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714cbfe | 1 | [{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["What is common across these definitions is how fake news appropriates the look and feel of real news; from how websites Marcelo Träsel, Sílvia Lisboa and Giulia Reis Vinciprova DOI: 10.25200/BJR.v15n3.2019.1211 look; to how articles are written; to how photos include attributions.",[]],["Fake news hides under a veneer of legitimacy as it takes on some form of credibility by trying to appear like real news.",[]],["Fake news hides under a veneer of legitimacy as it takes on some form of credibility by trying to appear like real news. Furthermore, going beyond the simple appearance of a news item, through the use of news bots, fake news imitates news' omnipresence by building a network of fake sites.",["Tandoc, Lim and Ling (2018, p.7)"]],["Fake news would therefore be a specific type of misinformation disguised as journalistic content.",[]]],"sy":[["pseudojournalism",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["cognitive biases",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The term uses the Greek pseudo radical -which denotes deception, deceit, or fraud, to the broader term journalism -to refer to the specific type of misinformation that Projeto Credibilidade seeks to counteract.",[]],["The term uses the Greek pseudo radical -which denotes deception, deceit, or fraud, to the broader term journalism",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["Best practices: Presentation of information on funding, corporate structure, history, mission and ethical commitments of the organization, such as policy for corrections, diversity in selecting sources and hiring employees, quality standards, among others",[]],["Author Expertise: Details about the reporters, such as topics in which they have professional experience, languages spoken, training, awards, links with the cyberjournal, presence in social networks, among others",[]],["Type of work: Tags included in stories to distinguish opinion, analysis, humor and advertising from news reports",[]],["Citations and References: Linking evidence about documents and people whose content or statements are used in in-depth reporting, including social networking profiles, databases, text, photos or videos on social networks, scientific articles, and more",[]],["Locally Sourced: Informs when a report was made on site, including geolocation",[]],["Diverse Voices: Providing links to human resource reports and drafting manuals that highlight drafting efforts to ensure greater diversity in coverage",[]],["Actionable Feedback: Disclosure of editorial policy for collaboration with the public and contacts of those responsible for the interaction",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["coded as coder estimates on a five-point scale from extremely negative to extremely positive for each political party.",[]],["The coders were instructed to base their coding on the question of whether the party would perceive the coverage as good for them.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["originating from Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger 1957)",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive dissonance",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["searchable discursive markers that bring digital communities together around shared ideological stances",[]]]},{},{"de":[["driven more by market pressures than by governmental or educational regulations",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["naturalising its role in international communication, science, and education",[]]],"sy":[["de facto global lingua franca",[]]]},{},{"de":[["since Arabic and Tamazight are completely left out of the anticipated linguistic future",[]]]},{},{"de":[["where their mere usage signals ideological alignment",[]]]},{"de":[["Twitter polling serves as an engagement strategy that surfaces viewpoints and mobilises collective opinion",["Zappavigna, 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["linguistic value is determined by its capacity to generate socioeconomic mobility and facilitate integration into competitive labour markets",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["For conversation analysis, recipient design has been used in a more restricted sense to examine the ways in which the participants in particular conversations select topics, words, next speakers, how persons are referred to, who has entitlement or responsibility to open and close conversations and so on.",[]]],"rt":[["politeness theory",[]],["linguistic accommodation",[]],["common ground",[]],["Goffman's concept of footing",[]],["participation frameworks",[]],["audience design",["Bell 1984","Duranti 1986","Deppermann 2014"]]],"sb":[["audience design",["Bell 1984","Duranti 1986","Deppermann 2014"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["generated by an LLM",[]]],"rt":[["LLM-driven message injection attacks",[]],["LLM-based message injection attacks",[]]],"ex":[["causes the rumor detection model to fail in effectively detecting the rumor",[]]]},{},{"de":[["recognizing framing techniques provides insight into the construction and manipulation of narratives.",[]]],"rt":[["reframing techniques",[]],["reframing tactics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This intentional addition aids the framing process by providing readers with information that shapes their first expectations about the story in question",["Wolf, 2006"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They are the stories people tell about the world(s) they live in",[]],["They are the stories people tell about the world(s) they live in.",[]]],"sy":[["story",[]]]},{},{"de":[["paratext is an integral part of the text, and any text without paratext cannot be considered a text",[]]]},{"de":[["The relevance of paratextual framing devices, in general, resides in their ability to mediate between the text and the readers of that text",["Kovala, 1996"]],["The relevance of paratextual framing devices, in general, resides in their ability to mediate between the text and the readers of that text (Kovala, 1996).",["Kovala, 1996"]],["paratextual framing techniques, including titles, subheadings, introductions, and footnotes",[]],["The titles of the translated articles were extremely important for establishing the tone, emphasizing important details, or introducing the readers to a particular viewpoint. Subheadings provided a structural framework for understanding the various sections or themes inside the articles, while introductions offered a preliminary backdrop or framing for the following content. Furthermore, footnotes served as additional points of emphasis and clarification by providing information about the translation and its source, thus helping to gain the audience's trust.",[]]],"sb":[["titles",[]],["subheadings",[]],["introductions",[]],["footnotes",[]]]},{"ex":[["Footnotes, endnotes, and glossaries",[]]]},{"de":[["Subheadings, intertitles, and internal titles are also used in translation to reframe narratives in translated texts since they help create cohesive narratives by integrating diverse narrative parts and directing readers to a newly created narrative",["Al Sharif, 2009"]]],"rt":[["intertitles",[]],["internal titles",[]]]},{"de":[["They act as indicators of the text's content. They also direct the reader's comprehension of the narrative. Whether original or translated, titles can influence and guide people's ideas about specific events by supporting or undermining certain public narratives as they occupy an initial position in the article with a bold font",["Lanser, 1981"]]]},{},{"de":[["These rumors often defy logical reasoning and lack credibility.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["false information",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Alt-Right",[]]]},{"sb":[["alt-light",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",["29"]]]},{},{"de":[["there is a concurrent global information war afoot.",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",["29"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["incomplete information",[]],["search frictions",[]]]},{"de":[["can resolve the uncertainty that firms face",[]],["Accordingly, we focus on the availability, precision and completeness of information, and not on whether it is biased.",[]],["The availability of information due to free and independent media reporting is thus likely to trigger additional persistent export entry and thereby both lead to more and more diversified trade.",[]]],"sy":[["freedom of the media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["confl icts of interest in journalism arise in circumstances in which there is a reason to be concerned that the judgment and performance of journalists might be unduly infl uenced by interests they have that lie outside their responsibilities as journalists.",[]]],"sb":[["individual",[]],["institutional",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["framework of symmetrical and non-symmetrical links",["2004"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["framework of symmetrical and non-symmetrical links",["2004"]]]},{},{"sy":[["positive descriptions",["2019"]]],"rt":[["stigmatizing frames",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["in other words, news frames influence audiences' factual judgments, value judgments, and attitude attribution towards news events and news figures.",[]],["news frames influence audiences' factual judgments, value judgments, and attitude attribution towards news events and news figures.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Framing theory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Many studies have shown that HIV public stigma is the main impediment to PLWHA seeking active treatment",["Smith et al., 2008"]],["it is the major obstacle to HIV prevention",["Abdool Karim, 2011","Sengupta et al., 2011"]]],"sb":[["interpersonal distancing",[]],["blame and judgment",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["Affective Empathy",[]],["Cognitive Empathy",[]],["Associative Empathy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["estrategias retórico-discursivas",[]]]},{"de":[["como ha descrito Serrano (2009), en la especulación y el espectáculo",["2009"]],["estrategias de manipulación informativa junto con otras de tenor ideológico, militar y económico.",[]]],"rt":[["manipulación informativa",[]]],"ex":[["sitios webs dedicados a la desinformación -tales como las páginas de Facebook Nación Unida o Diario de Oaxaca o webs como ElMexicanoDigital.com o TodoInforme.com, por mencionar algunos ejemplos-carecen de apartado de contacto, así como firmas o nombres de responsables o autores de los textos",["López et al., 2018"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["verificación de datos",[]]],"ex":[["Verificado en México",[]]]},{"sy":[["bulos",[]],["rumores",[]]],"sp":[["estrategias retórico-discursivas",[]]]},{"ex":[["creación de declaraciones falsas, publicacción de encuestas falsas, invención de cuestiones relativas a candidatos o figuras públicas, manipulación de elementos programáticos, suplantación de identidad, invención de tuits de apoyo a políticos y candidatos por parte de figuras extranjeras, invención de medidas políticas propuestas por candidatos, difusión de información falsa sobre legislación electoral",[]]]},{},{"de":[["fenómenos de gran complejidad",[]],["La noción \"golpe mediático\", ha sido muy utilizada en las últimas décadas para hacer referencia a conflictos tales como la guerra sucia contra Nicaragua, la represión contra movimientos populares en Colombia, el golpe en Honduras, el golpe parlamentario contra Fernando Lugo en Paraguay, la persecución judicial contra Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva en Brasil, de Cristina Fernández de Kirchner en Argentina o el proceso judicial espurio contra Rafael Correa en Ecuador, el impeachment contra Dilma Roussef en Brasil o la manipulación informativa contra los gobiernos electos en Bolivia y Venezuela",[]],["El golpe mediático está dirigido a ellos, con la finalidad de desprestigiarlos y acabar con ellos",[]],["los golpes mediáticos en las redes no son más que una amplificación del debate televisivo y periodístico hegemónico",[]],["dan cuenta de una dinámica y aplicación integrada de esfuerzos totalizadores a nivel político, social, económico, comunicativo y psicológico en favor de los intereses económicos y geopolíticos dominantes",[]],["manifiestan un \"clima de guerra total\", permanente, que afecta al conjunto de la población",[]]],"sy":[["golpe blando",[]]],"rt":[["desinformación",[]],["manipulación informativa",[]],["guerra sucia",[]],["represión contra movimientos populares",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["por ejemplo: Sergio Moro y Lava Jato obtuvieron áreas significativas en los noticiarios principales de la Rede Globo en horario de máxima audiencia, con periodos de alrededor nueve minutos, lo que suponía casi una tercera parte del tiempo total dedicado a informar de delitos del gobierno o de la política vinculada al pt",["Campos en Sierra Caballero, 2016, p. 236"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["estrategias retórico-discursivas",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Que utilizan discurso agresivo y violentan a personajes públicos o bloquean cualquier forma de diálogo.",[]]]},{"sp":[["estrategias retórico-discursivas",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Nesse sentido, a essência histórica da \"mentalidade do ticket\" afeita ao preconceito delirante é algoritmicamente renovada na cultura digital.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Nele o pensador frankfurtiano apresenta suas reflexões sobre o modo como a formação (Bildung) historicamente se converte na sua inimiga mortal: a semiformação (Halbbildung).",[]]],"sy":[["Halbbildung",[]]]},{"rt":[["alternative media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this view of the Bible, the \"plainest, most evident reading of the text is the proper one.\"",["18"]]]},{"de":[["the norm for American family life had taken hold thanks, in no large part, to the tremendous efforts of Focus.",[]]]},{"rt":[["synergy of media and language literacy (MLL)",[]],["media literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["Media Literacy (ML)",[]],["media literacy education (MLE)",[]]]},{"de":[["the technical skills associated with using the Internet to search for data, access social services, produce various media products (i.e., videos, blogs, websites), using media products as teaching materials (i.e., for reading, listening)",[]],["it helps them understand the message behind every story they read or watch and evaluate whether it is positive or negative",[]],["it develops their analytical skills, enabling them to distinguish between real and fake news and form their own opinions",[]],["it teaches to create media responsibly, such as writing blog articles, making videos, or composing music, makes producing media content more accessible",[]],["it helps students see how bias in the news can impact how a story is understood, and learn to understand the author's perspective and how it can affect their views",[]],["encourages students to question, analyse, and evaluate the messages conveyed through different media forms, cultivating their comprehension, vocabulary building, and critical thinking skills",["Hattani, 2016"]]],"rt":[["media literacy education (MLE)",[]],["media and language literacy (MLL)",[]],["integrated media and language literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["Media Literacy (ML)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the debiasing method of adversarial triggering",[]]]},{"de":[["we describe bias using the statistical framework used in the study of fairness in AI",[]]]},{},{"de":[["fairly common and they spread at a faster pace nowadays due to social media.",[]],["These deceptions and lies have been founded on the Internet, especially in social networks, one of the best means to expand and turn a rumour into news without being properly verified.",[]]],"sy":[["false news",[]]],"rt":[["rumour",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["rumour",[]]]},{"rt":[["false news",["Lazer et al., (2018)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["communication policies in Spain were initially conceived as mechanisms aimed at directing the operation of the Francoist communication systems",[]]]},{"ex":[["Televisión Española (TVE)",[]],["Radio Nacional de España (RNE)",[]],["Radio Cadena Española (RCE)",[]]]},{"de":[["differentiating between the right to information and freedom of expression.",[]]],"rt":[["right to information",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["bias is attributed to a significantly small number of neurons (e.g., three neurons) in most cases",[]]]},{"de":[["the overall ability to understand instructions increases.",[]]]},{"rt":[["intra-instruction bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["interinstruction bias",[]]]},{"ex":[["content-free texts (e.g., \"N/A\" or random tokens)",[]]]},{"ex":[["labels (e.g., \"poor people\") and tokens (e.g., \"drugs\")",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["The hypothesis of exposure selectivity explains that individuals tend to avoid deviating information.",[]]],"sb":[["they avoid interacting with anything inconsistent with their attitudes",[]],["selective perception, when faced with unpleasant things, they ignore or shape information to fit their initial opinions",[]],["selective retention, tending to forget information inconsistent with their attitudes",[]],["selective perception",[]],["selective retention",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Kusman (2017) further emphasizes the role of social media in disseminating hoaxes, noting its power to provoke audiences to act in ways that serve the creator's interests.",["2017"]]]},{"de":[["The hypothesis of exposure selectivity explains that individuals tend to avoid deviating information.",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]],"sb":[["selective perception",[]],["selective retention",[]]]},{"de":[["The consumption of news that reinforces existing attitudes significantly heightens the prominence of an individual's political identity.",[]],["In this context, new internet users tend to expose themselves to content or information sources that support their political views, while avoiding information conflicting with their perspectives.",[]],["this selective exposure phenomenon can be a driving factor in the dissemination of fake news or hate speech on social media platforms.",[]],["Internet users exposed to political selective exposure tend to confirm and spread information that aligns with their political views, regardless of the truth or accuracy of that information.",[]]],"rt":[["hypothesis of exposure selectivity",[]]],"sb":[["selective perception",[]],["selective retention",[]]]},{"sp":[["hypothesis of exposure selectivity",[]]]},{"sp":[["hypothesis of exposure selectivity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["inherent bias is caused by the fragmentation of participants.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["encompassing rhetorical techniques, thematic consistency, and emotive expressions",[]]]},{"de":[["structure and grammar",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["mensajes que moldean a la opinión pública",["Gómez-Quintero et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["se seleccionan aspectos de la realidad, prestando menos atención a otros y dejando algunos fuera. En definitiva, al enfatizar ciertas vertientes, se construye la realidad desde una perspectiva, frente a otras.",[]],["el 'framing' se presenta, entonces, como un efecto decisivo en la comprensión y en la aproximación social de los temas.",[]],["De este modo, se seleccionan aspectos de la realidad, prestando menos atención a otros y dejando algunos fuera. En definitiva, al enfatizar ciertas vertientes, se construye la realidad desde una perspectiva, frente a otras.",[]],["el encuadre se refiere a las palabras, imágenes, oraciones y estilo, entre otras, a partir de las mencionadas 6W.",[]]],"sy":[["framing",[]]],"rt":[["6W",[]],["criterios de noticiabilidad",[]]]},{"de":[["buscando atraer al receptor a través de la espectacularización de los contenidos",[]],["su consecuente espectacularización informativa",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["undergoer",[]]]},{"de":[["In this excuse, Strache represents himself for the first time as an actor, albeit of a rather peculiar kind. By classifying his activities in a negatively evaluated way (\"impress the attractive host\" as a married man whose wife was not present, \"boastfully like a teenager\"), his narrated agent-role receives a negative image.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["justification strategy",["Scott and Lyman, 1968"]],["right-wing populist rhetoric",[]]]},{"sp":[["talk scandal",[]],["Talk-scandals",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["structural aspect",[]]]},{"sp":[["talk scandal",[]],["Talk-scandals",[]]]},{"de":[["is directed at the general public and fits well into the right wing populist rhetoric of presenting the speaker as the victim of dark forces intending to preventing him from working for \"the people\" (Moffitt, 2016).",["Moffitt, 2016"]]],"sp":[["justification strategy",["Scott and Lyman, 1968"]],["right-wing populist rhetoric",[]]]},{"sy":[["socio-pragmatics",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["procedural aspect",[]]]},{"sb":[["first-order scandals",[]],["secondorder scandals",[]]]},{"sb":[["first-order scandals",[]],["secondorder scandals",[]]]},{"sp":[["referential strategies",[]]],"ex":[["a trap staged by a secretservice",[]],["targeted political assassination",[]]]},{"de":[["According to Chandler (2002), images function on two primary levels: the denotative (literal) and the connotative (associative).",[]]],"rt":[["denotative",[]]]},{"rt":[["denotative (literal)",["2002"]]]},{"ex":[["flags and religious icons",[]]]},{"de":[["According to Chandler (2002), images function on two primary levels: the denotative (literal) and the connotative (associative).",[]]],"rt":[["connotative",[]]]},{"rt":[["connotative (associative)",["2002"]]]},{"de":[["In the context of SEIZ epidemiological models, these metrics can be interpreted as indicators of how effectively a model can predict the spread and impact of information, akin to infection rates in epidemiology.",[]]]},{"ex":[["emblems and slogans",[]]]},{"sb":[["Susceptible",[]],["Exposed",[]],["Infectious",[]],["Skeptical (Z)",[]]]},{"de":[["offers a valuable framework for understanding how images generate and convey meaning.",[]]],"rt":[["denotative",[]],["connotative",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["gestures or rituals",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Economic interests",[]]]},{},{"de":[["is typically operationalized as the relative numerical dominance of different types of interests",["Halpin and Thomas 2012"]],["This follows the coding scheme developed in the INTERARENA project.",[]]],"sb":[["Trade Unions",[]],["Business Associations",[]],["Institutional Groups",[]],["Professional Groups",[]],["Identity groups",[]],["Public interest groups",[]],["Leisure Groups",[]]]},{"rt":[["citizen interests",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["Royal National Institute of Blind People (UK)",[]],["Danish Association of the Disabled",[]]]},{"de":[["seek to increase attention towards the issue they care about, to influence political decisions and public opinion, and to promote the public's knowledge of and support for their organization",[]]],"ex":[["trade unions",[]],["business groups",[]],["citizen groups",[]]]},{"ex":[["The Kennel Club (UK)",[]],["The Sports Federation of Denmark",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["UK Youth Climate Coalition",[]],["Keep Denmark Clean",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["faithfulness",["9"]]],"sp":[["interpretability quality",["44"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["explanation satisfaction",["45"]],["user trust",["45"]]],"sp":[["explanations evaluation methods",["45"]]]},{},{"de":[["a term derived from the artificial turf first used at the Astrodome in Houston, Texas",[]],["the formation of such front groups",[]]],"rt":[["merchants of doubt",["Oreskes and Conway (2010)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The common thread in these definitions is that disinformation is intentional and it is designed to cause harm.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["inoculation",["Mihailidis, 2014, p. 36"]],["the protectionist debate",["Mihailidis, 2014, p. 36"]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["expansion of media literacy through what has been broadly called the prosumer movement (Kotler, 2010) could create 'armies' of fact checkers 'outing' and refuting disinformation and naming and shaming perpetrators of deception and manipulation",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy for consumption",["Mihailidis, 2014, p. 36"]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"ex":[["native advertising and paid influencers",[]]]},{"sy":[["sponsored content",[]],["brand placement",[]],["embedded marketing",[]],["paid content",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["this signifies a deterioration or even a collapse of public communication from its normative purpose of informing, meaning making, and creating understanding to disinformation, deception, and manipulation.",[]],["As in many uses of the prefix 'post', this signifies a deterioration or even a collapse of public communication from its normative purpose of informing, meaning making, and creating understanding to disinformation, deception, and manipulation.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["More specifically, public communication involves practices such as journalism, media advertising, marketing communication such as electronic direct mail (eDM), PR, and corporate, government, and political communication",[]],["More specifically, public communication involves practices such as journalism, media advertising, marketing communication such as electronic direct mail (eDM), PR, and corporate, government, and political communication.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["multiple public spheres",[]]]},{"rt":[["manipulative",["Heath, 2006, p. 95"]]],"sb":[["invitational",["Foss & Griffin, 1995, p. 2"]]]},{"sy":[["Propaganda",[]]],"rt":[["spin doctors",["Andrews, 2006"]]]},{"sy":[["imagined nation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Clickbait news often met with superb engagement on all platform, this is mainly due to the nature of clickbait that are dramatic, full of teases, often sexually explicit, and incite over curiosity",["12"]]]},{"ex":[["news headlines",["de Vreese, 2005, p. 54"]],["charts",["de Vreese, 2005, p. 54"]],["pull quotes",["de Vreese, 2005, p. 54"]],["corporate branding",["de Vreese, 2005, p. 54"]]]},{},{"de":[["providing a side fact-checking note to users",["Mahadevan et al., 2021"]]],"sy":[["Birdwatch",["Coleman, 2021"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["TikTok or X's curated feeds are tailored to users' preferences, leading to a deceptive echo chamber.",[]],["For example, TikTok or X's curated feeds are tailored to users' preferences, leading to a deceptive echo chamber.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Its universal aim is to equip individuals with the essential skills required to navigate the evolving media landscape in a well-informed manner.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["False connections, misleading content, inaccurate visuals, and manipulated texts, to name a few, are all forms of misinformation",["Maci et al., 2024"]],["The findings reveal the prevalence of different forms of misinformation on X, specifically sensationalist reporting and misleading visual representations.",[]]],"rt":[["crisis communication",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["sensationalist reporting",[]],["misleading visual representations",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]]],"ex":[["False connections, misleading content, inaccurate visuals, and manipulated texts",["Maci et al., 2024"]],["False connections, misleading content, inaccurate visuals, and manipulated texts, to name a few, are all forms of misinformation (Maci et al., 2024).",["Maci et al., 2024"]]]},{"ex":[["several tweets have included unrelated footage of a collapsed house in Casablanca due to construction problems dating back to 2022",[]],["instances of wreckage from unrelated earthquakes in Turkey, Japan, and China",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The sensationalist reporting theme targets tweets about exaggerated magnitude levels, faulty assumptions about public figures or official humanitarian donations, and politicized content aiming to spread terror.",[]]],"sb":[["propaganda",[]],["emotional, and political misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It draws from various disciplines of communication and psychology, making it a well-equipped tool to comprehend information flow in risk events.",["Kasperson, et al., 1987"]]]},{"de":[["SAR serves as a comprehensive framework for the amplification and attenuation of public risk perception and the influence of cultural, social, and psychological factors in the harvesting of information.",["Kasperson, et al., 1987"]],["In response to risky events, individuals exhibit behavioral responses (Kasperson et al., 1987), which intensify their vulnerability.",["(Kasperson et al., 1987)"]],["SAR posits that the analysis of risk information processing occurs in two primary stages.",[]]],"sb":[["Stage 1, termed signal creation, is dedicated to the transmission of risk information (the signal) through social and cultural stations that shape the communicative event.",["Kasperson, et al., 1987"]]]},{},{"sy":[["slur",["Anderson and Lepore, 2013"]]],"rt":[["slur",[]]]},{"de":[["Unlike existing models of offensive language and hate speech, pejorative language manifests itself primarily at the lexical level, and describes a word that is used with a negative connotation, making it different from offensive language or other more studied categories.",[]],["Pejorativity is also context-dependent: the same word can be used with or without pejorative connotations, thus pejorativity detection is essentially a problem similar to word sense disambiguation.",[]],["making it different from offensive language or other more studied categories.",[]]],"rt":[["offensive language",[]],["hate speech",[]],["pejorative words",[]]]},{"de":[["While pejorative language is often used in offensive speech (Castroviejo et al., 2020), they are not identical categories. There are offensive posts that do not use pejorative words (e.g. \"Women belong in the kitchen\"), and pejorative uses of words that are not harmful (\"What a shitty chair\") because the offensive content is not targeted at a person or a group as described in the popular annotation taxonomy of the Offensive Language Identification Dataset (OLID) (Zampieri et al., 2019).",["Castroviejo et al., 2020","Zampieri et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["slurs",[]],["insults",[]],["pejorative language",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["insult",["Anderson and Lepore, 2013"]]],"rt":[["insult",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["perspective/view",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["placeholder for general anxieties around foreigners, military threats, technology, and the societal role of traditional media",[]],["an antagonised 'other,' changing its meaning from being synonymous with falsehoods to capturing broader fears of potential collapse of established hegemonic relations",[]],["a constitutive outside for existing knowledge gatekeepers seeking to (re-)sediment a position of authority",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["junk media",[]],["deepfakes",[]],["robots",[]]]},{"rt":[["social",[]],["political",[]]],"sb":[["anticipation",[]],["exteriorisation",[]],["technologisation",[]],["securitisation",[]]],"sp":[["logics",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It lingers in the close horizon as a pertinent threat towards Denmark, the EU, and democracy.",[]]]},{"de":[["Through a logic of exteriorisation, fake news is associated with a foreign and malevolent 'them,' standing in contrast to a domestic and benign 'us.'",[]],["Fake news is predominantly constructed as deriving from nefarious and dangerous foreigners.",[]]],"ex":[["Danish politics implicitly becomes associated with 'real' or 'good' news, while foreign actors become connected to 'fake' and 'bad' news.",[]]]},{"de":[["Pre-legitimation is a form of discursive positioning where actors claim legitimacy based on imaginaries about \"what we would potentially do\" (Krzyzanowski 2014, 357), typically in response to \"various real and imagined 'crises'\" (Krzyżanowski 2019, 469).",["(Krzyzanowski 2014, 357)","(Krzyżanowski 2019, 469)"]],["journalism's role as the antithesis to fake news is paradoxically reinforced through a lack of journalistic findings around fake news",[]],["media professionals rely on a logic of pre-legitimation to bolster their own discursive position as authorities of truth",[]],["bolster their own discursive position as authorities of truth",[]]]},{"de":[["Across Danish media, threat assessments predominantly derive from sources connected to the military and/or law enforcement, most notably intelligence agencies.",[]]],"rt":[["weaponization",[]],["infowar",[]]]},{"de":[["it is articulated as a new type of technological danger so sophisticated that any citizen could potentially fall victim to it.",[]],["Rather, it is articulated as a new type of technological danger so sophisticated that any citizen could potentially fall victim to it. It derives from false \"profiles on social media that look and sound like Danish citizens\" (Kretz 2019) and a \"digital toolbox\" that can increasingly \"target more precisely, with greater effect, and lower risk of detection by the sender\" (Splidsboel Hansen 2019).",["(Kretz 2019)","(Splidsboel Hansen 2019)"]]]},{"de":[["They represent relational processes through which certain worldviews and modes of understanding become hegemonic (Glynos and Howarth 2007).",["Glynos and Howarth 2007"]]],"sb":[["social",[]],["political",[]],["fantasmatic",[]]]},{"sp":[["logics",[]]]},{"sp":[["logics",[]]]},{"de":[["capturing wider concerns about foreigners, technology, the nation state, and -most importantly -journalistic authority.",[]]]},{"ex":[["a specific event (e.g., US Election 2016), a general issue (e.g., abortion or gun control), or even an entity (e.g., Donald Trump or Palestine).",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["internet memes",[]]]},{"de":[["humor can increase the salience of certain issues or constructs in the minds of the audience",["Moy et al., 2006"]],["humor can change attitude per se and affect subsequent decision-making processes of users",["Iyengar & Kinder, 2010"]]],"sy":[["funny",[]]]},{"de":[["social phenomena",[]]],"rt":[["memes",[]],["Dawkinsian memes",[]]]},{"de":[["while virtually anything can be a meme since it is a unit of information",[]]]},{"de":[["succinct, often humorous images, videos, or texts spread rapidly online, offering a unique blend of entertainment and political commentary.",[]],["social phenomena. They reproduce through imitation and diffuse through competition and selection.",[]],["memes are treated as media objects with specific characteristics.",[]],["memes have high qualities of engaging mass population and create strong opinions that resist long periods through social media platforms.",[]],["memes are complex content, where text and image not only coexist but interact in ways that significantly enhance the message's effectiveness and reach.",[]],["memes allow different users to make their meanings for the same content",["Jenkins et al., 2013"]],["memes are important creators of emotions that determine people to share and comment",["Cacioppo et al., 2009"]],["memes can be an efficient, high-impact method of spreading a message or idea since users do not need to have strong knowledge of the meme's topic, but they need to have a good understanding of the social dynamics they are living in",[]],["due to their modality, memes can be an efficient, high-impact method of spreading a message or idea since users do not need to have strong knowledge of the meme's topic, but they need to have a good understanding of the social dynamics they are living in",[]]],"sy":[["digital artifacts of public opinion",["Moody-Ramirez & Church, 2019, p.3"]]],"rt":[["visual trope",[]],["internet memes",[]],["Dawkinsian memes",[]],["political memes",[]]],"sb":[["Dawkinsian memes",[]],["internet memes",[]],["political memes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["that enriches and complicates the transmission and interpretation of messages.",[]]]},{"de":[["classify the polarity of a given text or image at the document, sentence, or feature/aspect level",[]]]},{"sy":[["derision",[]],["irony",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["paratextual framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["paratextual framing",[]]]},{"de":[["employing different framing techniques in translation results in diverse interpretations of the same narrative",[]],["The audience's cultural background, regional dynamics, and editorial policies may influence Al Jazeera's reframing tactics.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["They are the stories people tell about the world(s) they live in.",[]]],"sy":[["story",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Subheadings, intertitles, and internal titles are also used in translation to reframe narratives in translated texts since they help create cohesive narratives by integrating diverse narrative parts and directing readers to a newly created narrative",["Al Sharif, 2009"]]],"rt":[["intertitles",[]],["internal titles",[]]]},{"de":[["They act as indicators of the text's content.",[]],["They also direct the reader's comprehension of the narrative.",[]],["titles can influence and guide people's ideas about specific events by supporting or undermining certain public narratives as they occupy an initial position in the article with a bold font",["Lanser, 1981"]],["Whether original or translated, titles can influence and guide people's ideas about specific events by supporting or undermining certain public narratives as they occupy an initial position in the article with a bold font",["Lanser, 1981"]]]},{"rt":[["Discourse Analysis",[]]],"sp":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["describes how a hegemonic narrative legitimizes political and cultural domination",[]],["describes how a hegemonic narrative legitimizes political and cultural domination.",[]],["the practice of imposing the culture, language, and discourse of one dominant nation on subjugated territories.",[]]],"rt":[["Linguistic imperialism",[]]],"sb":[["Linguistic imperialism",[]]]},{"de":[["As a distinct way of perceiving the world, expressed through language, discourse has causal power: it directs and conditions the perception of certain topics, influences the consciousness of individuals and social groups, models it, and plays both a political and commanding role.",[]],["From a linguistic perspective, discourse is understood as language in use and is analyzed through the lens of linguistic properties.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["applied it mainly to the analysis of the exploitation of the ideological, cultural and elite power of the English language for economic and political gain by dominant English-speaking cultures in the era of globalization",[]]],"sp":[["cultural imperialism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Mental models play a crucial role in understanding, interpreting, and constructing meaning; they contain the \"cognitive\" aspects of a given situation, such as the goals and knowledge of discourse participants.",[]],["help recipients situate messages within a specific cultural, historical, or social context",[]],["influence how a text is received and understood, leading to different conclusions depending on the recipient's prior experiences and beliefs",[]],["reinforce particular narratives, especially in political, propaganda, or media discourses",[]],["shape the perception of reality: depending on which mental models are activated, the same message may be interpreted differently.",[]]],"sy":[["mental schemes",[]]],"ex":[["help recipients situate messages within a specific cultural, historical, or social context",[]],["influence how a text is received and understood, leading to different conclusions depending on the recipient's prior experiences and beliefs",[]],["reinforce particular narratives, especially in political, propaganda, or media discourses",[]],["shape the perception of reality: depending on which mental models are activated, the same message may be interpreted differently",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["regulate argumentative reasoning, are integral to collective knowledge, and construct factual contexts created by the speaker",["2003,262"]],["serve to construct arguments and categorize reality in ways that support dominant narratives.",[]],["employed in discourse analysis as semantic units that help uncover the fundamentals of argumentation",["Reisigl and Wodak 2001","Mirocha 2022"]],["often employed to introduce widely accepted statements that aid in persuading audiences to adopt a particular point of view",["Wodak et al. 1998"]],["topoi were identified as key elements, often employed to introduce widely accepted statements that aid in persuading audiences to adopt a particular point of view",["Wodak et al. 1998"]],["In political discourse, topoi such as \"threat\" and \"savior\" are used to protect national interests and achieve political objectives",["Kondakova 2022"]]],"sy":[["loci communes",[]],["commonplaces",[]]],"ex":[["threat",["Kondakova 2022"]],["savior",["Kondakova 2022"]]]},{"de":[["The devaluation in the statements cited above undermine the legitimacy of the language as an autonomous system, thereby diminishing the authenticity of Ukrainian cultural identity.",[]],["serves to legitimize Russia's imperial claims over Ukraine by presenting the Ukrainian language as an unnatural political construct rather than a fully-fledged national language",[]]],"sb":[["topos of the artificiality of the Ukrainian language",[]]],"ex":[["The claim that the Ukrainian language was deliberately contaminated with borrowings from Polish and English is an example of the topos of artificiality.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["serves to mobilize society by depicting the Ukrainian language as a tool of ideological struggle against Russia and its citizens.",[]]]},{"de":[["portraying it as an offshoot of Russian",[]],["depicting Ukrainian as an underdeveloped or incomplete form compared to a fully--fledged literary Russian language.",[]]],"rt":[["topos of artificiality",[]]],"ex":[["Ukrainian is contrasted with Russian as its regressive, provincial, and inferior form or merely as a dialect",["Disinfo Database, 19 VII 2019","Gulevich 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["The wide distribution of fake news has a considerable negative impact on individuals and society as a whole.",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["rumors, fake advertisements, satires, and false political reports are different types of fake news",["1"]],["rumors",["1"]],["fake advertisements",["1"]],["satires",["1"]],["false political reports",["1"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["Fake News",[]]]},{"rt":[["TARGET BIAS (TB)",[]],["Target Bias",[]]],"sp":[["social bias",[]]],"ex":[["BAMT elder→nonOld measures the degree to which an elder persona regards a nonOld target as a biased target.",[]],["For example, BAMT elder→Age quantifies the frequency of an elder persona selecting nonOld or old as a biased target.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["commonly seen in humans (Di-Donato et al., 2011), revealing that LLMs resemble the social bias of humans",["Di-Donato et al., 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["the results of Persona Bias are scores of PB",[]]]},{"rt":[["social perception",[]]]},{"de":[["we can capture social biases by measuring diverse perceptions among different personas in the set P towards different targets in the set T .",[]],["The arrows represent the social perceptions each demographic identity has of one another, which are either positive or negative.",[]]],"rt":[["social perception",[]]],"sb":[["TARGET BIAS (TB)",[]],["BIAS AMOUNT (BAMT)",[]]]},{"de":[["Therefore, we assume that social perception is reflected in a response by p to the given question in a biased context.",[]],["Additionally, we assume that an incorrect response comes from bias, as p is expected to accurately respond to the question, only using the given information.",[]],["The arrows represent the social perceptions each demographic identity has of one another, which are either positive or negative.",[]]],"rt":[["social bias",[]],["regard",[]]]},{"sb":[["negative stereotype",[]],["positive stereotype",[]]]},{"rt":[["BIAS AMOUNT (BAMT)",[]],["Bias Amount",[]]],"sp":[["social bias",[]]],"ex":[["TB elder→nonOld indicates how much an elder persona prefers a nonOld target.",[]],["For instance, TB elder→Age measures the extent to which an elder persona differentiates between a nonOld target and an old target.",[]]]},{"de":[["The lack of identification of authorship of the news",[]]]},{"de":[["something its editors label as censorship",[]],["It is a double meaning similar to that of another term in the legal and critical fields: the verb to condemn.",[]]],"rt":[["condemn",[]],["the verb to condemn",[]]],"sb":[["the censorship that removes",[]],["the censorship that it disapproves",[]]],"ex":[["the censorship that removes",[]],["the censorship that it disapproves",[]]]},{"de":[["it is more concerned with the legitimacy of the decision, consciously aware of the public and academic debate, and therefore adopting a more open attitude toward more accessible arguments with greater social resonance",["Habermas (2010)"]]],"rt":[["monological",[]]]},{"de":[["The spread of false content during voting in the United States, the United Kingdom and Colombia in 2016 was an example about the strength of these new media",[]],["the dissemination of incorrect information on social networks",[]],["This article aims to explain the reasoning behind the identification and blocking of false news, and to understand the judge's ruling based on legal principles, on information released by the media, and on the scientific literature on the emergence of false news and the post-truth phenomenon.",[]],["Common features of this type of publication are: sensationalist headlines, the prevalence of the first person in the text, grammar and cohesion errors, and the use of extremist and judgmental words",[]],["Common features of this type of publication are: sensationalist headlines, the prevalence of the first person in the text, grammar and cohesion errors, and the use of extremist and judgmental words (https://medium.com/data-science-brigade/a-ci%C3%AAncia-da-detec%C3%A7%C3%A3o-de-fakenews-d4faef2281aa. Access on: 6.6.2018).",[]],["highlighting its sensationalist, subjective, inaccurate and appealing nature",[]]],"sy":[["false news",[]],["false content",[]],["incorrect information",[]]],"rt":[["false news",[]]],"ex":[["Common features of this type of publication are: sensationalist headlines, the prevalence of the first person in the text, grammar and cohesion errors, and the use of extremist and judgmental words",[]]]},{"de":[["it is focused more on the legality of the decision, one that is based on laws and the consolidation of the legal system without avoiding the jargon of this closed language",["Habermas (2010)"]]],"rt":[["dialogical",[]]]},{"de":[["This is because the deepest human truth is emotional, subjective and does not need facts.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["has been demonstrated in science communication, where publications from male authors are associated with greater perceived scientific quality",["37"]]]},{},{"de":[["live off their capital and the work of others",[]]],"sy":[["owners",[]]]},{"de":[["Categorisation and category formation are central concerns in studies of psychology and cognition",[]],["Categorisations are hence symbolic and material at the same time (Bourdieu 1989).",[]]],"rt":[["category formation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A Marxist starting point on class anchors the concept within the social relations of (capitalist) production.",[]]],"sy":[["social class",[]]],"sb":[["social elite",[]],["middle class",[]]]},{"de":[["analyses of large text corpora and the systematic patterns within them (as facilitated by content analysis) reveals the context, the underlying value system, that functions as the interpretative context to the textual strategies of individual texts, and that is necessary for giving them ideological authority and force.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such moral valuations are present not only in the categorisation practices of individuals or groups but also in the operation of the media -for example, through reality TV's spectacularisation of \"the failures of selfresponsibility\" (Skeggs 2005: 974).",[]],["moral valuations by the media also occur through more subtle means, for example, by patterns of relative invisibility or through the repeated denial of voice to a particular social group.",[]]]},{"rt":[["ideology",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Capitalists of different kinds, who live off their capital and the work of others, are the most important members of this group. However, this category also includes highly placed politicians and the top tier of managers and professionals who have many opportunities to exercise the power of capital, such as the CEOs of large companies.",[]]],"sp":[["class",[]]],"ex":[["high-level politicians, such as presidents and primeministers as well as power-holders from other social spheres (university chancellors, arch-bishops, etc.)",[]],["Capitalists of different kinds, who live off their capital and the work of others",[]],["highly placed politicians and the top tier of managers and professionals who have many opportunities to exercise the power of capital, such as the CEOs of large companies",[]]]},{"de":[["Formal relations, for example between an employer and an employee, are not included (unless a formal relation also involves a personal relation).",[]]],"rt":[["Formal relations",[]]]},{"sy":[["seventh art",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["hoaxes",[]],["rumours",[]]],"rt":[["hoaxes",["Fernández, 2014"]],["rumours",[]],["disinformation",["Fernández, 2014"]],["misinformation",[]],["manipulation of information",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This echo chamber phenomenon encompasses inter-cited news media sources publishing news of similar content or factuality, as well as social friends expressing similar stance with respect to news article(s) of similar content.",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation with malicious intent",["38"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In the context of fake news detection, we are interested in the stance of a user reply with respect to the title of a questionable news article.",[]]],"sb":[["support with neutral sentiment or neutral support",[]],["support with negative sentiment or negative support",[]],["deny",[]],["report",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a summary that produces relatively similar representation scores across all groups can be considered as fair because it likely contains comparable representation from all groups such that no one group is significantly underrepresented.",[]],["The definition of fairness may vary for humans",[]],["we evaluate summary fairness using proxy metrics such as semantic similarity to each represented group.",[]],["More specific to the task of summarization, fairness is measured by the ability of algorithms to capture the peculiarity in all represented groups (Shandilya et al., 2018;Dash et al., 2019;Keswani and Celis, 2021;Olabisi et al., 2022;Ladhak et al., 2023).",["Shandilya et al., 2018","Dash et al., 2019","Keswani and Celis, 2021","Olabisi et al., 2022","Ladhak et al., 2023"]]]},{"sy":[["position bias",[]]]},{"de":[["position bias dominates the learning signal for news summarization or similar domains",[]],["models favor earlier pieces of text only when the text exhibits some socially linguistic similarity.",[]],["ordering the input documents based on groups favors the group that appears first indicates a systematic bias in the models' behavior.",[]],["the models produced biased summaries, primarily favoring the social group that appeared earlier in the input sequence.",[]]],"sy":[["lead bias",[]]],"rt":[["lead bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In terms of impact, intentional disinformation often employs persuasive techniques and is carefully crafted and targeted at specific audiences, exploiting cognitive biases and emotional triggers.",[]],["In this paper, we use the terms misinformation and disinformation interchangeably; however, it is important to note that the literature sometimes distinguishes between them.",[]],["intentional disinformation often employs persuasive techniques and is carefully crafted and targeted at specific audiences, exploiting cognitive biases and emotional triggers.",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",["2003"]]]},{"de":[["Unlike traditional misinformation, fake news succeeds not through credibility but through psychological resonance, reinforcing biases and triggering impulsive sharing",["French et al., 2023"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["media literacy emerged from print/audiovisual contexts",[]]]},{"de":[["the spread of misinformation remains an unresolved challenge. This persistence is attributed to societal engagement, discussion, and even the promotion of such content by users.",[]],["In this paper, we use the terms misinformation and disinformation interchangeably; however, it is important to note that the literature sometimes distinguishes between them.",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",["2003"]]]},{},{"de":[["through preemptive exposure to weakened doses of misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive immunity",["2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["The \"CNN effect\" has been described as the impact of global television on international policy decisions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["By action or omission, this only happens when there is an \"other\" who is affected by the circulation of informative messages. It organizes the dissemination of messages, establishes a type of relationship between public and private actors, limits or extends individual rights related to information, and promotes propagandistic models, among other features.",[]]]},{"de":[["This reality is related to communicative intervention in line with other national interests, so the usual tools (content, television stations, audio-visual markets, journalistic information, subscriptions) are all used to achieve the declared strategic objective.",[]]],"rt":[["hard power",[]]],"sb":[["hard power",[]]],"sp":[["realism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["communication is the continuation of other tools of power, such as trade, sanctions or coercion. It is used to impose frameworks for understanding reality and its meaning (Qin, 2015;Drezner, 2017), to legitimize causes through the organisation of information and propaganda campaigns (Audinet, 2017), and to attract segments of the population through the use of celebrities and entertainment (Quessard-Salvaing, 2018).",["Qin, 2015","Drezner, 2017","Audinet, 2017","Quessard-Salvaing, 2018"]]],"rt":[["smart power",[]],["communicative realism",[]]],"sp":[["communicative realism",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["strategic narrative",[]]]},{},{"de":[["organizes the dissemination of messages, establishes a type of relationship between public and private actors, limits or extends individual rights related to information, and promotes propagandistic models",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["as well as on its contribution to the construction of democratic societies",["Schudson, 2018","2018"]]]},{},{"sp":[["strategic narrative",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In the field of politics, it relates to the thematic agenda, framing and priming, or to the spiral of silence.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["and is distinct from the power of communication which refers to the media through which these ideas and other information are disseminated",["Alleyne, 1995, p. 15"]]],"rt":[["power of communication",["Alleyne, 1995, p. 15"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Its objective is the exercise of influence by an entity over a foreign public by developing communication strategies that include educational, informative and entertainment programs (Manfredi, 2011)",["Manfredi, 2011"]],["The original notion focuses on State activity (Gilboa, 2016), yet reality has shown it to be a common practice among all actors in the global sphere (Melissen, 2005)",["Gilboa, 2016","Melissen, 2005"]],["Public diplomacy as an expression of soft power is characterized by conveying the interests of different actors through public-private partnerships, international non-profit organisations, Diasporas, educational programmes, and other instruments open to third parties",[]],["The original notion focuses on State activity (Gilboa, 2016), yet reality has shown it to be a common practice among all actors in the global sphere (Melissen, 2005).",["Gilboa, 2016","Melissen, 2005"]],["Its objective is the exercise of influence by an entity over a foreign public by developing communication strategies that include educational, informative and entertainment programs",["Manfredi, 2011"]]],"rt":[["soft power",[]]]},{"de":[["It corresponds to a static vision of international reality based on political geography that rejects the real capabilities for action by other actors or through institutional cooperation.",[]]],"sb":[["communicative realism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the influence exerted by authoritarian states through the use of three types of activities: \"Intention (to destabilize or undermine the morality of the adversary instead of informing or showing one's own culture), use of the media (through lies or distortion), and the absence of publicity (a surreptitious or hidden character)\"",["López-Aranda, 2019, p. 24"]],["communication is used as a tool to promote one's own values and counteract disinformation campaigns and hybrid threats",[]]],"rt":[["Soft power",[]]]},{"de":[["This interpretation of power is based on values, culture and intangibles that strengthen a position and foster the implementation of international projects.",[]],["The theoretical structuring of soft power does not mean an end to the use of military force or economic pressure, but instead signifies the development of other instruments, among which communication stands out as a motor for change in the perception, judgement and behaviour of international audiences",[]]],"rt":[["smart power",[]],["hard power",[]]],"ex":[["the intensification of cultural relations, student exchange agreements, international broadcasting of audio-visual content, cultural events, global sports contests, development cooperation, tourism, and the human rights doctrine itself",["2003","2001"]]]},{"de":[["This narrative examines the social dimension of the communicative experience, which creates meaning according to our networks and peers.",[]],["Therefore, this narrative explains events and gives them meaning according to a code, an experience, and a future perspective.",[]],["it deals not only with the way in which a political actor is viewed and placed in the international arena, but also with how public discourse is developed -which political institutions and instruments will be used-and how the audience deciphers the discourse.",[]],["It measures the persuasive effects that an interpretation of the international order has on the convergence between power and communication, between tangible assets and emotional elements in the globalization story, and between historical experience and expectations.",[]]],"sb":[["system narrative",[]],["identity narrative",[]],["policy narrative",[]]]},{"sp":[["strategic narrative",[]]]},{"de":[["used to counteract the hegemony of large western operators",[]]]},{"de":[["to explain what is considered international reporting in a comparative study of 17 countries, and how journalists and media editors articulate their reporting criteria",["Wilke, Heimprecht, and Cohen (2012)"]]]},{"de":[["The fundamentals of propaganda communication: persuasion using symbols, emotions, stereotypes, and pre-existing frameworks with the intention of swaying perceptions and influencing cognition and behavior in order to further the propagandist's agenda (Alieva et al., 2022).",["Alieva et al., 2022"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["clickbait",[]],["fake reviews",[]],["rumors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["online platforms and marketplaces should not nudge people into using their services, for example by giving more prominence to a particular choice or urging the recipient to change their choice via interfering pop-ups.",[]]],"ex":[["giving more prominence to a particular choice or urging the recipient to change their choice via interfering pop-ups",[]]]},{},{"de":[["digital platforms as online intermediaries come between and facilitate the connection of others and (b) the content they transmit is produced by others.",[]],["digital platforms as online intermediaries come between and facilitate the connection of others",[]]],"ex":[["search engines, online marketplaces, the collaborative or sharing economy and social networks.",["3"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["recommendation systems are presented as a sub-technology of artificial intelligence. It is a class of solutions that provides process performance without human input, assistance in choosing decisions, and prediction of objects that will be of interest to the user.",["26"]],["In computer science, in its most general form, recommendation systems are presented as a sub-technology of artificial intelligence. It is a class of solutions that provides process performance without human input, assistance in choosing decisions, and prediction of objects that will be of interest to the user.",["26"]]],"sy":[["recommendation systems",[]]],"sp":[["artificial intelligence",["26"]],["sub-technology of artificial intelligence",["26"]]]},{"de":[["The principle of transparency of data processing requires that the information provided to the data subject is \"concise, easily accessible and easy to understand\" (Recital 58, GDPR) and also that the data subject be informed \"of the existence of the processing operation and its purposes\" (Recital 60, GDPR).",["Recital 58, GDPR","Recital 60, GDPR"]]]},{"de":[["misleading and harmful Deepfake media",[]],["Deep Fake techniques characterized by blending facial features of Figure 7 to create a composite image.",[]]],"sb":[["Face2Face",[]]],"ex":[["composite image",[]]]},{"de":[["presentation attacks like printed photos or replayed videos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It involves mapping the facial expressions of a target individual onto another person's face in a video, creating a realistic but falsified portrayal of the target individual's actions.",[]]],"sp":[["Deepfake",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It has little connection to a location's geographical specificity, as it is shaped by abstract, preordained models.",[]],["the absorption of space by propaganda-induced placelessness, a process marked by the gradual substitution of symbolic markers",[]],["Placelessness effectively visualizes the transformation of individual space in the accounts of American travelers.",[]],["outlining its functions: manipulation, pressure, displacement of the other, limitation of opportunities, and the deprivation of individual space",[]]],"rt":[["non-place",[]]],"ex":[["Soviet space",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The diverse goals and functions of propaganda determined its dynamic and expansive nature; it actively shaped landscapes and subordinated them to ideological objectives.",[]]],"rt":[["advertising",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["where outsiders remain deliberately excluded",[]],["Darling's later text reveals a more profound and pervasive propaganda space",[]],["It permeates all levels of daily life and is reproduced through active participation and practice, rather than passive observation.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["this kind of face-trait learning is known to generalise to other individuals who resemble those encountered during the study phase",["16","17","19","50"]]]},{"de":[["fake news appears to spread faster and further online than stories verified to be true [29]",["29"]]]},{"de":[["affected by information provided about the target's past actions and behaviours.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This battle over \"hearts and minds\" and over the \"rival conceptions of society and competing models of economic development\" (Scott-Smith 2019: 27) used a variety of methods, ranging from organizing international art exhibitions, music and ballet tours, to publishing journals, books, and broadcasting for the nations of the Iron Curtain and beyond.",["Scott-Smith 2019: 27"]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["information pandemic",[]]]},{"de":[["the key is to have a citizenry that understands the importance of obtaining quality information from reliable sources, that is capable of identifying potentially false content and that values the truth",["Sádaba and Salaverría, 2023"]]]},{},{"sp":[["quantitative",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["thematic frame",[]]]},{"de":[["The episodic frame makes news separated from the holistic aspects of the crisis, where the government should be most responsible for prevention, mitigation and other measures.",[]],["makes news separated from the holistic aspects of the crisis",[]]],"rt":[["thematic frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["Thematic News Frame",[]]]},{"de":[["Based on previous studies, serious media tends to use the frame of attribution of responsibility in its news (Iyengar, 1990a;Iyengar, 1991;Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000).",["Iyengar, 1990a","Iyengar, 1991","Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000"]],["the news media are more likely to focus on attribution of responsibility in crisis situations in which there is strong controllability and intentionality on the part of the actor",["An & Gower, 2009"]]],"sp":[["Crisis Frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Based on the study of Semetko and Valkenburg (2000), the conflict rate is the second most common framework used in reporting. The more serious the news media, the more frames of conflict are in evidence.",["Semetko and Valkenburg (2000)"]]],"sp":[["Crisis Frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Economic consequences are considered to have great news value because the economic consequences resulting from certain events can have a large impact on individuals, communities, organizations, countries and even the whole world (Graber & Dunaway, 2018).",["Graber & Dunaway, 2018"]],["Neuman et al. (1994) identify this as a general framework in reporting.",["Neuman et al. (1994)"]]],"sp":[["Crisis Frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Cho and Gower (2006) show that this frame influences the emotional response of the reader, which influences how the reader determines who is guilty and responsible in a crisis situation.",["Cho and Gower (2006)"]],["this frame gives a psychological influence on humans, which directs the reader or audience to show various negative behaviors in a crisis (An & Gower, 2009;Kim & Cameron, 2011).",["An & Gower, 2009","Kim & Cameron, 2011"]],["elements of general society tend to use emotional and humanist narratives towards crisis",[]],["this frame gives a psychological influence on humans, which directs the reader or audience to show various negative behaviors in a crisis",["An & Gower, 2009","Kim & Cameron, 2011"]]],"sp":[["Crisis Frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Neuman et al. (1994), show that moral frames are generally and indirectly used by journalists through quotations or inferences, rather than directly because of the various norms of objectivity in journalism activities.",["Neuman et al. (1994)"]]],"sp":[["Crisis Frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing itself is a theory in media analysis which has been widely applied to news related to politics (Iyengar, 1990a;Iyengar, 1990b;Iyengar, 1991;De Vreese, 2004;Becker & Scheufele, 2011), disasters (Entman, 1991;Merry, 2015;Haider-Markel, Delehanty, & Beverlin, 2007), racism and sexism (Poindexter, Smith, & Heider, 2003;Ben-Porath & Shaker, 2010), conflict (Adiprasetio, 2020b) and terrorism (Norris, Kern, & Just, 2003;Papacharissi & Oliveira, 2008).",[]]],"sy":[["perspective",["Kuypers, 2005","D'Angelo & Kuypers, 2016","Kuypers, 2005;D'Angelo & Kuypers, 2016"]],["paradigm",["Entman, 1993"]],["approach",["Detenber & McLeod, 1999","Pan & Kosicki, 1993","Detenber & McLeod, 1999;Pan & Kosicki, 1993"]],["analytical technique",["Endres, 2004"]],["multi-paradigmatic research program",["D'Angelo, 2002"]]],"sb":[["thematic frames",[]],["episodic",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["episodic frame",[]]]},{"rt":[["Episodic News Frame",[]]]},{"de":[["The tone which media use to disseminate information tells the audience not just news, but also the opinion of a particular reporter.",[]],["Tone, or valence, is one more part of media framing that influences audience members to think a certain way about a particular issue.",[]]],"sy":[["valence",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These practices allow people to produce some types of social discussions rather than others, with certain meanings both being made intelligible and foregrounded.",[]],["discourse analysis owes to much broader developments within more humanistic fields such as linguistics.",[]]],"rt":[["frame analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["\"Eastern Asia\" here covers (North)east and Southeast Asia.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["frames organise cognition such that when certain words are used, the process of interpretation activates whole sets of socially organised knowledge beyond the putative definitions of those words.",[]],["a bounding mechanism (such as a picture frame) that simultaneously limits which aspects are seen in a situation and focuses on/centres some of those elements above others",[]],["For Hussein, \"frames are complex cognitive, perceptual, and meaning structures which individuals impose on [the] information environment and with the help of which they operate in the construction of the meaning of realities\" (2017: 83).",["2017: 83"]],["Among these effects, classification, emphasis, and exclusion are central (Hussein 2017: 84-85).",["Hussein 2017: 84-85"]],["Some frames shape which things seem to be related or unrelated, for example (Pain and Staeheli 2014), while others push towards seeing social-political possibilities as (perhaps artificially) binary through either-or categorisation (Mitchell 1990;Jones 2012).",["Pain and Staeheli 2014","Mitchell 1990","Jones 2012"]],["Through emphasis and exclusion, frames possess tremendous agenda-setting capacity (Burrett 2014).",["Burrett 2014"]],["Well-established frames set the terms for what likely will or will not be said in the future about certain issues (Zacher et al. 2014).",["Zacher et al. 2014"]],["Experimental framing research demonstrates that carefully crafted frames influence people's political viewpoints (Maoz et al. 2007;Zellman 2015).",["Maoz et al. 2007","Zellman 2015"]]],"sy":[["portray",[]],["represent",[]],["interpretation",[]],["perspective",[]],["mental model",[]],["imaginary",[]],["meaning system",[]],["judgment modes",[]],["mental filters",[]],["building blocks of cognition",[]],["narratives",[]],["lens",[]],["\"mental model\"",[]],["\"imaginary\"",[]],["\"meaning system\"",[]],["\"judgment modes\"",[]],["\"mental filters\"",[]],["\"building blocks of cognition\"",[]],["\"narratives\"",[]],["\"lens\"",[]]],"rt":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["frames organise cognition such that when certain words are used, the process of interpretation activates whole sets of socially organised knowledge beyond the putative definitions of those words.",[]]],"sy":[["portray",[]],["represent",[]],["interpretation",[]],["perspective",[]],["mental model",[]],["imaginary",[]],["meaning system",[]],["judgment modes",["Maoz et al. 2007: 82"]],["mental filters",["Hussein 2017: 83"]],["building blocks of cognition",["Hussein 2017: 83"]],["narratives",["Zellman 2015: 493"]]],"rt":[["lens",[]],["bounding mechanism (such as a picture frame)",[]]],"sp":[["discourses",[]]]},{},{"de":[["issues or options about which there is higher consensus are less susceptible to framing",["Maoz et al. 2007: 88","Maoz et al. 2002"]],["popular susceptibility to framing effects is substantially limited by deeply ingrained societal beliefs and values",["2015: 503","493","494","Benford and Snow 2000","Entman 2008"]],["frames have more weight when audiences have the background to easily make sense of and agree with them.",[]],["The existence of different responses between versions would suggest that framing effects were activated.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It traditionally concerned itself with theorising contests over territory, colonies, and resources between (usually powerful Western) states.",[]]],"sp":[["political geography",[]]]},{"de":[["connect to one or a few issues",[]],["typically easier to identify and influence",[]],["narrowly defined and often utilised strategically",[]],["typically connect to wide-ranging, specific, and well-developed discourses",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["primary frameworks shape deep and broad social inclinations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["strategically utilised and often contested expressions",[]],["typically connect to wide-ranging, specific, and well-developed discourses",[]],["Many are strongly contested and controversial since partisans expect these terminological frames to assist or damage their causes.",[]],["Establishing meaningful discourses behind the terminological frames is also necessary for the frames to resonate effectively.",[]]],"sy":[["framing terms",[]],["terminological variations",[]]],"rt":[["labels",[]],["descriptors",[]]],"sb":[["terminological frames in the form of alternative toponyms",[]],["qualifying terminology in claims to territory",[]]],"sp":[["issue frames",[]]],"ex":[["East Sea",[]],["Sea of Japan",[]],["Northern Territories",[]],["Southern Kurils",[]],["South China Sea",[]],["inherent territory",[]]]},{"sb":[["selection bias",[]],["coverage bias",["9"]],["statement bias",["9"]],["selection bias (gatekeeping)",["9"]]]},{"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["includes blog accounts",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["gatekeeping",[]]],"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The objective is to increase access to the content produced to enhance the increase in advertising.",[]]]},{"de":[["Frau-Meighs (2017) emphasises that critical thinking must understand the added value of digital considering participation, contribution, transparency, and responsibility, as well as disinformation and the game of influences.",[]],["For the author, the subject who thinks critically can act to exercise resistance to ideological propaganda and conspiracy theories.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["necessary aspects to access, analyse, evaluate, and create online information",["Nygren & Guath, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["the consequent production and dissemination of false or manipulated information",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["information disorders",["Del-Fresno-Garcia (2019)"]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",["Del-Fresno-Garcia (2019)"]]]},{"de":[["They constitute a subgenre of the broader category of disinformation.",["Pennycook and Rand (2019)"]],["the way fake news appropriates a real appearance, the way websites are presented, the way content is written, and the way photographs are shared",[]],["what they generally have in common \"is the way fake news appropriates a real appearance, the way websites are presented, the way content is written, and the way photographs are shared\"",["Sintra, 2019"]]],"sy":[["distorted or biased news and information",["Martins (2018)"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",["Pennycook and Rand (2019)"]]],"ex":[["the way fake news appropriates a real appearance, the way websites are presented, the way content is written, and the way photographs are shared",["Sintra, 2019"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["phenomenon called information zombification (Leite & Matos, 2017)",["Leite & Matos, 2017"]],["the quantity and speed of propagation of the messages that are being copied, disseminated, reproduced and amplified is a decisive factor in the digital culture. And this propagation, without any filtering or selection criteria as to the validity of the content, spreads just like a contagious infection",[]]]},{"sp":[["literacies",[]]]},{"rt":[["information disorders",["Del-Fresno-Garcia (2019)"]]],"sp":[["information disorders",["Del-Fresno-Garcia (2019)"]]]},{"de":[["AMI should include among its concerns what data does with the media, since user information is captured through the regulation of algorithms linked to people's search history.",["Frau-Meighs (2017)"]]],"sy":[["AMI",[]]]},{"de":[["necessary aspects to access, analyse, evaluate, and create online information",["Nygren & Guath, 2019"]]]},{"sp":[["literacies",[]]]},{"rt":[["information disorders",["Del-Fresno-Garcia (2019)"]]],"sp":[["information disorders",["Del-Fresno-Garcia (2019)"]]]},{"rt":[["Reflective thinking",[]]]},{"de":[["rationality threatened by emotion, diversity by nativism, freedom by autocracy (D'Ancona, 2018), characteristic of the post-truth phenomenon",[]],["the age of post-truth is a time of obstinate irrationality, which subverts many of the great advances that humanity has conquered",["Levitin (2016)"]]]},{"de":[["This is independent thinking, but it is not strictly critical, precisely because it is not directed towards precision.",[]]],"sy":[["independent thinking",[]]],"rt":[["motivational reasoning",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It may also contain a message that is controversial but did not disclose complete information about it in the sentence",["7","10","11"]],["slang words are often used in clickbait headlines to bring the headline to an \"easier level\" so that the readers can relate to the headline with relative ease",[]],["clickbait headlines often used non-topic related words and teasing words.",[]],["Contains teaser message to entice curiosity",[]],["Contains pointing word(s) following images or video",[]],["Contains controversial word and/or buzzword",[]],["Contains hyperbolic sentence and/or word",[]],["Contains question for the reader",[]],["Contains emotion-provoking word",[]]],"rt":[["non-clickbait",[]]],"ex":[["This 5 Kinds Fruit is Really Good for Your Skin!",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["clickbait",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["distinct from toxicity",[]],["a type of language used against groups target of discrimination (e.g., sexism, racism, homophobia)",[]]],"sy":[["Hate comments",[]]],"rt":[["sexism",[]],["racism",[]],["homophobia",[]]],"sb":[["Self-attacking",[]]],"ex":[["sexism",[]],["racism",[]],["homophobia",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Variable recogida mediante un instrumento de cinco preguntas de opción correcta o incorrecta. El instrumento es una adaptación al español de una escala previa de cinco ítems(Jones-Jang et al., 2019), la cual es la versión abreviada de la Online Information Literacy Test de 40 ítems desarrollada porBoh- Podgornik et al. (2016).",[]]],"sy":[["AMI",[]]],"ex":[["La descripción más fiable, verificada, concisa y completa de un concepto especializado desconocido se puede encontrar en... Respuesta correcta: léxico o enciclopedia",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["el populismo se explica en buena medida por un contexto social caracterizado por el escepticismo, el descrédito de la verdad, y la propagación de desinformación, en una era de posverdad.",[]]],"sy":[["tendencia populista",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["in the news could lead to premature adoption of unproven services and products without thoroughly evaluating risk and cost",[]]]},{"de":[["of research status and time frame for delivering the benefits",[]]]},{"de":[["with benefits receiving significantly more press attention than potential risks",[]]]},{"sp":[["media frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["media frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Frames explain to the reader why an issue should be considered a problem, the possible causes of such a problem and the likely solution to it, thereby enhancing the ability of the audience to easily understand complex issues discussed in the media",["Nwabueze & Egbra, 2016"]],["the highlighted aspects of a news story can trigger certain feelings or thought patterns in the minds of the audience and increase their likelihood of reacting to issues discussed in the media in a somewhat predictable way",["Ajaero & Anorue, 2018"]],["good media frames enable the audience to comprehend issues discussed in the media, assist journalists in the packaging of discrete events into whole news reports, and guide policy makers in the definition of policy options and decisions making",["Oriola et al., 2017"]],["deploy media framing as a form of heuristics or cognitive shortcut to enable the audience make sense of complex issues on which they lack adequate coping experience",["Scheufele & Lewenstein, 2005"]]],"rt":[["heuristics",[]],["cognitive shortcut",[]],["media framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing theory",[]]]},{"sb":[["straight news",[]],["features",[]],["opinions",[]],["editorials",[]],["letters-to-the-editor",[]],["cartoons/graphics",[]]]},{"de":[["The insignificant number of letters-to-the-editor (N = 7, 1.8%) that was published by the newspapers also indicates a low level of public involvement in media discussions on the outbreak of Lassa fever epidemic in Nigeria.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The theory presupposes that the media can impact or influence audience feelings and tweak public perception of recommended actions towards social issues (Scheufele & Lewenstein, 2005).",["Scheufele & Lewenstein, 2005"]]],"rt":[["heuristics or cognitive shortcut",["Scheufele & Lewenstein, 2005"]]]},{},{"sp":[["media frames",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["media frames",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Adding the gender designator (female) when referring to combatants in news story titles is one example of this.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which has to do with their agency in an ideological struggle against the established unjust regimes in the region.",[]]],"rt":[["caricaturisations",["Dirik (2014)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Concerning female combatants, they have been more often framed as victims, targets of abduction, physical or sexual abuse and forced labour, rather than as combatants, who have agency",["Utas 2005"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["researchers construct ground truth for inherently subjective questions on the basis of disagreement",[]]]},{"de":[["hate speech is often categorized under the umbrella terms such as \"abusive language\", \"offensive language\", or \"toxicity\"",["Poletto et al., 2021;Jigsaw, 2019"]]],"sy":[["abusive language",[]],["offensive language",[]],["toxicity",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Perspective aware modeling",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This captures the attitude the article took on the content and the emotions that annotators felt it is trying to provoke.",[]]]},{"de":[["This means that there should not be harmful statements made against minorities, and that those groups should be represented in relevant discussions.",[]]]},{"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Generative AI has also demonstrated a slight left-leaning bias towards governmental interference as well as the democratic party",["Motoki et al., 2024"]]],"rt":[["political lean",[]]]},{"de":[["This metric demonstrates how likely the LLM is to introduce hallucinations to the articles.",[]]],"rt":[["hallucinations",[]]],"ex":[["'-3' represents an unconvincing article lacking citations, '0' represents a seemingly realistic paper that lacks citations, or an unrealistic one that had citations. '3' represents a well-written paper that appears truthful and had relevant citations.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["LLMs tend to avoid being so blatant (Haim et al., 2024). Instead, they match the overall trend towards more implicit bias, often through stereotyping or a lack of presentation.",["Haim et al., 2024"]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["political identity",[]]]},{"de":[["This can be defined by a certain culture, social similarities, ethics or even ethnicity.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["political identity",[]]]},{"de":[["Identity is therefore understood as a network of feelings of belonging to and exclusion from human subgroups: belonging to a gender group, a given age group, a family, religion, race, community, nation, etc.",["Mummendey, 1997","Wodak, 1999"]],["The unique superposition of groups a human being feels attached to constitutes its individual and unique 'identity' together with the definition of what constitutes the out-group",["Mummendey, 1997","Wodak, 1999"]],["The definition of an identity in psychological terms is obviously a mixture of real connections or differences and prejudices, the latter being necessary to enrich the world with one's own knowledge and certitudes, whether 'objectively' true or false.",[]],["identity is first and foremost an individual characteristic",[]],["Studied from a societal perspective, as done by many sociologists such as Bourdieu (1991) and Leca (1992), identities become fixed, rigid, categories that only evolve through generational replacement and environmental evolution.",[]]]},{"de":[["Bruter (2003) has argued that we should differentiate between two aspects of political identities, a 'cultural' one and a 'civic' one.",[]],["understanding political identities implies a need to understand what those formalised communities might predominantly represent in the imaginary of an individual.",[]]]},{"sb":[["civic identity",[]],["cultural identity",[]]],"sp":[["identity",[]]]},{"de":[["We rely on the bursty behavior of page views, noticed and modeled in previous works [14,15,22].",["14","15","22"]],["We require the trend to correspond to a group of Wikipedia articles connected by hyperlinks and having a correlated increase in viewership.",[]],["This allows discarding isolated pages that get a high number of hits due to 'flash crowd' coming from a popular page pointing to a Wikipedia article, which is a very common use case.",[]],["We rely on the method presented in [14] to extract the trends. From this method, we obtain well-separated clusters of Wikipedia pages and their number of visits over time.",["14"]],["Trends are an essential part of the search for information and that is what we want to extract and analyse. They are highly influenced by the readers' environment and hence should reflect similarities and differences across languages and cultures.",[]]],"rt":[["viewership bursts",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["moral sentiment captured by our framework can be dissociated with sentiment portrayed in the traditional NLP literature.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it is not likely to be tied to specific socio-political events, rather it is likely to relate to everyday topics such as crime, health, and education, for example.",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["Crime, Economy, Education, Europe, Scotland, Health, and Immigration",[]]]},{"rt":[["doctrinal reasons",[]]]},{"de":[["tried to avoid the highly salient, emotive, hyperbolic, and the overtly partisan fake news (e.g., US Politics) that accompanies major socio-political events (e.g., a US Presidential election), which has been the focus of recent research on misinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["primary forms of fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["public-facing platforms",[]]],"ex":[["WhatsApp",[]]]},{"rt":[["private-facing networks",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook",[]],["Twitter",[]],["Instagram",[]]]},{"rt":[["best of intentions",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["es un componente importante para dotar al mismo de fiabilidad.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Mis-information",[]],["Mal-information",[]],["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["In this way, users do not encounter opposing views in the virtual world: by creating homogeneous groups, they only follow accounts and Internet sources that are close and appropriate to their own opinions",["Colleoni et al., 2014: 319"]],["ukazuju na tendenciju da se ljude hrani sadržajem koji je ideološki u skladu s njihovim pogledima i koji podržava lažne vijesti",[]],["users mainly follow people who are closer to their own views and that there is a strong tendency of users to believe in content which they find ideologically closer to them",[]]],"sy":[["komore odjeka",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["most authors agree that fake news contains false information",["Jana Laura Egelhofer and Sophie Lecheler (2019: 3)"]],["The use of the term 'fake news' (e.g. by politicians, others) to discredit news media they don't like",[]]],"sy":[["satire",[]],["parody",[]],["fabrication",[]],["manipulation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["advertising",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["Mal-information",[]],["information disorder",[]],["information pollution",[]]],"sb":[["fake news genre",[]],["fake news label",[]],["news satire",[]],["news parody",[]],["news fabrication",[]]],"ex":[["fabricated reports",["2017"]],["hoaxes",["2017"]],["rumors",["2017"]],["conspiracy theories",["2017"]],["clickbaits",["2017"]],["satire",["2017"]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["The term 'filter bubble' implies that users on social media such as Facebook and Twitter interact with individuals who conform to their own political tendencies",["Hess, 2017"]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["ukazuju na tendenciju da se ljude hrani sadržajem koji je ideološki u skladu s njihovim pogledima i koji podržava lažne vijesti",[]],["users mainly follow people who are closer to their own views and that there is a strong tendency of users to believe in content which they find ideologically closer to them",[]]],"sy":[["mjehurići filtri",[]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"rt":[["Mis-information",[]],["Dis-information",[]],["information disorder",[]]]},{"rt":[["Dis-information",[]],["Mal-information",[]],["information disorder",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["troll accounts",[]]]},{"de":[["reliable detection depends on nuanced linguistic cues and context such as framing, lexical choice, subjectivity markers",[]]],"rt":[["ideological sentiment",[]],["lexical choice",[]],["subjectivity markers",[]]],"ex":[["\"taxpayer money\" versus \"public funds\"",[]]]},{"de":[["influences the public opinion.",[]],["influences the public opinion. It influences how people perceive certain events, what they believe, and, by doing so, affects democratic outcomes.",[]]],"rt":[["partisan slant",[]],["imbalance",[]],["partisan slant and imbalance",[]]]},{"rt":[["lexical choices",[]],["idioms",[]],["framing devices",[]],["ideological cleavages",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In those communities, climate change is seen as a hoax perpetrated by corrupt scientists, the Democratic party traffics child sex out of the basement of a pizza parlor in Washington D.C., and NASA is operating a slave colony on Mars.",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Infowars",[]]]},{"rt":[["individualism",[]]]},{"de":[["it stands in contrast to collectivism",[]]],"rt":[["collectivism",[]]]},{"de":[["We agree that media literacy, that is the public's ability to discern reliable from unreliable information, should be foregrounded in education.",[]]]},{"de":[["The problem of misinformation 'in the head,' where individuals struggled to maintain inconsistent facts in memory",[]]]},{"de":[["The deceptions are readily revealed when the full context is provided",["Lewandowsky, Ballard, Oberauer, & Benestad, 2016"]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["rhetorical claims made to deny climate change (e.g., \"sea levels have fallen in the last 2 years\") are often literally true but nonetheless highly deceptive (because sea level rise continues unabated notwithstanding small fluctuations about the trend line).",[]],["climate denial, politicians",[]],["rhetorical claims made to deny climate change (e.g., \"sea levels have fallen in the last 2 years\") are often literally true but nonetheless highly deceptive",[]],["climate denial",[]],["politicians",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Russian twitter bots",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["climate denial",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Sean Hannity",[]]]},{"de":[["By extracting and analysing the words that have an exceptional frequency in a discourse and the words or groups of words that are matched to them, it is possible to identify the theme of the discourse and the set of words that express this theme.",[]]]},{"de":[["CDA is firmly embedded in the contemporary research paradigm of the humanities.",[]],["CDA conceptualizes language as a form of social practice",[]],["CDA conceptualizes language as a form of social practice (Fairclough, 1995, 93).",["Fairclough, 1995, 93"]]],"rt":[["Discourse analysis",[]]],"sp":[["discourse analysis",[]],["discourse analytic study",[]]]},{"de":[["At the core of CDA there is a certain concept of critique interpreted as",[]]]},{"de":[["Discourse as structure and process attempts to separate discourse analysis from other disciplines.",[]]],"rt":[["text",[]],["speech",[]],["social practices",[]]]},{"sb":[["concrete and definitive sources",[]],["implicit and unspoken sources",[]],["sources that appear to be true but are not",[]]]},{"de":[["N. Fairclough argues that any analysis of discourse and discourse is three-dimensional",[]]],"rt":[["text",[]],["discourse practice",[]],["sociocultural practice",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["shilling attacks",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["data poison attacks",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["fake news",["6","7"]],["misinformation",["6","7"]]]},{"rt":[["perceptual credibility",["10,11"]]]},{"de":[["This sort of influence directs public attention to such contents for which general or political consensus is ctucial; thereby, in most cases, social issues turn into political ones and vice versa.",[]],["the agenda-setting theory shifts the role of the media from the information provider to the coverage master, which makes individuals believe that current topics discussed in the media are socially important",["3. P. 126","28","3. P. 126; 28"]],["Thus, the agenda-setting theory shifts the role of the media from the information provider to the coverage master, which makes individuals believe that current topics discussed in the media are socially important",["3. P. 126","28","3. P. 126; 28"]]],"sy":[["agenda-setting theory",[]],["the second level of agenda-setting",["1. P. 297"]]]},{"de":[["Thus, the media coverage of the main topic creates a framework within which the presenteds contents are interpreted",["27"]],["the media coverage of the main topic creates a framework within which the presenteds contents are interpreted",["27"]]],"sy":[["the second level of agenda-setting",["1. P. 297"]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting theory",[]]],"sp":[["agenda-setting theory",[]]]},{"de":[["manipulation is a way of the hidden persuasion of people (of which they are ususally not aware due to manipulator's conduct) by the means of communication",["19. P. 111"]]]},{"de":[["This theory argues that the role of the media is to bring to life reexperienced stimuli, thus inspiring and justifying a certain type of behavior.",["17; 18. P. 13"]]],"ex":[["reporting on violence may be approved if a part of the audience identify themselves with the situation reported",["17","18. P. 13"]]]},{},{"de":[["In such cases, the media is to a certain degree assisted by those individuals that are well-informed and make the public discuss the topic in a certain perspective.",[]],["the course of communication can be a two-step one (from the media to mediating interpreters and then to less-informed individuals)",["3. P. 122"]]]},{"de":[["We treat this task as a classification problem where each news headline is categorized as being either rumorous or factual.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Epistemic Ideals",[]],["Reliable Epistemic Processes",[]]],"ex":[["explanatory understanding",[]],["global aims, e.g., using social media to stay informed",[]],["local aims relevant to the post, e.g., the aim of information gathering referring to the goal of acquiring information without assessing whether it is sufficiently warranted",[]],["satisfy one's curiosity in relation to aspects of the social media post",[]]]},{"rt":[["Epistemic Aims",[]],["Epistemic Ideals",[]],["Reliable Epistemic Processes",[]]]},{"rt":[["Epistemic Aims",[]],["Reliable Epistemic Processes",[]]],"ex":[["range of viewpoints",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Epistemic Aims",[]]],"ex":[["avoiding effort and enjoyment",[]],["influencing others, which may motivate endorsements of the post so that others could view it on their timeline",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Epistemic Aims",[]],["Epistemic Ideals",[]]],"sb":[["browsing (Level 2) indicates more selective attention",[]],["reading (Level 3), indicated by the time spent on the post",[]],["checking post content (Level 4), indicated by clicks within the social media post (e.g., opening a URL)",[]],["Seeking to purposefully support or refute the claims in the post may lead individuals to seek additional information by checking external sources (Level 6)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["fake news detection algorithms",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["content-based",[]]],"sp":[["fake news detection algorithms",[]]]},{"de":[["the distribution of topics in various NLP benchmarks (e.g., news, reviews, and biomedical) can be significantly affected by time (Huang and Paul, 2018, 2019).",[]],["temporal drift affects particular classes rather than the entire data set.",[]],["the distribution of topics in various NLP benchmarks (e.g., news, reviews, and biomedical) can be significantly affected by time",["Huang and Paul, 2018","Huang and Paul, 2019","2019"]]]},{"rt":[["hegemonic discourse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["they institutionalize widely recognized interpretations of social reality, thereby defining and limiting what can legitimately be expressed about certain topics",[]],["access to resources and positions of power determines who has the right to speak and be heard in the discourse, hence, whose constructions become temporarily fixed through hegemony and manifested in symbols, categories and institutional practices",[]],["discourses can be understood as structuration processes that are always in becoming and therefore never complete or all-encompassing",[]]]},{"de":[["Showing a specific spatiality and temporality, they define the prevalent instruments of and access to power, as well as the rules of engagement that discourse participants must follow to successfully make their claims heard.",[]]]},{"de":[["fragments referring to the same subject are identified and bundled into main discursive threads. The entanglements between these threads resemble discursive nodes",[]]],"rt":[["truth claims",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["plays a key role in disseminating discourse positions",["Bürk et al. (2012: 339)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["ruralities",[]],["peripheralities",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["casual use of gendered slurs, profanities and insults (C3.1)",[]],["immutable gender differences and gender stereotypes (C3.2)",[]],["backhanded gendered compliments (C3.3)",[]],["condescending explanations or unwelcome advice (C3.4)",[]]]},{"de":[["such as the authority of men to make decisions for women",[]],["moral commitments to social cohesion and respect for established structures or principles",[]]],"rt":[["Loyalty",[]]],"sp":[["foundations of morality",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["implicitly sexist instances",[]],["implicit expressions of sexism",[]]],"ex":[["negative stereotypes",["Waseem et al., 2017"]],["sarcasm",["Waseem et al., 2017"]],["patronizing",["Waseem et al., 2017"]]]},{"rt":[["Authority",[]]],"sp":[["foundations of morality",[]]]},{"sb":[["Care",[]],["Equality",[]],["Proportionality",[]],["Loyalty",[]],["Authority",[]],["Purity",[]]],"de":[["provides a practical, high-level understanding of moral judgments in our study's context",[]],["a valuable framework for understanding moral reasoning",[]]],"sy":[["MFT",[]]],"rt":[["moral reasoning",[]]]},{"sb":[["supporting the mistreatment of individual women (C4.1)",[]],["supporting systemic discrimination against women as a group (C4.2)",[]]]},{"rt":[["genderbased prejudice",[]],["discrimination",[]],["stereotyping",[]]]},{"sp":[["toxic language detection",[]]]},{},{"de":[["considered the core element of its professionalization",[]],["the result of institutionalized self-regulation mechanisms (e.g. journalists' associations) and financial independence from the state",[]],["understood as a prerequisite for journalism to fulfil its public duty of providing independent information and controlling elitism",["McQuail, 2013"]],["Journalistic autonomy is considered the core element of its professionalization",["Donsbach and Patterson, 2004"]]]},{},{"ex":[["economic resources, political participation",[]],["economic resources",[]],["political participation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["exacerbates ideological rifts and curtails receptivity to opposing ideas",["20"]],["deepening ideological divides while reducing engagement with opposing viewpoints",["20"]]]},{"rt":[["self-affirmation theory",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["incidental exposure to an array of opinions",["21"]],["incidental exposure disrupts selective tendencies",[]],["selective and incidental exposure interact complementarily and conflictually.",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]],"ex":[["incidental exposure leads to reflection and openness to opposing views",["4"]]]},{},{"de":[["demonstrates how political loyalties exaggerate preferences for ideologically congruent content and lead to heightened polarization",["10"]],["sociopolitical frameworks such as social identity theory and partisan identity theory have described how group memberships and political identifiers lead to selective exposure in polarized environments, amplifying polarization",["17","10"]]],"rt":[["social identity theory",[]]],"sp":[["Social identity theory",[]]]},{"de":[["selective exposure is the result of influences by the individual as an agent, their group affiliations, and structures.",[]],["Selective exposure has implications beyond individual behaviors to collective phenomena including political polarization, social fragmentation, and public trust",["6"]],["functions as independent, dependent, mediating, and moderating variable",[]],["the bidirectional nature of selective exposure as both an antecedent and a consequence of media consumption behaviors",[]],["selective exposure is not only an individual behavior but also a collective one that is influenced by societal forces",[]],["selective exposure is not limited to political content, but rather can shape attitudes and behaviours in a variety of different areas.",[]],["Selective exposure is further driven by psychological factors like a need for cognitive consistency and frequent media consumption.",[]],["selective exposure plays different roles depending on the conceptual framework. It plays the roles of an independent variable, and dependent, mediating, and moderating variable",[]],["selective exposure plays different roles depending on the conceptual framework. It plays the roles of an independent variable, and dependent, mediating, and moderating variable, thereby illustrating its theoretical role as well as practical importance.",[]],["it can influence, be influenced and mediate the dialectical interplay between diverse factors, rendering it a keystone for conceptualizing media in ever-evolving and algorithmic ecosystems.",[]],["can be understood through multiple perspectives on the human condition that transcend the psychology of individual cognition",[]],["building block concept in media and communication scholarship",[]],["leading the ideological divide but also driving trust, engagement and the public discourse in a increasingly polarized social media-algorythmic ecosystems",[]],["independent, a dependent, a mediating, and a moderating variable",[]],["selective exposure theory suggests that media does not have a direct and powerful impact on beliefs. Instead, it reinforces pre-existing attitudes, with individuals interpreting and remembering information in a way that supports their views.",[]],["As a building block concept in media and communication scholarship, the selective exposure is leading the ideological divide but also driving trust, engagement and the public discourse in a increasingly polarized social media-algorythmic ecosystems.",[]]],"sy":[["selective contact",[]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",["5"]],["ideological polarization",[]],["deliberate and incidental exposure",[]],["incidental exposure",[]],["selective contact",[]],["cognitive dissonance",[]],["framing theory",[]],["subconscious and collateral exposure",[]]],"ex":[["the interaction of cognitive dissonance, group dynamics, and technology as motivational drivers of selective exposure",[]],["selective exposure increases salience for ideology consistent issues",["3"]],["selective exposure relates to social identity with polarized attitudes and bolters group alignment and ideological rifts",["10"]],["predicts outcomes such as political polarization in social media, media engagement, and user trust.",[]],["magnifies the link between political engagement and voting assurance",["12"]],["influence on the relationship between trust in personalized and stateaffiliated media",["13"]]]},{"de":[["shows that enhancing self-worth attenuates defensiveness when confronting contrary beliefs, providing concrete steps to ameliorate ideological polarization",["24"]],["providing concrete steps to ameliorate ideological polarization.",[]]]},{"de":[["shows the power of group identifications behind media preferences when media sources are polarized",["17"]],["sociopolitical frameworks such as social identity theory and partisan identity theory have described how group memberships and political identifiers lead to selective exposure in polarized environments, amplifying polarization",["17","10"]]],"rt":[["partisan identity theory",[]]],"sb":[["Partisan identity theory",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["define social movements more narrowly against the established order",[]]],"rt":[["personal action frames",["Bennett, 2012: 31"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the inclusive character of the personal action frames adopted by the Indignados, as these 'everyperson' frames are easier to be positively reported and publicly accepted",[]],["these 'everyperson' frames are easier to be positively reported and publicly accepted than the exclusive 'collective action frames', which define social movements more narrowly against the established order",["Bennett, 2012: 31"]],["Personal action frames embrace diversity and inclusion, lower the barriers of identification with the cause, and validate personal emotion",["Bennett, 2012: 22-23"]]],"rt":[["collective action frames",["Bennett, 2012: 31"]]]},{},{"de":[["longstanding research has employed to describe the template and biased way protests have been traditionally covered",[]],["the template reporting adopted by mainstream media in their coverage of protests tends to marginalise and vilify protesters",[]]],"sy":[["template reporting",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["(a) neutral, when they were described merely as 'protesters', or in relation to their age or profession",[]],["(b) positive, when they were described as 'passionate', 'spirited' and in similar affective terms",[]],["(c) negative when protesters were described in the way of agitators, mobs or unruly crowds",[]]]},{"de":[["In languages with grammatical gender, word forms of articles and adjectives need to agree with the gender of nouns they are associated with.",[]],["In this paper, we focus on languages with masculine and feminine classes.",[]]],"sb":[["masculine and feminine classes",[]]],"ex":[["in Spanish: la buena enfermera the good female nurse, el buen enfermero the good male nurse",["Corbett, 1991"]],["water, table, woman",[]]]},{"rt":[["semantic gender",[]]],"ex":[["water, table, woman",[]]]},{"ex":[["English",[]]]},{"rt":[["grammatical gender direction",[]]],"ex":[["man, male, waitress",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["transmedia ecology",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["have had prior planning in their preparation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["creation and evolution of the storyworld or transmedia universe through the cited sections",[]]],"sy":[["transmedia universe",[]]]},{"de":[["Unlike these, transmedia involves the creation of a storyworld or universe through the use of a variety of media for different parts of the story, each with its own objectives.",[]]],"rt":[["hypermedia",[]],["crossmedia",[]],["multimedia",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["storyworld",[]]]},{"de":[["not traditional journalists",[]],["varied capacities in which alternative gatekeepers operate, from citizen journalists to organized groups with different levels of expertise in digital media literacy or investigative practices.",[]],["Future studies might further explore the skillsets and practices employed by these alternative gatekeepers to provide deeper insights into their influence and effectiveness in countering traditional gatekeeping models.",[]]],"sb":[["citizen journalists",[]]],"sp":[["gatekeeping theory",[]]]},{"de":[["alternative media strategically position themselves within the hybrid media system to contest dominant narratives.",[]]],"rt":[["legacy media",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["alternative",[]],["truth",[]],["propaganda",[]],["censorship",[]]]},{"ex":[["censure",[]],["oligarchy",[]],["pluralism",[]],["bashing",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["debunk",[]],["intox",[]],["disinformation",[]],["veracity",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["centralized (i.e., control by a central authority)",[]],["decentralized (i.e., reliance on collaborative and micro-level interactions)",[]]]},{"de":[["Traditional gatekeeping roles, as described by Shoemaker and Vos (2009) and expanded by Thorson and Wells (2016), are increasingly decentralized in the digital media landscape, with information dissemination now controlled by a diverse array of actors.",[]],["With digitalization, however, the theory has evolved to incorporate decentralized gatekeeping practices where non-journalistic actors, such as alternative media channels and opinion YouTubers, participate in selecting and framing information.",[]],["traditional gatekeeping mechanisms that supposedly promote only a narrow range of acceptable discourses",[]]],"rt":[["decentralized gatekeeping practices",[]]],"sb":[["centralized (i.e., control by a central authority) and decentralized (i.e., reliance on collaborative and micro-level interactions) gatekeeping mechanisms",[]],["alternative gatekeepers",[]],["hybrid approach to gatekeeping",[]]]},{"sp":[["gatekeeping theory",[]]]},{"de":[["alternative media strategically position themselves within the hybrid media system to contest dominant narratives.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In contrast, subaltern counterpublics offer spaces for these groups to circulate their own discourses, enabling identity formation and political mobilization beyond the reach of dominant media narratives.",[]],["However, these counterpublics are not inherently virtuous, sometimes harboring antidemocratic tendencies, as evidenced by the rise of the far-right (Figenschou and Ihlebaek, 2018;Lewis, 2018).",["Figenschou and Ihlebaek, 2018","Lewis, 2018"]],["These findings align with Fraser's notion of subaltern counterpublics by positioning alternative media as sites of resistance against dominant ideological narratives.",[]],["Fraser builds on Habermas's notion of the \"public sphere\" (Habermas, 1989) but critiques its idealized nature, arguing that dominant public spheres often exclude particular social groups and perspectives. In contrast, subaltern counterpublics offer spaces for these groups to circulate their own discourses, enabling identity formation and political mobilization beyond the reach of dominant media narratives.",["Habermas, 1989"]]],"rt":[["public sphere",["Habermas, 1989"]]],"sp":[["public sphere",[]]]},{"de":[["may be particularly pronounced during adolescence as individuals develop and solidify their identities and worldviews.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["information disorder",["Ireton and Posetti, 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["complex, multifaceted challenge that demands continued interdisciplinary investigation and global collaboration",[]],["information disorder, also known as misinformation, disinformation, and malinformation, is an important issue in the era of digital disruption.",["Ireton and Posetti, 2018"]]],"sy":[["misinformation",["Ireton and Posetti, 2018"]],["disinformation",["Ireton and Posetti, 2018"]],["malinformation",["Ireton and Posetti, 2018"]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",["Ireton and Posetti, 2018"]]],"ex":[["leaks of personal information",["Folkvord et al., 2022","Gradoń et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["leading to debates on the efficacy of current initiatives and the optimal methods for incorporating them into educational institutions",["Bennett and Livingston, 2018"]],["media literacy programmes that go beyond simple fact-checking to address the emotional and social dimensions of misinformation",[]],["growing recognition of educational interventions as crucial solutions",[]]],"rt":[["news literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Tandoc and Lee's (2022) highly cited work, identified in our bibliometric analysis, demonstrates how information-seeking gratifications became increasingly entangled with systemic media dependencies during this crisis period, generating conditions where adolescents became particularly susceptible to misinformation.",[]],["a phenomenon strikingly apparent in our temporal publication analysis, which shows significant increases during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.",[]]],"rt":[["Uses and Gratification Theory (UGT)",[]],["media dependency",[]]]},{"de":[["TikTok, which our analysis identifies as increasingly significant vectors for misinformation among youth",[]]],"sp":[["information disorder",["Ireton and Posetti, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["The rapid and widespread nature of social media allows for the potential dissemination of symbolic violence discourse, which can adversely affect teenagers' growth and welfare.",[]]]},{"de":[["UGT suggests that individuals actively choose media based on their specific needs and the gratifications they seek",["Katz et al., 1973"]],["an approach particularly relevant for comprehending why adolescents engage with potentially misleading content.",[]],["recent research by Walter et al. (2021) extends this theory to demonstrate how adolescents' gratification-seeking behaviour intensifies during periods of uncertainty, creating a complex interplay between motivation and vulnerability to misinformation.",[]]],"sy":[["User and Gratification theory",[]]],"rt":[["Media System Dependency Theory (MSD)",[]],["gratification-seeking behaviour",[]],["media dependency",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, this is perceived as governance achieved by leaders'decisions and guidance in regulating the participation of their subjects, who must obey, like they would a strict parent.",[]]]},{"sy":[["paternalistic governance",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["denial",[]],["diminishment",[]],["rebuilding",[]]],"sb":[["the victim cluster, such as cases of natural disasters or rumours, tends to represent minor reputational threat",["Coombs & Holladay, 2012"]],["the accidental cluster, such as cases of equipment or product failure or accusations from external stakeholders, tends to represent a medium level of reputational threat",["Coombs & Holladay, 2012"]],["the intentional cluster, in which the organisation knowingly took an inappropriate action in risk response, tends to represent the emergence of public anger and a major reputational threat",["Coombs & Holladay, 2012"]]]},{},{"de":[["Their role in curtailing the spread of rumors is increasingly recognized, especially when presented alongside the original rumor",["Ozturk et al., 2015"]],["Commonly released on the Internet by authoritative sources to combat falsehood",["Ozturk et al., 2015"]]],"rt":[["rumors",[]]],"ex":[["a health rumor followed by a simple counter-rumor of the form \"This is not true\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Depending on their ability to breed anxiety, rumors are commonly classified as either dread or wish",["DiFonzo et al., 2012"]]],"sp":[["rumor type",[]]]},{"sp":[["rumor type",[]]],"ex":[["the dread rumor that vaccines cause microcephaly in babies made the rounds on social media during the outbreak of the Zika virus in Brazil",["World Health Organization, 2016"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["refers to individuals' perceived relevance of a rumor",[]],["Rumors are fuelled by the degree to which there is a collective sense of high relevance shared among members of a community",["DiFonzo et al., 2014"]]],"ex":[["tweets posted during social crises were likely to be rumors especially when they conveyed personal involvement",["Oh et al. (2013)"]],["the expression of personal involvement in a rumor tweet could predict its likelihood to be retweeted",["Liu et al. (2014)"]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]],["doctored narratives",[]]],"sb":[["dread",[]],["wish",[]]]},{"sp":[["rumor type",[]]],"ex":[["the free distribution of a medicine from Yashoda Hematology Cancer Institute in India touted to cure all types of cancer",["Uppar, 2015"]]]},{"de":[["may be a good starting point to develop theoretically grounded measures of polarization [9,26,10] and controversy [15,14], which have been lacking in the literature.",["9","26","10","15","14"]]],"rt":[["polarization",[]],["controversy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Social media users are not representative of the whole population, and their posts may exhibit specific demographic, regional, or ideological biases, which might distort the outcomes of sentiment analysis",["5"]]]},{},{"de":[["These biases can affect sentiment analysis results, rendering them unrepresentative of broader public opinion.",[]]]},{"de":[["This noise can mask genuine sentiment signals and lead to incorrect conclusions.",[]]]},{"de":[["short posts or ones with confusing phrasing can complicate determining the user's genuine emotion, resulting in adequate or correct analysis.",[]]]},{"de":[["Social media posts frequently need comprehensive sentiment indicators, impeding the ability to derive significant conclusions.",[]],["This problem is most noticeable on sites like Twitter, where posts are restricted to a specific number of characters, resulting in a significant amount of unclear or need to be clarified more",["1"]]]},{"de":[["Methods like re-sampling, re-weighting, and adjusting the objective function were employed to attain this equilibrium.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Social media sites are inundated with unnecessary or superfluous information, such as spam, ads, and off-topic messages, which can mask accurate emotional signals",["3"]]]},{"de":[["This includes assessing views, emotions, and attitudes in social media posts.",[]]],"sy":[["opinion mining",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["overarching categories",["Sietsma et al., 2021"]],["meta-topics",["Boussalis et al., 2016"]]]},{},{"sy":[["noticias falsas",[]]]},{},{"de":[["que puede venir tanto por parte de las autoridades oficiales como por parte de terceros que aprovechan el conflicto en su beneficio.",[]]],"sy":[["difusión de desinformación",[]]],"ex":[["bulos",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["desinformación",[]],["información periodística",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech is dangerous for society because it can cause social conflict, discrimination, murder, and even imprisonment for perpetrators by applicable law",["4"]]],"ex":[["Kill them!",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["improve the relationship between journalists and audiences, often by seeking to offer communities greater agency in the stories told about them",[]]],"rt":[["audience turn",[]]]},{"de":[["a JTBD approach is oriented toward the specific needs of citizens to resolve distinct problems that may represent a wider set of tasks.",[]],["The audience turn, therefore, falls short of the audience-first approach at the core of the JTBD thesis.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Mindset",[]]]},{"de":[["serves as an example of the tensions between journalism's professional culture and the JTBD approach.",[]],["is not concerned with the purpose of the journalism produced by a newsroom. Instead, it serves as a means of involving audiences in existing ways of being and doing, within strictly defined parameters that do not question the purpose of journalism and how adequately it addresses audience needs.",[]],["it serves as a means of involving audiences in existing ways of being and doing, within strictly defined parameters that do not question the purpose of journalism and how adequately it addresses audience needs.",[]]],"rt":[["JTBD approach",[]],["JTBD framework",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Sua eficácia está diretamente vinculada à sua capacidade de se naturalizar como uma forma legítima de gestão da informação.",[]]]},{"de":[["Ele combina linguagem e política pública, discurso e prática institucional, algoritmos e decretos.",[]],["promoção ativa da dúvida e da desinformação como estratégia comunicacional",[]]],"ex":[["estratégia política de desinformação do governo Bolsonaro, ao se apoiar em grandes plataformas digitais estrangeiras como infraestrutura sociotécnica para difusão de conteúdos falsos",[]]]},{"de":[["setores econômicos e políticos, sobretudo nos Estados Unidos, utilizaram o discurso da dúvida para paralisar regulações ambientais e de saúde pública.",[]],["A dúvida, nesse contexto, é produzida deliberadamente para gerar confusão e impedir o consenso social sobre temas urgentes.",[]],["A dúvida, nesse contexto, é produzida deliberadamente para gerar confusão e impedir o consenso social sobre temas urgentes",["2018"]],["o conceito de 'mercadores da dúvida' oferece ferramentas para entender a manipulação estratégica da incerteza.",[]]]},{"de":[["não apenas fatos são suprimidos ou distorcidos, mas as instituições produtoras de conhecimento são sistematicamente desacreditadas, gerando um vácuo epistêmico que favorece a emergência de versões alternativas da realidade.",[]],["funciona como dispositivo de legitimação de políticas autoritárias, ao mesmo tempo em que desorganiza a base epistêmica da democracia representativa, baseada no debate informado e na deliberação racional.",[]],["O negacionismo promovido pelo governo Bolsonaro não se limitou a um fenômeno discursivo, mas configurou uma política de comunicação institucional que visou desorientar a opinião pública.",[]],["ideologia e discurso legitimador de práticas autoritárias",[]],["instrumento importante de sua política de informação conservadora",[]],["negacionismo ultrapassa a simples recusa de evidências, trata-se de uma estratégia retórica orientada à corrosão das condições públicas de construção da verdade",[]],["Para Cohen, o negacionismo ultrapassa a simples recusa de evidências, trata-se de uma estratégia retórica orientada à corrosão das condições públicas de construção da verdade.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Trata-se de um processo de corrosão das condições públicas de construção da verdade, em que não apenas fatos são negados, mas também instituições produtoras de conhecimento são deslegitimadas, criando um vácuo epistêmico que favorece a emergência de versões alternativas da realidade.",[]],["um processo de corrosão das condições públicas de construção da verdade, em que não apenas fatos são negados, mas também instituições produtoras de conhecimento são deslegitimadas, criando um vácuo epistêmico que favorece a emergência de versões alternativas da realidade",["Cohen (2001)"]]]},{"de":[["cultura institucional voltada a dificultar o acesso à informação",[]],["novo padrão de gestão da informação estatal, marcado pela retração geral da transparência pública",[]]],"ex":[["Bases de dados foram removidas, atualizações suspensas, a prestação de contas fragmentada em boletins incompletos, e as respostas aos pedidos tornaram-se cada vez mais genéricas e inconclusivas",["Malin et al., 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["A verdade deixa de ser aquilo que pode ser verificado por evidências e passa a ser definida pela autoridade política.",[]],["A verdade deixa de ser aquilo que pode ser verificado por evidências e passa a ser definida pela autoridade política",["Jason Stanley (2018)"]]]},{},{"de":[["o modo como uma sociedade organiza seus fluxos informacionais não é neutro, mas está implicado em disputas políticas, epistêmicas e culturais.",[]],["Diferentes regimes de informação se associam a distintas formas de governo, racionalidades técnicas e concepções de cidadania.",[]]]},{"de":[["One of the first consequences of the so-called attention economy is the loss of high-quality information.",[]]]},{"de":[["Clickbait is a product of the attention economy, as creators seek ways to grab viewers' attention by the methods mentioned earlier.",[]],["as creators seek ways to grab viewers' attention by the methods mentioned earlier.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Very often, irregularities came to the ears of churchwardens and constables simply on the basis of communal suspicion, the notion of the ' common fame ', or ' common voice ', which could be sufficient basis for a presentment.",[]]],"sy":[["common voice",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["these things often tended to grow larger and more exaggerated as they passed along the grapevine",[]]],"rt":[["apocryphal reports",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["it was also an offence to utter words considered to be seditious",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the action frame, the journalists identified the causes of river degradation and called upon the ruling politicians to address these problems.",[]],["This coverage highlighted the country's willingness to tackle the issue of climate change internationally (i.e. commitment to Intended Nationally Determined Contribution, or INDC).",[]]],"rt":[["conflict frame",[]]]},{"de":[["This attribution is critical to the exercise of civic control and is a key ingredient of all social knowledge",["Iyengar, 1991"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["this idea sees everyone as competitors in the public sphere regardless of the sources' positions in the hierarchy of social power.",[]]]},{"de":[["the journalists explicitly mentioned political corruptions linked to the economic exploitation of rivers.",[]],["the coverage was dominated by political sources (n=191) who, along with the expert sources (n=73), were used in the conflict frame.",[]]],"rt":[["action frame",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Many of these perspectives assume 'frames simply as content features that produce media effects'",["Carragee & Roefs, 2004, p. 215"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["an effective and safe way to correct false risk rumours",["Paek and Hove, 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["misunderstandings with the unconfirmed explanations about food",[]],["the fabricated one, with the deliberate fabrication of false food information",[]],["based on misunderstandings with the unconfirmed explanations about food",[]],["misunderstandings",[]],["fabricated",[]]],"sp":[["rumours",[]]]},{"de":[["Any social media user that is not a Leader or a Chatter, is considered as General Public.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In health and food risk research, rumours have been conceived as untrue narratives, misunderstandings, and obstacles to official prevention or management programs",["Barrelet et al., 2013"]],["The rumours are attractive because it seems to be new, important, and able to express emotion or satisfy some emotional needs such as anger and hatred",["Knapp, 1944","Allport and Postman, 1947","Rosnow, 1991","Paek and Hove, 2019"]]],"ex":[["dripping sesame oil into the nostrils, chewing garlic, drinking alcohol, and smoking vinegar can resist the virus",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The initial 'fake news' crisis (Silverman, 2016;2017) had to do with fly-by-night, imposter, conspiracy as well as so-called 'hyperpartisan' news sources outperforming mainstream news on Facebook in the run up to the 2016 US presidential elections.",["Silverman, 2016","2017"]],["the 'fake news' or 'junk news' problem is largely a hyperpartisan conservative source problem",[]],["the roomier definitions of 'fake news', which adds to imposter and conspiracy sites 'hyperpartisan' sources",[]]],"sy":[["junk news",[]],["problematic information",[]],["false news",[]]],"sb":[["imposter news",[]],["conspiracy sources",[]],["hyperpartisan",[]]]},{"de":[["Opting for the narrower 'false news' classification would imply a depoliticization of the problem.",[]],["removing hyperpartisan sources from the categorization scheme",[]],["discussing those sources as 'misleading' rather than as 'fake' or 'junk'",["Kist & Zantingh, 2017"]]],"sb":[["imposter and conspiracy sites",[]],["imposter",[]],["conspiracy",[]]]},{"sy":[["overly ideological web operations",["Herrman, 2016"]]]},{"rt":[["conspiracy sites",[]]],"ex":[["Denver Guardian",[]]]},{"de":[["adds the connotation of attractively packaged junk food that when consumed could be considered unhealthy",["Howard, 2020;Venturini, 2019"]]],"sb":[["imposter news",[]],["conspiracy sources",[]],["hyperpartisan",[]]],"sp":[["problematic information",[]]]},{"rt":[["imposter sources",[]]]},{"sb":[["junk news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the context of LLMs, this implies that there needs to be some consistency to the political ideas fabricated by a model.",[]],["Political bias is especially problematic in some of these information gathering, search, or even content analysis-related tasks, because they can perpetuate certain existing real-life biases (Sharma et al., 2024).",["Sharma et al., 2024"]],["The resulting measure ranges from -1 to 1 and is negative for left-leaning political bias and positive for right-leaning political bias, disaggregated by the economic and cultural dimensions.",[]],["We compute the two components of bias, economic and cultural, by limiting the analysis to statements concerning just that dimension",[]]],"rt":[["direct bias",[]],["indirect bias",[]],["economic bias",[]],["cultural bias",[]]]},{"de":[["we adapt this concept to incorporate a prompt that tests whether the prefixes steer the models toward a response that differs from the responses elicited by the empty baseline prefix.",[]],["In this work, we adapt this concept to incorporate a prompt that tests whether the prefixes steer the models toward a response that differs from the responses elicited by the empty baseline prefix.",[]]]},{"de":[["LANCER [2] introduces the concept of news lifetime",["2"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the denial strategies considered in this study are: presenting comment as fact; distorting genuine evidence; presenting false evidence; presenting false context; presenting conflicting evidence; and impersonating genuine sources.",[]]],"rt":[["climate change disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["presenting comment as fact",[]],["distorting genuine evidence",[]],["presenting false evidence",[]],["presenting false context",[]],["presenting conflicting evidence",[]],["impersonating genuine sources",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["misinformation (unconscious falsehood)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["various elements, including information sources and media platforms, collectively generate communication effects",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing",[]],["agenda-setting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["being effective usually depends on the goal that has been set for the communication.",[]]],"ex":[["quit smoking",[]],["reduce alcohol drinking",[]],["have a healthy lifestyle",[]]]},{"de":[["indicators of engagement that can be easily derived from the available data, such as the number of retweets, likes, comments, and shares.",[]],["engagement can be considered as a good proxy of outreach and appreciation and, thus, of effectiveness.",[]]],"rt":[["outreach",[]],["appreciation",[]],["effectiveness",[]]],"sp":[["effectiveness",[]]],"ex":[["the number of retweets, likes, comments, and shares",[]]]},{"de":[["For example, pretrained transformer models are used to extract semantic or syntactic properties to detect misinformation",["Karimi and Tang, 2019","Das et al., 2021","Yue et al., 2022","Jiang et al., 2022"]]],"sp":[["Misinformation Detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["Misinformation Detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Similarly, patterns on propagation paths help detect misinformation on social media platforms",["Monti et al., 2019","Shu et al., 2020b"]]],"sp":[["Misinformation Detection",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["political subjectivity",[]]]},{"rt":[["deductive",[]],["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["This theory suggests that as individuals come together under the banner of a shared interest, this interest tends to be transformed into a collective identity, simultaneously articulated into a discourse which serves to demarcate insiders from outsiders",[]],["Building on Durkheim, Collins (2004) proposed that interaction rituals have four ingredients: group assembly, barriers to outsiders, mutual focus of attention, and a shared mood.",[]],["As these ingredients come together, they in turn have four outcomes: group solidarity, common standards of morality, sacred objects, and emotional energy in individuals.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["totems",[]]]},{"rt":[["cultural capital",[]]]},{},{"de":[["highlighted as potential drivers of radicalization",[]],["have been a central focus of academic attention and seen as a potential driver in the recent rise of \"sectarian\" political polarization",["Finkel et al., 2020","Mason and Kalmoe, 2022"]],["the echo chamber hypothesis suggests that these spaces drive divergence in issue position by isolating individuals from opposing perspectives",["Sunstein, 2009"]]],"sy":[["filter bubbles",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",["Bruns, 2019","Pariser, 2011","Sunstein, 2009"]]]},{"de":[["This is, in other words, the dopamine boost that many media scholars have described as being a central driver of social media use, and which can even lead to addiction.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["On digital media, the interaction ritual takes the form of the exchange of messages on a shared topic. In other words, the rituals are conversations.",[]]],"ex":[["dancing together at a club, shouting in unison at a Trump rallyor even something as simple as sharing a cigarette",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The words signal belonging, and to learn this internal language is thus central to becoming part of the community and successfully participating in its discursive rituals.",[]],["This suggests that users who enter the community need to learn this community language, and that learning this culture is necessary to attain the emotional energy that drives users to continue their participation.",[]]],"sy":[["coming to take up the discourse, themes, and stories of the community",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["community ideology",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["social polarization",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["referring to an anti-Semitic conspiracy theory claiming that Jews secretly control Western governments.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["As in, your job requires that you actively manage your own emotional expression in order to elicit beneficial emotions-and, hopefully, desired actions-from your customers, clients, or audience.",[]],["your job requires that you actively manage your own emotional expression in order to elicit beneficial emotions-and, hopefully, desired actions-from your customers, clients, or audience.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["media in \"the contemporary era continues to be influenced by expert knowledge holders who act as gatekeepers",[]]]},{"de":[["was understood not as a choice in the work, but as an imperative.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Brown (2006) describes neoconservatism as an \"unevenly and opportunistically religious\" ideology that has laid the groundwork for authoritarianism to work alongside an intense focus on the individual (p. 696).",["p. 696","Brown (2006)","Brown, 2006"]]]},{"de":[["Ideas emphasized in neoliberalism are choice, accountability, and merit, all at the individual level",["Lipman and Hursh, 2007, p. 162"]],["Neoliberalism in the United States is not unique, as researchers have studied the effects of similar ideologies in the United Kingdom, Canada, and beyond (McGregor, 2001).",["McGregor, 2001"]],["This Western, globalized ideology is rooted in beliefs of achieved equality, commercialized diversity, and individual excellence (Brown, 2006;Gray, 2015).",["Brown, 2006;Gray, 2015"]],["Ideas emphasized in neoliberalism are choice, accountability, and merit, all at the individual level (Lipman and Hursh, 2007, p. 162).",["Lipman and Hursh, 2007, p. 162","Lipman and Hursh, 2007"]],["While neoliberalism is an ideology that is neutral, marketbased, and amoral at its core, in the United States it exists in tandem with the neoconservative ideology.",[]]]},{"de":[["new media's collective intelligence becomes a form of power for social movements to harness",["Jenkins, 2006, p. 4"]]]},{},{"de":[["the experiences of wealthy white women seeking abortions will likely not be as fraught as the experiences of poor Latina migrant women in California seeking prenatal care (Zavella, 2016), and yet intersectional reproductive justice encompasses both circumstances.",["Zavella, 2016"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["If this effect is large and substantial, however, then government disclosures will understate the amount of illegitimate violence, leading to attenuation bias even when reports and support are observed without error.",[]]]},{"sy":[["cover-ups",[]]]},{"rt":[["concealment via omission",[]]]},{"rt":[["concealment via a lie",[]]],"ex":[["when the government does not report a clash with the rebels that resulted in noncombatant fatalities, this could be interpreted as concealment via omission",[]]]},{"de":[["Broadly, state-caused collateral damage can depress support for the government, but the effect is attenuated when examining insurgent-caused damage",[]],["violations of human rights, violence against noncombatants, or destruction of critical infrastructure.",[]]],"rt":[["collateral damage",[]]],"ex":[["noncombatant casualties",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Some NGOs benefit from a surprise dividend",[]]]},{"de":[["transparency institutions such as freedom of information (FOI) laws or press protections more broadly (Colaresi 2012;Egorov, Guriev, and Sonin 2009;Grigorescu 2003;Lorentzen 2014), which affects the investigative costs of NGOs.",[]],["They also include national-security legislative oversight powers, which are outside the scope of our analysis.",[]]],"rt":[["FOI laws",["Berliner 2014"]]],"ex":[["freedom of information (FOI) laws",[]],["press protections",[]]]},{"de":[["Underreporting bias in government disclosures positively correlates with underreporting bias in NGO reports.",[]],["as NGOs face higher investigative costs, both the NGO and government data will underreport illegitimate violence, but the bias in government data will be more extreme.",[]],["interdependent strategic forces that determine underreporting bias in government-and NGO-provided data, considering the motivations of each actor when reporting unpopular violence.",[]],["The government's source of underreporting bias is its incentive to conceal illegitimate violence.",[]],["The NGO's source of underreporting bias is that it needs to exert costly effort to uncover the truth.",[]],["NGO data should exhibit less underreporting bias relative to government data: (a) when NGO investigations are relatively inefficient (large ρ) and (b) when NGOs rely heavily on surprise dividends (small λ).",[]]],"rt":[["inconsistent media coverage",[]],["aggregation bias",[]],["geographic biases",[]]]},{"sy":[["human rights organizations",[]]]},{"ex":[["Human Rights Watch and Global Witness rely on donations from the public to continue fact finding and publishing reports on human rights violations both in and outside the context of violent conflict.",[]]]},{"de":[["recognizes both the textual as well as the non-textual clickbait activity",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["libel",[]],["slander",[]]]},{"de":[["Section 373 of the Criminal Code Act, 100 which defines a 'defamatory matter' as a 'published' matter (expression) injurious to the reputation of any person whether 'living or dead', can arguably be used to criminalise social media content.",[]]]},{"de":[["propaganda and disinformation to mislead audiences, defame individuals and harm vital state interests",[]]],"sp":[["information disorder",["51"]]]},{"de":[["communication of false information on social media and the Internet",[]],["However, this understanding is problematic since 'false news' also covers a broad spectrum of false but non-injurious hoaxes, lies, fiction, satire, and parody.",["57"]]],"sy":[["post-truth",[]],["alternative news",[]],["post-truth, alternative news, etc",["51"]]]},{"de":[["By a circular definition, a statement is false",[]]]},{"ex":[["hoaxes, lies, fiction, satire, and parody",[]]]},{"de":[["The Bill's vague definition of 'false statement' and the provisions of sections 3-6B pose risks of prior restraint and self-censorship concerning the exercise of online speech.",[]]]},{"de":[["Freedom of expression is a fundamental right protected by international and regional human rights instruments",[]]],"sy":[["freedom of speech",["4"]]]},{"de":[["The opportunity to peacefully ventilate public grievances against the state and hold authorities accountable thus constitutes a mechanism for orderly change in society without resort to violence.",[]]]},{"de":[["information disorder which consists of propaganda, disinformation (false information shared intentionally to harm), misinformation (false information shared without harm), malinformation (true information shared to cause harm)",["51"]]]},{"sp":[["defamation",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",["51"]]]},{},{"sy":[["non-publishers",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",["51"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the Court confirmed satire to be a protected form of expression",[]]]},{"de":[["This function of free speech makes for the proper exercise of individual agency and autonomy and hence the full development of the individual through the ability to make meaningful life choices.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["defamation",[]]]},{"ex":[["content aggregation (YouTube)",[]],["social networking (Facebook)",[]],["microblogging (Twitter)",[]],["photo messaging services (Snapchat)",[]],["reputation systems (Yelp)",[]],["social media platforms include content aggregation (YouTube), social networking (Facebook), microblogging (Twitter), photo messaging services (Snapchat), and reputation systems (Yelp).",["1"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Sociological discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Sociological discourse analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["Conservatives primarily focused on ensuring that PC was framed as against euthanasia and assisted dying, and primarily used moral arguments to frame the distinction.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Politicians and healthcare professionals were united in their discursive position when they used a rights-based discourse focused on equality and right to access PC.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["navigator",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a concept central to the practice of journalism, indeed journalism's very essence",[]]],"rt":[["gatewatching",[]],["gatekeeper function",[]]]},{"rt":[["gatekeeping",[]]]},{"rt":[["instrumental journalism",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["guidance journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["gatekeeper",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["guidance journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["foster political polarization as individuals entrench in their beliefs, disinclined to engage with dissenting perspectives",["Barberá, 2020"]],["where users predominantly encounter viewpoints aligning with their own",[]]]},{"de":[["This incidental exposure may also be a critical factor in reducing gaps in political involvement, as even people with low political involvement often participate in political discussions online, such as sharing political information",["Weeks et al., 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["Public moods are reactive and lack inherent rationality.",[]]],"rt":[["public opinion",[]]]},{"de":[["It emerges from critical-rational discourse, where citizens engage in reasoned debate and discussion to form collective opinions on political issues",[]]],"rt":[["public mood",[]]]},{"de":[["Many people are selectively exposed for convenience -it is easier to be exposed to people with similar views.",[]],["selective exposure is a form of self-defence against a sense of threat",["Hart et al., 2009"]],["the Internet allows users to easily search for and consume political news with similar views to theirs",[]],["the composition of our social network plays a pivotal role in shaping the content we encounter",["Bakshy et al., 2015"]],["individuals' tendency to engage with likeminded individuals",["Lazarsfeld et al., 1944"]]]},{"de":[["in contrast to what democratic theorists predict",["Teets 2013","Su and Meng 2016","Truex 2017"]],["collecting individual grievances and posting resolution plans",[]]]},{"de":[["Such bias often involves omission of specific information rather than purposive misrepresentation and/or distortion of information.",[]],["government accounts did not shy away from protests against the state but framed such events in ways that depoliticized and desensitized the issues surrounding the demonstrations",[]],["portraying events differently from the way protest participants experience them",["5"]]],"sp":[["selection and description bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Disruptive protests must disrupt public order by occupying public space; protests that are confined to a private space are not considered to be disruptive.",[]]]},{"rt":[["protest framing",[]]]},{"de":[["news media gives more attention to details of protests in an episodic style (although both are subject to description biases)",[]]],"rt":[["thematic style",[]]],"ex":[["The report by the New Beijing News provided four of the classic \"five Ws\" used in news reporting (\"who, what, when, and where\") but did not mention why the people were protesting or any of the protesters' perspectives.",[]]]},{"de":[["Specifically, the media may misrepresent key characteristics of protest events by deemphasizing the form of action, the presence of police, and the negative sentiments of the protests.",[]],["The media may be more likely to portray protests as peaceful rather than violent or disruptive, while less likely to mention government agencies in their descriptions of protests.",[]],["we compared the descriptions of protests by individuals with those of the news media or the government accounts along a series of characteristics",[]]],"rt":[["misrepresentation",[]],["differential framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["selection and description bias",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["protest framing",[]]]},{"de":[["the state tends to cover protests with a thematic style, while news media gives more attention to details of protests in an episodic style (although both are subject to description biases)",[]]],"rt":[["episodic style",[]]],"ex":[["The government post mainly used the protest as an example to discuss the root causes of this type of protest and how the government should prevent these types of protests and rebuild trust by using effective and transparent communication.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the act of looking through the camera lens and capturing an image involves a power dynamic between the photographer and the subject being photographed",[]]]},{"ex":[["being good at maths (potentially a reflection of stereotyping of Asian people) or being caring (potentially a reflection of sexist stereotypes)",[]],["being good at maths (potentially a reflection of stereotyping of Asian people)",[]],["being caring (potentially a reflection of sexist stereotypes)",[]]]},{"sy":[["fairness",[]],["stereotypes",[]],["harm",[]]]},{"de":[["bias tests are often poorly reported, missing critical details about what the paper conceptualises as the bias or harm to be measured, and sometimes even details about how the test is constructed.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Proxy type(s)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["under-representation of marginalised groups",[]]]},{"sp":[["Proxy type(s)",[]]]},{"de":[["e.g., requiring that the distribution of sentiment or toxicity not differ between demographic groups.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Proxy type(s)",[]]]},{"de":[["possibly conflating negative sentiment and stereotyping",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is an artifact of how our brains process information; brains have limited bandwidth for perception, attention, memory, and thinking.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an initial Informing Science framework that removes the assumption of the singularity of truth and reality and that provides a multi-source framework for understanding informing, misinforming, and disinforming.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["Fake News",[]]]},{"sp":[["philosophical field",[]]]},{"de":[["Often fake news is used to support a false narrative. It may be created and disseminated to disinform, for example, as propaganda, and for other reasons, such as using it as clickbait for gaining personal profit.",[]],["adversaries create dissension via fake news to disrupt and divide us by manufacturing alternative narratives of reality.",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["Disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Their study found that while fake photographs lead to false memories in their experimental study's subjects, false narratives produce even stronger fake impressions.",[]]],"sp":[["Narratives",[]]]},{"sy":[["spin",[]],["spin, the deliberate and intentional filtering in the conveying (telling) of an event.",[]]]},{"de":[["people tend to believe that which comes readily to mind.",[]]],"ex":[["subjects rated repeated statements as more probably true than new statements.",["Hasher, Goldstein, and Toppino (1977)","Fazio, Brashier, Payne & Marsh (2015)"]]]},{},{"de":[["For this series, misinformation is incorrect information spread without any intention to mislead.",[]]]},{"sb":[["false narratives",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["black psyops",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["A related epistemological concept is skepticism, a questioning of the truth even of a commonly held, putative, belief.",[]]],"sp":[["epistemological concept",[]]]},{"sy":[["Framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["positions autism as an individual impairment and therefore favors person-rst formulations that linguistically separate the condition from the individual.",[]]],"rt":[["neuroaffirmative model",[]]]},{"de":[["neuro-affirming vocabulary over de cit-based language",["Bottini et al., 2024"]]]},{"rt":[["medical model",[]]],"sp":[["discourse model",[]]]},{"de":[["Across the dataset, medicalized and de citoriented framings continue to coexist alongside neuroaffirmative narratives that emphasize identity, belonging, and community.",[]]]},{"de":[["is taken up and reworked across settings",["Cascio, 2015"]]],"rt":[["biosociality/strategic essentialism",[]]]},{"sp":[["discourse model",[]]]},{"sp":[["linguistic style",[]]]},{"rt":[["Identity-rst",[]]],"sp":[["linguistic style",[]]]},{},{"de":[["online spaces as key sites for the emergence of autistic culture and collective identity, showing how digital communication enables the articulation of shared narratives beyond institutional or clinical frameworks.",[]]],"ex":[["X (formerly Twitter)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["framing theory provides a critical lens for understanding how media shape public perceptions of conflict.",[]],["framing involves the selective highlighting of certain aspects of reality to shape problem definitions, causal interpretations, moral evaluations, and treatment recommendations.",["Entman, 1993"]],["provides a critical lens for understanding how media shape public perceptions of conflict.",[]]],"sb":[["problem definitions",["Entman, 1993"]],["causal interpretations",["Entman, 1993"]],["moral evaluations",["Entman, 1993"]],["treatment recommendations",["Entman, 1993"]]]},{"de":[["cultural and ideological dominance",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["suggesting that media narratives may reflect filters that delegitimise states challenging hegemonic interests",[]],["media narratives may reflect filters that delegitimise states challenging hegemonic interests, as evidenced in source biases cf. (see Figure5)",[]]]},{"ex":[["ancient hatreds",[]],["tribalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["metaphor",[]]]},{"de":[["it may be said that axiology is directly related to the emotional spectrum and feelings and in some way depicts the speaker's mood and attitude towards a particular situation.",[]],["R.L. Boyd, S.R. Wilson, J.W. Pennebaker and D. Stillwell states that the phenomenon of values reflects the actual way of human thinking in a particular situation",["Boyd et al., 2015, p. 31"]],["Hence, it may be said that axiology is directly related to the emotional spectrum and feelings and in some way depicts the speaker's mood and attitude towards a particular situation.",[]]]},{"sp":[["metaphor",[]]]},{"de":[["Moreover, conceptual blending is regarded as an essential tool in forming meaning in various life domains and science.",[]],["Initially, the key target of conceptual blending is to build \"a partial match\" among several \"input mental spaces\" reflecting factual information about concrete notions that ultimately construe a \"blended\" mental space, namely a completely new meaning that emerged on the input's basis",["Fauconnier, Turner, 2003, pp. 56-57"]],["conceptual blending is regarded as an essential tool in forming meaning in various life domains and science.",[]]],"rt":[["conceptual blending theory",[]]]},{"de":[["Hence, it could be stated that the conceptual metaphor comprises the source and target domain.",[]],["Theoretically, the target domain frequently consists of metaphorical expressions, while the source domain includes the linguistic units deeply rooted in the daily aspects of our life",[]]],"sb":[["structural metaphors",[]],["ontological metaphors",[]],["orientational metaphors",[]]]},{"de":[["Furthermore, it depicts the multimodal and complex structure of conceptual metaphors diversifying speech not only in the literary domain but in the everyday sphere of our life.",[]],["it depicts the multimodal and complex structure of conceptual metaphors diversifying speech not only in the literary domain but in the everyday sphere of our life.",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive linguistics",[]]],"sb":[["structural",[]],["ontological",[]],["orientational",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the genuine distinctive feature of the conduit metaphor is the process of movement of ideas",[]],["speakers tend to enclose feelings, inner thoughts, and emotions in their words transmitting or transporting them from one channel to another one.",[]],["conduit metaphors are designed to transfer the ideas or verbal means of communication from one object to another.",[]]],"sp":[["conceptual metaphors",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["that particular kind of language is affected by a multifaceted pragmatic process that provokes and enhances the appearance of affective and imagistic effects.",[]],["the literal connotation of the metaphorically utilised language is sustained by metaphoric meaning.",[]],["metaphor is regarded as an \"online pragmatic adjustment\" of the encoded lexical meaning that is formed as the consequence of a particular concept.",[]]],"rt":[["simile",[]],["novel metaphor",[]],["dead metaphors",[]],["Conceptual metaphor",[]]],"sb":[["novel metaphor",[]],["dead metaphors",[]],["Conceptual metaphor",[]],["dead metaphor",[]],["Buried metaphor",[]],["sleeping metaphor",[]],["tired metaphor",[]],["active metaphor",[]]],"ex":[["brave like a lion",[]],["Achilles was a lion in the fight",["2002","Kövecses, 2002, p. 7"]]]},{"de":[["Consequently, ontological metaphors are designed to portray reality or various aims and to depict a part of the received experience.",[]],["Additionally, their structural domains evoke cognition and mind functioning.",[]],["ontological metaphors are divided into three other subcategories which are ontological, container, and personification.",[]]],"sb":[["container",[]],["Personification",[]],["ontological",[]],["Container metaphors",[]],["Container metaphors are frequently used by individuals since they possess the aspect of estimating human beings as \"containers\" with particular mental and emotional attributes.",[]],["Personification is observed as the most vivid metaphorical unit because of explicitness structure.",[]]],"sp":[["conceptual metaphors",[]],["conceptual metaphor",[]]],"ex":[["WAR IS MACHINE: Russia launched a full-scale war",["Zelenskyy, 2022b"]]]},{"de":[["orientational metaphors are more related to the spatial orientation",[]]],"sp":[["conceptual metaphors",[]],["conceptual metaphor",[]]]},{"de":[["The key components of personification may be any type of material or living objects reflecting the broad spectrum of received experience",["Lakoff, Johnson, 1980, pp. 29-31","?Lakoff, Johnson, 1980, pp. 29-31?"]],["The last subtype of the ontological metaphor is personification which should be described as quite numeral in both speeches due to the statistical results.",[]],["by means of personification, it is easier to trace the dynamics of actions in the framework of the content and to assess a particular situation represented by the speaker.",[]],["the foundation of personification is based on the process of equation the country to a human using the process of overlapping.",[]]],"sp":[["ontological metaphors",[]],["ontological metaphor",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Within their structure, the metaphorical meaning sporadically conditions the appearance of the literal meaning that may be preserved and exploited in modern life. However, in this case, metaphorical meaning is regarded as conventional.",["Goatly, 1997, p. 33"]]],"sp":[["inactive metaphors",[]],["metaphor",[]]]},{"de":[["represented by the subsequent elements such as POSSESSIONS, MOVEMENTS, MATERIAL OBJECT, JOURNEY, WAR, MONEY, VALUABLE THING, BUILDING MATERIAL, CONTAINER, FRAGILITY, LENGHT, A LIVING BEING, MACHINE, and TARGET.",[]],["the source domain realises through the material and physical concepts",[]]]},{"de":[["In its framework, one concept metaphorically echoes, conveys, or transmits via another one.",[]],["Furthermore, they are observed to be the most frequent and common for construing speech. In its framework, one concept metaphorically echoes, conveys, or transmits via another one.",[]]],"sp":[["conceptual metaphors",[]],["conceptual metaphor",[]]]},{},{"de":[["represented by the following phenomenon such as ATTRIBUTES, CHANGES, LIFE, TIME, LIVING BEING, COGNITION, COUNTRY, WAR, FREEDOM, WORLD, and CONSCIOUSNESS, which are essential in an abstract nature.",[]],["the target domain reflects through abstract phenomenon",[]]]},{"sy":[["abusive language",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech detection is not a stable or simple target because misclassification of regular conversation as hate speech can severely affect users freedom of expression and reputation, while misclassification of hateful conversations as unproblematic would maintain the status of online communities as unsafe environments",["2"]],["it can be considered a broad umbrella term for numerous kinds of insulting user-generated content.",[]]],"rt":[["abusive content",[]],["abusive language",[]],["abusive content in social media",[]]],"sp":[["abusive content",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["as exemplified by so-called 'wokeness' or 'woke culture'.",[]],["In our Telegram dataset, the terms 'woke' and 'wokeness' were often used pejoratively, and critiques of social inequalities were rendered suspicious.",[]]]},{"de":[["for instance regarding gender or race",["Whiteout, 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["often presenting themselves as nationalism-oriented 'news' channels",[]]],"ex":[["bataafsenieuws",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["An advanced version of this white victimhood is the 'Great Replacement' conspiracy theory",[]]],"sp":[["white victimhood",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which as such can be characterised as politically extreme (Thomas, 2021).",["Thomas, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["Various Telegram channels in the dataset that adopted coronavirus conspiracy narratives also sympathised with the QAnon conspiracy theory.",[]]],"rt":[["'WWG1WGA' ('Where We Go One, We Go All')",[]]],"ex":[["claims that Dutch head virologist Jaap Van Dissel had ritualistically abused people in the Dutch town of Bodegraven in the 1980s",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["One common racist narrative that bridges anti-'woke' discourse, anti-mainstream discourse, and coronavirus conspiracism, was that of 'white victimhood'.",[]]],"sb":[["the 'Great Replacement' conspiracy theory",[]]],"ex":[["Green MP An Moerenhout thinks Bart Somers is not left-wing enough. She believes that people who come together on the basis of ethnicity \"strengthen society\" and that they deserve subsidies. We all know, of course, that she only means the non-Flemish. Flemings who would like to set up an association for Flemish people would be discriminatory, racist and punishable. Moroccans who set up an association for Moroccans in Flanders should receive subsidies, according to Moerenhout. The hatred towards one's own people is becoming more and more apparent.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We define direct bias as the difference in indirect bias of generated texts when given liberal-leaning (L) versus conservative-leaning (C) prompts",[]],["By \"leaking\" ideology information to the LM directly through prompts with political leanings, we expect generated text to be politically biased.",[]],["If an LM is able to generate equally biased texts given both liberal and conservative prompts, then the direct bias should be close to 0.",[]],["If the LM is not able to generate adequately-biased texts given prompts with a political leaning (e.g., if an LM is not able to generate conservative leaning texts given a conservative leaning prompt), however, our direct bias metric will be positive.",[]],["Unlike indirect bias, which solely relies on the LM itself to establish connections between attributes and political ideology, directly-biased prompts explicitly guide generation in a specified direction, allowing us to examine the sensitiveness of LMs to political bias directly.",[]]],"rt":[["indirect bias",[]]]},{"de":[["The theoretical underpinning of this bias is conditional independence: if the political bias of LM generation is independent of option o, we should have Pr(y = 1|ψ∩o) = Pr(y = 1|ψ).",[]],["In other words, if the LM is unbiased on option o, its base rate given o should equal the option-invariant base rate. Therefore, the distance between these two base rates measures the dependence of generation on a certain option o.",[]]]},{"de":[["push the picked token far away from the bias words, and the negative L 1 term will penalize picking the word whose distance to two groups are not equal.",[]]]},{"de":[["Bots are the primary form of computational propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["In the context of elections, disinformation is usually about the dissemination of knowingly false information with the goal to undermine political opponents, to manipulate the voting process, or change perceptions of the political circumstances in which the election takes place.",[]],["other forms of disinformation including misleading polls and false claims by election monitors should also be regarded as important forms of disinformation in elections.",[]],["The purpose of disinformation in competitive elections is different than in uncompetitive elections. While in competitive elections disinformation is employed to help a certain party or candidate or to delegitimize the existing political order, the main purpose of disinformation in uncompetitive elections, by contrast, is to convey the impression that the political order is legitimate.",[]],["Disinformation in elections is especially noticeable in the forms of fake news that is disseminated to discredit opponents or to influence the voting process, the falsification or manipulation of polling data, and the corruption of election monitoring.",[]]],"sy":[["false",[]],["fake news",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["In the context of elections, fake news becomes disinformation when it is presented or promoted to discredit opponents or to influence the voting process.",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["In the most extreme case, polling has not even been conducted, and data are conjured out of thin air.",[]]],"sy":[["misleading polls",[]]],"ex":[["the forgery of polling data has become a widespread phenomenon",[]],["the Rasmussen polling agency is openly supportive of Republican politicians and its polling data show a consistently higher approval rating for Trump than the polling data of most other polling agencies.",[]],["candidate Bakradze was at 30%, while he was at only 5% according to a different poll",[]]]},{"sb":[["One type of troll promotes fake news at their own initiative.",[]],["Another type of troll is active as part of an effort that is coordinated, for example by a government.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The primary reason behind such bans is often to prevent polls from having an excessive impact on voting behavior.",[]],["An additional reason for a polling silence period that authorities might consider, however, is that it specifically prevents voters from being influenced by false information about the preferences of other voters.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Hyperlinks",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hyperlinks",[]]]},{"de":[["Some scholars conceptualize hyperlink networks as a form of connective good",[]],["Organizations benefit from this connective good since individuals can navigate among various websites on the same topic or with similar objectives, and the number of hyperlinks directed to a website can impact the ranking of search engines.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["geographic proximity",[]],["organizational ties",[]],["shared interests",[]]]},{"de":[["These teams benefit from the extensive infrastructure and reach of their parent organizations but are constrained by the editorial guidelines of those media entities.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["we assess opinion leadership through mentions of fact-checking organizations within verification articles.",[]]],"rt":[["journalistic homophily",[]]]},{"de":[["it defines opinion leaders solely through peer recognition, overlooking audience perceptions of these organizations' prestige.",[]],["prestigious national and international fact-checking outlets that serve as sources of information and frames of reference for their peers",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hyperlinks",[]]]},{"rt":[["co-orientation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hyperlinks",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["An increase in this ratio indicates a higher proportion of articles with a positive tone, suggesting an improvement in market sentiment as reflected by wool market auctions.",[]]]},{"sy":[["media sentiment",[]]]},{"de":[["detect even unknown domains",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The distribution of words used in each domain is different, which prevents generalization to unknown domains.",[]]]},{"de":[["is a type of news and is therefore influenced by trends and interests.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["interviews",[]],["background reports",[]],["analyses",[]],["opinion pieces",[]],["external contributions",[]],["interviews, background reports, analyses, opinion pieces, external contributions",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["foreign coverage",[]]],"rt":[["communicative border-crossing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["tend to attract more attention from domestic media and resonate more strongly with domestic audiences",["Hafez & Grüne, 2022","Hanitzsch et al., 2013"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["visibility of communication is the necessary precondition of the public sphere",["Trenz, 2004, p. 2"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["orders of discourse",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["Mal-information",[]]],"sb":[["False context",[]],["Imposter content",[]],["Manipulated content",[]],["fabricated content",[]]],"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Sometimes, fabricated content praises a political social actor for fake achievements, in order to harm the competition/opposition.",[]]]},{"de":[["it promotes social cohesion and ideological bubbles aimed at reducing the quality of public debate, favoring polarized elections and extremist candidates by manipulating emotions (particularly, indignation) and attitudes (especially, antagonism)",[]],["it distorts public debate, by keeping moral panics under the spotlight, whereas other relevant political, economic, social, and cultural issues are backgrounded or reframed through the neoconservative perspective.",[]]],"rt":[["moral panics",[]],["information disorder",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["orders of discourse",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The criteria for their differentiation are similar to Tandoc et al. (2018): level of facticity (whether the information is true or false) and intention to harm (whether the text is oriented towards attacking the image of a social actor, a group or an institution).",["Tandoc et al. (2018)"]],["It can be said, though, that the awareness of facticity (whether the distributor knows if the information is true or false) is also relevant in the authors' conception of information disorder, since it is the main aspect distinguishing between misinformation and disinformation.",[]],["Information disorder covers three different phenomena: misinformation, disinformation and mal-information.",[]],["the phrase is inherently vulnerable to being politicized and deployed as a weapon against the news industry, as a way of undermining reporting that people in power do not like",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["mal-information",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["mal-information",[]]]},{"de":[["These patterns emerge from the integration and interaction of social actors in different social practices, which are ultimately tied to particular fields of activity (Volóchinov 2017) and institutions.",["Volóchinov 2017"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["Mal-information",[]]],"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["Exaggeration and distortion of what is said and done, fabrication of content, prediction of negative consequences of inaction, and the semiotic construal of an enemy group whose behavior and values are radically opposed to the referential group are strategies that characterize the social and discursive development of moral panics",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["orders of discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["Following both Social Semiotics and Critical Discourse Analysis, texts are seen to be constitutively multimodal.",[]]]},{"sy":[["media background checks (MBC)",[]]]},{"rt":[["fact-finding",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Media background checks enable source-critical reasoning by recalling the same facts that human knowledge experts use to assess trust.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They cover topics like ownership, funding model, remit, known biases, and factuality signals such as previous failed fact-checks -the same signals used by human experts in their analysis (Howell and Prevenier, 2001).",["Howell and Prevenier, 2001"]]]},{"sb":[["multi-hop facts (e.g. other sources owned by the same company)",[]],["topic-specific indicators, for example evidence that a source cannot be trusted specifically on issues related to healthcare, Québécois politics, or news about a particular advertiser",[]]],"ex":[["the founding, leadership, and organization of the source",[]],["the funding model of the source",[]],["the remit and target audience of the source",[]],["public stances taken by the source (e.g., endorsing a political campaign)",[]],["discussion in other media about the source",[]],["reliance by other media on the source",[]],["the factual history of the source (as indicated e.g. by fact-checks undergone by reputable fact-checking organisations)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The proliferation of fake news not only triggers a storm of public opinion but also manipulates public events, causing more direct harm to society",["Meel and Vishwakarma, 2020"]]],"ex":[["conspiracies and vested interests, such as the miracle drug Double Yellow Lotus Oral Liquid and the 5G spreading virus",["Salvi et al., 2021"]]]},{},{"rt":[["single-modal approaches",[]]]},{"sp":[["single-modal approaches",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["that is part of the context of information use.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["news reporting continuously constructs and reconstructs… problems, crises, enemies, and leaders",[]],["The news is socially constructed. \"The world of facts\" do not have a \"determinable meaning\"; rather, \"news reporting continuously constructs and reconstructs… problems, crises, enemies, and leaders\" (Edelman, 1988, p. 1). Mass media institutions mediate and powerfully shape the information that reaches the public and directly and indirectly influence what people know about political events (Edelman, 2001;Reese, 2007).",["Edelman, 1988","Edelman, 2001","Reese, 2007"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["traditional media are often seen as a complement to new media for understanding political information behavior",[]]],"rt":[["new media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["se caracteriza por el uso de la retórica de confrontación por parte de los diplomáticos chinos al denunciar las críticas a China y ser combativos en entrevistas y en las redes sociales",[]],["La doctrina central de la diplomacia del «guerrero lobo» es el «espíritu de lucha» enfatizado por Xi Jinping y requiere que los actores «cambien la mentalidad de la guerra mecanizada y establezcan el concepto ideológico C de la guerra de la información»",["Huang, 2021"]],["un tono conflictivo que deriva del nacionalismo y de la percepción de un entorno internacional hostil tras el desarrollo económico y la emergencia de China como potencia global, que reclama su lugar en el sistema internacional",[]],["estrategia del guerrero lobo, sobre todo, en todo aquello que representa una amenaza para la soberanía nacional de China y su área de influencia",[]],["La doctrina central de la diplomacia del «guerrero lobo» es el «espíritu de lucha» enfatizado por Xi Jinping",["Huang, 2021"]],["la diplomacia del guerrero lobo promueve una imagen positiva de los logros de China y critica a Occidente mediante técnicas de desinformación y a través de las redes sociales.",[]]],"rt":[["retórica de confrontación",[]]]},{"rt":[["sharp power",[]]]},{"de":[["Es un poder que usa políticas que ayudan a los regímenes autoritarios a coaccionar y manipular opiniones en el extranjero.",["Walker y Ludwig (2017)"]],["defender sus intereses a través del sharp power ante la imposibilidad de jugar con el soft power debido al dominio que ejerce el Partido Comunista en China que impide el desarrollo de iniciativas de la sociedad civil que puedan influir en opiniones públicas extranjeras sin estar manejadas desde el poder",[]]],"sy":[["poder afilado",[]]],"rt":[["soft power",[]]],"sp":[["soft power",[]]]},{"de":[["iniciativas de la sociedad civil que puedan influir en opiniones públicas extranjeras sin estar manejadas desde el poder",[]]],"rt":[["diplomacia pública",[]],["sharp power",[]]],"sb":[["sharp power",[]]]},{"de":[["active measures (the highest form of disinformation) include the creation of fake news and videos, forgery of documents, the use of bots and \"paid\" hackers, the spread of viruses on websites, organizing hacker attacks, and other methods and means that keep pace with technological progress and the social development of human civilisation.",[]],["a common characteristic of all attempts to define \"active measures\" is the use of disinformation as the primary tool for their implementation in related areas of activity within intelligence and counterintelligence services.",[]],["The term unites various methods used in operations aimed at influencing the international environment of the soviet territory and supporting the foreign policy of this authoritarian regime",["Darczewska and Zochowski, 2017"]],["a broad term encompassing intelligence and counterintelligence activities in addition to disinformation operations.",[]],["The concept of \"active measures\" covers offensive measures aimed at disinformation, deception, sabotage, destabilization and espionage arising from the premises and priorities of the foreign policy of the soviet authorities, the purpose of which was to force the enemy to act in the desired way.",["Darczewska and Zochowski, 2017"]]],"sy":[["deception",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["to build up espionage positions in the camp of the enemy and his surroundings, conducting operational games with the enemy, his disinformation, discretization, compromise and demoralization, as well as operational actions of espionage aimed at influencing the foreign policy and the domestic political situation of those countries that are the targets of these actions",[]]]},{"de":[["To reduce the level of empathy in the audience",[]],["Frequent and apathetic presentation of distorted information about committed crimes",[]]],"ex":[["reports were made about precise strikes on military targets, when in reality, as a result of the shelling, civilians were killed",["Putsyata, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["evidently primary",[]],["reflects the use of false information for gain or advantage",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["active measures",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fabrication of evidence",[]]]},{"de":[["A defamatory statement is a false statement of fact about a person which is intended to cause harm to a person's social image.",["9"]]]},{},{"ex":[["without the ability to conceal a certain event based on distorted information, a flow of secondary messages is created, which go through and are repeated multiple times, thereby reducing interest in the news and causing irritation when the event is mentioned.",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation is a more complex and differentiated method than simple deception.",[]],["disinformation actively employs a wide range of methods and means to manipulate the thoughts and beliefs of the public.",[]],["It can involve a particular way of distorting facts or using clever arguments to persuade the audience that their views do not correspond to reality",["Innes, 2020"]],["The CDU leads the UK government's operational response to disinformation threats online, and ensures the government takes necessary steps to identify and respond to acute misinformation (i.e., incorrect or misleading information) and disinformation (i.e., information which is deliberately created to cause harm) in areas of public interest.",["10"]],["a very serious problem that can potentially have negative consequences for individuals, groups, and society as a whole",[]],["used to influence public opinion and alter perspectives on various issues",[]],["a broader term that encompasses not only false information but also distorted, altered, concealed, or forged information.",[]],["Disinformation is a more complex and differentiated method than simple deception. It may involve various techniques, such as creating forged documents, disseminating purchased materials through mass media, or abusing the trust of well-known sources of information (misleading with false information)",["Dictionary of the Ukrainian language, 1971"]],["the main distinction between them lies in the fact that \"misinformation\" is disseminated without intentional deceptive intentions and often arises from innocent mistakes or a lack of verification. In contrast, \"disinformation\" involves deliberate deception and the spread of information with malicious intent to manipulate, deceive, or cause harm.",[]]],"sy":[["deception",[]],["false information",[]],["active measures",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["active measures",[]],["disinformation methods",[]]],"sp":[["active measures",[]]],"ex":[["creating forged documents, disseminating purchased materials through mass media, or abusing the trust of well-known sources of information",[]],["the creation of fake news and videos, forgery of documents, the use of bots and \"paid\" hackers, the spread of viruses on websites, organizing hacker attacks",[]],["creation of fake news and videos, forgery of documents, the use of bots and \"paid\" hackers, the spread of viruses on websites, organizing hacker attacks",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Creating distrust in the audience",[]],["Presenting truthful information as deception",[]]],"ex":[["dissemination of false messages about the intentions or actions of other countries, including military presence or provocative actions, to persuade the audience that this is untrue and that those reporting it are trying to deceive or harm the country",[]],["the dissemination of false messages about the intentions or actions of other countries, including military presence or provocative actions, to persuade the audience that this is untrue and that those reporting it are trying to deceive or harm the country.",[]]]},{"de":[["Provoking tension in the audience",[]]],"sb":[["deepfake",[]]],"ex":[["spreading photos or videos depicting an event that never happened or an event that took place but was distorted in a deceptive way",[]],["spreading photos or videos depicting an event that never happened or an event that took place but was distorted in a deceptive way.",[]]]},{"de":[["often carried out as part of a broader hybrid operation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It can involve a particular way of distorting facts or using clever arguments to persuade the audience that their views do not correspond to reality",["Innes, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["the main distinction between them lies in the fact that \"misinformation\" is disseminated without intentional deceptive intentions and often arises from innocent mistakes or a lack of verification. In contrast, \"disinformation\" involves deliberate deception and the spread of information with malicious intent to manipulate, deceive, or cause harm.",[]],["The CDU leads the UK government's operational response to disinformation threats online, and ensures the government takes necessary steps to identify and respond to acute misinformation (i.e., incorrect or misleading information) and disinformation (i.e., information which is deliberately created to cause harm) in areas of public interest.",["10"]],["Misinformation is false or misleading content shared without harmful intent though the effects can still be harmful, e.g., when people share false information with friends and family in good faith.",["COM (2020) 790 final"]]],"sy":[["wrong information, or the fact that people are misinformed.",["Cambridge Dictionary, 2024"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["flanking manoeuvre",[]]]},{"sy":[["flanking manoeuvre",[]]],"ex":[["In public statements, the opponent indicates the location of military units near civilian objects, which does not correspond to reality.",[]]]},{"ex":[["multiple reports about tension in a specific region that do not reflect reality are created. Afterward, a fake story emerges about the outbreak of a conflict, while in reality, the local authorities sought international assistance",["Putsyata, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["Getting false information to the audience before the truth",[]],["Rapid dissemination of false information",[]]],"sy":[["the law of priority",[]],["law of priority",[]]],"rt":[["law of priority",[]]],"ex":[["a video is spread about the negative condition of military units seeking help; the refutation of this false information on official state resources is perceived by the audience as an attempt to justify.",[]]]},{"sy":[["concept substitution",[]]],"ex":[["the equating of the terms \"Nazism -German fascism\" (Dictionary.ua, 2023) and \"nationalism -national consciousness, love and pride for one's nation and homeland, or the ideology and policy in the national question based on the interpretation of the nation as the highest value and form of social unity, as well as the primacy of the nation in the state-building process, or a movement aimed at fighting for the nation's independence against foreign oppressors, as well as a movement for the preservation and development of national traditions, culture, language, literature, art, etc.; patriotism\" (Dictionary.ua, 2023).",["Dictionary.ua, 2023"]]]},{"rt":[["passive participant roles",[]]]},{"rt":[["Visual appraisal",[]]],"sp":[["appraisal framework",[]],["Appraisal",[]],["attitude category",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["affect",[]],["judgement",[]],["appreciation",[]]]},{"rt":[["Actor",[]],["Goal",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["constrain a focus instead on the evaluation of the VG's appearance.",[]]],"rt":[["narrative structures",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This is often rooted in and generates intolerance and hatred and, in certain contexts, can be demeaning and divisive.",[]],["By contrast, hate speech has no constructive purpose",[]],["the term is more widely and generally used in society to flag forms of communication considered unacceptable, because seen to negatively evaluate minority or vulnerable groups, or individuals belonging to those groups, purely on the grounds of membership.",[]]],"rt":[["groups with protected characteristics",[]]]},{"rt":[["invoked",[]]]},{"de":[["the suffragette-scold comes pre-inscribed, as a known stereotype, with judgement too",[]]],"rt":[["Narrative structure",[]]],"sb":[["negative propriety",[]]],"sp":[["appraisal framework",[]],["Appraisal",[]],["attitude category",[]]]},{"de":[["Narrative structures instead, in which the VG is Actor in some transactional or non-transactional process constrain choices from the attitude category of judgement (social esteem or social sanction).",[]]],"rt":[["conceptual structures",[]]]},{"de":[["enable a focus on the evaluation of that behaviour.",[]]],"rt":[["conceptual structures",[]]]},{"de":[["In appraisal terms of attitude, we have negative affect (dissatisfaction and unhappiness) inscribed in her scowling, defiant facial expression",[]]]},{"sp":[["social esteem",[]]]},{"de":[["This passive role means the immediate appraisal focus for the chimp is not its behaviour but its appearance.",[]]],"rt":[["active participant roles",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["social sanction",[]]]},{"de":[["Both social and political satire may be seen to have a constructive purpose in drawing attention to, and provoking discussion around, problems that need to be addressed.",[]]]},{"rt":[["JUDGEMENT",[]]],"sb":[["normality",[]],["capacity",[]],["tenacity",[]]],"sp":[["JUDGEMENT",[]]]},{"rt":[["JUDGEMENT",[]]],"sb":[["veracity",[]],["propriety",[]]],"sp":[["JUDGEMENT",[]]]},{"sp":[["social sanction",[]]]},{"rt":[["affect",[]],["judgement",[]],["appreciation",[]]],"sb":[["affect",[]],["judgement",[]],["appreciation",[]]]},{"sy":[["VGs",[]]]},{},{"de":[["merger of right-wing conspiracy theory and New Age spirituality",[]],["converging right-wing conspiracy theories and faux-progressive wellness utopianism",["Beres et al. 2020a"]]],"rt":[["Disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["dis/misinformation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Misinformation",[]],["(con)spirituality",[]]]},{"rt":[["common sense",[]]]},{"de":[["Following this argument, a natural diet and lifestyle should be sufficient to ensure good health, and vaccines, like antibiotics, are seen to disrupt and disturb the development of immunity and gut flora rather than support it",["Dubé et al. 2013","Wiley et al. 2020"]]]},{"rt":[["Disinformation",[]],["(con)spirituality",[]]]},{"rt":[["conspirituality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This growth of 'sciencey-spirituality' also seems to be attracting more men to spiritual movements.",[]],["as contemporary spirituality and wellness are co-opting science to help substantiate and sell their ideas, (con)spiritualists critique scientific authority",["Harambam and Aupers 2021"]],["engage in a sciencey-spirituality, that both co-opts and critiques science and technology, to strengthen and spread their claims, how and when it suits them.",[]]],"ex":[["initiatives such as the Mind and Life Institute, that seeks to bridge science with contemplative wisdom, and the Netflix series Goop on Gwyneth Paltrow's wellness empire.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["in this case the reality and severity of the pandemic",[]]],"ex":[["in this case the reality and severity of the pandemic",[]]]},{"rt":[["spiritual tribes",[]]]},{"de":[["connected (virtually or in 'real life') by networks of belonging', that share aesthetic norms, are participatory and performative, and seek validation through visibility and approval",["Parmigiani 2021"]]],"sy":[["spiritual movements",[]]],"rt":[["spiritual movements",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This all fuels their vaccine hesitancy and/or refusal",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the bias introduced by the presence of attributes, which is the actual bias measure referred to as the Prior Corrected Score or Log Probability Bias Score.",[]]],"sy":[["Prior Corrected Score",[]]]},{"rt":[["WEAT",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Strategic communication has undoubtedly served as a useful euphemism to avoid the negative connotations associated with propaganda, which is why propaganda is the term typically ascribed to opponents' communications.",["28"]],["Propaganda can be readily associated with 'coordinating words, images and actions in pursuit of national power'.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["so all security practitioners are potentially implicated in activities that could be defined",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This unification also reflects the idea that strategic communications practitioners do not just operate at the tactical level, but have influence on the overall direction and management of organisations.",["22"]],["The idea is that everything should be seen as a form of communication and therefore that everybody within an organisation should see themselves potentially as a strategic communicator.",["29"]],["strategic communications is an activity of a higher order and 'not just on the ground, tactical work'",[]],["it is the overall integration and coordination of the tactical, operational and strategic that differentiates strategic communications as superior to activities undertaken before",[]],["strategic communications as a different approach compared to modes of international communication such as advertising, PR and propaganda",[]],["strategic communications differs by being based more on honesty, engagement and dialogue than other methods",[]],["Strategic communications for me is a lot more long term",[]],["The key is recognising that stratcoms is 'not a separate silo' but an 'inherent part of every single decision' governments make.",[]],["Beyond determining who is in power, one private sector consultant with a government background suggested that effective strategic communications has the power to make policymaking more democratic, using dialogue to 'break down boundaries that are forming between state, politicians and the public'.",[]],["provides opportunities for scholars to understand better the influence of communication experts on the conduct of international relations.",[]],["an extremely powerful tool if used correctly",[]],["nothing less than a 'very powerful weapons system' that can determine which government is in power in a given country",[]],["encompassing long-established activities including public diplomacy, public relations, nation branding and information operations",[]],["aligning it more closely with policy",[]],["an explicit focus on target audiences",[]],["more democratic an attempt to engage with audiences views rather than just project messaging at them",[]]],"sy":[["stratcoms",[]]],"rt":[["public relations (PR)",[]],["marketing and advertising",[]],["public diplomacy",[]],["psychological operations",[]],["deception operations",[]],["public information",[]],["public affairs",[]],["information operations",[]],["defence diplomacy",[]],["soft power activities",[]],["diplomatic campaigning",[]],["advertising",[]],["PR",[]],["propaganda",[]],["media relations",[]],["communication experts",[]],["international relations",[]],["public relations",[]],["nation branding",[]]],"ex":[["it is about what are they going to be saying in six months', nine months' time.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["exposure (which is not the focus of this study) is not viewed as an accident; it can be algorithmic and even capitalistic",[]]]},{"de":[["this concept more satisfactorily encompasses not only how news is read but also the consequences of this action.",[]],["An accident is commonly related to something that generates a severe consequence. It is understood that news consumption, when unintentional, also generates something severe: it relies on third parties to actually reach an individual.",[]],["better reflect the involuntary nature of the reading, which is not merely casual but may also contribute to the decrease in the active search for news",[]]],"sy":[["incidental news consumption",[]]],"rt":[["incidental news consumption",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["some of the information acquired through all these sources was subsequently used",["Williamson, 1998, p. 24"]]],"ex":[["citing friends, family, and neighbors, for example, as sources of this encounter",[]]]},{"de":[["This behavior is characterized by the absence of initiative to seek out news, favoring the casual contact provided by the algorithm.",[]],["the authors discuss the importance of considering the intensity, form, and time at which the news discovery occurs, as well as the method of news production and the platform for its distribution.",[]],["algorithms favor less intentional actions.",[]],["three levels: micro, meso, and macro, which are related to the actual and perceived control over the conditioning factors for news access.",[]],["this habit is explained from the perspective of passive consumption via external initiative (push).",[]],["allows users to receive important information even without actively seeking it",[]]],"sy":[["accidental news consumption",[]]],"rt":[["algorithm",[]],["human action",[]],["platform structure",[]],["accidental news consumption",[]],["passive consumption via external initiative (push)",[]]],"ex":[["consuming news incidentally on Instagram Stories",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["incidental news consumption",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Fake News",["2"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Fake News",["2"]]]},{"de":[["Individuals at this level still have limitations in the use of internet media. Users know basic functions, and the media are used for certain purposes without clear direction",[]]],"sp":[["levels of media literacy skills",[]]]},{},{"de":[["related to a person's ability to socialize, participate and deliver media content properly",[]]],"rt":[["Social Competence",[]]],"sb":[["social relations",[]],["citizen participation",[]],["content creation",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["This communication ability is related to a person's ability to socialize, participate and deliver media content properly.",[]]],"sy":[["communicative abilities",[]]],"sp":[["Social Competence",[]]]},{"sb":[["understanding of media content and its functioning",[]],["knowledge about media and regulation",[]],["use behavior",[]]],"sp":[["Personal Competences",[]]]},{"de":[["the ability to exercise various skills including inter-cognitive processing, analysis, communication, etc.",[]]],"sb":[["technical skills",[]],["critical understanding",[]],["communicative abilities",[]]]},{"de":[["media literacy involves a person's ability to critically question what they see, hear and read",["Sholihudin, 2014"]],["Media literacy can improve cognitive, ethical, philosophical and aesthetic skills (Hobbs, 1998).",[]],["Media literacy is seen as a promising way to get citizens informed and engaged in democracy (Mihailidis and Thevenin 2013).",[]],["media literacy is not only used personally but also communally -throughout the media community.",[]],["Media literacy skills must be balanced with individual competence so that it may lead to both individual and social character development",[]],["Someone is said to have media literacy skills if he possesses such qualities as accepting the media impact on individuals and society, understanding of the mass communication process, developing strategies used to analyze and discuss media messages, realizing the media content as 'text' which provides insight and knowledge into the contemporary culture of humans and human beings themselves, increasing pleasure, understanding and appreciating the contents",["Baran et al, 2000: 359"]]],"rt":[["Media literacy is part of communication skills.",[]],["technical skills",[]],["critical understanding",[]],["communicative abilities",[]],["communication skills",[]],["individual competence",[]]],"sb":[["technical skills",[]],["critical understanding",[]],["communicative abilities",[]],["Communicative abilities refer to a person's ability to construct communication which is one of the characteristics of media literacy.",[]],["Basic",[]],["Medium",[]],["Advanced",[]]],"sp":[["communication skills",[]]],"ex":[["television, video, cinema, advertisements, Internet and so on",["Aufderheide, 1993"]]]},{"de":[["This social character is the ability to express love, solidarity and tolerance",["Fromm, in Tetep, 2015: 4"]],["Social character is related to one's good personality",[]],["Social character will also be related to moral knowing, moral loving (valuing) and moral behavior (doing)",["Lickona, 1991"]],["Social character is related to one's good personality.",[]]],"sy":[["possession of moral values, social values or both",["Tetep, 2015: 3"]]],"rt":[["moral knowing",[]],["moral loving (valuing)",[]],["moral behavior (doing)",["Lickona, 1991"]],["moral knowing, moral loving (valuing) and moral behavior (doing)",["Lickona, 1991"]],["communication skills",[]]],"ex":[["ability to express love, solidarity and tolerance",["Fromm, in Tetep, 2015: 4"]]]},{},{"de":[["Fabricated outputs are usually obtained by modifying or supplementing one or more modalities of the original materials, resulting in news that diverges from or contradicts the original event.",[]]],"sb":[["groundless fabrication",[]],["misleading substitution",[]],["fact distortion",[]],["selective editing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["By simulating interactions among individual behaviors, ABMs enable the identification of emergent, group-level mechanisms that could not be predicted using the characteristics of individuals within a social system alone",["Törnberg et al., 2023"]],["Typically, ABMs are micro-level mathematical models that define how individuals affect each other, creating collective social patterns through simulating interaction at scale",["Törnberg et al., 2023"]]],"rt":[["opinion dynamics",[]]]},{"sp":[["communication roles",["Bentwood, 2008","Tinati et al., 2012"]]]},{"rt":[["Diversity",[]]]},{"rt":[["Bounded Confidence Model-Multiple (HK)",[]]]},{"sp":[["communication roles",["Bentwood, 2008","Tinati et al., 2012"]]]},{"sp":[["communication roles",["Bentwood, 2008","Tinati et al., 2012"]]]},{"rt":[["Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["The similarity between production and consumption indicates the users' tendency to consume content that is similar to their own.",[]]],"rt":[["content of production",[]],["content of consumption",[]]]},{"sp":[["communication roles",["Bentwood, 2008","Tinati et al., 2012"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The RA model assumes that the more the message m j,t agrees with a i,t , the more susceptible the agent i is to its assimilation force.",[]]],"sp":[["bounded confidence model",[]]]},{"rt":[["Bounded Confidence Model (BC)",[]]],"sp":[["Bounded Confidence Model (BC)",[]]]},{"rt":[["Bounded Confidence Model (BC)",[]]],"sp":[["Bounded Confidence Model (BC)",[]]]},{"sp":[["communication roles",["Bentwood, 2008","Tinati et al., 2012"]]]},{"de":[["In nature, that creates violence in a state affecting directly or indirectly state institutions, infrastructure, public lives and properties, and economic means such as banking.",[]],["Fifth-generation war or hybrid war, a battle of conceptions and information, is a moral and cultural conlict that perverts the ideas of the public to generate a self-narrated perspective of the politics and world.",[]],["Fifth Generation Warfare culminated from the constant change of social and political allegiances to reasons instead of nation-states.",[]],["The covert, deliberate control of actors, networks, institutions, states, or any [0GW, 1GW] 2GW/3GW/4GW forces to achieve a goal or set of goals across a range of socioeconomic and political domains while attempting to prevent or reduce the retaliatory offensive or defensive actions/reactions of 2GW, 3GW, or 4GW powered actors, networks, institutions, and/or states, according to Slog, is what constitutes ifth generation war (Slog, 2010).",["Slog, 2010"]],["In this war, the falsity of information is so clandestinely spread that conlict's victim even does not intimate that he is falling prey to war and the victim isn't familiar that he is falling the battle -this makes it the most terrible warfare generation among all warfare generations (Qasim, 2021).",["Qasim, 2021"]],["The ifth-generation war is not explicit instead, it is unclear and ambiguous that creates violence in a state affecting directly or indirectly state institutions, infrastructure, public lives and properties, and economic means such as banking",["Janjua, 2018"]],["5GW ignites religious emotions and targets cultural identities to give a strong blow to a foe.",[]],["the propagation of information in war has advanced technologies of war that preclude the prerequisites of disturbance and explicit physical interference of the intruders; rather than the data through cables and supervision not only exploits but also manipulates the view of people",["Abbott, 2010;Pechinthorn, 2019"]],["this method of inluencing public perceptions is \"the zenith of skill a triumph without ighting",["McNeilly, 2015"]],["this war is signiied as unconditional and uncovered warfare.",[]],["the falsity of information is so clandestinely spread that conlict's victim even does not intimate that he is falling prey to war and the victim isn't familiar that he is falling the battle -this makes it the most terrible warfare generation among all warfare generations (Qasim, 2021).",["Qasim, 2021"]]],"sy":[["hybrid war",[]],["5GW",[]],["ifth-generation war",[]]],"rt":[["hybrid warfare",[]],["hybrid war",[]]]},{"rt":[["Fifth-generation war",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["#COVID19",[]],["#CoronaVirusFacts",[]],["#KnowCOVID",[]],["#StayHomeStaySafe",[]],["#StayHome",[]]]},{"de":[["Questioning whether or not a source is credible, cross-checking facts with trusted sources of information about COVID-19, and not falling prey to headlines that are meant to elicit an emotional response are all important",["Social Science in Humanitarian Action Platform, 2020"]]]},{},{"sy":[["participatory democracy",[]]]},{"sy":[["participatory democracy",[]]]},{"de":[["Skin in the game distinguishes TCR from conventional voting or commenting online.",[]]]},{"de":[["For applications in blockchain, see",["Muehlemann, 2018"]]],"ex":[["trial by jury",[]],["Wikipedia",[]],["Quora",[]]]},{"de":[["the auto-stereotype is characterized by positive modality and considerable detail.",["Harkavenko, 2019"]],["as a rule, the auto-stereotype is characterized by positive modality and considerable detail.",["Harkavenko, 2019"]]],"sp":[["ethnic stereotypes",[]]]},{"sb":[["auto-stereotypes (the representation of one's own ethnic group)",[]],["hetero-stereotypes (the representation of other ethnic groups)",[]],["auto-stereotypes",[]],["hetero-stereotypes",[]]],"sp":[["stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["Linguistics considers evaluation in terms of pragma-stylistic orientations of evaluative expressions in texts, mainly artistic speech, in terms of types of verbalizations of evaluation, i.e., the lexical and grammatical means of its expression.",[]]]},{"de":[["The terms \"hate speech\" and \"hostile language\" are semantically delimited in the Ukrainian language as non-identical.",[]],["all definitions directly or indirectly state that hate speech violates human rights.",[]],["Hate speech is often a manifestation of a certain kind of xenophobia -ageism, sexism, migrant-phobia and so on.",[]],["It is important to note that all definitions directly or indirectly state that hate speech violates human rights.",[]]],"rt":[["hostile language",[]],["abusive expressions",[]],["calls for discrimination",[]],["xenophobic",[]]],"sp":[["xenophobia",[]]]},{"de":[["For hetero-stereotypes, on the contrary, typical is mostly negative expression, schematic thinking, bias, incompleteness, and inversion.",["Harkavenko, 2019"]]],"sp":[["ethnic stereotypes",[]]]},{"rt":[["social role",[]],["social portrait",[]],["age",[]],["gender",[]],["type of activity",[]],["position",[]],["religiosity (denomination)",[]],["belonging to subcultures",[]]]},{"de":[["It is not what is said that offends, but the fact of who says it.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a modern meme (unlike memes that originated in the pre-internet era) has a particularly short 'period of decomposition' -it appears instantly, transforms within a few days (sometimes hours), and just as quickly loses its appeal.",["Pidkuĭmukha & Kiss, 2020"]]],"sp":[["memes",[]]]},{"de":[["the term \"phobia\" has undergone certain transformations in scientific usage, lost its psychopathological specificity and is now used not only to denote pathological fears, but also a sharply negative attitude towards something or someone",["Varekh, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["Stereotypes cannot be viewed solely in a negative sense: they do not only cause the rejection of one social group by another, but they also advocate for the preservation of cultural values and traditions within a particular group.",[]],["Stereotyping assumes a person's behaviour towards a \"foreign\" group in the following order: verbalization (humour, irony, sarcasm), avoidance, discrimination (exclusion from certain areas of society), acts of violence, and destruction of the group.",[]],["Stereotypes reflect not so much reality as the way of filtering, dismembering, structuring and interpreting the subjects and objects of communication",["Lavins kyĭ, 2010"]],["stereotypes perform in language a generalizing function of organizing knowledge about their own and others, which leads to social categorization and the formation of structures that become landmarks for people in everyday life",["Maslova, 2014"]]],"rt":[["ethnic stereotypes",[]]],"sb":[["Ethnic stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["Such judgments are often marked by irony, sarcasm, allegories, hyperbole and more.",[]],["Traditionally in linguistics, evaluation is viewed as a positive or negative qualification of a subject, and as a judgment of the speaker, which reveals his/her attitude to the object of speech.",[]]],"rt":[["slander",[]],["insult",[]]]},{"de":[["The concept of \"xenophobia\" is placed at the level of human thinking, whereas the concept of \"hate speech\" is at the level of language.",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["ageism",[]],["sexism",[]],["migrant-phobia",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{}] |