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714cbfe | 1 | [{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["The World Health Organization stated the new medicine is the most effective treatment for the disease.",[]]]},{"ex":[["stop those refugees; they are terrorists.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Would you vote for Clinton as president? 57% say yes.",[]]]},{"ex":[["You must be a Republican or Democrat",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["Is he ready to be the Mayor?",[]]]},{"sb":[["System 1 (automatic)",[]],["System 2 (reflective)",[]]]},{"sb":[["System 1 (automatic)",[]],["System 2 (reflective)",[]]]},{"ex":[["I was not fighting with her; we were just playing.",[]]]},{"ex":[["I was not fighting with her; we were just playing.",[]],["\"I was not fighting with her; we were just playing. \"",[]]]},{"ex":[["Entering this war will make us have a better future in our country.",[]],["\"Entering this war will make us have a better future in our country. \"",[]]]},{"de":[["By exposing individuals to a weakened form of propaganda, it strengthens resistance to future, more potent attempts [12].",["12"]],["By exposing individuals to a weakened form of propaganda, it strengthens resistance to future, more potent attempts",["12"]],["It works analogously to medical vaccines, strengthening individuals' \"immunity\" against propaganda.",[]]],"sp":[["dual process thinking",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["a lone lawmaker's childish shouting.",[]],["\"A lone lawmaker\"s childish shouting.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Bush the Lesser.",[]],["\"Bush the Lesser.",[]],["\"Bush the Lesser. \"",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Our great leader is the epitome of wisdom. Their decisions are always wise and just.",[]],["\"Our great leader is the epitome of wisdom.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Make America great again!",[]]]},{"ex":[["it is what it is",[]]]},{"ex":[["They want to preserve the FBI's reputation.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["with the purpose of making users aware of their own interests and the image they project on a social platform.",[]],["These data portraits serve to display recommendations, where users could explicitly see how the system modeled their generated content, and implicitly understand the structure of the recommendations made to them.",[]]]},{"de":[["a cognitive bias",["44"]],["Homophily is present in many situations and can be beneficial, as communication with culturally alike people is easier to handle.",[]],["people tend to connect with like-minded individuals and do not think of the possible benefits of connecting with people of different (including opposing) opinions in sensitive issues",["44"]]]},{"de":[["have been found to be shared among a politically diverse set of people",["30"]]],"rt":[["shared interests",[]],["latent topics",[]]],"ex":[["a music genre, a cuisine type",[]],["a music genre",[]],["a cuisine type",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["noticias falsas",[]]],"sp":[["noticias falsas",[]]]},{"de":[["Desinformación y posverdad se encuentran vinculadas al actual ecosistema mediático marcado por la hiperconectividad, el desarrollo tecnológico, los nuevos soportes y la expansión de las redes sociales.",[]]],"sy":[["noticias falsas",[]],["bulos",[]],["especulaciones",[]],["contenidos desinformativos",[]]],"rt":[["posverdad",[]]],"sb":[["noticias falsas",[]],["bulo",[]]]},{},{"de":[["constituyendo la herramienta más eficaz para combatir la expansión de las informaciones falsas (Amorós, 2018).",["Amorós, 2018"]],["constituyendo la herramienta más eficaz para combatir la expansión de las informaciones falsas",["Amorós, 2018"]],["verificación de información y desmentidos",[]],["lejos de tener una actividad exclusivamente centrada en contrastar noticias y rumores, también publican como medios generalistas y educadores en materia periodística.",[]]],"sy":[["verificación de noticias",[]]]},{"sy":[["fact-checkers",[]]]},{"de":[["un estilo narrativo propio de la red social derivado de sus propias características de vídeos de formato corto",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]],["bulo",[]]],"sb":[["bulo",[]]],"sp":[["desinformación",[]]]},{"de":[["En la definición que realiza de este vocablo explica que denota circunstancias en las que los hechos que cuentan con una carga emocional e implican las propias creencias personales influyen más en la sociedad que los propios hechos objetivos.",[]],["La posverdad es una sociedad que prefiere huir de la verdad (Tesich, 1992), donde la manipulación y las mentiras operan como mecanismos de protección.",["Tesich, 1992"]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["offensive langue",[]],["toxic content",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]],["offensive langue",[]],["toxic content",[]]]},{"de":[["These inauthentic accounts are systematically deployed to polarize communities, propagate misleading information, and manipulate public discourse.",[]]],"sb":[["malicious bots",[]],["sock puppet accounts",[]]]},{"sy":[["IOs",[]],["information operations",[]]]},{"de":[["Accounts involved in influence operations predominantly focus on spreading propaganda, false information, and hyper-partisan news to manipulate public opinion.",[]]]},{"sp":[["inauthentic entities",[]]]},{"sp":[["inauthentic entities",[]]]},{},{"de":[["specialist conferences, institutes, and purported experts whose publications and websites are characterized by the same patterns that are also used within \"serious\" science: they quote each other, use complicated technical terms, and list their merits.",[]]]},{"de":[["Social media do not promote our capacity for dialogue because it is so easy to avoid controversies . . . Most do not use the social media to promote community, not to broaden their horizons, but on the contrary to hide in a comfort zone where they only hear the echoes of their own voice, and where everything they see is reflections of their own faces.",["11"]],["The Polish sociologist and philosopher Zygmunt Bauman describes this historical transformation process as liquid modernity",[]]]},{"de":[["The prediction of the user's coming consumer desire becomes more and more accurate through better models and what, at the moment, still appears to be pure observation can easily degenerate into active manipulation through interspersed information.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["deliberative-discursive model",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["we do not mean personally using hate speech or offensive language although such behavior might result from engaging with the hate speech of others",[]]]},{"de":[["usually linked to morally and meaningful charged content",[]]]},{"de":[["corroborated by past findings identifying positive in-group emotions (Walther, 2022), fun (Erjavec & Kovačič, 2012), enthusiasm (Kosmidis & Theocharis, 2020;Sydnor, 2018), and sensation seeking (Bedrosova et al., 2023)",["Walther, 2022","Erjavec & Kovačič, 2012","Kosmidis & Theocharis, 2020","Sydnor, 2018","Bedrosova et al., 2023"]]]},{"de":[["People targeted by hate speech are devalued based on group-defining characteristics such as ethnicity, religion, and sexual orientation.",[]],["hate speech is considered an extreme and group-related form of incivility",[]],["with particular emphasis on its group-related nature and the variety of possible ways of expressing hate, including, for instance, hate speech targeting religious affiliation, origin, or sexual orientation in varying severity",[]],["As such, hate speech is considered an extreme and group-related form of incivility",[]]],"rt":[["group-related antinormative online communication",[]],["incivility",[]]],"sp":[["incivility",[]]]},{"de":[["features of discussion that convey an unnecessarily disrespectful tone",["Coe et al., 2014, p. 660"]],["serving as an umbrella term for communication that violates one or multiple norms",["Bormann et al., 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["The perception of its irrelevance also relates to some social media users' perceived lack of responsibility (i.e., No Responsibility), which, along with the belief that engaging with hate speech is pointless, may contribute to its normalization, such that it is acknowledged but not regarded as a (personally) relevant problem",["Bilewicz & Soral, 2020","Cover, 2023","Haslop et al., 2021"]]]},{"ex":[["violent conflicts",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The distinction between engagement and non-engagement is not strictly binary but spans a spectrum ranging from total avoidance, in which users stop reading entirely, through moderate engagement, which involves a degree of cognitive interaction with the content, to deep engagement and reflection.",[]]]},{"de":[["regarded as an extreme form of online incivility",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["supports recent findings showing that some social media users purposefully refrain from engaging with hate speech and other potentially uncivil (political) debates after experiencing unpleasant encounters with hate speech",["Barnidge et al., 2019","Gagrčin & Milzner, 2023"]]]},{"de":[["building on the uses and gratifications approach (Katz et al., 1973).",[]],["we were able to identify and discuss social media users' various motives for and against engaging with hate speech. Following that approach, we considered (non-)engagement to result from a conscious decision, one that individuals possess the capacity to articulate and communicate.",[]]]},{"de":[["It has been theorized that in public, the achievements of disabled people are framed as 'inspiration' for an audience of non-disabled persons (Haller and Preston, 2016).",["Haller and Preston, 2016"]],["Rather than an offering disabled people a chance at self-expression, societal participation, and exerting social agency, this framing constitutes a trap: a stereotypical category of 'good disabled citizens,' which comes with strong normative constraints.",[]],["Furthermore, the people that are slotted into this category all share an important trait; they are able to produce something the general population values (Varul, 2010).",["Varul, 2010"]]],"sy":[["privileging of the able-disabled",["Titchkosky, 2007"]]]},{"de":[["theoretical framework",[]],["framework",[]],["CDS is thus geared at understanding how different aspects of society become coded in language, widely understood, and how these encodings come to influence social, political, economic, and cultural processes.",[]]]},{"rt":[["tragic",[]]]},{"de":[["Rather than an offering disabled people a chance at self-expression, societal participation, and exerting social agency, this framing constitutes a trap: a stereotypical category of 'good disabled citizens,' which comes with strong normative constraints.",[]]]},{"de":[["entails a subject position in which disabled people continue to 'perform' for the uplift of a chiefly non-disabled audience-rather than inviting identification on the part of other disabled people.",[]]]},{"de":[["Here, disabled people are presented as potentially productive workers whose positive portrayal is contingent on their ability to perform at the same level as non-disabled people-eliding many of the socio-political factors that produce disablement.",[]]]},{"de":[["the articles embedded in a topic focused on personal details about an individual with disabilities, or that the article/text was written by an individual disabled person.",[]]]},{"rt":[["heroic",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the development of meaningful news embeddings became a central challenge in the NLP research field",[]]],"rt":[["media bias prediction",["3"]],["fake news detection",["20"]],["online news recommendations",["21"]]]},{"de":[["The tones are quantified on a numerical scale ranging from extremely negative to extremely positive.",[]],["The tones in GDELT data are represented as numerical values, typically ranging from -100 (extremely negative) to +100 (extremely positive), with 0 being neutral.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Algorithms follow what they learn from the designer, input, and programmer, and therefore many negative effects can impact the news market and make it negatively influenced",["Bandy, 2021"]]],"rt":[["unfair news distribution",[]],["amplification of harmful news",[]],["influence on public opinion",[]]]},{"sy":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{"sp":[["gatekeeping",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Filter bubbles limit exposure to diverse viewpoints, showing individuals only content that aligns with their beliefs",["Kitchens et al., 2021","Pariser, 2011"]],["The filter bubble in social media limits the information a user sees based on their searches, likes, comments, and engagement.",[]],["When users click on external links, the algorithm interprets this as a signal of interest",[]],["Filter bubbles limit exposure to diverse viewpoints, showing individuals only content that aligns with their beliefs (Kitchens et al., 2021;Pariser, 2011).",["Kitchens et al., 2021","Pariser, 2011"]],["Filter bubbles are personalized algorithms that tailor content to a user's interests and interactions based on their past engagement (Dahlgren, 2021).",["Dahlgren, 2021"]]],"sy":[["algorithmic filtering",["Franziska et al., 2019"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They aim to improve user experience by prioritizing relevant and engaging content.",[]],["These algorithms continuously develop and rely on factors like your past actions and the behavior of accounts you interact with",["O'Brien, 2022"]],["Social media algorithms significantly affect users by providing opportunities to reach wider audiences and establish their brand.",[]],["they also present challenges by making it difficult for some users to gain visibility and compete with more prominent accounts",[]],["These platforms employ algorithms to carry out tasks typically handled by news editors, such as determining the significance of news stories and their distribution.",[]],["Algorithms allow online platforms to customize content for users, potentially excluding certain information or opinions that may not align with their interests, such as displeasing advertisers or lacking user engagement.",[]],["These algorithms can also prioritize certain content by determining when it appears on a feed or in what sequence.",[]]]},{"de":[["With an objective involving three critical theoretical pillars-transparency, accountability, and responsibility-the DSA, among other functions, (mostly) holds online platforms liable for content that they publish and also imposes requirements that they mitigate and remove harmful content.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["applications that include making content less visible or accessible on the platform, removing user accounts and restricting services, and even demonetizing in some instances",["Leersen 2023"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["fake news propaganda during election campaigns, disinformation regarding COVID-19 or other public health emergencies, or the possibility to sell or buy illegal substances on the platform.",[]]]},{"sp":[["effective editorials",["El Baff et al. (2018)"]]]},{"rt":[["single metaphor",[]]],"sp":[["Metaphors",[]],["metaphor",[]]],"ex":[["The world has begun edging away from the dollar.",[]],["\"The world has begun edging away from the dollar.\"",[]]]},{"sb":[["Challenging",[]],["Reinforcing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A metaphor, represented by a specific word or phrase in a sentence, facilitates this shift.",[]],["It involves extracting meaning from an abstract conceptual domain, referred to as the source domain, and projecting it onto a concrete conceptual domain, referred to as the target domain.",[]]],"rt":[["meaning shift",["Lakoff and Johnson, 2008"]]],"sb":[["single metaphor",[]],["composite metaphor",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In our work, we consider all degrees of metaphoricity as metaphorical usage, and for simplicity do not distinguish between the various degrees.",[]]]},{"rt":[["meaning shift",[]]],"sb":[["single metaphor",[]],["composite metaphor",[]]]},{"sb":[["reinforcing",[]],["challenging",[]],["no effect",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["effective editorials",["El Baff et al. (2018)"]]]},{"de":[["It may be an adjective or a noun as well, though, as in \"a nourishing vacation\" or \"nation's choice\", respectively.",[]]],"rt":[["composite metaphor",[]]],"sp":[["Metaphors",[]],["metaphor",[]]],"ex":[["He is drowning in money",[]],["a nourishing vacation",[]],["nation's choice",[]],["\"He is drowning in money\"",[]],["\"a nourishing vacation\"",[]],["\"nation's choice\"",[]]]},{"de":[["extracting meaning from an abstract conceptual domain, referred to as the source domain",[]],["The first level is designed to identify metaphors, while the second level aims to determine the domains from which these metaphors originate (source domain) and to which they are applied (target domain).",[]]],"rt":[["target domain",[]]],"ex":[["movement",[]]]},{"rt":[["target domains",[]]]},{"de":[["projecting it onto a concrete conceptual domain, referred to as the target domain",[]],["The first level is designed to identify metaphors, while the second level aims to determine the domains from which these metaphors originate (source domain) and to which they are applied (target domain).",[]]],"rt":[["source domain",[]]],"ex":[["money",[]]]},{"de":[["Gordon et al. (2015) states that there are no theoretical or practical limitations on the target domains that metaphors can describe",[]]],"rt":[["source domains",[]]],"ex":[["Morality and justice (e.g., law, crime) is the highest for the target domain.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The call for media convergence is far more profound than the superficial task of launching mobile clients' accounts or public social media accounts.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the Mao era, the media were primarily understood as a tool for propaganda to mobilize the masses for revolution.",[]],["features in the Party-audience single-directional flow of information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Bias usually reinforces oppressive societal mechanisms.",[]],["First, bias is an inherently abstract concept with many subjective interpretations, each of which is shaped by individual-level perspectives",["Li et al., 2025"]],["Second, bias is an output directly or indirectly reinforces a social mechanism of oppression, by prescribing specific social responsibilities to a group.",["Grigoreva et al., 2024"]],["bias is an inherently abstract concept with many subjective interpretations, each of which is shaped by individual-level perspectives",["Li et al., 2025"]],["bias is an output directly or indirectly reinforces a social mechanism of oppression, by prescribing specific social responsibilities to a group.",["Grigoreva et al., 2024"]]],"rt":[["cultural differences",[]],["stereotypes",[]],["behavioral manifestation of stereotypes",[]]],"ex":[["men must never show emotions",["Grigoreva et al., 2024"]],["Women should only care about their children",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Rooted in factual elements or probabilities, these differences are typically neutral in nature.",[]],["They do not carry the weight of discrimination or oppression.",[]],["Rooted in factual elements or probabilities, these differences are typically neutral in nature. They do not carry the weight of discrimination or oppression.",[]]],"rt":[["bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["While they may not always be intentionally harmful, stereotypes perpetuate inaccurate and generalized notions about groups.",[]]],"rt":[["foundation for biases",[]],["biases",[]]],"ex":[["Women are not good at science",[]]]},{"de":[["the content of the news includes the headline and the body text.",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news usually uses hyperbole to catch people's eyes with dishonest intention. More importantly, it often misleads the reader and causes people to have wrong perceptions of society.",[]]],"rt":[["rumor",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Hayward (2011) posits that contestation is oriented towards controlling the principles, regulations, and norms that guide society, which in some instances are embedded within the nation's economic, political, and governmental ideology (Featherstone & Korf 2012).",["Featherstone & Korf 2012"]],["new media, which fosters contestation by enabling discourse on topics like identity and values beyond traditional community boundaries",["de Zúñiga, Jung & Valenzuela, S. 2012"]]]},{"de":[["This identity crisis renders individuals more susceptible to misinformation and prone to disseminating false information about perceived adversaries (Gardner, Mayes, & Hameed 2018).",["Gardner, Mayes, & Hameed 2018"]]]},{"de":[["Modern interpretations of secularism have accelerated the desacralization of religion (Dominguez 2016), fundamentally altering the ideological framework through which sacrality and its boundaries are defined (Kovbasiuk 2016).",["Dominguez 2016","Kovbasiuk 2016"]],["Consequently, worship is often reduced to a mere form of religious service or social function, practiced primarily during holidays and other relevant occasions",["Bartha 2012"]],["Desacralization manifests through various digital media, including audio-visual content (Gardner, Mayes, & Hameed 2018), offensive imagery, and online expressions of blasphemy (Bunt 2018).",["Gardner, Mayes, & Hameed 2018","Bunt 2018"]],["historically, as in the Netherlands and during the French Revolution, desacralization transformed religious and cultural symbols into politically charged, pluralistic symbols.",[]],["desacralization in the digital realm creates an environment in which religious symbols and beliefs are open to reinterpretation and contestation, aligning with the political utilization of religious themes in contemporary media.",[]],["desacralization is not only a cultural phenomenon but also a political strategy, intensifying through media influence and shaping public perceptions, particularly during elections",["Ceron 2015","Lim 2012"]],["Thus, desacralization is not only a cultural phenomenon but also a political strategy, intensifying through media influence and shaping public perceptions, particularly during elections",["Ceron 2015","Lim 2012"]],["contributing to an increase in nihilism and relativism",[]]],"rt":[["contestation",[]]]},{"de":[["contributing to an increase in nihilism and relativism",[]],["contributing to an increase in nihilism and relativism.",[]]]},{"de":[["digital spaces, in an era of desacralization, facilitate the spread of defamatory content that blends hate speech with fitna, reflecting limitations in secular legal frameworks to address religiously nuanced discourses in the virtual world.",[]],["The manifestation of fitna in internet spaces exemplifies the complexity and profound impact of digital technologies on social and religious dynamics.",[]],["is often employed in political and social contexts to undermine opponents and exacerbate social polarization",["Setyadi et al., 2018"]]],"sy":[["slander",[]],["defamation",[]],["discord and defamation",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["Hoaxes and fake news",[]],["abusive memes",[]],["Misleadingly edited videos",[]],["hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["fitna-hoaxes",[]],["fake news",[]],["insulting memes",[]],["videos",[]],["The 2012 and 2017 Jakarta gubernatorial elections are notable examples of how fitna and desacralization manifest during electoral processes",[]],["leading to widespread fitna in virtual spaces",[]]]},{"de":[["While hate speech often manifests as personal, informal, and expressive communication, when directed at specific religious groups, it can lead to disruption, enmity, and even fatal consequences",["Mathew et al. 2019"]],["The proliferation of hate speech creates significant opportunities for misinformation, ambiguity, unrest, violence, and disillusionment with democratic processes, potentially undermining public beliefs and knowledge",["Kumbrian 2019"]],["In extreme cases, hate speech has been used to rationalize acts of violence",["Bertoni & Rivera 2012"]]],"sy":[["offensive communication that employs stereotypes to express an ideology of hatred",[]]],"rt":[["defamation",[]],["other controversial or prohibited forms of expression",["Milosavljević 2012"]]],"sp":[["discrimination",["Marais & Pretorius 2019","Al-Makhadmeh & Tolba 2019"]],["fitna",[]]],"ex":[["Geert Wilders' film Fitna (2008) contained anti-Islamic and anti-immigration rhetoric, provoking international backlash",[]],["the 2012 film Innocence of Muslims incited widespread outrage in the Muslim world",[]],["A salient example of hate speech can be observed in the social media campaign against Joko Widodo ( Jokowi) during the Indonesian presidential election.",["Sponholz & Christofoletti 2018"]]]},{"ex":[["claims that Basuki Tjahaja Purnama (Ahok) had insulted the Qur'an were later proven untrue but significantly influenced public perception",["Setyadi et al. 2018"]],["A notable example occurred during the 2017 Jakarta gubernatorial election, where numerous false stories were disseminated to discredit certain candidates.",[]]]},{"de":[["equip users with the skills necessary to navigate the intricate information landscape of the digital age",[]],["enables individuals to critically evaluate the information they encounter",[]],["focusing on understanding media operations, fact-checking techniques, and awareness of manipulative content's dangers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["are frequently employed to insult and harass individuals or groups.",[]]],"ex":[["a meme depicting President Joko Widodo as an infant carried by Megawati Soekarnoputri, chair of the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P)",["Bunt 2018"]],["An illustrative example is a meme depicting President Joko Widodo as an infant carried by Megawati Soekarnoputri, chair of the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P)",["Bunt 2018"]]]},{"sp":[["fitna",[]]],"ex":[["During the 2019 Indonesian presidential election, numerous videos were manipulated to portray presidential candidates as engaging in controversial or inappropriate behavior",["Bunt 2018"]]]},{"de":[["can proliferate rapidly on social media, particularly when users cannot critically assess the content they encounter",["Chetty & Alathur 2018"]],["Sophisticated propaganda techniques",[]]],"sb":[["deepfakes",[]],["targeted misinformation campaigns",[]]]},{"de":[["This contributes significantly to the spread of fitna because the perception of the internet as a free and open space, where users can express opinions and share information without significant oversight, has contributed to the unchecked dissemination of false and defamatory content (Chetty & Alathur 2018).",["Chetty & Alathur 2018"]]]},{"de":[["It is an act of commission and deception.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this last step, authors applied Fairclough's three-dimensional model. This study selected representative textual excerpts from the themes generated in Step 2 and analyzed them at the level of text (linguistic choices), discourse practice (production and consumption of the texts), and sociocultural practice (ideological effects).",[]],["CDA interrogates how the frames identified by RTA are shaped by ideological interests and power relations, such as the drive for market commodification.",[]],["Furthermore, CDA explains how the portrayal of initiatives on government websites is not neutral information but a discursive practice that reflects specific policy priorities and power.",[]],["It connects the textual features (description) and discursive practices (interpretation) to the wider sociocultural and political context (explanation), revealing why certain sustainability narratives become dominant while others are marginalized (Bernardi, 2019;Jin et al., 2024;Lyon et al., 2017).",["Bernardi, 2019","Jin et al., 2024","Lyon et al., 2017"]]],"sb":[["level of text (linguistic choices)",[]],["discourse practice (production and consumption of the texts)",[]],["sociocultural practice (ideological effects)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["this process attributes persistent failures to external intrusions rather than confronting deep-seated structural contradictions",["Yannis, 1997"]]],"rt":[["Green ideology",[]]]},{"de":[["selling an escape, not a truth, but the omission is so significant that it becomes misleading.",[]],["It leverages what marketing scholars refer to as the \"romantic ethic, \" a taste for novelty and a supply of \"original\" cultural products, shaping consumer desires and behavior (Holbrook, 1997;Campbell, 2018).",["Holbrook, 1997;Campbell, 2018"]],["In tourism marketing, this translates to curated imagery and narratives that present destinations as pristine, untouched paradises, systematically omitting the complex socioecological realities (Macintyre and Foale, 2005;Dang, 2023).",["Macintyre and Foale, 2005;Dang, 2023"]],["This strategy commodifies nature into a symbolic product, a \"dream\" or \"escape, \" that fulfills a tourist's desire for existential authenticity rather than providing transparent information about sustainability practices (Dang, 2023).",["Dang, 2023"]]],"rt":[["pseudo-ecotourism",[]],["romantic ethic",[]]]},{"de":[["This framing commodifies nature as a backdrop for consumption, aligning with a market logic that prioritizes brand image over ecological accountability.",[]],["acknowledging problems to signal awareness, while discursively sidestepping accountability for specific solutions. It keeps communication in the realm of intention and policy, rather than transitioning to the realm of implementation and verifiable outcomes.",[]],["It does not necessarily lie but rather constructs an idealized reality by omitting the complexities core sustainability principles, environmental challenges, and socioeconomic challenges faced by local populations",["Dang, 2023","Macintyre and Foale, 2005"]],["a specific communicative strategy underpinning the commodification of nature in tourism",["Macintyre and Foale, 2005","Dang, 2023","Fletcher and Rammelt, 2017"]],["Nature is not just sold as a place to visit; it is sold as an idea or a dream, an escape from modernity into a prelapsarian, untouched paradise",["Dang, 2023","Macintyre and Foale, 2005"]],["represents a sophisticated form of market-driven communication that, while effective in the short term, may be unsustainable for the long-term brand equity and integrity of Mekong Delta agritourism.",[]],["It is an act of omission and selective emphasis.",[]],["Therefore, \"green fantasy\" represents a sophisticated form of market-driven communication that, while effective in the short term, may be unsustainable for the long-term brand equity and integrity of Mekong Delta agritourism.",[]],["It does not necessarily lie but rather constructs an idealized reality by omitting the complexities core sustainability principles, environmental challenges, and socioeconomic challenges faced by local populations (Dang, 2023;Macintyre and Foale, 2005). It is an act of omission and selective emphasis.",["Dang, 2023","Macintyre and Foale, 2005"]]],"rt":[["greenwashing",[]],["pseudo-ecotourism",[]],["classical greenwashing",[]]],"ex":[["conservation and ecotourism messaging, which frequently employs idealized, human-free imagery and promises that sideline local realities and core ecological principles",["Macintyre and Foale, 2005","Dang, 2023"]]]},{},{"de":[["From a marketing perspective, it is a form of deceptive advertising that exploits the growing consumer demand for sustainable products",["Parguel et al., 2015","Parguel and Johnson, 2021"]],["In the hospitality and tourism industry, this manifests through vague or unsubstantiated claims, fraudulent eco-certifications, or emphasizing minor green initiatives while overshadowing larger unsustainable practices",["Abeyratne and Arachchi, 2022","Garcia and Vargas, 2024"]],["It is an act of commission and deception.",[]],["From a marketing perspective, it is a form of deceptive advertising that exploits the growing consumer demand for sustainable products (Parguel et al., 2015;Parguel and Johnson, 2021).",["Parguel et al., 2015;Parguel and Johnson, 2021"]],["In the hospitality and tourism industry, this manifests through vague or unsubstantiated claims, fraudulent eco-certifications, or emphasizing minor green initiatives while overshadowing larger unsustainable practices (Abeyratne and Arachchi, 2022;Garcia and Vargas, 2024).",["Abeyratne and Arachchi, 2022;Garcia and Vargas, 2024"]]],"rt":[["Green Fantasy",[]]]},{"de":[["It keeps communication in the realm of intention and policy, rather than transitioning to the realm of implementation and verifiable outcomes.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This type of bias is evident in scenarios like literary awards, where judges might favor narratives that resonate with their own experiences",["Marsden, 2019"]],["the ABS quantifies the extent of affinity bias, with a higher score reflecting a model's stronger inclination towards a particular identity group.",[]],["affinity bias, reflecting the models' evaluative preferences for specific narratives or viewpoints",[]]],"rt":[["representative bias",[]]],"ex":[["cultural backgrounds",[]],["personal experiences",[]],["gender identities",[]],["This type of bias is evident in scenarios like literary awards, where judges might favor narratives that resonate with their own experiences (Marsden, 2019).",["Marsden, 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This bias is commonly seen in media representation, where prevalent cultural narratives disproportionately influence societal norms",["Dixon, 2017","Shor et al., 2015"]],["Unlike representative bias, which examines the content generation aspect of LLMs, affinity bias focuses on the evaluative behavior of models",[]],["representative bias, which denotes a tendency of LLMs to generate outputs that mirror the experiences of certain identity groups",[]],["This bias is commonly seen in media representation, where prevalent cultural narratives disproportionately influence societal norms (Dixon, 2017;Shor et al., 2015).",["Dixon, 2017","Shor et al., 2015"]]]},{"de":[["Likening someone as a disgusting animal amounts to crediting its negative quality to a person. It is an act that dehumanizes and degrades people's humanity.",[]]]},{"de":[["Animal metaphors are universal and are used in different ways. It may be endearing such as using pet names for children or lovers or hostile, such as for slurs and insults, [32].",["32"]],["One type of metaphor involves the use of animals to refer to people.",[]],["Animal metaphors are universal and are used in different ways. It may be endearing such as using pet names for children or lovers or hostile, such as for slurs and insults,",["32"]]],"sp":[["metaphor",[]]],"ex":[["likened NM to a sow, a very offensive metaphor, as by doing so, he is comparing a person with a disliked and unclean animal.",[]],["likened AJ to a dog with rabies that is considered disgusting and very unclean.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["To curse may be generally understood as appealing to some hidden power to inflict harm or punishment through words, for example, \"May God curse you\". This signifies the use of offensive speech intended to wish harm on a person, [30].",["30"]],["Cursing can be a harmful expression intended as an insult, allowing the utterer to express his strong emotions.",[]],["They are offensive words used to harm other people with an angry or irritated expression.",[]]],"rt":[["religious swear words",[]]],"ex":[["May God curse you",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a satirical form of doubt or extreme scepticism and it contains an element of humiliation. The use of cynicism aims to hint at the use of rude words that can bring anger to the recipient.",[]],["The use of cynicism aims to hint at the use of rude words that can bring anger to the recipient.",[]],["The use of cynicism in hate speech is aimed to imply that harsh words can bring anger to the target.",[]],["It is a satirical form of doubt or extreme scepticism and it contains an element of humiliation.",[]]],"sp":[["Implicit Hate Speech",[]],["satire",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is more personal, more informal, more rageful. It often explicitly attacks the target by name-calling.",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is more powerful in presentation and offensiveness. It is characterized by the existence of slur words connected to one's race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, appearance, and disabilities.",[]],["It might be uttered in the contexts of madness and indignance to attack individuals or groups based on their physical, mental, and psychological qualities.",[]],["It is characterized by the existence of slur words connected to one's race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, appearance, and disabilities.",[]]],"sp":[["taboo words",[]]],"ex":[["idiot",[]],["otak udang (shrimp brain)",[]],["tolol (idiot)",[]],["goblok (stupid)",[]],["bodoh (stupid)",[]],["dangkal (shallow)",[]],["tidak berotak (brainless)",[]]]},{"de":[["Explicit seems to be consistent with the linguistic term denotation, namely the primary signification or reference.",[]],["The findings of this study provide support for previous studies, [22], [39], regarding the explicit typology of hate speech.",["22","39"]],["Explicit hate speech is clearly expressed using bad words, leaving no room for doubt.",[]]],"sb":[["curse words",[]],["swear words",[]],["slur words",[]],["animal metaphors",[]],["epithets",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]],["explicitness",[]]],"ex":[["explicit hate speech was accomplished through the use of curse words, swear words, slur words, animal metaphors, and epithets.",[]]]},{"rt":[["denotation",[]],["connotation",[]]],"sb":[["explicit hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["It is dominated by religious hate and characterized by the use of lethal words, i.e., murder, exterminate, and kill.",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["As a conflictive speech act, hate speech tends to cause hostility and social disharmony.",[]],["It aims to injure, dehumanize, harass, or intimidate the targets",["3"]],["This study showed that hate speech was expressed using various modes, including offensive language which explicitly conveyed provocation, insult, and incitement.",[]],["All types of hate speech such as those shown in the above examples were produced as weapons to insult, humiliate, and downgrade the targeted individuals and groups.",[]],["As a conflictive speech act, hate speech has the tendency to cause hostility and social disharmony.",[]],["Anger induces a tendency to harm and hate speech is produced for this purpose.",[]],["Hate speech should be avoided since its exposure can shape bad attitudes and influence actual behaviors.",[]],["It may condition the environment so that expressing hate speech unconsciously becomes normalized, causing the hearers to imitate the behavior.",[]],["This speech represents the use of language for humiliating, dehumanizing, and defaming non-likeminded individuals or groups",["4"]],["In social media, hate speech is a specific type of online content designed to publicly threaten particular individuals or groups",["5"]]],"sb":[["directed hate speech",["14"]],["generalized hate speech",["14"]],["explicit hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Implicit hate speech lacks clear lexical signals, hides its literal meanings, and makes use of figurative words such as irony, cynicism, and sarcasm, [14].",["14"]],["although implicit hate speech or microaggression is considered common in daily communication, [22], this is a rude language and reflects the culture of linguistic poverty.",["22"]],["Implicit hate speech lacks clear lexical signals, hides its literal meanings, and makes use of figurative words such as irony, cynicism, and sarcasm,",["14"]],["the speakers employ satire such as irony, sarcasm, and cynicism.",[]]],"sy":[["micro-aggression",["22"]]],"sb":[["irony",[]],["cynicism",[]],["sarcasm",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Irony does not show its original meaning but expresses the opposite of its true meaning. This is a subtle satirical language that does not sound hurtful to someone. However, behind it lies its true meaning, namely disapproval.",[]],["The message achieved is contrary to the spoken utterances.",["18"]],["The irony is conveyed gently but the message behind the utterance is ruthless, [18].",["18"]],["Irony does not show its original meaning but expresses the opposite of its true meaning.",[]],["The irony is conveyed gently but the message behind the utterance is ruthless",["18"]]],"sp":[["Implicit Hate Speech",[]],["satire",[]],["verbal irony",[]]]},{"sb":[["animal metaphor",[]],["animal metaphors",[]]]},{"sy":[["Implicit hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["People mostly use sarcasm to express feelings of frustration, and contempt, and to emphasize how upset they are about a situation.",[]],["Sarcasm is an attempt to make a bitter comment to fulfill any of these three purposes, namely wit, whimper, or evasion",["26"]],["Sarcastic statements convey implicit meanings that are often in contrast to their actual meaning",["36"]],["This term can be traced back to the Greek word sarkazein, meaning to speak bitterly as to tear flesh like dogs.",[]],["The impact of irony, cynicism, and sarcasm on the targets is deep, making the target feel hurt and uncomfortable.",[]],["People mostly use sarcasm to express feelings of frustration, and contempt, and to emphasize how upset they are about a situation. Sarcasm is an attempt to make a bitter comment to fulfill any of these three purposes, namely wit, whimper, or evasion,",["26"]],["Sarcastic statements convey implicit meanings that are often in contrast to their actual meaning,",["36"]]],"sp":[["satire",[]],["implicit hate speech",[]],["verbal irony",[]]]},{"de":[["This satire implicitly has the intention to harm others using a metaphor of opposites with analytical intent.",["18"]],["verbal violence in the political discourse in social media was dominated by the use of sarcasm, cynicism, and irony.",["10"]]],"sb":[["irony",[]],["sarcasm",[]],["cynicism",[]]],"sp":[["implicit hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["They are derogatory remarks usually used to denigrate certain targeted individuals or members, involving explosively derogatory acts.",[]],["The most typical use of slurs is to insult, which serves to establish racist, sexist, and homophobic attitudes and practices, [17].",["17"]]],"sb":[["racial slurs are derogatory nicknames for a racial group",[]],["sexist slurs are those used to refer to members of a given sexual minority, gender, sex, or sexual orientation in a pejorative manner",[]]],"ex":[["a religious slur, such as the words murtad (apostate), laknat (cursed), and kafir (blasphemer).",[]],["the one that represents sexism (i.e., bitch)",[]],["racial slurs are derogatory nicknames for a racial group",[]],["sexist slurs are those used to refer to members of a given sexual minority, gender, sex, or sexual orientation in a pejorative manner",[]]]},{"de":[["Slurs have a very taboo nature and they are indeed derogatory in most contexts. Slurs as derogatory terms highlight the fact that they possess a forcefully potent affective component that is clearly a key aspect to their usage.",[]]]},{"de":[["This shows that using swear words is closely tied to the expression of strong feelings or attitudes, [19].",["19"]],["Swear words may result in an expression with a greater expressive power. Therefore, to swear may be understood more generally as an oath taken in the presence of a powerful force, [31].",["31"]],["Swear words are taboo words that are used to convey the expression of strong emotions or attitudes, referring to something taboo or stigmatized in one's culture. It is not intended to literally be interpreted.",[]],["Swear words are taboo words that are used to convey the expression of strong emotions or attitudes, referring to something taboo or stigmatized in one's culture.",[]]],"sy":[["Swear words are taboo words that are used to convey the expression of strong emotions or attitudes, referring to something taboo or stigmatized in one's culture.",[]]],"ex":[["Some data examples of swear words are bangsat, bajingan, and brengsek, which are equivalent to the word bastard in English.",[]]]},{"de":[["pragmatic functions of swearing in everyday conversation, such as to express emotion, group solidarity, and aggression.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["hate speech detection",[]],["political censorship",[]],["factual verification",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech detection",[]],["political censorship",[]],["factual verification",[]]]},{"de":[["including IP laws, gambling, spam",[]]],"sp":[["censorship",[]]],"ex":[["IP laws",[]],["gambling",[]],["spam",[]]]},{"de":[["racism, hate speech, obscenity, etc.",[]]],"sp":[["censorship",[]]],"ex":[["racism",[]],["hate speech",[]],["obscenity",[]]]},{"sp":[["censorship",[]]]},{"sp":[["censorship",[]]]},{"de":[["including cultural restrictions and religion-based constraints",[]]],"sp":[["censorship",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Far from being mere rhetorical flourishes, metaphors have profound influences on how we conceptualize and act with respect to important societal issues.",[]],["even the subtlest instantiation of a metaphor (via a single word) can have a powerful influence over how people attempt to solve social problems like crime and how they gather information to make ''well-informed'' decisions.",[]],["act as more than just isolated words -their power appears to come from participating in elaborated knowledge structures",[]],["metaphors can gain power by coercing further incoming information to fit with the relational structure suggested by the metaphor.",[]],["metaphors exert an influence over people's reasoning by instantiating frame-consistent knowledge structures, and inviting structurally-consistent inferences.",[]],["Metaphor is clearly not just an ornamental flourish, but a fundamental part of the language system",["28","38"]],["Metaphor is incredibly pervasive in everyday discourse.",[]],["If metaphors routinely influence how we make inferences and gather information about the social problems that confront us, then the metaphors in our linguistic system may be offering a unique window onto how we construct knowledge and reason about complex issues.",[]],["the influence of the metaphorical framing is covert: people do not recognize metaphors as an influential aspect in their decisions.",[]],["metaphors have profound influences on how we conceptualize and act with respect to important societal issues.",[]]],"rt":[["schemas",["20","21"]],["scripts",["22","23"]],["frames",["24"]],["metaphorical framing",[]],["analogical reasoning",[]],["linguistic metaphor",[]]],"ex":[["immigration",[]],["the economy",[]],["crime",[]]]},{"de":[["these metaphors suggest somewhat different implications for treating crime",[]]],"sb":[["the community or population is seen as an organism, and crime is a disease that is developing inside that organism (e.g., ''Violent crime is a cancer that eats away at the very heart of society.'')",[]],["the community is seen as individual agents and crime is a contagious disease that can be passed on from one person to another forming an epidemic",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["According to Postman, students should express what they know through a wide range of communication skills beyond merely reading and writing.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]],"ex":[["speaking",[]],["listening",[]],["filming",[]],["audio-taping",[]],["videotaping",[]],["painting",[]]]},{"de":[["To interpret persuasive genres, learners must be attentive to the emotional dimensions of messages as they make inferences about audience interpretation and authorial intent.",[]]]},{"de":[["By defining propaganda in relation to its form, context, and impact on audiences, Postman acknowledges that propaganda is present in many forms of contemporary media, including entertainment, information, and persuasion.",[]],["But when propaganda is not transparent about its aims, when it uses language in ways that distort reality, it can be harmful, even when its intentions are well-meaning and designed to support a worthy cause.",[]],["provides a rich array of opportunities for learners to engage in sense-making using strategies of reasoning and interpretation",[]],["can be harmful when it distorts people's understanding of social reality",[]],["propaganda can turn groups into intoxicated, mindless crowds",[]],["emphasizing its capacity to undo more reasoned habits of mind",[]]],"sy":[["advertising",[]]],"rt":[["computational propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["persuasive genres",[]]],"ex":[["public service announcements",[]],["political campaigns",[]],["news media",[]],["movies",[]],["memes",[]],["social media",[]],["compelling unrealities in support of their causes",[]],["entertainment, information, and persuasion",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["postfeminist discourse simultaneously mediates between traditional oppositions in feminism, such as the feminine versus the feminist, by articulating ideas critical of the traditional status quo as such while also having the potential to subvert patriarchal notions",["Adriaens and Van Bauwel 2014"]]],"rt":[["neoliberalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["obstacles related to identity characteristics are narratively mostly ignored or only stressed in relation to specific topics.",[]],["it can rather be interpreted as \"checking the boxes,\" in which the above-mentioned burdens remain unexplored.",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["fast-talking Hildy Johnson (Rosalind Russell) in His Girl Friday (1940)",[]],["self-assured Torchy Blane (Glenda Farrell) in the Torchy Blane series (1937)(1938)(1939)",[]]]},{"de":[["soft news and sex appeal sell",[]],["soft news outlet",[]]],"rt":[["hard news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["gender stereotyping",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["such as stereotyping, capability biases and erasure",["Barocas et al., 2017","Gallegos et al., 2024","Shelby et al., 2023"]],["The persistence and salience of these stereotypes in multilingual LLMs may contribute to a range of representational harms as they are deployed in practice, including erasing the visibility of men and women in different roles and contexts and reinforcing discriminatory behaviour and assumptions over time.",[]]],"sb":[["stereotyping",[]],["capability biases",[]],["erasure",[]]],"sp":[["discriminatory outcomes",[]]],"ex":[["stereotyping",[]],["capability biases",[]],["erasure",[]]]},{"de":[["Various models trained to learn from data are susceptible to picking up spurious correlations in their training data, which can lead to multiple social biases.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["originally for the Korean language.",[]],["originally for the Korean language",["2019"]]]},{"de":[["responsibility assignment",[]]],"rt":[["conflict frame",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["responsibility frame",[]]],"ex":[["Government officials blamed tech companies for inadequate safety measures, while industry representatives accused regulators of imposing unrealistic standards",[]]]},{"rt":[["conflict frame",[]]]},{"sy":[["conflict frame",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["more likely to generate stronger emotional responses",["14"]]]},{"de":[["This research extends media framing theory by illustrating that frames act as adaptive mechanisms responding to change rather than static interpretative packages.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["human interest frame",[]]]},{"sy":[["human interest frame",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["morality frame",[]],["moral evaluation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Public risk communication is a multi-faceted interaction among information sources, message features, and audience characteristics.",[]]]},{"de":[["produce more elaborated comprehension",["14"]]]},{"de":[["In the article, misinformation was used to encompass both terms.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["In the article, misinformation was used to encompass both terms.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["where safety mechanisms prevent drastic shifts and bias is actively insured.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["evaluates individuals' political positions based on their responses to 62 statements across various topics, such as economics, society, and religion",[]],["the compass lacks components that assess attitudes towards misinformation and conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"de":[["this is another major ethical problem presented by algorithms",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["verification",[]],["traditional verification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These values must remain unshakeable: truth, justice, freedom, and responsibility",[]]]},{"rt":[["truth",[]],["justice",[]],["freedom",[]],["responsibility",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["media education",[]]]},{"de":[["where AI assumes an increasingly dominant role in decision-making",["2020"]],["Sadin (2020) warns about the risks of a silicolonisation of life",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["normal",[]],["offensive",[]],["hate",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["offensive",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The comment can make readers very uncomfortable, implying that the comment should be censored in online platforms.",[]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["This category includes implicit hate expressions, such as sarcasm, stereotypes of a target group, etc (ElSherief et al., 2021).",[]]],"sb":[["implicit hate expressions",[]]]},{"de":[["Implica habilidades de pensamiento crítico que permiten a las personas interpretar el contenido mediático de forma reflexiva y consciente, distinguiendo entre diferentes tipos de medios y comprendiendo los procesos que hay detrás de la producción mediática",["Sádaba & Salaverría, 2023"]],["se trata de formar a la audiencia en conductas o hábitos para mejorar su consumo informativo.",[]],["fortalecer la alfabetización mediática, la participación ciudadana y la resiliencia democrática frente a discursos engañosos",["Martínez-Madrigal, et al., 2022","Tejedor & Sancho-Ligorred, 2023"]],["comparten el objetivo de formar individuos informados, comprometidos y capacitados. Al transferir a la sociedad los hallazgos de las investigaciones, incluyendo el uso de tecnologías, se conciencia a los ciudadanos y se les capacita para acceder, analizar, evaluar y producir diversos contenidos",["Chandra, 2019"]],["desarrollar su alfabetización mediática y minimizar el impacto de la desinformación en su cotidianidad",[]],["mecanismos que permiten a la sociedad desarrollar su alfabetización mediática y minimizar el impacto de la desinformación en su cotidianidad",[]]],"sp":[["alfabetización mediática e informacional",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["wider narrative",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy theory",[]],["misleading information",[]]]},{"sp":[["community notes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["community notes typically serve as direct rebuttals to misleading posts",[]],["community notes represent a more horizontal and interactive dialogue between writer and recipient of the fact-check",["Kankham and Hou, 2024"]]],"rt":[["fact-checks",[]]],"sb":[["collaborative fact-checking",[]]]},{},{"de":[["fact-checking by professional organisations",[]],["Fact-checking articles, which are subject to multiple rounds of editorial scrutiny, are more formal and standardised in style",["Kankham and Hou, 2024"]]],"rt":[["citizen-driven fact-checking",[]],["professional fact-checking",[]]]},{"rt":[["Link fact-checking",[]]]},{"rt":[["In-note fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["-Tweets * do not * discuss a wider narrative if the misleading information is tied to a specific singular event that is not connected to major topics on the public discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy theory",[]],["misleading information",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["evidence",[]]]},{"de":[["Most commonly, stance detection has been defined with respect to a claim as agree, disagree, discuss or unrelated",["Hanselowski et al., 2018","Xu et al., 2018","Fang et al., 2019"]],["typically modeled using labels such as agree, disagree, discuss, and unrelated",[]],["This is an important component for automatic fact-checking systems and veracity inference (Nadeem et al., 2019;Zhang et al., 2019;Atanasova et al., 2019).",["Nadeem et al., 2019","Zhang et al., 2019","Atanasova et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["automatic fact-checking systems",["Nadeem et al., 2019","Zhang et al., 2019","Atanasova et al., 2019"]],["veracity inference",["Nadeem et al., 2019","Zhang et al., 2019","Atanasova et al., 2019"]],["agree",[]],["disagree",[]],["discuss",[]],["unrelated",[]]],"sb":[["cross-lingual stance detection",[]],["in-favor, against, or neither",[]]],"ex":[["labels such as agree, disagree, discuss, and unrelated",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["African skin and blood is [sic] resistant to coronavirus.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Worshipers were beaten by policemen because they gathered in a church",[]]]},{"ex":[["A viral image suggests that cocaine kills coronavirus.",[]]]},{"ex":[["In Kenya, Safaricom gives subscribers Sh2,500 COVID-19 relief.",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["Photo shows Italians prostrating themselves and praying to Allah, during the coronavirus crisis.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Dr Robert Gallo confessed to being forced to create a virus to wipe out the African race'",[]]]},{"de":[["pre-emptive strategies to address misinformation",["Oliver 2021","Theunissen et al. 2020"]],["basic information described the tools that fact-checkers used to assess credibility",[]]]},{"ex":[["Monkeys are stealing food from a hospital in South Africa.",[]]]},{"ex":[["The RDC government canceled every future exams for pupils, because of coronavirus",[]]]},{"ex":[["'Ghana's president backs conspiracy theories about COVID-19.",[]]]},{"de":[["highlighting the red flags that marked a source as not trustworthy",[]]]},{"ex":[["Imported second hand clothes from Europe, Asia or America could spread the novel coronavirus in Africa.",[]]]},{"ex":[["designed to persuade readers to provide bank details to receive the non-existent funds",[]]]},{"ex":[["COVID-19 victims suffer infertility, loss of smell, stroke and lungs dysfunction after treatment.",[]]]},{"ex":[["No coronavirus in Nigeria yet, according to pastor.",[]]]},{"ex":[["5G wireless technology created the COVID-19 pandemic.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Holding your breath can let you test whether you may have COVID-19.",[]]]},{"ex":[["A photo circulating and rumours making rounds suggest the COVID-19 vaccine leads to penis enlargement",[]]]},{"ex":[["China seeks approval from the court to kill over 20,000 coronavirus patients.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["algorithmic biases can perpetuate existing inequalities, particularly in financial access and hiring practices.",[]],["These biases stem from flawed training data, leading to discriminatory outcomes in critical sectors such as finance, healthcare, and law enforcement",[]]],"sy":[["algorithmic biases",[]],["Algorithmic bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Algorithmic bias manifests as systematic and unfair discrimination when algorithms are employed to make decisions or disseminate information.",[]]],"sy":[["AI bias",[]],["algorithm bias",[]]],"sb":[["gender bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["group fairness",["Ferrara (2023)","Ferrara, 2023"]],["individual fairness",["Ferrara (2023)","Ferrara, 2023"]],["counterfactual fairness",["Ferrara (2023)","Ferrara, 2023"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["existential shock",[]]]},{"de":[["It was exceedingly suited to the representation of state interests over individual ones, or indeed, to the replacement of individual interests by those of the state, as it created such intense loyalty as to preclude any possibility of resistance.",[]]],"sy":[["Russian citizen",[]]],"sp":[["Soviet identity",[]]]},{"de":[["the Rossijanin (\"Russian citizen\") identity, the basis for the Russian state identity that reigned following the collapse of the Soviet Union.",[]],["It was exceedingly suited to the representation of state interests over individual ones, or indeed, to the replacement of individual interests by those of the state, as it created such intense loyalty as to preclude any possibility of resistance.",[]]],"sp":[["Russian identity",[]]]},{"rt":[["group identity",[]],["shaping of personal identities",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["linguistic analysis",[]],["computational methods",[]]]},{"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{"sy":[["Misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["plays a crucial role in understanding the dynamics of fake news propagation.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["opinion",[]],["attitude",[]]]},{"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Emotions play a key role in decision-making, judgment and reasoning processes and are able to influence behavior.",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["serious fabrication",[]],["large-scale hoaxes",[]],["humorous fake news",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["valence",[]],["dominance",[]],["three-dimensional model of affect",[]]],"sp":[["three-dimensional model of affect",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Connotation lexicon (Feng et al., 2013) provides positive, negative and neutral labels of each word.",["Feng et al., 2013"]]]},{"rt":[["valence",[]],["arousal",[]],["three-dimensional model of affect",[]]],"sp":[["three-dimensional model of affect",[]]]},{"sb":[["Sentence-Level Classification task (SLC), which asks to predict whether a sentence contains at least one propaganda technique",[]],["Fragment-Level Classification task (FLC), which asks to identify both the spans and the type of propaganda technique",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["Repetition",[]],["Thought-terminating Cliches",[]],["Bandwagon,Reductio ad hitlerum",[]],["Casual-Oversimplification",[]],["Appeal-Fear",[]],["Black-White",[]],["Doubt",[]],["Exag.-Min.",[]],["Flag-Waving",[]],["Loaded-L.",[]],["Namecalling",[]],["Reductio-Hit.",[]],["Slogans",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["arousal",[]],["dominance",[]],["three-dimensional model of affect",[]]],"sp":[["three-dimensional model of affect",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This also maintains the (de)legitimization of specific actions",["Wodak, 2013, p. 48"]]],"rt":[["discursive strategies",[]]],"sp":[["discursive strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["CDA aims to clarify and put forward the different relationships of power, dominance, and inequality that are reflected in written and spoken discourse",[]],["CDA provides tools to study and analyze 13 types of written and spoken texts to examine discursive sources of power, dominance, and bias",[]],["CDA provides a critical evaluation of how these discursive sources are made, remade, and justified within social practice and interaction",[]],["CDA aims to clarify and put forward the different relationships of power, dominance, and inequality that are reflected in written and spoken discourse.",["Van Dijk (1997)"]],["CDA provides tools to study and analyze 13 types of written and spoken texts to examine discursive sources of power, dominance, and bias.",[]],["CDA is a \"socially committed scientific paradigm\" that tries to alternate and involve what is happening in institutional and social contexts",["Fairclough & Wodak, 1997, p. 20"]]],"rt":[["discursive strategies",[]],["social -power abuse",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate Speech Intensity Scale",[]]]},{"sy":[["Demonizing and Dehumanizing",[]]],"sp":[["Hate Speech Intensity Scale",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate Speech Intensity Scale",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate Speech Intensity Scale",[]]]},{"de":[["the reproduction of social representations, such as knowledge, attitudes, ideologies, norms, and values, is one of the main roles of discourse",[]],["discourse itself indicates a social practice.",[]]]},{"de":[["This study adopts Bahador's (2020) Hate Speech Intensity Scale.",[]]],"sb":[["Disagreement",[]],["Negative Actions",[]],["Negative Character",[]],["Dehumanizing",[]],["Violence",[]],["Death",[]],["Demonizing and Dehumanizing",[]]]},{"de":[["through the use of verbs, feelings, sayings, or where one makes use of implicit references instead of explicit ones",[]]],"rt":[["discursive strategies",[]]],"sp":[["discursive strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["To reinforce the claims, Negative Actions are associated with raising awareness as well as discussing and addressing criticisms and imminent issues.",[]]],"sp":[["Hate Speech Intensity Scale",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate Speech Intensity Scale",[]]]},{"de":[["By presenting specific viewpoints or perspectives in the media, writers inspire readers about certain political and/or societal events.",[]]]},{"de":[["This is done by employing direct or indirect speech in forms of narration or quotation. Deictics, discourse markers, particles, repetition, and metaphors are also involved to illustrate this strategy",["Wodak, 2009, p. 42","Wodak, 2013, p. 49","Wodak, 2009, p. 42; Wodak, 2013, p. 49"]]],"rt":[["discursive strategies",[]]],"sp":[["discursive strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["In this strategy, predicates, adjectives, appositions, adverbials, relative clauses, collocations, metaphors, similes, and other rhetorical tropes such as hyperbole, metonymies, euphemisms, and litotes, along with presuppositions, evocations, allusions, implicatures, infinitive clauses, conjunctional clauses, participial clauses, predicative nouns, pronouns, explicit and/or implicit comparisons, and others are utilized to see how certain characteristics of social actors are usually perceived",["Baker & Ellece, 2011, p. 101","Wodak, 2008b, p. 54","Wodak, 2015b, p. 9","Baker & Ellece, 2011, p. 101; Wodak, 2008b, p. 54; Wodak, 2015b, p. 9"]]],"sp":[["discursive strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["The writer sets these items to frame the event described.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This is done through many ways, such as through membership categorization devices like race, religion, and occupation; deictics; anthroponyms; tropes such as metaphors, metonymies, and synecdoches; along with verbs and nouns to indicate processes and actions",["Sacks, 1989, p. 89","Wodak, 2008a, p. 54","Wodak & Richardson, 2013, p. 78","Sacks, 1989, p. 89; Wodak, 2008a, p. 54; Wodak & Richardson, 2013, p. 78"]]],"rt":[["discursive strategies",[]]],"sp":[["discursive strategies",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate Speech Intensity Scale",[]]]},{"ex":[["e.g. the habit of brushing one's teeth is healthy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["intentionality is what differentiates these two concepts.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Fact-checking is an initiative in the field of journalism that has emerged in recent years",["Spinelli and de Almeida Santos, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["When decontextualized, these humorous pieces can contribute to the spread of untruths",["Allcott and Gentzkow [2017]"]],["In this paper, fake news is understood in the context of disinformation.",[]],["They are therefore considered fabricated news with the explicit purpose of promoting lies, as well as humorous satire. When decontextualized, these humorous pieces can contribute to the spread of untruths [Allcott and Gentzkow, 2017].",["Allcott and Gentzkow, 2017"]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["this literacy refers to a set of practices that include encouraging reflection in the process of searching for, analyzing and understanding information, highlighting that the same information can be seen through different prisms",[]],["More specifically, this literacy refers to a set of practices that include encouraging reflection in the process of searching for, analyzing and understanding information",[]]],"rt":[["cultivating skills for accessing, understanding, using and creating media messages",["Lee and So, 2014"]]]},{"de":[["In short, the theory argues that conceptions based on truthful facts can be solidified, becoming less susceptible to change caused by arguments without robust foundations",["Lewandowsky and Van Der Linden, 2021"]],["Cook et al. [2017] demonstrate two significant elements for inoculation: 1) a prior warning of an imminent persuasive threat; 2) exposing the fallacy by presenting counterarguments that reveal possible tactics -which the individual may encounter again in the future.",["Cook et al., 2017"]],["This action means that the arguments presented in the news are immediately countered -when the news is false -or reinforced -in situations where the news is true. In this way, there is a stimulus -which in the biological metaphor of Inoculation Theory can be seen as the \"development of antibodies\" -to passively reject information that is not based on solid, verifiable arguments.",[]],["Using a biological metaphor, the theory argues that, just as vaccines confer immunological resistance through a weakened version of a certain virus, it is also possible to immunize oneself against misleading arguments through weakened and subsequently contested versions of these arguments",["McGuire, 1964"]],["the theory argues that conceptions based on truthful facts can be solidified, becoming less susceptible to change caused by arguments without robust foundations",["Lewandowsky and Van Der Linden, 2021"]],["In this way, there is a stimulus -which in the biological metaphor of Inoculation Theory can be seen as the \"development of antibodies\" -to passively reject information that is not based on solid, verifiable arguments.",[]]],"ex":[["a message of inoculation against climate change denial, for example, should warn of the rise of movements that aim to cast doubt on the scientific consensus on the subject and reveal that, in general, these groups use false experts to arrive at their assertions",["Cook et al., 2017"]]]},{"de":[["the technique of lateral reading, to make individuals more capable of critically analyzing information found on the internet",[]],["This way of consuming content is opposed to vertical reading, which is based only in the information presented in the original source",["Wineburg and McGrew, 2019"]],["the user can compare the news with what is being said in other media",[]],["by providing links to other sources and encouraging the user to consult them",[]],["the module enhances and facilitates the practice of lateral reading -which advocates searching different sources in the process of reading information -by providing links to other sources and encouraging the user to consult them.",[]]],"rt":[["vertical reading",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an individual who has access to and is familiar with media literacy should be able to build an autonomous relationship with the different media, consuming each of them critically and aware that the content is produced in a certain context",["Aufderheide, 1993","Mcdougall, 2019"]],["Thus, an individual who has access to and is familiar with media literacy should be able to build an autonomous relationship with the different media, consuming each of them critically and aware that the content is produced in a certain context [Aufderheide, 1993; Mcdougall, 2019].",["Aufderheide, 1993","Mcdougall, 2019"]]],"rt":[["the media build and are built by reality",["Aufderheide, 1993"]],["media have commercial, political and ideological implications",["Aufderheide, 1993"]],["form and content are related in each medium, with each medium having unique aesthetics, codes and conventions",["Aufderheide, 1993"]],["each viewer interacts in a unique way with the media",["Aufderheide, 1993"]]],"sb":[["news literacy",["Fleming, 2015"]],["information literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["intentionality is what differentiates these two concepts.",[]]]},{"de":[["this literacy aims to instigate the decoding of contextual information, based on the understanding that news is produced in the context of the journalistic industry, so monetary aspects, governance and other interests should not be disregarded when analyzing a piece of journalism",["Maksl et al., 2015","Ireland, 2018"]],["In addition, this literacy aims to instigate the decoding of contextual information, based on the understanding that news is produced in the context of the journalistic industry, so monetary aspects, governance and other interests should not be disregarded when analyzing a piece of journalism",["Maksl et al., 2015","Ireland, 2018"]],["In addition, this literacy aims to instigate the decoding of contextual information, based on the understanding that news is produced in the context of the journalistic industry, so monetary aspects, governance and other interests should not be disregarded when analyzing a piece of journalism [Maksl et al., 2015; Ireland, 2018].",["Maksl et al., 2015","Ireland, 2018"]]],"sp":[["media literacy",["Siqueira and Cerigatto, 2012"]]]},{"rt":[["lateral reading",[]]]},{"de":[["this kind of coverage makes winning and losing the central concern.",["Valkenburg & Semetko (1999)"]]]},{"de":[["journalists and media professionals find themselves deconstruct news into frames to make them expressive and comprehensible structures",[]]],"rt":[["strips",[]]]},{"de":[["journalists and media professionals find themselves deconstruct news into frames to make them expressive and comprehensible structures",[]],["news frames give the audience direction on how to conceive of specific issues or events.",["Valkenburg & Semetko (1999)"]],["The media achieves this through processes such as selection, omission, and emphasis.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a surge in salience increases the chances that the public will recollect such reported news.",["Freyenberger (2013)"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["automatically identifying misleading news titles",[]]]},{"de":[["In some clickbait news, the content can present real events and true facts. In other clickbait news, the reported events or facts can be fake.",[]]]},{"sb":[["satirical news",[]]]},{"de":[["In satirical news, it is clear to the readers that the reported events are fictitious.",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is said that if the media expect something to happen, it will.",[]],["Consonance is not limited only to geographical nearness but to cultural proximity also.",[]]],"sy":[["angle",[]],["view point of the media",[]],["Cultural Resonance",["Ryan,1991"]],["Pre-Fabrication",["Bell, 1991"]],["Predictability and Routine",["McQuail,2000"]]]},{"sy":[["Follow-up",["Harcup & O\"Neill, 2001"]],["CO-option",["Bell, 1991"]]]},{"de":[["newspapers are eager to cover things done and said by let us call it the powerful (with its meaning shade from CDA studies) group of the society.",[]],["Iranian newspapers are mostly interested in covering the news related to politicians (the president, member of parliament, ministers and members of the cabinet are of the most importance for Iranian newspapers).",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["gate keeping",[]]]},{"sp":[["\"formal\" news values",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["news criteria",[]],["news factors",[]]]},{"sy":[["News about people",["Ross Commission in Hetherington, 1985"]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["\"formal\" news values",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["says that tangible news in which people are main actors are of higher value in comparison with abstract news.",[]]],"sy":[["Personalization",[]],["News about people",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["in general the composition of the news should be as unambiguous as possible.",[]]]},{"sy":[["The Unusual",["Herbert, 2000"]],["Surprise",["Hetherington, 1985","Harcup & O\"Neill, 2001","Hetherington, 1985;Harcup & O\"Neill, 2001"]],["Oddity",["Ruehlmann, 1979"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["positive misinformation",[]],["negative misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["negative campaigning attacks opponents by emphasizing their flaws, failures, or scandals to undermine their credibility",[]],["misleading statements intended to support (attack) the subject",[]]],"rt":[["negative campaigning",[]],["positive misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["positive campaigning promotes a candidate by highlighting their achievements, qualities, or policy successes",[]],["misleading statements intended to support (attack) the subject",[]]],"rt":[["positive campaigning",[]],["negative misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["hard power",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["media logic",[]]]},{"de":[["Kraidy (2005) proposes hybridity as the cultural logic that emerges from the intermingling of people and media across different cultural boundaries, shaped by communication dynamics, uneven power relations and the broader political economy.",["Kraidy (2005)","Kraidy, 2005"]]]},{},{"de":[["where logics are defined as bundles of technologies, genres, norms, behaviours, and organizational forms",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["many journalists justified political parallelism with funding states, arguing that every media organization represented the viewpoint of its funders",[]],["characteristics that reflect how the pan-Arab media set their news agenda and how they position themselves with regard to regional Arab politics and power relations",[]]],"rt":[["hybridity",[]],["transnationalism",[]]]},{"de":[["within which the state-affiliated pan-Arab media in the UK function",[]],["incorporating different forms of hybridity, including hybrid spaces, hybrid interactions among diverse actors and hybrid political/media logic",[]],["It involves non-linear interactions between local and transnational actors where various sources of influence, including state intervention, interstate relations, change in digital technology, professional logic, and target audience preferences, shape the diasporic news industry.",[]],["the hybrid transnational model identifies with two different states' intervention at one time -the host state jurisdiction and the home state sponsorship.",[]]],"rt":[["state intervention/ influence",[]],["interstate relations",[]],["technological advancements",[]],["changing target markets and audience preferences",[]],["news organizations' own professional logic",[]],["hybrid spaces",[]],["hybrid logic",[]],["hybrid political loyalties",[]],["hybridity",[]],["transnationalism",[]]],"sp":[["hybridity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["characteristics that reflect how the pan-Arab media set their news agenda and how they position themselves with regard to regional Arab politics and power relations",[]]],"sb":[["pseudo Pan-Arab diversity",[]],["promoting conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{"de":[["When used in multiple tweets by multiple people, it serves to create a relationship among tweets.",[]]]},{"de":[["In case of trending topics, such hashtags emerge due to events like holidays, natural disaster, and news about popular people.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The manual inspection of these tweet sets (especially the ones about political propaganda) revealed that the organized behavior characteristics can be summarized as: sharing a common goal, temporal synchronization among users, and the dissemination of messages.",[]]],"rt":[["bot account activity",[]],["coordinated posts",[]]],"ex":[["bot activities in-clude all three characteristics of organized behaviors, which were discovered upon our manual inspection, such as sharing a common goal, the temporal synchronization of tweets, and the dissemination of messages.",[]]]},{"de":[["The more a tweet is retweeted the more visible it becomes.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["many studies have shown that dialogue facilitates self-reflection",["Crasborn, Hennissen, Brouwer, Korthagen, & Bergen, 2011"]],["Researchers have also indicated that dialogue encourages student teachers to demonstrate broad differences in coping with controversial topics",["McMahon, 1997"]]],"rt":[["peer social dialogue",["Dixon-Krauss, 1995"]],["peer dialogue",[]],["discussion",[]]]},{"ex":[["education policy institutions",[]],["individual schools",[]],["administrators",[]],["teachers",[]],["students",[]],["parents",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A lead informs readers of the main story, or it attempts to \"hook\" the attention of readers.",[]]]},{"de":[["The participants' change referred to their reflections after comparing their own opinions with those of the other participants.",[]],["evaluation is similar to a tool for reflection",[]],["evaluation is similar to a tool for reflection.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["el contenido informativo procede de fuentes cuestionables",[]],["el contenido informativo procede de fuentes cuestionables o puede clasificarse directamente como desinformación, ya que ha sido desmentido o demostrado falso",[]]]},{},{"de":[["vector de difusión de la propaganda política",[]],["parte del ecosistema político contemporáneo a nivel internacional, centrándose en su estructura y en los componentes narrativos comunes o dispares",["Tchermalykh, 2022"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["la creación de estereotipos a través de formatos basados en plantillas (Moody-Ramírez, 2022) y el uso de la retórica afiliativa para dar sentido al mundo, así como las posibilidades de participación en la producción y la conversación social en torno a temas de interés, fomenta la consolidación de un sistema de valores y significados compartidos.",["Moody-Ramírez, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["The movement is a mix of racism, white nationalism and populism. Its members criticize multiculturalism, feminists, Jews, Muslims, gays, immigrants and other minorities. They reject the American democratic ideal",[]]]},{"de":[["This article firstly defines the concepts of hate speech and akrasia (acting against one's better judgement) and explains the methodology.",[]],["Akratic people are motivated by emotions and passions rather than reason.",[]],["When people lack self-control, they may act against their better judgment.",[]],["In short, akrasia helps reflection on the abrogation of responsibility when it comes to online hate.",[]],["absolute net neutrality in itself constitutes a form of clear-eyed akrasia because it entails an abrogation of moral and social responsibility for Internet content",[]]],"sy":[["askrasia",[]]],"sb":[["impetuosity",[]],["weakness",[]],["In Nicomachean Ethics, Book 7, Aristotle (350 BCE [1999]) distinguished between two kinds of akrasia: impetuosity and weakness. Impetuous people do not go through a process of deliberation and do not make a reasoned choice; they 'are led by their emotion'.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The movement is a mix of racism, white nationalism and populism. Its members criticize multiculturalism, feminists, Jews, Muslims, gays, immigrants and other minorities. They reject the American democratic ideal",[]],["The movement is a mix of racism, white nationalism and populism.",[]],["Its members criticize multiculturalism, feminists, Jews, Muslims, gays, immigrants and other minorities.",[]]],"sy":[["alternative right",[]]]},{"sy":[["akrasia",[]]]},{"de":[["USA residents experienced approximately 250,000 hate crime victimizations each year between 2004 and 2015, of which about 230,000 were violent victimizations",["Masucci and Langton 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["Hate speech definitions concern both legal and illegal speech.",[]],["Hate speech expresses 'discriminatory, intimidating, disapproving, antagonistic and/or prejudicial attitudes toward those characteristics, which include sex, race, religion, ethnicity, colour, national origin, disability, or sexual orientation' (Cohen-Almagor 2011).",["Cohen-Almagor 2011"]],["Hate speech is intended to 'injure, dehumanize, harass, intimidate, debase, degrade, and victimize the targeted groups, and to foment insensitivity and brutality against them' (Cohen-Almagor 2011).",["Cohen-Almagor 2011"]],["hate speech harms the dignity of its targets by undermining public assurance and support",["Waldron (2012: 165)"]],["To the extent that the message conveyed by the racist already puts them on the defensive, and distracts them from the ordinary business of life ... to that extent, the racist speech has already succeeded in one of its destructive aims",["Waldron (2012: 171)"]],["Hate speech expresses 'discriminatory, intimidating, disapproving, antagonistic and/or prejudicial attitudes toward those characteristics, which include sex, race, religion, ethnicity, colour, national origin, disability, or sexual orientation'",["Cohen-Almagor 2011"]],["Hate speech is intended to 'injure, dehumanize, harass, intimidate, debase, degrade, and victimize the targeted groups, and to foment insensitivity and brutality against them'",["Cohen-Almagor 2011"]]],"sb":[["Holocaust denial",[]]]},{"sp":[["akrasia",[]]]},{},{"de":[["providing evidence about the magnitude of white racism-an alternative term for white supremacy-on the Internet",[]]],"sy":[["white supremacy",[]]]},{"de":[["The dark side of these functionalities is the possibility of aggressive engagement, cyber-bullying, and spreading dis-and misinformation.",[]]]},{"de":[["being targeted by online harassment and cyberbullying is associated with depressive symptoms (Keles et al., 2020;Kwan et al., 2020), relationship problems (Spears et al., 2009), and overall reduced wellbeing (Schenk and Fremouw, 2012;Maghsoudi et al., 2020).",[]]]},{"de":[["Overall, the negative attributes of social media sites can generate an environment within the larger social media sphere that is capable of inducing various adverse effects on its users (Dhir et al., 2018;Keles et al., 2020).",["Dhir et al., 2018","Keles et al., 2020"]],["This can be regarded as the dark side of social media (Baccarella et al., 2018;Sheldon et al., 2019).",["Baccarella et al., 2018","Sheldon et al., 2019"]],["Understanding the nature and prevalence of these malevolent aspects of social media is vital for understanding the threats it poses to adolescents and to society.",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation is often planned, and the target audience is well-defined and chosen to maximize the effect of the presented material.",[]],["The spread of disinformation is often coordinated by multiple operators that are difficult to track without technical tools to model pathways of information spread within the information ecosystem",["Hussain et al., 2018","Bandeli and Agarwal, 2021"]],["the interviewed officers identified systematic disinformation and propaganda as one of the most significant concerns for national security overall.",[]],["They saw the coordinated efforts to spread disinformation on social media, especially in disasters or emergencies, as a significant threat.",[]],["disinformation to distort the general discourse",[]],["the amount of false information present on social media and especially the speed with which it is produced is unlikely to be organically produced.",[]],["disinformation is especially pronounced during emergencies, this could impede the functionality of emergency services and public authorities and thus pose a societal threat.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["False information",[]]],"ex":[["fake news",[]],["false information",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["social circles and groups define and narrow what kind of content the user consumes",[]],["The groups are noted as creating social echo chambers, enhancing radicalization and polarization",[]],["Polarization and the increased categorization of people as either in-or outgroup members are identified as significant risks of this functionality as social circles and groups define and narrow what kind of content the user consumes.",[]]],"rt":[["ingroup/outgroup bias",[]]]},{"de":[["While initially the model was primarily employed in marketing and managing research (Khan and Jan, 2015;Jayasuriya and Azam, 2017;Jayasuriya et al., 2018), recent proposals have suggested using it to study the dark side of social media (Baccarella et al., 2018).",[]]],"sb":[["conversations",[]],["Sharing",[]],["Reputation",[]],["Groups",[]],["Identity",[]],["Relationships",[]],["Presence",[]]]},{"de":[["Users construct their identities by displaying their personal information, such as age, gender, or employment, participating in various groups, showcasing political opinions, and sharing content",[]],["Users construct their identities by displaying their personal information, such as age, gender, or employment, participating in various groups, showcasing political opinions, and sharing content.",[]]]},{"de":[["this definition is a pragmatic common-sense definition that can be easily conveyed to people not immersed in philosophical debate.",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["\"the sky is blue\" represents a known fact about the world",[]]]},{"de":[["\"the sky is red\" contains information that is not in line with the physical reality, that is misinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["False information",[]]]},{"de":[["Thus, polarization presents threats on both individual and societal levels.",[]]]},{"de":[["Psychological inoculation has been shown to significantly increase recognition of false information in recent empirical studies",["Basol et al., 2020","Roozenbeek et al., 2021","Van der Linden and Roozenbeek, 2021"]],["Importantly, psychological inoculation can help individuals recognize manipulative techniques often employed in disinformation.",[]],["Thus, it does aim to guard or censor certain types of information, but instead aims to provide tools for better individual and critical evaluation of information.",[]]]},{"de":[["the relationship between two users affects the content they share with each other and the conversations they have",[]],["While social media can give rise to positive relationships, such as friendships and professional contacts, it can also induce negative relationships, including abuse, cyberbullying, stalking, scamming, or manipulation.",[]]],"ex":[["friendships and professional contacts",[]],["abuse, cyberbullying, stalking, scamming, or manipulation",[]]]},{"de":[["it encompasses how users are aware of their status and the reputation to others.",[]],["The status of users can be exhibited through the built-in functions of social media platforms, such as the number of friends and followers or the number of likes and shares their posts receive.",[]],["it encompasses how users are aware of their status and the reputation to others",[]],["Moreover, it encompasses how users are aware of their status and the reputation to others.",[]]]},{"de":[["A significant risk of this functionality is the availability of inappropriate content on social media platforms.",[]],["A significant risk of this functionality is the availability of inappropriate content on social media platforms. This content includes violent, pornographic, illegal, or otherwise questionable material, fake news and disinformation.",[]]],"ex":[["videos, memes, or pictures",[]]]},{"rt":[["copy-edits",[]]]},{"rt":[["content edits",[]]]},{"rt":[["\"others\"",[]]]},{"rt":[["\"other-other\"",[]]]},{"de":[["The overarching objective is to underscore the significance of branding in comprehending diverse facets of politics, ranging from ideological stances to public perceptions and electoral strategies and from cultural and societal contexts to issues of identity and differentiation.",[]],["Ultimately, the article highlights branding as a serving tool for elucidating the intricacies of power dynamics within political systems and processes.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Frames offer the opportunity for a coherent narrative that constitutes the diagnosis of the problem and its prognosis, respectively",["Entman, 1993"]],["Frames offer the opportunity for a coherent narrative that constitutes the diagnosis of the problem and its prognosis, respectively (Entman, 1993), in a process that socially constructs problem definitions and guides policy decision-making.",["Entman, 1993"]],["Based on Goffman's (1975) concept of frames, which refer to the cognitive structures that shape individuals' interpretation of events and experiences, Entman's (1993) approach to framing functions, involving notions of selection and salience, contributes to identifying holistic reasoning behind frames, that include a definition of the problem, diagnosis of the causes, moral judgements on the problem but also suggestions of treatment.",["Goffman's (1975)","Entman's (1993)"]]],"rt":[["policy branding",[]]],"sb":[["policy frames",[]],["Economic Opportunity Frame",[]],["Humanitarian Concern Frame",[]],["National Security Frame",[]],["Climate Frame",[]]],"ex":[["migration may be framed, among others, as necessary for economic growth, emphasising the contribution of migrants to the labour market (see Peri, 2012)",["(see Peri, 2012)"]],["through a security lens, highlighting measures to control borders and protect native interests (see Koser, 2005)",["(see Koser, 2005)"]],["through climate, recognising the role of environmental factors in driving migration patterns (see Martin, 2010)",["(see Martin, 2010)"]],["through development, exploring how migration affects the development of both origin and destination countries (see de Haas, 2010)",["(see de Haas, 2010)"]],["migration may be framed, among others, as necessary for economic growth, emphasising the contribution of migrants to the labour market",["(see Peri, 2012)"]],["through a security lens, highlighting measures to control borders and protect native interests",["(see Koser, 2005)"]],["through climate, recognising the role of environmental factors in driving migration patterns",["(see Martin, 2010)"]],["through development, exploring how migration affects the development of both origin and destination countries",["(see de Haas, 2010)"]]]},{"rt":[["National Security Frame",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["It calls for stricter immigration policies to protect national security, following up on the \"foreigners' law\" of 2015 (see Section 2), which speaks of the possibility of refusing VISAs to potentially dangerous individuals.",[]]],"rt":[["humanitarian concern frame",[]],["securitisation discourse",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["branding in policymaking involves crafting a unique and recognisable identity for a policy to promote its objectives and build support.",[]],["To achieve this, the process revolves around creating a cohesive and consistent brand image that resonates with the target audience, aiming to increase awareness, understanding, and positive perception of the policy.",[]],["By building resonance and trust among stakeholders, policy branding seeks to improve the legitimacy and perceived worth of the policies while swaying public opinion and garnering support.",[]],["For Raev and Minkman (2020), policy branding increases the legitimacy and visibility of newly implemented or revised policies in order to engender favourable feelings in them and win over important stakeholders and, ultimately, voters, built on the perception and enactment of the experience of the \"product\" and its \"value.\"",["Raev and Minkman (2020)"]],["For migration policies, this can encompass humanitarian, economically strategic, or security-oriented angles, depending on their objectives.",[]],["Basu and Wang (2009, pp. 84-86) identify three aspects of brand strategy, which include brand definition (identity of the brand), brand communication (means to identify, express, and share the product), and brand management (promote, protect, and sustain the brand).",["Basu and Wang (2009, pp. 84-86)"]],["As suggested by the literature, policy branding and framing are critical aspects of how political actors communicate, influence, and shape public perception and political discourse regarding their approaches and ideologies to specific issues.",[]]],"sy":[["branding in policymaking",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]],["branding in marketing",[]]]},{"de":[["frames, which refer to the cognitive structures that shape individuals' interpretation of events and experiences",["Goffman's (1975)"]],["built on the idea that people structure a reality of an issue and attach meaning to it, adhering a particular perspective of reality",["Dekker, 2017"]],["include a definition of the problem, diagnosis of the causes, moral judgements on the problem but also suggestions of treatment.",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["policy branding",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the classifier learns to generate representations that are not useful to the adversary, i.e., the goal is for the adversary to be unable to complete its task",[]],["the adversary learns to predict the offensiveness of a sample, either by separating it from hate speech or merging it (and thus separating hate speech and offensive language in the classifier)",[]]],"rt":[["adversarial training",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["abusive language",[]],["abusive tweets",[]]]},{"de":[["The profanity class expands on this definition to include swear words",[]]]},{},{"de":[["To address these challenges, we propose a domain-adaptive model called REinforced Adaptive Learning Fake News Detection (REAL-FND), which uses generalized and domain-independent features to distinguish between fake and legitimate news.",[]]]},{"de":[["debido a su filiación religiosa y origen étnico, se forja la idea de esa invasión gratuita sobre los derechos de que no gozan los griegos -código cultural-",[]],["los vemos globalmente",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]],"sb":[["clickbait",["Kapantai et al., 2021"]],["conexión engañosa",["Kapantai et al., 2021"]],["desinformación fabricada",["Kapantai et al., 2021"]],["desinformación impostora",["Kapantai et al., 2021"]],["hoaxes",["Kapantai et al., 2021"]],["información sesgada o unilateral",["Kapantai et al., 2021"]],["pseudociencia",["Kapantai et al., 2021"]],["teorías conspiratorias",["Kapantai et al., 2021"]],["trolling",["Kapantai et al., 2021"]],["reseñas falsas",["Kapantai et al., 2021"]],["rumores",["Kapantai et al., 2021"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["subjetividad del discurso del odio, al considerarlo como un sentimiento de interpretación libre con límites difuminados",["Isasi y Juanatey","2017"]],["multifacético",["Aguilera-Carnerero y Azeez","2016"]],["discursos mediáticos favorables a la interpretación, muchas veces sin argumentación",["Van Dijk","2021"]],["conducen rápidamente a la audiencia hacia una ideología de sesgo peyorativo",[]],["análisis semiótico del discurso del odio que difunden los bulos sobre inmigrantes",[]]],"rt":[["desprecio",["Hünneth","1992"]],["etiquetado peyorativo",["Gans","1995"]],["discriminación",["van Dijk","2021"]],["estigmatización",["Goffman","2006"]],["rechazo social",["Vergara y Seveso","2014"]]],"sb":[["expresiones abiertas de odio (uso mordaz de insultos)",["Anderson y Barnes","2022"]],["expresiones más encubiertas e implícitas",["Anderson y Barnes","2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["Todo ello configura la mala prensa (racismo, xenofobia, odio) que rodea a los emigrantes/inmigrantes/ migrantes en la sociedad -imaginarios sociales-.",[]]]},{"de":[["En relación con el mito, como se aprecia en la Tabla 4, se perciben lugares comunes: problema, disturbio, mala convivencia, oportunismo… Todo ello configura la mala prensa (racismo, xenofobia, odio) que rodea a los emigrantes/inmigrantes/ migrantes en la sociedad",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Los casos 1, 8 y 14 presentan la noticia bajo la categoría de extranjeros; 2, 5, 7, 9, 11 y 13 bajo la de emigrantes o inmigrantes y 3, 10 y 12 bajo la de refugiados -signo denotativo-.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Disparity addresses the question 'how different from each other are the types of things that we have?'.",["2007: 709"]]]},{"rt":[["variety",[]],["balance",[]],["disparity",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Political efficacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This thesis is based on the technological argument that consumption monitoring techniques and algorithms are increasingly being used by news providers and other media to target individual customers with specific news content. The economic logic behind this shift is that of content customisation: the differentiation of content supply based on customer characteristics.",[]],["News markets thus become ideologically and politically fragmented, and users are locked up in individual, algorithm-based ideological 'echo chambers' that reflect their own opinions (Sunstein, 2017).",["Sunstein, 2017"]]],"sy":[["fragmentation",[]],["filter bubble thesis",["Pariser, 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["This stimulates news providers to use formats and criteria for news selection offering maximum appeal to their audiences, with a reduction of potential diversity as an outcome",["Burton, 2010: 228-268"]],["The economic rationale behind the homogenisation thesis is that of mass production and economic rationalisation and this in the context of historically increasing media concentration. Mass production requires mass consumption, among other things, to increase revenue from sales and advertising. This stimulates news providers to use formats and criteria for news selection offering maximum appeal to their audiences, with a reduction of potential diversity as an outcome",["Burton, 2010: 228-268"]],["This stimulates news providers to use formats and criteria for news selection offering maximum appeal to their audiences, with a reduction of potential diversity as an outcome (Burton, 2010: 228-268).",["Burton, 2010: 228-268"]],["To reach large audiences, content moreover needs to be articulated around the most common beliefs of audience members, thus stimulating political and ideological mainstreaming (Hardy, 2014;McChesney, 2008: 38-56).",["Hardy, 2014","McChesney, 2008: 38-56"]]]},{"rt":[["Balance",[]]]},{"sp":[["Political efficacy",[]]]},{"sb":[["feelings of internal efficacy as an individual capability",[]],["feeling of external efficacy as a group member",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The term segmentation is borrowed from marketing.",[]],["In the context of news consumption, such characteristics may include political attitudes, psychological dispositions, socio-economic profiles, or any other shared properties that explain observable consumption patterns.",[]],["Segmentation assumes the existence of relatively homogeneous subgroupings of news users based on, for example, socio-demographic characteristics, socio-economic position, attitudes or perceived needs.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Independent media do not receive government subsidies.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["journalists' associations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Trade associations represent the interests of private media owners and provide member services.",[]],["Professional associations work to protect journalists' rights.",[]],["Short-term training and in-service training programs allow journalists to upgrade skills or acquire new skills.",[]],["Sources of newsprint NGOs support free speech and independent media.",[]],["Quality journalism degree programs that provide substantial practical experience exist.",[]],["Printing facilities are in private hands, apolitical, and unrestricted.",[]],["Channels of media distribution (kiosks, transmitters, Internet) are private, apolitical, and unrestricted.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["associating European migrants with crime, immorality and dishonesty",[]]]},{"de":[["a category that police were required to record, thus implying that those in authority considered this to be an important distinguishing characteristic",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["reduce misperceptions on that topic among the community witnessing the interaction",["Bode & Vraga, 2015","Porter et al., 2023","Vraga & Bode, 2020","Vraga et al., 2020","Walter et al., 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["Instead, this approach holds that journalists should simply report on each side's remarks and leave it to readers to determine which side is more convincing.",[]]]},{"de":[["accountability frames occur when media outlets are forthright about their efforts to discern the truth.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Experimental results suggest that while affective belief echoes are created across party lines, cognitive belief echoes are more likely when a piece of misinformation reinforces a person's pre--existing political views.",[]],["affective belief echoes are created across party lines.",[]],["the magnitude and direction of the affective response generated by the misinformation (which in turn affects evaluations) will be largely a function of the misinformation itself (for instance, its vividness).",[]],["affective belief echoes are more likely when citizens process information under conditions of \"cognitive busyness\" (Gilbert 1989).",["Gilbert 1989"]],["Affective belief echoes may also be magnified when the misinformation carries an especially strong affective charge, and thus has a larger initial impact on evaluations.",[]],["This is a largely automatic process that occurs outside of conscious control.",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive belief echoes",[]],["online processing",[]]],"sp":[["belief echoes",[]]],"ex":[["as people failed to update their evaluations properly when exposed to the correction",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A correction-even when it is fully believed-does not eliminate the effects of misinformation on attitudes.",[]],["exposure to information about a candidate creates belief echoes",[]],["The existence of belief echoes raises serious normative concerns about political news coverage",[]],["Belief echoes provide an enormous incentive for politicians to strategically spread false information with the goal of shaping public opinion on key issues.",[]],["The existence of belief echoes may also provide a disincentive for the media to engage in serious fact--checking.",[]],["even when exposure to corrected misinformation does create belief echoes, such efforts can also have positive consequences by increasing citizens' trust in media.",[]],["Understanding the circumstances that lead to belief echoes requires examining how individuals process information, as well as how journalist and media outlets make decisions about how and when to issue corrections.",[]],["Belief echoes emerge at the intersection of these factors.",[]],["consequences of misinformation on attitudes",[]],["Understanding the circumstances that lead to belief echoes requires examining how individuals process information, as well as how journalist and media outlets make decisions about how and when to issue corrections. Belief echoes emerge at the intersection of these factors.",[]],["belief echoes are created even when misinformation is corrected immediately, this implies that even journalists' best efforts may not be enough to eliminate the attitudinal effects of misinformation.",[]],["belief echoes, like belief persistence, are driven by motivated reasoning.",[]],["Fundamentally, the existence of belief echoes poses a challenge to the marketplace of ideas by suggesting that misinformation can continue to affect attitudes even after it is successfully corrected.",[]],["The implication of these findings for belief echoes is that framing a correction as an affirmation (for example, \"McKenna's campaign donors are all citizens of good standing\") rather than as a negation (\"McKenna did not accept donations from a felon\") may be more effective at reducing belief echoes, because the affirmation carries a positive affective charge that can counterbalance the negative impact of the misinformation.",[]],["even after a piece of information is disproved, its attitudinal effects persist.",[]],["repeating false claims imposes serious costs, even if those claims are immediately corrected.",[]],["the misinformation itself is falsifiable, and it is corrected decisively and immediately.",[]],["those who receive corrected negative misinformation should evaluate the candidate more negatively than those who receive no misinformation or correction",[]],["exposure to the misinformation continues to affect attitudes",[]],["part of a larger misinformation and correction process",[]]],"rt":[["belief persistence",[]],["motivated reasoning",[]],["belief perseverance",[]]],"sb":[["affective belief echoes",[]],["cognitive belief echoes",[]]],"ex":[["exposure to the misinformation will continue to negatively affect attitudes and perceptions of electability even when it is effectively corrected.",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals believe the misinformation for a period of time before it was corrected",[]],["Belief perseverance as it is conceptualized by psychologists differs from belief echoes, primarily because it is concerned with how discredited information affects causal beliefs about the world.",[]],["The phenomenon, termed \"belief perseverance\" by psychologists, has obvious implications for the study of political misinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["belief echoes",[]]],"ex":[["causes of a warehouse fire",["Johnson & Seifert 1994","Wegner, Coulton, and Wenzlaff 1985","Ross, Lepper, & Hubbard 1975"]],["feedback on their own task performance",["Johnson & Seifert 1994","Wegner, Coulton, and Wenzlaff 1985","Ross, Lepper, & Hubbard 1975"]],["interpretation of suicide notes",["Johnson & Seifert 1994","Wegner, Coulton, and Wenzlaff 1985","Ross, Lepper, & Hubbard 1975"]],["when subjects are asked to predict their actual performance on the task, those who were originally given positive feedback tend to think they did better than average, and those who were given negative feedback think they did worse",["Ross, Lepper, & Hubbard 1975"]]]},{"de":[["occurs when corrections fail to eliminate belief in false claims.",[]]],"rt":[["belief echoes",[]]]},{"ex":[["subjects who opposed or supported the death penalty rated studies disconfirming their beliefs as less",["1979"]]]},{"de":[["Experimental results suggest that while affective belief echoes are created across party lines, cognitive belief echoes are more likely when a piece of misinformation reinforces a person's pre--existing political views.",[]],["Cognitive belief echoes, however, are more likely when a piece of misinformation reinforces a person's pre--existing political views.",[]],["These chains of reasoning-which are heightened by partisanship-should be activated when a person engages in deliberate, conscious thought about the misinformation and correction.",[]],["created through a chain of thinking in which readers recognize the misinformation is false yet also use it as a basis for changing their evaluations",[]],["actively recalling the misinformation and correction creates cognitive belief echoes",[]],["This in turn leads him to evaluate the candidate more negatively.",[]],["belief echoes should be created through the cognitive process, and thus be conditional on partisanship.",[]]],"rt":[["correspondence bias",[]],["affective belief echoes",[]]],"sp":[["belief echoes",[]]],"ex":[["\"if the reporter wrongly believed Booker saved the child, perhaps it was because that seems like the sort of thing that Booker would do\"",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["cognitive belief echoes",[]]]},{"de":[["Or, put more colloquially, information that accurately represents the real world.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["it is also relevant as a way of understanding how political reality itself is contested.",[]],["Citizens will no longer draw on this information in making decisions or forming opinions about policies and candidates.",[]]]},{"de":[["This explanation for belief perseverance is often referred to as the \"mental model\" explanation.",[]]]},{"rt":[["belief perseverance",[]]]},{"de":[["pre--existing attitudes inevitably affect what people believe to be true.",[]],["partisan--driven motivated reasoning",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["According to spatial models, citizens will vote for candidates whose issue positions are closest to their own (Downs 1957).",[]]]},{"de":[["Suspicion lessens the likelihood that perceivers will make dispositional inferences from behavior (i.e. engage in correspondence bias), and more likely that they will attribute a given behavior or incident to situational factors (for instance, poor reporting or a deliberate smear campaign).",[]]],"rt":[["correspondence bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["third space",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["tied to national security and local safety",[]]]},{},{"de":[["balancing moral disapproval with recognition of systemic complexity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["operating in its capillary forms",[]],["traverses and produces things, it induces pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse",["1980,119"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["to demonstrate another territory of translation… to rehistoricize the moment of the emergence of the sign… in the field of cultural difference-not cultural diversity",["1988,17"]]]},{"de":[["relocates border storytelling to a hybrid arena where the categories legal/illegal and insider/outsider are renegotiated in real time.",[]],["The third space frames these encounters as sites where categories like legal/illegal are renegotiated in real time.",[]],["the indeterminacy that defines third-space rhetoric.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["cynicism towards the elite and by emphasising the shortcomings of political agents",[]],["all three cues (e.g. anti-elitism, the general will of the people and economic deprivation) are factors constituted by the items (Table 1).",[]],["The anti-elitist feature is introduced via the protesters' frustration with the political elite, while direct criticism from journalists towards the establishment rarely appears in the scrutinised news.",[]],["characteristics of the populist communication phenomenon",["Akkerman et al., 2014"]]],"rt":[["people-centrism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["populists claim that politicians should accept and follow the will of the people.",[]],["all three cues (e.g. anti-elitism, the general will of the people and economic deprivation) are factors constituted by the items (Table 1).",[]],["The problem in outlining general will connects to Laclau's (2005) claim, and the observations of other scholars (de Nadal, 2021), that defining the volonté general is highly problematic.",[]],["the constituent items of the general will are depicted as the motivations of protesters.",[]],["characteristics of the populist communication phenomenon",["Akkerman et al., 2014"]]],"sy":[["volonté general",[]]]},{"de":[["media populism is a matter of degree and not a universal feature shared by every media channel",["Krämer, 2014"]],["this form and extent of media populism primarily focuses on depicting the political elite as failing leaders who have lost the trust of the demonstrators.",[]],["populism by the media is fuelled primarily by protesters' hostile attitudes towards the political elite because readers might pay increased attention to proliferating political frustrations.",[]],["media populism is neither political in a narrow sense, nor strictly apolitical, but political in a wider sense",["Krämer, 2014, p. 54"]]],"sy":[["populism by the media",[]]],"sb":[["populism through the media",["Esser et al., 2016","Moffitt, 2018"]],["populist citizen journalism",["Esser et al., 2016","Moffitt, 2018"]],["populism by the media",["Esser et al., 2016","Moffitt, 2018"]]]},{},{"sp":[["media populism",["Esser et al., 2016","Moffitt, 2018"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["tend to be shorter in length and contain no human sources",[]],["tend to be more uniform, displaying less variety",[]],["tend to contain less critical thought, inquiry, and investigation",["Abu-Fadil, 2016"]],["delegated articles that are number-oriented and easily templatized, i.e., business news rather than general news, and that have less impact and are of a smaller scope or scale",[]],["based on news values, topic, source, format, and interpretation, which are usually considered markers of traditional news, long been assumed to be produced by humans",[]]],"sy":[["automated news",[]]],"rt":[["automated newswriting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["automation in journalism goes beyond just writing, but also data collection and management, among other news production processes",["Wu et al., 2018"]],["some narrowly define as referring to computer-written news with little to no human input beyond initial programming (Carlson, 2015;Linden, 2017)",["Carlson, 2015","Linden, 2017"]]],"rt":[["computational journalism",[]],["algorithmic journalism",[]]],"sb":[["automated newswriting",[]]],"sp":[["computational journalism",["Lewis and Zamith, 2017","Lewis et al. 2019"]],["algorithmic journalism",["Lewis and Zamith, 2017","Lewis et al. 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["A comparative content analysis of news articles published by The New York Times and Buzzfeed in the United States found that majority of their articles (82% for Buzzfeed, 71% for The New York Times) used the inverted pyramid format",["Tandoc, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["Content analysis allows the examination of the extent to which content elements recur, but this is limited to only manifest content",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{"de":[["that allow journalists to efficiently perform news production within temporal and economic constraints",["Lowrey, 2014, p. 1"]]],"ex":[["News routines can also manifest in news outputs, such as in topic selection and use of particular sources.",[]],["a content analysis of online news articles from 10 news sites in five Western countries found a strong emphasis on news about politics and economy",["Quandt, 2008"]],["A content analysis of broadcast, print, and online news from 11 countries had found an overreliance on government sources in most countries",["Tiffen et al., 2014"]]]},{"de":[["They influence journalists' decision-making throughout the whole news production process",["Parks, 2019"]]],"sb":[["negativity",[]],["timeliness",[]],["impact",[]],["novelty",[]],["superlativeness",[]],["proximity",[]]],"ex":[["Common news values used in studies include timeliness, proximity, impact, and novelty",["Caple & Bednarek, 2015"]],["most articles displayed the news value of prominence, using datasets from well-known organizations and featuring prominent companies and countries in their reports",[]]]},{"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{"sb":[["listicle",[]],["chronology",[]],["reverse chronology",[]],["narrative",[]],["inverted pyramid",[]]],"ex":[["listicle",[]],["chronology",[]],["reverse chronology",[]],["inverted pyramid",["Tandoc, 2018"]]]},{"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{"de":[["an article is coded as having the news value of timeliness if the event or issue mentioned in the article is temporally close to the publication date",[]]],"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They are concerned with the general notion of altering the presentation of news content before it reaches the consumer.",[]]],"sb":[["Search providers",[]],["social networks",[]],["platforms",[]],["app stores",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["media plurality",[]],["recommendation algorithms",[]]]},{},{"de":[["gatekeeping role in the selection, presentation and targeting of news",[]]],"rt":[["information gatekeeping",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Regulation to protect media plurality evolved during the twentieth century due to concern about newspapers and broadcasting",[]],["the existing, agreed public policy objective of maintaining media plurality",[]]],"sy":[["diversity",[]],["plurality",[]]]},{"rt":[["gatekeeping",[]],["editorial influence",[]]]},{"sy":[["plurality",[]]]},{"de":[["giving online news consumers the ability to judge what is newsworthy and affect the news content that other readers see",["Singer, 2014"]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["support the original tweet",[]],["denies it",[]],["neutral",[]]],"ex":[["further questions or simply making comments without supporting or denying",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["further questions or simply making comments without supporting or denying",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["information effects",[]]]},{"de":[["As both the coding rules and the reports themselves remain constant or fixed, this difference can only be attributed to the coders themselves or to the changing context in which the scores were produced.",[]],["examines whether internal standards of coding are changing over time",[]]]},{"de":[["Importantly, these events-to-reports biases affect the actual human rights reports and their content over time.",[]],["to reflect changes and biases that appear in the monitoring and reporting stage",[]]],"rt":[["monitoring and reporting stage",[]],["reports-to-scores bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Information effects encompasses both what Clark and Sikkink (2013) refer to as \"changes in the quality and availability of information\" on human rights violations, and what Fariss (2014) calls the ability to \"look harder for abuse [and] look in more places.\"",["Clark and Sikkink 2013","Fariss 2014"]]],"rt":[["Changing norms",[]],["norms",[]]]},{"rt":[["information effects",[]]]},{},{"de":[["to indicate biases emanating from coders, after the compilation and publication of reports, rather than bias emanating from the reporting agencies themselves",[]]],"rt":[["events-to-reports bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["rhetorical strategies such as \"beautification\" and \"camouflage\" are used to weaken its positive image.",[]]]},{"de":[["shifted the study of metaphor from surface-level linguistic ornamentation to deeper cognitive structures.",[]]]},{"de":[["analyzing Xi Jinping's diplomatic speeches, found that metaphors centered around the concept of \"the road\" serve important discursive functions in constructing national identity.",[]],["emphasizes the dynamic interplay between language, cognition and society",["Gibbs Jr & Cameron, 2008"]],["It aims to uncover how metaphors, through specific linguistic choices and narrative strategies, construct, circulate and sustain ideologies and power relations within particular socio-political contexts",["Musolff, 2012"]]],"rt":[["Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)",[]]],"sb":[["metaphor identification",[]],["metaphor interpretation",[]],["metaphor explanation",[]],["metaphor identification, which involves extracting linguistic expressions from discourse that exhibit cross-domain mapping",[]],["metaphor interpretation, which analyzes the structure and contextual use of metaphors to uncover their underlying cognitive schemas and pragmatic functions",[]],["metaphor explanation, which links metaphorical choices to broader structures of social power and ideology, examining how metaphors are reproduced and legitimized within specific sociocultural contexts",["Imani, 2022"]]],"sy":[["CMA",[]]]},{"de":[["reflecting a trend of antagonism under ideological confrontation.",[]]],"ex":[["Some short-sighted American politicians are demonizing the giant panda and China's friendly gesture...",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["diplomatic image",["Ye, 2023, p. 25"]]]},{"de":[["metaphorical expressions such as \"bargaining\", \"manipulation\" and \"inducement\" used to construct its political intention.",[]]]},{"de":[["Traditional views on metaphor primarily focus on its ornamental function at the linguistic level, emphasizing the underlying similarity between words as the basis for metaphorical expression",["Lakoff, 1993"]],["metaphor is viewed as a cognitive tool deeply embedded in everyday thought, language and behavior, reflecting underlying conceptual structures and ways of understanding specific issues",["Yang & Zhang, 2024"]]]},{"de":[["The phase focused on examining how the identified metaphors function cognitively and pragmatically within specific discursive contexts, contributing to the construction of China's diplomatic identity.",[]]],"sp":[["Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA)",[]],["CMA",[]]]},{"sp":[["Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA)",[]]]},{"de":[["The phase focused on examining how the identified metaphors function cognitively and pragmatically within specific discursive contexts, contributing to the construction of China's diplomatic identity.",[]]],"sp":[["Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA)",[]],["CMA",[]]]},{},{"de":[["characterized by its strong symbolic appeal",[]],["reporting on \"panda diplomacy\", has constructed a system of positive symbolic metaphors centered on peace, goodwill, cooperation and science.",[]],["reflecting an over-politicized interpretation of panda diplomacy within Western discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["soft power",[]]]},{"de":[["assigning it the functional roles of promoting bilateral relations, facilitating people-to-people exchange, and showcasing China's soft power.",[]]]},{"de":[["imply that the panda acts as a defensive mechanism for human rights discourse in international communication",[]]]},{"sp":[["diplomatic image",["Ye, 2023, p. 25"]]]},{},{"de":[["It is marked by strong ideological projection. Through symbolism of militarization and moral stigmatization, it reinforces the hostile discourse environment surrounding China's soft power projection.",[]]],"ex":[["the sentence directly characterizes the panda as a \"hostile presence\"",[]]]},{"de":[["differential media use among social classes",[]],["unequal use and exposure to different communication channels between higher and lower SES groups",[]]],"rt":[["communication inequality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Agenda cueing leads to a more unstable agenda setting effect",["Bulkow et al., 2013","(Bulkow et al., 2013)"]],["agenda cueing the peripheral",[]],["leads to a more unstable agenda setting effect",[]]],"rt":[["agenda reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["Growing agenda diversity",[]],["rising agenda diversity levels over the past decades are believed to be due to increased opportunities for selective exposure.",[]],["Measuring agenda diversity in this manner measures an individual's contribution to agenda diversity.",[]],["If traditional approaches measure aggregate noise in the agenda environment, measuring the number of issues mentioned by each individual captures the volume of noise that a given individual is contributing.",[]],["Thus, following in Peter and Vreese (2003) footsteps, I measure each participant's contribution to agenda diversity as the total number of issue categories that a respondent designates as either \"Somewhat High Importance\" or \"Very High Importance.\"",[]]],"rt":[["Normalized Shannon's H Information Entropy",[]]]},{"de":[["agenda reasoning represents the central route of information processing",[]],["agenda reasoning results in a more stable one (Bulkow et al., 2013)",["Bulkow et al., 2013"]],["Selectivity then provides opportunity for agenda reasoning, creating strong personal issue agendas that cross-cutting news has a hard time disrupting.",[]]],"rt":[["agenda cueing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Need for orientation constitutes the motivation for seeking information.",[]]],"ex":[["an individual may be uncertain about the current state of the national economy-an issue with potential personal consequences-and therefore, that need for orientation drives them to seek out information to reduce the cognitive load induced by uncertainty about their environment.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["as individuals avoid news on issues they are less interested in",[]],["more media sources mean more opportunities for selective exposure (Mutz and Martin, 2001).",["Mutz and Martin, 2001"]],["Most commonly, selective exposure is thought of as choosing like-minded partisan news (Garrett, 2009;Garrett and Stroud, 2014), such as Republicans viewing Fox News and Democrats viewing MSNBC.",["Garrett, 2009","Garrett and Stroud, 2014"]],["Selectivity is associated with issue public membership, issue knowledge, and importance (Kim, 2009).",["Kim, 2009"]],["This process of selectivity leads to agenda diversity through resistance to or avoidance of consensus-building news.",[]]],"ex":[["selecting entertainment instead of news (Prior, 2007)",["Prior, 2007"]],["selecting certain kinds of news over another.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Goffman expanded on this concept in 1974, assuming frames as behavioral pieces that guide individuals in reading reality.",[]]]},{"de":[["The \"way of seeing\" the reality that is made news reflects the \"way of telling the story.\" This \"way of seeing\" influences the end result of reality construction.",[]],["In recent developments, this concept is used to describe the process by which the media selects and highlights specific aspects of a reality (Fauzi, 2019)",["Fauzi, 2019"]],["framing is a method used by journalists to determine their perspective or point of view when selecting issues and writing news. (Syarofina, 2019)",["Syarofina, 2019"]],["According to Todd Gitlin, framing is a strategy for shaping and simplifying reality or the world in order to present it to the audience.",[]],["Framing, according to Kosicki, is a communication strategy used in the processing of news.",[]],["interpreting framing as a presentation of reality in which the truth about an event is not completely denied, but is subtly deflected, highlighting only certain aspects, using terms with a specific connotation, using photos, caricatures, and other illustration tools.",["Pan & Kosicki, 1993"]],["Framing analysis is a method of examining how the media constructs reality.",[]],["Framing analysis is also used to examine how the media interprets and frames events",["Al-Khairi, 2016"]],["In other words, framing is a method used by journalists to determine their perspective or point of view when selecting issues and writing news.",["Syarofina, 2019"]]],"rt":[["Framing analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing analysis is also used to examine how the media interprets and frames events",["Al-Khairi, 2016"]],["Framing analysis is also used to examine how the media interprets and frames events (Al-Khairi, 2016).",["Al-Khairi, 2016"]],["Framing analysis is used in communication to dissect the methods or ideology of the media when constructing facts.",[]]],"rt":[["Framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Briefly and practically, journalism can be defined as event notification.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["So, even if there are facts, if they are not deemed important, true, and interesting by a large number of people, they cannot be used to create news.",[]]]},{"de":[["Online journalism, like print journalism, does not have a deadline",["Newman & Kashmiri, 2021"]]],"rt":[["print journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["online media combines print media processes by writing information that is channeled through electronic means, as well as relationships with personal communications that appear individual.",[]],["It has several characteristics, including technology-based media, a flexible character, interactive potential, functions privately and publicly, has low regulations, and is related to other media",["Masrun et al., 2022"]]],"rt":[["print media",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Statoil's corporate responsibility can be broadly understood as the corporation's endeavour to maintain its positive public image and reputation",[]]]},{"rt":[["Framing",[]]]},{"de":[["comprised of the selection of some aspects of an experience or an issue that make them more salient in a communicative context (Entman, 1993, p.52).",["Entman, 1993, p.52"]]]},{"de":[["a schema of interpretation that enables individuals to locate, perceive, identify and label life experiences.",["Goffman (1974, p.21)"]],["deemed to underlie the process of sense making in order to give structure and meaning to the world (Entman, 1993).",["Entman, 1993"]],["involves a process of construing a particular conceptualization of a certain experience or an issue (Chong and Druckman, 2007, p.104).",["Chong and Druckman, 2007, p.104"]],["involves the foregrounding of specific problem definitions, causal interpretations, moral evaluations and treatment recommendations for an issue by selecting certain aspects while backgrounding others (Curran, 2017;Levin, Schneider, and Gaeth, 1998;Matthes and Kohring, 2008, p.258-260;Schmid-Petri and Arlt, 2016, p.265).",["Curran, 2017","Levin, Schneider, and Gaeth, 1998","Matthes and Kohring, 2008, p.258-260","Schmid-Petri and Arlt, 2016, p.265"]]]},{"de":[["text linguistics offers a systematic approach to addressing the question of how frames are manifested in a text.",["Dahl (2015)"]]]},{"ex":[["BP's campaign to rebrand its name British Petroleum as Beyond Petroleum",["Matejek and Gössling, 2014"]]]},{},{"de":[["preemptively addressing the motivational threats posed by false information can enhance individuals' analytic thinking.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a state of metacognitive ease enhances individuals' confidence and accuracy in detecting misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Marking all news sources prevents that users assume that sources without a label are validated and accurate.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["shown to significantly improve users' ability to determine the reliability of information",["14","101"]]],"rt":[["Vertical reading",["101"]]]},{"de":[["a substantial amount of misinformation is completely fabricated (38%).",["15"]],["Wardle et al. operationalize misinformation as false information, including false connections and misleading content.",[]],["participants knew upfront that their task was to detect unreliable information",[]],["the majority of COVID-19 misinformation (59%) includes existing and often true information",["15"]],["This information is then spun, twisted, recontextualized, or reworked.",[]]],"rt":[["unreliable information",[]]]},{"de":[["This bias connects to related research that showed the influence that motivated reasoning and the alignment of a claim with one's prior policy position has on the assessment of misinformation",["46"]],["people may stick to their initial decisions, regardless of the reasons that are presented to them",["46","89"]],["people may be more likely to stick to their initial decisions than to change their opinion, no matter what reasons they are presented with",["89"]]],"rt":[["motivated reasoning",["46"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["they can account for possible but unlikely events that need to be reported and which a content-based machine learning approach might flag as false.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["brokerage",[]],["structural holes",[]]]},{"de":[["The term \"bubble reachers\" grows out of the computer science literature",[]],["can be seen as performing a form of brokerage between partisan groups in a polarized context. They bridge ideological gaps and act as connectors between users with diverse political opinions, similar to how brokers bridge gaps between different groups or clusters in a network.",[]],["The term \"bubble reachers\" grows out of the computer science literature and refers to users on social media platforms who distribute content that reaches users with diverse political opinions, possibly bridging ideological divides and facilitating cross-partisan conversations [20].",["20"]]],"rt":[["brokerage",[]],["brokers",[]]],"sb":[["neutral bubble reachers-those central nodes that avoid a partisan tilt",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Scholars often evaluate discourse in the public sphere using the Habermasian normative ideal of deliberation based on reason-giving, reciprocity, and civility as a benchmark",["23"]]]},{"de":[["In an echo chamber, information, ideas, and opinions are \"echoed\" and \"amplified\" within a closed network, leading to a reinforcement of existing viewpoints and a lack of exposure to diverse perspectives",["11"]],["In an echo chamber, information, ideas, and opinions are \"echoed\" and \"amplified\" within a closed network, leading to a reinforcement of existing viewpoints and a lack of exposure to diverse perspectives [11].",["11"]]],"sy":[["filter bubbles",["41","12"]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In a filter bubble, users are presented with information that aligns with their interests and beliefs while filtering out opposing viewpoints or dissenting opinions",["12"]]],"sy":[["echo chambers",["41"]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the research literature identifies some characteristic features that demarcate incivility, such as ad hominem attacks (direct attacks on the person instead of their arguments), vulgarity and exaggerations",["76"]]],"sy":[["uncivil discourse",[]]],"rt":[["civility",[]],["toxic discourse",[]],["toxicity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["expresses the political bias of an entity concerning the audience from which it generates engagement",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["incivility",[]]],"rt":[["incivility",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Stigma affects a substantial segment of the U.S. population at some point of their lives and encompasses a wide range of highly prevalent personal attributes (e.g., old age, obesity, depression) as well as identities or health conditions (e.g., minority sexual orientation, physical disabilities, chronic illnesses).",[]],["Stigma affects a substantial segment of the U.S. population at some point of their lives and encompasses a wide range of highly prevalent personal attributes",[]]],"ex":[["being voluntarily childless",[]],["living in a trailer park",[]],["having facial scars",[]],["old age, obesity, depression",[]],["minority sexual orientation, physical disabilities, chronic illnesses",[]],["facial scars",[]]]},{"de":[["The term is deemed stigmatizing as it upholds racist understandings of who does not 'truly' belong to the nation",["Wekker, 2016"]]],"rt":[["Muslims or people of color, mostly those of Turkish and Moroccan descent",[]]]},{"de":[["This understanding became apparent when a citation in a mainstream newspaper explicitly countered the implicit understanding that the perpetrators were 'allochthonous', or 'not from here'.",[]]],"sy":[["not from here",[]]]},{"de":[["deemed stigmatizing as it upholds racist understandings of who does not 'truly' belong to the nation",["Wekker, 2016"]]],"ex":[["usually used in reference to Muslims or people of color, mostly those of Turkish and Moroccan descent",[]]]},{},{"de":[["references to the nation are indicated continuously and in an inconspicuous manner to remind the intended audience of nationhood.",[]]]},{"rt":[["ethnic nationalism",[]]]},{"de":[["Carvalho's (2008) functionalist approach to critical discourse analysis, to interpret the textual meanings situated in their cultural context.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["civic nationalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the concept of homonationalism offers a framework that enables the critique of 'narratives of progress and modernity that continue to give some populations access to citizenship -cultural and legal -at the expense of the delimitation and expulsion of other populations' (Puar, 2013: 337).",["Puar, 2013: 337"]],["offers a framework that enables the critique of 'narratives of progress and modernity that continue to give some populations access to citizenship -cultural and legal -at the expense of the delimitation and expulsion of other populations' (Puar, 2013: 337).",["Puar, 2013: 337"]],["In uniting 'the people' through civic nationalist appeals, these 'moderate' homonationalist discourses pave the way for more radical homonationalist discourses that reinforce racist, antimigration and anti-Muslim sentiments.",[]],["This more overt and explicit form of homonationalism occurs mainly in alternative right-wing publications that are known to pay more attention to radical-right political actors",["Buyens and Van Aelst, 2021"]],["Rather than distinguishing between good and bad politics, the concept of homonationalism offers a framework that enables the critique of 'narratives of progress and modernity that continue to give some populations access to citizenship -cultural and legal -at the expense of the delimitation and expulsion of other populations' (Puar, 2013: 337).",["Puar, 2013: 337","2013: 337"]]],"rt":[["radical homonationalist discourses",[]]],"sb":[["radical homonationalist discourses",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["othering",[]]],"sp":[["Othering",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This difference between opposites establishes meaning, which helps us to better understand the world, but often does so in a 'crude and reductionist way' (Hall, 1997: 235).",["Hall, 1997: 235"]]]},{"sp":[["homonationalism",["Puar, 2007"]]]},{},{"ex":[["multiple stigma-relevant group labels",[]]]},{"rt":[["sex",[]]]},{"de":[["This view emphasizes the interaction of various factors that jointly contribute to a persons' individual discrimination experience (e.g., sex, race, poverty, and disability).",[]],["a combination of two or more stigma-relevant exemplar characteristics can yield increased stigmatizing reactions compared to a single stigma",["Crenshaw's (1989)"]]]},{},{"de":[["Even though exemplars (e.g., a description of a person with a disability) are, by nature, not representative of larger social groups (e.g., people with disabilities in general), they still represent the population in the coverage and are therefore expected to influence audiences' knowledge, feelings, attitudes, and behaviors (cf. representative heuristic, Kahneman and Tversky, 1972).",[]]],"sy":[["exemplars",[]]],"ex":[["single-case portrayals",[]]]},{"rt":[["cue convergence",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a frame is measured through content analysis, the clustering of indices such as main topic, controversy, evaluation, etc.",[]]]},{"de":[["First, frames involve selectivity, rendering some aspects of an salient issue. Second, frames give meaning by following some central organizing idea. Third, frames perform argumentative functions: they define situations, establish causal chains, provide the evaluative standards against which propositions are evaluated, and chart the options for treatment and action lying ahead.",["13"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In conventional methodology, measuring salience typically means, in brief, counting the number of articles on relevant issues",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["includes both still and video footage",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["More advanced levels of awareness might include if the subject is aware of the photographer's ideological or ethical perspectives and how those might influence conscious production decisions, such as the camera angle or vantage point, which can communicate a mood or feeling",["Kennedy and Mercer 2002"]]]},{"de":[["Photographers can manipulate their interaction through the type of speech they use and how it is articulated, through gestures and mannerisms, and through transparency in responding to subjects' questions.",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["normative motivations",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["media presence",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["commitment to understand and respond to societal information needs",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["raising false expectations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Attribute words from a predefined list are contextualized by extracting their occurrences from a corpus and enhanced with counterfactual data augmentation. The bias subspace is then determined by applying principal component analysis (PCA) to the representations of these sentences. The first K dimensions of PCA are considered to represent the bias subspace, as they capture the primary directions of variation in the representations.",[]],["Attribute words from a predefined list are contextualized by extracting their occurrences from a corpus and enhanced with counterfactual data augmentation.",[]],["The bias subspace is then determined by applying principal component analysis (PCA) to the representations of these sentences.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["propaganda",[]],["news satire",[]],["parody",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["collectivism",[]]]},{"de":[["This double bind hinders women leaders' career aspirations because \"acting like a leader\" makes a woman too masculine to still be able to \"act like a woman\". Without any option but to violate at least one of these stereotypes, many women end up violating both at once, with their constituents likely to punish them for it",["14","15"]]]},{"de":[["This double bind hinders women leaders' career aspirations because \"acting like a leader\" makes a woman too masculine to still be able to \"act like a woman\". Without any option but to violate at least one of these stereotypes, many women end up violating both at once, with their constituents likely to punish them for it [14,15].",["14","15"]]]},{"rt":[["egalitarianism",[]]]},{"de":[["The perspective that women have been better leaders during the pandemic is rooted in selection bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["discomfort with ambiguity",[]]]},{"de":[["In light of multiple deficits and power asymmetries in political representation and participation, it is a form of \"democratic empowerment that aims for a more intensive and/or more extensive form of democratic self-determination\" (Celikates, 2016, 989).",["Celikates, 2016, 989"]],["Civil disobedience was the term most often used to describe the current practices (42 times)",[]],["The discussion also addresses the costs that civil disobedience entails for participants and the challenges of recruiting activists",[]]],"rt":[["coercion",[]],["Nötigung",[]],["radicalization",[]],["terrorism",[]]]},{"rt":[["climate action",[]],["sabotage",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This definition is beneficial for our purpose, as it is analytically neutral, avoids normative claims, includes discursive and performative aspects, and is political in the sense that words and deeds challenge a specific order",["ibid."]],["the definition does not predetermine the relationship between violence and radicalization",[]],["We have been witnessing a double and interlinked form of radicalization among activists and those who react to them.",[]],["noticeable shifts towards radicalization in goals and practices, moving from FFF to Letzte Generation, Ende Gelände, and partly XR.",[]],["radicalization of the state, not of demonstrators",[]],["Radicalization is rarely purely endogenous but is slowed down or intensified by external factors.",[]],["This definition is beneficial for our purpose, as it is analytically neutral, avoids normative claims, includes discursive and performative aspects, and is political in the sense that words and deeds challenge a specific order (ibid.).",["ibid."]]],"rt":[["terrorism",[]],["civil disobedience",[]]],"sb":[["terrorism",["Gaspar et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["Terrorists are thus often perceived as \"violent intellectuals\" who pursue political goals in an organized form and, therefore, want to influence the public psychologically",["Hoffmann, 2006, 38f"]],["Terrorists are thus often perceived as \"violent intellectuals\" who pursue political goals in an organized form and, therefore, want to influence the public psychologically (Hoffmann, 2006, 38f).",["Hoffmann, 2006, 38f"]],["In short, and already formulated by Jenkins in 1974, \"Terrorism is theater, \" which uses violence to communicate internally and externally (Jenkins, 1974, 4).",["Jenkins, 1974, 4"]],["The emphasis on fear and violence, which is central to terrorism, is largely absent from these movements",[]]],"rt":[["violence",["Hoffmann, 2006, 34"]],["political",["Hoffmann, 2006, 34"]],["fear",["Hoffmann, 2006, 34"]],["threat",["Hoffmann, 2006, 34"]],["psychological effects",["Hoffmann, 2006, 34"]],["radicalization",["Gaspar et al., 2021"]],["civil disobedience",[]],["political violence",[]]],"sp":[["radicalization",["Gaspar et al., 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["to analyze claims in terms of microstructures",[]]]},{"de":[["when predicting the stance of a claim, these eight relation types can all be reduced to promote and suppress relations",[]]],"sp":[["fine-grained relations",[]]],"ex":[["equal(A, B) is can be treated as promote(A, B)",[]]]},{"de":[["related to controversial issues in society.",[]]]},{"rt":[["analyzing on-line debates",["2","3","4"]],["identifying opinion groups",["5","6","7"]],["predicting election results",["8","9"]],["detecting fake news",["10"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This approach goes beyond simply mastering digital technologies; it also encompasses the ability to interpret, analyze, and create media content-skills that are essential in an increasingly digitized world.",[]],["Media literacy emerges as a critical skill in addressing these issues",[]]],"rt":[["digital competencies",[]]],"sp":[["digital competencies",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The emergence of media concentration is in full swing, with the development of new communication technologies that can stimulate the tendency of integration and the appearance of new types of operators in the media sector.",[]],["it is more difficult or might become more difficult for the public to find out who are the owners of the media they use and on that basis form an opinion about the value of information, views and ideas that these media are broadcasting or spreading in the light of (un)hidden ulterior motives of their owners or those who might be behind them.",[]]],"rt":[["media concentration",[]]]},{"rt":[["public",[]],["commercial",[]]],"sb":[["public",[]],["commercial",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the term is primarily meant for the mass information, not the dominance of competences",[]],["Of course, the term is primarily meant for the mass information, not the dominance of competences.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["dual broadcasting system",[]],["commercial",[]]],"ex":[["BBC",[]],["RTCG",[]]]},{"sy":[["public broadcasting",[]]]},{"de":[["false information that is purposely spread to deceive people",["8"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The rise of fake news and its societal impact has been studied in the context of numerous recent events, such as the Brexit referendum and the 2016 US presidential elections [2].",["2"]],["Fake news has thus proven to be a major threat to democracy, journalism, and freedom of expression [1].",["1"]],["The exposure of users to fake news has been shown to have numerous deleterious effects, instances of which include inducing attitudes of inefficacy, alienation, trusting in false propaganda, cynicism toward certain political candidates and communities, that can at times give rise to the violent events.",[]],["Fake news outlets exploit the fact that social media platforms lack the editorial norms and processes of the traditional news media for assuring the accuracy and credibility of the information.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]],"ex":[["coordinated fake news and propaganda campaigns on Facebook are considered to have been key in inciting the Myanmar genocide in 2016-2017 [3]",["3"]],["false information about 5G communication networks being the cause of the novel Coronavirus outbreak",[]],["fake news claiming that Barack Obama was injured in an explosion resulting in a loss of $130 billion in stock value [5]",["5"]]]},{},{"de":[["false or misleading information",["8"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is noteworthy that while stance detection may rely on sentiment analysis, the goal of sentiment analysis is to analyze personal emotions rather than the objective verification of statements.",[]]],"rt":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The aim of CDA is to highlight the connection between language, values, power, ideology, society, and opinions (van Dijk, 2011).",["van Dijk, 2011"]],["The aim of CDA is to highlight the connection between language, values, power, ideology, society, and opinions",["van Dijk, 2011"]]],"rt":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Discourse focuses not only on the sentences but on considering the use of language as well",["Yule, 2014"]]]},{"sp":[["Transitivity",[]]]},{"sp":[["Transitivity",[]]]},{"sb":[["material",[]],["mental",[]],["relational types",[]]]},{"sp":[["Process Types",[]]]},{"sp":[["Transitivity",[]]]},{"sp":[["Process Types",[]]]},{"de":[["These structured intelligence indicators can help categorize, attribute, and track disinformation campaigns.",[]],["concept-based CTI indicators enable the identification of new fake news articles that share similarities with known disinformation narratives.",[]]]},{"de":[["These indicators focus on semantic and structural characteristics, ensuring greater resilience against adversarial modifications.",[]]],"rt":[["traditional CTI indicators",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["derived from the textual content of fake news articles.",[]],["Unlike traditional IoCs, these indicators remain persistent across different campaigns and dissemination channels, making them more effective for long-term tracking and analysis.",[]]],"sy":[["concept-based CTI indicators",[]]]},{"ex":[["platforms like Chevron-funded The Richmond Standard",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Key elements of DISARM include actor profiling (e.g., state-sponsored campaigns, cybercriminals, ideological groups), tactics (e.g., narrative amplification, deepfake propagation, social engineering), and countermeasures (e.g., AI-driven detection, cross-platform attribution, content moderation).",[]],["DIS-ARM treats disinformation as a systemic cyber threat requiring multi-layered intelligence sharing and automated threat hunting.",[]]]},{"de":[["each characterized by distinct themes, narratives, and objectives.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The widespread adoption of social media platforms has further aggravated this issue, enabling rapid dissemination of disinformation at an unprecedented scale",["4","5","6","7"]]]},{"ex":[["Conservative Beaver and The Red Panther",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["websites like American Action News",[]]]},{"de":[["These relationships provide contextual meaning to the extracted entities.",[]]]},{"de":[["This approach allows for identifying nuanced connections between potentially misleading news and known disinformation content.",[]],["This analysis follows a similar approach as in the lexical similarity analysis but with the primary distinction of using semantic embeddings instead of lexical frequency-based representations.",[]],["This analysis builds upon the lexical similarity evaluation by introducing a semantic approach to fake news attribution.",[]],["To address this limitation, we employed Sentence-BERT (SBERT), which enhances attribution accuracy by detecting semantic equivalence between extracted tuples and campaign reference data.",[]],["Leveraging word embeddings, SBERT enables a context-aware comparison, making it more resilient to textual variations introduced by disinformation actors attempting to evade detection.",[]]],"rt":[["Syntactic similarity",[]]]},{"de":[["In these relationships, the subject represents the entity performing an action, the verb describes the action or relationship, and the object represents the entity affected by the action.",[]]]},{"de":[["measuring the overlap in vocabulary and phrases between potential disinformation content and known fake news.",[]]],"rt":[["Semantic similarity",[]]]},{"ex":[["operations from Ghana or Myanmar",[]],["as seen in operations from Ghana or Myanmar",[]]]},{"rt":[["stance detection",["Wang et al., 2019"]]]},{"sb":[["target-directed or aspect-specific sentiment",[]]]},{"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]],["aspect-based sentiment",["Wang et al., 2019"]]]},{"sp":[["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["misleading content",[]],["articles that originate from satirical websites but were transformed by others and put in a misleading context",[]]],"sy":[["misleading content",[]]],"ex":[["fake news stimulates and sparks peer-to-peer discussions, whether to support or correct the assumptions held in the (fake) contents",["Bode & Vraga, 2018","Colliander, 2019"]],["stories containing deliberatively misleading elements making the reader believe it is correct",[]]]},{},{"de":[["whereby a communicative intention to influence the judgments or behavior of a \"persuade\" tend to be the norm",["Burnell & Reeve, 1984","O'keefe, 2015","Perloff, 2020","Simons, 1976"]],["This phenomenon might occur because discussing involves processing new information that challenges one's previous beliefs. This exposure might be sufficient to enable attitude ambivalence or directly change one's political attitudes and opinions.",[]]],"rt":[["political discussion",[]],["information acquisition",[]]]},{"de":[["This promotion of particular points of view are often entrenched in agenda-setting practices in media, which I will be referring to as agendisation.",[]],["Agendisation is a media mentality that is aligned with practices of accountabilisation.",[]]],"sy":[["agenda-setting",[]]],"rt":[["accountabilisation",[]],["agenda-setting",[]]],"sp":[["institutional practices",[]],["media logics",[]]]},{"rt":[["investigative journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This includes 'prohibitions, exclusions, [and] limitations' associated with discourse, not in terms of an ultimate or absolute truth, but in relation to 'ways of speaking' about teachers and their work (Foucault, 1972, p. 193).",["Foucault, 1972, p. 193"]]]},{"de":[["Within the scope of this freedom of expression, the editorial and op-ed pages provide a platform to express the editorial line",[]]]},{"rt":[["factualisation",[]]],"sp":[["journalistic practices",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Through this practice of gatekeeping, journalists and editors can frame the news for their readers (Entman, 1993).",["Entman, 1993"]]],"rt":[["selection and salience",[]]]},{"de":[["Institutionally, this practice is known as 'gatekeeping'",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This can include 'how material is organized, the style in which it is presented, the focus or emphasis on particular characteristics of behavior, and the grammar of media communication' (p. 10) as well as how is it 'treated, and given meaning [by institutions and practitioners] in order to promote a particular kind of presentation and understanding (p. 197).",[]]]},{"de":[["These mentalities are constructed realities and forms of thought that circulate particular accounts, and are linked to institutional and journalistic practices in media.",[]],["This collective term refers to the shared media practices that frame news coverage.",[]]],"rt":[["discourse",[]],["mentalities",[]],["mediatisation",[]]]},{"de":[["Rawolle (2010) suggests 'mediatisation can be conceptualised as a set of identifiable practices' that can systematically impact the practices of individuals, groups, and systems (p. 22).",["Rawolle (2010)","p. 22"]]],"rt":[["media logics",[]]]},{"de":[["These mentalities are 'representations' that shape the minds of populations and social agendas (Ricoeur, 2009).",["Ricoeur, 2009"]]],"rt":[["regime of practices",["Foucault, 1991c"]]]},{},{"de":[["Additionally, when this is presented in a 'factual' manner it legitimates and reinforces credibility in what is being said and who is saying it generating an 'oracle effect' (Bourdieu, 1991).",["Bourdieu, 1991"]]]},{"de":[["This makes newspapers 'performative texts' (Ball, 2000) in that they are potentially able to actively construct and transform social realities.",["Ball, 2000"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["factualisation",[]]],"sp":[["journalistic practices",[]]],"ex":[["simple statistics were used, augmenting these with adjectives such as 'staggering'",[]],["the use of 'independent' reports produced by non-government business agencies external to education systems",[]]]},{"rt":[["positioning",[]]]},{"sp":[["moralization",[]],["Moral evaluation",[]]]},{"sb":[["Personal authority",["Van Leeuwen 2007"]],["Expert authority",["Van Leeuwen 2007"]],["Role model authority",["Van Leeuwen 2007"]],["Impersonal authority",["Van Leeuwen 2007"]],["The authority of tradition",["Van Leeuwen 2007"]],["The authority of conformity",["Van Leeuwen 2007"]],["impersonal",[]],["personal",[]],["expert",[]],["role model",[]],["tradition",[]],["conformity",[]]],"sp":[["legitimation strategies",[]],["legitimation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Disinformation is typically fueled and made viral by certain authorities (esp. political authorities, and these are different political actors in different countries; see Recuero et al. 2022) and masquerades as factual information using particular legitimation strategies.",[]],["mythopoesis is a feature of fake news.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["which here includes modals and passive verbs (underlined and italicized).",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In the context of media and the social system of knowledge production, this institutional order refers to mainstream journalism",[]],["against which disinformation outlets define themselves either through imitation or contestation.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Rationalization",[]]]},{"de":[["an analytical category that forms part of the methodology and guides the identification of discursive practices in the data.",[]],["(It) 'explains' the institutional order by ascribing cognitive validity to its objectivated meanings and [---] justifies the institutional order by giving a normative dignity to its practical imperatives.",["1966: 111","van Leeuwen 2007: 92"]]],"sb":[["Authorization",["Van Leeuwen 2007"]],["Moral evaluation",["Van Leeuwen 2007"]],["Rationalization",["Van Leeuwen 2007"]],["Mythopoesis",["Van Leeuwen 2007"]]]},{},{"sb":[["Evaluation (esp. through the use of evaluative adjectives)",[]],["Abstraction",[]],["Analogies or comparison (positive or negative)",[]]],"sp":[["legitimation strategies",[]],["legitimation",[]]],"ex":[["their [vaccines] efficacy in children has reached a shamefully low level",[]]]},{"de":[["Moral tales are different from cautionary tales in that they are didactic and aim to teach a moral lesson, which is based on the paradigm of protagonists being rewarded for engaging in legitimate social practices, or restoring the legitimate order and vice versa.",[]]],"sp":[["Mythopoesis",[]]]},{"de":[["In the case of disinformation and mainstream media, the value systems are directly conflicting and often incompatible.",[]]],"sb":[["evaluation",[]],["abstraction",[]],["analogies",[]]]},{"de":[["These narratives are structured as archetypal tales with prototypical good and evil characters, follow a plot with an easily identifiable scheme, and usually have a moral.",[]],["mythopoesis in larger textual units can signal deceitful content though it is not an unambiguous identifier.",[]],["mythopoesis in larger textual units can signal deceitful content though it is not an unambiguous identifier",[]]],"sb":[["Moral tales and cautionary tales",[]],["Inversion of actors/actions",[]],["Protagonists vs. antagonists",[]],["Symbolic actions",[]],["cautionary tales",[]],["moral tales",[]]],"sp":[["legitimation strategies",[]],["legitimation",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Instrumental rationalization",["Van Leeuwen 2007"]],["Theoretical rationalization",["Van Leeuwen 2007"]]],"sp":[["legitimation strategies",[]],["legitimation",[]]]},{"de":[["These include references to experiential or scientific knowledge and appear in disinformation texts as definitions, explanations, and predictions of activities, often in relation to vaccination, public health measures, or medical research, as in examples (5-7).",[]]]},{"de":[["sobre las temáticas tratadas en los medios",[]]],"sy":[["establecimiento de encuadres",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["CT development",[]]]},{"de":[["If we want to prepare students to develop CT in order to face real/false news spread by social media, we need to engage them in deep epistemic assessment, namely in the critical analysis of the content, the source, procedures and evidence behind the claims, apart from other tasks.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Thus, epistemic assessment needs adequate disciplinary knowledge, but also meta-cognitive competence for recognizing unsupported beliefs.",[]]]},{"de":[["CT development and epistemic cognition depends on many factors, and teachers have an important role in achieving these goals (Greene and Yu, 2016;Chinn et al., 2020).",[]]],"sb":[["epistemic Aims",[]],["epistemic Ideals",[]],["Reliable processes",[]]]},{"sp":[["competence",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["out-group animosity",[]]]},{"de":[["Intermediate values capture more balanced media diets, with exposure to both same-side, opposing-side, or neutral outlets.",[]]]},{"de":[["Amplified by platform algorithms, these chambers constantly reinforce like-minded perspectives and exaggerate how extreme the opposing side is",["Yang et al. 2016","Lu et al. 2020"]],["echo chambers where individuals encountered content aligned with their preexisting beliefs, both reinforcing and skewing their perceptions of political opponents",[]],["reinforce selective exposure and misperception of opposing groups",[]],["Amplified by platform algorithms, these chambers constantly reinforce like-minded perspectives and exaggerate how extreme the opposing side is (Yang et al. 2016;Lu et al. 2020).",["Yang et al. 2016","Lu et al. 2020"]]],"sy":[["partisan echo chambers",[]]]},{"rt":[["perceived polarization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This individual-level measure simultaneously captures misperception of the out-group's position and a respondent's own ideological alignment",[]]]},{"rt":[["false polarization",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a way to connect people with climate change",[]]]},{"rt":[["baby boomers",[]],["prewar",[]],["seniors",[]],["elders",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These therefore refer to underlying ideas rather than specific language.",[]],["Values can impact how people engage with climate change",["Corner and Clarke, 2017","Whitmarsh and Capstick, 2018"]]],"ex":[["respect for tradition",[]],["being broadminded",[]],["having wealth",[]],["having respect for tradition",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["certain levels of negativity in news might entail faster information processing given that it stimulates more attention and enhances retrieval of relevant information",["Hilbig, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["Emphasizing certain elements of a topic above others makes these aspects more salient in the communicating text and reveals a speaker's particular interpretation of an issue",["Entman, 1993"]],["The central premise of framing theory is that each issue can be viewed from multiple perspectives",["Chong and Druckman, 2007"]]],"sb":[["losses and gains frames",["Kahneman and Tversky, 2013"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["news credibility",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Fearinducing negative news is generally judged by audiences to be more relevant and important",["Young, 2003"]],["News on negative incidents are more attention-grabbing as they are often perceived as more surprising, dramatic, sensational, and entertaining",["Lengauer et al., 2012","Trussler and Soroka, 2014"]],["negative information is more diagnostic than positive information and therefore given greater value",["Skowronski and Carlston, 1989"]],["the relative preferences of avoiding losses over achieving gains is offered as an explanation for the greater importance of negative information",["Kahneman and Tversky, 2013"]],["by stimulating more activation and attention, negative information may enhance accessibility in memory and allow for faster information processing and easier retrieval of relevant knowledge",["Hilbig, 2012","Risen and Gilovich, 2007"]],["individuals generally pay more attention to information that can potentially be related to risks or threats",["Lengauer et al., 2012"]],["negativity bias reflects the greater necessity to be attentive to situations having the potential to cause harm",[]],["This more fluent evaluation of negative information, in which news is processed less elaborately and credibility is taken for granted",[]],["negativity bias in the evaluation of news",[]],["negativity bias in their credibility assessment of news",[]],["research has primarily demonstrated a negativity bias in the selection of news, both on the supply (Van der Meer et al., 2019) and demand side of news (Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2020)",["Van der Meer et al., 2019","Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["more frequent news users might hold higher levels of news media literacy which might make them aware of biases in both news production and news selection.",[]]]},{"de":[["Competition for advertising revenues among outlets is believed to lead to lowquality news that is increasingly focused on sensationalism",["Arbaoui et al., 2020"]],["sensationalism is considered an undesirable phenomenon as it blurs the lines between traditional journalism and tabloid journalism",["Kilgo et al., 2018"]],["Competition for advertising revenues among outlets is believed to lead to lowquality news that is increasingly focused on sensationalism (Arbaoui et al., 2020). Accordingly, sensationalism is considered an undesirable phenomenon as it blurs the lines between traditional journalism and tabloid journalism (Kilgo et al., 2018).",[]]]},{"de":[["Stories gain most news attention when they, for example, have a negative tone, focus on elites or specific countries, and are geographically and culturally closer.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Benesch's framework",[]]]},{"de":[["Hatred could arise out of antagonisms involving race, nationality, ethnicity, class, religion, gender, and sexual orientation.",[]],["we conclude that the claims and the speech acts are forms of hate speech that attack personal dignity, dehumanize groups, incite discrimination, advocate hostility, create social wedge, and impute a crime.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["indicate his standpoint, agenda or ideology",[]]],"sy":[["semiotic resources",["Machin & Mayr, 2012"]]]},{"sy":[["rhetorical resources",["Machin & Mayr, 2012"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Individuals belonging to these echo chambers tend to select and spread information that confirms their own beliefs (confirmation bias) and which reinforce their position",["Bozzola et al., 2020(Bozzola et al., , p. 2823)"]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["most are a combination of personal, social, political, religious, philosophical, and cultural factors",["Succi, 2018"]]],"rt":[["vaccine refusal",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Among various gender-biased behaviours of pre-trained models, bias on professions is the most prominent and wellstudied",["de Vassimon Manela et al., 2021","Vig et al., 2020","Qian et al., 2019","Zhao et al., 2019"]]]},{"de":[["compared with BERT-base, the bias scores from BERT-SPPA model are indeed closer to 0, indicating that BERT-SPPA can mitigate gender bias of such professions to some extent.",[]]],"ex":[["For example, the bias score for \"nurse\" token decreases from -0.7 in BERT-base to -0.5 in BERT-SPPA and 0.1 in GEEP model.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["O'Neill's typology",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Forceville distinguishes four types",[]]]},{"rt":[["multimodal metaphors",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Framing involves selecting aspects of perceived reality and making them salient, thereby promoting a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, or proposed solution",["Entman, 1993, p. 51"]]]},{"sp":[["Forceville distinguishes four types",[]]]},{"sp":[["O'Neill's typology",[]]]},{"rt":[["Metonymy",[]]],"ex":[["malevolent human agents (source) mapped onto climate phenomena (target)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Forceville distinguishes four types",[]]]},{"rt":[["cross-modal metaphors",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Forceville distinguishes four types",[]]]},{"sp":[["O'Neill's typology",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["Showing extensive repetition within the image frame-e.g., an entire street affected rather than a single house.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the crisis is personified and depicted as a malevolent agent with a human-like, destructive nature",[]],["casting the abstract notion of \"climate change\" as an enemy in the war scenario hides the fact that the real culprits are humanity and its behavior.",[]],["the war metaphor underpins an anthropocentric master frame in which humans appear chiefly as victims of an external threat.",[]]],"sy":[["war metaphor",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["has no scientific merit or educational value",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["places the stress on the transfer of news salience, which largely aims at telling the audience what they should be thinking about",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["factors that determine the qualities of a frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["actors or claim-makers through series of competition. These actors may include politicians, organizations, and social movements.",[]],["They will make sure that the messages are framed in a way that is consistent with their preferred framing",["Hallahan, 1999"]]]},{},{"de":[["internal factors that influence the outcome of a frame take the centre stage in framing analysis",[]],["internal factors, including the individual characteristics, ideological and political orientations, professional values, journalistic routines, and organizational constraints",[]],["Journalists and editors, however, are not perceived as part of the contenders, as Entman et al. (2008) justified, though they play a major role in the frame-building process, they rarely push any political goal.",["Entman et al. (2008)"]],["the role of media in the frame-building process can be more active. Media, for at least, have the liberty to select its news sources, choose from whom to quote and organise the information, rather than just repeating it.",[]],["In the process of frame-building, the internal factors that influence the outcome of a frame take the centre stage in framing analysis.",[]],["internal factors that refer to the practices in the newsroom and the personalities of the journalists, and external factors that have close interaction with the editorial personnel in such a way influencing the outcome of a frame.",[]]],"rt":[["frame-setting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["explores the potential influences of media by examining its effects on audience's schemata or the human frames",[]],["pays special attention to the organisation and presentation of news attributes as mean to impact attitudinal changes among its audience",[]],["examines the selection and salience of certain aspects of an issue by exploring images, stereotypes, metaphors, actors, and messages",[]],["has a comparatively narrower focus that pinpoints on the presentation of the issue itself",[]],["Simply put, framing targets the cognitive aspect of its audiences in order to bring about an impact in their perceptions (see Carragee & Roefs, 2004;Endres, 2004;Gevorgyan, 2010;Scheff, 2005;Goftman, 1974;Simon & Xenos, 2000).",["Carragee & Roefs, 2004","Endres, 2004","Gevorgyan, 2010","Scheff, 2005","Goftman, 1974","Simon & Xenos, 2000"]],["This indeed denotes frame as representing both the psychological and sociological constructs as explained by Iyengar & Simon (1993).",["Iyengar & Simon (1993)"]],["This approach explores the potential influences of media by examining its effects on audience's schemata or the human frames.",[]],["Framing, in particular, pays special attention to the organisation and presentation of news attributes as mean to impact attitudinal changes among its audience.",[]],["media frame too places borders around something (issues highlighted in media in our case), distinguishing it from what is around it",["Gamson, 2004"]],["to frame is to actively construct the meaning of the reality in question",["Hanggli & Kriesi, 2010"]],["journalists do not simply repeat whatever information put forward by the news sources but rather select and organise this newsworthy information before getting it on print",[]]],"rt":[["agenda setting",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["Responsibility",[]],["Conflict",[]],["Morality",[]],["Economic Consequences",[]],["Human Interest",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["factors that determine the qualities of a frame",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["generated by the chaotic, fast, and unverified information circulating directly in social networks and messengers.",[]]],"rt":[["top-down uncertainty",[]]]},{"ex":[["Ukrainska Pravda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["multi-faceted verification that goes beyond simple disproving",[]],["comprehensive analysis, comparing original elements such as logos and broadcast languages with falsified visual or audio inserts",[]],["the media community has a networked, coordinated system for responding to disinformation",[]],["fact-checking is not limited to technical verification but includes exposing motives",[]]],"sy":[["separate genre of journalism",[]]],"sb":[["Source verification",[]],["Analysis of visual evidence (forensic media expertise)",[]],["Verification of timeline and identifiers",[]],["Comprehensive verification (networked)",[]],["Contextual verification (normalisation)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Telegram",[]],["X",[]]]},{"de":[["in countering coordinated information campaigns, where the key debunking tool is the verification of the temporal and spatial compatibility of content.",[]]]},{"rt":[["fact-check",[]]]},{"de":[["less attention is paid to in-depth analysis of the internal political landscape or international relations, and the coverage of the opposing side of the conflict is often minimised.",[]]],"rt":[["self-censorship",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["long legal proceedings against Bihus.Info (Zmina, 2022)",["Zmina, 2022"]]]},{"sy":[["Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation",[]],["SLAPPs",[]]]},{"rt":[["Legal pressure",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["communication counter-narrative",[]]]},{"de":[["caused by the actions and messages of authorities, political leaders, and official institutions.",[]]],"rt":[["bottom-up uncertainty",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["together make sensational or conspiratorial misinformation more psychologically compelling",["Salvi et al., 2021"]]],"rt":[["proportionality bias",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive tendencies",[]]]},{"ex":[["deliberate mimicry of authoritative scientific discourse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) by Petty and Cacioppo (1986), suggest that emotional appeals are powerful in highstress situations. During crises, people favour peripheral cues like emotional tone over systematic evaluation.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["together make sensational or conspiratorial misinformation more psychologically compelling",["Salvi et al., 2021"]]],"rt":[["agency detection",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive tendencies",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["overhearers",[]]]},{"sb":[["participants, to wit, listeners who the speaker intends to include in the conversation",[]],["overhearers, namely listeners who are not intended to be included in the conversation by the speaker, but that nevertheless witness the conversation",[]],["eavesdroppers, listeners who have access to what the speaker says without the speaker being aware",[]],["bystanders, listeners who have access to what the speaker says while this is in fact mutually known by speaker and audience",[]]]},{"sy":[["plausible deniability",[]]],"rt":[["dogwhistles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an informal category that has seen the pressures of both theoretical and non-theoretical usage",[]],["designate attempts at covert messaging, as well as more subconscious ways of priming discriminatory attitudes",[]],["dogwhistles function by strategically raising certain specific pre-existing beliefs into salience in the audience, which serve as the basis for inferring the intended message.",[]],["the term dogwhistle itself is not a term of art, but an informal category that has seen the pressures of both theoretical and non-theoretical usage.",[]],["it started to designate attempts at covert messaging, as well as more subconscious ways of priming discriminatory attitudes.",[]],["the term dogwhistle first appeared in the context of sociological studies, to put a name on the discovery that \"[s]ubtle changes in question-wording sometimes produce remarkably different results. . . [r]espondents hear something in the question that researchers do not\".",["2"]]],"rt":[["covert messaging",[]],["discriminatory attitudes",[]],["conversational implicature",[]],["conventional implicature",[]],["perlocutionary inferences",[]],["social meaning",[]],["audience design",[]],["directionality",[]],["plausible deniability",[]]],"sb":[["overt-intentional",[]],["overtunintentional",[]],["covert-intentional",[]],["covert-unintentional",[]],["overt intentional dog-whistle",[]],["overt-unintentional",[]]],"ex":[["Bush is saying that there is power in the goodness, the idealism, and the faith of the American people, something everyone can understand. But only a few will pick up on the reference to a religious hymn well-known in the Evangelical community, and so few will understand that Bush is probably making a covert appeal to Evangelicals for their support.",["6"]],["the anti-vaxxer message contained in (3), done by means of the phrase 'big pharma'.",[]]]},{"de":[["function by virtue of evoking, in a subset of the audience, a narrative framework (a set of assumptions involv-ing both descriptive and normative claims about some issue or set of related issues), similarly to the way in which a film director may evoke a previous film by including in his own film a scene with certain properties.",[]],["achieve their goal by exploiting two different common grounds: the common ground the speaker shares with the audience at large (i.e. with the addressee of the plain-text or overt message), and the common ground the speaker shares with the target or dogwhistle audience (i.e. with the intended addressee of the coded or covert, dogwhistled message).",[]],["produced through a non-Gricean mechanism.",[]]],"rt":[["conversational role",[]],["narrative framework",[]]]},{"rt":[["re-framing",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["eavesdroppers",[]],["bystanders",[]]],"sp":[["conversational roles",[]]]},{"sp":[["conversational roles",[]]]},{"de":[["the speaker seeks to reorient the conversational goals of the conversation by smoothly changing the question under discussion (QUD-shifting).",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{"sy":[["dogwhistle audience",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people's cognitive biases can be triggered and their resonating processes changed by fake news through the confirmation of biases, repetition, and emotional arousal, all of which can lead to information fallacies.",["Gelfert (2018)"]],["Misleading news may have unforeseen effects on public behavior, making it more difficult to monitor the spread of disease and exacerbating its harmful impact on a country's health ecosystems and even security",["Mheidly & Fares, 2020"]]],"sy":[["pseudojournalistic disinformation",["Egelhofer & Lecheler, 2019"]],["political labelling",["Egelhofer & Lecheler, 2019"]],["pseudojournalistic disinformation and political labelling",["2019"]]],"rt":[["pseudojournalistic disinformation",["Egelhofer & Lecheler, 2019"]],["political labelling",["Egelhofer & Lecheler, 2019"]]],"sb":[["news satire",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["parody",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["fabrication",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["manipulation",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["advertising",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["propaganda",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["news satire, parody, fabrication, manipulation, advertising, and propaganda",["2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["They can base their decision on how familiar a belief is with other widely-held beliefs.",[]]]},{"de":[["mechanisms such as public rejection or shame",[]]]},{"de":[["which may not lead to a practical judgement but an emotional reaction to what feels \"right\"",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["had small, and often non-significant, effects on the perceived accuracy of false posts and participants' willingness to share them.",[]]],"sb":[["organically occurring user corrections",[]],["institutionalized forms of user corrections",[]]]},{"rt":[["social media logic",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["social media logic",[]]]},{"sp":[["social media logic",[]]]},{"rt":[["news media",[]],["social media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["First, it draws attention to the fact that communicators must abide, to a certain extent, by a particular \"rhythm, grammar, and format\" to be seen as legitimate media actors producing legitimate media messages, while recognizing a certain degree of fluidity for those things (Altheide, 2004, p. 294). Second, it recognizes that technological affordances play a major role in how, and the extent to which, the communicators can abide by those codes (Altheide, 2016).",[]],["social media logic amplifies existing aspects of media logic and adds new ones.",[]],["The aforementioned distinctions between media logic and social media logic raise questions about the extent to which these findings might apply to social media, and Twitter in particular.",[]],["Media logic can therefore be understood as a subset of the broader conceptual framework of institutional logics (Hjarvard, 2018), and one that focuses on how media vehicles are instrumentalized for communication, and in particular, to convey information about specific issues.",["2018","Hjarvard, 2018"]]],"rt":[["social media logic",[]],["institutional logics",["2018"]]],"sp":[["institutional logics",["Hjarvard, 2018"]]]},{"sp":[["social media logic",[]]]},{"sp":[["social media logic",[]]]},{"de":[["social media logic amplifies existing aspects of media logic and adds new ones.",[]],["The aforementioned distinctions between media logic and social media logic raise questions about the extent to which these findings might apply to social media, and Twitter in particular.",[]],["This is no doubt due in part to the platform's technical affordances (Altheide, 2016), which promote and facilitate distribution via single-click actions and integrated hosting, which in turn reinforces the core element of shareability that characterizes social media logic.",["Altheide, 2016"]]],"rt":[["media logic",[]],["traditional media logic",[]],["traditional media",[]]],"sb":[["programmability",[]],["popularity",[]],["connectivity",[]],["datafication",[]]],"sp":[["media logic",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"sy":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["misinformation and conspiracy theories are indeed similar, but substantially different, misinformation phenomena, particularly in terms of an individual's susceptibility to these beliefs.",[]],["misinformation beliefs are to a lesser extent a question of an individual's level of education or news media literacy.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["the coronavirus cannot be transmitted in warm countries",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Understanding how these algorithms may exhibit biases related to such sensitive attributes can contribute to developing fair and transparent models while ensuring that they do not perpetuate or increase societal inequities, reinforcing inclusivity.",[]]]},{"de":[["Modern deepfake methods are known for their capacity to produce realistically adulterated or falsified multimedia content that can potentially spread harmful and malicious information, disseminate fake news, or even promote violence and hate.",[]]],"ex":[["the spread of explicit fake generated images of the singer Taylor Swift",[]]]},{"de":[["This process usually involves using advanced machine learning algorithms that analyze subtle inconsistencies and anomalies that may indicate the presence of manipulation, and its main approaches focus on the utilization of spatial or temporal features",["Xu et al., 2024"]]]},{},{"ex":[["apparent gender",[]],["ethnicity",[]],["age",["2024"]]]},{"sy":[["statement of facts",[]]],"rt":[["value judgements",[]]]},{},{"de":[["\"Reporting errors, satire, parody, and partisan news and commentary\" are excluded from the scope of the Disinformation.",["73"]],["The problem is not fake news itself but the disinformation and what it leads to and potential violent impact it might have on society.",[]],["EU seeks to combat disinformation and the misinformation that consequently harms the public.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["The dissemination of fake news poses a risk to both freedom of expression and the right to access information.",[]],["fake news is defined in broad sense which enables the state to decide in favor of illegitimacy of content, making it unforeseeable and unpredictable for people to acknowledge whether the content they post online is an unreliable information or not.",[]],["fake news is being combated through different tools, by self-regulated social network platforms",[]],["there is no common definition of fake news, which makes it difficult to remove the content on self-regulatory basis.",[]],["Fake news should not be confused with journalistic errors or completely made-up stories.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["Made-up stories shall be considered as fake news if they are presented in way that pretend to be truth.",[]],["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["text",[]],["images",[]],["videos",[]],["deepfakes",[]],["combination of these forms",[]]]},{"de":[["The meaning of freedom of expression does not only consist of interpretation of Article 10 paragraph 1 of the Convention but also derives from the case-law.",[]],["freedom of expression includes expressing oneself in clothing, 11 the access to public information, 12 the artistic expression, 13 radio and television broadcasting, 14 protection of witnesses from incriminating themselves, 15 the expression in written form (such as leaflets), 16 the displaying of vestimentary symbols of religious or political groups, 17 and the expression of criticism or satire. 18",["11","12","13","14","15","16","17","18"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["statement of facts",[]],["description of fact is easily proved right or wrong",[]]]},{},{"de":[["context is canonically structured in terms of key schematic categories, including setting (time and place), participants, action/event, and circumstances (previous acts and social situation), goals (participant's perspectives, knowledge, and opinions), current and global relations between participants, and group membership (ingroups and outgroups).",["Van Dijk, 1997"]]]},{"de":[["Context models are regarded as \"the cognitive interface between text and context\"",["Van Dijk, 1993, p. 38"]],["They are subjectively constructed to link personal experiences with shared group experiences, individual opinions with social attitudes, and individual text and talk with the discourse of a group or institution.",[]],["Context models are built around language users' mental models that signify their subjective mental representations of experiences and events, opinion structures, and processed knowledge.",[]],["context models are more 'dynamic' as they are strategically preformulated and then tuned and updated ongoingly during discourse processing for more appropriate and competent interaction",["Van Dijk, 1997"]],["In discourse, context models serve to \"monitor the transformation of information\" into discourse meanings",["Van Dijk, 1999, p. 134"]],["as they specify which relevant information to be stated, implied, or concealed.",[]],["Moreover, discourse models highlight the relationship between semantic macrostructures, macropropositions, and microstructures, control the level of information description and completeness, and define the ways language users socially self-define themselves and other participants in the present communicative situation",["Van Dijk, 1997"]],["discourse is said to be motivated by social cognition that is subjectively mediated through the text producer's mental representations referred to as the 'context model'.",[]],["However, unlike mental models, context models are more 'dynamic' as they are strategically preformulated and then tuned and updated ongoingly during discourse processing for more appropriate and competent interaction (Van Dijk, 1997).",["Van Dijk, 1997"]],["Furthermore, context models are constructed based on language users' \"shared sociocultural knowledge about language and interaction\" as well as \"ad hoc situational personal properties\" (Van Dijk, 2009a, p. 10) such as goals, interests, attitudes, values, inferences, motivations, intentions, ideologies, and purpose.",[]],["In discourse, context models serve to \"monitor the transformation of information\" into discourse meanings (Van Dijk, 1999, p. 134) as they specify which relevant information to be stated, implied, or concealed.",[]]],"rt":[["situation model",["Van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983","cf. Van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983"]]],"sp":[["situation model",["Van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Episodes show the organization of textual sequences of propositions, outline macropropositions, perform cognitive functions, and highlight coherence relations among propositions.",[]]]},{"de":[["that are represented in mental models stored in episodic memory",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["microstructure",[]]],"rt":[["lexical choice",[]],["syntactic features",[]],["rhetorical devices",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Therefore, a macroproposition is regarded as an empirical test for the \"global coherence of a text\"",[]],["Therefore, a macroproposition is regarded as an empirical test for the \"global coherence of a text\" (Van Dijk, 1980, p. 43).",["Van Dijk, 1980, p. 43"]]]},{"sy":[["global meanings",[]]]},{"rt":[["context models",[]]]},{"de":[["the text's microstructure that represents the semantic (surface) structure of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences (Van Dijk, 1980).",["Van Dijk, 1980"]]],"rt":[["macrostructure",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A proposition conceptually represents the minimal information unit in discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["textbase",[]]]},{"de":[["A proposition conceptually represents the minimal information unit in discourse.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["That is, Trump sought to be perceived as a father who is in charge of the well-being of the family members. In return, those family members are expected to be obedient.",[]]]},{"sy":[["complex micro topics",[]]],"rt":[["macrotheme",[]]]},{"rt":[["proposition",[]]]},{"de":[["Such a multidisciplinary approach operates at the interface of discourse linguistics, social sciences, and cognitive science shifting between the descriptive, interpretative, and explanatory levels of investigation. It gives an account of how complex information in texts is semantically structured, cognitively processed, and discursively represented.",[]]],"sp":[["CDA approaches",[]]]},{"de":[["built on the ideological polarization of an ingroup (WE/US) and an outgroup (THEY/THEM)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A characteristic feature of negatory rumours and legends is hypercritical thinking, which is expressed in strong suspicion, in considering real-life events as rumours, and in exposing them as another reality.",[]],["It means that each negatory rumour is coupled with an assertive rumour, replacing the denied reality with a new reality.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["People use it in specific ways in social situations to control outcomes, and as a persuasive device through the use of language to cause the inequality and marginalisation of others.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["casebased",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["genealogies",[]],["discourse analysis",[]]]},{"rt":[["discursive formations of sexual murder",[]]]},{"rt":[["discourse",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["terms such as 'stranger murder' are not gender specific",[]]],"ex":[["The report clearly limits the term 'stranger murder' to the killing of women and children.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a core part of patriotism is civic responsibility-a common feature of discourses on patriotism",["Brubaker 2004"]],["Telegram posts expose Russian youth to the idea that to be patriotic is to engage in both individual and collective actions to better the self and society.",[]]],"rt":[["patriotism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["SMIs appear to come from within the group they seek to influence (Gra ¨ve 2017).",["Gra ¨ve 2017"]]],"rt":[["SMIs",[]]]},{"de":[["They participate in state-aligned youth projects digitally and in person.",[]],["Yet they are those that are fit, strong, and able-bodied: those that take part are \"heroes\" and can become strong; those that remain on the sidelines are not and cannot.",[]]]},{"ex":[["films, novels, and video games",[]]]},{"de":[["militarization can become an even more everyday occurrence",[]]]},{},{"de":[["That loyalty is \"perhaps the most demanding [and] problematic form of loyalty because it may require the ultimate sacrifice\"",["Smith 2021, 12"]],["The description of these young people as enthusiastic, selfless, and kind citizens fits into broader conceptualizations of patriotism",[]]],"rt":[["civic responsibility",[]]]},{"rt":[["fashionable friends",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The role of the SMI is to make the untrustworthy trustworthy, to encourage participation in a shared discursive community, and to whitewash discourses of power.",[]]]},{"sy":[["SMI",[]]]},{"rt":[["SMI",[]]]},{"rt":[["cross-topic",[]],["cross-domain",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["femininity is discursively tied to moral evaluation, endurance, and symbolic lessons for society.",[]],["femininity is discursively constructed as vulnerability",[]],["femininity is bound to victimhood and morality.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["offers further insight into how these constructions contribute to symbolic marginalization: by representing women primarily as victims or moral exemplars, discourse strips them of individual agency and reduces them to social categories.",["Goffman, 1963","Link & Phelan, 2001"]]]},{},{"de":[["Frames can influence how people come to understand problems and their causes [Entman, 1993], and single out responsible parties [Elliott, 2012].",["Entman, 1993","Elliott, 2012","1993","2012"]],["framing should not be used to denigrate, attack, or alienate.",["Nisbet [2009]"]]],"ex":[["the presentation of climate change information in terms of scientific uncertainty",["Nisbet, 2009"]],["the discussion of COVID-19 in terms of outgroup threats",["Dhanani & Franz, 2021"]],["presentation of climate change information in terms of scientific uncertainty [Nisbet, 2009]",[]],["discussion of COVID-19 in terms of outgroup threats [Dhanani & Franz, 2021]",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The media have a recognised capacity to bring novel scientific phenomena into broader societal awareness [Joffe & Haarhoff, 2002], and to facilitate the uptake of words and phrases (including names) not typically a feature of the common lexicon [Masters-Waage et al., 2020].",["Joffe & Haarhoff, 2002","Masters-Waage et al., 2020"]]]},{"de":[["men benefiting more often from higher face-to-body ratios",[]]],"sy":[["face-ism bias",[]],["facial prominence",[]]],"rt":[["face-ism index",[]]]},{"de":[["The face-ism bias refers to a disparity in facial prominence when representing women and men in visual media, with men typically portrayed with greater facial prominence.",[]]],"sy":[["face-ism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Search engine providers, such as Google or Bing, are under academic scrutiny due to their role as gatekeepers: they decide on the relevance of content by filtering and ranking sources of information available on the web",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Women are less likely to be represented in gender-neutral media content",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["transitivity analysis",[]]]},{"sb":[["material",[]],["behavioral",[]],["mental",[]],["verbal",[]],["relational",[]],["existential",[]]]},{"sb":[["material",[]],["behavioral",[]],["mental",[]],["verbal",[]],["relational",[]],["existential",[]]]},{"de":[["impacts women and marginalised groups' ability to fully participate in social, economic, and political spheres",["Eagly and Karau, 2002","Brescoll and Uhlmann, 2008"]]]},{"de":[["In some cultures, GL is deeply ingrained in the language and is considered normal.",[]],["GL can hinder effective communication, particularly in contexts with diverse gender identities and expressions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["adding vectors in the direction of gradient ascent to each dimension of the initial feature.",[]],["it has more negative impacts than random perturbations",[]]],"ex":[["rumor publishers can deliberately misspell some words to inject adversarial perturbations, causing wrong detection results.",[]],["publishers can also remove responses against rumors, making rumors close to non-rumors, thereby fooling deep neural networks in detection models.",[]],["Malicious users also use bots to post induced comments containing specific high-frequency words, changing the stance of replying content.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The earlier a rumor is detected, the sooner social media can implement measures to curtail its spread.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It can identify whether a given source post is a rumor or not, based on a set of events that includes the source posts and corresponding responses.",[]],["The task of rumor detection involves using a trained classification model to identify rumor events from events of unknown authenticity.",[]],["The classification task for rumor detection aims to learn a classifier that assigns events represented as graphs to their corresponding categories.",[]]]},{"de":[["where corrective information inadvertently strengthens initial beliefs",["Swire-Thompson et al., 2022"]]]},{"de":[["once people encountered critical information they kept relying on it, even after it had been retracted.",[]],["Most studies have found that retractions are partially successful at reducing reliance on misinformation but do not completely eliminate its influence back to baseline",["Ecker et al., 2011","Ecker et al., 2017","Ecker & Antonio, 2021"]]],"rt":[["belief persistence",[]]],"ex":[["participants were told that a fire had developed at a commercial warehouse (Guillory & Geraci, 2010;Johnson & Seifert, 1994;Wilkes & Leatherbarrow, 1988;Wilkes & Reynolds, 1999). An initial message stated that the storage room contained carelessly stored paint cans and gas containers. Later, participants read a correction stating that this information was inaccurate and that the storage room was empty. Despite this correction, participants often disregarded the updated information when making inferences about the story. For instance, when asked about the possible cause of the fire, many participants still suggested that it could have been started by the flammable materials left in the storage room (Wilkes & Leatherbarrow, 1988).",["Guillory & Geraci, 2010","Johnson & Seifert, 1994","Wilkes & Leatherbarrow, 1988","Wilkes & Reynolds, 1999"]]]},{"de":[["individuals tend to infer expertise based on observable cues such as the length and diversity of an individual's experience in a particular domain",[]],["our use of the concept encompassed the more conventional notion of experience.",[]]]},{"de":[["the impression formation literature",[]]]},{"de":[["when the retraction creates a gap in the mental model of an event, individuals may struggle to fill this gap, especially if the correction does not provide a clear alternative explanation for the event's outcome",["Connor Desai & Reimers, 2019","Johnson & Seifert, 1994","Rich & Zaragoza, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["misinformation that is initially presented as true but is later identified as false is shown to have an ongoing influence on inferential reasoning.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["proofreading colleagues' articles, translating materials, drawing on personal networks to identify sources, promoting minoritized sources (Correa, 2010;Meyers & Gayle, 2015;Owens, 2008), taking on personal times to ensure the presence of minoritized stories and voices in the media (Bhowmik et al., 2024;Garbes, 2024;Oh & Min, 2023).",["Correa, 2010","Meyers & Gayle, 2015","Owens, 2008","Bhowmik et al., 2024","Garbes, 2024","Oh & Min, 2023"]],["proofreading colleagues' articles",[]],["translating materials",[]],["drawing on personal networks to identify sources",[]]]},{"sy":[["invisible work",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Guillaumin's theory conceptualizes social hierarchies as dynamic processes that serve to uphold power relations exercised by a majority group over minority groups.",["1972"]]]},{"de":[["drawing on the work of sociologist Colette Guillaumin (1972) in order to emphasize the process of minorization rather than the static condition of being a numerical minority.",[]],["Guillaumin's theory conceptualizes social hierarchies as dynamic processes that serve to uphold power relations exercised by a majority group over minority groups.",[]],["Guillaumin's theory conceptualizes social hierarchies as dynamic processes that serve to uphold power relations exercised by a majority group over minority groups. From this perspective, minoritization is not an inherent attribute of certain groups, but a relational process of othering that presupposes and reinforces the existence of a majority.",[]]],"sy":[["minority",[]]],"rt":[["social hierarchies",[]]]},{"de":[["This professional strain mirrors minority stress (Meyer, 2003)",[]]]},{"de":[["It includes mentoring or tutoring other individuals from minority backgrounds, representing organizational diversity, raising awareness, joining diversity initiatives and managing the emotional toll of workplace discrimination experienced or observed.",["Rodríguez et al., 2015"]],["this labour is often unrecognized within job evaluations, adds to workload, and tokenizes workers.",[]],["the hidden burden placed on minoritized journalists in the production of inclusive content",[]]],"ex":[["this labour is often unrecognized within job evaluations, adds to workload, and tokenizes workers.",[]],["mentoring or tutoring other individuals from minority backgrounds",[]],["raising awareness",[]],["joining diversity initiatives",[]],["representing organizational diversity",[]],["managing the emotional toll of workplace discrimination experienced or observed",[]]]},{"de":[["labeling them as having an inherently activist position serves to disqualify them from practicing their profession while using their demographic characteristics as evidence of their lack of neutrality.",[]],["Journalists who fear accusations of activism despite not having faced them tend to engage in self-censorship.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["cheap or shallow fakes",[]],["old images that are taken out of context",["Paris & Donovan 2019"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["funny, yet misleading images, containing incorrect stats or quotes",[]],["This category mostly contains memes with false quotes and statistics.",[]],["Memes contain a lot of text on them. This category mostly contains memes with false quotes and statistics.",[]]],"sp":[["image misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["typically more likely to have appeared in low quality or fact checking websites, which makes them easily discernible.",[]]],"sp":[["image misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["deceptively edited to appear real",[]]],"sy":[["doctored",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The distinction between evidence attribution and fact verification lies in the emphasis on identifying a source that can be attributed to the information.",[]]],"rt":[["fact verification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a task that is closely related to natural language inference (NLI) (Conneau et al., 2017;Schick and Schütze, 2020), in which given a premise, the task is to verify whether a hypothesis is an entailment, contradiction, or neutral",[]]],"rt":[["natural language inference (NLI)",[]]]},{"rt":[["Fact verification",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Nothing in the lexicogrammar of the words by which the quotation is framed indicates where the writer stands with respect to propositions being presented -i.e. there is no overt indication of the writer favouring or disfavouring the attributed material.",[]]]},{"de":[["Authors/speakers employ the resources of Appraisal for negotiating their social relationships; in other words, how they feel about things and people involved in the discourse and this is evidenced through linguistic choice -the choices of linguistic resources they choose to express themselves.",[]]],"sb":[["ATTITUDE",[]],["ENGAGEMENT",[]],["GRADUATION",[]]]},{"de":[["It is 'the evaluation of objects by reference to aesthetic principles and other systems of social value'",["White, 1998(White, , 2006(White, , 2008)"]],["'APPRECIATION' concerns itself with the examination and analysis of linguistic 'resources that construe values of things including natural phenomena and semiosis' (Martin & White, 2005) specifically focusing on non-humans.",["(Martin & White, 2005)"]],["(positive/negative assessment of objects, artefacts, events and states of affairs in terms of systems of aesthetics and other systems of social valuation)",[]]],"sp":[["ATTITUDE",[]]]},{"de":[["Attribution is also used as a method of strategic impersonalisation, which many newspapers use in a bid to avoid censure and castigation from the political and legal forces within the environment in which they publish.",[]],["which many newspapers use in a bid to avoid censure and castigation from the political and legal forces within the environment in which they publish",[]],["evaluative material from external sources",[]]],"rt":[["strategic impersonalisation",[]]]},{"de":[["Distancing in English is typically achieved by the use of the reporting verb 'to claim' and by the use of so called 'scare quotes'.",[]]]},{"ex":[["for example by means of 'factive' reporting such as 'to prove', 'to show' or 'to demonstrate'",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing is important in explaining the ways in which the media subjectively chooses which news items to report and the factors -cultural, political or otherwise that shape the 'framing' of such news.",[]],["the media contextualises news reports and events.",["Entman, 1993","Sabao, 2013","Sabao, Magadza & Chikara, 2021","Sabao & Visser, 2015","Weaver, 2007"]]]},{"de":[["It is realised in expressions that a speaker/writer makes attitudinal evaluations of human behaviour based on social expectations and often this is construed through 'judgments' based on legality/illegality, morality/immorality, politeness/impoliteness as these are configured within a cultural, institutional or social context.",[]],["(positive/negative assessment of human behaviour in terms of social norms)",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the evaluation of human behaviour with respect to social norms (White, 2002).",["White, 2002"]],["It deals with attitudes towards behaviour, which we admire or criticise, praise or condemn",["Martin & White, 2005, p. 42","2005, p. 42"]]],"sp":[["ATTITUDE",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["the LGBTQI community",[]]],"rt":[["LGBTQI community",[]]]},{"de":[["largely achieved through evaluations made from external sources and hence are negative 3 rd AFFECT and negative JUDGEMENT resources",[]]],"sy":[["appraising through the words of others",[]]],"rt":[["attribution",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the social and cultural movement that revered the pre-Hispanic past, which archaeology aimed to unearth, study, and safeguard, yet it inherently assumed the inferiority of living indigenous populations",[]]]},{"de":[["where any evidence of human presence and the clutter of the archaeological process is purposefully eliminated before capturing the image",[]]]},{"de":[["tends to prioritize and celebrate grandiose representations of pre-Hispanic ruins while overlooking the monumental process of their physical reconstruction",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a tool for influencing its domestic audiences as well as audiences internationally",["Ramsay & Robertshaw, 2019, p. 102"]]]},{},{"de":[["Propaganda remains the main tool of information warfare in Russia (nothing has changed since the Cold War).",[]]],"rt":[["information warfare",[]]],"sb":[["special propaganda",[]]]},{"rt":[["active measures",["Averin, 2018, p. 65"]],["information warfare",["Averin, 2018, p. 65"]]]},{"rt":[["affective",[]],["behavioral",[]]],"sp":[["effects",[]]]},{"de":[["This type of advanced training utilizes computerized media to deliver on the web and disconnected (Sinaga et al., 2019).",["Sinaga et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["advanced vote-based systems",[]]]},{"ex":[["spreading negative names",[]]]},{"de":[["reflect this need for an outside power to intervene on her behalf.",[]]]},{"de":[["The distressed damsel, characterized as a poor, helpless, passive, powerless, and naïve woman in need of male intervention to overcome her situation, thus became the primary lens with which audiences perceived Veloso.",[]]]},{"de":[["newsrooms compose a news story within a familiar frame of meaning that the audience already understands, in the process including certain aspects of a story while excluding others, and thus proposing an evaluative paradigm for the audience",[]],["individuals use 'schemas' (internal, cognitive frames) to process the external frames that news media use",[]]],"rt":[["external frames",[]],["narrative frames",[]]],"sb":[["conflict",[]],["winners and losers",[]],["revealing wrongdoing",[]]]},{"de":[["portrayed Veloso without an ounce of vengefulness toward her traffickers, looking to higher powers for justice.",[]]]},{"rt":[["the mothers",["p. 12"]],["whores",["p. 12"]]]},{"de":[["Among their arsenal of tools, journalists use preexisting and recognizable narrative codes as news frames, and these frames have to resonate with audiences to be successful.",[]],["journalists use preexisting and recognizable narrative codes as news frames",[]]],"rt":[["narrative codes",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["even through unsavory or politically incorrect means.",[]],["embody efforts to explore the experiences and identities of the marginal classes who are usually kept -because of class status, lack of power, gender and sexual orientationfrom being visible in stereotypical representations.",["Dyson, 2005, p. 48"]],["They … embody efforts to explore the experiences and identities of the marginal classes who are usually kept -because of class status, lack of power, gender and sexual orientationfrom being visible in stereotypical representations. (Dyson, 2005, p. 48)",["Dyson, 2005, p. 48"]]]},{"de":[["individuals use 'schemas' (internal, cognitive frames) to process the external frames that news media use",[]]],"rt":[["external frames",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["monsters",["p. 12"]],["whores",["p. 12"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["the mothers",["p. 12"]],["monsters",["p. 12"]]]},{},{"de":[["The main idea of this theory is gender inequality, where males consider that they have dominance over females.",[]],["Feminism theory seeks to interpret the causes and conditions in which men have more effect and aims to identify the causes for considering men's ideas and activities as more valuable than those of women (Gerhard et al., 2006).",[]],["In short, feminism seeks to achieve equality between both genders without adverse effects on men, as the goal is to provide rights and opportunities without discrimination, and change the social ideas and beliefs that prefer one gender to the other (Attar et al., 2024;Habes et al., 2024).",[]],["The main idea of this theory is gender inequality, where males consider that they have dominance over females. It is thought that women and the issues related to them have a lower rank as compared to men and the issues related to them. Feminism theory seeks to interpret the causes and conditions in which men have more effect and aims to identify the causes for considering men's ideas and activities as more valuable than those of women (Gerhard et al., 2006).",["Gerhard et al., 2006"]]]},{"de":[["Those frames are often used in news and political texts, where the frame is shaped by inserting information in a certain context, and designing it to serve the ideology of its producer or improve understanding. However, it is sometimes used as knowledge abbreviations to link the small indications with the whole image. Indeed, frames could be in the form of key words, concepts, metaphoric descriptions, visual images and symbols that are more focused within the context (Zibin et al., 2023). Based on repetition, this mechanism aims to demonstrate certain sides and exclude others. Due to adopting certain frames, this process results in a biased view, since it lacks objectivity by not presenting all the concerned frames of a certain topic to the targeted audience (Habes et al., 2024).",["Zibin et al., 2023","Habes et al., 2024"]]]},{"de":[["In framing, there are three levels, these are: framing at the language level, which refers to selecting a certain material of the text and using it as the communication center; the selected part shows some elements of the issue and overlooks others to serve the intention of the publisher. At the level of social context, the process of framing aims to present a model of natural life, or what natural things should be in life. Finally, framing at the level of media content refers to the way through which the means of media aim to create the ideal model for the targeted form of life.",[]],["London (2013) defined framing as coordinating ideas, visualizing events and determining issues and news stories",[]],["Cole & Fellows (2008). who suggested that media frame is a model for representation, choice, focus and exclusion. It refers to thought organization and problem defining",[]],["setting the frame refers to selecting certain forms of reality and making them more apparent and effective in the media content",[]]],"rt":[["framing-analysis",[]]]},{"sp":[["process of framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["process of framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Such a framing may considerably affect the way through which people understand the role of a woman in the community, her value and the expectations related to her behavior and appearance.",[]]],"sp":[["Framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such stereotypes often enhance strict gender expectations and classifications and contribute to keeping variations and discrimination between both genders.",[]]]},{"sy":[["gender stereotyping",[]]],"sb":[["Helplessness",[]],["Weakness and Sickliness",[]],["The Traditional Roles of Housewives",[]]],"ex":[["The stereotype of women is that they are helpless, where women sit inactive, while waiting for men to help them in all situations.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Framing theory has been applied to media means, where the theory assumes that the reality introduced by media is a framed one (Abdo & Salama, 2009). Therefore, the so-called reality is only a part of it, while the other parts are derived from the generated frame.",["Abdo & Salama, 2009"]],["Framing theory has been applied to media means, where the theory assumes that the reality introduced by media is a framed one (Abdo & Salama, 2009).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["News frames represent the method employed by news channels to impose their control (Zibin et al., 2024).",[]],["Media frames represent an automatic selection of the events that are integrated with each other in a certain way to come up with topics that are meaningful for the targeted audience. (AL-Tkhayneh, 2023)",[]]]},{"sb":[["framing at the language level",[]],["framing at the level of media content",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The structural properties of social systems are both medium and outcome of the practices they recursively organize",["Giddens, 1984, p. 25"]]]},{},{"de":[["encompassing exit (leaving a position or the profession altogether), voice (open or covert expressions of resistance), and loyalty (continuing to work under constraints)",[]]],"sb":[["exit",[]],["voice",[]],["loyalty",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In this sense, the power of loyalty comes from what it signals: journalists who are loyal to legal codes and cultures of production in newsrooms reduce the grounds on which the state can legitimately justify repression.",[]]],"rt":[["Exit-Voice-Loyalty (EVL) framework",[]],["exit",[]],["voice",[]]],"sp":[["Exit-Voice-Loyalty (EVL) framework",[]],["Hirschman's (1970) Exit-Voice-Loyalty (EVL) framework",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Resilience is therefore critiqued as a depoliticizing force that marginalizes resistance and forecloses the imagination of alternative worlds",["Evans & Reid, 2015"]],["offers a useful framework for understanding journalistic practices that occupy a middle ground between contention and acquiescence.",[]],["In journalists' experiences, resilience emerges as performative and unfinished, continually recalibrated in response to shifting configurations of power.",[]],["It constitutes a way of being in the world, while excelling in the daily act of balancing adaptation to political restrictions with the preservation of standards and integrity.",[]]],"rt":[["resistance",[]],["reworking",[]],["vulnerability",[]]]},{"rt":[["resilience",[]],["reworking",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Moving to newsroom desks considered less political, taking on new roles within the news organization, or engaging in training and mentorship activities for junior colleagues allow journalists to avoid a complete exit from the field.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In this sense, voice represents the strategy of the possible, far removed from the figure of the heroic journalist or activist who accepts punishment as an inevitable prerequisite for political change.",[]]],"rt":[["Exit-Voice-Loyalty (EVL) framework",[]],["exit",[]],["loyalty",[]]],"sp":[["Exit-Voice-Loyalty (EVL) framework",[]],["Hirschman's (1970) Exit-Voice-Loyalty (EVL) framework",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["primary audience",[]]]},{"de":[["as these feed fringe communities with content confirming their feelings of democratic discontent",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["countries with strong public service media with high trust levels, low levels of affective polarisation, and weak populist movements are likely to be unaffected by information warfare, as citizens are less drawn to propaganda outlets and far less swayed by it.",[]]],"ex":[["simply misleading information",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["being constructive in this strand of the journalistic profession also means that journalism should not give up its core functions of exposing the causes of the conflict and holding governments and officials accountable.",["Galtung (2003)"]],["consistent with what Galtung (2003) explained as the people-oriented nature of this strand of journalism.",[]],["Explore conflict formation; x parties, y goals, z issues; general \"win-win\" orientation",[]],["Open space, open time; causes and outcomes anywhere, also in history/culture",[]],["See conflict/war as problem, focus on conflict creativity",[]],["Humanization of all sides; more so the worse the weapons",[]],["Proactive: prevention before any violence/war occurs",[]],["Focus on invisible effects of violence (trauma and glory, damage to structure/culture)",[]],["Focus on suffering all over; on women, aged, children, giving voice to the voiceless",[]],["Give name to all evil-doers",[]],["Focus on people peacemakers",[]]],"sy":[["constructive or peace journalism",[]]],"rt":[["development journalism",[]],["peace journalism",[]],["positive journalism",[]],["Party journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["constructive journalism",[]],["peace journalism",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["constructive journalism",[]],["development journalism",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["constructive journalism",[]],["peace journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["regarded by the Chinese government as an important strategy to enhance its 'charm offensive' to either improve its continuing image as a somewhat isolated or detached communist country or challenge the dominant discourse of Western superpowers",["Glaser & Murphy, 2009, pp. 10-11","Nye, 1990"]]],"rt":[["constructive journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["implica el uso de técnicas computacionales para detectar, analizar y visualizar la comparación pública sobre asuntos de actualidad",["Marres (2015)"]]],"rt":[["teoría del actor red (TAR)",["Latour (1979)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["intensity",[]]]},{"de":[["requires expert knowledge and labor to annotate the data through content analysis",[]]],"rt":[["frame prediction",[]]]},{"de":[["In this work, we consider communicative frames following Entman [8] regarding the selection and salience of aspects in a communicating text to promote a specific interpretation.",["8"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["to achieve accuracy, news organisations must adhere to rigorous fact-checking processes. This involves thorough verification of information from multiple sources, to ensure that the facts presented are not only true but also unbiased.",[]]],"sy":[["correctness of information presented in news stories",[]]]},{"de":[["When users come across misinformation, cognitive dissonance may arise, prompting a reassessment of their trust in the platform.",[]],["Individuals tend to engage in more critical thinking and reevaluation of their beliefs when faced with misinformation, as they seek to alleviate the discomfort of cognitive dissonance.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The spread of misinformation poses a significant threat to democratic processes, as it can distort public perceptions and undermine the trustworthiness of information sources",["Guess et al., 2020"]],["Exposure to misinformation is a critical factor influencing people's perceptions and attitudes towards news and democracy.",[]],["Those who come across inaccurate or misleading information are more likely to engage in political activities via X, such as expressing support for a political campaign",["RQ2","Table 1"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Perception is influenced by cognitive processes, past experiences, cultural factors, and individual biases (Jussim and Zanna, 2005).",["Jussim and Zanna, 2005"]],["perception can be subjective and may not always align with the objective reality of a situation.",[]],["perception is the mental understanding of those experiences.",[]],["Perception is influenced by cognitive processes, past experiences, cultural factors, and individual biases",["Jussim and Zanna, 2005"]]]},{"de":[["Trust in news extends beyond individual news stories and encompasses the broader institutions responsible for producing and disseminating news.",[]],["This form of trust is characterised by confidence in the integrity and ethical standards of media organisations.",[]],["It involves faith in the media's role as an information source, watchdog, and agenda-setter",["Brosius and Esser, 1995"]],["It involves faith in the media's role as an information source, watchdog, and agenda-setter (Brosius and Esser, 1995).",["1995"]],["It influences individuals' willingness to engage with news content and their perception of its credibility (Newman et al., 2019).",["Newman et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["accuracy",[]],["balance",[]],["transparency",[]],["objectivity",[]],["fairness",[]],["diversity of sources",[]]],"sb":[["trust in news accuracy",[]]]},{"de":[["this study concentrates on 'trust in news accuracy', which is a narrower construct within the broader 'trust in news' framework.",[]],["plays a crucial role in shaping democratic citizenship.",[]]],"rt":[["trust in news",[]]],"sp":[["trust in news",[]]]},{"sy":[["astroturf",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a phenomenon known as 'confirmation bias'",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation is disruptive and it further deteriorates the overall international context.",[]],["Disinformation is an age-old aspect of foreign policy and warfare.",[]],["Disinformation is not an end in itself; it is supposed to serve a larger political objective",[]],["the manipulation of information for foreign policy purposes",[]],["For the Russian leadership, disinformation has become a matter of established policy.",[]],["It is a relatively simple, increasingly precise, and comparatively inexpensive method to reach important strategic goals.",[]],["the use of disinformation as a foreign policy tool by Russia, is a high-tech, poor man's strategy",[]],["The intentions of foreign actors may not have changed fundamentally, but the means at their disposal have. The essential novel, and potentially most threatening aspect of disinformation today is its rapidly developing technology, in combination with the large number of potential users. Technology defines the unprecedented breadth, width and depth of disinformation. It makes disinformation much faster, much more sophisticated, and much more difficult to distinguish from information that has no intention to mislead.",[]],["disinformation in international relations parasites on existing divisions and concerns.",[]],["It is disruptive and it further deteriorates the overall international sphere.",[]],["The effect of disinformation cannot be measured (only) by the extent to which it reaches its ultimate aim, the disinforming country's strategic position.",[]],["to confuse and weaken, through the spread of biased, false or simply as much 'information' as possible",[]]],"sy":[["information manipulation",[]]],"rt":[["information manipulation",[]],["influencing activities",[]],["international information war",[]],["propaganda",[]],["propaganda for war and hatred",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["coming out is a welldocumented social movement strategy",["Whittier, 2011"]]]},{"de":[["went beyond redefining obesity -they countered a key proposition of the existing dominant understanding of obesity",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["has existed since the 1960/70s (Cooper, 2008;2016).",["Cooper, 2008","2016"]],["Fat acceptance activists argue that the focus on weight which defines obesity as a health issue may have as much to do with the social and cultural response to particular kinds of bodies as it has to do with health (Gard and Wright, 2005).",["Gard and Wright, 2005"]]]},{"de":[["'comes at the right moment' when 'the fat person has become a symbol of personal and societal failure'",["Häntzschel, 2010"]]]}] |