbal input. This, in turn, is one of the main mechanisms of coercion.",[]],["The notion of coercion has been selected, instead of, e.g., manipulation, hegemony or ideology, primarily due to its better delimitation and analytic applicability.",[]]],"rt":[["manipulation",[]],["hegemony",[]],["ideology",[]],["persuasion",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The coercive function of metaphors, as shown here, can consist in producing ideology-laden cognitive effects, some of which amount to stereotyping, perpetuating discriminatory or nationalistic attitudes, distorting political and economic issues, or engendering the negative feelings of anxiety, resentment, fear or blame.",[]],["coercive metaphors are those that entail presuppositions and involve evaluations that are hard to challenge",[]]],"ex":[["reforM as something that hurts rather than helps",[]],["police investigation as a hunt",[]],["growth that is desirable at all times rather than only to a certain extent",[]],["some criminals are not fully human",[]],["the members of a political party should agree with the leader",[]],["the British welfare state has disintegrated",[]],["confrontation is the typical relation between nations/ cultures",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["personalization of politics",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Legitimization",[]]]},{"de":[["Admittedly, much of the news coverage on any given day does and should engage readers emotionally, but in some circumstances certain emotional reactions are artificially generated by newscasters, either to align the readers with their own interests, or to displace rational arguments in the public debate.",[]],["Linguistically, emotionalization may also be realized through emotivity in lexical choice (Bednarek and Caple 2012), the use of attributions, stylistic and register shifts, syntactic parallelism and textual highlighting.",["(Bednarek and Caple 2012)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["Delegitimization",[]]]},{"de":[["conceived of in terms of conceptual mapping, blending, or mental simulation of embodied experience",[]],["Metaphor is not only a cognitive but also pragmatic phenomenon, since its perlocutionary effects and felicitous uses are as important to study as its embodied bases or cognitive structuring.",[]],["described as a stylistic device that consists in presenting one entity by associating it with the qualities of a different entity, mainly to impress recipients.",[]],["metaphorical expressions are not treated as decorative rhetorical devices that enhance the experience of reception, but as potentially powerful triggers of specific conceptualizations, some of which may be ideologically charged.",[]],["It is described as a stylistic device that consists in presenting one entity by associating it with the qualities of a different entity, mainly to impress recipients.",[]],["It is noted that language expressions used to talk about the target domain are reflections of profiled characteristics of the source domain entity",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["confrontation",[]]]},{"de":[["This is a useful device to project an unknown and complex situation in terms of, for example, a fairly straightforward spatial schema arrangement.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These sources may also use sensational language to generate interest, clickthroughs, and shares.",[]]],"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]],"ex":[["9/11 conspiracies, chem-trails, lizard people in the sewer systems, birther rumors, flat earth 'theory,' fluoride as mind control, vaccines as mind control etc.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"de":[["Annotating content credibility at the domain (website) level rather than the link level is an established approach in the literature",["Shao et al., 2018b","Grinberg et al., 2019","Guess at al., 2019","Pennycook & Rand, 2019b","Bovet & Makse, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["The valence ranges from -1, indicating a left-leaning audience, to +1, indicating a right-leaning audience.",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"de":[["Using correspondence analysis plots between the same variables at different times, the dynamics of these relationships can be captured.",[]]]},{"rt":[["gatekeeping process",[]]]},{"de":[["Persons involved in media are acting as gatekeepers between true events and media messages to the general public.",[]],["Gatekeeping examples range from a reporter deciding which sources should be included in a story to editors deciding which stories will be published.",[]]],"rt":[["network gatekeeping theory",[]]],"ex":[["a reporter deciding which sources should be included in a story",[]],["editors deciding which stories will be published",[]]]},{"de":[["The term \"media bias\" implies a pervasive or widespread bias contravening the standards of journalism, rather than the perspective of an individual journalist or article.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In this paper, we focus on misinformation as perceptions: Citizens' beliefs about the accuracy and truthfulness of depictions of reality.",[]],["misinformation as perceptions: Citizens' beliefs about the accuracy and truthfulness of depictions of reality.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["consensus mobilization",["Klandermans (1984)"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["action mobilization",["Klandermans (1984)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["meta-transformative strategies",[]]],"ex":[["former Ku Klux Klansman David Duke urged European Americans to 'band together as a group the same way African Americans do, the same way as other minorities do' (Associated Press, 2000)",["Associated Press, 2000"]]]},{"de":[["journalists often using the noun 'frame' to denote the characterization of an event, individual or group, and the verb 'framing' as a summary term for the characterization process.",[]],["'framing' as an interpretive act, whether behaviorally or discursively",[]],["the frame is a 'boundary', 'the maker of limits', of how the frame 'defines and gives voice to the image it encloses'",[]]],"rt":[["discourse",[]],["schema",[]],["ideology",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["providing an interpretive 'footing' that aligns schemas that participants to the interaction bring with them.",[]]]},{"de":[["it seeks to shed light on a highly interactive and recursive process, involving various actors within a discursive context consisting of movement activists, actual and potential adherents, countermovement proponents, social control agents, government and social policy agents, the media, and often a watchful public.",[]],["framing is a highly interactive and dynamic process that seeks to activate movement adherents so that they move, metaphorically, from the balcony to the barricades (action mobilization); to convert bystanders into adherents, thus broadening the movement's base (consensus mobilization); and to neutralize or demobilize adversaries (countermobilization).",[]],["the masses generally come to such gatherings for multiple reasons, which make such events 'thickly' polysemous and thus open to the interpretive work of framing.",[]]],"sb":[["diagnostic (relating to problem definition and blame attribution)",[]],["prognostic (focusing on potential solutions to alleviate problems and the actors that might deliver those solutions)",[]],["motivational framing (providing a rationale for collective action)",[]]]},{"rt":[["reframing",[]]]},{"de":[["social production that often evolves during the course of interactive processes among activists, targets, and events in the world",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["meta-transformative strategies",[]]],"ex":[["today's evolving 'Great Replacement' conspiratorial theory that now has a worldwide footing",[]]]},{"de":[["frames and schemas are not different concepts for the same phenomena but are often highly interactive.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["consejos de prensa",["Díaz-Campo y Chaparro-Domínguez, 2019: 16"]],["libros de estilo",["Díaz-Campo y Chaparro-Domínguez, 2019: 16"]],["figura del defensor de la audiencia",["Díaz-Campo y Chaparro-Domínguez, 2019: 16"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["práctica intencional destinada a lograr una ventaja o beneficio mediante la manipulación de la audiencia",[]],["práctica intencional destinada a lograr una ventaja o beneficio mediante la manipulación de la audiencia.",["Van Dijk, 2006: 51"]],["una práctica intencional destinada a lograr una ventaja o beneficio mediante la manipulación de la audiencia.",[]]],"rt":[["sensacionalismo",[]]],"sp":[["posverdad",[]]]},{"rt":[["verdad",[]],["exactitud",[]]]},{"rt":[["manipulación informativa",[]]]},{},{"de":[["En los medios, todo lo espectacular es reivindicado como fenómeno informativo, no por su cualidad intrínseca, sino por su capacidad visual.",[]],["resulta una perversión del concepto de verdad. En los medios, todo lo espectacular es reivindicado como fenómeno informativo, no por su cualidad intrínseca, sino por su capacidad visual.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Experience can inform and modify interaction, as much as interaction informs and modifies experience.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A diversified recommender should recognize the degree of substantiation, i.e., it should be able to distinguish between an 'in-depth' analysis or news story versus a 'broad overview' and present a mix of labeled samples from each.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A news recommender, especially one concerned with popular conversations, can potentially increase the users' trust and confidence in its output using explanatory annotations.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Diversification",[]],["Disruption",[]],["Explainability and Interpretation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Online posts",[]]]},{"sb":[["Images",[]],["Videos",[]],["Audio",[]]],"sp":[["Online posts",[]]]},{"sb":[["Textual Data",[]],["Media Data",[]],["Links and URLs",[]],["Metadata",[]],["Structured Data",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This textual data can manifest in various formats, ranging from plain text to intricately formatted structures like HTML or Markdown, and even encompassing rich text, replete with emojis and specialized characters.",[]]],"sp":[["Online posts",[]]]},{"de":[["Note that since we focus on the algorithmic biases of platforms, our definitions are based on exposure -a platform exposes users to information sources in a biased way. However, we measure exposure by observing the sources of content that are actually consumed by the users.",[]],["Exposing the choices of others may also lead to homogeneity bias (Salganik, Dodds, & Watts, 2006)",[]],["B h is thus defined in the unit interval; it is zero when traffic is distributed equally across all targets and one when it is concentrated toward any single domain.",[]],["We observe the highest homogeneity bias for email and lowest for search, as seen in Figure 3A.",[]],["Pinterest displays the lowest homogeneity bias, suggesting that this platform exposes users to a broad range of different information sources.",[]],["Popularity bias implies homogeneity bias, but the reverse is not true; an algorithm could in theory focus on unpopular sites, thus achieving high homogeneity bias and low popularity bias.",[]],["Figure 6. Homogeneity versus popularity bias for applications of interest. The two types of bias are strongly correlated (Pearson's r = 0.83, p < 0.01).",[]],["Figure 8. (A) Popularity and (B) homogeneity bias for news targets.",[]],["a platform exposes users to information sources in a biased way.",[]],["We capture this intuition by using the normalized inverse Shannon entropy to define the homogeneity bias experienced by user u through application a:",[]]],"rt":[["popularity bias",[]]],"sp":[["algorithmic bias",[]]],"ex":[["consider 10 clicks originating from the same Web application and landing on the domains D 1 , D 2 and D 3 : the highly-skewed distribution of clicks {D 1 : 8, D 2 : 1, D 3 : 1} has higher homogeneity bias compared to the more even distribution {D 1 : 4, D 2 : 3, D 3 : 3}.",[]]]},{"de":[["Note that since we focus on the algorithmic biases of platforms, our definitions are based on exposure -a platform exposes users to information sources in a biased way. However, we measure exposure by observing the sources of content that are actually consumed by the users.",[]],["search engines amplify the rich-get-richer effect of the Web graph: popular Web pages would attract even more visitors than they would without search engines, yielding a superlinear relationship between traffic and PageRank",[]],["Let us therefore define popularity bias as the area between the Lorenz curve and the diagonal.",[]],["B p is zero when the traffic is independent of the target popularity and one when it is concentrated toward the domain with the highest PageRank.",[]],["The popularity bias of an application is obtained by averaging across users: B p (a) = B p (u, a) u .",[]],["Google News, social media and Wikipedia are in the middle.",[]],["We observe that search engines all have low popularity bias, providing evidence against H3 and extending the conclusions of Fortunato et al. (2006) from the aggregate to the user level.",[]],["all platforms display a higher popularity bias than expected from the baseline.",[]],["Popularity bias implies homogeneity bias, but the reverse is not true; an algorithm could in theory focus on unpopular sites, thus achieving high homogeneity bias and low popularity bias.",[]],["The increase in popularity bias could also be attributed to other factors, such as browsing on mobile devices, which offer smaller screens and an altogether different browsing experience, and/or the changing demographics of users.",[]],["consistent with the rich-get-richer structure of the Web",[]],["Figure 6. Homogeneity versus popularity bias for applications of interest. The two types of bias are strongly correlated (Pearson's r = 0.83, p < 0.01).",[]],["Figure 8. (A) Popularity and (B) homogeneity bias for news targets.",[]],["a platform exposes users to information sources in a biased way.",[]],["Let us therefore define popularity bias as the area between the Lorenz curve and the diagonal. This quantity is expressed by the Gini coefficient:",[]],["The actual distributions show that targets with low PageRank receive less traffic, while targets with high PageRank receive the vast majority of the traffic, suggesting bias towards globally popular domains.",[]]],"rt":[["homogeneity bias",[]],["PageRank centrality",[]],["Lorenz curve",[]],["Gini coefficient",[]]],"sp":[["algorithmic bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Lasswell (1948) posited that content analysis examines \"who says what through which channel to whom with what effect\" (p. 117).",["Lasswell (1948)"]]]},{"de":[["were used to highlight the perspectives of the people on the Island to resist the education reform policy while simultaneously presenting a limited narrative of the political elites who described the positive elements of the law, drawing on neoliberal benefits such as economic mobility and increased competition to weed out poor performers.",[]],["Within the context of media, framing determines how issues are constructed.",[]]]},{"de":[["the content of news stories includes latent implied questions for which frames offer answers by performing four functions: (a) defining and diagnosing a problem, (b) identifying a source or cause, (c) providing a judgment, and (d) justifying a solution for the problem.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is, in part, how news media businesses maintain profitability and high readership.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["sentiments drive Internet engagement, explaining the shift from a passive audience to an active audience in online conversations",["p. 125"]],["affective publics support connective yet not necessarily collective action",["Papacharissi, 2016, p. 314"]],["posts expressing individuals' sentiments helped form affective publics",[]]],"rt":[["connective action",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["mostly targets corrupt elites",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["affective publics",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Online posts and hateful sentiments in Myanmar's digital activism reveal a tendency toward radicalism in an authoritarian context, targeting soldiers as proxies of the regime.",[]]]},{"sy":[["cyber warfare",[]]]},{"de":[["Semiotic resources used to evaluate AI include intertextuality, which reflects the extent to which media texts relate to previous or other texts.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the predominance of negative affect suggests that the news coverage largely evoked and reflected negative emotions associated with the tragedy",[]],["Affect can manifest in either negative or positive polarity.",[]]],"sp":[["appraisal framework",[]],["attitude",[]]]},{"de":[["appraisal analysis effectively demonstrates how emotions or affective states are expressed in language",["Prastikawati (2021)"]],["This approach specifically serves as a mechanism for interpreting linguistic phenomena and elucidating the emotional reactions of language users toward behaviors, texts, processes, and events.",[]]],"rt":[["appraisal framework",[]]]},{"de":[["The majority of these items were expressed with negative polarity, reflecting critical or unfavorable assessments of the events, actions, or conditions described in the news coverage.",[]]],"sb":[["positive appreciation",[]],["negative appreciation",[]]],"sp":[["Attitude",[]]]},{"de":[["The subtypes of attitude define the emotions portrayed in the news coverage.",[]]],"sb":[["affect",[]],["judgment",[]],["appreciation",[]]]},{"de":[["this practice involves attributing praise or blame to specific individuals or groups and holding them accountable for certain outcomes or repercussions.",["Alwohaibi and Alyousef (2023)"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Attitude",[]]]},{},{"de":[["suggesting an excessive or overwhelming quality that complicates understanding",[]],["These items reflect unfavorable evaluations or criticisms expressed in the coverage.",[]]],"sp":[["appreciation",[]]],"ex":[["suspended",["21"]],["overcrowded",["22"]],["disaster",["23"]],["beyond comprehension",["24"]]]},{"de":[["News agencies play a crucial role in shaping public perception through news framing, which influences how material is presented and perceived as news.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["appreciation",[]]],"ex":[["favorite",["17"]],["maintain",["18"]],["valuable",["19"]],["top teams",["20"]]]},{},{"rt":[["discourse studies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The campaign started with 'me too' with the idea that the victims are not alone, but there are also others who undergo similar trauma.",[]],["The move also ushered in the dawn of liberation and mass social movement.",[]],["The movement was the call for social change wherein women started speaking out.",[]],["it was also a symbol raising the voice against sexual harassment.",[]],["The campaign, which began with a simple tweet, grew to become a global phenomenon, and it was also a symbol raising the voice against sexual harassment.",[]]]},{"de":[["The frames affect the perception of the audience and will influence the decision-making process.",[]],["The frames include the determination of the problem, defining the problem, cause of the problem, and remedies and solutions for the challenge.",[]]],"ex":[["contrast, artefacts, catch-phrases, spins, slogans, traditions, metaphors, stories, and jargon.",[]]]},{"de":[["The study of the frames broadly categorized under the titles of oppression of the victims, individuals, blames/allegations, society, casualties, and the choice of the men.",[]]],"rt":[["oppression of the victims",[]],["individuals",[]],["blames/allegations",[]],["society",[]],["casualties",[]],["the choice of the men",[]]]},{"de":[["Sexual harassment takes various forms, which include physical, verbal, non-verbal, and sometimes indirect.",[]],["It is an approach to manufacture the consent and through which the harassment comes which proves that the ruling class, which here are men still are dominating and are the controllers of sexual atrocities and victimizing the suppressed class, which indicates as women (Chomsky, Herman: 2008).",["Chomsky, Herman: 2008"]]],"sb":[["physical",[]],["verbal",[]],["non-verbal",[]],["indirect",[]]]},{"de":[["The frames include the determination of the problem, defining the problem, cause of the problem, and remedies and solutions for the challenge.",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["misleading, but not completely false, messages",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Lying has essentially become a faultless trespass",["Keyes, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["Visibility referred to how individuals' presence, activity, and communication were made noticeable to other users",["Leonardi, 2014"]]]},{},{"de":[["social media is the main source of fake news, and fake news rapidly spread among large population through social media.",[]],["Fake news can exist anywhere and be mediated through the same channels as any other news, and social media, in particular, has been found to accelerate the spread of fake news.",[]],["Fake news is a systemic crisis of humans that causes stress, fear, and confusion in human civilization.",[]],["Instead of delivering relevant and accurate information, the dissemination of fake news on social media could quickly enter a wide scale (Rashid et al., 2020), causing unnecessary misunderstanding, information overload, and fear among individuals.",["Rashid et al., 2020"]],["negative aspect of social media",[]]],"sy":[["false news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["fake stories",[]],["falsehoods",[]],["misleading or incorrect content",[]]],"rt":[["rumor",[]]],"ex":[["fake news circulated on social media that toilet roll paper will be out of stock due to factory closures in China",["Cato et al., 2021"]],["false news circulated on Twitter; although explanations became accessible within hours, one of the rumors circulated from 40 tweets to over 4,000 in 10 min.",[]],["damaging 5 G cellular network towers",["Ahmed et al., 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["users of social media are exposed to information but lack the capability to absorb it",["Chen and Wei, 2019","(Chen and Wei, 2019)"]],["The abundance of unclear, ambiguous, and inaccurate information during COVID-19 led to information overload",[]],["When people fail to absorb and manage the amount of information provided on social media, the problem of information overload occurs",["Pitafi and Ren, 2021"]],["the massive amount of COVID-19 information generated on social media has exhausted users and had a significant effect on their psychological wellbeing",["Islam et al., 2021","Liu et al., 2021","Li et al., 2022"]],["The enormous amounts of complex information related to COVID-19 overwhelmed the individuals' information-processing capability, inhibited their ability to establish an unbiased analysis of COVID-19, and strengthened the higher level of fear related to the coronavirus epidemic.",[]],["information overload does not allow an accurate understanding of the situation at hand",[]],["When people fail to absorb and manage the amount of information provided on social media, the problem of information overload occurs (Pitafi and Ren, 2021).",["Pitafi and Ren, 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["Social media is a digital technology making people's behaviors, decisions, and preferences more visible",["Ali et al., 2019a"]],["Social media has become ubiquitous and is often used for crisis management to disseminate information.",[]],["It is a web-based platform where individuals emote and react instantly",["Houston et al., 2015","Nadeem et al., 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["El auge del fenómeno de la desinformación y la manipulación mediática",[]],["Las tecnologías de la comunicación han sido las facilitadoras de la transmisión de mentiras e información manipulada, y de que tengan más visibilidad que nunca pues multiplican la mentira exponencialmente",["McIntyre, 2018"]],["Es su viralidad, gracias al canal y a la forma del contenido del discurso falso, su gran potencia de ataque.",[]],["El motivo del éxito de su viralidad, en contraposición con la forma de la verdad, es su contenido novedoso y emocional",["Vosoughi, Roy y Aral, 2018"]],["ataque a la empresa con una mentira extendida por las redes sociales",[]],["la transmisión de mentiras e información manipulada",[]],["Es su viralidad, gracias al canal y a la forma del contenido del discurso falso, su gran potencia de ataque. Según un estudio del Massachusetts Institute of Technology, la mentira en Twitter tiene un 70% más de probabilidad de ser retuiteada. Su propagación es más rápida, más potente y más extensa. El motivo del éxito de su viralidad, en contraposición con la forma de la verdad, es su contenido novedoso y emocional",["Vosoughi, Roy y Aral, 2018"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["manipulación mediática",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["desinformación",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["communicative ecology",["Foth and Hearn 2007"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["communicative ecology",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["researchers exposing participants to real-world misinformation are well-advised to use the debriefing tool to reduce any potentially lingering misconceptions.",[]],["To achieve this, debriefing needs to do more than just generically point out that misinformation exposure has occurred.",[]],["Debriefing may even be a way of inoculating participants against future real-world misinformation",["Murphy et al., 2020","Lewandowsky & van der Linden, 2021"]],["The rate at which researchers tend to report their debriefing procedures appears to be determined in part by the nature of the debriefing.",[]],["where a more general debriefing that did not address specific items was used, authors tended not to mention the debriefing.",[]]],"rt":[["dehoax",[]],["post-debriefing consent",[]],["measures of debriefing efficacy",[]]],"sb":[["explicit and specific debriefing",["Misra (1992)"]],["conventional, generic debriefing",["Misra (1992)"]],["general debriefing",[]],["specific debriefing",[]],["detailed debriefing",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["guideline",[]]]},{"de":[["The content policies serve as a \"contract\" between users and the platform; without conforming to the policies, the decision on automated content moderators may be surprising to users, undermining the transparency and accountability of the moderation system.",[]],["A platform's content policies are a checklist of content moderated by the social media platform.",[]]],"sy":[["social media content policies",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook moderates advertisements on homosexual therapies.",[]]]},{"ex":[["cunt, dick, asshole",[]]]},{"sy":[["economic exclusion",[]]],"rt":[["Explicit Exclusion",[]],["Political Exclusion",[]],["Social Exclusion",[]]],"ex":[["Pregnant women should not get any promotion at work as they will end up in maternity leave",[]]]},{"sy":[["explicit exclusion",[]]],"rt":[["Political Exclusion",[]],["Economic Exclusion",[]],["Social Exclusion",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Blackface; Holocaust denial; claims that Jewish people control financial, political, or media institutions; and references to Dalits as menial laborers",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["political exclusion",[]]],"rt":[["Explicit Exclusion",[]],["Economic Exclusion",[]],["Social Exclusion",[]]]},{"ex":[["fuck, bitch, motherfucker",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["social exclusion",[]]],"rt":[["Explicit Exclusion",[]],["Political Exclusion",[]],["Economic Exclusion",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The guidelines contain a checklist of descriptions of the hateful and non-hateful content (Talat and Hovy, 2016;Sachdeva et al., 2022;ElSherief et al., 2021); some previous work further provides codebooks containing more detailed instructions on what is not considered as hateful for each guideline (Golbeck et al., 2017;Vidgen et al., 2021).",["Talat and Hovy, 2016","Sachdeva et al., 2022","ElSherief et al., 2021","Golbeck et al., 2017","Vidgen et al., 2021"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The general consensus is that these biases are learned from the statistical distributional cooccurrence of words relating to a group (such as terms relating to men or women) with a context in which that group is often mentioned in corpora",[]],["biases are learned from the statistical distributional cooccurrence of words relating to a group (such as terms relating to men or women) with a context in which that group is often mentioned in corpora",["Bolukbasi et al., 2016","Webster et al., 2021"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["the model favors women to be doctors",[]],["men to cry easily",[]],["the model favors women to be doctors and men to cry easily",[]]]},{"de":[["This has been done through the following means: church leaders have regularly taken a public stance on issues related to faith and moral values adding pressure on state authorities; church leaders have defined religious leadership together with political rule",[]],["the idea that Orthodox churches provide alternative forms of governance has widespread ramifications ranging from national legislation on religion-state relations to the allocation of public funds and voting processes.",[]],["This has been done through the following means: church leaders have regularly taken a public stance on issues related to faith and moral values adding pressure on state authorities; church leaders have defined religious leadership together with political rule, as, for example, during the Second Bulgarian Empire at the start of the first millennium (1185-1396), or during Saint Stephen the Great's rule in Moldova (1457-1504).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Orthodox conservatism has acquired an international dimension in which populism and geopolitics play an important role.",[]],["First, all Orthodox churches have been regularly advancing the notion of defending the nation.",[]],["Second, Orthodox churches have been allies of political authorities.",[]],["Third, Orthodox churches in both countries not only have criticized the European Union's response to the refugee crisis but also have refrained from engaging in relations with their Western counterparts.",[]],["Orthodox conservatism has been characterized by five key elements: defending a mythical past of the country; fostering close relations with state authorities; increasing anti-Westernism; building conservative networks at local, national, and geopolitical levels; and presenting Orthodox churches as alternative governance structures.",[]]]},{"de":[["the Chinese reports focussed a little more on Affect, that is, on feelings and emotions than did the Australian and Australian Chinese reports.",[]],["feelings of achievement and frustration",[]],["feelings of peace and anxiety",[]],["the moods of feeling happy or sad",[]]],"sb":[["In/security",[]],["Un/happiness",[]],["Dis/satisfaction",[]]],"sp":[["Attitude",[]]],"ex":[["He was grateful for conversation",[]],["expressing sympathy and condolences",[]]]},{"sb":[["Attitude",[]],["Graduation",[]],["Engagement",[]]]},{"de":[["the impact and quality of things",[]]],"sb":[["Reaction",[]],["Composition",[]],["Valuation",[]]],"sp":[["Attitude",[]],["Attitude item",[]]],"ex":[["advanced technologies",[]],["blocked road",[]],["shocking sights",[]]]},{"sb":[["Judgement",[]],["Appreciation",[]],["Affect",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal system",[]],["Appraisal",[]]]},{"sb":[["Judgement",[]],["Appreciation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Affect",[]]]},{},{"de":[["(e.g., reporting verbs, modals of probability and evidentiality)",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal system",[]],["Appraisal",[]]],"ex":[["reporting verbs, modals of probability and evidentiality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["followed by In/security",[]]],"sp":[["Affect",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["Normality",[]],["Capacity",[]],["Tenacity",[]],["Veracity",[]],["Propriety",[]]],"sp":[["Attitude",[]],["Attitude item",[]]],"ex":[["elite troops",[]],["swift action",[]],["weary rescuers",[]],["would-be rescuers",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Judgement",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Judgement",[]]]},{"de":[["Stance encompasses the ways in which a writer express attitudes and opinions towards specific propositions and also, more broadly, the overall discursive position that a writer takes in relation to a particular topic.",[]],["patterns of word and phrase level evaluative meanings that contributed to the stance taken in the disaster reports",[]],["stance is likely not only manifested in the patterning of linguistic elements, but also at discourse level through the rhetorical structure of the text, and through tools such as framing, presupposition, foregrounding or backgrounding",[]]],"sy":[["evaluation",[]]],"rt":[["evaluation",[]],["appraisal",[]],["framing",[]],["presupposition",[]],["foregrounding",[]],["backgrounding",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Un/happiness is the category with the highest percentages and frequencies",[]]],"sp":[["Affect",[]]]},{"sp":[["Judgement",[]]]},{"de":[["I consider how participants make and contest determinations regarding the accuracy of possible stereotypes in the moment-by-moment unfolding of the interactions, and how they use these determinations as bases for negotiating the moral accountability of stereotyping, independently of whether the stereotype is \"objectively\" accurate.",[]],["That is, I consider how participants make and contest determinations regarding the accuracy of possible stereotypes in the moment-by-moment unfolding of the interactions, and how they use these determinations as bases for negotiating the moral accountability of stereotyping, independently of whether the stereotype is \"objectively\" accurate.",[]]],"rt":[["moral accountability",[]],["possible stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["I based my identification of possible stereotypes on participants' orientations to these kinds of category-attribute links, rather than rigidly applying an a priori definition (cf. Schegloff's [2006] discussion of the notion of \"a possible X\").",[]]]},{"rt":[["category-based entitlement",[]]],"sp":[["stereotypes",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["We therefore draw on KhosraviNik and Unger (2016) to suggest that the a-historicity of online contents be considered as a distinct affordance of digital discourses for it favours or restricts what users can do.",["KhosraviNik and Unger (2016)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["social semiotic affordances",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["multimodal discourses",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the internal structure of the message, intended circulation, strategic design for affective engagement",["KhosraviNik, 2020"]],["Just as emotions can vary over time and according to context, so discourses supporting such emotions are fluid and influenced by techno-discursive dynamics ( i.e., the internal structure of the message, intended circulation, strategic design for affective engagement, see KhosraviNik, 2020).",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a willingness to say yes without thinking first",[]]]},{},{"de":[["forms the grease of societal decision-making machinery, lubricating consensus among participants via fair and informed debate.",[]],["The process of opinion exchange in deliberation alleviates polarization, minority under-representation and several other drawbacks of consensus formation arising from non-deliberative processes (such as in majorityvoting without discussion) by educating potentially uninformed participants and broadening their awareness of alternative perspectives",["(List et al., 2013;Thompson, 2008)"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["debates",[]]]},{"de":[["reputation serves as a reference cue (an information-processing shortcut) for the challenger's response quality",[]],["reputation serves as a reference cue",[]],["reputation serves as a reference cue (Bilancini and Boncinelli, 2018)",["Bilancini and Boncinelli, 2018"]]]},{},{"sp":[["rumor detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["manual methods",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["manual methods",[]]]},{"sb":[["keywordbased",["5","40"]],["topic-based",["7","46"]],["multi-faceted approaches",["43"]]]},{"sp":[["data visualization techniques",[]]]},{"sb":[["manual methods",[]],["automatic methods",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["rumor features",[]]]},{"sp":[["rumor features",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Endorsement of RACISTBELIEFS: the beliefs which deny the existence of racial inequality, or capture resentment towards racial minorities (Poteat and Spanierman, 2012).",["Poteat and Spanierman, 2012"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["slurs such as \"n*gg*r\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Typically, this belief also involves negative reactions to non-canonical ways of using language",["Sapolsky et al., 2010","De-Frank and Kahlbaugh, 2019"]],["Typically, this belief also involves negative reactions to non-canonical ways of using language (Sapolsky et al., 2010;De-Frank and Kahlbaugh, 2019).",["Sapolsky et al., 2010","De-Frank and Kahlbaugh, 2019"]]],"ex":[["I dislike when people make simple grammar or spelling errors.",[]],["It is important to master the English language properly, and not make basic spelling mistakes or misuse a common word.",[]],["I am not afraid to correct people when they make simple grammar or spelling errors.",[]],["There exists such a thing as good proper English.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Discrimination against racial minorities is no longer a problem in the United States.",[]],["It is easy to understand the anger of racial minorities people in America. (R)",[]],["Racial minorities are getting too demanding in their push for equal rights.",[]],["Over the past few years, racial minorities have gotten more economically than they deserve.",[]],["Over the past few years, the government and news media have shown more respect to racial minorities than they deserve.",[]]]},{"de":[["Perceiving the HARMOFHATESPEECH: the belief that hate speech or offensive language can be harmful for the targets of that speech (Soral et al., 2018;Nadal, 2018).",["Soral et al., 2018;Nadal, 2018"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Determining whether a text is toxic (i.e., contains hate speech, abuse, or is offensive) is inherently a subjective task that requires a nuanced understanding of the pragmatic implications of language (Fiske, 1993;Croom, 2011;Waseem et al., 2021).",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Valuing the freedom of offensive speech (FREEOFFSPEECH): the belief that any speech, including offensive or hateful speech, should be unrestricted and free from censorship.",[]]]},{"de":[["vulgarity can be considered noncanonical or impolite language",["Jay and Janschewitz, 2008","Sapolsky et al., 2010","DeFrank and Kahlbaugh, 2019"]],["Both types of vulgarity can be mistaken for toxic despite also having non-hateful usages (e.g., to indicate emotion or social belonging; Croom, 2011;Dynel, 2012;Galinsky et al., 2013).",["Croom, 2011","Dynel, 2012","Galinsky et al., 2013"]]],"sb":[["non-identity referring swearwords (e.g., f*ck, sh*t; denoted as ONI)",[]],["identity-referring slurs (e.g., b*tch, n*gga; denoted as OI)",[]],["non-identity referring swearwords",[]],["identity-referring slurs",[]]],"ex":[["f*ck",[]],["sh*t",[]],["b*tch",[]],["n*gga",[]]]},{"de":[["If left unchecked, hate speech can lead to violence and may even help create the conditions for crimes to be committed.",[]]],"rt":[["Hate speech analysis",[]]],"ex":[["sexism",[]],["racism",[]],["anti-Islam",[]]]},{"de":[["a type of sentiment analysis",[]]],"sp":[["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["a type of natural language processing",[]],["Research on sentiment analysis has increased recently as it provides a summary of the opinions contained in big data instantaneously and quickly.",[]]],"sb":[["Hate speech analysis",[]]],"sp":[["natural language processing",[]]]},{"rt":[["recontextualização",[]]]},{"sp":[["discurso relatado",[]]]},{"de":[["espaço privilegiado para acessar o posicionamento ideológico de um texto",[]],["mecanismo que habilita determinadas interpretações dos textos e, paralelamente, fecha outras.",[]],["representar uma via para abordar a circulação social do sentido e sua distribuição desigual na sociedade.",[]]],"sy":[["reported speech",[]]],"rt":[["discurso referido",[]]],"sb":[["estilo direto",[]],["estilo indireto",[]],["estilo misto",[]],["discurso narrativizado",[]],["nominalização citacional",[]],["nominalização citativa",[]]]},{"rt":[["locutor",[]]]},{"de":[["analisando os modos como são nomeados, revelando sua frequência de aparição e investigando os verbos e procedimentos estilísticos empregados para incorporar suas posturas nos textos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["não há nenhum elemento de seu discurso que não esteja integrado na perspectiva do locutor",[]],["geralmente indica de um modo mais evidente uma valorização sobre as palavras que cita, fato que lhe outorga uma maior responsabilidade pelo que foi dito.",[]],["portanto, geralmente indica de um modo mais evidente uma valorização sobre as palavras que cita, fato que lhe outorga uma maior responsabilidade pelo que foi dito.",[]],["geralmente indica de um modo mais evidente uma valorização sobre as palavras que cita, fato que lhe outorga uma maior responsabilidade pelo que foi dito",[]]],"sp":[["discurso relatado",[]]]},{"rt":[["função referencial",[]],["função expressiva",[]]]},{"rt":[["função referencial",[]],["função apelativa",[]]]},{"rt":[["enunciador",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["discurso relatado",[]]],"ex":[["O protesto [dos estudantes] começou no dia 29 do mês passado",[]]]},{"rt":[["descontextualização",[]]]},{"de":[["reported speech as a mechanism that regulates which interpretations are possible for a given text through the hierarchization and legitimization of the different voices and stances that a newspaper incorporates.",[]]],"sy":[["discurso referido",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["implicit bias",[]]],"ex":[["girls tend to be softer than boys",["Nadeem et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["These questions are designed to elicit direct responses regarding gender perceptions in the context of specific job roles.",[]]]},{"rt":[["implicit biases",[]]]},{"rt":[["explicit bias",[]]],"ex":[["in the sentence \"the physician hired the secretary because he was overwhelmed with clients,\" an implicitly biased model might associate the pronoun \"he\" with \"physician\".",[]]]},{"de":[["This approach allows us to assess underlying biases that may not be immediately evident.",[]]]},{"rt":[["explicit biases",[]]]},{},{"de":[["if the goal is for the model to make no gender pre-assumptions, gender-neutral predictions are preferred.",[]]]},{"de":[["Unlike outright falsehoods or intentional lies, \"bullshit\" involves statements made without regard for their truthfulness, aiming instead to persuade or manipulate the audience for other purposes.",[]]],"rt":[["Lack of Concern for Truth",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation often carries malicious intent",[]],["disinformation acts similarly to the Telephone Game but with intentional distortion: the original information is deliberately rephrased at each stage to create a narrative that suits a particular agenda.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["rumours",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Falsehood and Fabrication emerged as fundamental components, frequently mentioned across the literature, underscoring the fact that \"fake news\" is often built upon deliberately false or fabricated information.",[]],["The concept of fabrication is interesting because it shows an overlap between falsehood and the intentional aspect of \"fake news, \" distinguishing it from other forms of misinformation, such as rumours or inadvertent errors, as well as stories that are simply false",[]],["distinguishing it from other forms of misinformation, such as rumours or inadvertent errors, as well as stories that are simply false",["Ruchansky et al. 2017","Khattar et al. 2019","Farajtabar et al. 2017","Wang et al. 2018","Perez-Rosas et al. 2017"]]],"rt":[["rumours",[]],["inadvertent errors",[]]]},{"de":[["a key characteristic of \"fake news\" is its lack of verifiable evidence.",[]],["This absence of reliable sources or a factual basis makes it challenging to authenticate any information that, typically, would rely on verifiable data and credible sources.",[]],["describing it as inherently reflecting an intention to deceive and manipulate the public.",[]],["the use of falsehoods and fabrication, where strategic linguistic adjustments create an illusion of authenticity while embedding misinformation",[]],["mimicking credible sources, replicating the tone, style and structure of legitimate journalism to exploit audience trust",[]],["reflects deliberate intent and purpose, aligning language with specific objectives such as promoting propaganda or influencing public opinion",[]],["manipulations frequently involve selective omission, emphasis, and pragmatic shifts that subtly alter meaning without overt contradiction",[]],["serves to obscure verification and evidence, either by masking unverifiable claims or fabricating support to enhance believability",[]],["using language to mislead or obscure the truth",[]],["pretending to have credible sources of information",[]],["ethical and social aspects",[]],["Mimicking legitimate formats to exploit trust in established institutions.",[]],["Prioritizing rhetorical appeal over factual accuracy (manipulation of truth).",[]],["Amplifying societal and political divisions through targeted rephrasing (social and political implications).",[]],["Embedding nuanced distortions that subtly alter the original meaning.",[]],["The topic raises significant questions about truth, epistemology, ethics, and the impact of information on society in the Digital Age.",[]],["by imitating the appearance and format of legitimate news outlets, \"fake news\" seeks to exploit the trust that audiences place in established journalistic practices.",[]]],"sy":[["false information",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["rumours",[]],["mimicry",[]],["fabrication",[]],["intentionality",[]],["the strategic obscuring of truth",[]],["satire",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["satire",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["Mimicking",[]],["False",[]],["Bullshit",[]],["Lack of Concern for Truth",[]],["Intentional",[]],["Social or Political Aspect",[]]]},{},{"de":[["all false evidence is fabricated or misleading, but not all fabricated or misleading claims count as false evidence.",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Unlike accidental misinformation, \"fake news\" is characterized by a conscious effort to mislead or deceive the audience.",[]]],"sy":[["intention to deceive",[]],["deliberate",[]],["purposeful",[]],["intentional",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Unlike intentional deception, where falsehoods are propagated knowingly, a lack of concern for truth reflects a disregard for whether the information is true or false, so long as it serves the communicator's purpose.",[]]],"rt":[["Bullshit",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["misinformation may arise from ignorance or error",[]],["Misinformation, though typically spread without harmful intent, can also resemble the unintended distortions in the Telephone Game.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["rumours",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the intentional aspect of rephrasing may be the purposeful act of expressing a statement in different words, not merely to clarify, but also to achieve a strategic rhetorical effect, gain a persuasive advantage, gain deeper comprehension of an original message, emphasize a specific point, or manage the discourse flow.",[]],["an instance of rephrasing must be an operation on certain linguistic material that modifies it to a certain extent but not completely.",["Younis et al. 2023"]],["Because IAT defines rephrase by communicative function (non-inferential restatement) rather than semantic equivalence, there are reformulations that are not rephrases (e.g. \"in other words\" used to draw an inference), and rephrases that are not paraphrases (when meanings are not semantically close).",[]],["a linguistic phenomenon-one that will serve as a tool for the study of communication",[]],["the subtle manipulation of truth through rephrasing plays a pivotal role in amplifying misinformation.",[]],["strategic use of rephrasing, where minor adjustments in language alter the truth value of statements while preserving their perceived factuality.",[]]],"sy":[["reformulation",[]],["rephrasing",[]]],"rt":[["inference",[]],["conflict",[]],["reformulation",[]],["paraphrase",[]],["reformulation (an \"equivalence operation\" at the semantic/pragmatic level)",[]],["paraphrase (approximate semantic equivalence)",[]]],"sb":[["rephrase specification",[]],["rephrase generalization",[]],["rephrase specification (the second contribution is narrower in meaning)",[]],["rephrase generalization (the second is broader)",[]]],"sp":[["mimicking",[]]]},{"de":[["This intentional rephrasing, coupled with the strategic presentation of information, plays a critical role in the effectiveness of \"fake news, \" ensuring that the falsehoods it contains are not only believable but also likely to be disseminated widely before they are debunked.",[]],["By doing so, creators of \"fake news\" aim to enhance the believability of their content, making it more difficult for the audience to distinguish between authentic and false information.",[]],["The subtle manipulation of language allows the fabricated content to blend seamlessly with genuine news, exploiting the trust that readers place in familiar journalistic formats.",[]],["The process of rephrasing fabricated information often involves changing emphasis, removing critical context, or introducing emotionally charged language, all while maintaining an outward appearance of legitimacy.",[]],["making \"fake news\" nearly indistinguishable from real news.",[]],["making harmful content appear more credible or persuasive.",[]],["twisting facts, selectively omitting context, or framing information in a way that heightens emotional responses",[]],["strategic linguistic adjustments create an illusion of authenticity while embedding misinformation",[]],["reflects deliberate intent and purpose, aligning language with specific objectives such as promoting propaganda or influencing public opinion",[]],["manipulations frequently involve selective omission, emphasis, and pragmatic shifts that subtly alter meaning without overt contradiction",[]],["serves to obscure verification and evidence, either by masking unverifiable claims or fabricating support to enhance believability",[]],["Rephrasing enables the integration of falsehoods into a familiar journalistic framework, making the fabricated information appear trustworthy.",[]]],"rt":[["deception",[]],["mimicking",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sb":[["rephrasing is instrumental in the process of mimicking genuine news sources (i.e. it is a subcategory of mimicking-mimicking can be an effect of rephrase, and rephrasing is one way to mimic)",[]]],"ex":[["the title from the unconventional news website Zero-Hedge, \"US Women's Life Expectancy is the Lowest among Developed Nations\" (Durden 2024), appears alarming, but upon closer analysis is misleading.",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["The social or political aspect underscores the fact that \"fake news\" is not merely an isolated communicative act, but is embedded within larger socio-political contexts. It often exploits existing social tensions, ideological divides, or political controversies to achieve its objectives. This dimension reflects the instrumental use of \"fake news\" as a tool for propaganda, disinformation campaigns, or social engineering.",[]]]},{"de":[["the methodology adopted is women's relations as a central practice based on reading gender-based violence as an overall political and social phenomenon that is structural and not emergency-based.",["SMD4, NUDM, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["Anti-violence centers in fact are institutions run by feminists and are rooted in the history of the feminist movement",["Creazzo, 2016;Pietrobelli et al., 2020"]]]},{"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["resonance",[]]]},{"sb":[["Diagnostic frames identify and define the perceived problems or injustices within society, often by attributing blame to certain actors or institutions.",[]],["Prognostic frames offer solutions or courses of action to address these identified issues, outlining strategies for change.",[]],["Motivational frames appeal to individuals' values, emotions, and identities, mobilizing support and motivating collective action.",[]]]},{"de":[["Frames are schemas through which individuals make sense of the world through collectively shared ideas, while at the same time negotiating them.",[]],["The idea of framing \"problematizes the meanings associated with relevant events, activities, places, and actors, suggesting that those meanings are typically contestable and negotiable and thus open to debate and differential interpretation\"",["Snow et al., 2018, p. 393"]],["These frames serve as cognitive tools that simplify complex realities, define problems, attribute causes, and propose solutions, thus guiding individuals' understanding of social issues and shaping their responses",["Benford, 2013","Caiani, 2023"]]],"sb":[["Diagnostic frames",[]],["Prognostic frames",[]],["motivational frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["overarching framework through which feminist movements address various forms of gender-based oppression across different spheres, including the labor market, border violence and migration, LGBTQ+ rights, health and reproductive rights",[]],["male violence against women is not a private issue nor an emergency. It is a structural and cut-crossing phenomenon in our society. It constitutes a primary political issue which is rooted in power disparity between sexes.",["SMD, NUDM, 2016"]],["the movement considers gender-based violence as a structural and systemic phenomenon, resulting from interlocked structures of power such as patriarchy, capitalism, racism.",[]],["When we say that violence is systemic, we mean that its forms of expression are multiple and transversal: in fact, they touch all spheres of our lives, constantly intertwining with each other.",["Non Una Di Meno, 2017"]],["framing gender-based violence as a structural issue also entailed a broadening of the movement's scope, in order to address all aspects of women's lives, ranging from the labor market to border violence, to health and reproductive rights.",[]]],"rt":[["structural gender-based violence",[]]]},{"de":[["facilitated large-scale participation and transnational solidarity, linking local struggles to global contexts",[]],["This frame unifies diverse struggles across geographies and forms of inequality, from labor rights to reproductive freedom.",[]],["the master frame meets the criteria of resonance, such as empirical credibility, experiential commensurability, and narrative fidelity.",[]],["violence as a master frame has become an innovative lens to give meaning to different fights, which were not originally connected to the fight against violence.",[]],["The master frame's resonance (empirical credibility, experiential commensurability, and narrative fidelity) has been crucial in sustaining large-scale participation and enhancing transnational solidarity.",[]],["associated with the emergence of a cycle of protest is the development or construction of an innovative master frame",["1992, p. 143"]],["serves as a unifying lens for addressing diverse issues such as labor rights, reproductive freedom, migration, and economic justice.",[]],["resonance (empirical credibility, experiential commensurability, and narrative fidelity)",[]]],"rt":[["diagnostic, motivational, and prognostic frames",[]],["diagnostic, motivational and prognostic framing processes",[]]],"sp":[["collective action frame",[]]]},{"de":[["a grammar that punctuates and syntactically connects patterns or happenings in the world",["Snow and Benford, 1992, p. 138"]],["Master frames provide a foundational framework for interpreting reality, guiding individuals' understanding of society, politics, and collective action.",[]]],"rt":[["collective action frame",[]]]},{"de":[["Motivational frames are strongly articulated around the simplicity of the movement's message and its embodied, often personal, and every day-based elaboration.",[]]],"rt":[["diagnostic, prognostic and motivational frames",["Snow et al., 2018"]]],"sp":[["Frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["resonance",[]]]},{"de":[["patriarchy as a structural power relationship that entails a multifaceted cause of oppression for women and LGBTQIA+ persons.",[]],["a hetero-cis-patriarchal system, almost like a concrete but abstract entity.",["FA7, ROR, 43"]],["the foundational cause of gender-based violence, treating it as a diffuse and pervasive system rather than targeting specific individuals or groups.",[]]],"rt":[["capitalism",[]],["racism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["prognostic frame moves beyond abstract theoretical critiques, actively working to reshape economic conditions that sustain gender-based violence.",[]],["articulating solutions that challenge systemic roots of violence.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["unified diverse struggles and enhanced the mobilizing potency of feminist movements",[]],["facilitated large-scale participation and transnational solidarity, linking local struggles to global contexts",[]],["By framing gender-based violence as a structural phenomenon, NUDM expanded the feminist agenda to encompass broader social injustices, including economic precarity, racialized state violence, and climate crises.",[]]],"rt":[["master frame",[]]],"sp":[["gender-based violence",[]]]},{"de":[["patriarchy, capitalism, racism, and heteronormativity operate as interlocking structures that produce gender-based violence not only through laws and institutions, but through everyday practices, cultural norms, and economic inequalities",["Butler, 2004","Gago, 2020"]]]},{"rt":[["gender-based violence",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["but if it is also done intentionally, it becomes what common sense identifies as propagandistic lies.",[]]]},{"de":[["with the journalists acting increasingly as moderators (Duffy, 2011: 9)",["Duffy, 2011: 9"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["media attention does not mirror the lived reality of violence, but rather follows its own logic of amplification and disruption.",[]]]},{"de":[["While NB regression captured the structural growth over time, IQR highlights the episodic nature of visibility spikes, offering a more nuanced view of media attention dynamics.",[]]]},{"de":[["media visibility does not simply mirror the occurrence of violence, but rather follows its own logic of amplification, repetition, and disruption.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["rumor detection",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["source diversity bias",[]]]},{"de":[["often results in search companies promoting their own services (e.g., YouTube in the case of Google [33]).",["33"]],["the consistent appearance of a specific domain or few specific domains at the very top of search results and, in general, among top-10 results more frequently than the others",[]]],"rt":[["source diversity bias",[]]]},{"de":[["By consistently prioritizing the same set of sources independently of search queries, search algorithms can diminish the quality of outputs by making them less representative [25] and negatively affecting the user experience [6].",["25","6"]],["The importance of integrating diversification measurements is highlighted by high degree of source diversity bias.",[]]],"rt":[["search concentration",["19"]]],"sp":[["Retrieval bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Harmful influences may arise from any false or misleading information ('misinformation') but are of particular concern when such information is generated and circulated with the specific purpose of deceiving people ('disinformation').",[]]]},{"de":[["The fabrication of information, which 'mimics news media content in form but not in organisational process or intent' ,5 has gained asymmetrical influence on the individual perception of real-world events and political choices.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["combined with military operations such as cyberattacks, to disrupt the regulatory system that the target State has in place for responding to a public health crisis",[]]]},{"de":[["The Vice President of the European Commission for Values and Transparency described this phenomenon a coronavirus 'infodemic'",[]],["disrupting government response to the spread of coronavirus",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Harmful influences may arise from any false or misleading information ('misinformation') but are of particular concern when such information is generated and circulated with the specific purpose of deceiving people ('disinformation').",[]],["dissemination of misinformation that generates dissent or encourages insurgency",[]]]},{"de":[["The targeted characteristics can be diverse, and the purpose behind hate speech can vary from expressing bigotry and prejudice to inciting violence or discrimination against particular groups [1].",["1"]],["Hate speech frequently aims to belittle, intimidate, or dehumanize individuals or entire communities, fostering an atmosphere of fear, hostility, and division.",[]],["Fundamentally, it serves as a tool for division and dehumanization, targeting individuals or groups based on inherent traits like race, religion, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, or disability.",[]]],"ex":[["verbal insults, slurs, derogatory remarks, threats, harassment, and the spread of hateful propaganda through various media, including social media, public speeches, publications, and online forums",["2","3"]],["verbal insults, slurs, derogatory remarks, threats, harassment, and the spread of hateful propaganda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["specifies what the good life is or should be around the world",[]]]},{"de":[["i.e., an analysis of how things are and why",[]],["seeking parsimonious causal explanations that rarely acknowledge the complex real-world conditions that give rise to harms or benefits",[]],["Primarily critical of mass media content and their often biased or negative representations",[]]]},{"de":[["seeks to identify and remove the impediments to well-being",[]]]},{"sy":[["positive freedoms",[]],["positive rights",[]]]},{"de":[["They seek to remove impediments or harms and they receive widespread support.",[]],["They seek to remove impediments or harms",[]]],"sy":[["negative freedoms",[]],["negative rights",[]]],"ex":[["children should be free from sexual or violent abuse and that, today, protection is required online as well as offline.",[]],["children should be free from sexual or violent abuse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Framing bias plays a significant role in exacerbating political polarization by distorting the perception of actual events.",[]],["Framing bias has become a pervasive problem in modern media, misleading the understanding of what really happened via a skewed selection of information and language",["Entman, 2007","Entman, , 2010","Gentzkow and Shapiro, 2006"]],["The most notable impact of framing bias is the amplified polarity between conflicting political parties and media outlets.",[]]],"rt":[["Lexical polarization",[]],["Informational polarization",[]],["polarization",[]]],"sb":[["informational",[]],["lexical",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Framing bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Framing bias",[]]],"ex":[["\"protest\" vs \"riot\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["predisposes individuals to embrace certain ideologies",[]],["hostility toward a wide variety of minority groups",[]],["fearful subservience to authority",[]],["suppressed resentment that manifests as hostility toward outgroups",[]]],"rt":[["outgroup hostility",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["9/11 terrorist attacks",[]]]},{"de":[["situates these constructs within broader social and structural dynamics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The social world is thus seen as \"dog-eat-dog world, \" where people have to do whatever is necessary to survive, obtain social status and privilege, even through amoral ways.",[]],["The goals fostered by this worldview are those of power and dominance, providing the belief that the strong and able win, the weak and unfit lose, indexed by high levels of SDO",["Duckitt et al., 2002"]]],"rt":[["SDO",[]],["SDO is the expression of Competitive World Beliefs (CWB)",["Duckitt, 2001"]]]},{},{"de":[["socialization in a poor, unequal environment where competition is often stimulated could foster the belief that the world is a competitive jungle, where one must struggle to overcome resource scarcity (i.e., CWB). This could in turn make the goal of obtaining power, dominance, and superiority over others salient, expressed by high levels of SDO",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["socialization in a dangerous environment marked by social instability and the constant presence of threats could foster the belief that the world is dangerous (i.e., DWB). This could in turn make the goals of social control, security, and conformity salient, expressed by high levels of RWA.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Overall, ideology could be defined as a set of beliefs about the proper goals of society and how they should be achieved (Tedin, 1987), warranting its conceptualization as an attitude as individuals can either endorse or reject ideas about the goals of society and the methods to achieve them",["Tedin, 1987"]],["individuals can either endorse or reject ideas about the goals of society and the methods to achieve them",["Ho et al., 2015(Ho et al., , p. 1028)"]]],"rt":[["attitudes",[]]]},{"de":[["authoritarians tend to adopt ideologies aligned with those propagated by the ruling class through media channels like the press and radio.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a dynamic that is particularly reinforced within mass movements such as fascism, where identification with a collective provides a sense of security",[]],["a dynamic that is particularly reinforced within mass movements such as fascism, where identification with a collective provides a sense of security.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["right-wing authoritarians often focus on how individuals should obey established authorities in society, particularly the leaders of their groups",[]],["It resembles the masochism described by Adorno et al. (1950), as right-wing authoritarians often focus on how individuals should obey established authorities in society, particularly the leaders of their groups",["Duckitt, 1989"]],["RWA is significantly associated with distinct facets of social conformity, such as describing oneself as a conforming and obedient person",["Jugert and Duckitt, 2009"]],["defending those group members from punishment if they offend group rules",["Stellmacher and Petzel, 2005"]],["supporting persecution against immigrants that refuse to assimilate into the dominant culture",["Thomsen et al., 2008"]]],"rt":[["Social Dominance Orientation",[]]]},{"sy":[["sadism",[]]]},{"de":[["indexing forceful oppression of low status groups and preference for group-based inequality",["Ho et al., 2015"]],["It resembles the sadistic tendency described by Fromm (1941) and Adorno et al. (1950), as it is significantly associated with prejudice against a wide array of groups",["Anderson and Ferguson, 2018","Ching et al., 2020","Gouveia et al., 2021","Lee et al., 2011","Mandalaywala et al., 2018","Pratto and Shih, 2000"]],["indexes the overt support to group-based dominance",[]]],"rt":[["It resembles the sadistic tendency described by Fromm (1941) and Adorno et al. (1950)",[]],["SDO is the expression of Competitive World Beliefs (CWB)",["Duckitt, 2001"]]]},{},{"de":[["posits that individuals in disadvantaged groups may support the status quo to reduce perceived threats to their social identity",["Jost, 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["Overall, worldviews refer to sets of beliefs and assumptions that describe reality, similar to a filter through which phenomena are perceived and comprehended (Miller and West, 1993)",["Miller and West, 1993"]]],"rt":[["attitudes",[]]]},{"de":[["which promotes noteworthy cohort effects.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["anti-vax content",[]]]},{"sp":[["anti-vax content",[]]]},{"sb":[["anti-vax narratives",[]],["anti-mandatory vaccination narratives",[]],["anti-vax conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"sb":[["vaccines cause side effects",[]],["vaccines are deadly",[]]],"sp":[["anti-vax content",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["involucra también eventos previos, como secuestro, tortura y violencia sexual",["Guerrero et al., 2022","Monárrez, 2019"]]],"rt":[["feminicidio",[]]]},{"de":[["Este concepto denuncia el fracaso y la complicidad de los Estados para prevenir y castigar estos actos.",[]]],"sy":[["femicidio",[]]],"rt":[["femicidio",[]]],"sb":[["mutilación de genitales",[]],["el aborto en condiciones inseguras",[]]]},{},{"de":[["evidenciando una visión del mundo",["Zullo, 2016"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["promueve impunidad para los agresores o femicidas, y la falta de justicia para las víctimas y sus familias (Monárrez, 2019)",["Monárrez, 2019"]]],"rt":[["enclave enunciativo patriarcal",[]]]},{"de":[["is viewed as an outcome of the broader process of structural and professional change",[]]],"sy":[["PR-ization",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["providing avenues for media content production and distribution",[]]]},{"de":[["this study will focus on digital hyperlocals only.",[]]],"sp":[["hyperlocals",[]]]},{"de":[["The most common topic covered by hyperlocals relate to community activities, local councils and the services they provide.",[]]]},{"de":[["innovative, bottom-up, technology-led and a viable alternative to the institutionalized model of news production",[]],["a vehicle through which the socially conscious entrepreneur can extend the plurality and diversity of journalism while serving society",["Harte et al., 2016"]],["have a news focus, a digital primary product, are locally based in the area that they cover, and that are independently owned and operated",[]]],"sy":[["hyperlocals",[]]]},{},{"de":[["local journalism is generally viewed in media research as a glue connecting local community by covering what's going on in the close neighbourhood",[]]]},{"de":[["The media void is considered a main motivation by several of the hyperlocal news initiatives.",[]]]},{"sy":[["churnalism",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["more or less hidden text advertising",[]],["sponsored journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Several media entrepreneurs have a strongly expressed position as a watchdog",[]]],"ex":[["Several media entrepreneurs have a strongly expressed position as a watchdog that monitors municipal policy and keeps residents informed.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Its aim is to counter government criticism and prevent collective action through strategic distraction and censorship",["King et al., 2017"]],["It operates by inserting pro-Chinese government comments into online conversations",["King et al., 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["based on the data extracted from users and the personalised stimuli platforms use to encourage user amplification, such as shock, social belonging, or humor",["Colomina & Sánchez, 2021","Jungherr & Schroeder, 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["astroturfing is also utilised for mudslinging ideas or actors, censoring, or repressing dissenting voices",["Berger, 2021"]],["astroturfing through creating fake accounts and trolling",[]],["horde-like astroturfing",[]],["easier to operate, identify, and block as opposed to rhetoric-focused campaigns",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This captured media system (Dragomir, 2018;Griffen, 2020) is not intended to control and limit power but to stabilise illiberal governance as a beneficiary and committed supporter.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["creating and disseminating misinformation about climate science and climate change in general",["2022, p. 121"]],["Maintain or transform the public agenda so that the desired framing is accepted as the common sense in that particular area, and assure that public opinion does not support climate action",[]],["Shape the media agenda to promote particular perspectives that cast doubt on actions to address climate change",[]],["Influence the political process to select policies that do not support climate action.",[]],["structures its discourses around fallacies of authority, suspicions of external pressures and conspiracies, as well as misdefinitions and erroneous analogies",["Heras (2018)","Vicente Torrico (2019)"]],["These postulates aim to undermine the credibility of political and scientific institutions and delay the adoption of social and economic measures.",[]],["Their goal is to maintain the economic status quo and discredit global consensus.",[]]],"sy":[["obstruction against climate change",[]]],"rt":[["climate denialism",[]]]},{"sp":[["Conceptual disorders",[]]]},{"sb":[["conceptual ambiguity",[]],["conceptual abuse",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["he describes these paranoiac stories as the poor person's desperate attempt to grasp their social system.",[]]]},{"de":[["conspiracy theories are widely considered a symptom of a general crisis of trust in government",["Bartlett & Miller, 2010","Goldberg, 2001","DiFonzo, 2019"]],["conspiracy theory is associated with populist politicians' common tool to vilify their opponents and/or support their parties",[]],["conspiracy theories could be used to express \"virulent hostility to racial, ethnic, religious, sexual, or political others\"",["Fenster, 2008, p. 11"]],["conspiracy theories offer people a way to understand the complexities of social relations in the postmodern age",[]],["paranoiac stories as the poor person's desperate attempt to grasp their social system",[]],["a conspiracy that explains \"a potentially infinite network, along with a plausible explanation of its invisibility\" only based on minimal basic components",["Jameson, 1992, p. 9"]],["Conspiracy theory could be one of the outcomes of disinformation since information disorder caused by disinformation creates an environment for conspiracy theories to thrive.",[]],["In party politics, conspiracy theory is associated with populist politicians' common tool to vilify their opponents and/or support their parties, which in turn, is a sign of the retreat of democratic values",["Plenta, 2020","Hellinger, 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["defence of human rights",[]],["political participation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["socially constructed",[]]]},{"de":[["interpreted, for example, as emanating from the normalisation of hate speech",[]],["physical or verbal aggression (direct violence) can be interpreted, for example, as emanating from the normalisation of hate speech, prejudices, and stereotypes against certain groups (cultural violence)",[]]],"rt":[["direct violence",[]],["structural violence",[]]],"sp":[["violence",[]],["direct violence",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["composed of visible events",[]]],"rt":[["cultural violence",[]],["structural violence",[]]],"sb":[["cultural violence",[]],["structural violence",[]]],"sp":[["violence",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In construing political disinformation as an industry, Ong and Cabañes (2019) use the wide array of scholarly insights on the production studies and the cultural analyses of media industries.",["Ong and Cabañes (2019)"]],["unpack political disinformation as a facet of the production culture-\"as both product and process emerging from organizational structures, labor relations, and entrepreneurial subjectivities\"",["Ong & Cabañes, 2019, p. 5772"]],["the disinformation industry is \"now established in several parts of the world\" including the Philippines, Russia, China, the US, and Iran",["Ong & Cabañes, 2019"]],["enabled by a vibrant social media space which has seen influencers and organised trolls being deployed to influence the political discourse online",[]]],"rt":[["production culture",[]],["political disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["disinformation narratives were generated in the Con Filo programme, with an emphasis on the use of discursive strategies such as irony, mockery, and exaggeration.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["disinformation strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["can be a threat to democracy as they create ideologically-based content where both users and algorithms filter out ideas, thus insulating themselves from rebuttal",["Cinelli et al., 2021"]]]},{"sp":[["obstructionist discourse",[]]]},{"sb":[["electoral autocracies",[]],["closed autocracies",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["populism",[]],["ethnic politics",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalistic fact-checking in the past century or so may have allowed news outlets to become trusted sources of information and, meanwhile, keep citizens objectively informed.",[]],["As news media have become more intertwined with digital tools and social media platforms, fact-checking processes have shifted toward a detection rather than a prevention mechanism.",[]],["can be divided into human-based and automated systems of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning",["Nguyen & Kyumin, 2019"]]],"rt":[["digital disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["human-based and automated systems of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning",[]]]},{"de":[["specifically aimed at combating the spread of fake news",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the government has the potential to overcome the familiarity bias trap (i.e., repeating a false claim strengthens the claim) because people hear the facts before they are exposed to the falsehoods.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["information operation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["illustrates how legal and social control systems are systematically dismantled in a way that facilitates the circulation of unimpeded government messaging across diverse social groups, generously funded by public resources.",[]],["This comprehensive propaganda model is so resource-intensive that it can only be carried out at the state level in practice, through the uncontrolled use of public money and the misuse of state power.",[]],["The aim of this propaganda model is to eliminate the checks and balances and make democratic competition impossible in an environment in which the illusory, formal skeleton of democratic limits and competition still exists.",[]],["This propaganda is therefore not simply aimed at convincing, enthusing, and mobilising, but at covering up government abuses and failures, disqualifying competitors, hiding or denigrating alternatives, and ultimately creating an illusory reality that is false in all its elements.",[]],["The aim of this propaganda model is to eliminate the checks and balances and make democratic competition impossible in an environment in which the illusory, formal skeleton of democratic limits and competition still exists. This propaganda is therefore not simply aimed at convincing, enthusing, and mobilising, but at covering up government abuses and failures, disqualifying competitors, hiding or denigrating alternatives, and ultimately creating an illusory reality that is false in all its elements.",[]],["It is therefore the most widespread and effective form of state-sponsored disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["state-sponsored disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["Foreign actors trying to manipulate and interfere with the information environment of other states use a variety of constantly evolving tactics, techniques, and procedures, often in combination with cybersecurity and hybrid threats (StratCom, 2021).",["StratCom, 2021"]],["FIMI is conducted by both state and non-state actors, as well as their proxies.",[]],["States use FIMI to destabilise foreign countries for their advantage; private companies provide \"disinformation for hire\" to amplify sensationalist content and to get financial gains (Goldstein and Grossman, 2021).",["Goldstein and Grossman, 2021"]],["The activity is manipulative and conducted in an intentional and coordinated manner. Its subjects may involve state or non-state entities, including their proxies inside and outside of their territory.",[]],["The report acknowledges that FIMI is routinely used to undermine public confidence in the democratic institutions' legitimacy and efficacy. It may contribute to an increased polarisation within the EU and escalate political violence in conflict-prone regions.",["StratCom, 2021"]],["The activity is manipulative and conducted in an intentional and coordinated manner.",[]],["Its subjects may involve state or non-state entities, including their proxies inside and outside of their territory.",[]],["FIMI is routinely used to undermine public confidence in the democratic institutions' legitimacy and efficacy.",[]],["It may contribute to an increased polarisation within the EU and escalate political violence in conflict-prone regions.",[]],["Foreign actors trying to manipulate and interfere with the information environment of other states use a variety of constantly evolving tactics, techniques, and procedures, often in combination with cybersecurity and hybrid threats",["StratCom, 2021"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",["StratCom, 2021"]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["soft power",[]]]},{"de":[["These messages have some basic features, such as the dehumanisation of a target group and the reinforcement of a positive in-group feeling",["Ibrahim, 2019","Kojan et al., 2020","Uyheng et al., 2022"]]]},{"de":[["combine hate speech and disinformation against vulnerable minorities persist in the 21st century as a strategy intimately connected to direct violence and frequently sponsored by specific governments",[]],["verbal attacks and distortions of facts have been used effectively to incite violence and discrimination against specific populations",[]],["hate speech uses disinformation and constitutes a predictor of direct violence, including mass atrocities",[]],["We understand hate speech, on the other hand, as",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["incitement",[]]],"sb":[["incitement",[]]]},{"de":[["partisanly and ideologically driven is therefore more of a circling the wagons for self-preservation and power consolidation, where the state's information and communication system becomes more ideological, partisan, binary, and exploits an us vs. them approach.",[]]],"sp":[["state-sponsored disinformation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the claim of infodemic became a motto to indiscriminately refer to information or disinformation.",[]],["as people shared misleading content on the origin, spread, prevention, cure, and vaccines",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["the explicit analysis of information as a concept is relatively recent and intimately bound to the rapid development of the so-called information technologies during the last two decades.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In information attacks, the objects of influence have been predetermined. Planning is based on sufficiently accurate information about these objects.",[]]],"sp":[["information operation",[]]]},{"de":[["information disorder caused by disinformation creates an environment for conspiracy theories to thrive.",[]],["national consultations contribute to the information disorder by attempting to control political discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Several researchers warn of the negative consequences generated by infotainment, such as the risk of using it as a way of disguising disinformation (Prior, 2003;Nguyen, 2012;Jebril et al., 2013).",["Prior, 2003","Nguyen, 2012","Jebril et al., 2013"]],["Several researchers warn of the negative consequences generated by infotainment, such as the risk of using it as a way of disguising disinformation",["Prior, 2003","Nguyen, 2012","Jebril et al., 2013"]]],"rt":[["mockery",[]],["irony",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["misinformation which involves involuntary errors",[]],["Misinformation and disinformation refer to \"sharing incorrect, inaccurate, or misleading content, but they are separated by intentionality.",["Armitage & Vaccari, 2021, p. 34"]],["While misinformation entails accidentally sharing inaccurate content, disinformation constitutes deliberate deception, often based on outright fabrications",["Armitage & Vaccari, 2021, p. 34"]],["a tool to manipulate public opinion at domestic and international levels",["3"]],["In other words, misinformation is the spread of false information, but it is sent or shared without harmful intent.",[]],["unintended false information",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",["Boese et al., , p. 1003"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",["Hameleers (2020)","Armitage & Vaccari, 2021, p. 34"]],["information disorder",[]]]},{"sb":[["exaggeration/hyperbolisation",[]],["unilateral coverage",[]],["conflict framing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["dependence of media outlets on advertising revenue and lending deepened over time, reinforcing the triangle of intertwinement (Kaitatzi-Whitlock, 2014a, Iosifidis & Boucas, 2015).",["(Kaitatzi-Whitlock, 2014a, Iosifidis & Boucas, 2015)"]]]},{"de":[["The \"questions\" sent to each voter do not constitute a real consultation, since their phrasing and the answer options predetermine the intended direction of the outcome.",[]]]},{"rt":[["populism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["neoliberalism is not just a model of political economy but has extensively penetrated into the social and cultural aspects of people's lives and practically shapes individuals' perceptions",["Colaguori, 2023","McGuigan, 2014","Scharff, 2016"]],["under the neoliberal system, every human domain is framed and measured by economic terms and metrics, even when those domains are not directly monetised.",[]],["neoliberalism is not just about money, markets, and the economy but a condition under which raw economic rationality is applied to all dimensions of human life.",[]],["under the neoliberal system, every human domain is framed and measured by economic terms and metrics, even when those domains are not directly monetised",["2015"]]]},{"de":[["comprises three dimensions: access and use; critical understanding; and participation and production processes",["Richter, 2019"]]],"sp":[["media literacy",["Richter, 2019"]]]},{"sb":[["scientific approach",[]],["economic frame",[]],["Political refusal",[]],["redefinition of the issue",[]]]},{"de":[["attempts by the government to shift blame for failure to opposition party through disinformation, where every ill-policy or misstep is blamed on the opposition party.",[]]],"sp":[["state-sponsored disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Political actors appear to have mastered the art of strategically deploying false and misleading content as a weapon to gain political advantage",["Morgan, 2018"]],["whenever people intentionally begin spreading false information to deceive and manipulate others, they have turned misinformation into disinformation.",[]],["Disinformation too can become misinformation if, or when, people put out or spread false information without realising its deceptive origin or intent.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["Political misinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["divisive narratives",[]],["misinformation",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]]]},{"sp":[["obstructionist discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["craft a narrative that pits the virtuous 'people' against purportedly 'corrupt' elites.",[]],["expressing populist ideas through people-centric, anti-expert, and evidence-free discourse.",[]],["The above definition of populism mainly applies to certain left-wing forms of the phenomenon but contrasts sharply with right-wing forms like the Trump movement in the US and Brexit.",[]],["populism forwards negativity, conflict, and incivility whilst foregrounding ordinary people's feelings and experiences",[]],["populism essentially blames the elites-who can be politicians, corporations, media elites, or supra-national institutions-for causing the negative developments that are experienced by the silenced and powerless people",["Hameleers et al., 2017","Müller et al., 2017"]],["the morally superior view on one side and the corrupt elites on the other",[]],["It also rejects key principles of public communication, including the role of watchdog journalism, unfettered speech, state protection of speech rights, citizens' access to public information, and the centrality of deliberation across differences.",["Waisbord, 2018, p. 2"]],["Elements commonly present in contemporary politics, such as personalising political communication, uncivil discourse, and politicians' obsession with media",["Waisbord, 2018"]],["places the state at the center of media systems and approaches market and civil society as opposed or subjected to the designs of the government. It sees journalism as inevitably divided between 'popular-national' and 'foreign-oligarchic' interests, and views the state as a necessary instrument to redress imbalances in democracies and press systems",["Waisbord, 2013"]],["For Laclau, populism is established when a leader incites a series of unsatisfied and socially dispersed demands, making them equivalent and parts of the whole represented by the signifier \"people\".",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["nationalism",[]],["the people",[]],["the elite",[]],["radical antagonism",[]],["personalising political communication",[]],["uncivil discourse",[]],["politicians' obsession with media",[]]],"ex":[["Trump's campaign to further isolate America by blocking southern immigration",[]],["Brexiteers' xenophobic ideas",[]],["the tendency for citizens to vote for extreme parties in EU countries like France, Germany, Denmark, Greece, Spain, and Finland",[]]]},{"de":[["Populist communication has been referred to as people-centric, conflictfocused, emotionalised (i.e., through anger and fear expressed toward the outgroup), and based on common sense and gut feelings rather than rationality",["Ernst et al., 2019","Hameleers et al., 2017","Schmuck & Hameleers, 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This concern is manifested in a constant preoccupation with accusations of dishonesty, which in turn promotes public scepticism and distrust.",[]]],"rt":[["The post-truth system is embedded in a culture saturated with promotionalism and propaganda.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["propaganda to annihilate the enemy's morale and credibility",[]],["publicly funded political messages are disseminated unhindered, uncritically, and as widely as possible.",[]],["It usually relies on the creation of enemies, stereotyping, and the simplification of language, images, and content, and defines the election as a choice between different political systems (old vs. new, elite vs. power of the masses, good vs. evil), thus denying the legitimacy of political competition within a democratic framework.",[]],["In the context of this study, propaganda is a tool of political influence that destroys the functioning of the democratic public sphere and ultimately deprives the electorate of the possibility of democratic decision-making.",[]],["The primary aim of propaganda is manipulation, often using untrue statements.",[]],["The aim of propaganda is not to communicate information but to convince on an emotional basis, and this type of communication is therefore, indifferent to the truth of the message.",[]],["It usually relies on the creation of enemies, stereotyping, and the simplification of language, images, and content, and defines the election as a choice between different political systems (old vs. new, elite vs. power of the masses, good vs. evil), thus denying the legitimacy of political competition within a democratic framework. In the context of this study, propaganda is a tool of political influence that destroys the functioning of the democratic public sphere and ultimately deprives the electorate of the possibility of democratic decision-making.",[]]]},{"de":[["1. High-volume and multichannel: propaganda messages are delivered to audiences across a wide range of platforms and genres, not only through all possible forms of media channels but through educational and cultural institutions as well. Messages are essentially the same across all platforms and formats.",[]],["2. Rapid, continuous, and repetitive: the propaganda machine can react very quickly to new situations, changing topics, picking up and releasing narratives in a matter of seconds. The rapid changes of topics also mean that this communication dominates public discourse at any given moment, continually diverting the audience's attention to newer and newer topics, leaving no room for refuting certain falsehoods or for any real debate.",[]],["3. Lacks commitment to objective reality: propaganda messages use the truth according to their own intentions. They are not necessarily based on blunt lies, although they do not shy away from them. The messages are usually truthful, but the real elements are framed and taken out of context. The selective and manipulative use of reality makes propaganda messages even more difficult to refute.",[]],["4. Lacks commitment to consistency: just as conspiracy theories are generally inconsistent, and believers in them do not expect consistency, so are government narratives composed of partially contradictory elements.",[]],["The wording of the questionnaires sent to all households is inherently highly propositional, pushing a single correct position.",[]],["The associated media campaigns flood all communication platforms, from street posters to talk shows on pro-government television to Facebook.",[]],["Each consultation focuses on the latest political enemy or political success, yet often repeats themes from previous consultations.",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy theorising",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Facts and truth are sacrificed for partisanship, citizens become more disinformed and deceived, and public communication by the state becomes more ideologically partisan, derailing democracy further.",[]]],"rt":[["partisan disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["obstructionist discourse",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is different from soft power because it is not about attraction or persuasion, but manipulation, distraction, confusion, division, and repression",["Cardenal et al., 2017","(Cardenal et al., 2017)"]],["unlike soft power, sharp power lacks transparency, accountability, journalistic integrity, and diversity of thought and focuses on political, rather than cultural, aims, such as advancing state narratives.",["Cardenal et al., 2017"]],["Moreover, unlike soft power, sharp power lacks transparency, accountability, journalistic integrity, and diversity of thought and focuses on political, rather than cultural, aims, such as advancing state narratives.",[]],["aimed to distract, manipulate the public opinion, and to influence the political and information environments in Ukraine.",[]],["sharp power lacks transparency, accountability, journalistic integrity, and diversity of thought and focuses on political, rather than cultural, aims, such as advancing state narratives",["Cardenal et al., 2017"]],["Russia's \"sharp power\" influence is \"not principally about attraction or even persuasion; instead, it centres on distraction and manipulation\"",["Walter and Ludwig, 2017"]]],"rt":[["soft power",[]]],"sb":[["information warfare: propaganda, media manipulation, and disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["media manipulation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["information warfare",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Soft power is based on attraction and persuasion rather than force or coercion.",[]],["The concept is increasingly used in media and communication studies in relation to the capabilities of the media to confer power by shaping discursive regimes, framing issues, and setting agendas",["Chitty et al., 2017","Goldsmith & Horiuchi, 2012"]],["confer authority and legitimacy to strategic narratives",[]]],"rt":[["hard power",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["disinformation that are sponsored by the State institutions in several countries around the world, such as governments, political parties, and politicians",[]],["given its context-bound and far from homogeneous nature",[]],["This effort is coordinated because it puts the state at the center of broader elite power circuits that foster environments conducive to disinformation. The ultimate goal of state-sponsored disinformation is to gain political and economic dominance by controlling public discourse and opinions.",[]],["state-sponsored disinformation is no longer reserved for authoritarians and dictators. It has infiltrated the Western democratic world",[]],["we must now recognise the painful truth that, even in a Western democracy, disinformation is difficult to stop, particularly when it comes from the political elite.",[]],["there are no institutions ready to deal with domestic, homegrown, politically charged disinformation.",[]],["state-sponsored disinformation campaigns that use statistics to undermine the other side.",[]],["publicly funded political messages are disseminated unhindered, uncritically, and as widely as possible.",[]],["By radically restructuring the ownership and financing of the media system, it builds up an effective infrastructure for the dissemination of disinformation at public expense and uses this infrastructure to mass-produce and disseminate disinformation messages at public expense.",[]],["targeted at citizens and democratic institutions like the press, elections, and issues of public accountability",[]],["an effective lubricant for authoritarian practices",[]],["political deception of citizens becomes a distinctive feature of statecraft",[]],["circling the wagons for self-preservation and power consolidation, where the state's information and communication system becomes more ideological, partisan, binary, and exploits an us vs. them approach.",[]],["the disruptive nature of state-sponsored disinformation, geared towards encroachment of liberal-democratic tenets of truth, transparency, and trust; including attempts to pull down constitutional firewalls for accountability and the rights of the public to know",[]],["the state has amalgamated digital technologies into its disinformation operations, especially during various general elections",[]],["the desire therefore will be to sustain the political deception and hoodwink citizens with more partisan and ideological disinformation in governing",[]]],"rt":[["strategic planning",[]],["privileged access to material and symbolic resources",[]],["sophistication",[]],["perceived legitimacy",[]],["institutional power",[]],["corporate and media collusion",[]],["government propaganda",[]],["firehose of falsehood",[]],["electoral, partisan, and ideological disinformation",[]],["propagandocracy",[]],["electoral, partisan, and ideological-driven disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["electoral disinformation",[]],["ideological disinformation",[]],["partisan disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which can in turn be institutionally sanctioned through state-sponsored social and economic discrimination (structural violence)",[]]],"rt":[["direct violence",[]],["cultural violence",[]]],"sp":[["violence",[]],["direct violence",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["thick concepts and theories are unwieldy in generalizing or rigorously testing complex hypotheses",[]],["thick concepts involve more complexity and multidimensionality, they are context-dependent",[]],["thick concepts aim to profusely describe a phenomenon, as well as its dimensions, but they are not fully appliable to other contexts",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["But \"thick concepts and theories are unwieldy in generalizing or rigorously testing complex hypotheses\".",[]],["While thick concepts involve more complexity and multidimensionality, they are context-dependent.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["because unsatisfactory responses to these questions may make the questioner increase pressure on cabinets through other procedures (e.g. interpellations and motions of censure).",[]]]},{"de":[["government officials are subject to bounded rationality, preventing them from reacting proportionally to changing circumstances",["Jones, Larsen-Price, & Wilkerson, 2009, p. 282"]],["studies show that government officials are subject to bounded rationality, preventing them from reacting proportionally to changing circumstances",[]]]},{"de":[["Friction creates a bottleneck of attention, limiting the number of problems dealt with at any given time",["Jones & Baumgartner, 2005"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They are mostly seen as oversight tools.",[]],["Parties, notably when in opposition, use questions to control the conduct of government, i.e. to force ministers to justify their actions or disclose relevant details.",[]],["MPs may also ask locally oriented questions as a constituency service",[]],["use questions to gain publicity to advance their career",[]],["questions are widely used to challenge the government and press ministers to pay attention to a specific issue",[]]],"sy":[["parliamentary questions",[]],["oral questions",[]]]},{"de":[["Even though these questions are often asked for purely informational reasons, they can be defined as accountability ('control') tools(Wiberg, 1995), because unsatisfactory responses to these questions may make the questioner increase pressure on cabinets through other procedures (e.g. interpellations and motions of censure).",["Wiberg, 1995"]]],"rt":[["oral parliamentary questions",[]]],"sb":[["oral questions",[]]]},{"de":[["an attempt to shed light on how attention travels between various political, societal and media actors",["Baumgartner and Jones in the U.S. (2005,1993)","Baumgartner et al., 2019","Green-Pedersen & Walgrave, 2014"]]]},{"de":[["We use a weak understanding of causation as \"temporal precedence\".",[]]]},{"de":[["Alternative media need always be discussed as a reflection of society, since they are a result of the cultural and, thus, temporal environment of society.",[]]]},{"de":[["That is, alternative media are critical of the general public discourse, and this is reflected in their critical stance towards traditional media, which are perceived as the main driver of the general public discourse.",[]]]},{"de":[["von Nordheim et al. (2019) differentiate between reactive and autonomous media",[]]],"rt":[["reactive",[]]]},{"de":[["von Nordheim et al. (2019) differentiate between reactive and autonomous media",[]]],"rt":[["autonomous",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a form of semantic manipulation of multimedia data where untampered images are reused in combination with falsified metadata to spread misinformation",[]],["Image repurposing with manipulated textual and location data has been studied more specifically in [24].",["24"]],["in real cases of image repurposing, the audience does not see the query image (the first column) as a part of the information package (e.g., a fake news article) but only one of the fake candidates.",[]],["Unmanipulated images are often reused in this way to spread misinformation about a similar yet different entity or event.",[]]],"ex":[["a fake news article",[]],["lookalike",[]],["incorrect location",[]],["wrongly-claimed artist",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It renders concerns about insecurity and crisis the norm, rather than an exception to normal ways of thinking and acting in politics.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["display a shared political will to enact policymaking especially about a problematized policy issue that allegedly requires urgent intervention",["Hajer 1993"]]]},{"de":[["discourse institutionalization will occur if it meets two conditions: certain positions, practices and the conceptual machinery (storylines, metaphors, argumentative schemes, etc.) related to a discourse dominate the discursive space and central actors are forced to accept the rhetorical power of a new discourse; and the ideas of a given discourse infiltrate into the institutional practices of the political domain.",["Hajer (1993, 48)"]]]},{},{"ex":[["the AKP employed the term \"LGBT\" as an empty signifier",[]],["LGBT",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["gender mainstreaming, gendered accounts of violence, gender studies, reproductive rights, and non-normative sexualities",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence",[]]]},{"de":[["Reisigl and Wodak (2009) underline that nomination (how events/objects/persons are referred to) and predication (what characteristics are attributed to them) play a key role in populist discursive strategies to distinguish between the ingroup and outgroup.",["Reisigl and Wodak (2009)"]]],"rt":[["predication",[]]]},{"rt":[["ontological security",[]]]},{"rt":[["ontological insecurity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["political homophobia in illiberal populist regimes operates as a \"technology of othering\" reinforcing the hegemony of antagonistic political imaginaries",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Post-truth discourse and its tools such as mis/disinformation, \"alternative facts,\" conspiracy theories, and the general distrust of expert knowledge are intrinsically linked to the populist juxtaposition of the \"common sense\" wisdom of ordinary people with the \"expert knowledge\" of elites",["Waisbord 2018"]]],"rt":[["mis/disinformation",[]],["alternative facts",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["post-truth discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["Reisigl and Wodak (2009) underline that nomination (how events/objects/persons are referred to) and predication (what characteristics are attributed to them) play a key role in populist discursive strategies to distinguish between the ingroup and outgroup.",["Reisigl and Wodak (2009)"]]],"rt":[["nomination",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["protest frames",["McLeod and Hertog (1999)"]],["Framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["protest frames",["McLeod and Hertog (1999)"]],["Framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This study is based on Feminist Media Theory that checks the rationality of gender representation in media and media content.",[]]]},{"sy":[["main storyline or perspective of a news story",[]]],"sb":[["riot",[]],["confrontation",[]],["spectacle",[]],["debate",[]]],"sp":[["Framing theory",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing involves selecting what to emphasize or omit, much like a photographer framing a picture or a house frame shaping construction style.",[]],["Framing theory, recently embraced by researchers focusing on media coverage of gender politics, is a valuable tool for examining how political women are portrayed.",[]]]},{"de":[["This notion of care somehow essentializes non-violences and romanticizes the non-possibility of ferocity in the protests.",[]]]},{"de":[["which substantiates the emotional appeal and lends credibility to the narrative.",[]]],"ex":[["An exemplary illustration of this approach can be observed in case S3, where an emotionally compelling statement is supported by empirical data and statistics, resulting in a more convincing story format.",[]]]},{"de":[["through family sentiments to influence the minds of readers",[]]],"sy":[["emotional appeal",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["protest frames",["McLeod and Hertog (1999)"]],["Framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["protest frames",["McLeod and Hertog (1999)"]],["Framing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["by taking the input claim as valid",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["automated fact-checking",["6"]]]},{"de":[["introducing unintended and irrelevant text in the generation process",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It provides a rationale also known as a natural language explanation (NLE) to justify a model's prediction.",[]],["Rationalization can be an attractive explainable technique because it is intuitive and humancomprehensible, and does not require domain knowledge [10].",["10"]],["It is a type of local explanation because there is a unique explanation for each prediction [11].",["11"]],["Rationalization frames explainability as an outcome-explanation problem.",[]]],"sp":[["local explanation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Recent years' developments in the media landscape have augmented these processes and made it increasingly easy to self-select a media diet consonant with existing views.",[]],["citizens both more and more ascribe (perceived) political positions to media organizations and outlets and increasingly select and process news and information based on (perceived) political preference congruence",["2","8"]]],"rt":[["polarization",["10"]],["attitude extremity",["11"]],["incivility",[]]]},{"rt":[["political selective exposure (PSE)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Individuals who have been labeled face escalating difficulties in reclaiming social acceptance, often becoming trapped in a deepening cycle of marginalization and deviance.",[]]]},{"sy":[["mukah",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The theory underscores that crime is not an intrinsic quality of any behavior but rather a socially constructed category shaped by prevailing norms, laws, and power structures.",["52"]],["The labeling process is inherently discriminatory, where those with greater societal power can often avoid social stigma. At the same time, marginalized or vulnerable groups are more easily branded as criminals.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Temuan menunjukkan bahwa pelabelan sosial dalam kasus zina tidak semata-mata dipengaruhi oleh norma agama dan adat, tetapi juga oleh struktur kekuasaan di dalam komunitas",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Becker's labeling theory",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["trustworthiness",[]],["reliability",[]],["believability",[]],["integrity",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["traditional media",[]]],"ex":[["Newspapers, Television, and Radio news",[]]]},{"sp":[["active listener's theory",[]]]},{"sy":[["perception of message credibility and uses",[]]],"sp":[["active listener's theory",[]]]},{"sp":[["active listener's theory",[]]]},{"ex":[["Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, etc.",[]],["Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram",[]]]},{"de":[["how media contributes its quota in the lives of those that use it, i.e., its audience.",[]]],"sy":[["UGT",[]],["active audience theories",[]]],"rt":[["active audience theories",[]],["selective exposure",[]],["selective perception",[]],["selective retention",[]]]},{"de":[["Blame can be resisted and communicated through various avoidance, minimization, and denial strategies.",[]]],"rt":[["responsibility",[]]]},{"de":[["a communication blame strategy",["Cope, 2016, forthcoming"]]],"rt":[["secondary-voice dialogistic positioning",[]]],"ex":[["The quoted source, President Bush, thus distances himself from Greenspan's unintended actions and exemplifies blame-shifting",[]]]},{"de":[["The verb 'blame' in the example illustrates how blaming constitutes a speech act",[]]]},{"sb":[["Self-quotation",["Maynard, 1996"]]],"sp":[["direct quotation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["opinion text",[]]]},{"sy":[["opinion piece",[]],["op-eds",[]],["commentaries",[]]]},{"de":[["linguistic analyses investigate the language of quoting frames -how the quoted source is specified, the quoting verb used, e.g., strong meanings (demanded, thundered, promised) or neutral (said, told) -and evaluate the language of propositional content in quotations.",[]]]},{"de":[["the quoting frame seems to be as important as the quoted material in terms of understanding intertextual positioning",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["constitutes a further type within lengthy quotations",[]]],"sp":[["lengthy quotations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["While reliance on assumed knowledge can help to reduce the numbers of words in a text, it can also constrain understanding to audience members with culturally or contextually related knowledge of those events. Because they are socially and culturally context-dependent, these types of quotations position the writer (and hence audience) intertextually as an insider.",[]]],"rt":[["signifier",[]]]},{"sb":[["personalization -the source is represented as human (personalized) or nonhuman (impersonalized)",[]],["specification -the source is a specific individual or a specific group or a generic class",[]],["grouping -the source is an individual or a grouping",[]],["status -the source's status level in terms of high, low, or unclear according to its authority or power in the community",[]]]},{"de":[["non-likeminded, or cross-cutting information provides for greater awareness of one's own and others' political perspectives and adds to political tolerance among citizens from all social backgrounds and credos.",[]],["the benefits (political tolerance, awareness of multiple views) are only reaped by highly motivated individuals.",[]],["That is, we calculate the distance between his/her evaluation of the national government's record, and the average evaluation found in news stories of the outlets he/she encounters on a weekly basis.",[]],["The use of governmental evaluations to measure cross-cutting exposure is an informative heuristic that allows us to investigate people's and media's stand on a general ideological outlook.",[]],["The benefits of frequent cross-cutting exposure are manifold. As Mutz (2006) notes, non-likeminded, or cross-cutting information provides for greater awareness of one's own and others' political perspectives and adds to political tolerance among citizens from all social backgrounds and credos.",[]],["The concept has important implications for the quality of democracy because it is associated with greater tolerance (Mutz, 2002a), legitimacy, and satisfaction with the system and its outcomes (Esterling, Fung, & Lee, 2015); political knowledge with the outlook of future interactions (Eveland, 2004); argument repertoire in support of opposing viewpoints (Price et al., 2002); and has mobilizing effects (Nir, 2011).",[]]],"sy":[["non-likeminded",[]],["cross-cutting news media exposure",[]],["non-likeminded, or cross-cutting information",[]],["cross-cutting media exposure",[]],["XME",[]]],"rt":[["political interest",[]]],"ex":[["The measure ranges from 0 to 2, where 0 represents non-exposure to cross-cutting viewpoints, 1 is moderate levels, and 2 is the highest degree of exposure to cross-cutting information",[]]]},{"de":[["we calculate the distance between his/her evaluation of the national government's record, and the average evaluation found in news stories of the outlets he/she encounters on a weekly basis",[]]],"sy":[["XME",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The resulting adjusted R2 accounts for the degree of variance of party preference explained by media use patterns.",[]]],"rt":[["media politicization",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["predigested news",[]]],"rt":[["abstractive summarization",[]]]},{"sy":[["recognition",[]],["identification",[]]]},{"de":[["quotes untampered images from other sources maliciously to polish its statement and mislead the readers",["1"]],["deceive the multimodal learning networks and readers into trusting the news even more",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This includes several groups theorized in the literature: governing elites, economic elites. We exclude political elites (another group theorized in the literature): council members, majors, senators, deputies, etc.",[]]]},{"de":[["including negative mentions of Ursula von der Leyen, Brussels or other symbols of the EC and EU institutions",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["ideology and issue dimensions",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["If Macron was as brave as Putin we wouldn't have terrorism in France",[]]]},{},{"de":[["includes displaying European symbols, or describing oneself as European, or working on European organization",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Collaborative networks",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["is at a disadvantage in the attention economy that favors viral and emotionally laden content",["Degen et al., 2024"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["often gets in the way of journalism's democratic function",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["hate speech classification",[]]]},{"de":[["ex-plicit lexicon based hate speech posts collectedfrom popular social media sites like Twitter andGab",[]]],"sy":[["explicit hate",[]]],"rt":[["implicit hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["implicit hate speech is more contextual in nature and requires more understanding",[]],["implicit hate speech containingindirect/coded language",[]],["higher layers encode implicit hate information",[]],["making it extremely harmful and difficult",["ElSherief et al., 2021"]],["implicit hate speech is more contextual in nature and requires more understanding, while explicit hate speech can be detected by leveraging lower-level information",[]]],"sy":[["implicit hate",[]]],"rt":[["explicit hate speech",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Political branding attempts to facilitate trust with citizens and influence behaviour like voting for a particular party (Karens et al., 2016).",["Karens et al., 2016"]],["Clever branding can influence an individual's perspectives on a policy even for those not emotionally invested (Alon-Barkat, 2020).",["Alon-Barkat, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["While these terms have specific legal meanings, they are often used interchangeably in colloquial usage.",[]],["the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees distinction in terminology that argues for the use of \"refugee\" (rather than migrants) because using the term \"migrant\" ignores the need that many have for protection.",[]]],"sy":[["migrant",[]]],"rt":[["migrant",[]],["asylum seekers",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The technology that allows the creator of deepfakes to put any words into the mouth of any person on the video, to show the events which have never taken place so that it is impossible to detect a fake from truth is considered the most dangerous information weapon of our time.",[]],["a depiction of what does not exist in reality",[]],["constructed according to certain canons and rules, using propaganda and manipulative influence mechanisms.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["post-truth",[]]]},{"de":[["Deepfakes are another mendacious genre form in the intercultural political space.",[]]]},{"de":[["In modern conditions of existence (mass media and electronic media), the prototype sample of the news genre is transformed, reduced, and receives new forms of implementation.",[]],["a depiction of what does not exist in reality",[]],["constructed according to certain canons and rules, using propaganda and manipulative influence mechanisms.",[]]],"rt":[["deepfake",[]],["post-truth",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which can also depend on the requirements of the present moment, the social atmosphere, the author's political views and the aims of the concrete publication",["Bogoyavlenskaya, Nakhimova, Chudinov, 2016: 40"]]]},{"de":[["It is connected with \"answering questions one was not asked\".",["Waterford, 2013"]],["It also \"involves allowing oneself to be distracted, during the answer, and going off in some other direction so that one never does address the question asked\"",["Waterford, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["The audience interprets the image according to the existing cognitive frame, and the interaction of the two frames realizes the transmission of meaning between the sender and receiver.",[]]],"rt":[["news framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Broadly speaking, it is a set of values, worldviews, attitudes, and behaviors that reflect an individual's concerns about the environment",["Atwater, T., 1988"]]]},{},{"de":[["The purpose of its creation is to enable the public to avoid environmental risks.",["Hannigan (2009)"]]],"sb":[["light green",["Zang Guoren, 1999"]],["dark green",["Zang Guoren, 1999"]]]},{"rt":[["framing effects",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a mechanism for selecting, rearranging, and arranging facts and materials that the media uses to \"represent facts.\"",["Zang Guoren (1999)"]]],"rt":[["news framing",[]],["audience framing",[]],["frame limit",[]],["framework",[]]],"sb":[["frame limit",[]],["framework",[]],["The high layer refers to the setting of the agenda and the selection of news content",[]],["the middle layer is the information material of the reason and influence of the news content",[]],["micro level involves news events, involves linguistic and rhetorical issues in news discourse",["Deegan, C., 1996"]],["the first level is the \"frame limit\", how people observe the world, and the scope of observation of objective things and objective objects",["Gamson (1981)"]],["The second level is \"framework\", that is, the worldview in which people observe objective things.",["Gamson (1981)"]]]},{"sp":[["Frame",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frame",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Information sources are individuals or organizations that store information that can be queried, such as government agencies, consulting agencies, industry organizations, friends, family, and the like",["Trumbo, C., 1996"]],["A variety of physical or digital media through which information sources can provide underlying information, data or symbols, which, if adopted, may affect the recipient's state of knowledge",["Williams, A., 2015"]]]},{},{"sp":[["environmental news",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["news framework",[]]],"sb":[["the macro level involves news topics",[]],["the meso level involves the details of news events, including news sources and positions",[]],["the micro level involves news events, involves linguistic and rhetorical issues in news discourse",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["audience framing",[]]]},{"de":[["These include summaries of the results of waste separation, positive comments from the media on waste separation, suggestions from experts and scholars, and positive coverage with words such as \"New fashion\" and \"Promising\".",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the process of disseminating news, journalists and news organizations with different class positions, political attitudes, academic viewpoints, basic concepts, economic interests, cultural literacy, and hobbies will show different opinions, such as right and wrong, praise and criticism, love and hate, etc. tendencies.",["Wakefield, S. E., 2003"]]],"sy":[["Reporting propensity",[]]]},{"rt":[["media",[]]]},{"sb":[["generic news frame",["Yan Chunlong, 2008"]],["topic-specific news frames",["Yan Chunlong, 2008"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It is of vital importance to distinguish that \"religion\" according to journalism is far from the same thing as the actual variety of existing religious opinion",[]]]},{"de":[["interestingly, a hallmark of religious preaching-and organized by careful ideological framing",["222"]],["Scandal is animated in part by the constancy of core narratives through changing cultural formations over space and time",["228"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["visual content has been usually related to statistical data expressed through various graphics, maps, or depicting long queues of people regarding the administration on borders and in camps along the borders",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["victimization frame",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["images depicting migrants in various sub-frames, e.g. victims of war, smuggling, crime or transport",[]],["migrants and refugees appear as victims of smuggling, trafficking, illegal trespassing and maltreatment along the borders, where their actual suffering or personal context of victimization has been left out from the analyzed images",[]]],"rt":[["migrants as victims",[]]],"sp":[["visual media framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["affective polarization is an important mediator linking partisan media exposure and the spread of misinformation.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the consistency of signals with existing values and cultural outlooks affects the weight or importance individuals attribute to signals when they update their perceptions",["Pogarsky et al., 2017"]],["people pursue evidence and signals that reinforce their group predisposition and culture.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["strategic manoeuvring",[]]]},{},{"de":[["crucially undermine their trustworthiness",["Ouyang et al., 2022"]],["which feature the outputs of Large Language Models",["Ouyang et al., 2022"]]],"sy":[["untruthful outputs",[]]]},{"sp":[["strategic manoeuvring",[]]]},{"sb":[["Topical choice",[]],["Audience adaptation",[]],["Presentational devices",[]]]},{"sp":[["strategic manoeuvring",[]]]},{},{"de":[["prepares the ground excellently for the first type of violence",[]],["governs through normalization and attrition",[]]],"rt":[["siege",[]],["restriction",[]],["enclosure",[]],["deprivation",[]]],"ex":[["restricting its borders, airspace, and maritime access",[]],["limited the movement of goods and people",[]],["prohibited the ill from accessing specialized medical care",[]],["prevented students from pursuing educational opportunities abroad",[]],["constrained professional mobility",[]]]},{"sp":[["encuadre enunciativo",[]]]},{"rt":[["acto de habla proposicional",[]]],"sp":[["encuadre enunciativo",[]]]},{"rt":[["acto de habla ilocutivo",[]]],"sp":[["encuadre enunciativo",[]]]},{"de":[["desde la preparación de las candidaturas, hasta la organización y participación en debates, mítines, o cualquier otro evento, así como los pronósticos electorales.",[]]],"ex":[["Grupos radicales hostigan los mítines de Vox en el País Vasco",[]],["Atacan de madrugada la sede nacional de Vox",[]],["La Junta Electoral veta a Vox para el debate, pero permite a Junqueras hacer campaña",[]],["Henríquez de Luna, exconcejal del PP con Esperanza Aguirre, se pasa a Vox",[]],["Vox supera a Cs y PSOE en el Ayuntamiento de Madrid",[]]]},{"de":[["Constituye por tanto una muestra de heterogeneidad discursiva, un alejamiento enunciativo del periodista que declina su responsabilidad ilocutiva en una parte de su discurso, lo que le permite mostrar su actitud irónica o su postura crítica",[]]],"rt":[["heterogeneidad discursiva",[]],["alejamiento enunciativo",[]],["responsabilidad ilocutiva",[]],["procedimientos de reproducción del discurso ajeno",[]]]},{"de":[["Como \"citador social\",",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Como ha puesto de manifiesto Reyes (1984: 206),",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["acto de habla ilocutivo",[]],["acto de habla proposicional",[]],["actancialidad",[]]]},{"de":[["favoreciendo o bien el debate político de ideas y el compromiso cívico, o bien el predominio de asuntos banales, el conflicto político, el escándalo, y el espectáculo de la política.",[]]]},{"rt":[["estrategias de encuadre interactivo",[]]]},{"de":[["un género textual básicamente integrado por formas diferentes de reproducir o referir el discurso ajeno",["Méndez García de Paredes, 1999: 101"]]],"rt":[["discurso ajeno",[]]]},{"de":[["informan también sobre personal issues, como puede apreciarse en el siguiente texto, en el que se alude a una acción circunscrita a la práctica religiosa de un individuo",[]]],"rt":[["political issues",[]],["policy issues",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["personal issues",[]],["policy issues",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Alcoba Rueda (1999: 94-95) explica",[]]]},{"de":[["según Maldonado González (1999: 3559)",[]],["ponían de manifiesto su postura crítica",[]]]},{"de":[["rasgo léxico característico de la presencia de la modalidad de uso coloquial en los titulares periodísticos",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["equivalence framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["emphasis framing",[]]]},{"de":[["depicted as the Hero pointing to ambivalent attitudes toward this category",[]]],"sp":[["Narrative Frame",[]]]},{"sy":[["Human interest, emotion or dramatization of events",[]]],"sp":[["narrative frames",[]]],"de":[["emotions, which are often linked to a human interest perspective",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Moral issues can take very different forms",[]]],"sy":[["Morality or religion",[]]],"sp":[["narrative frames",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["Hero",[]],["Villain",[]],["Victim",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The Environment and the General Public dominate the Victim role",[]]],"sp":[["Narrative Frame",[]]]},{"de":[["typically depicted as the Villain (of all stakeholder categories they are also most likely to be depicted as the Hero pointing to ambivalent attitudes toward this category)",[]]],"sp":[["Narrative Frame",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["politicized science communication environment",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the lack of social presence and social attributes cause the uncanny valley effect [12] in the brain when humans view computer generated and tampered media.",["12"]],["shows that synthesised content has different characteristics compared to real content",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["deliberate disinformation intended to deceive",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["hoaxes",[]],["rumors",[]],["false propaganda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["includes unintentional factual mistakes made by human writers and deliberate disinformation intended to deceive",[]],["there are other types of misinformation in the real world, such as hoaxes, rumors, or false propaganda.",[]],["false, inaccurate, and misleading information in propaganda, news, and social media",[]]],"sb":[["hoaxes",[]],["rumors",[]],["false propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["hoaxes",[]],["rumors",[]],["false propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation may have a more severe impact on QA systems when they are produced at scale.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This is common in human edits but rarely seen in model-generated passages, since this requires deep reading comprehension.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Propaganda, misinformation, and fake news have the power to polarise public opinion, to encourage hate speech and violent extremism, and ultimately to weaken democracies.",[]],["There are instances where propaganda is used to divert attention from important issues by passing on fake and irrelevant information.",[]]],"sy":[["persuasion",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sb":[["loaded language",[]],["name calling",[]],["repetition",[]],["exaggeration/minimiza-tion",[]],["flag waving",[]]]},{"de":[["Proponents of constructivist theory, such as Sterling-Folker (2002), opine that realities are often a construction of groups and individuals who rely on their shared symbols, narratives, and identities.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Telegram",[]],["WhatsApp",[]]]},{"ex":[["TikTok",[]],["Meta",[]]]},{"de":[["Little attention is paid to how emerging media platforms -which are new channels through which dissemination of information takes place, such as TikTok and Meta -amplify existing dynamics in contexts marked by high youth unemployment and low state legitimacy.",["Wainaina et al. 2018, 3"]]],"ex":[["TikTok",["Wainaina et al. 2018, 3"]],["Meta",["Wainaina et al. 2018, 3"]]]},{"rt":[["secondary sources",[]]],"sp":[["political socialisation sources",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Primary sources",[]]],"sp":[["political socialisation sources",[]]]},{"de":[["facilitate the dissemination and radicalisation of extremist ideologies",[]]],"ex":[["clan leaders",[]],["family",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["frame elements",[]]]},{"de":[["characterizes a certain historical type of government rationality",[]],["The theory of biopolitics, which characterizes a certain historical type of government rationality, can act as an analytical matrix for assessing the actions of governments of different countries during pandemics, including the COVID-19 pandemic.",[]]],"rt":[["biopolitical education",[]],["biopolitical control",[]]],"sp":[["theory of biopolitics in the understanding of Michel Foucault",[]]]},{"de":[["The argument to use \"paradigm\" in journalism studies is to include other major influences such as ethnicity that shape journalism culture, production of news and other media products as well as journalism as profession.",[]]],"rt":[["news frame",[]]]},{"de":[["The argument to use \"paradigm\" in journalism studies is to include other major influences such as ethnicity that shape journalism culture, production of news and other media products as well as journalism as profession.",[]],["journalism paradigms change and realign based on both manifest and latent understandings, tacit assumptions, observations of 'goodness of fit'as well as hegemonic competition amongst alternative explanations.",[]],["current journalism practices that are characterized by political and ethnic partisanship",[]],["They also exist within structural boundaries, in so far as journalism is an organized social institution.",[]]],"rt":[["news frame",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["journalism paradigm",[]]]},{"de":[["When political parallelism is in play, what constitutes parallel lines are ideologies that cling to East vs. West, North vs. South, or Right vs. Left.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the social construction of ethnically based \"world views\" and to what extent these 'world views' get articulated increasingly as foundational frames",["Andsager, 2000","Skjerdal & Mulatu, 2021"]]]},{"sy":[["pateikimo šališkumo",["38"]]]},{},{"sy":[["matomumo šališkumo",["38"]]]},{"de":[["Be to, tokiose sistemose žiniasklaida paprastai yra organizaciškai susijusi su partijomis (tiesa, anot autorių, dabar tai labiau istorinis reliktas, dabartinėse sistemose pasitaikantis vis rečiau).",[]],["Politinis paralelizmas taip pat paprastai pasireiškia žiniasklaidos vartotojų partiškumu, kai skirtingų partijų sekėjai skaito skirtingus laikraščius ar žiūri skirtingus TV kanalus",["25"]],["Be to, tokiose sistemose žiniasklaida paprastai yra organizaciškai susijusi su partijomis",[]],["Pagrindinis tokios sistemos bruožas yra tas, kad skirtingų žiniasklaidos priemonių turinys atspindi skirtingas ideologines orientacijas",["25"]]],"sy":[["užvaldytos žiniasklaidos",[]]],"rt":[["politinio paralelizmo atveju tai yra visą visuomenę persmelkiantis gilus ideologinis kultūrinis susiskaldymas",["26"]]]},{"sy":[["Užvaldytos žiniasklaidos sąvoka",[]]]},{"de":[["leidinys labiausiai politizuotas iš visų nagrinėtų laikraščių",[]]]},{},{"de":[["atkreipia dėmesį į pragmatišką ir personalizuotą, o ne ideologija grįstą šio santykio pobūdį",[]],["Dažniausi užvaldytos žiniasklaidos požymiai yra koncentruota, neskaidri žiniasklaidos nuosavybė, stiprūs ryšiai tarp žiniasklaidos ir politikų",["23"]]],"sy":[["politinio paralelizmo",[]],["politinio paralelizmo terminas",[]]]},{},{"de":[["short pieces that identify myths, hoaxes, or false beliefs on specific topics, provide accurate information, and enhance health education of the population.",[]]],"rt":[["fighting health disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The concept of disinformation is much broader, as it refers to fraudulent or deceptive news content, hate speech, deliberate false narratives, unintentional information errors…",["Rodríguez Pérez (2019)"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["post-truth",[]]],"sb":[["fraudulent or deceptive news content",[]],["hate speech",[]],["deliberate false narratives",[]],["unintentional information errors",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["post-truth",[]]]},{"de":[["had resulted in disbelief and over-information among a population that was no longer able to differentiate what was real from what was not.",[]]],"rt":[["information pandemic",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a practice that appeared to have been forgotten with the advent of the Internet and, especially, with the emergence of social media and platforms of all kinds where anyone can access and provide information without any filter",[]]]},{"rt":[["higher-order thinking skills, such as evaluation and synthesis",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"sy":[["Emotional literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Media Literacy",[]]],"sb":[["Medialogy",[]],["Visualogical",[]],["Technologcalogical",[]]]},{"de":[["And crucially, media literacy enables consciousness to draw as autistic minorities and expose any deceitful practices, thus supporting genuine diversity.",[]],["Its aim is for the individual to develop the necessary cognitive skills that would allow them to use media as tools for learning and expanding their influence, rather than as gears in a giant media machine [10].",["10"]],["Cognitive and emotional components are deeply intertwined and make up three (for example, with a two-stage information processing model: exposure and interpretation or storage and retrieval) or four (playing on the separation between cognitive and emotional reactions) essential components of media literacy",["11"]],["positive self-esteem, reflecting the fact that media literacy helps in resisting media effects and promoting a healthier self-perception",["12"]],["enabling an individual to acquire a high level of media literacy familiarity is indeed vital to harness the power of information responsibly and safeguard the individual against the negative influence of unhealthy and non-beneficial media content.",[]],["This encompasses not only recognizing bias and propaganda but also fostering a healthy level of skepticism when encountering new information",["52"]],["By providing students with the tools to navigate the complex web of online content, educators are helping to shape individuals who are equipped to think critically in the face of misinformation and disinformation.",[]],["Enhancing students' ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media in various forms.",[]],["Promoting awareness of the ethical and societal implications of media consumption and production.",[]],["Encouraging the development of critical and reflective media practices that contribute to informed and responsible citizenship.",[]],["Beyond just teaching students to be critical media consumers, media literacy also empowers them to create their own media messages, fostering the skills to produce their own content and engage with the world around them.",[]],["This kind of education equips students with the tools necessary to navigate the complex and rapidly changing media landscape, giving them the ability to critically assess information and contribute meaningfully as informed, engaged citizens",["63"]],["The main goal of media literacy is to help people understand and evaluate the information they come across, and how it can impact their perceptions, decision-making, and behavior.",[]]],"sy":[["the ability to decode, analyze and evaluate the presentation of events in a variety of media",[]],["the ability to examine the media contents critically",[]]],"rt":[["digital literacy",[]],["digital media literacy",[]],["information literacy",[]]],"sb":[["Cognitive reactions",[]],["Emotional reactions",[]],["positive self-esteem",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The media mentality is differentiated in four dimensions: information, reflexive, hedonistic, and practical.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["vicarious capacity building",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a term derived from \"apolis,\" the Greek word for a good life, and the suffix \"genic,\" which is generally used in medical terms to mean to give rise to.",[]],["Vitagenic Information complements this by emphasizing personal experiential connections.",[]],["Vitagenic Information offers a personalized dimension that bridges the gap between broad competencies and individual engagement, particularly relevant in today's media-rich environment.",[]],["VITAGENIC Information (visual, interactive, tiny, absorbable, generative, experiential, non-threatening, intuitive and linear, intended for the final user content to increase tolerance, authority, attention, innovation, and novelty, and comprehension).",[]]],"rt":[["Potter's Media Literacy Framework",[]],["UNESCO's Media and Information Literacy (MIL) Framework",[]]]},{"de":[["It specifically refers to selecting and interpreting mass media messages within a consumer's personal communication system framework of disease prevention (primordial, primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention) and health promotion.",[]]],"sp":[["Vitagenic information",[]]]},{"rt":[["perceived personalization",[]]]},{"rt":[["traditional advertising",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["AdNauseam browser extension",["Howe and Nissenbaum 2017"]],["the AdNauseam browser extension",["Howe and Nissenbaum 2017"]],["An example of obfuscation is the AdNauseam browser extension",["Howe and Nissenbaum 2017"]]]},{"rt":[["actual personalization",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["categories of media gratifications identified by previous research on media use during war",["Kozman & Melki, 2018"]]],"sp":[["media gratifications",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["joining the process of collective witnessing creates a shared existential experience (Chouliaraki, 2010) that helps to endure the gruesome reality",["Chouliaraki, 2010"]]]},{},{"de":[["In practice, this means reducing the number of media sources and choosing professional over user-generated content.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Scholars have previously cautioned that",[]]]},{"sb":[["affective",[]],["escapist",[]]]},{"de":[["media literacy has been considered an aid for many societal ills in the Western world: from fighting against stereotypical representations of different (marginalized) groups to combating mis-and disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy of the oppressed",[]]],"sb":[["digital literacy",[]],["information literacy",[]],["news literacy",[]],["algorithmic and AI literacy",[]],["\"ecomedia\" literacy",[]],["AI literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["This approach takes into account constant socio-economic turmoil, weak independent media, low institutional trust, and conflict.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"sy":[["news avoidance",[]],["technological disconnection",[]],["detox",[]]]},{"de":[["complete avoidance is relatively rare and usually connected to a lack of trust in media and politics",["Strömbäck et al., 2020"]]],"sy":[["complete avoidance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["particularly in countries with high political polarization and populist communication",[]]],"ex":[["Brazil, India, Russia, China, and Singapore",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["single-target stance detection",[]]],"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["identify whether the author of a text is in favor of, neutral or against a specific target",[]]],"rt":[["single-target stance detection",[]],["multi-target stance detection",[]]],"sb":[["single-target stance detection",[]],["multi-target stance detection",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["thematic frame",[]]]},{"de":[["these definitions emphasize the intent to deceive",["Pal & Banerjee, 2019"]],["the credibility of fake news is influenced by the interaction between news valence and the temporal distance of events",[]],["the unique content of messages influences people's judgment formation, particularly through the effects of valenced frames and CLT",[]],["fake news has a greater impact on credibility when the information is presented concretely rather than abstractly, significantly shaping people's perceptions, judgments, and decisions.",[]],["The impact of fake news on credibility is stronger when the news is negative, regardless of the country's proximity, whereas positive frames do not significantly affect credibility across both spatial dimensions.",[]],["others describe it as false information disseminated through media, overlapping with disinformation, misinformation, satirical news, or even stories that are simply unpopular",["Kshetri & Voas, 2017","Kucharski, 2016","Rubin et al., 2015","Golbeck et al., 2018"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"sb":[["risky choice",["Levin et al., 2002"]],["attribute",["Levin et al., 2002"]],["goal framing",["Levin et al., 2002"]],["risky choice, attribute, and goal framing",["Levin et al., 2002"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["episodic frame",[]]]},{"de":[["employed to assess the impact of persuasive news communication on perceived credibility and judgment",[]],["vary in their construal levels",[]]]},{"de":[["Developed country newsrooms are preparing for the upcoming wave of data-driven journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the rationality imposed behind decision-making.",[]]]},{"de":[["individual journalists will adhere to ethical codes only insofar as they have a strategic interest in doing so",["Markham, 2008"]],["the use of morality and ethics is vital for journalists in their daily work-life as responsible citizens in which they operate.",[]]]},{"de":[["specifically the Social Responsibility Theory",[]]]},{"de":[["the theory postulates the ethical claim that the technologies of information (in this context, AI adoption in journalism) do not operate as ends in themselves but as tools in the development of civil society.",[]],["emphasizes ethical responsibility towards non-intrusion of privacy and non-violation of individual freedom",["Schwartz & Carroll, 2003"]],["focus on adhering to a set of ethical codes to strike a balance between individual freedom and societal interests.",[]],["emphasizes the commitment of journalists participating in the study to be responsible toward society and condemn news that does not adhere to neutrality",["Nwanne, 2014"]]],"sp":[["normative theory",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Peripheral route cues",[]]],"ex":[["Bill Gates says vaccines are dangerous",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Individuals carefully analyse the arguments presented and weigh the evidence when using this route. If the arguments presented are solid and compelling, the persuasion tends to be more durable and resistant to counter-persuasion. If the arguments are weak, they may lead to rejection or no change in attitude.",[]],["Individuals carefully analyse the arguments presented and weigh the evidence when using this route.",[]]],"sp":[["routes of persuasion",[]],["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]]},{"rt":[["prebunking",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["The Dual Process Theory proposes that information processing consists of two pathways: the first involves intuitive, fast, automatic thinking and the second, a more deliberate, slow and controlled mode of thinking.",[]]],"sb":[["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]]},{"de":[["How much a person elaborates upon a message is believed to be determined by motivation and ability.",[]],["The theory assumes that individuals can differ in how carefully and extensively they think about a message and that the amount of elaboration can vary along a continuum from high to low.",[]],["In essence, the ELM explains how people are persuaded by messages by considering two main routes of persuasion: the central and the peripheral.",[]]],"rt":[["routes of persuasion",[]],["central route",[]],["peripheral route",[]]],"sb":[["central route",[]],["peripheral route",[]]],"sp":[["Dual Process Theory",[]]]},{"sp":[["Dual Process Theory",[]]]},{"sb":[["fear",[]],["sadness",[]],["joy",[]],["humour",[]],["love",[]],["beauty",[]],["security",[]]],"sp":[["Peripheral route cues",[]]],"ex":[["Innocent people are dying from the jab.",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["familiarity",[]]]},{"de":[["LIWC scans texts for words in its dictionary, counting occurrences and grouping them according to predefined categories.",[]]]},{"de":[["helps to amplify perceived urgency and importance",["Wasike, 2017"]]],"sp":[["Peripheral route cues",[]]],"ex":[["THEY ARE LYING TO YOU.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Instead, they are influenced by peripheral cues, like the speaker's attractiveness. The route is more likely to be engaged by a person when they are unmotivated to process the message deeply or lack the ability to do so.",[]]],"sp":[["routes of persuasion",[]],["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Peripheral route cues",[]]],"ex":[["My friend died after getting the vaccine.",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation often employs rhetorical techniques-such as emotive appeals (Lee et al., 2021;Martel et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2020), ideological framing (Au et al., 2022;Hameleers & Brosius, 2022;Neo, 2021), and authoritative language (Baissa et al., 2025;Wright, 2021)-to manipulate audiences.",["Lee et al., 2021","Martel et al., 2020","Wang et al., 2020","Au et al., 2022","Hameleers & Brosius, 2022","Neo, 2021","Baissa et al., 2025","Wright, 2021"]]],"sb":[["emotive appeals",["Lee et al., 2021","Martel et al., 2020","Wang et al., 2020"]],["ideological framing",["Au et al., 2022","Hameleers & Brosius, 2022","Neo, 2021"]],["authoritative language",["Baissa et al., 2025","Wright, 2021"]]]},{"rt":[["debunking",[]]]},{"rt":[["central route cues",[]]],"sb":[["scientific evidence",[]],["facts",[]],["comparisons",[]]],"sp":[["Central route cues",[]]],"ex":[["Masks work by blocking respiratory droplets.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Peripheral route cues",[]]],"ex":[["You must resist. Resist the lies. Resist control.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It captures a more optimistic attitude in the language.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Red X over a syringe.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Peripheral route cues",[]]],"ex":[["Red X over a syringe.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["reflect journalists' resistance to delegating communicative authority and normative responsibility to artificial systems",[]]],"sy":[["communicative AI paradigm",[]]]},{"rt":[["human-machine communication",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["sports reporting, financial updates, and breaking news alerts",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["reflect on the filmmaking techniques he developed and used during the making of his own documentaries, but also proposed it as a filmmaking method to be adopted by other Islamic filmmakers",[]],["cinema's veil of technique and technology would be removed, and the truth of existence in all its manifestations would be \"illuminated\"",[]],["matching the reality that is the \"manifestation of divine kindness\"; avoiding the \"alien\" and \"non-religious\" expertise that is taught at film schools; accepting \"martyrdom\" and war as the most vital issue for Islam; simplicity; considering the \"divine inner nature\" [fetrat-e elahi] of the audience; using narration to reveal the spiritual aspects of the image; avoiding non-spiritual propaganda, for example, boasting about weapons; avoiding fake attractions including dominant music; and expressing the \"truth\" (Sinama-ye)",[]],["So, what can complete the definition of Illuminationist cinema is this specific ideological approach.",[]],["five main characteristics can be identified: first, showing the filmmaking process and the crew during shooting and editing; second, acknowledging the subjective presence of the camera; third, interaction with the audience by including them in the film or inviting them to action; fourth, nonlinear narrative; fifth, subjective first-person essayistic narration.",[]],["He used this term mainly in order to reflect on the filmmaking techniques he developed and used during the making of his own documentaries, but also proposed it as a filmmaking method to be adopted by other Islamic filmmakers.",[]]]},{"de":[["the filmmaker must first cleanse himself from sensuality (nafsaniyat) and subjectivity",[]]]},{"de":[["this point-of-view mode is less artificial than the first mode",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Iranian war cinema",[]]],"rt":[["Iranian war cinema",[]]],"sp":[["Islamic cinema",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Khomeini took the arguably purely mystic concept of Velayat and came up with the political theory of velayat-e faghih",["Ajoudani"]],["Khomeini took the arguably purely mystic concept of Velayat and came up with the political theory of velayat-e faghih (\"guardianship of the jurist\")",[]],["In 1970, through thirteen lectures that he gave while in exile in Najaf, Iraq, Khomeini advocated direct hierocratic rule on behalf of the Hidden Imam and argued that a faghih (\"jurist\") should not be just one official among other officials, but a supreme leader, overseer, judge and guardian.",[]]],"rt":[["Velayat",[]]]},{"de":[["Merge HTs in the antecedent and consequent of similar hate rules as a single set of hate Concept without considering the order of rules and the order of HTs in those rules. A hate Concept would be more comprehensive as compared to many similar hate rules. The A → B is interpreted as if ordered HTs in A occurs, then it will be followed by the ordered HTs in B.",[]]],"ex":[["Consider the three HTs {a, b, c} that make hate rules: {a} → {b, c}; {a} → {b}; {a} → {c}. This will produce a hate Concept as {abc}.",[]]]},{"ex":[["f*ggot, b*tch, f*ck",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This generated Stable Hate Rules (SHRs), which can be read as \"if someone uses a HT 'A', then most probably the person may also use HT 'B' with a given probability\".",[]]],"ex":[["[A] → [B], where the [A] is antecedent and the [B] is its consequent.",[]]],"rt":[["The SHRs could be like [A] → [B], where the [A] is antecedent and the [B] is its consequent.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Critical digital literacy is essential to the active participation of critically autonomous and well-informed citizens in society",["Hobbs, 2010","Polizzi, 2020b"]],["digital literacy should be approached as including an understanding of the Internet's potentials and limitations for democracy.",["Fry (2014: 133)"]],["critical digital literacy requires both utopian and dystopian imaginaries of the Internet",[]],["digital literacy should be based on civic imagination enabling users to imagine socio-political alternatives",[]],["Two-stage theoretical framework for how critical digital literacy, based on the construction (stage 1) and deployment (stage 2) of utopian/dystopian imaginaries of society in the digital age, facilitates civic engagement.",[]],["this article conceptualizes critical digital literacy as incorporating users' utopian and dystopian imaginaries of society in the digital age",[]],["facilitates civic engagement",[]]],"sp":[["digital literacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["civil society organizations, on the one hand, should understand the implications of how governmental data can be accessed and used to promote causes important to their communities",["Fotopoulou, 2020"]],["Users, on the other hand, should understand how Internet corporations like Google and Facebook operate and how to protect their privacy online",["Pangrazio and Selwyn, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["rely on an understanding of the technical features of online platforms as well as of the privacy implications of how the latter operate",["Selwyn and Pangrazio, 2018"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Internet corporations, furthermore, use algorithms that expose users primarily to information which, regardless of its authenticity, reinforces their pre-existing beliefs",[]],["As a result, public debate online is increasingly subject to polarization and misinformation, which undermine democracy's reliance on a well-informed citizenry",["Vaidhyanathan, 2018"]]]},{"rt":[["information as freedom",[]]]},{},{"de":[["is crucial to a well-informed citizenry's participation in society.",[]]],"sb":[["information",[]],["media",[]],["digital",[]],["data",[]],["multimodal",[]],["network",[]]],"sp":[["umbrella term encompassing various literacies",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["democratic socialism",[]],["sustainable development",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["utopian thinking does not inherently guide civic engagement",[]],["Utopian thinking can be understood as fulfilling a twofold function: (1) raising awareness through a critique of dystopian limitations of the present, while (2) promoting contemplation of utopian elements projected into the future",["Shor, 2010: 125"]],["utopian thinking relies dialectically on projecting utopian possibilities for social change while critiquing dystopian limitations of the present",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This category may also include movements or parties that are difficult to classify due to their eclectic or evolving policy positions, as well as those that adapt their stances to appeal to diverse constituencies.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Including control entities (non-political names) helps distinguish biases related to political attributes and effectively reduces entity-related bias in our context",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Unlike rigid multiple-choice formats, it aligns with real-world language use while providing measurable bias assessments",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["horizontal social surveillance",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["digital panopticism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["internal stigma",[]],["layered stigma",[]],["perceived stigma",[]],["actual stigma",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["When children are asked to draw a scientist, mostly they draw a middle-aged bald man wearing glasses and a white lab coat",["17","18"]],["This stereotyping may cause a low interest in girls for science and may cause them to view science as something more for boys.",[]]],"rt":[["stereotypical visuals",[]]],"ex":[["When children are asked to draw a scientist, mostly they draw a middle-aged bald man wearing glasses and a white lab coat",["17","18"]]]},{},{"de":[["CMA is founded on the central tenet of CMT, which posits that metaphor plays a fundamental role in shaping our cognitive processes and patterns of thought.",[]],["CMA has been chosen as theoretical framework for metaphor analysis in this study, which consists of three phases: i) metaphor identification: in this stage, the identification process for metaphors is listed by Charteris-Black (2004) who ascertains whether there is conflict between the literal source domain and the metaphorical target domain; Phase ii) is known as metaphor interpretation, and it entails identifying the ways in which metaphorical expressions are systematically related to one another both on the textual and conceptual levels. Phase iii) is known as metaphor explanation, and it entails both the identification of these relationships as well as a discussion of the pragmatic and rhetorical elements that influence them.",[]],["a discursive approach in this study and mainly focused on the interaction of social political context and metaphor usage.",[]]],"rt":[["CDA",[]],["CMT",[]]],"sb":[["metaphor identification",[]],["metaphor interpretation",[]],["metaphor explanation",[]]]},{"de":[["mappings can be identified including: A DISEASE IS AN ENEMY, MEDICAL STAFF IS ARMY, BODY IS BATTLEFIELD, MEDICINE AND MEDICAL EQUIPMENT ARE WEAPONS, etc.",[]],["In this conceptual metaphor, a variety of mappings can be identified including: A DISEASE IS AN ENEMY, MEDICAL STAFF IS ARMY, BODY IS BATTLEFIELD, MEDICINE AND MEDICAL EQUIPMENT ARE WEAPONS, etc.",[]]],"sb":[["A DISEASE IS AN ENEMY",[]],["MEDICAL STAFF IS ARMY",[]],["BODY IS BATTLEFIELD",[]],["MEDICINE AND MEDICAL EQUIPMENT ARE WEAPONS",[]]]},{"de":[["In the pandemic, the front-lines included many different places such as: airports and border gates where there was a high possibility of spreading diseases; quarantines where people returning from epidemic areas temporarily lived waiting for test results; hospitals, clinics where doctors and patients were fighting against the virus.",[]]]},{"de":[["helps to illustrate a positive icon while empowering the medical staff.",[]],["indirectly acknowledges the significant risks that health-care workers face in the war against COVID-19, including their health safety and their families' security.",[]],["emphasizes the important role of healthcare staff while degrading the effort of people working outside the healthcare field.",[]]]},{"sp":[["CMA",[]]]},{"sp":[["CMA",[]]]},{"sp":[["CMA",[]]]},{"de":[["highlights the urgency of the lack of PPE in local and national health agencies.",[]],["could exacerbate the lack of PPE as it might increase a higher demand on PPE from the public and at the same time creates fear by developing an assumption on the spread of the disease.",[]]]},{"rt":[["cognitive semantics",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Media Accountability Systems (MAS)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["sharing contract",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the suffix \"mal-\" alluding to three dimensions of the current ills and evils on line: human malevolence, industrial malpractice, and technological malware.",[]]],"sb":[["human malevolence",[]],["industrial malpractice",[]],["technological malware",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["information contract",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["information disorders",[]]]},{"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A toxic comment is defined by the creators of the project as a rude, disrespectful, or unreasonable comment that is likely to make you leave a discussion.",["3"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["multilevel",[]]]},{},{"de":[["did not differ from the Western democratic socialists, except for an even greater stock of hypocrisy.",["51"]]]},{},{"rt":[["литвофильства",[]]]},{"rt":[["белоруссофильства",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["due to the required manual editing and human editing skills, some of them may look cheaply made if the creator lacks the necessary expertise in graphics and video editing",["Grothaus, 2021, pp.39-40"]]],"sy":[["shallowfakes",[]]]},{"de":[["deepfake technology is neither inherently good nor bad. Its usage depends on the individual employing it.",[]],["la tecnología deepfake supone al mismo tiempo un grave riesgo para los derechos humanos, la democracia y la seguridad nacional.",[]],["en un contexto positivo, el uso de deepfake se asocia con la medicina, la industria cinematográfica, el entretenimiento y los esfuerzos creativos.",[]],["Deepfake technology involves placing the face of one person onto the body of another",["Mania, 2024, p.1"]]],"rt":[["autoencoders",[]],["generative adversarial networks (GANs)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["unlike deepfakes, which rely on deep machine learning techniques",[]],["Deepfake videos can have deep negative consequences for democracies: fake news created by deepfake videos may aim to tarnish the reputation of certain individuals, portray false events (e.g., fake terrorist attacks), or influence democratic processes such as election campaigns or other socially significant events",["Meskys et al, 2020, p.8"]]]},{"de":[["they have the same goal, unlike deepfakes, which rely on deep machine learning techniques",[]]],"sy":[["cheapfakes",[]]]},{"ex":[["On that occasion, the perpetrators gained a profit of $234,000.",[]]]},{"sy":[["content delivery",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation can induce affective shifts that increase out-group animosity and fuel polarization",[]],["misinformation induces affective shifts independently of factual perceptions",[]],["hostile misinformation seems to directly trigger affective shifts that reinforce prejudiced attitudes",[]]]},{"de":[["Much of this research has centered on first-order effects",[]]]},{"de":[["To prime politically relevant identities, hostile misinformation need not explicitly mention out-groups; instead, it can activate these identities through partisan or ethnically coded language or through identity-based issues, such as crime or immigration (Gilliam and Iyengar 2000;Stephens-Dougan 2021).",["Gilliam and Iyengar 2000","Stephens-Dougan 2021"]],["downstream effects of hostile misinformation for intergroup attitudes",[]],["hostile misinformation seems to directly trigger affective shifts that reinforce prejudiced attitudes",[]],["typical for misinformation messages in the political realm",["Jerit and Zhao 2020","Tucker et al. 2018"]],["it can activate these identities through partisan or ethnically coded language or through identity-based issues, such as crime or immigration",[]],["the attitude shifts associated with hostile misinformation to be somewhat weaker for those who receive a social correction that refutes the accuracy of misinformation, compared to those who do not.",[]]],"rt":[["affective polarization",[]],["hostile political rumors",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["hostile misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation serves to undermine the foundation for a well-functioning democracy, as citizens' knowledge of facts is central to evaluating public policy and, in turn, informing people's preferences",["Kuklinski et al. 2000"]],["misinformation portraying partisan, ethnic, or religious outgroups in a negative light is widespread, is amplified by politicians, and has been linked to hostile attitudes and behavior",["Banaji and Bhat 2019","Goel, Raj, and Ravichandran 2018","Mitchell et al. 2021"]],["misinformation itself can exacerbate social cleavages",[]],["misinformation vilifying out-groups activates an emotional response, increasing the salience of social cleavages and hostility against out-groups",[]],["misinformation is consequential because it aggravates preexisting prejudice, rather than because it misinforms a poorly informed but unbiased citizenry",[]],["This definition encompasses information that is definitively false (or later revealed to be false) but also claims that are difficult to confirm, such as rumors.",["Wittenberg and Berinsky 2020"]],["misinformation, in any case, has particularly profound political consequences because it (i) by definition can be created and amplified at will, (ii) can be embedded in a language and context that activates social identities, and (iii) has been found to triumph over correct information when it comes to rapid dissemination and spread",["Vosoughi et al. 2018"]]],"rt":[["hostile misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["hostile misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["rumors",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["process of social categorization that is reinforced through narratives propagated by politicians",[]]],"rt":[["narratives",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the stronger an individual's own group identification, the more likely that he or she perceives mediated information to be biased against his or her own side",[]],["The original assumption of the HMP is that partisans from different camps regarding a particular issue judge the identical balanced and neutral news coverage as biased against their own side.",[]]],"sy":[["hostile media effect",[]]],"ex":[["pro-Israeli and pro-Arab individuals perceived the identical news coverage of the Beirut massacre as biased against their group",[]]]},{"de":[["Such frames can be conveyed by text and visuals.",[]],["The elements of frames can be expressed as arguments, as for instance, by blaming an actor, defining an issue as a threat, calling for an action to remedy a situation, etc.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Both selective recall and selective categorization would suggest that partisans perceive and store the content differently (i.e., recall or categorize the arguments differently).",[]]]},{"rt":[["selective recall mechanism",[]],["different standards mechanism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["they support a specific side of an issue",["Geise & Baden, 2015"]]],"rt":[["news frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Since visuals are open to several interpretations (Geise & Baden, 2015) and classic experimental research on the HMP employs neutral or balanced texts by assigning an equal number of arguments or words to both sides, testing the VHMP can be regarded a methodological challenge.",["Geise & Baden, 2015"]],["visuals allow multiple meanings and these meanings may differ from person to person.",[]],["visuals-even if true reflections of reality-are open to interpretation and are therefore perfectly suited to convey and support political views.",[]]],"rt":[["relative VHMP",[]]],"sb":[["relative VHMP",[]]],"sp":[["hostile media phenomenon (HMP)",[]]]},{"de":[["the dominant words in the conversation reflect the public agenda, highlighting priorities and issues that the community considers significant",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Organizations, news media, journalists, or individuals have the potential to become social media influencers by expressing their opinions on Twitter.",[]],["The magnitude of its influence is contingent upon the number of individuals who adhere to it.",[]],["Given their extensive reach and engagement with their audience, the opinions and evaluations expressed by influencers significantly influence public opinion and build trust among their followers.",[]],["Influencers' role in shaping public sentiment on flood disasters is crucial for comprehending how information spreads, gains traction, and influences collective attitudes and behaviors.",[]],["Their involvement in the conversation can amplify specific narratives, emphasize particular aspects, and drive engagement, ultimately affecting public awareness, preparedness, and response to flood-related challenges in Jakarta.",[]]],"sb":[["mega-influencers",[]],["macro-influencers",[]],["micro-influencers",[]],["nano-influencers",[]],["macro-influencer",[]]]},{"sp":[["influencers",[]]]},{"sp":[["influencers",[]]]},{"sp":[["influencers",[]]]},{"sp":[["influencers",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Organizations, news media, journalists, or individuals have the potential to become social media influencers by expressing their opinions on Twitter.",[]]],"sy":[["media influencers",[]]],"sb":[["mega-influencers (with over 1 million followers)",[]],["macro-influencers (with follower counts ranging from 100,000 to 1 million)",[]],["micro-influencers (with follower counts between 10,000 and 100,000)",[]],["nano-influencers (with fewer than 10,000 followers)",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals may exhibit reticence in expressing their viewpoints if they diverge from the prevailing consensus.",[]],["individuals who recognize that their personal perspective coincides with the majority in a group are more likely to exhibit more confidence and openness in expressing their views.",[]]]},{"de":[["explores the impact of social pressure and group norms on an individual's tendency to express or support their opinions regarding the spiral of silence principles",[]]],"sy":[["spiral of silence",[]]],"rt":[["agenda setting",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT) provides a framework for understanding the dynamics between influencers and their audience in the context of discussing Jakarta's floods.",[]],["Individuals engage in social media platforms for various reasons, such as improving communication, promoting connections with acquaintances and relatives, gaining knowledge, recording significant family events, and pursuing pleasure (Olpin et al., 2023) and (Harpel, 2018). According to Panahi et al. (2016), the main reasons why individuals join social media platforms are: 1) forming interpersonal relationships; 2) interacting with the wider community; 3) sharing knowledge; 4) engaging in sustainable learning; 5) comparing themselves with others; and 6) building personal brands.",[]]]},{"de":[["Wir würden als Social Media Team nie von selbst die Begriffe Terror, Amok verwenden, weil wie gesagt, das ist eine politische Einordnung einer Tat, die uns als Polizei, als Neutralität, in keiner Weise zusteht.",[]],["ein regionales Ereignis",[]],["er ist ja eher damit verknüpft, dass einer aus sehr persönlichen Gründen da unterwegs ist, weil er psychisch labil ist […], weil er ein persönliches Problem hat, weil er unzufrieden oder eifersüchtig ist.",[]]],"rt":[["Terror",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Selektionsentscheidung",[]]],"rt":[["Selektionsentscheidung",[]]],"sp":[["journalistische Nachrichtenentscheidung",[]]]},{"sb":[["journalistische Selektionsentscheidung",[]],["journalistische Konstruktionsentscheidung",[]]]},{"sp":[["journalistische Nachrichtenentscheidung",[]]]},{"de":[["characterizing the relationship as less symbiotic and more \"parasitic\"",[]]],"rt":[["symbiotic",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Wir würden als Social Media Team nie von selbst die Begriffe Terror, Amok verwenden, weil wie gesagt, das ist eine politische Einordnung einer Tat, die uns als Polizei, als Neutralität, in keiner Weise zusteht.",[]],["Während der Begriff \"Terror\" auf eine größere Tragweite und vor allem eine politische Dimension des Ereignisses verweise",[]],["Terror hätte aber wieder die ganze westliche Gesellschaft getroffen",[]],["damit assoziiert man etwas, genau was das Wort sagt: Ich will dich terrorisieren, ich will dich grundlos quälen oder sonst irgendwas machen.",[]],["Dieses Gefühl, permanent latenter Angst, ich glaube, das ist das, was ,Terror' auslöst.",[]],["ein politischer Begriff",["(P1, männlich, Absatz 1)"]],["Da steht meist eine Organisation im Hintergrund. Da sind Strukturen drum herum geschaffen worden, die das Ganze ermöglichen.",[]]],"rt":[["Terrorismus",[]],["Amok",[]]]},{"rt":[["mediale Aufmerksamkeit",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Terror",[]]]},{"de":[["Für Journalist:innen ist die Terrorismusberichterstattung eine belastende Ausnahmesituation.",[]],["umfassend berichten, können allerdings meist nur spärliche Informationen liefern",[]],["die Aussagen der Polizei sind in diesen hochdynamischen Lagen von Momentaufnahmen des Einsatzgeschehens geprägt.",[]]],"rt":[["Polizeikommunikation",[]]]},{"de":[["a communicative act that does not primarily target the victims on site, but a larger audience in order to intimidate e.g. a government, an organization or the public in general",["Heinke & Kron, 2013","Morin, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["Sie werden von nicht staatlichen Gruppen oder Individuen ausgeübt und zielen durch Androhung und/oder Anwendung von Gewalt darauf ab, mit medialer Aufmerksamkeit ein breites Publikum zu erreichen und so ein politisches Ziel durchzusetzen",["Hoffman, 2002"]]]},{},{"de":[["Authority acts as an ally of the addresser (a third party), he (she, they) can be specified (e.g., a well-known person's opinion) or not (anyone/many/everyone meeting the criteria).",[]]]},{"de":[["Criticism and non-acceptance of the vices rejected by the community (in the example below -cruel treatment of the weak and defenseless, greed, ruthlessness) often become such ethical arguments. Direct accusation is perceived with suspicion and is not effective, so the above tactics are often accompanied by moralization.",[]]],"sp":[["negative qualification of the past",[]]]},{"de":[["In this case, the most relevant linguistic means are lexical units with negative semantics, figurative linguistic means, vocabulary explicating emotions of the addresser and launching mechanisms of \"emotional infection\".",[]]],"sp":[["negative qualification of the past",[]]]},{"sp":[["positive presentation",[]]]},{"de":[["The main function of CM is moral reflection on the collective past, shaping an image of the past and its value judgments, supporting group and national identities as well as legitimization of power in the modern state.",[]],["The interpretive, intentional and communicative nature of collective memory is manifested in language.",[]]],"sy":[["CM",[]]]},{"de":[["It is used for selective \"management\" of the past when historical reality is substituted with artificial objects, when a historic event and access to it are mediated by the practiced tradition",["36"]]]},{},{"sp":[["positive presentation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The tactic is implemented by manipulating abstract concepts (e.g. 'fate', 'destiny') thus forming a fatalistic position (the past is an imperative, it is beyond a man's control, eliminating value judgement) and distracting the addressee from characteristics, reasons and consequences of the event itself.",[]]],"sp":[["compositional tactic",[]]]},{"de":[["While mentioning a historic event, the message-producer avoids its categorization stating only the tradition connected with the event. In this case, the past is interpreted as a base to form commemorative practices of the corresponding events in the past.",[]]],"rt":[["commemoration",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["psychological argumentation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Based on the theory of media priming we proceed from the fact that while re-actualizing collective memory content, a message-producer manipulates public opinion to form and revaluate a new image of the past.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the text-producer presents the main function of the past and historical knowledge as some historic experience only.",[]]],"rt":[["Moralization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The addresser contrasts the negatively valued present or the earlier past in order to form a positive image and decrease the addressee's negative perception. Thus, the content \"nowadays it is not as good as before\" is packed with the idea that \"it used to be good\".",[]]]},{"de":[["The purpose of the tactic is to increase validity and effectiveness of influence, confirm arguments and initiate separation of the negative axiological attitude to the past by appeal to authority, i.e., experts, eyewitnesses or participants.",[]],["The text-producer uses the effect of unexpectedness opposing perceptive inertia when one message is followed by another logically disconnected message. The impact of the tactic is based on the balance between meeting and violating addressees' expectations, thus providing intensity and novelty to the generated text.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The communicative tactics implementing the strategies chosen by the addresser differ in argumentation bases engaged for persuasion or suggestion, which can be based on actual data, logical conclusions or psychological aspects (emotional and ethical arguments).",[]],["corresponds to the nature of manipulative influence and decreases criticism of perception",[]]],"sy":[["appeal to emotional memory",[]]],"rt":[["Formal argumentation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["While applying the tactic, the message-producer repeatedly addresses the theme elaborating it with the use of lexical repetition, synonyms and derivatives, constituents of one semantic field.",[]]],"sp":[["compositional tactic",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["negative contrast of contextual framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["positive presentation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It enables consumers to become active participants by fostering an aware, resilient, and participatory society",["Gáliková Tolnaiová, Gálik, 2020","Mateus, 2021"]],["the ability to critically understand, analyze, and evaluate media messages is essential to make consumers responsible, critical, and creative citizens",["Hartai, 2013","Tran-Duong, 2023","Xiao et al., 2021"]],["The components of media literacy differ in every country depending on media usage, the exact socio-technological dysfunction, the role media play in the problems, and the communication culture",["Livingstone, 2018","Schmoll, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["What categorises as fake news is open to debate on a variety of levels such as psychological, social and contextual foundations",["3"]],["A broader definition would include satire, parodies, unverifiable claims and unintentional rumours as fake news.",[]],["The most common feature accepted by all definitions is \"the intentional spread of verifiably false information\".",[]]],"ex":[["satire, parodies, unverifiable claims and unintentional rumours",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the main characteristic of conspiracies is that they are hard to contradict: believers characteristically see any professional contradictions as reinforcing their \"theory\" and as attempts to extinguish evidence",["Brotherton 2015"]],["conspiracy theories have a stress-releasing impact, especially when individuals are faced with a new and unexplainable, negative phenomenon, since identifying a familiar enemy is cognitively easier than encountering incalculable, chaotic reason",["Krekó 2014"]],["If a lot of people believe it, it becomes an organizing power in society and shapes reality",["Hanula 2013"]],["the phenomenon also occurs when illogical arguments based on evidence are not fully coherent, suggesting to some the existence of a great conspiracy with far-reaching social and political consequences",["Ramsay 2006"]],["Such ideas, based on sociological, psychological, humanethological and anthropological grounds, are applied to a public standpoint, supposing that events that are partially or totally undisclosed, or which appear unprovoked -for instance, the explosion in Budapest -are created by 'hidden' actors. However, the phenomenon also occurs when illogical arguments based on evidence are not fully coherent, suggesting to some the existence of a great conspiracy with far-reaching social and political consequences (Ramsay 2006).",["Ramsay 2006"]],["Most such theories are created when official statements about events are delayed or proven to be erroneous, giving rise to the assumption that somebody wants to hide something. Since this approach appears rational to believers, the main characteristic of conspiracies is that they are hard to contradict: believers characteristically see any professional contradictions as reinforcing their \"theory\" and as attempts to extinguish evidence (Brotherton 2015).",["Brotherton 2015"]]],"sb":[["nationalist and anti-globalization conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"de":[["both concepts involve a feeling of being tense, threatened, hopeless and lost",["Coombs 2010b: 19"]],["They induce uncertainty and disturbance, and spur requests to change the former management or communication practices",["Kahn et al. 2013"]],["They endanger the image, reputation and public relations of organizations",["Pintér 2016b: 36","Kahn et al. 2013"]],["As a definitive part of a longer, complex process, crises attract great public interest",["Jacques et al. 2009","Roux-Dufort 2007"]],["They are closely related to individual or group behavior, thus they can be considered socially constructed phenomena and may be subjectively interpreted in numerous ways",["Coombs 2010b: 478"]],["The profession and the scientific community interpret crises as events that stand out from everyday routine, as mainly unforeseen, and as potentially endangering the implementation of objectives (Seeger et al. 1998: 233).",["Seeger et al. 1998: 233"]]],"sy":[["distress",[]]],"rt":[["uncertainty and disturbance",["Kahn et al. 2013"]]],"sb":[["hard crisis",[]]]},{"de":[["Crisis communication is a sub-discipline of the Public Relations profession.",[]],["it is an important aim of information transmission in hazardous situations to successfully protect the images previously defined by the PR tools of the organization or entity being reputationally endangered (Pintér 2016b: 37). In this process, the scheduling and quality of interactions, a responsible crisis-reaction approach, and selected messages aligned with the interests of stakeholders are of key importance (Coombs 2007). The tools of communication primarily assist in the proactive interpretation and identification of the crisis event and the roles of those involved (Pintér 2016a: 41).",["Pintér 2016b: 37","Coombs 2007","Pintér 2016a: 41"]]],"sp":[["Public Relations",[]]]},{"rt":[["primary reality",[]],["secondary reality",[]]]},{"sp":[["crisis",[]]]},{"de":[["brief, simple and objective declaration that summarizes the occurrence and general background of the crisis event, but does not include specific details",["Anthonissen 2009: 71-72"]],["presents the planned activities of the organization in the period following the crisis, and defines priority tasks",["imagemanagement.in 2012"]],["names the crisis spokesman as the sole representative of the organization and specifies their exact role",["imagemanagement.in 2012"]],["not only could have prevented the dissemination of misinformation related to the crisis situation, but could also have created a public point of alignment",[]],["it can be understood as a brief, simple and objective declaration that summarizes the occurrence and general background of the crisis event, but does not include specific details (Anthonissen 2009: 71-72).",["Anthonissen 2009: 71-72"]]]},{"rt":[["secondary reality",[]]]},{"de":[["of those involved must be kept in mind, even if this only involves mistaken speculation",[]]],"rt":[["primary reality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The aim of media literacy is to help students become competent, critical and literate in media forms because they need to interpret what they see or hear and prevent the interpretation from controlling them.",[]],["a media-literate person, according to Aufderheide (1992), is able to decode, evaluate, analyze and produce both print and electronic media.",[]],["media literacy is having a critical approach to media in terms of both quality and accuracy of content; yet, further awareness is reported to be the nature and impact of mass media and the techniques used by them",["Duncan, 2006"]],["media literacy in terms of information also refers to individuals' abilities to seek, locate, and select information to suit their needs",[]],["access to quality content and ability to analyze, evaluate, and apply it",[]],["being a critical receiver of media messages",[]],["The participants in the present study were found to consider media literacy to be related to following people and things in internet.",[]],["To Frau-Meigs (2007),media literacy education helps individuals to become informed media consumers and producers.",["Frau-Meigs (2007)"]]],"sy":[["technology utilization",[]]],"rt":[["multiple or multimodal literacy",[]],["implied messages",[]]],"sb":[["digital literacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["They are primarily political in nature and use more toxic language than the typical user sharing misinformation.",[]],["accounts that introduce low-credibility content, which then disseminates widely",[]]],"sy":[["repeat spreaders",[]]],"ex":[["pundits with large followings, low-credibility media outlets, personal accounts affiliated with those media outlets, and a range of influencers",[]]]},{"de":[["We note that other thresholds could be adopted to classify an account as a superspreader. This approach allows us to focus on a large but manageable number of accounts that have large influence within the low-credibility content ecosystem.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The API defines toxic language as",[]]]},{"de":[["Conservative labelling; misinformation assigned only if causality explicitly contradicted by evidence.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Evaluated against an external fact-checking context; labelled as misinformation if the implication contradicts verified evidence.",[]]]},{"de":[["automatically identifying sources of disinformation and inauthentic behaviour among chat users by analysing content, activity patterns, and social interactions.",[]],["inauthentic activity of chat users (bots, spammers, and manipulators), including message frequency, phrase repetition, time patterns, degree of lexical uniformity, level of toxicity, number of links, and interaction with other users.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["fake",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["bots",[]],["coordinated accounts",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation labelling inherently involves contextual judgment",[]],["misinformation is characterised not only by specific linguistic properties, but also by structural and behavioural patterns of propagation",[]]],"rt":[["verified information",[]],["disinformation",[]],["fake",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["Labelled based on dominant informational effect; misinformation if a misleading component could plausibly deceive readers.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["I locate and evaluate the background of the author of media messages I encounter.",[]],["I locate and evaluate organizational institutions affiliated with media messages.",[]],["I know to distinguish the intended audience of media messages.",[]],["I recognize and interpret author(s)' point of view (i.e., Whose voices are presented? Whose voices are omitted?)",[]],["I identify and evaluate potential bias in media messages.",[]],["I identify and evaluate motives for media messages.",[]]],"sp":[["Critical Evaluation of Media Message Practices",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["I determine trustworthiness of evidence in media messages.",[]],["I identify and evaluate how public opinion trends shape media messages.",[]],["I identify and evaluate how visual images convey the author's or organization's viewpoint.",[]]],"sp":[["Critical Evaluation of Media Message Practices",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["By investigating the articles' imbalance, that is, how extreme they were on the polarity scale, we found that a higher number of non-neutral edits was accompanied by a lower level of imbalance.",[]]],"rt":[["polarity scale",[]]]},{"de":[["Analogously to the article polarity, we calculated the author polarity through averaging the polarities of all edits an author had made up to a certain time point (without those edits with only neutral modifications).",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a medium level of incongruity, that is, a moderate clash of divergent views, was the most productive for the further development of perspectives among both the contributors and the articles.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["echo chambers",["25"]],["filter bubbles",["26"]],["cyber-balkanization",["27"]],["virtual \"filter bubbles\"",["26"]]],"sp":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["These define problems, interpret causes, and make moral evaluations.",[]],["This happens through journalists selecting, emphasizing, and contextualizing specific aspects of a story.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Russian leaders consider soft power a political instrument for indirect control and manipulation of foreign populations, leading to a blurring of lines between cultural means and propaganda",["Kiseleva, 2015"]],["Striving for an alternative narrative to the West, Russian leaders consider soft power a political instrument for indirect control and manipulation of foreign populations, leading to a blurring of lines between cultural means and propaganda (Kiseleva, 2015).",["Kiseleva, 2015"]],["Media plays a crucial part in disseminating soft power by shaping countries as partners or enemies (Nye, 2008).",["Nye, 2008"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["cuya elevada frecuencia se debe a su probada eficacia y una baja dificultad técnica",["Fazio, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["se configura como el tipo de desorden informativo más frecuente",[]]],"sp":[["desorden informativo",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["in the news and public media domain, the deceptive text is known as Fake News.",[]],["In social media, a deceptive text can happen in the form of a rumor.",[]],["Spam or a phishing email is treated as deceptive content in the personal mail or messaging domain.",[]]],"ex":[["Fake News",[]],["rumor",[]],["Spam",[]],["phishing email",[]],["Spam or a phishing email",[]],["in the news and public media domain, the deceptive text is known as Fake News",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["exposure to congenial information reduces perceptions that the information is biased",["Kelly, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["when a user is loyal, and returns again and again to a news medium, that user is more likely to buy other products offered, and to recommend it to other users. That loyalty, driven by participation, is a demonstration of perceived quality by the audience. The users find the information valuable in meeting the needs of their daily lives, solving their problems, or acting as a watchdog on the powerful.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a \"very important\" editorial priority",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the standards for public service journalism remain much the same: objectivity, fairness, trustworthiness, independence, social responsibility, and ethical sensibility",["Deuze, 2005"]],["Public interest journalism causes changes in the society, and it might be recognized, among other things, through prizes and awards.",[]],["providing information that is relevant to their daily lives, helps them solve problems, and provides a counterweight to the politically and economically powerful",[]],["Ramírez-de-la- Piscina et al. (2014) define the social role of the press with the following characteristics: watchdog on power, promotion of social debate, respect for human dignity, presence of cultural references from other countries, and combating social marginalization.",["Ramírez-de-la- Piscina et al. (2014)"]],["involve highly differentiated content",[]]],"rt":[["public service journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It can also be further restricted to the identification of intentionally falsely published news, however, in this study, we retain the broader definition",["Zhou and Zafarani, 2020","(Zhou and Zafarani, 2020)"]]],"sp":[["Text classification",[]]]},{"rt":[["emotion detection",[]]],"sp":[["sentiment analysis",[]],["Text classification",[]]]},{"de":[["This task holds significant value in sentiment analysis, as the sarcastic texts have a negative underlying sentiment behind an ostensibly positive facade (Joshi et al., 2017).",["Joshi et al., 2017"]]],"sp":[["sentiment analysis",[]],["Text classification",[]]]},{"de":[["This research area comprises multiple applications such as emotion, polarity, and sarcasm detection.",[]],["While these tasks are often grouped under sentiment analysis, we consider them as separate classification tasks due to their distinct and intrinsic characteristics.",[]]],"sb":[["emotion detection",[]],["polarity detection",[]],["sarcasm detection",[]]],"sp":[["text classification",[]]]},{"de":[["perceived \"agenda setting\"",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In subjecting political discourse to journalistic expertise ex-post, fact-checking invokes that historic, yet today contested, division.",[]],["It participates in the construction of journalistic authority (Carlson, 2017) since it is in a position to inform audiences about politicians' credibility or lack thereof.",["Carlson, 2017"]],["Behind its meticulous work of verification, fact-checking is thus eminently political (Graves, 2016) and complements, but does not substitute for, the work of political journalists whose main focus is the analysis of issues of public interest.",["Graves, 2016"]],["recapitulating the facts that form the common ground on which no political figure can avoid treading",[]],["established journalistic genre and an objectified practice",["Graves, 2017"]],["a specific form of knowledge about current events that attests to facts",[]],["by idealizing the verification of factual details to the detriment of broader contextualization, is at pains to give full due to the narrative dimension that allows for differing and conflicting journalistic readings of a single reality",[]],["has established itself through the adoption of joint standards, such as the Code of Principles established in 2015 by the Poynter Institute's International Fact-checking Network (IFCN), and through collaborative efforts in the form of digital platforms",[]],["once the verified statement has been cited and an assessment declared, supporting argumentation is systematically presented to corroborate the degree of veracity",[]],["encourages readers to develop journalistic aptitudes in order to gauge the veracity of public statements; at the same time, however, it encourages them to rely on verification work already performed by media, to whom the time-consuming process is commonly delegated",[]],["can censure political figures' missteps, but it is found wanting in the question of addressing the issues underpinning political discourse",[]],["the empowerment of readerships is limited to the verification of numbers, laws, and regulations, and does not extend to the substantive issues under debate which, ultimately, involve not facts in isolation, but rather their interpretation",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["political journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["modern fact-checking is concerned with the reconstruction of journalistic authority",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["fact-checking in near real-time",[]]]},{"rt":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The purpose is to determine the emotions or attitudes expressed toward the company, products, services, personnel, or events.",[]],["Business sentiment analysis is to capture and track the opinions, emotions or feelings expressed by consumers when they are participating in various business interactions (Sun et al., 2020).",["Sun et al., 2020"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["mental \"information packages\", ways of revealing of verbalized knowledge.",["Gizdatov, 1996"]],["the sense of a text can be expressed in the form of the filled copy of the previously made frame",["Goncharenko & Shingareva, 1984"]],["A distinctive feature of the linguistic frames are the fact that they fix certain normative way of situation description which is typical for a certain language community, accepted in a definite professional circle for the description of some fragment of the outer world (situations and objects)",["Goncharenko & Shingareva, 1984"]],["In knowledge engineering frame means the way of compact storage of information in the conciousness.",[]],["Frame is a kind of universal scheme for assembling the \"mosaic\" of cognitive images. This is a carcass, basing on which one can quickly \"build\" different mental operations and take appropriate actions, i.e. speed up the response.",[]],["in journalism frame is sometimes understood as the carcass of a plot or an article.",[]]],"sy":[["scenario",[]],["script",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]],["reframing",[]],["scenario",[]],["script",[]]],"sb":[["scenario",[]],["media frame",[]]],"sp":[["concept",[]]],"ex":[["shop -components: buy, sell, goods, cost, price etc.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["framing consists of two operations: organisation of the past experience and orientation of the future actions",["Yanou & van Hulst, 2011"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Reframing is an actively developing direction, branch of the psychology.",[]],["the reframing is the conscious breakage, it is insufficient and almost unnoticeable and can be re-qualified for some game.",[]]]},{"de":[["The main purpose of it is to deceive or mislead readers, listeners, or viewers.",[]],["Fake news often involves various modalities, including text, images, videos, and social network dynamics.",[]],["often involves various modalities, including text, images, videos, and social network dynamics.",[]]],"sy":[["bogus news",[]],["false news",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Together, these metrics indicate a model's reliance on trustworthy sources.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["CG",[]]],"sp":[["Groundedness Score",[]]]},{"de":[["Prompts can contain false or unverified assumptions, known as false presuppositions (Yu et al., 2023), which can steer LLMs toward unreliable answers.",[]]]},{"de":[["The third step is groundedness evaluation (Section 5). We examine whether the assistants' statements are actually supported by cited sources.",[]],["While source credibility is essential, it does not capture whether an assistant's statements are actually supported by the evidence it cites.",[]],["This illustrated how grounding can give a false sense of reliability: users may perceive answers as trustworthy simply because they cite evidence, even when that evidence lacks credibility.",[]]],"rt":[["credible grounding",[]]]},{"de":[["It defines the ratio of domains rated as satire, very low, or low to the total number of classified sources.",[]]]},{"sy":[["NCG",[]]],"sp":[["Groundedness Score",[]]]},{"ex":[["claims circulating online",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["epistemic modality",[]]],"sp":[["modality",[]]]},{"de":[["editorials, being the main voice of a newspaper's editor or proprietor, can also be influenced and biased as well. In fact, the editorials have already been reported to present (1) institutional voice (Hindman, 2003;Kelling & Thomas, 2018), (2) project organizational stance (Gajevic, 2016), (3) are affected by the notions of homophily (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955) and (4) also are value oriented (Porten-Chee, 2017).",["Hindman, 2003;Kelling & Thomas, 2018","Gajevic, 2016","Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955","Porten-Chee, 2017"]]]},{"rt":[["deontic modality",[]],["hedging",[]]],"sp":[["modality",[]]],"ex":[["You may have completed that. (epistemic modality expressing possibility)",[]]]},{"de":[["The choice of topics, number of pages and articles in a newspaper and their positioning are the matter related to gatekeeping",["Blazhevski, 2018"]]]},{"rt":[["epistemic modality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Halliday and Hasan (1989) classified modal verbs according to values into: (1) high (must, need to, have to, ought to); (2) intermediate (shall, should, will, would) and (3) low value modals (can, may, could, might).",["Halliday and Hasan (1989)"]],["These verb forms are differentiated from lexical verbs on the basis of following features presented by Hailiday (1976): (1) they do not have any finite forms, like -ing, -ed, etc. for example 'maying, to may'; (2) interrogative and negative forms of the modals are made without any extension. It is not needed for the modal verbs to incorporate 'to be' or 'to do' frames while making questions or putting forth negative expressions with modal verbs like 'they may not' or 'would they be able to run?' instead of 'would she say she is can go? and 'he doesn't will' and so forth; (3) negative forms of the modal auxiliaries are reducible. They can be contracted, as in 'She can't drive a car' or 'We won't have the capacity to drive a bike'; (4) they can be utilized as 'code verbs' in ellipsis. This implies when two comparable clauses, utilizing a modal happen to come together the second clause does not require to repeat the following lexical verb, as in 'She can run so can I'. For this situation, the second modal verb 'can' represents the lexical verb 'go'; (5) they do not require a third person singular 's', for example, 'He cans' and (5) they do not combine with one another and do not co-occur in a clause (except in some nonstandard clauses like 'They may could run'.",[]]],"sb":[["prediction modals",[]],["necessity modals",[]],["possibility modals",[]],["high (must, need to, have to, ought to)",["1989"]],["intermediate (shall, should, will, would)",["1989"]],["low value modals (can, may, could, might)",["1989"]]]},{"de":[["modality, being an important linguistic property, is used by the editorialists to maintain interaction with readers, establish authorial persona and present personal as well as institutional stance.",[]],["This linguistic device (modality) is an important means for editorial writers to have the insistence of a speaker who has assumed a position of authority, the authority here includes a claim to know what is inevitably going to happen.",[]],["modality is external to the content of any proposition and thus, constitutes the attitude taken up by the speaker.",["Halliday's (1976)"]],["The study called modality as a linguistic property which the language users could use to create favourable or unfavourable bias or to manipulate the opinion of readers.",["Bonyadi, 2011"]],["modality as a method to report news",[]],["Meaning thereby is that the speakers or writers make use of modality to mark their attitude or opinion in the texts or talk.",[]],["a characteristic of modality is that it is judgemental in nature",["Palmer, 2007"]],["involves the manifestation of judgements or evidences about the actual condition of the situations",["Chafe & Nichols, 1986;Palmer, 2007"]],["As modality expresses the opinion of the speakers and writers, it does not have any assurance of truth of the propositions",["Papafragou, 2005"]],["modality as a linguistic property which the language users could use to create favourable or unfavourable bias or to manipulate the opinion of readers.",["Bonyadi, 2011"]]],"rt":[["stance",[]],["stance marking",[]],["epistemic modality",[]],["deontic modality",[]]],"sb":[["epistemic modality",[]],["deontic modality",[]],["deontic",[]],["epistemic",[]]]},{"sy":[["institutional voice",[]]]},{"de":[["These colloquial expressions work as the forms of modality yet can also be used for tense markers (Biber et al., 1999).",[]]],"sp":[["Modal verbs",[]]]},{"rt":[["Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh)",[]],["fiqh",[]]]},{"rt":[["ethnocentrism",[]]]},{"rt":[["ethnic group closure",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["freedom of responsible speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["Sharia",[]]],"sb":[["religion",[]],["life",[]],["intellect",[]],["property (wealth)",[]],["progeny (family)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["has existed for ages in the West. It started off early in Christian history as a mechanism of self-defence.",[]]],"sy":[["The fear and intolerance of other religions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the way public safety wars are being fought against Islam and Muslims have neither tamed the invisible enemy nor removed the risk they pose but only aggravated it proving the state's inability to de-securitise societal security.",["76"]]]},{"de":[["Five primary rights are mentioned in Sharia: religion, life, intellect, property (wealth) and progeny (family).",[]]],"sy":[["Islamic law",[]]],"rt":[["Maqasid al Sharia",[]],["English Common Law",[]],["Magna Carta Libertatum",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A frame contains communicative intention even if it does not express authorial intent.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["issue-specific frames",[]]],"sb":[["generic frames",[]],["issue-specific frames",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["issue-specific frames",[]]],"sb":[["morality frame",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The extraction of latent moral information from text is a highly subjective task",["Weber et al., 2018"]]],"sp":[["generic frames",[]]],"ex":[["using the view of an interest group to raise questions about sexually transmitted diseases (rather than what one should do to not get sexually transmitted diseases)",["Semetko and Valkenburg (2000)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["generation-based methods have notable drawbacks when addressing safety or fairness issues. Since prompts containing sensitive content are easily detected and rejected by the models, it poses significant challenges to prompt design. Additionally, generating outputs incurs high costs for large models",[]]],"rt":[["probability-based approaches",[]]]},{"de":[["probability-based methods offer better scalability",[]]],"sy":[["probability-based methods",[]]],"rt":[["generation-based methods",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Political state authority; Economic bank; Activist",[]],["e.g. Political state authority; Economic bank; Activist",[]]]},{"de":[["Some authors use actor diversity to conceptualize news diversity in content",["Humprecht & Buchel, 2013","Masini & Van Aelst, 2017","Nord, 2013","S. Rodgers, Thorson, & Antecol, 2000"]]],"rt":[["party diversity",[]]],"sp":[["Diversity dimensions",[]]]}] |