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714cbfe | 1 | [{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["key features of post-democratic societies include unstable political-institutional environments and the emergence and participation of new players espousing anti-democratic rhetoric on the public stage.",["Ballestrin (2017)"]]]},{"sp":[["Quality in Journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["current literature has assessed quality in journalism by employing criteria rooted in values such as accuracy, impartiality, the reputation of the news organisation, sources of information and the content of the reported stories.",[]],["adopting a relativistic approach that may reinforce arguments suggesting that quality cannot be objectively measured due to its inherent subjectivity.",[]]],"rt":[["demand approach",[]],["production perspective",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Schulz (2000) further underscores the importance of independence, objectivity, diversity of content, and accessibility in the provision of quality information, thereby reinforcing democratic values.",[]],["the expectation for media to provide quality information stands on par with fundamental principles such as equality, freedom, and diversity",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["frames",[]],["framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["frames",[]],["framing",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["equivalence framing",[]],["emphasis framing",[]],["story framing",[]]]},{"sb":[["equivalence framing",[]],["emphasis framing",[]],["story framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["frames",[]],["framing",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["opinion pieces",[]]]},{"de":[["Editorial pieces (allowing members of the editorial board of a newspaper to express a personal stance on an issue) and op-eds (the page \"opposite the editorial,\" which is used as a platform for guest authors and experts) are important agenda-setters in shaping public discourse.",[]]],"sy":[["editorials",[]],["op-eds",[]]],"sb":[["editorials",[]],["op-eds",[]]]},{"de":[["As a unique event in which politicians can directly interact with journalists, they get the opportunity to justify their policy decisions directly and, therefore, influence media coverage.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In severe crises, governments can receive support from actors that are usually much more critical towards them.",[]]]},{"de":[["First, I examined whether opinion-leading journalists engaged in a rallying-around-the-flag effect, i.e., sided with the government in the initial phase of the crisis.",[]],["opinion-leading journalists engaged in a rallying-around-the-flag effect",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["stance",[]]]},{"rt":[["textual entailment",[]],["machine comprehension",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["stance",[]]]},{"sb":[["for",[]],["against",[]],["observing",[]]]},{"de":[["for each article headline we assign a stance label which is one of for, against, or observing, indicating whether the article is supporting, refuting, or just reporting the claim, respectively.",[]]]},{"de":[["assign a stance label which is one of for, against, or observing, indicating whether the article is supporting, refuting, or just reporting the claim, respectively.",[]]],"sb":[["for: The article states that the claim is true, without any kind of hedging.",[]],["against: The article states that the claim is false, without any kind of hedging.",[]],["observing: The claim is reported in the article, but without assessment of its veracity.",[]]]},{"de":[["The veracity of each claim is initially unverified, later becoming either true or false when the journalist decides that adequate evidence from the associated articles has been compiled.",[]]]},{"rt":[["writer-emotion",[]],["reader-emotion",[]]]},{"sy":[["likability",[]]]},{"de":[["calculates a publicity score that serves as a quantifiable measure for the publicity of a person of interest",[]]]},{"de":[["There are two aspects of emotions regarding a piece of text, namely, the writer's and the reader's emotion.",[]],["reader-emotions possess a more complex nature, as even common words can evoke different types of reader-emotions depending on personal experiences and knowledge of the readers",[]]],"rt":[["writer-emotion",[]]]},{"de":[["There are two aspects of emotions regarding a piece of text, namely, the writer's and the reader's emotion.",[]]],"rt":[["reader-emotion",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Critical Discourse Analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["A critical discourse analyst tends to raise the consciousness of language users to the nuances of language use, which conceal the full import of the manipulative tendencies embedded in discursive structures.",[]],["CDA is problem-oriented; it addresses social problems especially as it concerns the role discourse plays in the production and re-production of power abuse and dominance (van Dijk 2001, p. 96).",["van Dijk 2001, p. 96"]]],"sy":[["CDA",[]]]},{"de":[["through the analysis of discourse, because of the bonding with thought whereby language transmutes into discourse",["p. 8"]]]},{"sy":[["ideological polarisation",[]]]},{"sy":[["discursive group polarization",[]]],"rt":[["discursive strategy",[]],["in-group",[]],["out-group",[]]]},{"de":[["express/emphasise information that is 'positive' about us, express/emphasise information that is 'negative' about them, suppress/de-emphasise information that is 'negative' about us and suppress/de-emphasise information that is 'positive' about them (Jamie, 2007, p. 209)",[]],["what we are, what we typically do, what our aims and values are in relation to them, and what they are, what they typically do, what their aims and values are in relation to us",["Ines 2014, p. 540"]],["The ideological square emphasises the positive 'Us' and deemphasises the positive 'Them'; correspondingly, it emphasizes the negative 'Them' and deemphasises the negative 'Us' (paulslals.org.uk).",["paulslals.org.uk"]]],"rt":[["ideological polarisation",[]]]},{"de":[["the manipulative use of language by political actors for advancing self-serving interests and its adverse effect on the common good of the people",[]],["manipulation implies the exercise of a form of illegitimate influence by means of discourse: manipulators make others believe or do things that are in the interest of the manipulator, and against the best interests of the manipulated",["www.scribd.com"]]],"sy":[["persuasion",[]]]},{"de":[["manipulators' target is always to gain \"control of the shared social representations of groups of people because these social beliefs in turn control what people do and say in many situations and over a relatively long period\" (repository.essex.ac.uk)",[]]],"rt":[["discourse cognition",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This notion does not intend to reject or replace previous research on protest coverage or news production. It is instead an umbrella term that facilitates a dynamic exploration of the forces shaping the mediated visibility of violence.",[]]]},{"de":[["mediated visibility aims to highlight not only what has been shown, but also the processes explaining how and why particular contents become visible (Jiménez-Martínez 2020).",["2020"]],["foreign journalists approached mediated visibility as a commodity to trade in a market of symbolic and material goods",[]]],"rt":[["visibility",[]]]},{},{"de":[["arguing that 'mainstream' media delegitimise protests by emphasising violence and marginalising grievances",[]],["the protest paradigm is highly normative. It assumes that violence and damage necessarily lead to delegitimisation, implying that they distort the 'peaceful' nature of protests.",[]],["The protest paradigm is for instance underpinned by the belief that a mediated hyper-visibility of violence is ultimately detrimental for social movements (e.g. Gitlin 1980).",["1980"]],["demonstrations are often delegitimised by the mainstream media depending on whether or not they challenge the status quo",[]],["questioning deterministic assumptions of the protest paradigm, namely that the mainstream media invariably condemn demonstrations or that digital technologies give preference to protesters' grievances",[]],["the protest paradigm has produced invaluable insights in the past, the accounts by individuals covering the June Journeys show that it does not capture the complexity of the mediated visibility of violence in the current hybrid and transnational media environment.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["monitoring state forces to make visible contrasting accounts to those produced by the national media",[]]],"sy":[["bottom up surveillance",[]]]},{"de":[["Visibility therefore refers to the strategic, albeit ultimately uncontrollable, processes between actors with unequal material and symbolic resources that make or prevent something becoming public.",[]]]},{"de":[["integrating sentiment analysis into the data preprocessing phase enhances the model's ability to understand and leverage sentiment-related information in the input text, making it well-suited for tasks that involve analyzing emotions or sentiments in user-generated content.",[]]]},{"de":[["disorients the audience by providing disinformation about the origin, goal, and context of the material",[]],["Because it purposefully wrongs the audience about the origin of the messaging, black propaganda, unlike grey and white propaganda, lies.",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["grey propaganda",[]],["white propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"rt":[["directly participating civilians",[]],["indirectly participating civilians",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["participating civilians",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["remains unclear about who speaks and why",[]]],"rt":[["black propaganda",[]],["white propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"rt":[["propagandists",[]]]},{"rt":[["jus in bello",[]]]},{"rt":[["jus ad bellum",[]]]},{"de":[["one must decide on the type of harm, more or less harmful, more or less incapacitating, which is ethically, and maximally, legitimate.",[]],["a moral response to propagandistic activities may be found in less-than-lethal harm",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They are not responsible for any threat, are not part of military apparatuses, and, therefore, may suffer no direct intentional harm.",[]],["In McMahan's terms, they are innocent because they are not implicated in the existence of the problem to be solved.",[]]],"sy":[["non-participating civilians",[]]]},{"de":[["These categories comprise those who help the conflict without clearly belonging to a military organisation.",[]],["e.g. civilians working for a guerrilla organisation's political wing, for a state bureaucracy, or for the defence industry.",[]]],"rt":[["direct (3)",[]],["indirect (2)",[]]],"sb":[["direct (3)",[]],["indirect (2)",[]]]},{"de":[["it involves a speaker's attempt to persuade an audience in order to obtain specific -usually political and strategic -results.",[]],["I adopt this broad definition of propaganda to include any messaging that deliberately intends to generate strategic effects -in this case, in the context of a conflict -either behavioural or cognitive.",[]],["propaganda content seeks to manipulate people through the dispossession of the recipient.",[]]],"rt":[["strategic",[]]],"sb":[["black propaganda",[]],["grey propaganda",[]],["white propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["the wilful diffusion of ideas about the faith",["16"]],["stories intimidating his enemies, framing his image as that of a god (in stories, images, on buildings and coins)",[]]]},{"rt":[["indirectly participating civilians",[]]],"sb":[["paid propagandists",[]],["voluntary (as in unpaid) propagandists",[]]]},{"de":[["civilian propagandists' clear role in creating tactical or strategic advantages for one side in the conflict",[]],["While they are important participants for state and non-state military apparatuses, propagandists do not carry actual weapons, nor do they directly harm opponents with bullets.",[]],["Some will say that this is so: propagandists, through their influence and voice, greatly contribute to the dynamics and results of the conflict, just or unjust, by mobilising fighters, inciting action, and threatening opponents.",[]],["may maximally be treated as indirectly participating civilians, liable only to less-than-lethal harm.",[]]],"rt":[["combatants",[]],["non-combatants",[]],["indirectly participating civilians",[]]],"sb":[["ancient",[]],["contemporary",[]],["legitimate",[]],["illegitimate",[]],["state",[]],["non-state",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["There is a complete openness about the identity of the organisation producing the material",[]],["where the locutor explicitly tells who they are and their positionality towards the cause",[]]],"rt":[["black propaganda",[]],["grey propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["the Dabiq magazines created by the Islamic State, or the messages of Voice of America",[]]]},{"de":[["To address this scalability challenge, computational fact-checking offers a promising augmentation, enabling systematic, semi-automated assessments of veracity.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["as metadata can be published without violating the policies of Twitter, at least this aspect should play only a minor role in replication issues.",[]]],"ex":[["the number of likes or retweets",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["fake news/disinformation",[]],["hate speech/violence/terrorism",[]],["bots",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Specifically, reference risk is calculated as the proportion of citations in an article that point to domains categorized as generally unreliable, deprecated, or blacklisted in the English Wikipedia perennial source list.",[]],["Higher reference risk indicates a greater potential threat to verifiability and information quality.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Harmful: if the statement attacks a person, organization, country, group, race, community, etc. The intention of such statements can be to spread rumours about an individual or a group, which should be checked by a professional or flagged and prioritized for further checking.",[]],["Urgent or breaking news: such statements are news-like where the claim is about prominent people (public personality like politicians, celebrities), organizations, countries and events (like disease outbreaks, forest fires, stock market crash).",[]],["Up-to-date: such claims often refer to official documents and contain parts of clauses in climate agreements or articles in a constitution. This information is vital for checking, as many people consume social media as means of news, information and believe it to be true.",[]]],"rt":[["Harmful",[]],["Urgent or breaking news",[]],["Up-to-date",[]]]},{"sb":[["harmful",[]],["urgent or breaking news",[]],["up-to-date",[]]]},{"de":[["we also include claims that are personal opinions, comments, or claims existing at sub-sentence or sub-clause level (as in Gupta et al. (2021)), with the condition that they are factuallyverifiable.",[]]]},{"de":[["Traditionally, claim detection is studied from a linguistic standpoint where both syntax (Rosenthal and McKeown, 2012) and semantics (Levy et al., 2014) of the language matter to detect a claim accurately.",[]]]},{"de":[["These external sources can be reliable websites, books, scientific reports, scientific publications, credible fact-checked news reports, reports from credible organizations like World Health Organization or United Nations.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The intention of such statements can be to spread rumours about an individual or a group, which should be checked by a professional or flagged and prioritized for further checking.",[]]],"sp":[["checkworthy",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["While it is clear that a claim in the text is denoted in verbal form, it can also be part of the visual content or as overlaid text in the image.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news on social media",[]]]},{"sp":[["checkworthy",[]]]},{"sp":[["checkworthy",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["if the news-item coverage is captured, the successful IP determines the message published.",[]],["For each item j, IPs simultaneously and covertly decide how much eort to expend in capturing it.",[]],["IPs can simultaneously and covertly spend resources to capture how a news item (an article, an entry in a social media feed, a talk show program, etc) covers an issue.",[]]],"ex":[["an article",[]],["an entry in a social media feed",[]],["a talk show program",[]]]},{},{"de":[["capturing IPs can have sources manufacture fake news at will, completely untethered to the true state of the world",[]]]},{"rt":[["capture",[]]]},{"rt":[["vertical attributes",[]]],"ex":[["relative marginal cost across IPs",[]],["the priors of the audience are horizontal attributes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Since a possible interpretation of our model is than an Interested Party could be an ideologically biased owner or subset of journalists, we adopt the more general term.",[]]],"sy":[["Special Interest Groups",[]]]},{},{"de":[["citizens with extreme susceptibility to manipulation",[]]]},{"de":[["citizens with extreme susceptibility to manipulation: we allow a fraction 1 -γ < 1 of citizens to be naive in that they believe all coverage to be honest",[]],["citizens with extreme susceptibility to manipulation",[]],["naive in that they believe all coverage to be honest",[]],["naive citizens take news at face value and interpret λ literally",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["sophisticated citizens",[]]]},{"de":[["i.e., low p for L and high p for R",[]]]},{"de":[["a one-dimensional object which is best described as partisan leaning",[]],["slant in published news",[]]],"sy":[["partisan leaning",[]]],"rt":[["partisan leaning",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The requirement that States outlaw hate speech understandably attempts to attack the root of the problem",["458"]]]},{"de":[["require a higher threshold, i.e. a 'substantial' effect or contribution",["85"]],["The aiding and abetting definition includes the language 'or otherwise assists' that may simply constitute an example of assistance, and perhaps a lower threshold than 'substantial' contribution.",[]]],"sp":[["modes of accessorial liability",[]]]},{"de":[["to convince them to do so, the persuader has to relate the change to something in which the persuadee already believes.",["383"]],["will be used to tie down new attitudes or behaviours.",["383"]]]},{"de":[["the public makes sense of public affairs through a cognitive frame that establishes the truth value of perceptions, beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and action norms",["57"]]],"rt":[["crisis frame",["58"]]]},{"de":[["A common law conspiracy is an agreement, express or implied, between two or more persons to commit a criminal act or series of criminal acts, or to accomplish a legal act by unlawful means.",["81","82"]]]},{"rt":[["normal frame",[]]]},{"de":[["the aim being to forestall the occurrence of such acts",["84"]]],"rt":[["hate propaganda",[]],["propaganda tending to provoke genocide",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is thus the perpetrator's subjective perception of the group or community and who belongs to it, which is determinative and not some objectifiable characteristics that connect the group.",["256"]]]},{},{"de":[["whereby the out-group was negatively stereotyped and, in its entirety, blamed for historical crimes while at the same time presented as a threat to the Serb nation and its historically legitimate aspirations.",[]]]},{"de":[["proposed to be managed with a 'solution' ranging from discrimination to physical separation or even annihilation.",["55"]]],"rt":[["hate propaganda",["55"]]]},{},{"de":[["propaganda that specifically spreads fear and hatred towards a particular out-group in order to foster crimes against its members",[]],["a particular phenomenon that includes a set of components, which cannot simply be equated with the basic notion of 'hate speech'",[]],["leading to atrocities is necessarily a common endeavour of a multitude of persons.",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["Propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["This act of labelling a person as someone or something is in itself already a linguistic act of positing, an act of denomination and determination that attributes a social status to a person.",["416"]]]},{"de":[["importance of hate propaganda in fomenting ethnic discord",[]],["fuelling conflict and crimes by use of such propaganda.",["161"]],["hate propaganda as his most substantial contribution to the so-called Strategic Plan.",["162"]],["his propaganda helped to polarise the Prijedor population along ethnic lines and created an atmosphere of fear",["170"]],["hate propaganda contributed to an atmosphere that was of such a coercive nature that the persons leaving the municipality cannot be considered as having voluntarily decided to give up their homes.",["171"]],["inciting Bosnian Serb fear and hatred of Muslims and Croats which had the effect of exacerbating ethnic divisions and tensions and the effect of encouraging his subordinates to follow his example; identifying Muslims and Croats as the historic enemies of the Serbs (ibid., para. 3485, emphasis added) and promoting the idea that the Bosnian Serbs could not live together with the Bosnian Muslims and Bosnian Croats and formed the foundation for the ethnic separation of the three people (ibid., paras. 11089, 11096) and the creation of ethnically homogeneous entities in BiH (ibid., para. 11095).",["174"]],["creates the perception that the law no longer applies or, better yet, that there is a new law and a new morality established in the society thereby enabling rampant criminal behaviour.",[]],["'Propaganda defines or creates our reality and describes what is socially acceptable and considered to be morally right. It determines how people's actions are viewed and evaluated'",["417"]],["hate propaganda is acceptable as long as it is clever enough not to directly call for crimes.",[]],["designed to last longer than a single utterance or speech act.",["51"]]],"rt":[["fear propaganda",["55"]]],"ex":[["making 'ethnically based inflammatory speeches that added to the atmosphere of fear and hatred amongst Serbs living in Croatia and convinced them that they could only be safe in a state of their own… [u]ltimately this kind of propaganda led to the unleashing of violence against the Croat population and other non-Serbs'",[]]]},{"de":[["The threshold factor of any hate speech is that it targets a group, or an individual as a member of a group (hereinafter: out-group); usually based on nationality, ethnicity, religion or race, less commonly on gender, gender identity or sexual orientation and sometimes on veteran status, physical ability or suffering from serious diseases.",["16"]]],"rt":[["hate and fear propaganda",[]],["speech acts",[]],["hate crime",["322"]],["advocacy of hatred",["19"]]]},{"de":[["hate speech as persecution per se still demands the contemporaneity of the speech with a widespread or systematic attack directed against a civilian population",[]]]},{"sy":[["hostility",["40"]]]},{"sy":[["hatred",["40"]]]},{"de":[["humiliation 'shows the victims that they lack even the most miniscule degree of control over their fate -that they are helpless and subject to the good will […] of their tormentors'",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["out-group",["423"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["provide a tool for possible intervention before the speech has had its desired effect and a genocide actually takes place",[]]],"rt":[["soliciting or inducing",[]]]},{"de":[["'Incitement to hatred' is the closest law-based concept that has been dealt with in international criminal jurisprudence since the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg (imt) considered the cases against Nazi propagandists, Julius Streicher and Hans Fritzsche.",[]],["does not require a causal link to any subsequent crimes.",[]],["defined also in terms of impact and is thus not an inchoate crime as detailed below.",["246"]],["It serves to create a common bond between those carrying out the persecutory campaign in that it creates a barrier between those who are part of the community or 'in-group' and those excluded from the community, the 'out-group' .",[]],["The latter does not require a causal link to any subsequent crimes.",[]],["It is needed to convince those carrying out the physical elements of the campaign of its necessity, and of the lesser value and perniciousness of the group to be ostracized. It serves to create a common bond between those carrying out the persecutory campaign in that it creates a barrier between those who are part of the community or 'in-group' and those excluded from the community, the 'out-group'",["424"]]],"rt":[["incitement to war crimes",[]]],"sp":[["persecution",[]]]},{"sy":[["soliciting",["75"]],["inciting",["75"]]]},{"de":[["it was not necessary for the instigator to have used different forms of persuasion such as threats, enticement or promises",[]],["it also clarified that it was not necessary to establish that the crimes would not have been committed without the instigator's involvement",[]],["the instigator must, in one way or another, have influenced the physical perpetrator by soliciting, encouraging or otherwise inducing him or her to commit the crime.",["196"]]],"rt":[["soliciting",[]],["inducing",[]]]},{"de":[["the altered normative framework leads to a concomitant change in the view as to what constitutes morality",[]],["The 'new' morality or climate is a consequence of both propaganda and the systematic persecution of a specific out-group organised by the leadership of the State or a similar State-like organisation.",[]]],"sy":[["climate",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"rt":[["rival crisis frame",["386"]],["crisis frame",["386"]]]},{"rt":[["in-group",["423"]]]},{"de":[["This phenomenon, also called 'paranoia propaganda' , consists of fostering delusions of danger from external enemies and traitors at home and of complete dependency upon leadership, party and ideology.",["59"]]]},{"de":[["The persecutory act or omission must deny -or infringe upona fundamental human right laid down in international (customary or treaty) law.",["252"]],["There must be a 'gross or blatant denial' of a fundamental right.",["253"]],["denigrated the Croatians of that town on the basis of their ethnicity, in violation of their right to respect for dignity as human beings",[]],["interpreted Nuremberg jurisprudence as not necessitating incitement to violence for persecution as a cah but rather 'harm to life and liberty' or 'acts committed in the course of wholesale and systematic violation of life and liberty' that may include economic and political discrimination and not necessarily a physical attack.",[]]],"sb":[["forcible displacement",[]]],"sp":[["crime against humanity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The intended influence and manipulation distinguish it from dissemination of mere factual information.",["4"]],["The concept of propaganda is furthermore often used in the jurisprudence to describe 'behavioural patterns and forms of intent in a variety of ideological, political and military, individual or collectively coordinated efforts'",["68"]],["The effect of propaganda thus is not merely, or perhaps not at all, the persuasion of some individuals of the morality or desirability of their criminal behaviour but the atmosphere where such behaviour is enabled.",[]],["propaganda techniques are used 'to convince, persuade and influence public opinion' and they 'focus on manipulating emotions and preconceptions, at the expense of the faculties of reasoning and judgment'",["439"]],["behavioural patterns and forms of intent in a variety of ideological, political and military, individual or collectively coordinated efforts",["68"]],["It determines how people's actions are viewed and evaluated",["417"]]],"sb":[["mass-propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["one of the most dangerous sources of international friction and war … [and that] the presence of unrestrained propaganda can sometimes make the difference between peace and war",["5"]]]},{"de":[["they 'focus on manipulating emotions and preconceptions, at the expense of the faculties of reasoning and judgment'",["439"]]]},{"de":[["The crisis frame was grounded in the experiences and memories of the Balkan wars, the first and second world wars -and other wars and conflicts before those in which civilians were not distinguished from combatants.",["386","387"]]],"rt":[["normal frame",["386"]]]},{"sy":[["inducing",["75"]],["inciting",["75","74"]]]},{},{"sb":[["locutionary acts",[]],["illocutionary acts",[]],["perlocutionary acts",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Sources",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Sources",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Sources form interpretive communities which develop shared meanings to illustrate and contextualize the discussion on a topic by exercising their powers to speak publicly and to define and respond to the topic",["Berkowitz and TerKeurst, 1999"]]],"sb":[["factual sources",[]],["opinion sources",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["presumes that people feel more commonality with in-group members",["Ellemers and Haslam, 2012","Tajfel and Turner, 2004"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a massive spread of both accurate and inaccurate information, fake news and conspiracy theories (both ignorant or malevolent to provoke panic), which can also take a physical form, causing protests and material damage, as well as the countermeasures that social media platforms used to contain them.",[]],["a massive spread of both accurate and inaccurate information, fake news and conspiracy theories",[]],["a massive spread of both accurate and inaccurate information, fake news and conspiracy theories (both ignorant or malevolent to provoke panic)",[]]]},{"de":[["Both modified memes and more static elements, such as viral texts, slogans, and images related to the topic, emerged after virus notifications. The wide variety of meme generators makes it easy to quickly produce, use previous prototypes, copy, alter, and share the created content in social media.",[]]],"rt":[["viral texts",[]],["slogans",[]],["images",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["are therefore valuable to news outlets (at least in the short run) because they attract more measurable engagement that can be advertised to advertisers",["Berger and Milkman 2012","Green et al. 2025","Holiday 2013","Munger 2020"]],["a source of media distrust",[]],["In this experiment, I operationalize clickbait primarily through 'information gap' headlines that signal but ultimately withhold some valuable information.",[]],["This differs from other clickbait phenomena, such as those that use exaggerated or shocking claims to elicit a click.",[]]],"ex":[["holding important information hostage to the click",["Kuiken et al. 2017","Molyneux and Coddington 2020"]],["misrepresenting the hostage content altogether to 'create misleading expectations for the reader'",["Peysakhovich and Hendrix 2016"]]]},{"de":[["dangle clickbait",[]]],"sp":[["News styles",[]],["under-informative style",[]]]},{"sp":[["conflict style",[]]]},{},{"de":[["news styles that focus on conflict",[]]],"sp":[["News styles",[]],["under-informative style",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["News styles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["outlets regularly instead adopt the 'insider jargon' style of news coverage (Trexler 2025).",[]]]},{"sp":[["News styles",[]]]},{"de":[["may limit consumers' self-perceived ability to understand political news and apply it",[]]],"sp":[["under-informative style",[]]]},{"rt":[["non-mechanical effect",[]]]},{"rt":[["frames",[]]],"sb":[["the conflict style",[]],["the insider jargon style",[]],["the prediction-as-news style",[]],["the clickbait style",[]],["the public interest style",[]]]},{"rt":[["mechanical effect of paragraph order",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Horse-race polling coverage",[]]],"ex":[["economic news tends to report (uncertain) leading indicators of future economic performance more often than observable concurrent or lagging indicators of current economic performance",["Soroka et al. (2015)"]]]},{"sp":[["News styles",[]]]},{"de":[["The explicit goal of the public interest style is to communicate news about public affairs 'in ways that voters can understand and act upon' (Patterson 1993, 29) with minimal processing effort, thus efficiently arming the mass public (as the principal of a democracy) with the information it most needs to participate in the democratic process and orient the behavior of government (as the public's agent).",["Patterson 1993, 29","Patterson 1993"]],["Public interest style news prioritizes informing the public about government policy, proposals, and performance in a 'condensed and easy-to-digest' (Zaller 2017, 2) format, while all other potentially newsworthy features of a story (conflict, intrigue, process, personality, rhetoric, etc.) are given an ancillary role and relegated to the lower reaches of the inverted pyramid.",["Zaller 2017, 2"]],["Public interest style coverage meaningfully helps reinforce democratic norms",[]],["the public interest paragraph focused on the story's policy and normative implications.",[]]],"sp":[["News styles",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["incidental exposure",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Typical approaches to political news coverage are indeed under-informative, especially when exposure is brief.",[]],["In comparison to the public interest style, which prioritizes communicating such information as directly and accessibly as possible, under-informative styles make extracting this information more difficult.",[]],["By burying information about public policy, governance, norms, and the political values behind flashier content, under-informative styles substantially reduce the probability that consumers will encounter that information and encode it in memory.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["As in the fairy-tales Brexitism offers not a window onto a new world but a reflection, an inverted image of what is behind us and of how we remember the world to have been in our youth.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Bloch calls it a 'beautifying mirror which often only reflects how the ruling class wishes the wishes of the weak to be'.",["14"]]],"ex":[["As in the fairy-tales Brexitism offers not a window onto a new world but a reflection, an inverted image of what is behind us and of how we remember the world to have been in our youth.",[]]]},{"rt":[["stand toward the world",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["postulate",[]],["motion",[]],["parliamentary initiative",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Frames consist of metaphors, catchphrases, images, and other symbolic devices that people can use to construct meanings of topics such as emerging technologies",["Gamson & Modigliani, 1989","1989"]],["Frames exist on multiple levels: in communicative texts, such as news stories, Hollywood films, television dramas, and interpersonal conversations; in the minds of audience members; and as part of a broader culture",["Entman (1993)"]],["Frames consist of metaphors, catchphrases, images, and other symbolic devices that people can use to construct meanings of topics such as emerging technologies (Gamson & Modigliani, 1989).",["Gamson & Modigliani, 1989","(Gamson & Modigliani, 1989)"]],["Entman (1993), in turn, writes that the framing process involves \"select[ing] some aspects of a perceived reality and mak [ing] them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation\" (p. 52).",["(Entman, 1993)"]]]},{"sp":[["Framing theory",[]]]},{"sp":[["Framing theory",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Framing theory",[]]]},{"sp":[["Framing theory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["regarding competitive framing effects",["Chong & Druckman, 2007b"]]]},{"sp":[["Framing theory",[]]]},{"de":[["the latter typically suggests a negative evaluation by presenting AI as unleashing dangers upon society",[]],["presents AI in negative terms",[]]],"rt":[["social progress frame",[]]],"ex":[["existential threats to humanity, invasion of privacy, and job losses for the Pandora's box frame",[]],["For example, a June 2, 2020, New York Times piece raised the prospect of a \"malevolent artificial intelligence gone amok.\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["to argue that talking about science and technology should reinforce support for emerging technologies when media messages about them are largely positive",[]]]},{"de":[["The former frame typically suggests a positive evaluation by presenting AI as benefiting society",[]]],"rt":[["Pandora's box frame",[]]],"ex":[["jobs for the social progress frame",[]]]},{"sb":[["imágenes parciales",[]],["imágenes con retoque básico",[]],["descontextualizadas",[]]]},{},{"de":[["los deepfakes han redefinido la manipulación de imágenes al permitir la superposición y generación hiperrealista -y prácticamente imperceptible-de contenidos en vídeo-audio.",[]],["los deepfakes pueden generar desinformación y alterar percepciones",[]],["el deepfake se erige como una evolución alarmante en la dinámica de las fake news.",[]],["una herramienta con un poder sin precedentes para moldear la percepción pública y construir realidades alternativas",[]],["reflejo de una mirada masculina que -como señalan Brown y Fleming (2020)-ahora se codifica en algoritmos para presentar una realidad que, lejos de la autenticidad de las imágenes, se basa en la perpetuación patriarcal, reforzando las disparidades de poder",["2020"]],["Son narraciones defectuosas, pero no aleatorias: son frutos de las tensiones, miedos y estructuras de poder arraigados en nuestro tejido social",["2023"]],["manifestaciones de la violencia política de género",[]],["ejercicios de humillación y represalias públicas por su atractivo sexual",["Newton y Stanfill, 2019"]],["por su transgresión al tomar la palabra en el espacio público-político",[]],["Uno de los ámbitos en los que los deepfakes cuentan con mayor alcance y notoriedad es el de la política ya que es muy sensible a la información que circula por los nuevos canales comunicativos: las redes sociales",[]],["Aquí, los deepfakes son más que imágenes: son armas que refuerzan la objetivación y la mirada patriarcal(Mulvey, 1989), haciendo que los cuerpos femeninos sean únicamente meros materiales al servicio de las fantasías masculinas(Denson, 2020).",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["violencia política por razón de género",["Hybridas, 2021"]],["pornografía no consentida",[]]],"sb":[["deepfakes pornográficos",[]],["deepfakes audiovisuales",[]]],"ex":[["vídeo del político indio Manoj Tiwari hablando haryanvi (uno de los más de mil seiscientos dialectos que se hablan en la India) por obra de la inteligencia artificial.",[]],["vídeos de personalidades públicas en situaciones comprometidas o falsas",[]],["vídeo deepfake del presidente Volodymyr Zelensky llamando a la rendición del ejército y el pueblo ucraniano",[]],["el (reemplazo de caras o cambiar el rostro de una persona por otra, y la réplica de expresiones faciales, que suelen aportar realismo a la copia en piezas audiovisuales",[]]]},{},{"de":[["derivada del famoso programa de tratamiento fotográfico Photoshop (tienda de fotos)",[]]]},{"rt":[["soft politics",[]]]},{"de":[["Se trata de una táctica frecuente de desinformación que ha favorecido la circulación periódica de imágenes de archivo como instantáneas de un evento de actualidad.",["Gómez-de-Ágreda et al. (2021)"]]]},{},{"sb":[["deepfake",[]]]},{"ex":[["El vídeo retocado de Nanci Pelosi o de la Ministra de Seguridad Pública Argentina, para sugerir un posible estado de embriaguezñ, por ejemplo, entrarían dentro de esta categoría.",[]]]},{"de":[["masculinidad tóxica geek, que Newton y Stanfill (2020) han descrito como una forma de poder que margina y subyuga a las mujeres",[]]]},{"de":[["narrativas que a menudo dejaban la precisión factual en detrimento de estrategias retóricas que apelaban a las emociones viscerales de la ciudadanía",["McComiskey, 2017","Mula-Grau y Cambronero-Saiz, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["Esta es la manifestación más habitual de deepfakes, tanto en el ámbito de la pornografía como en el de la política o la desinformación",[]]],"sp":[["deepfake",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["deepfakes",[]]],"ex":[["vídeos manipulados de Nancy Pelosi (2019) o Patricia Bullrich (2020)",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["hard politics",[]]]},{"de":[["pretende impedir, castigar o privar su participación política, por el hecho de ser mujeres",["South Asia Partnership International, 2006"]]],"sy":[["violencia política por razón de género",["Hybridas, 2021"]]]},{},{"sp":[["News values",[]]]},{"de":[["These news websites follow strict codes of practice and editorial standards, as well as list credible sources, and often go through the process of reviewing.",[]],["they provide topics of general interest, that are oriented on facts, selected by professional actors, and published following professional rules",["Holt, Figenschou & Frischlich 2019, 2","2"]]]},{"de":[["the text-image relation, it is the example of dichotomy, because the headline conveys an ongoing action through reels under, and the lead states has been under constant attack, while the image depicts firemen assessing the aftermath of the airstrikes.",[]]],"rt":[["overlap",[]],["displacement",[]],["text-image relations",[]]],"ex":[["deforestation in the Amazon, and the picture is showing a tranquil, lush, preserved environment",[]]]},{"de":[["Since the image and the text represent different actions of the same event, the text-image relations are displacement.",[]]],"rt":[["overlap",[]],["dichotomy",[]],["text-image relations",[]]],"ex":[["the headline and the lead introduce a rally showing support for a president and the thumbnail shows the president, not the rallying supporters",[]]]},{"sp":[["parameters of newsworthiness",[]]]},{"sp":[["parameters of newsworthiness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Their purpose is to deliberately disinform, manipulate, and deceive the readers, to shift the readers' perception of certain people, or to influence the readers' beliefs",["Molina, 2019"]],["What sets fake news apart from news reports that are merely false is the intention to deceive",["Greifeneder et al. 2021, 2"]]]},{"sp":[["The two main categories are soft news and hard news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They stand in evidence of the existence of dire situations, but on the other hand, they also have the capacity to elicit strong affective response in the viewer",["115","Bednarek and Caple,115"]]]},{},{"de":[["image as illustration and aesthetic are characterized as having low perceived probability to spark curiosity or emotional affect within readers.",[]]]},{"de":[["These usually revolve around themes that construe negativity in terms of newsworthiness -violence, scandals, and accidents.",[]]]},{"de":[["The news value of impact is present as the newsbite speaks of consequences of an event, i.e. evacuations suspended, preses US to secure Gaza ceasefire, calls for ceasefire.",[]]],"rt":[["news values",[]]],"sp":[["News values",[]]]},{"de":[["the image has the potential to make readers feel sympathy for the affected civilians while also feeling some disinclination towards the US, because the US is being put in the role of an actor dismissed Arab leaders' calls, which construes the parameter of mental state.",[]]],"rt":[["parameters of newsworthiness",[]]],"sp":[["parameters of newsworthiness",[]]]},{"rt":[["news values",[]]],"sp":[["News values",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["values by which one fact is judged more newsworthy than another",["Bell (1991, 155)"]]],"sb":[["Negativity",[]],["Timeliness",[]],["Proximity",[]],["Prominence",[]],["Consonance",[]],["Impact",[]],["Novelty",[]],["Superlativeness",[]],["Personalization",[]]]},{"de":[["It is essentially the cluster of an image, a headline, a lead, and a hyperlink that summarizes news, arguably, in a way that is clickable.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["News values",[]]]},{"rt":[["displacement",[]],["dichotomy",[]]],"ex":[["the headline and the lead of the article revolve around a president and the thumbnail shows the president in question",[]]]},{"sb":[["Un/importance",[]],["In/comprehensibility",[]],["In/possibility or In/ability",[]],["Un/necessity",[]],["Emotivity",[]],["Un/genuineness or In/authenticity",[]],["Reliability",[]],["Un/expectedness",[]],["Evidentiality",[]],["Mental state",[]]]},{"de":[["the news value is personalization as the text mentions the Palestinian President, Arab leaders and Anthony Blinken while the image shows civilians.",[]]],"rt":[["news values",[]]],"sp":[["News values",[]]]},{"de":[["If only the text was considered, it would convey the news value of prominence.",[]]],"rt":[["news values",[]]],"sp":[["News values",[]]]},{"sp":[["News values",[]]]},{"sp":[["The two main categories are soft news and hard news",[]]]},{"sp":[["News values",[]]]},{"sp":[["News values",[]]]},{"sp":[["parameters of newsworthiness",[]]]},{"sp":[["parameters of newsworthiness",[]]]},{"sp":[["parameters of newsworthiness",[]]]},{"sp":[["parameters of newsworthiness",[]]]},{"de":[["power, knowledge and Aborigines are mutually constitutive-they produce and maintain one another through discursive practices",["Attwood, 1992"]]]},{"de":[["allows oppositional cultures to emerge",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["writing back",[]]],"rt":[["Writing back",[]]]},{"de":[["tradition of cultural radio where documentary and radiophonic techniques are used extensively.",[]],["uses extensive and intensive forms, a myriad of production techniques and the voices of real people, 'radiophonics'; actuality and soundscape, in a process that is as committed to the time it takes to make these documentaries (months), as it is to providing a regular timeslot to broadcast.",[]]],"rt":[["mainstream journalistic text",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["writing back",[]]]},{"de":[["Orientalism critiqued the knowledge that circulated in western literary forms about the Orient. It revealed how Europeans constructed the other-through naturalising a wide range of Oriental stereo types and assumptions.",[]]]},{"de":[["This method is fundamentally a political contestation of imperial power. But it is one that works through, in the interstices of, in the fringes of, rather than simple opposition to, history.",["Ashcroft, 2001, p. 102"]]]},{},{"de":[["Post colonialism is less about 'after' colonialism than acknowledgement that the centre no longer holds.",[]],["post-colonialism is not just a method of analysis but a method to re-imagine past and present representations of culture.",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["counter discourse",[]]],"rt":[["counter discourse",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["represent a significant challenge to media literacy",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["societal distrust",[]]]},{"de":[["critical thinking equips individuals with the skills to evaluate new information critically",[]]]},{"de":[["digital literacy is essential for navigating the complexities of the digital world, from discerning the reliability of online sources to engaging in productive online discourse",["Belshaw, 2016"]],["digital literacy skills are vital for effective communication, problem-solving, and lifelong learning.",["Ng, 2015"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["I think there are a lot of very important things going on in the world that the public is never informed about",[]]]},{"de":[["a concept related to critical thinking",["Leary et al., 2017"]],["Intellectual humility aligns with the affective aspects of media literacy by promoting openness to new information and the willingness to change one's mind in light of new evidence",["Leary et al., 2017"]],["In the context of media consumption, intellectual humility involves acknowledging that one's initial beliefs may be incorrect and being open to revising them in light of new evidence",["Leary et al., 2017"]],["Intellectual humility encourages continuous learning and the acceptance of uncertainty",[]],["intellectual humility involves acknowledging that one's initial beliefs may be incorrect and being open to revising them in light of new evidence",["2017"]]],"ex":[["in the face of contradictory evidence, I am open to changing my opinion",["Leary et al., 2017"]]]},{"de":[["media literacy initiatives designed to equip individuals with the skills to critically evaluate and interpret media content",[]],["Media literacy promotes critical thinking skills, enabling individuals to evaluate and choose information sources, interpret news, and make independent choices",["Escoda et al., 2017","Mrisho & Dominic, 2023"]],["It is essential for navigating the digital landscape, where misinformation and fake news are prevalent",["Manzoor, 2018"]],["media literacy education provides a framework for new literacy needed for living, working, and citizenship in the 21st century",["Dolanbay, 2022"]]],"rt":[["critical thinking skills",[]]]},{"de":[["derived from Bandura's (1977) theory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["our conceptualization of social media literacy includes the cognitive ability to process information and the attitudinal and behavioral aspects that influence media consumption and interaction in digital environments.",[]]],"rt":[["technical competency",[]],["social relationship and interaction",[]],["awareness of the informational landscape, including disinformation awareness",[]],["privacy and algorithmic awareness",[]]],"sb":[["technical competency",["2021"]],["social relationship and interaction",["2021"]],["awareness of the informational landscape, including disinformation awareness",["2021"]],["privacy and algorithmic awareness",["2021"]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["distinguish between social media literacy as a skill set and social media literacy efficacy",[]]],"rt":[["social media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the ideal of the digital agora as a democratic expression, which includes free public debate and political pluralism",[]],["The internet as a digital agora and as a new frontier of democracy",[]],["an idyllic narrative of the global digital village",[]],["meeting democracy demands inspired by the Greek ideal of the Agora",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Fake refers to manipulation for purposes of forgery, tampering or fraud, for purposes of gain or advantage.",[]]]},{"de":[["massive use of information manipulation through social networks, notably WhatsApp, an \"unprecedented\" phenomenon",["2"]],["the danger lies in the false rumors, false rumors, of which fake news are inextricably linked, if not their current manifestation, since they impose real damage on individuals and institutions, and they often resist correction.",[]],["Fake news do not concern a problem of knowledge, but a problem of narrative.",[]],["they constitute a dispute over beliefs in the sense of building a winning narrative, not a true narrative, becoming part of a play in motion in the theater of political narrative.",[]],["fake news operate strongly within circles of trust -their reproduction is shared in virtual bubbles that connect with small communities, later enlarged -deliberation among like-minded people often entrenches false rumors, since the exchange of information intensifies preexisting beliefs",["Sunstein, 2014"]],["fake news as a narrative dispute and to some extent as an extreme manifestation of belief",[]],["the Electoral Justice may cancel an election if it is proven that its result was influenced by the dissemination of false news, calls fake news.",["8"]],["operate strongly within circles of trust -their reproduction is shared in virtual bubbles that connect with small communities, later enlarged -deliberation among like-minded people often entrenches false rumors, since the exchange of information intensifies preexisting beliefs",["Sunstein, 2014"]]],"sy":[["false information",[]],["false news",[]]],"rt":[["political and economic abuses",[]],["false rumors",[]],["virtual bubbles",[]],["narrative dispute",[]],["extreme manifestation of belief",[]]],"sp":[["narrative logic",[]]]},{"de":[["The false is linked to inaccuracy, in the sense of not corresponding to reality.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["One interpretation of Plato's cave myth is that the allegory makes a distinction or highlights the opposition between empirical or sensorial knowledge and the truth reached from philosophical knowledge.",[]]],"sy":[["allegory",[]]]},{"de":[["It encompasses democratic legitimacy principles and rules foreseen in the Constitution, electoral morality and political rights provided by the Brazilian Civil Rights Framework for the Internet and other specific provisions on electoral propaganda in the General Law of the Elections.",[]]]},{"de":[["The cavern of Plato does not present, as it is usually interpreted, diverse forms of knowledge, but diverse forms of life; namely the narrative way of life and the cognitive way of life.",["Han, 2012, pp. 87-89"]]],"rt":[["narrative way of life",["Han, 2012, pp. 87-89"]],["cognitive way of life",["Han, 2012, pp. 87-89"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Parallel (P)",[]]]},{"rt":[["restatement",[]],["summary",[]],["evaluation",[]]]},{"de":[["The semantic topology framework, as introduced in this paper, represents a novel approach rooted in quantitative, data-driven modeling rather than the qualitative categories and relations typical of classical discourse theory.",[]]],"sp":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Historical Event (D1)",[]],["Anecdotal Event (D2)",[]],["Evaluation (D3)",[]],["Expectation (D4)",[]]],"sp":[["news discourse structure",[]]]},{"sp":[["additional supportive contents",[]]]},{"de":[["The identified bias sentences can illuminate and explain the overall bias of the entire article.",[]]]},{"de":[["annotate the sentence-level bias",[]],["has a relatively short research history and few referable resources.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["main contents",[]]]},{"sb":[["Previous Event (C1)",[]],["Current Context (C2)",[]]],"sp":[["news discourse structure",[]]]},{"sp":[["context-informing contents",[]]]},{"sp":[["additional supportive contents",[]]]},{"sp":[["additional supportive contents",[]]]},{"sp":[["additional supportive contents",[]]]},{"sb":[["Main event (M1)",[]],["Consequence (M2)",[]]],"sp":[["news discourse structure",[]]]},{"sp":[["main contents",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["discourse role",[]]],"sb":[["main contents",[]],["context-informing contents",[]],["additional supportive contents",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a situation of fear and insecurity in which the dissemination of false information has become widespread",[]],["an over-abundance of information -some accurate and some not -that makes it hard for people to find trustworthy sources and reliable guidance when they need it",["Novel Coronavirus Situation Report -13"]],["an overload of information, often false or unverified, about a problem, especially a major crisis. Quickly spreading in the news, online, and through social media, this information fuels fear and speculation, making the problem worse, not better",["What does an infodemic mean"]]]},{"de":[["Young people are interested in infotainment",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["trust arises from",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["sentiment",[]]]},{"sp":[["political leaning",[]]]},{"sp":[["political leaning",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["right",[]],["center",[]],["left",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["political leaning",[]]]},{"de":[["BotPercent may introduce bias in the cold start circumstance",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Twitter accounts controlled by automated programs",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the emerging transdiscipline that endeavors to find better ways to inform.",[]]],"rt":[["transdiscipline",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["These kinds of news have a repetitive style.",[]],["risk level is lower, and dissemination is slower.",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["the concept of fake news is a quite broad one that needs to be specified meticulously.",[]],["Fake news is created for many purposes and emerges in many different types.",[]],["they can be categorized according to the information quality or based on the intention as it is created to deceive deliberately or not",["6"]]],"rt":[["political misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["propaganda",[]],["manipulation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["hate news",[]],["provocative news",[]],["satire",[]],["hoax",[]],["click-bait",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["problem definitions",[]],["Moral evaluations",[]],["treatment recommendations",[]]],"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["problem definitions",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["Moral evaluations",[]],["treatment recommendations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This refers, for example, to sightings of UAPs or UAP videos released by the Pentagon (especially in 2021/2022), alien abductions, and government conspiracies around Area 51.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["problem definitions",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["treatment recommendations",[]]],"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["causal interpretation",[]],["Moral evaluations",[]],["treatment recommendations",[]]],"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{"de":[["besides communicating the susceptibility and severity of a threat, it is important to inform the publics about prevention and/or response measures (efficacy) to avoid fear-induced maladaptive behavior among risk bearers",["Roberto et al., 2009"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["problem definitions",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["Moral evaluations",[]]],"sp":[["frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["construct metaphorical portraits of political actors and encode relatively stable evaluative positions.",[]]],"sp":[["contextual synonyms",[]]],"ex":[["brain rot",[]]]},{"de":[["Inclusion criteria required that (a) the expression could reasonably be paraphrased by a more neutral or literal term in the same context, and (b) the choice of the contextual synonym altered the emotional tone, conceptual framing, or degree of personification.",[]],["Purely technical rephrasings without such shifts were excluded.",[]]]},{"de":[["Through this mechanism, media discourse reorganises semantic fields and restructures the emotional landscape of public events.",[]]]},{"de":[["Compared to ordinary synonyms, they have a narrower scope of use because their meaning is determined by context.",[]],["They are often formed through metaphorization, metonymy, or secondary nomination, which gives words additional semantic nuances",[]],["the identified contextual synonyms do not merely decorate the discourse but actively reshape its tone and guide the interpretation of events through a figurative lens.",[]],["distributional patterns suggest that contextual synonymy serves to align semantic fields with discourse-specific communicative purposes.",[]],["contextual synonyms play an active role in shaping media discourse. By introducing metaphorical, evaluative, and affective dimensions, they contribute to the emotional colouring of events and structure 99 interpretative frameworks within each thematic domain.",[]],["Contextual synonyms, therefore, operate as strategic mechanisms in modelling emotional impact and structuring semantic emphasis in contemporary media discourse.",[]],["synonymous variation functions as a tool of discursive influence appealing to imaginative and evaluative cognition.",[]],["These units were classified into four functional-semantic categories: military vocabulary, zoomorphic images, strength/endurance images, and cognitive-psychological images, which enabled a comparative examination not only of their frequency but also of their pragmatic functions across discourses.",[]],["Contextual synonyms play an important role in modern mass media discourse, allowing authors to create imagery, evoke emotion, and introduce semantic ambiguity in texts (Al Falaq & Puspita, 2021).",["Al Falaq & Puspita, 2021"]]],"rt":[["ordinary synonyms",[]],["metaphorization",[]],["metonymy",[]],["secondary nomination",[]],["metaphorical, evaluative, and affective dimensions",[]]],"sb":[["military vocabulary",[]],["zoomorphic images",[]],["strength/endurance images",[]],["cognitive-psychological images",[]],["military-based contextual synonyms",[]]],"ex":[["fight against disease",[]],["war on cancer",[]],["hawk",[]],["dove",[]],["the lion of the field",[]],["tiger-like reflexes",[]],["brain rot",[]]],"sy":[["Contextual synonymy",[]]]},{"de":[["the meaning of contextual synonyms is determined not only by lexical characteristics but also by the broader context of their use",[]],["contextual synonymy emerges not merely as a stylistic phenomenon but as a strategic resource in shaping crisis framing, othering processes, and heroisation across contemporary media domains.",[]],["contextual synonyms operate as instruments of symbolic inclusion and exclusion, contributing to the polarisation of political space and foregrounding antagonistic alignments between opposing camps.",[]],["it functions as a central mechanism for organising emotional colouring and semantic emphasis in media texts.",[]],["contextual synonym integration operates as a higher-order framing mechanism.",[]],["Compared to ordinary synonyms, they have a narrower scope of use because their meaning is determined by context.",[]],["contextual synonyms shaped reader perception, structured associative networks, and contributed to broader framing strategies.",[]],["contextual synonyms do not merely decorate the discourse but actively reshape its tone and guide the interpretation of events through a figurative lens.",[]],["contextual synonymy should be considered a key interface between lexical choice, emotional valence, and discursive strategy.",[]],["Thus, contextual synonymy emerges not merely as a stylistic phenomenon but as a strategic resource in shaping crisis framing, othering processes, and heroisation across contemporary media domains.",[]]],"sy":[["contextual synonyms",[]]],"rt":[["lexical choice",[]],["emotional valence",[]],["discursive strategy",[]],["symbolic inclusion",[]],["polarisation",[]],["antagonistic alignments",[]],["metaphorization",[]],["metonymy",[]],["secondary nomination",[]],["framing strategies",[]],["crisis framing",[]],["othering processes",[]],["heroisation",[]]],"sb":[["military vocabulary",[]],["zoomorphic images",[]],["strength/endurance images",[]],["cognitive-psychological images",[]]],"ex":[["fight against disease",[]],["war on cancer",[]],["hawk",[]],["dove",[]],["beast",[]],["predator",[]],["lion on the field",[]],["tiger-like reflexes",[]],["warrior",[]],["titan",[]]]},{"de":[["In medical texts, military vocabulary clusters around crisis framing and the construction of collective vulnerability and mobilisation.",[]],["war imagery intensifies perceptions of threat and urgency",[]]],"ex":[["fight against disease",[]],["war on cancer",[]],["struggle",[]],["campaign",[]]]},{"de":[["animal metaphors attribute characterological features to individuals",[]]],"ex":[["hawk",[]],["dove",[]],["the lion of the field",[]],["tiger-like reflexes",[]],["villain",[]],["predator",[]]]},{"sb":[["Opinion-based citizen responses",[]],["Evidence-based citizen responses",[]]],"sp":[["Counter-Misinformation Tweets",[]]]},{"sb":[["Professional Fact-check Tweets",[]],["Concerned Citizen Tweets",[]]]},{"sy":[["concerned citizens",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Concerned Citizen Tweets",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The content may still discuss COVID-19",[]]]},{"de":[["falsehoods, inaccuracies, rumors, decontextualized truths and misleading leaps of logic",[]]],"rt":[["rumors",["19"]],["hoaxes",["24"]],["false news",["20"]],["false information",["14"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Concerned Citizen Tweets",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Counter-Misinformation Tweets",[]]]},{},{"de":[["engaging with a tweet increases its visibility.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["user susceptibility",["42"]],["user virality",["42"]]]},{"rt":[["topic virality",["42"]],["user virality",["42"]]]},{"rt":[["topic virality",["42"]],["user susceptibility",["42"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["mis-and disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The phrase 'by design' here refers to systemic features of the design of the sources and channels by which fake news propagates and, thereby, manipulates the audience's cognitive processes.",[]],["distinct class of misleading reports and as a rhetorical device for shutting down critical reporting",[]],["it has come to be associated with (often anonymous) sources that spread falsehoods by manipulating their consumers' emotions and tapping into deeply held partisan beliefs.",[]],["deliberate spread of misinformation",[]],["intention to deceive",[]],["the internet features prominently in such discussions, and some authors take its online format to be constitutive of fake news.",[]],["a certain measure of success in realizing the goal of widespread circulation and uptake",[]],["fake news falls under the same category of claims presented to us as true by a putative news source as real news",[]],["fake news is misleading, in much the same way that disinformation is misleading",[]],["fake news may sometimes be fabricated from thin air, in which case it can at best be accidentally true. More often than not, it is built explicitly around falsehoodsespecially claims that, if true, would be sensational-which it promotes and perpetuates.",[]],["a piece of fake news that is released is likely to result in (and often does cause) false beliefs on the part of its target audience.",[]],["Fake news, by contrast, is misleading its target audience in a non-accidental way.",[]],["what is novel about fake news-not only, but especially on electronic social media-is its systemic dimension.",[]],["Individual intentions on the part of its originators (e.g., the intention to deceive an audience, to manipulate public opinion, to increase the circulation of certain pieces of disinformation) have a role to play, not least when it comes to settling the legal question of who should be held responsible for, say, slanderous content.",[]],["it is systemic features inherent in the design of the sources and channels through which fake news proliferates that imbue it with its novel significance.",[]],["the misleading nature of fake news claims is the result of systemic features of the way content is chosen or presented-in other words, that it is due to the way the process of generation and propagation is designed.",[]],["A poorly-worded headline of an otherwise accurate article, or an honest factual mistake, can mislead in this way, yet they do not constitute fake news.",[]],["false advertising, which may systematically misrepresent the facts by exaggerating the benefits of a particular product. Such claims are misleading and may get wide circulation, but as long as they are not presented in a format that could be easily mistaken for a news report (that is, as long as they are not presented as news), they do not constitute fake news.",[]],["fake news is not the same as propaganda.",[]],["the systemic ways in which fake news mobilizes our cognitive biases and heuristics, thereby modulating our reasoning processes, is part and parcel of the function of (contemporary, esp. online) fake news.",[]]],"sy":[["false news",[]]],"rt":[["public disinformation",[]],["false news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["false information",[]],["information",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["sophisticated-and ultimately self-critical media formats that aim to educate their viewers",[]],["fabricated content",[]],["false context",[]],["false connection",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",["Fallis 2015"]],["news",[]]],"ex":[["The Daily Show",[]],["The Colbert Report",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["mis-and disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["mis-and disinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["rumours",[]]]},{"rt":[["public disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["public disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["\"Lying Ted\", \"Crooked Hillary\"",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["gossip",[]]]},{"de":[["The consumer, in turn, can infer from the selection of articles or news segments what other people in his or her community tend to be interested in.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["strategies for propagating true news, such as fact-checked content, to mitigate the spread of fake news",[]]],"rt":[["individual-level fake news mitigation",[]],["network-level mitigation",[]]],"sb":[["heuristics for one-off selection of debunkers for mitigation",[]],["leverages reinforcement learning to optimize the cumulative effect across multiple stages of fake news mitigation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The rabbit hole effect is not only fueled by various cognitive biases, but also by algorithmic mechanisms and social dynamics.",[]]],"ex":[["Individuals can fall into the rabbit hole through algorithmic recommender systems, such as those which underlie YouTube, or be directed to rabbit holes by social networks through email or social media (Tang et al., 2021).",["Tang et al., 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["Reading, processing, and identifying with narratives is a fundamental component of how we organize our interpretations of reality",["Bruner, 1990"]]],"rt":[["narrative persuasion",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This objective benefits models in understanding specific misinformation regulatory policies and rectifying deviations if necessary.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The first stage to detect a stance is to identify the main target claim from the sequence of conversation or given text.",[]],["The main input to the claim-based stance detection model is the claim (C), which could be the rumor's post or based on an article headline.",[]],["For that reason, claim-based stance detection has been heavily used for rumor resolution studies [14,[69][70][71].",["14","69","70","71"]]],"sy":[["open-domain stance detection",[]]],"sp":[["stance detection",[]]],"ex":[["In the fake news task, the claim tends to be the article headline and the text is the article body.",[]],["On the other hand, for the rumor's veracity task, the main input to be evaluated is the rumor's post, while the text is the replies to the rumors.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["network signals",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["This social behavior has been magnified in social media structures wherein certain beliefs are amplified within close circles of communication. Consequently, people are exposed to content in consent with the same opinions that they hold. As a result, this reinforces social media users' view biases and blinds the users from other sides of information.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["stance prediction",[]]]},{"de":[["and the research tend to address this level of prediction as an aggregation of micro predictions",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance prediction",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["The main assumption behind this kind of stance detection is that when a person gives their stance for one target, it provides information on their stance toward other related targets.",[]]],"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["content signals",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Sentiment analysis is mostly approached as a linguistic agnostic task that focuses on leveraging a given text's linguistic properties to identify the polarity of the text",["35"]],["The sentiment analysis has a minuscule effect on detecting the accurate stance on social media. This is due to the complexity of stance modeling on social media, which can be inferred based on various factors ranging from the textual cues to the social identity of the author.",[]],["Generally, this task could be defined as estimating the users' emotional polarity as positive, negative, or neutral [28,29].",["28,29"]]],"rt":[["stance detection",[]],["target-based sentiment analysis",["33","39","40","41"]]],"sb":[["binary polarity",[]],["multi-level polarity",[]],["regression",[]],["target-based sentiment analysis",["33","39","40","41"]]]},{},{"de":[["stance-taking (i.e., a person taking a polarized stance toward a given subject) is a subjective and inter-subjective phenomenon in which the stance-taking process is affected by personal opinions and non-personal factors such as cultural norms. Stance taking is a complex process related to different personal, cultural, and social aspects.",["24"]]],"rt":[["linguistic acts",[]],["social interactions",[]],["individual identity",[]]]},{"de":[["Stance detection in social media is concerned with individuals' views toward objects of evaluation through various aspects related to the users' post and personality traits.",[]],["The process of detecting the stance of a given person on social media is still in its infancy, as it is still unclear what roles of language and social interaction play in inferring the user's stance.",[]],["a stance is not usually transparent in the text, but sometimes must be inferred implicitly from a combination of interaction and historical context.",[]],["This is usually inferred by a mixture of signals besides the linguistic cues, such as the user's feelings, personality traits, and cultural aspects",["2"]],["Stance detection in social media presents an optimal technique for various applications and has been used heavily in interdisciplinary studies including politics, religion and humanities.",[]]],"sy":[["perspective",["5,6"]],["viewpoint",["7,8"]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]]],"sb":[["detecting expressed views",[]],["predicting unexpressed views",[]],["stance prediction",[]],["claim-based stance detection",[]],["target-specific",[]],["multi-related-targets",[]],["claim-based",[]],["target-specific stance detection",[]],["multi-target stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["the prediction is carried out to infer a user's viewpoint on a given topic that the user has not discussed explicitly or toward an event that has not occurred yet.",[]],["It is also used to predict a user's view on events that have not occurred yet.",[]],["The main goal behind this kind of stance detection is to predicting the unexpressed views and to infer people standpoints toward an event in advance (pre-event).",[]]],"sy":[["predicting unexpressed views",[]]],"rt":[["stance classification",[]]],"sb":[["micro level",[]],["macro level",[]],["micro-level stance prediction",[]],["macro-level stance prediction",[]]],"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]],"ex":[["predicting the future attitudes in the aftermath of an event",["17","18"]]]},{"de":[["the process of taking a stance is based on three factors. These are 1) evaluating objects, 2) positioning subject (the self), and 3) aligning with other subjects (i.e., other social actors).",[]],["stance taking usually depends on experiential behavior, which is based on previous knowledge about the object of evaluation",["25"]]]},{"de":[["inferring the polarity of a text by using a predefined set of targets.",[]]],"sp":[["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["In this type of stance detection, the text (T) or the user (U) is the main input to predict the stance toward a specific predefined single target (G).",[]]],"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["that of modifiers is (among other things) to express a judgment of merit on them",[]]]},{"rt":[["Positive",[]],["Negative",[]]]},{"sy":[["neutral term",[]]]},{"sy":[["sentiment classification",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["subjective term",[]],["objective, or neutral term",[]]]},{},{}] |