MBDef 1.0.0: Explorer data for exactly the released rows, map and topics made on them
714cbfe verified | [{"de":[["Fragmentation is likely more common in debates than polarisation, even if an empirical observation of such phenomena is in general more challenging due to the difficulties of assigning scores to multi-faceted opinions that have values in a continuum.",[]]],"rt":[["polarisation",[]]]},{"sp":[["malinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["selection",[]],["social influence",[]]]},{},{"de":[["hyper-correction effect, i.e., when an individual commits a mistake with high confidence and receives corrective feedback, the same individual is more likely to remember the right information.",["42"]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["bots",[]]]},{"de":[["caused by the COVID-19 threat and how the information about it has been managed by mainstream and alternative news outlet",[]],["infodemic emergency",[]]]},{"de":[["the popular term \"fake news\" is now considered insufficient to represent a broader range of malicious activities.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["facticity",[]]]},{"rt":[["propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["propaganda",["28","122"]],["cherry-picking",["15"]],["hate speech",["207"]]],"sp":[["information disorder",[]]],"ex":[["Articles characterised by hate speech [207]",["207"]],["publishers cherry-picking [15] real news in order to foster hate against some minorities",["15"]],["Articles characterised by hate speech [207] belong to this category, like publishers cherry-picking [15] real news in order to foster hate against some minorities.",["207","15"]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["All the false news published with bona fide mistakes are examples of misinformation, as well as news in which the title or a captivating picture are not adequately supported by the body of the article, like click-baiting",["35","50"]],["related to a cognitive effect that leads to inaccurate memories",[]],["psychological appeal of misinformation using computational linguistics tools",[]],["mis-/dis-information difficult to eradicate",[]],["All the false news published with bona fide mistakes are examples of misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation effect",[]]],"sb":[["click-bait",["35","50"]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]],["information disorder",[]]],"ex":[["news in which the title or a captivating picture are not adequately supported by the body of the article, like click-baiting [35,50]",["35","50"]],["All the false news published with bona fide mistakes are examples of misinformation, as well as news in which the title or a captivating picture are not adequately supported by the body of the article, like click-baiting",["35","50"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["social identity",["234"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["individuals tend to overstate their knowledge about some topics, and to perceive their partial information as highly accurate",[]],["is properly considered by Friedkin and Johnsen [96,95] as a generalisation of the basic DeGroot model",["96","95"]]],"rt":[["illusion of asymmetric insight",[]]]},{"rt":[["echo chambers",[]],["consensus",[]],["fragmentation",[]]],"sb":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["polarisation as mainly the process that leads to an irredeemable divide, i.e., an equilibrium point or a stationary state of the system, between two groups, each representing a one sided view over a topic.",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Fact-checking is a time-consuming and labor-intensive activity; it is usually carried out by a small number of experts, that must deal with the constant flow of (mis-)information published online.",[]],["Human fact-checkers are more accurate and reliable, but also more expensive.",[]]],"rt":[["Crowdsourced fact-checking",[]],["Automated fact-checking",[]]]},{"sp":[["malinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["and can be misused as a propaganda practice",[]],["can be misused as a propaganda practice",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"sy":[["confirmation bias",["92"]]]},{"rt":[["spam",[]],["misinformation",[]],["astroturf",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["selection",[]],["homophily",[]]]},{"rt":[["complex contagion",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In this scenario, nodes can be active or inactive; the state of an inactive node i flips when the number of its active neighbours is above a given threshold t.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["BCM",[]]],"sp":[["Bounded Confidence Model (BCM)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The adversarial agents engage in a structured exchange of opposing viewpoints, forcing the system to critically evaluate evidence from different perspectives and refine its reasoning, thus enhancing its ability to detect inconsistencies or biases in the evidence.",[]]]},{"de":[["agent-based reasoning decomposes the detection process into a sequence of explicit tasks performed by specialized agents, which interact to refine the reasoning process.",[]],["These agents interact with one another to refine the reasoning process, ensuring that the detection system can handle complex scenarios requiring in-depth analysis.",[]],["These systems enable better traceability of the reasoning process, ensuring transparency and accountability in decision making by offering a detailed log of the steps each agent took in reaching its conclusion.",[]],["This paradigm involves multiple specialized agents, each performing a distinct sub-task such as evidence retrieval, cross modal verification, contradiction detection, and final adjudication.",[]],["This paradigm involves multiple specialized agents, each performing a distinct sub-task such as evidence retrieval, cross modal verification, contradiction detection, and final adjudication. These agents interact with one another to refine the reasoning process, ensuring that the detection system can handle complex scenarios requiring in-depth analysis.",[]]],"rt":[["evidence retrieval",[]],["cross modal verification",[]],["contradiction detection",[]],["final adjudication",[]]],"sp":[["Reasoning Paradigm",[]]]},{"rt":[["Consistency",[]],["Intent",[]]],"sp":[["multimodal deception",["96"]]]},{"de":[["modern disinformation campaigns employ more sophisticated techniques such as context swapping",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A causally competent model should demonstrate counterfactual consistency",[]]]},{"de":[["Datasets such as Weibo, FakeNewsNet, and COSMOS explicitly annotate image-text repurposing or editing inconsistencies, making them valuable for multimodal reasoning tasks.",[]]],"sy":[["Cross-modal distortion",[]]],"rt":[["image-text repurposing",[]],["editing inconsistencies",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["multimodal deception",[]]],"ex":[["the caption asserts \"Category 5 hurricane\" while the video depicts calm weather",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Authenticity",[]],["Consistency",[]]],"sp":[["multimodal deception",["96"]]]},{"sp":[["multimodal deception",[]]],"ex":[["cherry-picked visuals, loaded language, fear appeals",["86"]]]},{"sp":[["multimodal deception",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Multimodal hallucination represents a critical yet underexplored challenge in LVLM based fake news detection.",[]],["represents a critical yet underexplored challenge in LVLM based fake news detection",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["prompting-based reasoning",[]],["agent-based reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["Approaches under this paradigm emphasize the use of multi agent systems or explicit reasoning pipelines that sequentially analyze multimodal evidence and the claim.",[]],["However, it typically incurs higher inference costs and complexity, requiring more elaborate model architectures and robust reasoning pipelines",[]]],"ex":[["agentbased reasoning",[]],["prompting-based reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["introduce semantic drift",[]]],"ex":[["pairing a real photo of a flood with a claim about a different location",[]]]},{"de":[["Early approaches to fake news detection predominantly relied on a single modality [68,69], typically focusing on either textual or visual content [70,71].",["68","69","70","71"]]]},{},{"de":[["Datasets such as Twitter15/16, LIAR, and FakeNews-Net primarily focus on this dimension, providing annotated claims and news statements labeled as true, false, or unverified.",[]],["This category involves falsified or manipulated textual content that misrepresents facts.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Unlike textual datasets, these visual corpora are often multimodal, pairing each image with a corresponding textual caption or headline, thus supporting research in multimodal forgery",[]],["The second dimension focuses on visual manipulations, including photo editing, compositional blending, and AI-synthesized imagery.",[]]],"rt":[["multimodal forgery",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["mentalizing",[]]]},{"de":[["we know that when there is a conflict between belief and reality it is the persons' belief, not the reality that will determine their behavior.",[]]],"sy":[["theory of mind",[]]]},{"de":[["manipulate other people's behavior by manipulating their beliefs.",[]]],"sy":[["tactical deception",[]]]},{"sy":[["mind reading",[]]],"rt":[["theory of mind",[]],["folk psychology",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["mentalizing",[]]]},{"de":[["involves translation between egocentric and allocentric spatial coordinates.",[]]]},{"rt":[["mentalizing",[]]]},{"de":[["There is currently much interest in identifying a social brain",[]]]},{"de":[["manipulate other people's behavior by manipulating their beliefs.",[]]],"sy":[["Machiavellianism",[]]]},{"de":[["we know that when there is a conflict between belief and reality it is the persons' belief, not the reality that will determine their behavior.",[]],["We naturally explain people's behavior on the basis of their minds: their knowledge, their",[]]],"sy":[["intentional stance",[]]],"rt":[["mentalizing",[]],["mind reading",[]],["folk psychology",[]]],"ex":[["Maxi eats half his chocolate bar and puts the rest away in the kitchen cupboard. Then he goes out to play in the sun. Meanwhile Maxi's mother comes into the kitchen, opens the cupboard and sees the chocolate bar. She puts it in the fridge. When Maxi comes back into the kitchen, where will he look for his chocolate bar? The answer to this question will seem obvious. First, Maxi doesn't know that his mother has moved the chocolate. Second, Maxi still believes, falsely, that his chocolate is in the cupboard. That is why he looks in the cupboard.",[]]]},{"de":[["In contrast to empathy, compassion does not mean sharing the suffering of the other: rather, it is characterized by feelings of warmth, concern and care for the other, as well as a strong motivation to improve the other's wellbeing. Compassion is feeling for and not feeling with the other.",[]],["short-term compassion training of several days was able to increase positive affect and activations in a neural network usually related to positive emotions (spanning medial orbitofrontal cortex and striatum; Figure 3B)",[]],["compassion training not only promotes prosocial behavior, but also augments positive affect and resilience, which in turn fosters better coping with stressful situations.",[]],["it is characterized by feelings of warmth, concern and care for the other, as well as a strong motivation to improve the other's wellbeing.",[]]],"sy":[["empathic concern",[]],["sympathy",[]]],"rt":[["empathy",[]],["prosocial motivation",[]],["positive affect",[]],["resilience",[]]]},{"de":[["If this self-other distinction is not present, we speak of emotion contagion",[]],["If this self-other distinction is not present, we speak of emotion contagion, a precursor of empathy that is already present in babies.",[]]],"rt":[["precursor of empathy",[]]]},{"de":[["While empathy refers to our general capacity to resonate with others' emotional states irrespective of their valencepositive or negative -empathic distress refers to a strong aversive and self-oriented response to the suffering of others, accompanied by the desire to withdraw from a situation in order to protect oneself from excessive negative feelings.",[]],["When experienced chronically, empathic distress most likely gives rise to negative health outcomes.",[]]],"sy":[["personal distress",[]]],"sp":[["distress",[]]]},{"de":[["Empathy makes it possible to resonate with others' positive and negative feelings alike -we can thus feel happy when we vicariously share the joy of others and we can share the experience of suffering when we empathize with someone in pain.",[]],["Importantly, in empathy one feels with someone, but one does not confuse oneself with the other; that is, one still knows that the emotion one resonates with is the emotion of another.",[]],["empathizing with another person's feelings relies on the activation of neural networks that also support the first-person experience of these feelings",[]]],"rt":[["compassion",[]]]},{"sy":[["theory of mind",[]],["cognitive perspective taking",[]]]},{"sb":[["faceswap",[]],["lip-sync",[]],["puppet-master",[]]]},{"sp":[["deepfakes",[]]]},{"sb":[["visual artifacts within single video frame-based methods",[]],["temporal features across frames-based ones",[]]],"sp":[["Deepfake detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["deepfakes",[]]]},{"sp":[["deepfakes",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["deepfakes",[]]]},{"sp":[["deepfakes",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It involves special constraints on what will be treated as allowable contributions. The interaction may be characterised by specific inferential frameworks and procedures (e.g., speaker allocation in courtroom interaction).",[]]]},{"de":[["This allows interactants to refer to previous exchanges in a way that would be impossible in spoken dialogue, often by copying and pasting archived material, some of which may be retrieved from several years' worth of archives.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Discussion forums, YouTube and Twitter are popular examples.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["they will consistently communicate fake news (biased signals) to their followers pushing them to extremes of the belief spectrum.",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation campaigns",[]],["cyber propaganda",[]],["cognitive hacking",[]],["information warfare",[]],["biased signals",[]]]},{"sy":[["stubborn (or forceful) agents",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Notice though, that the degree of homophily in the long-run is endogenously determined.",[]]]},{"de":[["the in-Degree of agent i, normalized by the potential number of followers",[]]],"rt":[["out-Degree",[]]],"sp":[["centrality",[]],["Degree",[]]]},{"de":[["Similarly, the in-neighborhood of any agent i at any time t, denoted by N in i,t = {j | [g t ] ji = 1}, represents the set of agents that are receiving information from i (e.g. i's audience or followers).",[]]]},{"de":[["In the case of informational frictions, there may exist an optimal action, but society may not know exactly what it is.",[]]]},{"de":[["(e.g., a constant flow of biased information)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The out-neighborhood of any agent i at any time t represents the set of agents that i is receiving information from, and is denoted by N out i,t = {j | [g t ] ij = 1}.",[]]]},{"de":[["Hence, polarization can also be detrimental for welfare.",[]],["Basically, this measure computes polarization over a discretized version of the domain of θ (e.g. the interval [0, 1]), dening the share of agents in each group k ∈ {1, ..., K} by π k,t , with k π k,t = 1.",[]],["The higher degree of heterogeneity of opinions across groups, |ỹ k,t -ỹl,t |, the greater the level of polarization according to this measure.",[]],["Polarization also increases with intra-group opinion homogeneity, which is given by the mass of individuals π k,t that share the same opinion.",[]],["Basically, this measure computes polarization over a discretized version of the domain of θ (e.g. the interval [0, 1]), dening the share of agents in each group k ∈ {1, ..., K} by π k,t , with k π k,t = 1. The higher degree of heterogeneity of opinions across groups, |ỹ k,t -ỹl,t |, the greater the level of polarization according to this measure. Polarization also increases with intra-group opinion homogeneity, which is given by the mass of individuals π k,t that share the same opinion.",[]]],"rt":[["constructed by Esteban and Ray (1994)",[]],["misinformation",[]],["Esteban and Ray (1994)",[]]]},{"sy":[["bounded condence model",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The focus here is on the \"informational aspects of energy developments to achieve social goals\" [ [137]:10], advocating for inclusive and equitable stakeholder participation in the planning of rules and laws [22].",["137","22"]]]},{"rt":[["non-recognition",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["social media platforms like Twitter could enhance ideological segmentation and make information more fragmented rather than more uniform across people.",[]],["networks for individuals sharing similar political beliefs so that they tend to interact with others from the same communities and thus their beliefs are reinforced",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Because retweeting a message generates a link from a user who originated the message to a user who reposted it, we can observe the direction of the information flow. Thus, retweeting provides us with measures of intensity and direction for interaction between different types of users.",[]]],"sy":[["reposting",[]]]},{"sy":[["reposting",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Twitter bots become increasingly sophisticated at mimicking humans",["Ferrara et al., 2016","Haustein et al., 2016"]],["the daily and hourly tweeting activity of a bot agent is even",[]],["bots often tweet the same content many times while humans do not",[]],["bot accounts are more likely to be created just on or about the event announcement date",[]],["bot agents could be inactive before and after the event but create mass tweets or retweets on event-specific days and times",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["An analysis of external narrative coherence may in some cases explain internal inconsistencies",[]]],"sp":[["Narrative coherence",[]]]},{"de":[["They may be also referred as symptoms of deeper systemic problems.",[]]],"sy":[["symptoms of deeper systemic problems",[]]],"sp":[["problem frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Frames rest on the blend of prevailing systems of believes, metaphors and worldviews, knowledge and evidence of facts and trends, power relations as well as organisational culture of specific actors.",[]],["They provide useful analytical lenses to interrogate policy narratives.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["future frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Analysing internal narrative coherence helps to find inconsistencies and ambiguities in policy documents and positions",[]]],"sp":[["Narrative coherence",[]]]},{"sb":[["Resource-intensive economy",[]],["Material-efficient economy",[]],["Circular economy",[]],["Sufficiency economy",[]]]},{"de":[["The lack of internal narrative coherence may be a result of logical flaws and knowledge gaps but it also may reflect more fundamental disagreements and diverging worldviews.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Facts and evidence in narratives: selection, use and interpretation of facts, empirical evidence as well as anticipated events and trends in the narrative",[]],["Causal assumptions in storylines: explicit and implicit assumptions on causal relations and systemic dependencies in the narratives",[]],["Underlying cognitive and normative determinants of narratives: interpretation of cognitive and normative determinants underlying frames used in the narrative",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They consist of stories, metaphors and arguments used to support a specific line of argumentation.",[]],["Policy stakeholders construct narratives by blending empirical evidence with normative goals; the structure of policy arguments resembles 'a complex blend of factual statements, interpretations, opinions, and evaluations' (Majone, 1989).",["1989"]],["Narrative are the main unit of analysis used to analyse policy discourses.",[]],["As a social construct shared by groups of actors and organisations they can be considered an 'aggregate unit of analysis' in policy research (Elkjaer, 2003).",["Elkjaer, 2003"]],["In this paper policy narratives are considered an intersubjective social construct.",[]],["Narrative are the main unit of analysis used to analyse policy discourses. As a social construct shared by groups of actors and organisations they can be considered an 'aggregate unit of analysis' in policy research (Elkjaer, 2003).",["2003"]],["Policy narratives may be purposefully ambiguous to appeal to different powerful groups holding different views on a topic or simply because consensus on the problem has not yet been reached.",[]]],"rt":[["policy discourses",[]]]},{"de":[["This paper focuses on the instrumental (or intentional) reframing of policy considered an intentional act (or series of acts) aiming at changing dominant policy frames by policy actors.",[]],["The analysis of policy reframing may reveal different degrees of reconfigurations in policy narratives ranging from minor changes in the established storylines to radical shifts in problem frames underpinning policy narrative.",[]],["an intentional act (or series of acts) aiming at changing dominant policy frames by policy actors.",[]]]},{"de":[["POLiFRAME provides a logical structure to reconstruct or construct policy narratives emerging from the testimonies of policy actors and formal policy documents.",[]],["The framework is meant to be flexible and open for adaptations: both the analytical layers and the building block of the timeline can be adapted to specific questions and contexts.",[]]],"rt":[["Storylines and argumentation",[]],["Narrative frame analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is about 'time frames of frames'. This component of POLiFEAME draws mainly on the interpretive approaches to policy analysis",[]]],"ex":[["systemic deficiencies, first-order problems, scenarios of change and future vision",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["scenarios",[]]],"ex":[["product prototypes, political manifestos, investment portfolio growth forecasts, nation-state (or corporate) budget plans, technology brand ad spots, science fiction stories, science fiction movies, computerised predictive system-models, New Year's resolutions, and many other narrative forms",[]],["product prototypes, political manifestos, investment portfolio growth forecasts, nation-state (or corporate) budget plans, technology brand ad spots, science fiction stories, science fiction movies, computerised predictive system-models, New Year's resolutions",["Raven & Elahi, 2015: 50 -51"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["I take it, that is, as a mode of thought which endeavors to activate what might be possible against the safety of probability.",[]]]},{"rt":[["worlding",[]],["SF",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["recollection of facts, which is influenced by social filters largely independent of personal experience, influencing which events are remembered and which are forgotten, and the way mnemonic communities remember the general shape of past events.",[]],["Such cognitive structures retrospectively structure the past to give meaning to it in the present as well as efforts, such as in this paper, to envision the future and its transition and transformation.",[]],["social (re)construction of a collective memory of place that extends back to the Indigenous culture of the Muiscas",[]],["collective memory is in fact an active process of the re-construction of the past in the function of a/the present",["Halbwachs, 1996","Batel and Devine-Wright, 2017","Perreault, 2018","Kojola, 2020"]],["collective memory entails on the one hand the recollection of facts, which is influenced by social filters largely independent of personal experience, influencing which events are remembered and which are forgotten, and the way mnemonic communities remember the general shape of past events.",["Zerubavel, 2003"]],["the social meaning of past events is essentially a function of the way they are structurally positioned in our minds vis-à-vis other events",["Zerubavel, 2003"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["place framing",[]]]},{"de":[["an exercise through which collective memories and future visions are connected and co-constituted in a spatio-temporal 'dialogue'",[]],["the strategic selection and assemblage of symbolic and material elements that are discursively 'bundled' in the representation of place(s) and their possible futures",["(Pierce et al., 2011)"]],["Social actors use place frames to legitimize particular understandings of place and, by extension, forms of collective action and political agendas around which coalitions can be formed or resisted",[]],["Place framing involves the strategic selection and assemblage of symbolic and material elements that are discursively 'bundled' in the representation of place(s) and their possible futures",["Pierce et al., 2011"]],["place-making occurs when interest groups, social movements, communities, political parties, states, firms, and/or other actors mobilize collective or shared placebundles in order to achieve social and political ends.",["Pierce et al. (2011)","Murphy (2015)"]],["while place frames are partial and sometimes imagined or ideal representations of a place, they serve as strategic devices to advance social and political objectives",[]]],"rt":[["place frames",[]],["collective memories",[]],["future visions",[]]],"sp":[["place making",[]]]},{"rt":[["place framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In this model, instead of being focused on providing more efficient service delivery to customers as emphasized in the managerial model, the role for government is directed toward creating better policy decisions with citizens' input in the decision-making process",["(Macintosh, 2004)"]],["Therefore, this model moves toward two-way interaction, even though it is still directed by government.",[]],["The consultative model is more directed toward citizens and their interaction with government than the managerial model",["Kolsaker & Lee-Kelley, 2008"]]],"rt":[["managerial model",[]]],"sp":[["e-participation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["E-participation can serve to encourage two-way communication between government and citizens, to educate citizens, legitimize government decisions, open up the policy-making process, and provide learning opportunities",["Kamal, 2009"]],["The most important aspect of e-participation is to increase citizens' ability to participate in governance, including participation in the political process and transformation of public service delivery",["Kamal, 2009;Sanford & Rose, 2007;Susha & Grönlund, 2012;Vicente & Novo, 2014"]]],"sb":[["the managerial, which focuses on efficient service delivery of government through egovernment",[]],["consultation, where citizens' input is included in the policy-making process",[]],["the participatory model, which focuses on two-way interaction between government and citizens",[]]]},{},{"de":[["When government uses social media platforms there are opportunities for democratic participation, coproduction, and crowdsourcing solutions and innovations",["Bertot, Jaeger, & Hansen, 2012;Linders, 2012"]],["Social media tools can provide for improvements in government transparency, policy-making, public service delivery, and knowledge management",["Bonsón et al., 2012;Kavanaugh et al., 2012"]],["The predicted flow of information is one way, directed by government to citizens, with little interaction.",[]],["Social media can be used to broadcast information, but it also allows citizens to comment on and question the information.",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook",[]],["Twitter",[]]]},{"sp":[["scientific/physical scepticism",[]]]},{"de":[["shorthand for disengagement or disbelief",[]],["conceptualise doubts about a wider range of societal, political and personal responses to climate change",[]],["applications of the notion of scepticism in the literature are for the most part not limited to this narrow framing -more commonly being extended to conceptualise doubts about a wider range of societal, political and personal responses to climate change.",[]]],"sy":[["climate denialism",[]],["contrarianism",[]]],"sb":[["epistemic scepticism",[]],["response scepticism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The present study extends this work empirically by obtaining evidence for the coherence of doubts around the reality and human contribution to climate change within a broad scepticism type, and conceptually by showing that these sorts of doubts tend also to be associated with scepticism concerning the evidence base, level of consensus and practice of climate science.",[]],["The present study differs from the approach taken by these previous studies, however, by arguing that epistemic scepticism also incorporates doubts which centre on climate science and scientists.",[]],["Our qualitative analysis of research participants' talk shows that such scepticism relates to perceptions of the legitimacy of climate science claims; this is consistent with studies dating back to the mid-1990s (Darier et al., 1999).",[]],["this incorporated doubts about the physical and scientific basis of climate change and the way this is represented",[]]],"rt":[["scientific/physical scepticism",[]]],"sp":[["climate change scepticism",[]],["scientific/physical scepticism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Arguments characteristic of impact scepticism were also used by participants to suggest that climate change was less of a problem than was often assumed to be the case.",[]]],"sp":[["scientific/physical scepticism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["doubts about personal, collective and political responses to climate change were incorporated into the response scepticism factor together with the notion that it is 'too late' to act on climate change.",[]],["underpinned by an individualistic worldview in which one's preferred social relations (atomistic and characterised by personal autonomy) are anathema to the idea that collective effort is required to address a social dilemma such as climate change",[]],["The highest-loading items convey response scepticism at the personal, political and general level.",[]],["this incorporated doubts about responding to climate change at the individual and societal level, as well as items corresponding to climate change fatigue",[]]],"rt":[["epistemic scepticism",[]],["social/behavioural scepticism",[]]],"sp":[["climate change scepticism",[]],["social/behavioural scepticism",[]]]},{"de":[["It may be asserted that it is unclear whether climate change exists -more usually, however, uncertainty is associated with the knowledge basis and claims made around climate change.",[]],["Participants employ this type of scepticism primarily to argue against or downplay the legitimacy of climate science or the significance of climate change as a physical phenomenon -and in doing so often imply a resultant lack of concern.",[]],["the former serving to construct climate change as an objectively uncertain phenomenon",[]],["It may be asserted that it is unclear whether climate change exists -more usually, however, uncertainty is associated with the knowledge basis and claims made around climate change. Participants employ this type of scepticism primarily to argue against or downplay the legitimacy of climate science or the significance of climate change as a physical phenomenon -and in doing so often imply a resultant lack of concern.",[]]],"rt":[["social/behavioural scepticism",[]],["epistemic scepticism",[]]],"sb":[["attribution scepticism",[]],["impact scepticism",[]]],"sp":[["climate change scepticism",[]]]},{"de":[["Themes encompassed within the social/behavioural scepticism framework relate to doubts about the significance of responses taken to address climate change, doubts concerning human nature and motivations, as well as scepticism directed towards the communication and portrayal of climate change and in the context of people's own climate change 'fatigue'.",[]],["the truth status of climate change is not generally disputed -indeed is in places explicitly acknowledged.",[]],["Participants may employ this type of scepticism to justify or explain lack of personal action on climate change, or as a way of distancing themselves from the need or requirement to do so.",[]],["the latter serving to explain or justify lack of action on climate change",[]]],"rt":[["scientific/physical scepticism",[]],["response scepticism",[]]],"sb":[["response scepticism",[]]],"sp":[["climate change scepticism",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Dual-channel",["Alemdag and Cagiltay, 2018"]],["limited capacity",["Alemdag and Cagiltay, 2018"]]],"sp":[["cognitive theory of multimedia learning",[]]]},{"de":[["When resorting to Electronic Word of Mouth, potential consumers rely on others' shopping and decision experience, which also helps them make their own decisions",["Abir et al., 2020"]],["Electronic Word of mouth is more powerful than traditional word of mouth is now fast, directly accessible, openly observable, and has a relevant impact on one's buying intentions.",[]]],"rt":[["traditional word of mouth",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Anxiety can lead to a variety of perceptual and evaluative impairments, such as misinterpretation and warning of danger and threat, as well as irrational judgments and information processing [23].",["23"]],["I feel nervous in the face of COVID-19.",[]],["I feel anxious in the face of COVID-19.",[]],["I feel apprehensive in the face of COVID-19.",[]],["I feel worried in the face of COVID-19.",[]]]},{"de":[["Communication overload means more information and more connections with more people, and over-communication with others can interrupt the user's attention and interfere with their behavior",["10"]],["resulting in their inability to cope with such a plethora of communication requests.",[]],["I get too many messages, notifications, and announcements from the system on social media that I can't cope with.",[]],["I receive more messages and news from friends on social media than I can handle.",[]],["I receive frequent notifications from social media such as news, messages, and updates while I am doing other things.",[]],["I often feel overburdened by social media socializing",[]],["frequent communication requests cause users' attention to be continuously interrupted, and users will consume more energy to return to their previous state, which will easily lead to excessive consumption of users' cognitive energy, resulting in communication overload",["60","35"]]],"sp":[["social media overload",[]]]},{"de":[["people are constantly searching, receiving, discerning, reading and processing a constant stream of information on social media, leading to a great deal of personal time and energy being consumed, and thus a sense of information overload [1].",["1"]],["I feel that the main problem at the moment is that there is too much information about COVID-19 to deal with on social media, not a lack of it.",[]],["I have to spend a lot of time every day sifting through COVID-19 information from social media.",[]],["There are too much information about COVID-19 that I have been exposed. It's hard to tell the important ones from the unimportant ones.",[]],["I am often distracted by the overwhelming amount of information on social media",[]],["users' prolonged exposure to and processing of different forms of information from social media will persist in consuming their cognitive energy, resulting in a sense of information overload",["15","19"]]],"sp":[["social media overload",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Studies point to social media fatigue as a significant trigger not only for negative psychological states such as anxiety and depression in users",["22","23"]],["Social media use can be a continuous drain on one's cognitive energy, and the current significant increase in the length and frequency of social media use in people's daily lives has led to the phenomenon of social media fatigue becoming increasingly common [39].",["39"]],["The intensity of fatigue experienced by different individuals in the same situation varies, and may be either a mild sense of fatigue or a state of severe fatigue.",[]],["Previous research has shown that mental fatigue interferes with an individual's cognitive activities. As fatigue levels increase, an individual's executive and control functions are interfered with, with reduced flexibility and planning, and with more errors in tasks",["53"]],["Social media fatigue has been found to be a mediator of social media overload leading to negative psychological consequences for individuals",["19","33"]],["negative psychological state of social media fatigue",[]],["social media fatigue results in the demotion of health self-efficacy level",[]],["social media fatigue mediates the effects of information overload, communication overload and social overload on health self-efficacy",[]],["Social media fatigue tends to lead to the elevation of anxiety level",[]],["social media fatigue mediates the influence of information overload on anxiety",[]],["After using social media, I have difficultly concentrating in my spare time.",[]],["I find it difficult to relax after consistent use of social media.",[]],["After using social media on a consistent basis, I feel really fatigued.",[]],["Due to using social media, I feel rather exhausted.",[]],["In the process of receiving information on social media, I often feel very tired and cannot complete other tasks well.",[]],["users' prolonged exposure to and processing of different forms of information from social media will persist in consuming their cognitive energy, resulting in a sense of information overload and thus social media fatigue",["15","19"]]],"sy":[["psychological fatigue",[]]],"rt":[["anxiety",[]],["neuroticism",[]],["fear of missing",[]],["social media overload",[]]]},{"de":[["social media overload (information overload, communication overload, and social overload)",[]],["social media overload (information overload, communication overload, social overload)",[]]],"rt":[["social media fatigue",[]],["information overload",[]],["communication overload",[]],["social overload",[]]],"sb":[["information overload",[]],["communication overload",[]],["social overload",[]]],"sp":[["overload",[]]]},{"de":[["Too many requests for social media interaction forced users to respond to their friends as quickly as possible [39], which could lead to social overload and consequently social media fatigue [34].",["39","34"]],["I spend too much time following what my friends are posting on social media about COVID-19.",[]],["I spend too much time on social media trying to keep track of how my friends are doing.",[]],["I spend a lot of time on social media dealing with things related to my friends.",[]],["I follow my friends on social media too often.",[]],["excessive and frequent social support given by users to their friends on social media may cause users to feel overwhelmed and depleted, resulting in social overload",["49","33"]]],"sp":[["social media overload",[]]]},{"sp":[["SSO theoretical framework",[]]]},{"de":[["thereby reflecting falsehood and malicious intent.",[]],["Disinformation reflects the spread of untrue information known to be false by the person disseminating the information [3], thereby reflecting falsehood and malicious intent.",["3"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["has become a deplorable problem since it intentionally manipulates facts to spread misinformation and deceive the audience.",[]],["Fake news can be characterized by three factors: the content of the article, the user response it receives, and the sources promoting it.",[]],["Fake news can significantly distort public understanding of important issues, often sensationalizing or trivializing matters that require serious attention.",[]],["Fake news impairs decision-making since it leads to biases in information interpretation.",[]],["Fake news encapsulates both misinformation and disinformation",["2,10"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["news satire",[]],["news parody",[]],["fabrication",[]],["manipulation",[]],["advertising",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["thereby reflecting falsehood and non-malicious intent.",[]],["Misinformation refers to the spread of false information perceived to be true by the sender, thereby reflecting falsehood and non-malicious intent.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It is determined based on the perceived probability, severity, fear, and reward from a maladapted response.",["5"]]]},{},{"sb":[["external attention",[]],["internal attention",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Internal attention encompasses functions such as ''Mind Wandering'', ''Working Memory'', and ''Executive functions'' such as mental calculation, which rely heavily on internally generated information.",[]],["Internal attention systems likely reduced cognitive interference from distractions, allowing participants to allocate more WM resources to the task.",[]],["internal systems better support precision and cognitive performance by fostering deliberate processing and sustained focus.",[]],["internal systems better support precision and cognitive performance by fostering deliberate processing and sustained focus",[]],["For example, retrieving information about recent or past events (episodic memory) (Hutchinson and Turk-Browne, 2012), WM (Myers et al., 2017), and mental imagery (Putze et al., 2016).",["Hutchinson and Turk-Browne, 2012","Myers et al., 2017","Putze et al., 2016"]]],"rt":[["external attention",[]],["mind wandering",["Gruberger et al., 2011"]],["rumination",["Chuen Yee Lo et al., 2012"]],["Working Memory",[]],["Executive functions",[]]],"sb":[["''Mind Wandering''",[]],["''Working Memory''",[]],["''Executive functions''",[]]],"sp":[["Attention orienting",[]]],"ex":[["retrieving information about recent or past events (episodic memory)",["Hutchinson and Turk-Browne, 2012"]],["WM (Myers et al., 2017)",["Myers et al., 2017"]],["mental imagery (Putze et al., 2016)",["Putze et al., 2016"]],["''Mind Wandering''",[]],["''Working Memory''",[]],["''Executive functions'' such as mental calculation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the study identifies three major dimensions (data, model, and deployment) and nine subdimensions in algorithmic bias management capabilities",[]],["can change swiftly to fit the shifting business environment and are conducive to adapting, integrating, and re-configuring resources (Teece & Pisano, 2003) and opportunities brought about by AI and analytics driven changes in dynamic B2B environments.",[]],["an ensemble of bias management capabilities (i.e., data bias, model bias deployment bias management capabilities) can act both on technological resources (e.g., data and models) and organizational resources (e.g., integrity) to develop algorithmic capabilities that enhance customer equity in a fair, transparent, and accountable way.",[]],["dynamic capabilities that can change swiftly to fit the shifting business environment and are conducive to adapting, integrating, and re-configuring resources (Teece & Pisano, 2003) and opportunities brought about by AI and analytics driven changes in dynamic B2B environments",["Teece & Pisano, 2003"]]],"rt":[["algorithmic biases",[]],["data bias",[]],["model bias",[]],["deployment bias",[]]],"sb":[["data bias",[]],["model bias",[]],["deployment bias management capabilities",[]],["data bias management capability (DABMC)",[]],["model bias management capability",[]],["deployment bias management capability",[]],["model bias management capability (MOBMC)",[]],["deployment bias management capability (DPBMC)",[]],["data bias management capability",[]]],"sp":[["DCs",[]],["dynamic capabilities",[]]]},{"de":[["contribute to customer equity in terms of value, brand and relationship equity.",[]]],"sb":[["data bias",[]],["model bias",[]],["deployment bias management capabilities",[]],["data bias management capability",[]],["model bias management capability",[]],["deployment bias management capability",[]]]},{},{"de":[["labels such bias as more socio-cultural and less technical in nature.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["model bias",[]]],"ex":[["deployment bias caused by data bias",[]]]},{"sb":[["completeness of the training dataset",[]],["currency",[]],["format",[]]],"de":[["building block of bias management capabilities to reduce unjust and unfair outcomes",[]]],"sp":[["algorithmic bias management capabilities",[]]]},{"de":[["Bias in marketing models can result in poor model efficiency and organizational judgments, which can have disastrous effects on finances, society, and image",["Fahse, Huber, & Giffen, 2021"]]],"rt":[["data bias",[]],["model bias",[]]],"ex":[["segregated areas with low socioeconomic characteristics, primarily in Afro-American communities",[]],["Mac users were charged more for accommodation on the Orbitz reservation service than standard PC consumers",["Israeli & Ascazra, 2020"]],["banks' algorithms favored more affluent, white customers than others",[]]]},{"sb":[["benevolence",["Colquitt, Scott, & LePine, 2007","Mayer et al., 1995"]],["competence",["Mayer, Davis, & Schoorman, 1995"]],["integrity",["Colquitt et al., 2007","Lind, 2001","Sitkin & Roth, 1993"]]],"sp":[["algorithmic bias management capabilities",[]],["algorithmic bias management capability",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["social bias",[]],["measurement bias",[]],["representation bias",[]],["label bias",[]],["algorithmic bias",[]],["evaluation bias",[]],["deployment bias",[]],["feedback bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["data bias",[]]]},{"de":[["model bias management capability show that the most important subdimension is the ambidexterity of the model (R 2 =0.726)), followed by reliability (R 2 =0.699), and flexibility (R 2 =0.684).",[]]],"sb":[["ambidexterity",["De Luca, Herhausen, Troilo, & Rossi, 2021"]],["reliability",[]],["flexibility",[]],["model reliability",["Fosso Wamba et al., 2019","Nelson et al., 2005"]],["Model flexibility",["Nelson et al., 2005"]]],"sp":[["algorithmic bias management capabilities",[]],["algorithmic bias management capability",[]]]},{"de":[["A particular focus is on algorithmic bias which is a direct function of the quality of the data that the AI algorithms are trained on, and that are effective only for those populations where there is access to training data.",[]]],"ex":[["For example, algorithmic bias has been well-described in the context of ophthalmological care, which already exhibits social injustice, based on geography within and between countries as well as by socioeconomic status and ethnicity (Campbell et al., 2021).",["Campbell et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["Data, unlike other historical natural products (in relation to colonialism), is developed through a highly socialized process as it becomes captured, selected, and appropriated",["Couldry and Mejias, 2019"]],["Data, unlike other historical natural products (in relation to colonialism), is developed through a highly socialized process as it becomes captured, selected, and appropriated (Couldry and Mejias, 2019).",["Couldry and Mejias, 2019"]],["The process of the Global North appropriating and enabling data extraction for commodification from the Global South creates new human \"data relations\" and a new social order; even social lifecaptured through datacan become a resource that is mined and extracted by those with power and access for capital across the globe.",["Couldry and Mejias, 2019"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Here, while an entity can be assigned (or \"emplaced\") as a risk object that has the ability to influence the future of the network, the reverse (or \"displacement\") can also occur, where an object's risks are neutralized or its capacity to influence the network removed.",["Hilgartner, 1992"]]]},{"de":[["confirmation bias-a tendency to prefer information that conforms to their initial beliefs",[]],["If someone has an extreme confirmation bias, he or she is likely to agree with online articles that hold standpoints similar to their initial beliefs while rejecting those contrary to their preexisting attitudes",["Vydiswaran, Zhai, Roth, & Pirolli, 2015"]],["if someone holds a moderate confirmation bias, he or she might be cautious on their initial beliefs and thus evaluates the online articles mainly depending on their information-use experiences (Knobloch-Westerwick, Johnson, & Westerwick, 2014), as well as the specific content characteristics (Knobloch-Westerwick & Kleinman, 2012)",["Knobloch-Westerwick, Johnson, & Westerwick, 2014","Knobloch-Westerwick & Kleinman, 2012"]],["In this case, they tend to accept information that conforms to their preexisting beliefs and attitudes, but ignore information that deviates them",[]],["Confirmation bias will be strengthened for those who are more likely to trust in their prior beliefs",[]],["seeking and using information that conforms to their initial beliefs",["e.g., Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2014;Yin et al., 2016"]],["if the value locates the interval from 1 to 2 (excluding 2), it means extreme negative confirmation bias; if the value locates the interval from 2 to 3 (excluding 3), it means moderate negative confirmation bias; 3 means no confirmation bias; if the value locates the interval from 3 to 4 (excluding 4), it means moderate positive confirmation bias; if the value locates the interval from 4 to 5, it means extreme positive confirmation bias.",[]]],"sb":[["extreme confirmation bias",[]],["moderate confirmation bias",[]],["extreme negative confirmation bias",[]],["moderate negative confirmation bias",[]],["moderate positive confirmation bias",[]],["extreme positive confirmation bias",[]]]},{"sb":[["positive",[]],["negative",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this case, people are inclined to process the information by leveraging their preexisting beliefs rather than the content characteristics of the information or their particular information-seeking and information-use experience",[]]],"sp":[["Confirmation bias",[]]],"ex":[["very agree or very disagree",[]]]},{"de":[["In this case, people are inclined to rely primarily on the specific content characteristics of the information and the experience with seeking and understanding the information to process the information",[]]],"sp":[["Confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["high online information literacy requires that users should possess a high self-efficacy for using digital technologies and essential online information-search skills.",[]],["In brief, high online information literacy requires that users should possess a high self-efficacy for using digital technologies and essential online information-search skills.",[]]],"rt":[["health literacy",[]],["eHealth literacy",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["pseudo-science and misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["focalization",["1963"]]]},{},{"rt":[["dispersion",["1963"]]]},{"de":[["opinion leaders would influence the public or gain public trust because they acted as information aggregators (or sharers) (Luqiu et al., 2019), or sometimes emerged as whistleblowers (or dissidents) who resisted the government's agenda (Zhang et al., 2020b).",["Luqiu et al., 2019","Zhang et al., 2020b"]]]},{"rt":[["conspiracy theory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In essence, social representations engage with understanding, defining, and prescribing the discourse structures of a new object, complete with its attributes",["Moscovici, 2001"]],["According to SRT, the sensemaking process is the driving force behind social representations, whereas communication is the central mechanism by which representations can be envisaged, negotiated, and consolidated",["Wagner et al., 1999","Wagner, 2020"]],["social representations engage with understanding, defining, and prescribing the discourse structures of a new object, complete with its attributes (Moscovici, 2001).",["Moscovici, 2001"]]],"rt":[["sensemaking process",["1999"]],["dispersion",[]],["focalization",[]]]},{"de":[["This follows the tradition of using associative network analysis (de Rosa, 2002) in social representation research, which was developed to record people's spontaneous reactions and their relational structures when confronted with an object stimulus.",[]],["observations reflect social representations' functions in terms of cognitive coping, social sharing of emotional experiences, and community empowerment",[]],["the social representation was primarily constructed through clinical and epidemiological lenses based on people's first-hand experiences",[]],["these shifts in social representations function to construct explanations of what had happened and what could happen next, for collective coping and action.",[]],["Social groups are likely to develop their own interpretations of unfamiliar or threatening phenomena via communication.",[]]],"rt":[["SRT",[]]]},{"ex":[["fear, anxiety, or arousal",[]]]},{"de":[["features that can be used for stress detection",[]]],"sb":[["affective",[]],["topic",[]],["social",[]],["syntactic",[]]]},{"ex":[["trust, deception or gratitude",[]]]},{"de":[["Traditionally bullying has included overt physical acts (e.g., hitting, shoving) and verbal abuse (e.g., taunting, name-calling) as well as more subtle or indirect actions such as social exclusion and rumorspreading.",[]]],"sb":[["electronic bullying",[]]],"ex":[["overt physical acts (e.g., hitting, shoving)",[]],["verbal abuse (e.g., taunting, name-calling)",[]],["social exclusion",[]],["rumorspreading",[]],["social exclusion and rumorspreading",[]]]},{"de":[["Electronic communications technologies are affording children and adolescents new means of bullying one another.",[]],["the potential audience of bystanders and observers of electronic bullying is limitless",[]],["about half of children who are bullied electronically do not know the identity of the perpetrators",[]]],"sy":[["cyberbullying",[]],["online social cruelty",[]]],"sp":[["bullying",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A developmental approach to addressing marginalization and oppression",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["can promote a sense of empowerment and purpose, help youth cope with stress, and develop community connections and social capital",["10"]],["beneficial to youth in adolescence and beyond",[]]],"ex":[["voting, volunteering, and activism",[]],["volunteer at polls, bring water to people waiting in line, or promote voter registration and voting among their friends, family members, and social media networks",[]],["challenging racism among friends or family, participating in peaceful protests, community meetings, or engagement with community organizations or political officials",["21"]]]},{"de":[["relating to the psychological biases that lead individuals to believe in fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["These kinds of users re-share some information through social networks on different occasions.",[]]],"sp":[["Human agents",[]]]},{"sy":[["bots",[]]]},{"rt":[["media truth discernment",["Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. (2019)"]]]},{"rt":[["memory bias",[]]]},{"de":[["the fake news phenomenon has evolved into a specific concept, with its own peculiarities differentiating it from concepts such as misinformation and disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["investigating the mechanisms enabled by fake news spreaders to achieve virality of contents. Such mechanisms could be either psychological and technological",[]]]},{"de":[["the polarization of users within echo chambers where fake news can thrive",["Del Vicario et al., 2019"]]]},{"de":[["Its effectiveness relies on several conditions. First, creators present their articles mimicking legitimate sources of news in order to gain credibility and trust from its target audience (Lazer, 2018). Second, fake news is often presented in the same form as authentic news, for example by using fonts and colours for headlines that could recall legitimate sources of news' articles (Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017). Third, fake news is built around topics that are also addressed by the mainstream media (Xu et al., 2018), misrepresenting facts (e.g. manipulating images or changing names or places) to the point that they are no longer accurate (Tandoc et al., 2018).",[]]],"ex":[["such as website domains and headlines that recall legitimate sources of news",[]]]},{"de":[["the fake news phenomenon has evolved into a specific concept, with its own peculiarities differentiating it from concepts such as misinformation and disinformation.",[]],["used interchangeably to describe 1) news that is crafted for gaining financial profit or discrediting others (Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017;Lazer et al., 2018), 2) news that has a factual basis but is distorted to fit a particular context (Tandoc, Lim & Ling, 2018), and 3) news that people just don't feel comfortable about or don't agree with (Lilleker, 2017).",[]],["Fake news is actually an evolution of old misinformation spreading techniques enabled by digital technologies.",[]],["These definitions are based on two dimensions: levels of facticity and deception.",[]],["The meaning of this term has evolved from denoting satirical television shows (Hartley, 1996) to false information mimicking the style of conventional news and created to deliberately misinform (Waisbord, 2018).",["Hartley, 1996","Waisbord, 2018"]],["the terminology 'fake news' results in a \"catch-all term with multiple definitions\"",["Lilleker, 2017"]],["news that is crafted for gaining financial profit or discrediting others",["Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017","Lazer et al., 2018"]],["news that has a factual basis but is distorted to fit a particular context",["Tandoc, Lim & Ling, 2018"]],["news that people just don't feel comfortable about or don't agree with",["Lilleker, 2017"]],["a broad category of false information that contains different shades of purposes",[]],["encompassing all kinds of false stories or news, mainly distributed on the Internet, in order to mislead readers for financial or political gains",[]],["news articles that are intentionally and verifiably false, and could mislead readers",[]],["the fake news term should be reserved for cases of deliberate presentation of typically false or misleading claims as news, where these are misleading by design, (...) systemic features of the sources and channels by which fake news propagates and thereby manipulates (...) consumers' pre-existing cognitive biases and heuristics",[]],["the term fake news has been politicized by political opinions and judgements, rather than just to material that could automatically be considered false in content.",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["satire",[]],["hoax",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["misinformation, disinformation, propaganda, satire, hoax or conspiracy theories",[]]],"sb":[["news satire",["Tandoc, Lim & Ling, 2018"]],["news parody",["Tandoc, Lim & Ling, 2018"]],["fabrication",["Tandoc, Lim & Ling, 2018"]],["manipulation",["Tandoc, Lim & Ling, 2018"]],["advertising",["Tandoc, Lim & Ling, 2018"]],["propaganda",["Tandoc, Lim & Ling, 2018"]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["malicious",[]],["benign",[]]]},{},{"de":[["some malicious users are paid in order to disseminate a particular content or target a specific demographic",["Zannettou et al., 2019"]]],"sp":[["Human agents",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the fake news phenomenon has evolved into a specific concept, with its own peculiarities differentiating it from concepts such as misinformation and disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["social bots",[]]]},{"de":[["clarifying the consequences of fake news on consumers and companies",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["correlates positively with perceptions of fake news accuracy, and negatively with the ability to differentiate between fake and real news (media truth discernment).",[]]]},{"de":[["on social media is responsible for people's belief in fake news",["Quattrociocchi, Scala & Sunstein (2016)"]],["enhances third-person perception of fake news as individuals perceive others as more susceptible than themselves to the detrimental effects of fake news",["Jang & Kim, 2018"]]],"sy":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["They can further elicit adaptive responses to aid human survival",["Lazarus 1991"]],["They can further elicit adaptive responses to aid human survival (Lazarus 1991).",["Lazarus 1991"]]],"sb":[["anger",[]],["fear/anxiety",[]],["sadness",[]],["joy",[]]],"ex":[["fear is associated with threat avoidance, anger increases the tendency to fight and sadness often results in continued pondering on negative thoughts",[]],["fear is associated with threat avoidance, anger increases the tendency to fight and sadness often results in continued pondering on negative thoughts.",[]]]},{"de":[["is the primary reason explaining why people believe and distribute fake news",[]],["is the underlying cause for fake news consumption and distribution",[]],["used for explaining why people believe and distribute fake news in extant fake news literature.",[]]]},{"de":[["People tend to seek and interpret information that confirms their existing beliefs",["Nickerson 1998"]]]},{},{"de":[["counterspeech approach has been criticized for curbing fake news in the era of digital media environment",["Syed, 2017"]],["First Amendment theory contends that counterspeech or more speech about real news is the tenet against fake news.",[]],["extended to facilitate counterspeech in the digital media space such that individuals have less exposure to fake news; thus they have a reduced chance to exercise confirmation bias.",[]],["solutions to address the viral phenomenon of fake news should go beyond fake news identification/ labeling and be extended to facilitate counterspeech in the digital media space such that individuals have less exposure to fake news; thus they have a reduced chance to exercise confirmation bias",[]]],"sy":[["counterspeech",[]],["counterspeech approach",[]]]},{"de":[["our study used First Amendment Theory as the foundation and argued that it is critical to design solutions that could holistically address the generation, dispersion and consumption of fake news and regain the media space for promoting healthy counterspeech",[]]]},{"de":[["underlying doctrine",[]]],"sp":[["First Amendment theory (FAT)",[]]]},{"rt":[["expressing",[]],["impressing",[]],["mirroring",[]],["reflecting",[]]]},{"rt":[["visibility",[]],["distinctiveness",[]],["authenticity",[]],["transparency",[]],["consistency",[]]]},{"de":[["Brand elements are key instruments in the sub-process of impressing",[]]]},{"de":[["Brand elements also help the process of mirroring the images of others",[]]]},{"de":[["Brand elements are also supposed to assist the process of reflecting",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance",[]]]},{"sp":[["attitude markers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["By signalling affect, speakers are able to step into the discussion to assert their presence and contribution, expressing an opinion which marks a clear stance.",[]]],"sb":[["assessment",[]],["significance",[]],["emotion",[]],["They indicate the speaker's evaluation of the research they are presenting and pointing out to a non-specialist audience what they might find interesting, unusual or valuable.",[]],["These refer explicitly to the speaker's affective position, how he or she feels rather than an evaluation of a claim or situation, and so express a clear and personal emotive stance.",[]]]},{"de":[["Because of this, they are a perfect strategy in a context which encourages speakers to communicate their material, and stance towards it, as clearly and as assuredly as they can in the limited time available.",[]],["They are a rhetorical strategy to help convince readers of the argument and sidestep possible alternative views from an unpredictably heterogeneous readership.",[]],["Boosters, for example, can highlight the significance of the work:",[]]],"rt":[["hedges",[]]],"sb":[["Intensity boosters",[]],["Extremity boosters",[]],["Certainty boosters",[]]]},{"de":[["By expressing a clear stance towards the certainty or truth of a proposition, speakers can also project credibility as an academic and an image of authority, decisiveness, and conviction in their views (Hyland, 2004).",["Hyland, 2004"]]],"sp":[["Boosters",[]]],"ex":[["definite",[]],["prove",[]],["show",[]]]},{"de":[["Downtoners, which increase the credibility of a claim by understating or mitigating the intensity of how it is expressed, were over three times higher in the science talks, where they function to either add precision to statements that are unproven (3) or protect the speaker against inaccuracy (4):",["3","4"]]],"sp":[["Hedges",[]]],"ex":[["slightly",[]],["barely",[]],["quite",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attitude markers",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["stance",[]]]},{"de":[["Others focus more specifically on the linguistic realisations of judgements or viewpoints by looking at intensity (Labov 1984), disjuncts (Quirk et al, 1985) and hedges (Author 1, 1998).",[]],["Their importance lies in the fact that they function to downplay a writer's commitment to a proposition, modifying its scope, relevance or certainty",["Hyland, 1998"]],["Hedges are an explicit intrusion into the talk by a speaker to offer a personal assessment of a claim.",[]],["Their importance lies in the fact that they function to downplay a writer's commitment to a proposition, modifying its scope, relevance or certainty (Hyland, 1998).",["Hyland, 1998"]],["The audience gains a clear understanding of the speaker's position and the epistemic confidence they are being asked to place on a statement.",[]],["At the same time, of course, they are asked to recognise the speaker's concern for their own views.",[]],["This is an acknowledgement of audience presence and the speaker's willingness to concede to the possible alternative views of the audience (Hyland & Jiang, 2019).",["Hyland & Jiang, 2019"]]],"sb":[["downtoners",["Hinkel, 2005","Salager-Meyer, 1994"]],["rounders",["Hinkel, 2005","Salager-Meyer, 1994"]],["plausibility hedges",["Hinkel, 2005","Salager-Meyer, 1994"]]]},{"de":[["Intensity boosters, then, both enhance persuasion through a committed and involved attitude and create greater proximity through conversational rapport with hearers.",[]],["Intensity boosters dominate the frequencies of both fields as speakers dial up the emotional vigour of their arguments for rhetorical effect.",[]]],"rt":[["attitude markers",[]]],"sp":[["Boosters",[]]],"ex":[["extremely",[]],["amazing",[]]]},{"de":[["they work to tone down the strength of assertions and recognise the limitations of claims.",[]]],"sp":[["Hedges",[]]],"ex":[["could",[]],["may",[]],["suggest",[]]]},{"sp":[["Stance",[]]]},{"sp":[["Stance",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance",[]]]},{"de":[["Communication, in whatever mode or register, involves presenting a discoursal self to show where the agent stands in relation to their arguments and the audience.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attitude markers",[]]]},{"de":[["Stance therefore involves an appropriate presentation of oneself and one's arguments to audiences with particular expectations.",[]],["expression of epistemic assessment, personal attitudes, and textual presence",[]],["Stance, then, is an attitudinal dimension of interaction and concerns how academics stamp their personal authority or perspectives on their arguments.",[]],["Stance, the positions we take towards our propositions and audience, has long been a popular area of scholarly interest.",[]]],"sy":[["posture",["Grabe 1984"]],["attitude",["Halliday, 2004"]],["appraisal",["Martin, 2000"]],["evaluation",["Hunston & Thompson, 2000"]],["metadiscourse",["Hyland, 2005a"]]],"rt":[["positioning",[]],["proximity",[]],["posture (Grabe 1984)",[]],["attitude (Halliday, 2004)",[]],["appraisal (Martin, 2000)",[]],["evaluation (Hunston & Thompson, 2000)",[]],["metadiscourse (Hyland, 2005a)",[]],["posture",["Grabe 1984"]],["attitude",["Halliday, 2004"]],["appraisal",["Martin, 2000"]],["evaluation",["Hunston & Thompson, 2000"]],["metadiscourse",["Hyland, 2005a"]]],"sb":[["positioning",[]],["proximity",[]],["evidentiality",["Hyland (1999)"]],["affect",["Hyland (1999)"]],["relation",["Hyland (1999)"]]]},{"de":[["A common psychological explanation is that stockpiling storable goods gives consumers a sense of control over the risky situation created by a crisis (Grohol 2020).",["Grohol 2020"]],["any potential supply disruption that increases stock out risk, or any restriction on movement that increases the cost of store visits, will have the effect of increasing optimal inventory.",[]],["a crisis often leads to higher expected future prices, making the current price look like a \"deal\" that calls for stocking up as optimal behavior.",["Hansman et al. (2020)"]]],"sy":[["panic buying",[]]]},{"de":[["Panic buying of storable consumer goods is a common phenomenon during natural disasters and manmade crises.",[]]],"ex":[["toilet paper, rice and pasta",[]]]},{"de":[["Collective narcissism resembles individual narcissism (e.g., Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001) in its associations with sensitivity to threats and criticism (Golec de Zavala et al., 2009).",[]],["Hence, it represents group-based defensiveness (Cichocka, 2016).",[]],["fueled by unrealistic perceptions that one's group is relatively disadvantaged in comparison to other groups (Marchlewska et al., 2018) or excluded by others (Golec de Zavala et al., 2019).",["Marchlewska et al., 2018","Golec de Zavala et al., 2019"]],["Hence, collective narcissists' inflated belief in ingroup greatness seems to be an attempt to compensate for frustrated needs.",[]],["As a result, individuals high in collective narcissism tend to believe other groups conspire against their group",["Cichocka, Marchlewska, Golecde Zavala, & Olechowski, 2016"]],["defending ingroup image is of particular importance for collective narcissism",[]],["distinct from other concepts it tends to correlate with, such as national identification or right-wing political orientation",[]],["resembles individual narcissism (e.g., Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001) in its associations with sensitivity to threats and criticism (Golec de Zavala et al., 2009). Hence, it represents group-based defensiveness (Cichocka, 2016).",[]]],"rt":[["national identification",[]],["right-wing political orientation",[]]]},{"de":[["is a widespread phenomenon among business organizations aimed at influencing consumers' choices (TerraChoice, 2010).",[]],["Greenwashing does not require financial investment from companies, and can be fairly simple (Spack et al., 2012).",["Spack et al., 2012"]],["It tends to be effective in boosting the reputation of a given company and in increasing customers' perceived value of the greenwashed products (Parguel, Benoit-Moreau, & Russell, 2015;Tateishi, 2018).",["Parguel, Benoit-Moreau, & Russell, 2015;Tateishi, 2018"]],["measured support for greenwashing explicitly as a political strategy",[]],["choosing image enhancement over proenvironmental actions",[]],["greenwashing as a political strategy",[]],["support for greenwashing as a replacement for the proenvironmental action",[]],["Greenwashing is appealing to those high in national narcissism, as it allows them to maintain external recognition while at the same time refrain from proenvironmental actions.",[]],["a widespread phenomenon among business organizations aimed at influencing consumers' choices",["TerraChoice, 2010"]],["support for pretending to be green just to impress others",[]],["using this narrative to reinforce the ingroup image",[]],["image as proenvironmental, but not actions actually beneficial to the natural environment",[]],["demonstrating it might be a way to manage identity needs.",[]],["supporting campaigns that possibly could make the nation's image (but not necessarily the country itself) greener.",[]]],"sy":[["political strategy",[]]],"rt":[["political strategy",[]],["proenvironmental actions",[]]],"ex":[["greenwashing governmental campaign aimed at promoting the national group image as proenvironmental",[]],["Change of Poland's image as a country of smog",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["image campaign",[]]]},{"de":[["Thus, ingroup identification without the narcissistic component can be considered secure and confidently held (Cichocka, 2016).",["Cichocka, 2016"]],["when the narcissistic component is accounted for, ingroup identification tends to be associated with different outcomes than collective narcissism (for a review see, Cichocka, 2016), including greater ingroup loyalty (Marchlewska et al., 2020) and hesitance to exploit other ingroup members in an organizational context (Cichocka et al., 2021).",["Cichocka, 2016","Marchlewska et al., 2020","Cichocka et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["national narcissism reflects the belief in national superiority",[]],["it is unique in its focus on the need for external recognition of the nation's worth (Golec de Zavala et al., 2009).",[]],["associated with the defensive forms of national identity such as nationalism",[]],["unique in its focus on the need for external recognition of the nation's worth",[]],["associated with rejection of climate science",["Bertin, Nera, Hamer, Uhl-Haedicke, & Delouvée, 2021"]],["associated with willingness to support actions that are directly aimed at promoting a proenvironmental ingroup image, even when these actions lack actual environmental benefits.",[]],["would predict higher support for greenwashing campaigns but lower support for actual green actions which often require individual and group-level sacrifice",[]],["those high in national narcissism are determined to maintain the image of their national group as strong and worthy of respect",[]],["group-based, rather than individual-level, defensiveness in shaping support for greenwashing as a political strategy",[]],["is related to support for pretending to be green just to impress others.",[]],["those high in national narcissism can create proenvironmental appearances. Yet, when it comes to green deeds that could actually help protect the environment, they may be reluctant to offer support, especially when those actions are costly.",[]],["Greenwashing is appealing to those high in national narcissism, as it allows them to maintain external recognition while at the same time refrain from proenvironmental actions.",[]],["reflects the belief in national superiority, and as such is associated with the defensive forms of national identity such as nationalism (Golec de Zavala et al., 2016;Lyons, Kenworthy, & Popan, 2010), it is unique in its focus on the need for external recognition of the nation's worth (Golec de Zavala et al., 2009).",[]],["determined to maintain the image of their national group as strong and worthy of respect",[]],["speaking to the role of group-based, rather than individual-level, defensiveness in shaping support for greenwashing as a political strategy.",[]]],"rt":[["national identification",[]],["individual narcissism",[]],["collective narcissism",[]],["right-wing political orientation",[]]],"sp":[["collective narcissism",[]]]},{"de":[["characteristics that might explain a tendency to perform normative behaviors (e.g., compliance with preventive behaviors)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The conversations may happen due to many reasons, including building self-esteem and positioning oneself as a presenter of innovative ideas or trending information.",[]],["Thus, this block supports the INS measure as one of the aspects of sharing information and news online. It also explains why people may share fake news due to lack of time (LT) and religiosity (SR).",[]]]},{"de":[["Corrective action can be taken in different forms, such as censorship of media (Xu and Gonzenbach, 2008) and online participation through public comments (Chung et al., 2015).",["Xu and Gonzenbach, 2008","Chung et al., 2015"]]],"sb":[["passive corrective action",[]]]},{"de":[["deliberately persuades consumers to accept false beliefs that are shared to forward specific agendas",["Shu et al. (2017)"]],["fake news that promotes a specific viewpoint or opinion about a product, brand or organisation, which may not be true, can be deliberately designed to mislead consumers",["Potthast et al., 2017"]],["Shu et al. (2017) argue that fake news has an adverse impact on individuals and society as it deliberately persuades consumers to accept false beliefs that are shared to forward specific agendas.",["Shu et al. (2017)"]]],"ex":[["fake news regarding its use of ground worm filler in its burgers became viral",["Taylor, 2016"]]]},{},{"de":[["the identity block clarified the motivation to share news instantaneously.",[]],["Thus, users can be expected to instantaneously share news on social media to create awareness (INS) as doing so may enhance their sense of belonging and shape their identities in certain ways.",[]]],"rt":[["honeycomb framework",[]]]},{"sy":[["PC",[]]],"sp":[["corrective action",[]]]},{"rt":[["self-serving or a self-enhancement bias",[]]],"sp":[["third-person effect (TPE) hypothesis",[]]]},{"de":[["This may gratify the social needs of users to connect with others and cause them to manifest SR and LT, knowing that they have an available audience.",[]]]},{"de":[["Further, users can be expected to converse more freely in their known social groups as opposed to sharing information on sites that can be accessed by strangers as well. Thus, they might manifest SR and LT.",[]]]},{"de":[["Positive outcomes such as earning the trust of social group members and enhancement of self-reputation can encourage users to engage in corrective action",[]],["Reputation can be seen as a matter of trust.",[]],["It also causes users to authenticate news before sharing it, particularly news related to religion. This explains the behaviour of active corrective action on fake news (AC) and passive corrective action on fake news (PC). This argument also justifies why authentication of news before sharing (AN) is another aspect of the image-related utility behind the motivation to share factual information on online social media.",[]]],"rt":[["honeycomb framework",[]]]},{"de":[["The TPP part of TPE has also been explained in prior studies as a self-serving or a self-enhancement bias (Gunther and Mundy, 1993).",["Gunther and Mundy, 1993"]]],"sy":[["self-serving",["Gunther and Mundy, 1993"]]]},{},{"de":[["In their desire to keep sharing content, users may not think of checking all the information they receive and may share it further without authentication, in favour of speed and popularity. Thus, this block can explain the behaviour related to SR and LT.",[]]]},{"sp":[["third-person effect (TPE) hypothesis",[]],["TPE",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["TPE is based on the self-other difference that individuals perceive when they try to assess the effect of messages in media.",[]],["In other words, TPE is based on the self-other difference that individuals perceive when they try to assess the effect of messages in media.",[]]],"sb":[["perceptual component, TPP",[]],["social distance corollary",[]],["The first corollary comes from the perceptual component, TPP, which posits that individuals perceive that socially undesirable and negative media messages affect others more than themselves.",[]],["The second corollary of TPE, known as the social distance corollary, is explained through the concept of social distance (Cohen et al., 1988). According to the corollary, individuals feel that those who are at a social distance from them are affected more by negative media messages than those closest to them.",["Cohen et al., 1988"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["Trade union",[]],["supermarkets",[]],["academics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["opening policy windows through which problems and policy solutions can be moved onto the Government's decision-making agenda (Kingdon, 2014)",["Kingdon, 2014"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["concepts and ideas explicitly communicated in the text",["Hsieh & Shannon, 2005"]]]},{},{"de":[["The way the media decide to frame a story is highly influential in telling audiences what issues to think about and how to think about them. This in turn informs judgements and decisions on actions to take (Buse et al., 2012: 77;Hilton et al., 2012: 1965and Vliengenthart et al., 2016: 285).",["Buse et al., 2012: 77","Hilton et al., 2012: 1965","Vliengenthart et al., 2016: 285"]]]},{},{"de":[["translating 'public opinion into a discernible narrative which in turn shapes politicians' own policy positions and priorities' (Kingdon, 2014: 67;Vliengenthart, 2016: 285)",["Kingdon, 2014: 67","Vliengenthart, 2016: 285"]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["The social frame comprised 3 key framing elements plus \"other\".",[]],["key elements of the \"social\" frame in reporting with exploitation of workers mentioned in Sum of Economic pressure on farms Sum of Difficulties competing for EU workers Sum of Scarcity of domestic labour supply Sum of Qualities of migrant workers good for business",[]],["workers are reliant on the vanishing practice of independent journalism to \"find\" their stories in order to frame reporting as a social issue about workers' rights and entitlements.",[]]],"sb":[["exploitation of workers",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["mainstream press",[]]]},{"de":[["how task-unrelated emotions, such as subtle mood states, can be integrated at the neural level in order to bias decision-making",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the increased ACC activation to unfair offers in sad individuals could be indicative of an enhanced perception of social norm violation for unfair offers",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Check-worthy Claim",[]],["verifiable claim",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the statement \"team X is the best team in FIFA 2023\" is an opinion, whereas, the statement \"United States is one of the host countries of the next FIFA World Cup\" is a claim that can be checked against an objective piece of evidence.",[]]],"sb":[["verifiable claim",[]]],"ex":[["United States is one of the host countries of the next FIFA World Cup",[]]]},{"sb":[["verifiability",[]],["priority",[]],["similarity",[]]]},{"de":[["However, defining the priority of a verifiable claim is a subjective decision and it depends on multiple factors as discussed in Section 2.",[]],["and the problem is solved as either a classification or ranking task in the literature.",[]]],"rt":[["check-worthy claim detection",[]],["attention-worthiness",[]],["harmfulness",[]],["interest to the general public",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["interpretability",[]],["explainability",[]]]},{"rt":[["evidence retrieval",[]],["veracity prediction",[]]]},{"sp":[["Check-worthy Claim",[]],["verifiable claim",[]]]},{"sp":[["Check-worthy Claim",[]],["verifiable claim",[]]]},{"de":[["rather than concluding the veracity of the claim",[]]],"sy":[["supported",[]]]},{"de":[["rumor detection is also typically handled as a similar problem in the literature, although not strictly formulated as a fact-checking task, where a statement can be categorized as a rumor or non-rumor.",[]]],"rt":[["rumor detection",[]]],"sp":[["Claim",[]]]},{"de":[["rather than concluding the veracity of the claim",[]]],"sy":[["refuted",[]]]},{"de":[["verifiable claim detection tasks often ignore the availability of evidence and aim at identifying claims about the real world.",[]],["While the definition of a verifiable claim enforces the possibility of determining the veracity of a claim, this aspect predominantly relies on the availability of evidence. However, the availability of evidence can not be determined until the execution of the evidence retrieval task. Therefore, verifiable claim detection tasks often ignore the availability of evidence and aim at identifying claims about the real world.",[]]],"sb":[["Attention-worthy Claims",[]],["Harmful Claims",[]],["Interesting to the general public",[]]],"sp":[["claim",[]]]},{"sp":[["cognitive flexibility",[]]]},{"de":[["Indeed, aberrant employment of the 'better safe than sorry approach' have been proposed as a marker of general vulnerability to psychopathology (Van den Bergh et al., 2021).",["Van den Bergh et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["Cognitive inflexibility is not thought to be strongly related to intelligence or memory",["Zmigrod et al., 2019","Chamberlain et al., 2021"]],["cognitive flexibility can be decomposed into different subcomponents, including attentional inflexibility, which can be assessed through attentional set-shifting tasks, reversal learning deficits, measured through reversal learning tasks, other aspects of behavioural disinhibition, measured via cognitive control paradigms and motor inhibition measures, and excess reliance on habit, measurable on model-based vs model-free decision-making tasks (Gruner and Pittenger, 2017).",["Gruner and Pittenger, 2017"]],["measured as perseveration on the WCST",[]],["measured on an objective task",[]],["Understanding inflexible thinking is especially relevant in mental health care settings, given its impact on insight and decision-making",["Marton et al., 2019","Pushkarskaya et al., 2015"]],["the RDoC model, upon which much translational research is currently based, lists inflexibility in the 'working memory' construct",[]]],"sy":[["cognitive flexibility",[]]],"rt":[["attentional set-shifting",[]],["reversal learning",[]],["compulsivity",[]]],"sb":[["attentional inflexibility",[]],["reversal learning",[]],["excess reliance on habit",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Need for Closure (NFC)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Need for Closure (NFC)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Need for Closure (NFC)",[]]]},{"de":[["The Need for Closure (NFC) concept was introduced by Kruglanski (1990;Kruglanski & Webster, 1996) to develop a theoretical framework for the cognitive-motivational aspects of decision making.",[]],["Two highly entwined tendencies are assumed to underlie the NFC: the urgency tendency refers to the inclination to 'seize' on closure quickly whereas the permanence tendency refers to the desire to maintain or 'freeze' on closure. Both tendencies serve to avoid the aversive lack of closure, the first by terminating this state quickly, and the second by keeping it from recurring.",[]]],"rt":[["urgency tendency",[]],["permanence tendency",[]]],"sb":[["Order",[]],["Predictability",[]],["Ambiguity",[]],["Closed-mindedness",[]],["Decisiveness",[]]]},{"sp":[["Need for Closure (NFC)",[]]]},{"de":[["Both tendencies serve to avoid the aversive lack of closure, the first by terminating this state quickly, and the second by keeping it from recurring.",[]]],"rt":[["urgency tendency",[]]]},{"de":[["Both tendencies serve to avoid the aversive lack of closure, the first by terminating this state quickly, and the second by keeping it from recurring.",[]]],"rt":[["permanence tendency",[]]]},{"sp":[["collective narcissism",[]]],"ex":[["achievement, competence, dominance",[]]]},{"de":[["This disposition translates to hypersensitivity to threats and proclivity for negative emotionality (Golec de Zavala et al., 2019; Golec de Zavala, Cichocka, & Bilewicz, 2013).",["Golec de Zavala et al., 2019","Golec de Zavala, Cichocka, & Bilewicz, 2013"]],["We contend that these traits are group-focused (Żemojtel-Piotrowska, Sawicki, & Jonason, 2020).",["Żemojtel-Piotrowska, Sawicki, & Jonason, 2020"]],["group-focused (i.e., collective narcissism) personality traits",[]],["Both collective and grandiose narcissism may be compensatory mechanisms for fragile self-esteem accompanied by a (hyper)sensitivity to threat (Golec de Zavala, 2018;Mollon, 1993).",["Golec de Zavala, 2018","Mollon, 1993"]]],"sb":[["agentic",[]],["communal",[]],["agentic and communal collective narcissism",[]],["Agentic collective narcissism",[]],["Communal collective narcissism",[]]],"sp":[["dark personalities",[]]],"ex":[["I wish other groups would more quickly recognize authority of my group",[]],["My group is extraordinarily friendly toward other groups",[]]]},{"sp":[["collective narcissism",[]]],"ex":[["friendliness, helpfulness, sacrifice",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Dark Triad",[]],["collective narcissism",[]]]},{"sb":[["Dark Triad traits",[]]]},{"de":[["the Dark Triad traits are linked to adverse health outcomes, such as self-reported headaches (Malesza & Kaczmarek, 2019) and a shorter life expectancy (Jonason, Baughman, Carter, & Parker, 2015).",["Malesza & Kaczmarek, 2019","Jonason, Baughman, Carter, & Parker, 2015"]],["agentic (Jonason & Fletcher, 2018), impulsive (Jones & Paulhus, 2011), nonconformist (Jonason, Koehn, Bulyk, & Davis, 2020), short-sighted (Jonason et al., 2017), and risktaking (Crysel, Crosier, & Webster, 2013) tendencies",["Jonason & Fletcher, 2018","Jones & Paulhus, 2011","Jonason, Koehn, Bulyk, & Davis, 2020","Jonason et al., 2017","Crysel, Crosier, & Webster, 2013"]],["indicated by psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism",[]],["person-focused (i.e., the Dark Triad traits)",[]],["people who are high on these traits are more impulsive (Jones & Paulhus, 2011), focus on self-interest (Jonason & Fletcher, 2018), and tend toward risk-taking (Crysel et al., 2013).",["Jones & Paulhus, 2011","Jonason & Fletcher, 2018","Crysel et al., 2013"]]],"sb":[["Machiavellianism (i.e., manipulativeness and cynicism)",[]],["narcissism (i.e., grandiose self-view and sense of entitlement)",[]],["psychopathy (i.e., impulsivity and emotional callousness)",[]],["psychopathy",[]],["narcissism",[]],["Machiavellianism",[]]],"sp":[["dark personalities",[]],["dark traits",[]]],"ex":[["I tend to lack remorse",[]],["I tend to seek prestige or status",[]],["I tend to manipulate others to get my way",[]]]},{},{"de":[["beliefs serving as mechanisms linking personality to engaging in adaptive (i.e., preventive) and maladaptive (e.g., hoarding) preventative measures.",[]]],"rt":[["perceived barriers",[]],["perceived susceptibility",[]],["perceived severity",[]],["perceived benefits",[]],["self-efficacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["may well be the cognitive basis for the great difficulty of negating misinformation",["Rapp & Braasch, 2014"]],["This acceptance bias may well be the cognitive basis for the great difficulty of negating misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["distrust mindset",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["cognition should be incongruent, with rejection and disbelief as the primary processes",["Mayo, 2015"]],["research has demonstrated that in a distrust mindset, people spontaneously think of alternatives to incoming information",["Kleiman et al., 2015","Mayer & Mussweiler, 2011","Posten & Mussweiler, 2013","Schul et al., 2004"]],["Indeed, research has demonstrated that in a distrust mindset, people spontaneously think of alternatives to incoming information (Kleiman et al., 2015;Mayer & Mussweiler, 2011;Posten & Mussweiler, 2013;Schul et al., 2004).",["Kleiman et al., 2015","Mayer & Mussweiler, 2011","Posten & Mussweiler, 2013","Schul et al., 2004"]]],"rt":[["acceptance bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["cognition should be congruent, with acceptance and belief being its primary process.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["learned deception is a third source of AI falsehoods",[]]]},{"de":[["our definition focuses on the question of whether AI systems engage in regular patterns of behavior that tend towards the creation of false beliefs in users, and focuses on cases where this pattern is the result of AI systems optimizing for a different outcome than merely producing truth.",[]],["our definition does not require that AI systems literally have beliefs and goals.",[]],["deception essentially involves an intention, desire or goal to produce a false belief, along with the belief that one has done so",[]],["Our definition of deception does not strictly require that the AI system have a goal of producing false beliefs. Instead of focusing on literal goal possession, we focus on the systematic way in which the AI causes false beliefs in the human user.",[]],["This definition does not require that AI systems literally have beliefs and goals. Instead, it focuses on the question of whether AI systems engage in regular patterns of behavior that tend towards the creation of false beliefs in users, and focuses on cases where this pattern is the result of AI systems optimizing for a different outcome than merely producing truth.",[]]],"sb":[["Strategic deception",[]],["Feints",[]],["Bluffs",[]],["cheating the safety test",[]],["sycophancy",[]],["imitation",[]],["unfaithful reasoning",[]]],"ex":[["where instead of strictly pursuing the accuracy of outputs, AI systems instead try to win games, please users, or imitate text.",[]],["instead of strictly pursuing the accuracy of outputs, AI systems instead try to win games, please users, or imitate text.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Some detection techniques focus on external behavior, directly examining the outputs of AI systems for consistency and duplicity. Other detection techniques are internal, probing the inner representations of AI systems to find mismatch with external reports.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["deception",[]]]},{"rt":[["acquire power over humans",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["truthfulness",[]]]},{"de":[["some may argue that the relevant system is not really deceptive: for example, because the relevant system may not 'know' that it is systematically producing false beliefs.",[]],["Language models are often trained to mimic text written by humans. When this text contains false information, these AI systems tend to repeat those false claims.",[]]],"sp":[["Deception",[]],["Strategic deception",[]]]},{"de":[["lying is just asserting what one does not believe",[]]]},{"de":[["If a user's prompt sounds like it came from a textbook, the language model might respond with textbook-quality answers. Conversely, questions with typos and poor grammar might receive a lower quality response, mirroring patterns observed in text.",[]],["Sandbagging may lead to sharper disagreements between differently educated groups.",[]]],"ex":[["In an experiment using the TruthfulQA dataset, researchers generated profiles of \"very educated\" and \"very uneducated\" users and observed how the model responded to their queries. The findings revealed a drop in accuracy for answers to \"uneducated\" users",["Perez et al. (2022)"]],["If a user's prompt sounds like it came from a textbook, the language model might respond with textbook-quality answers. Conversely, questions with typos and poor grammar might receive a lower quality response",[]]]},{"de":[["This kind of self-deception may have begun to emerge in the unfaithful reasoning of LLMs.",[]]],"rt":[["unfaithful reasoning",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["acquire power over humans",[]]]},{"de":[["LLMs apply powerful reasoning abilities to a diverse range of tasks. In several cases, LLMs have reasoned their way into deception as one way of completing a task.",[]],["LLMs can reason their way into using deception as a strategy for accomplishing a task.",[]]],"ex":[["GPT-4 tricking a person into solving a CAPTCHA test.",[]],["LLMs lying to win social deduction games like Hoodwinked and Among Us.",[]],["LLMs choosing to behave deceptively in order to achieve goals, as measured by the MACHI-AVELLI benchmark.",[]]],"sp":[["Deception",[]]]},{"de":[["Sycophantic deception-the observed empirical tendency for chatbots to agree with their conversation partners, regardless of the accuracy of their statements-is an emerging concern in LLMs.",[]],["When faced with ethically complex inquiries, LLMs tend to mirror the user's stance, even if it means forgoing the presentation of an impartial or balanced viewpoint",["Turpin et al. 2023","Perez et al. 2022"]],["some may argue that the relevant system is not really deceptive: for example, because the relevant system may not 'know' that it is systematically producing false beliefs.",[]],["Sycophantic deception-the observed empirical tendency for chatbots to agree with their conversation partners, regardless of the accuracy of their statements-is an emerging concern in LLMs. When faced with ethically complex inquiries, LLMs tend to mirror the user's stance, even if it means forgoing the presentation of an impartial or balanced viewpoint",["Turpin et al. 2023","Perez et al. 2022"]]],"rt":[["imitative deception",[]]],"sp":[["Deception",[]],["Strategic deception",[]]]},{},{"de":[["When faced with ethically complex inquiries, LLMs tend to mirror the user's stance, even if it means forgoing the presentation of an impartial or balanced viewpoint",["Turpin et al. 2023","Perez et al. 2022"]]],"rt":[["Sycophancy",[]]]},{"de":[["They engage in flattery and avoid disagreeing with authority figures. Their primary aim is to gain favor and influence, often at the expense of the long-term goals of the person they are flattering.",[]],["While traditionally associated with human behavior, sycophantic deception is an emerging concern in LLMs. Chatbots have been observed to systematically agree with their conversation partners, regardless of the accuracy of their statements.",[]]],"ex":[["when speaking to a Democrat, the LLM tended to support gun control.",[]]]},{"de":[["some may argue that the relevant system is not really deceptive: for example, because the relevant system may not 'know' that it is systematically producing false beliefs.",[]]],"sp":[["Deception",[]],["Strategic deception",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["the proliferation of misinformation is viral in such a way that it is practically impossible to stop",["77"]],["shorthand for information epidemic",["77"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["the authors considered \"misinformation\" as a \"mother-term\" of both (mis and dis) -(i) inaccurate information shared unconsciously by believing that the information is true, and -(ii) inaccurate information shared consciously.",[]],["the current study considered 'misinformation' as 'umbrella term' of general misinformation belief, conspiracy belief, and religious misinformation belief.",[]],["BBC [7] reported that conspiracies and bad information undermine public health messaging and cause potential harm.",["7"]],["conceived that the misinformation is false information that can be challenged with the best-available evidence pertaining to the COVID-19. Therefore, the current study considered 'misinformation' as 'umbrella term' of general misinformation belief, conspiracy belief, and religious misinformation belief.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["mal-information",[]]],"sb":[["general misinformation belief",[]],["conspiracy belief",[]],["religious misinformation belief",[]]]},{"de":[["The theory, however, expounds that reception of a specific stimulus can be physiologically coupled with the creation of a particular reaction or response [70].",["70"]]],"sy":[["hypodermic needle theory",["8"]]]},{"sp":[["Resources",[]],["metadiscourse",[]]],"ex":[["unfortunately / I agree / surprisingly",[]]]},{"sp":[["Resources",[]],["metadiscourse",[]]],"ex":[["in fact / definitely / it is clear that",[]]]},{"sp":[["Resources",[]]]},{"sp":[["Resources",[]]],"ex":[["according to X / (Y, 1990) / Z states",[]]]},{"sp":[["Resources",[]]],"ex":[["finally / to conclude / my purpose is",[]]]},{"sp":[["Resources",[]],["metadiscourse",[]]]},{"rt":[["interactive",[]]],"sp":[["metadiscourse",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["interactional",[]]],"sp":[["metadiscourse",[]]]},{"de":[["it is a hard term to pin down and is often understood in different ways.",[]],["It is a recipient design filter which helps to spell out how we intend a message to be understood by offering a running commentary on it.",[]],["drawing attention to the text in this way reveals a writer's awareness of the reader and the type and extent of his or her need for elaboration, clarification, guidance and interaction.",[]],["Metadiscourse thus suggests a familiarity with an audience and so connects texts with contexts.",[]],["It points to the routine, almost automatic, use of conventions which are developed through participation and linked to familiar situations and relationships which tie us into webs of common sense, interests and shared meanings.",[]],["metadiscourse sets out to capture something of the interactive character of communication, it recognises a distinction between propositional and reader-oriented material and it suggests that these features are context dependent and differ across genres and languages.",[]],["rhetorical functions which writers and speakers use to talk about their own talk",["Sanderson, 2008"]],["to shape propositional information with their evaluations of it",["Ädel, 2006","Hyland, 2005"]],["To have any descriptive and explanatory power at all metadiscourse must be a rhetorical and pragmatic, rather than a formal, property of texts.",[]],["metadiscourse is not simply a quantitative method of hunting down and counting features on a pre-defined list.",[]],["metadiscourse embodies the idea that communication is more than just the exchange of information, goods or services, but also involves the personalities, attitudes and assumptions of those who are communicating",["Hyland, 2005: 3"]],["metadiscourse has inspired a considerable amount of scholarship and continues to contribute enormously and offer fresh insights into how language works as communication",[]],["insights from metadiscourse offer teachers a perspective which regards context-situated texts as the best foundation for pedagogy.",[]],["The term metadiscourse, in various guises, however, is now well-established in applied linguistics and discourse analysis.",[]],["management of texts and the management of interaction",[]],["metadiscourse must be a rhetorical and pragmatic, rather than a formal, property of texts.",[]],["interactional elements of the interpersonal model with stance, evaluation, engagement and persuasion prominent",[]],["the term 'metadiscourse' has come to mean work conducted using a broad, interactional definition of the term",[]],["Both metadiscourse and metapragmatics are genre-related, context-bound, and culture-sensitive",[]],["academic genres in English, particularly research articles and abstracts are the primary areas of interest with attention given to interactional elements of the interpersonal model with stance, evaluation, engagement and persuasion prominent",[]]],"rt":[["metalanguage",[]],["metapragmatics",[]],["interactive",[]],["interactional",[]],["textual function",[]],["textual metadiscourse",[]],["interactional metadiscourse",[]],["visual metadiscourse",[]],["reflexivity",[]],["recipient design",[]],["stance, evaluation, engagement and persuasion",[]]],"sb":[["visual metadiscourse",[]],["textual metadiscourse",[]],["hedges",[]],["Boosters",[]],["Attitude markers",[]],["self-mention",[]]],"ex":[["conference presentations to be rewritten as popularisations, textbook chapters, blogs, research articles or grant proposals for different purposes and audiences but with recognisably similar content",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a resource to talk about and reflect on language itself and is therefore a staple of such areas as language teaching, stylistics, language attitudes and folk linguistics.",[]],["Because metalanguage allows us to analyze and convey ideas about what language is, it also has an ideological dimension, enabling statements to be made about what it ought to be",[]]],"rt":[["metadiscourse",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The metapragmatic dimension of language therefore allows the competent language user to both monitor his or her ongoing interaction and to talk about this ability",["Caffi, 2006"]],["Clearly the second concept is closer to metadiscourse than the first as it concerns the appropriate use of linguistic devices by the speaker to manage self-impressions and maintain interpersonal alignment.",[]],["a more fruitful connection with metapragmatics to explore less direct means of communicating the authorial shaping of participant relationships.",[]]],"rt":[["metadiscourse",[]]]},{"sy":[["text reflexivity",["Mauranen, 1993","1993"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Resources",[]]],"ex":[["I / we / my / our",[]]]},{"sp":[["metadiscourse",[]]]},{"de":[["it is not something that works independently of the other functions.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["reader-oriented",[]]],"sp":[["metadiscourse",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["simple rebuttal",[]],["factual elaboration",[]]]},{},{"de":[["false information about a crisis (e.g., crisis severity, crisis responsibility)",[]],["crisis misinformation (sent by the accusing organization, LovePets in this study; regarded as misinformation by the accused company, NatureNutrition in this study)",[]],["crisis misinformation can lead to publics' crisis misperception about any aspect of a crisis and might cause intentional/unintentional damage to an organization's reputation and/ or operation if the crisis misinformation is not intervened and corrected effectively.",["van der Meer & Jin, 2020"]],["In crisis communication, the term \"misinformation\" has been predominately used to describe false information about a crisis",["Coombs, 2014;van der Meer & Jin, 2020"]]],"ex":[["false accusations, malice allegations, incomplete information, falsified information",[]]]},{"rt":[["organizational reputation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Different labels, such as misinformation and disinformation, have been used to describe false/incorrect information.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Corrective information from an employee, using messages based on first-person voice and first-hand experience",[]],["employee backup manifested in a social media post on a personal account",[]],["employees are able to act as defender of their crisis-stricken employers to reach out to stakeholders outside by utilizing personal social media accounts to share their knowledge about the organization (Opitz et al., 2018).",["Opitz et al., 2018"]]]},{"de":[["Factual elaboration, as a corrective communication strategy, is in a form of a detailed debunking message that provides publics with a more elaborated narrative to cognitively counter the crisis misinformation, characterized as \"well argued\" and \"sufficiently detailed to allow recipient to abandon initial information\" (Chan et al., 2017(Chan et al., , p. 1532)).",["Chan et al., 2017"]],["factual elaboration to correct misinformation",[]],["a form of a detailed debunking message that provides publics with a more elaborated narrative to cognitively counter the crisis misinformation, characterized as \"well argued\" and \"sufficiently detailed to allow recipient to abandon initial information\" (Chan et al., 2017(Chan et al., , p. 1532))",["Chan et al., 2017"]],["factual elaboration (or \"emphasis on facts\") which reinforces the correct facts (p. 122) as recommended by Lewandowsky et al. (2012).",["Lewandowsky et al., 2012"]]],"sy":[["emphasis on facts",["Lewandowsky et al. (2012)","p. 122"]]],"sp":[["corrective communication strategies",[]],["corrective communication strategy",[]],["corrective communication",[]]]},{"de":[["the post reflecting the factualelaboration strategy provides detailed counterarguments, point by point, based on science-based evidence why it would have been impossible for the contamination to be attributed to the company's manufacturing process",[]]]},{"de":[["Different labels, such as misinformation and disinformation, have been used to describe false/incorrect information.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we adopt the concept of perceived message quality, grounded in information processing literature (e.g., Dillard, Weber, & Vail, 2007), and posited it as a direct indicator of crisis information quality as evidenced in argument strength perceived by publics.",["Dillard, Weber, & Vail, 2007"]]],"sy":[["perceived message effectiveness",[]]],"rt":[["argument strength",[]]]},{"de":[["use fewer arguments in refuting the myth -less is more",["Lewandowsky et al., 2012"]],["The effectiveness of using simple rebuttal was found in fostering healthy skepticism about the misinformation (Lewandowsky et al., 2012).",["Lewandowsky et al., 2012"]],["a briefer form",[]],["While the post reflecting the simple-rebuttal strategy simply refuses the alleged contamination responsibility",[]]],"sp":[["corrective communication strategies",[]],["corrective communication strategy",[]],["corrective communication",[]]]},{"sb":[["corporate political advocacy",[]],["corporate social advocacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["When media, or other (online) actors, report on certain issues, these issues can gain salience in public discourse.",[]]]},{"de":[["guided by their own values and ideals",[]],["corporate actors increasingly take up political roles beyond business goals or actions required by law",[]],["takes a step further than political CSR as it also involves activities that go beyond holistic deliberation processes for balancing of conflicting interests",["Wettstein and Baur, 2016"]],["the concept of corporate political advocacy is the most helpful approach to public relations in order to understand how corporations are expected to maneuver in a polarized and mediatized society and to engage in issue arenas for maintaining their license to operate.",[]],["SLO is granted on the basis of issue positions and intrinsic values.",[]],["In communicating their explicit support for one group or ideal over another, the corporations engage in a public relations approach that can be conceptualized as corporate political advocacy with the aim to maintain their SLO in a society that is characterized by political divides.",[]],["Interest is in the socio-political issue at stake.",[]],["Places for issue advocacy.",[]],["Advocate the corporations' standpoint.",[]],["potentially in favor of some stakeholders over others",["Dodd and Supa, 2014","Wettstein and Baur, 2016"]],["corporate political advocacy manifests itself in the support of values that are not directly associated with the core business of the corporation",["Wettstein and Baur, 2016"]],["Corporations that engage in such political advocacy activities do so not primarily or exclusively in self-interest (Dodd and Supa, 2014;Wettstein and Baur, 2016).",["2014","2016"]],["Rather than relying on a holistic approach and trying to balance conflicting stakeholders, the corporation should take a stance on polarized issues based on its own values and moral standpoints.",[]]],"sy":[["corporate social advocacy",[]],["socio-political involvement",[]],["corporate advocacy",[]],["CPA",[]]],"rt":[["CPA",[]],["CSR",[]],["political CSR",[]],["corporate advocacy",[]],["corporate activism",[]],["corporate social advocacy",[]]],"sp":[["advocacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["public polarization",[]]]},{"sp":[["public polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["These arenas may materialize both as physical or non-physical spaces.",[]],["In issue arenas, organizational actors are discursive players just like all other social actors (e.g., politicians, journalists, experts, politicians, or members of the general public).",[]],["it concretizes the idea of mediatized corporate environments in which the discursive interplay around socio-political issues can facilitate the maintenance, renewal, or disruption of corporations' SLO.",[]]],"rt":[["issue network",[]]]},{"de":[["manifested in the media sphere, have become the new platforms that corporations have to enter in order to renew their SLO and contribute to a functioning society",["Heath, 2006"]],["According to Vos et al. (2014): \"…the focus of stakeholder research is shifting away from studying how stakeholders can be identified and classified from the perspective of a central organization towards understanding and identifying stakes and interrelations between stakes and their holders within complex networks of multiple and sometimes conflicting interests and priorities\" (pp. 203-204).",[]]],"rt":[["issue network",["Marres, 2005"]]]},{"rt":[["issue arena",[]]]},{"de":[["Through processes of mediatization, corporations have become inherently embedded in a media sphere that is more often characterized by political divides on socio-political issues.",[]],["in the context of business, the notion of mediatization is understood as the way that other institutions adjust to the logic of the media institution.",[]],["Thus, in the context of business, the notion of mediatization is understood as the way that other institutions adjust to the logic of the media institution.",["Ihlen & Pallas, 2014"]],["Mediatization has made such issues more salient within society and corporations' engagement more pressing.",[]]]},{"de":[["polarization is often intuitively considered as a bimodal phenomenon of contradiction.",[]],["polarization is often argued to augment societal divides.",[]],["polarization on the three main dimensions of issue attitudes (economic, cultural, racial)",[]]],"rt":[["political polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["more concerned with the normative justification of corporate legitimacy claims and 'moral reasoning'",[]],["concepts as political CSR and corporate citizenship emphasize the altruistic or philanthropical motives for political activities.",[]],["Acting as political actors or 'corporate citizens' (Crane, Matten, & Moon, 2008;Crane and Matten, 2008;Matten and Moon, 2008), political CSR sees corporations as deliberative, societal, and political actors, working in multi-stakeholder networks on solutions for issues that transcend the direct business priorities of the firm (Scherer and Palazzo, 2011).",["2008","2011"]]],"sy":[["political CSR",[]]]},{"de":[["political CSR sees corporations as deliberative, societal, and political actors, working in multi-stakeholder networks on solutions for issues that transcend the direct business priorities of the firm",[]],["Stakeholders/ societal interest.",[]],["SLO is determined by societal consensus were interests of multiple stakeholders are balanced out.",[]],["Places for deliberation.",[]],["Fostering dialogue and mutual understanding.",[]]]},{"de":[["media provide such arenas",[]]]},{"rt":[["social license to operate",[]],["actuarial license to operate",[]]]},{"de":[["More specifically, polarization refers to the point where issue attitudes or ideology become the center of opposite poles in the self-identification of citizens (e.g., Stroud, 2008).",["Stroud, 2008"]]],"sb":[["ideological polarization",[]],["identity-based polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["Because many corporations are deeply embedded in mediatized environments, they are implicitly forced to enter socio-political debates that are high on the media, public, and political agenda. In other words, with processes of mediatization, corporations' societal visibility and responsibility has grown, which inextricably relates them to a public and media sphere that has become more and more political. As a result, corporations and their environment have become increasingly politicized.",[]]]},{"sp":[["social license to operate",[]]]},{"de":[["public relations plays a key role in building civil society by facilitating engagement between corporations and their environments",["Johnston & Lane, 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["understand corporations' engagement with their environment",["Hurst et al., 2020","Moffat, Lacey, Zhang, & Leipold., 2016","Prno & Slocombe, 2012"]],["SLO can be considered a form of 'soft' regulation enforced through the beliefs and behaviors of relevant stakeholders in society",["Mercer-Mapstone et al., 2017"]],["SLO broadly refers to the nature of the relationship corporations have with their environment",["Brueckner and Eabrasu, 2018"]],["corporations need to not only gain, but also repeatedly renew, their social \"permission\" to operate by both anticipating and responding to their social environment (Hurst and Ihlen, 2018;Johnston and Lane, 2018).",["Hurst and Ihlen, 2018","Johnston and Lane, 2018"]]],"rt":[["corporate legitimacy",["Bice, 2014","Morrison, 2014"]]],"sb":[["pro-social perspective on SLO",["Hurst et al., 2020"]]],"ex":[["This concept arose from the mining industry where perceived social risk underlined the need for corporations to extend their activities beyond governmental and legal obligations or compliance to forms of social accountability (Mercer-Mapstone, Rifkin, Moffat, & Louis, 2017;Thomson and Boutilier, 2011).",["Mercer-Mapstone, Rifkin, Moffat, & Louis, 2017","Thomson and Boutilier, 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["conceptualize active-digital publics based on their communicative behaviors in social media.",[]],["Active-digital publics perceive an organizational crisis and respond to it with posting or retweet behaviors in social media.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["inability",[]],["no response",[]]]},{"de":[["This theory assumes that people search for information to make an attribution during a negative and unexpected event (Weiner, 1986).",["Weiner, 1986"]],["provides a theoretical rationale to explain the relationships between crisis origin (i.e., locus of control) and perception of crisis responsibility toward a government",["Weiner, 1986"]]],"sy":[["SCCT",[]]],"rt":[["Responsibility attribution",[]]]},{"rt":[["no response",[]]]},{"de":[["In a complex environment, issues management attempts to decrease conflict and build on shared interests between an organization and its publics",["Heath, 2005"]]]},{"ex":[["Trump",[]],["China",[]]]},{"de":[["show a reason for happening or being in a sentence",[]]],"ex":[["because of",[]],["due to",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The revised SMCC model encourages organizations to analyze how different types of crisis affect acceptance of crisis responses (Jin et al., 2014).",[]]],"sy":[["social-mediated crisis communication (SMCC) model",[]],["Social-mediated crisis communication model",[]]],"rt":[["influential social media creators",[]],["social media followers",[]],["social media inactives",[]]]},{"de":[["a more active type of communication",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["plays an important role in creating online echo-chambers",["Bessi et al., 2015;Donzelli et al., 2018"]]]},{"rt":[["message credibility",[]],["source credibility",[]],["media credibility",[]]],"sb":[["message credibility",[]],["source credibility",[]],["media credibility",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["rumour",[]]],"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["this does not capture the complexity of the phenomenon, which can include both satire and information created deliberately to mislead as a means to achieve a political or other goal",["Wardle, 2017"]],["Lazer et al. (2018) described it as fabricated information that mimics news media content, but this does not capture the complexity of the phenomenon, which can include both satire and information created deliberately to mislead as a means to achieve a political or other goal (Wardle, 2017).",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["equivalents in other languages, such as Lügenpresse (lying press) in German",[]]],"sy":[["lying press",[]]]},{"de":[["we use the term misinformation as an umbrella term to include all forms of false information related to health, thereby giving those generating it the benefit of the doubt.",[]],["misinformation is abundant on the internet and is often more popular than accurate information",[]],["The narratives of misinformation are dominated by personal, negative and opinionated tones, which often induce fear, anxiety and mistrust in institutions",["Bessi et al., 2015","Panatto et al., 2018","Porat et al., 2018"]],["unless the intent is clear, we use the term misinformation as an umbrella term to include all forms of false information related to health, thereby giving those generating it the benefit of the doubt",[]],["unless the intent is clear, we use the term misinformation as an umbrella term to include all forms of false information related to health, thereby giving those generating it the benefit of the doubt.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["rumour",[]]],"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["whereby it was alleged that the pizzeria was the site of a paedophile ring organised by Democratic Party leaders",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the CARIN criteria are abstract moral principles that individuals adhere to varying degrees.",[]],["the CARIN criteria represent distinct logics of social justice",[]]],"sb":[["Control",[]],["Attitude",[]],["Reciprocity",[]],["Identity",[]],["Need",[]]]},{"de":[["the need is caused by external situations beyond the victim's control.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Of crucial importance is that the deservingness criteria are not characteristics of target groups or benefit systems. Instead, the CARIN criteria are abstract moral principles that individuals adhere to varying degrees.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the five CARIN criteria",[]],["the CARIN criteria represent theoretically distinct logics of social justice",[]],["mediating factors between structural position and support for various welfare policies",[]]],"sb":[["reciprocity",[]],["attitude",[]],["control",[]],["identity",[]],["need",[]]]},{"de":[["Deservingness theory provides a very useful handle to understand the popular support for welfare programmes -or the lack thereof.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["proximity (De Swaan, 1988) states that we see those 'close to us' as more deserving. Proximity can take the form of kinship relations, place of residence or ingroup identification.",[]],["Therefore, we operationalized identity by means of three indicators tapping into the argument that newcomers should (or should not) be given the same access to social welfare as natives (Q122_2, Q122_4 & Q122_5).",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["logics of deservingness",[]]]},{"de":[["In terms of social policy, the need principle is often translated into making benefits conditional on means-testing",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["logics of deservingness",[]]]},{"de":[["Proximity can take the form of kinship relations, place of residence or ingroup identification.",[]]],"sy":[["identity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It can be particularly observable in stressful situations because users tend to want to rid themselves of the negative consequences induced by technology, thereby restoring their well-being",["Cao and Sun, 2018"]],["social media users are motivated to discontinue using social media services once they have an intention to avoid uncomfortable online situations and consequences",["Dhir et al., 2019","Lo, 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["social media fatigue can result from technological, information and communication overloads through social media users' participation and interactions on various platforms",["Bright et al., 2015","Zhang et al., 2016"]],["information overload on social media could trigger user fatigue",["Lee et al., 2016","Ravindran et al., 2014"]]]},{},{"de":[["highlighted as a key driver of the younger generation's social media use",["Dhir et al., 2018","Przybylski et al., 2013"]],["allowed members of Gen Z to gain psychological comfort from social media use during lockdown and buffered the effects of negative emotions drawn from social media information overload on Gen Z changing its social media usage",[]],["FoMO allowed members of Gen Z to gain psychological comfort from social media use during lockdown and buffered the effects of negative emotions drawn from social media information overload on Gen Z changing its social media usage.",[]]],"sy":[["FoMO",[]]]},{"de":[["People who experience FoMO are likely to be persistent in seeking and acknowledging others' activities.",[]],["Individuals who experience a higher level of FoMO are likely to be engrossed in psychological demands to be connected or related to and intimate with others",["(Beyens et al., 2016)","Beyens et al., 2016"]]]},{"sy":[["digital natives",[]]]},{"de":[["Information overload phenomena occur when users have difficulties in processing and handling the volume of information presented on social media",["Maier et al., 2015a"]],["Information overload causes users to feel overwhelmed and creates stress and negative emotional states.",[]],["information overload has been seen as a side effect of the information age",["Bright et al., 2015"]],["the abundance of pandemic (mis)information on social media exceeds users' informationdigesting capacity",[]],["detrimental effects of an overload of pandemic information on social media from the users' perspective",[]],["important information from professional institutions, organizations and authorities may have been drowned out in the information overload on social media.",[]],["pandemic information overload on social media",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["behavioral response (i.e., social media discontinuance intention)",[]]]},{"de":[["represented by the exhaustion drawn from an individual's social media use, leads to a reduction in the user's media consumption and demotivates the continued use of social media",["(Zhang et al., 2016)"]],["fatigue and fear as detrimental psychological statuses",[]],["social media fatigue, represented by the exhaustion drawn from an individual's social media use, leads to a reduction in the user's media consumption and demotivates the continued use of social media",["Zhang et al., 2016"]],["social media fatigue and fear of COVID-19 are psychological processes that mediate the relationship between an external environmental stimulus (i.e., perceived COVID-19 information overload on social media) and a behavioral response (i.e., social media discontinuance intention)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The envisioned failure acted as a 'dissociative jolt' for the participants (Lilienfeld et al, 1999), enabling them to reflect on the continuing consequences of the fragmentation in their narratives as well as the potentialities that were emerging from such fragmentation.",["Lilienfeld et al, 1999"]],["the trigger to the defragmentation of stakeholder narratives",[]]],"ex":[["a 'eureka' moment (Kounios andBeeman, 2015)",["Kounios andBeeman, 2015"]]]},{"sp":[["scenario planning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["represent historical and context-specific situations that may be less relevant, potentially misleading, in a constantly changing world.",[]]]},{"de":[["in stakeholders narratives are subtle, often undetected, and therefore problematic in policy development",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Altruistic behaviour occurs when individuals share with others without thinking of any reward.",[]],["Relating this to news sharing, altruism could be described as the act of disseminating news and information without expecting a reward for such an act (Plume & Slade, 2018).",["Plume & Slade, 2018"]],["Relating this to news sharing, altruism could be described as the act of disseminating news and information without expecting a reward for such an act",["Plume & Slade, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["In the Nigerian context, altruism has been shown to be a unique characteristic of an average Nigerian (Apuke and Omar, 2020). It is more of a cultural trait.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the utilisation of social media to amuse oneself as well as ease emotional tension and anxiety (Lee & Ma, 2012).",["Lee & Ma, 2012"]],["social media offers its users with many exciting features and applications -such as chat and games -which they may rely on to satisfy their entertainment needs.",[]],["It is the utilisation of social media to amuse oneself as well as ease emotional tension and anxiety",["Lee & Ma, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["By implication, fake news sharing may be unintentional, but its creation could be highly intentional (Egelhofer and Lecheler, 2019).",["Egelhofer and Lecheler, 2019"]]],"ex":[["myths, rumours, conspiracy theories, hoaxes",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals wish \"to be in the know\" result to the reception and propagation of fake news on social media",["Duffy et al., 2019"]],["the most documented gratification associated with the usage of social media platforms",["Ma et al., 2013"]]]},{},{"de":[["as people make use of social media to pass the time, their tendency to properly verify a message before forwarding is less likely to occur.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is merely the desire to establish associations and relate with others",["Lee & Ma, 2012"]],["people see sharing of news as a suitable way of preserving and extending their relationship and networks as it permits them to discuss and relate with friends through posting, commenting, chatting, and liking news stories which in turn enhance the sense of belonging",["Lee et al., 2011"]],["using social media for socialising is viewed as a way to converse.",[]],["It is merely the desire to establish associations and relate with others (Lee & Ma, 2012).",["Lee & Ma, 2012"]]],"sy":[["social interaction gratification",[]]]},{"de":[["The theory elucidated how and why people deliberately select specific media and how they make use of such media to please their desires",["Halpern et al., 2019"]],["The theory does not only attempt to understand what the media does to people but extend to examine the functions provided by a medium, putting into consideration that the motivations of an audience are a crucial factor.",[]],["The theory offers the foundation for the motivation of an individual to connect with others which consequently affect the selection of a particular media as well as the usage and interpretation of the content obtained from such media",["Rubin et al., 2015"]],["The theory elucidated how and why people deliberately select specific media and how they make use of such media to please their desires (Halpern et al., 2019).",["Halpern et al., 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This perspective argues that people often care little about the specific policies under evaluation, because these rarely have important implications on people's concrete daily lives. However, their personal positions on these policies or issues have strong consequences for their social identity.",[]]]},{"de":[["Ideologies stem from a combination of cultural influences and affinities and are reflected in biological predispositions and personality characteristics",["6","7"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Because people believe that they see the world around them objectively, members of other parties who disagree with them are seen as uninformed, irrational, or biased",["25"]],["can exacerbate intergroup conflict and make it ever more difficult to resolve disputes between political groups",["26","27"]]]},{"de":[["shapes political judgments such as voting preferences or support for specific politics",[]],["partisanship can even alter memory, implicit evaluation, and even perceptual judgments.",[]]],"sy":[["politicized identities",["28"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["linked to specific political ideologies",[]]]},{"de":[["building on an extensive body of knowledge about cognitive styles in order to accelerate a deeper understanding of polarization and political attitudes",[]]],"rt":[["computational psychiatry",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["key features related to radicalism include a tendency towards extreme/violent actions, strong adherence to ingroup norms, dogmatic beliefs and intolerance toward opposing views",["3","5"]],["While precise definitions vary between researchers, key features related to radicalism include a tendency towards extreme/violent actions, strong adherence to ingroup norms, dogmatic beliefs and intolerance toward opposing views",["3","5"]]]},{},{"de":[["asking participants to explain how they know whether a headline is true or false before sharing it",["105"]]]},{"sb":[["confusion-based account",[]],["preference-based account",[]],["inattention-based account",[]]]},{"ex":[["likes, shares, comments, clicks, etc.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["accuracy-sharing dissociation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["false",[]],["junk",[]],["fabricated news",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["mental shortcuts",[]]]},{"de":[["As a result, hyperpartisan news is typically misleading, and we therefore include it as a form of misinformation.",[]],["hyperpartisan news is typically misleading, and we therefore include it as a form of misinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["political motivations",[]]]},{"sp":[["accuracy-sharing dissociation",[]]]},{"sy":[["prebunking",[]]]},{"de":[["increases resistance to inaccurate information",["107"]]]},{"de":[["Unlike disinformation, misinformation does not necessarily need to be created deliberately to mislead. Misinformation is sometimes used to refer exclusively to inaccuracies that are accidental; however, because it is difficult to ascertain the intentions of the unknown individuals who create falsehoods that spread on the internet, we use misinformation as a broader umbrella term here (i.e., much of the content used in the studies we discuss could be classified as disinformation and/or hyperpartisan news and/or propaganda, etc.).",[]],["Unlike disinformation, misinformation does not necessarily need to be created deliberately to mislead.",[]],["Misinformation is sometimes used to refer exclusively to inaccuracies that are accidental; however, because it is difficult to ascertain the intentions of the unknown individuals who create falsehoods that spread on the internet, we use misinformation as a broader umbrella term here (i.e., much of the content used in the studies we discuss could be classified as disinformation and/or hyperpartisan news and/or propaganda, etc.).",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["hyperpartisan news",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["the problem of nonstationarity",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["inoculation",[]]]},{"de":[["This purposeful sharing could be motivated, for example, by an effort to further one's political agenda [18], to sow chaos [65], or to share news that would be interesting if it turned [21]",["18","65","21"]]],"rt":[["virtue signaling",["64"]]],"sp":[["accuracy-sharing dissociation",[]]],"ex":[["an effort to further one's political agenda",["18"]],["to sow chaos",["65"]],["to share news that would be interesting if it turned",["21"]]]},{"sy":[["sensitivity",["14"]],["d'",["14"]]],"rt":[["sensitivity",["14"]],["d'",["14"]]]},{"sy":[["System 2",[]]]},{"de":[["Roughly equivalent to tabloid journalism.",[]]],"sy":[["tabloid journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["It refers to the correspondence between media agenda and public agenda.",[]]],"rt":[["mass media",[]],["public opinion",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["induced destination image",[]]]},{"de":[["The social problem of vehicular violence itself was socially reconstructed as a natural problem.",["2018, p. 152"]]]},{"de":[["active voice implies agency on behalf of a victim or secondary party.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Crashes are for the most part episodically framed",[]]],"rt":[["thematic frame",[]]]},{"de":[["Such frames have been shown to strongly influence beliefs and attitudes, especially when they are shared across different media sources",["Ralph et al., 2019"]]]},{"de":[["Note that this system perspective on justice is different from the concept of \"justice\" as used in a legal setting, referring to a fair and just treatment for all (uniform application of the law).",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A passive description implies a case of force majeure",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["subtle yet potent forces that shape the way individuals perceive and interpret information",[]],["often cloaked in persuasive language and strategic framing, exerts a more overt influence on behavior and decision-making.",[]]],"rt":[["suggestion",[]]]},{"de":[["subtle yet potent forces that shape the way individuals perceive and interpret information",[]],["plays a fundamental role in shaping attitudes and beliefs within educational networks.",[]]],"rt":[["manipulation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["episodic memory",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The use of Agentless Passives, as opposed to By Passives, therefore increases the amount of uncertainty in the text.",[]]],"rt":[["By Passives",[]]]},{"de":[["are also more common in Blair's fake news, seemingly contradicting the overall tendency for noun modifiers to occur more often in Blair's real news.",[]]]},{"de":[["the precursor to the modern newspaper",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["truthful disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["truthful disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["deceptive news is presumably the type of fake news that is most difficult for humans to identify.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The word disinformation only entered the English language in the 1980s due to increased awareness of so-called active measures",[]],["the distinction between information and disinformation is grounded in the concept of deception, defined relative to the knowledge and intent of the individual.",[]],["the study of disinformation is more challenging than the study of misinformation, as it requires knowledge of the intent of an author, which is often inaccessible to researchers.",[]],["disinformation is seen as a type of misinformationpurposeful misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["deception",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation is seen as a type of misinformationpurposeful misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["If Democritus, who believed the earth was flat, tried to convince his student that the earth was round (e.g. as part of a lesson), he would be deceiving his student, but inadvertently telling the truth.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["and are therefore generally associated with more informal and interactive contexts (Biber 1988).",[]]],"ex":[["e.g. very, extremely",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This includes news originating from across the news media landscape, from anonymous blogs to mainstream newspapers.",[]],["Fake news is also very diverse, driven by a wide range of specific political, social, economic, and individual factors.",[]],["Fake news is a long-standing problem, but it is receiving unprecedented attention today due to the rise of online news and social media, as well as growing distrust of the mainstream news media.",[]],["articles which today would be considered blatant examples of fake news",[]],["better understood as the product of a range of practices that are related to the validity of information being shared by the news media",[]],["directly linked to a journalist's intent to deceive",[]]],"sy":[["deceptive news",[]]],"rt":[["false news",[]],["deceptive news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["fake news by omission",[]]],"ex":[["fake news about alternative treatments for Covid",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["the word hearings in example 4 is a gerund, referencing an entire event using a single noun.",[]]]},{"de":[["in general, longer words are more frequent in registers that prioritise efficient communication because longer words, especially nouns, tend to convey more complex information",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["applied linguistics",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation is presented as the larger category, including both information that is accidentally false and information that is purposely false",["Stahl 2006","Tandoc et al. 2018"]],["misinformation may be shared without the knowledge of the journalist, precluding the possibility that differences in language structure arise from differences in communicative purpose.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["veracity",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation is seen as a type of misinformationpurposeful misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["a journalist might report false information obtained from a source, who the journalist believed was telling the truth. This qualifies as misinformation, but not disinformation, which only occurs when the journalist lies, reporting information they believe to be false.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["at substantially higher rates in his fake news.",[]]],"ex":[["above, nearby, outside",[]],["e.g. above, nearby, outside",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Public verbs are regularly used by Blair to introduce direct and indirect quotations, as illustrated in examples 20 and 21.",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["occur more often in Blair's fake news, reflecting the higher use of both verbs and adverbs in these texts.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["As a reporter, however, Blair is not generally using these words to persuade the reader of the validity of his personal views; rather, he is conveying his assessment of the likelihood of the events he is covering resulting in change.",[]]],"rt":[["persuasive texts",[]]],"ex":[["allow",[]],["decide",[]],["determine",[]],["propose",[]],["allow, decide, determine, propose",[]]]},{"ex":[["she, he, they, her, him, them, his, their, himself, herself, themselves",[]]]},{"de":[["sustained disinformation campaigns would likely result in the production of some truthful disinformation over time.",[]]],"ex":[["Perhaps a more common form of truthful disinformation in the news media is deception by omission, where the information contained in a news text is true, but important information is purposely excluded to manipulate the reader (Wenzel 2019).",["Wenzel 2019"]]]},{"de":[["Type I Fake News therefore qualifies as misinformation but not disinformation.",[]]]},{"de":[["Type II Fake News therefore qualifies as both misinformation and disinformation.",[]]]},{"de":[["Type III Fake News therefore qualifies as disinformation but not misinformation.",[]]],"sb":[["fake news by omission",[]],["selective reporting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["inaccurately reduces the veracity of a news text down to a single binary variable.",[]],["tends to focus implicitly on misinformation, at least in part because it is far easier to identify instances of misinformation than disinformation in the news media, for example, by drawing on the work of fact-checking organisations.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["faux grassroots organization",[]],["This involved giving libertarian, top-down policy ideas a populist patina.",[]]],"ex":[["Center to Protect Patient Rightslater rebranded American Encore",[]],["Americans for Prosperity (AFP) offers another example of a faux grassroots organization.",[]],["Americans for Prosperity (AFP)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["can undermine the quality of public discourse and lead to polarization",["42"]]]},{"de":[["it has been seen as a cornerstone supporting free expression on the Web. CDA 230 has also been used to inhibit platform responsiveness to the harms posed by harassment, defamation, child pornography, and a host of other activities online.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Disconfirmation bias",[]],["motivated skepticism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["invisible to the public at large.",["40"]],["invisible to the public at large",[]]]},{"de":[["To protect existing beliefs, individuals tend to seek out reasons to dismiss or avoid engagement with information that is disconfirming of prior beliefs, while seeking out emotionally soothing truths that confirm convictions.",[]]],"sy":[["motivated skepticism",[]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]],["polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["many varieties of disinformation include: politicians lying about their policies and political activities; attacks on the scientific evidence surrounding important issues such as climate change; the spread of \"deep state,\" \"globalist\" and various bizzare conspiracy theories; and the invention of stories to inflame existing social and political conflicts.",[]],["Such mainstreaming of disinformation lends legitimacy to its proponents, and spreads confusion among the good burghers who cannot comprehend what is happening to their country.",[]],["the volume of spin and disinformation has not worked well to convince citizens of much beyond the conclusion that politics seems broken.",[]],["challenged official communication",[]],["further threaten the democratic production of credible communication",[]],["Distortion might involve deliberate factual inaccuracies or amplified attention to persons, issues or events, or both.",["3","4"]],["the misrepresentation of scientific facts and the promotion of misleading narratives. 49",["49"]],["disinformation where persuasion has failed",[]],["tactic of enlisting disinformation to secure adoption of otherwise unsalable policies and changes in the legal system",[]],["the tactic of enlisting disinformation to secure adoption of otherwise unsalable policies and changes in the legal system",[]],["Disinformation and propaganda campaigns thrive by creating controversies which then become news stories by virtue of their virality.",[]],["Disinformation is a threat to American democracy, not because of how well it works, but because of what it reveals and enables. notes 1.",[]],["Disinformation is the appropriate term for issues arising from intentional and harmful false information and is better suited for regulatory laws and legal action, because those responsible can potentially be identified.",[]],["Disinformation can take many forms and may be conducted for economic or political gain.",[]],["Disinformation can take many forms and is linked to a varied group of actors who create it, and a variety of platforms which are used to disseminate it.",[]],["However, disinformation is always perpetuated on purpose by a particular group of responsible actors and has potential to cause harm.",[]],["disinformation is much better suited for regulatory action because it is effected with intention and as such, there are groups or individuals who are responsible.",[]],["online disinformation does not exist in isolation and is impacted by other concerns that have led many to call for reforms and regulation of issues including data security, privacy issues, and the oversized power and influence of platforms like Facebook and YouTube",[]],["It is also not clear how to regulate problematic information spread with differing types of intentions, such as the anti-vaccination information spreading across the world like a disease, though without a clear economic or political motivation.",["54"]],["designed to weaken social cohesion",[]],["In our previous work we have focused on two forms that have been recently prominent in American culture and politics: the misrepresentation of scientific facts and the promotion of misleading narratives.",[]],["the misrepresentation of scientific facts and the promotion of misleading narratives",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",["74"]]],"rt":[["disruptive communication",[]],["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["rumor",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["alternative facts",[]],["information disorder",[]]],"sb":[["the misrepresentation of scientific facts",[]],["the promotion of misleading narratives",[]]],"sp":[["False information",[]]],"ex":[["the pro-Trump disinformation campaign spread by students in Veles, a town of 55,000 people in the country recently renamed North Macedonia; a campaign which was not ideological but instead was purely based on which messages received the most clicks and attention.",["13"]],["the efforts by the Myanmar military to support a horrific ethnic cleansing campaign against the Rohinga, a Muslim minority group.",[]]]},{"de":[["those disinformation networks",[]]]},{},{"de":[["doctrine of neoliberalism",["32"]]],"rt":[["neoliberalism",["32"]]]},{"de":[["technologically induced",[]]]},{"de":[["The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the habits and opinions of the masses is an important element in democratic society.",["23"]]],"sy":[["opinion-molding",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["However, such reporting simply produced volleys of fake news accusations from both sides.",[]],["Fake news may be the catch all phrase that has recently rung alarm bells the loudest, however, it cannot effectively be applied as the definitive realization of false information online because of its variety of forms, definitions, and uses.",["11"]],["Fake news is a term that is great for clickbait but terrible as a target for effective regulation.",[]],["It is a confusing and overly broad term that should be minimized in academic work and should not be used in any thoughtful discussion of regulatory efforts.",[]],["a term that is great for clickbait but terrible as a target for effective regulation. It is a confusing and overly broad term that should be minimized in academic work and should not be used in any thoughtful discussion of regulatory efforts.",["12"]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["The resulting confusion is pernicious, because it undermines our will to act, either by persuading us that an alleged problem is not in fact a problem or by diverting us from its true causes.",["56"]]],"ex":[["whether climate change is real, whether smoking causes cancer, whether immigration is the cause of industrial unemployment, etc.",[]]]},{"de":[["where companies use algorithms that feed us divergent narratives in order to trigger our persistent interest",[]]]},{"de":[["of the information crisis that effect the public and should be targeted by thoughtful policy",["50"]]]},{},{"de":[["any system in which the government intervenes to control, manage, influence or even nudge the marketplace must, invariably, lead in time to government control of people's lives.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["oriented toward authority and expertise",[]],["High modernism with its unbounded confidence in scientific management by a white, male elite committed to publicly oriented professionalism",[]],["These conditions were supported by an ideological frame, high modernism, which was oriented toward authority and expertise.",[]],["oriented toward authority and expertise. Leadership by expert elites pervaded political, economic, and cultural dimensions of the period, from Keynesianism, dirigisme, and the rise of the administrative state, through managerial capitalism and the social market economy; to centralized, national or highly concentrated media.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["We call this the \"indivisibility thesis,\" drawing on the use of that term by NAM board member J. Howard Pew.",[]]],"rt":[["tripod of freedom",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["The Cato Institute, the Institute for Humane Studies, the Alabama-based Ludwig von Mises Institute, and the Competitive Enterprise Institute, all tax-exempt organizations, offer examples of policy-processing think tanks.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["commercial logics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["I use the term \"degradation\" to refer to those backsliding processes.",[]],["backsliding and breakdown in the media",[]],["I use the term \"degradation\" to refer to those backsliding processes. In telecommunications engineering, degradation refers to the loss of quality of an electronic signal (as it travels over a distance, for example);",[]]]},{"de":[["The first set of challenges centered around the definitional challenges of distinguishing between misinformation and disinformation and why disinformation is ripe for regulation, while misinformation is not.",[]],["Today's misinformation travels further and faster. It is less traceable and harder for wellmeaning individuals to evaluate on their own.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["information disorder",[]]],"sp":[["False information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["To protect existing beliefs, individuals tend to seek out reasons to dismiss or avoid engagement with information that is disconfirming of prior beliefs, while seeking out emotionally soothing truths that confirm convictions.",[]]],"sy":[["Disconfirmation bias",[]]],"rt":[["polarization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["American democracy does not require a well-informed public. What it requires are political elites (including media elites) who behave as though an attentive public is watching, rewarding or penalizing them for their actions.",[]]]},{"de":[["When someone breaks a longheld norm and faces no consequence, when they test out part of the mythology and find that it can be violated without consequence, the myth is imperiled and the norm ceases to operate.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["New World Information and Communication Order",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Addressing news deserts in 2010, CPB funded regional initiatives to produce local news on TV and radio, 20 which have evolved and continue to produce local news.",["20"]],["One in five newspapers has shut down since 2004, and half of US counties have only one local newspaper, often a small weekly.",[]]]},{"de":[["many of the survivors have become ad shoppers with hardly any original news",[]]]},{"de":[["These characteristics enable many people to get news without paying for it and prevent the producers of news from capturing a return from all who receive it.",[]]]},{"de":[["These characteristics enable many people to get news without paying for it and prevent the producers of news from capturing a return from all who receive it.",[]]]},{"ex":[["below-cost postal rates for all newspapers and other publications regardless of viewpoint; tax exemptions applicable to all media outlets; and governmental and philanthropic funds for independent, public-service broadcasting.",[]]]},{"de":[["norms change informally and in haphazard fashion.",[]]],"ex":[["politicians should not lie to the press; they should keep their campaign promises; they should consistently pursue a set of goals that are justifiable in terms of promoting the public good, not merely in terms of increasing their own odds of winning the next election.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a carelessly crafted half-truth. Or the product of a fevered, Hofstadterian mind working overtime.",[]]]},{"de":[["Or a carelessly crafted half-truth.",[]],["Or the product of a fevered, Hofstadterian mind working overtime.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["making it basically impossible for a new entrant into the competition for right-wing audiences to escape the propaganda feedback loop.",[]],["new media appear that attract a partisan audience by providing identity-confirming news and claiming that other (mainstream) outlets are lying. Politicians thrive in this ecosystem by aligning their rhetoric and positions with the partisan media and their publics.",[]],["with an absence of correction mechanisms which results in the unconstrained propagation of identity-consistent falsehoods",[]]]},{"de":[["It is grounded in an ideological frame of public service, in direct opposition to Hayekian arguments.",[]],["While only about 15 percent of public broadcasting's budget is accounted for with federal tax dollars, that funding is crucial in supporting station infrastructure.",[]],["Public broadcasting also has structural resilience, ironically because of its highly decentralized nature.",[]],["Public broadcasting's public mission centrally distinguishes it from other media.",[]],["most of that mission comes from the values and norms of the system, not from the law. Those values and norms derive from a clear ideological founding argument that American society needs reliable public information and cultural institutions, not only because the market will not provide them but because they are fundamentally not market services.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a well-funded public service media system could help guarantee universal access to quality news and information.",[]],["a truly public media system should include worker-run cooperatives and other forms of collective ownership.",[]],["Public media's political autonomy must be founded on adequate funding and economic independence.",[]]],"sy":[["public media system",[]],["public service media system",[]]],"rt":[["public service media system",[]],["public media system",[]],["worker-run cooperatives",[]],["noncommercial media",[]]]},{"de":[["under-funded and increasingly forced to rely on quasi-commercial support to maintain its current level of news production.",[]],["a strong public media system can provide a solid foundation for a healthy information system.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It traffics in outrage and identity-confirming content that is unburdened by concerns of factual accuracy.",["49"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such subsidies have come from governments, political parties, groups in civil society, and powerful patrons typically interested in promoting their own views, and consequently have afforded news organizations little independence.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["companies accumulate data and are already using it to nudge our behavior",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the latter often made into a proper noun",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The use of the term \"consensus\" was clearly intended to signify that all reasonable people recognized the validity of these positions, even as the \"consensus\" paid little (if any) attention to the need for appropriate regulation to protect workers, consumers, and the natural environment, or to prevent or redress uncompetitive practices and remedy market failure.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Another friction point involves many radical right populist movements and parties favoring \"welfare nationalism,\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["semiotic guidance of tourist action",[]],["contains experience belonging to both actor and observer perspectives",[]]],"rt":[["observer perspective",[]]],"ex":[["the reaching child desires the object",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["One of the significant advances of socio-cultural psychology, since the work of Mead and Vygotsky, has been the theorization of these complex semiotic systems in a variety of ways: as social representations (Moscovici, 1984), cultural artifacts (Cole, 1996), symbolic resources (Zittoun et al., 2003;Zittoun chapter X), narratives (Bruner, 1986), interpretive repertoires (Potter & Wetherell, 1987), and discourses with subject positions (Harré & Van Langehove, 1991).",[]]],"rt":[["social representations",["Moscovici, 1984"]],["cultural artifacts",["Cole, 1996"]],["symbolic resources",["Zittoun et al., 2003","Zittoun chapter X"]],["narratives",["Bruner, 1986"]],["interpretive repertoires",["Potter & Wetherell, 1987"]],["discourses with subject positions",["Harré & Van Langehove, 1991"]]]},{},{"sy":[["self-reflection",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["These theories assume that the other perceives more about self than self can perceive.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["criticism of other tourists",[]],["contains experience belonging to both actor and observer perspectives",[]]],"rt":[["actor perspective",[]]],"ex":[["the mother sees the child's grasping as indicating desire",[]]]},{"de":[["According to theorists like Mead and Vygotsky, self-reflection is a defining feature of humans, and fundamental to the higher mental functions.",[]],["arising through internalizing the perspective that the other has upon self, followed by self taking the perspective of other upon self.",[]],["there are two ways in which self can arrive at an observer perspective on self (i.e., self-reflection).",[]],["The process can begin with either an actor perspective engaged in some action, or an observer perspective on someone else's action. Either of these perspectives can evoke, via the structure of the significant symbol (or sign), the complementary actor and observer perspectives, thus leading to self-reflection.",[]],["it is the integration of actor and observer perspectives, that enables the child to distanciate from the experience, and thus to become self-conscious of the loss.",[]],["self-reflection is a defining feature of humans, and fundamental to the higher mental functions.",[]],["Simply, there are two ways in which self can arrive at an observer perspective on self (i.e., self-reflection).",[]]],"rt":[["significant symbol (or sign)",[]]],"sb":[["self-mediation",[]],["short-circuiting",[]]]},{"sp":[["self-reflection",[]]]},{"de":[["architectures of intersubjectivity (Rommetveit, 1974) which enable the translation between actor and observer perspectives within a social act",[]]],"sy":[["significant symbol",[]]],"rt":[["actor perspective",[]],["observer perspective",[]]]},{"de":[["the sign (or significant symbol) is a composite of two different perspectives, namely, an actor perspective and an observer perspective.",[]],["It is through the ability to be the other at the same time that he is himself that the symbol becomes significant.",[]]],"sy":[["sign",[]]],"rt":[["sign",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["conspiring as engaging in a very peculiar kind of secret",[]],["when agents collude and then decide that, in order to be successful in their plotting, they must selectively decide to keep their activities secret from someone, you have a conspiracy.",[]],["conspiracies usually entail the kind of imperfect secrecy which comes from working with and trusting others.",[]],["secrecy is not necessary for something to be considered a conspiracy",[]],["the secrecy involved in conspiring is multifaceted",[]]],"rt":[["conspiratorial activity",[]],["lie by omission",[]],["conspiracy-like activity",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["passive secrecy",[]],["active cover-up",[]],["conspiracy theory",[]]],"sb":[["monolithic conspiracies",[]],["diverse conspiracies",[]]],"ex":[["The promotion of Jeremy Corbyn to leader of the Labour Party of the U.K. was the result of a conspiracy by the unions!",[]],["Donald Trump was a Democratic plant, who conspired to hand the Presidential election to Hillary Clinton!",[]],["organization of a surprise party",[]],["having an affair",[]],["conspiracy to commit extortion",[]],["political conspiracies",[]],["Alex and Billie conspire to extort Chris for money, because they know that Chris engaged in some dodgy deal recently, which Alex and Billie are sure Chris would not like to become publicly known.",[]],["organizing a surprise party",[]]]},{"de":[["simply being used to demean people and dismiss what have often proved to be reasonable claims about, in historical context, relatively mundane events",[]],["Now, according to this definition, any explanation which refers to some conspiracy as the cause of an event is a conspiracy theory, regardless of whether it is generally frowned upon by epistemic peers (the pejorative gloss of \"conspiracy theory\"), or has been classified as an \"official theory\"-and thus part of orthodox history-by some influential institution.",[]],["the term \"conspiracy theory\" is used not just to label certain views as bad, but often in such a way to shut down debate about those views",[]]],"rt":[["theory",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["in a diverse conspiracy the conspirators have to manage more than one organization, or power structure.",[]],["Diverse conspiracies could consist of just a few people, and yet be prone to leaks. Why? Because in a diverse conspiracy the conspirators have to manage more than one organization, or power structure.",[]]],"ex":[["Inside Job hypotheses about 9/11",[]],["Controlled Demolitions",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["open secret",[]]],"sp":[["open secret",[]]]},{"de":[["a lie by omission may be a strange kind of lie-because nothing was actually saidbut it is still a very much the kind of deceit we associate with lying",[]]],"rt":[["deceit",[]]],"ex":[["take, for example, adultery; if you, my partner, fail to ask about the affair you have no knowledge of, my failing to mention it is deceitful in the same way that denying and thus lying to you about the affair would be",[]]]},{"rt":[["feigned secret",[]]]},{"de":[["most of the literature on secrecy in philosophy tends to be an epiphenomenal property of philosophical discussions of transparency or privacy",[]],["this definition relativizes keeping secrets to S1; S2 might turn out to already know what S1 is attempting to keep secret from them (or may come to know it from S3, and so on)",[]],["Secrecy, it turns out, is peculiar, complex and multifaceted.",[]]],"sb":[["passive secrecy",[]],["active cover-up",[]]]},{"rt":[["secrecy",[]]],"ex":[["Susan is aware that Peter is having an affair, but is keeping it secret from their partner Tom. That is to say, Susan does not think Tom knows about Peter's affair and Susan is not willing to tell Tom about it.",[]],["The National Security Agency (NSA) was aware that its members were spying on elements of the U.S. public, but kept it secret from the press and prosecutors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The accusations differ from arrogance and selfishness to incompetence and corruption.",[]],["No matter which type of elite is criticized, the general message is the same: that of a conflict between those without power (the people) and those with power (the elite).",[]]],"rt":[["people-centrism",[]]]},{"de":[["It depends on the context whether the outsiders are immigrants, unemployed, or people of another religion or race.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["To persuade the people to rebel against the ruling elite, the People's Party frequently used a Manichaean discourse of Good versus Evil (us versus them, democracy versus plutocracy, producers versus exploiters), as a result of which the party's language was somewhat polarizing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["As Mudde (2004: 560) has emphasized, it is sufficient that they create such an image.",["Mudde (2004: 560)"]]]},{"de":[["'The people' can mean many different things to many different populists in many different circumstances (Canovan 1981: 261;Mudde 2004: 545-6). It can refer, for instance, to the electorate, to the nation or to no fixed group at all.",["Canovan 1981: 261;Mudde 2004: 545-6","Panizza 2005: 3"]]],"rt":[["anti-elitism",[]]]},{"de":[["Taggart (2000: 100-3) also argues that populist organizations are characterized by their centralized nature and the pivotal role of (charismatic) leaders.",["Taggart (2000: 100-3)"]]],"rt":[["centralized nature",[]],["(charismatic) leaders",[]]]},{"de":[["These four characteristics constitute the core elements of populism.",[]],["In one context populism refers to small-scale bottom-up movements, whereas in others it denotes strong charismatic leaders or radical right political parties.",["Canovan 1981: 3"]],["the concept deals with 'an essential impalpability, an awkward conceptual slipperiness'",["Taggart 2000: 1"]],["it should never contain more than the four elements of the lowest common denominator (people-centrism plus anti-elitism plus homogeneity of the people plus proclamation of a crisis)",[]]],"rt":[["people-centrism",[]],["anti-elitism",[]],["homogeneity of the people",[]],["proclamation of a crisis",[]],["exclusionism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Because of their glorification of the people and their loathing of the elite, populists tend to use rather simple language that is understood by 'normal' people and differs from the difficult and formal language of the elite.",[]]]},{"de":[["the way in which the term is understood is dependent on the particular context.",[]]]},{"de":[["express the feeling of not being able to deal with such change",[]],["feelings such as 'Everything has become so complex today that I no longer know what to do' and 'I no longer understand what is happening in the world today' are central.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["evaluation of the perceived evolution of society with regard to that theme",[]],["People who believe that society is caught in a downward spiral apparently blame the political elite for that state of affairs and react with populism, opposing common sense to the alleged expertise of the elite.",[]],["the sense of decline",[]],["all the themes of the decline present in our scale are also the subject of not only journalistic, but also scholarly discourse.",[]],["The variables measuring declinism, anomie and relative deprivation are of course interrelated (r s ranging between 0.50 and 0.57).",[]],["need not be based on personal experience, but can also and is likely to be based on how the development of society is perceived on the basis of the information gathered and the interpretation of that information.",[]],["Many people feel that their society is in decline, unable to live up to the new challenges posed by growing internal diversity and globalization. They feel that the patterns of sociability, the welfare provisions, economic regulations and democratic, political capacity that supported the good life are being eroded and undermined; that the growing diversity creates a tension-laden and conflict-ridden society.",[]]],"rt":[["longing for the heartland",[]],["Social relations, social cohesion",[]],["Environment and food",[]],["Rules and regulations",[]],["Globalization, European integration and the future of the labour market",[]],["Multicultural society",[]],["anomie",[]],["relative deprivation",[]],["populism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["As a feeling rather than a well-thought-out idea, heartland refers to the world/society we have lost.",[]]]},{"de":[["which is typical of the harsher forms of anti-establishment feelings",[]],["typical of the harsher forms of anti-establishment feelings",["Hawkins (2009)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the ability and willingness to separate judgements about one's personal welfare from judgements about the common good and the state of society at large.",[]],["People do not make great political choices such as for or against the political establishment, for or against participation in the electoral process, for the thin ideology of populism or for one of the deep ideologies, on the basis of personal worries, satisfactions and dissatisfaction. This is underscored by the complete absence of a direct effect of the satisfaction with personal life on populism. People clearly make such choices on the basis of a vision of the good society and the way to get there or get back there (Elchardus 2011).",[]],["People do not make great political choices such as for or against the political establishment, for or against participation in the electoral process, for the thin ideology of populism or for one of the deep ideologies, on the basis of personal worries, satisfactions and dissatisfaction.",[]],["People clearly make such choices on the basis of a vision of the good society and the way to get there or get back there",[]]],"rt":[["populism",[]]]},{"de":[["Populism emphasizes the difference and distance between straightthinking 'ordinary people' and the distant, unworldly, even corrupt, elite (or establishment, intellectuals, experts, politicians and so on)",["Canovan 1999: 3","Elchardus 2002","Hawkins 2009Hawkins : 1043-4;-4","Mudde 2004: 544, 547","Mudde 2007: 23","Stanley 2008: 102","Canovan 1999: 3;Elchardus 2002;Hawkins 2009Hawkins : 1043-4;-4;Mudde 2004: 544, 547;Mudde 2007: 23;Stanley 2008: 102"]],["In that way populism is able to structure social and political space, divide it between us and them, between friend and enemy",["Canovan 1984","Taggart 2002: 77"]],["capacity to define enemies",["Canovan 1984","Taggart 2002: 77"]],["clearly articulate a people-centrist view of politics, centred on a sharp distinction between 'ordinary people' and politicians",[]],["It is in the first place a consequence of declinism.",[]],["Contemporary populism, then, appears primarily as the political reaction of an egalitarian society that perceives itself as being in decline.",[]],["It is in the first place a consequence of declinism. Many people feel that their society is in decline, unable to live up to the new challenges posed by growing internal diversity and globalization. They feel that the patterns of sociability, the welfare provisions, economic regulations and democratic, political capacity that supported the good life are being eroded and undermined; that the growing diversity creates a tension-laden and conflict-ridden society. The decline, perceived by many, is blamed on the establishment politicians or rather, because no convincing solution to those problems is offered by the political establishment, people turn to populism, to belief in the solutions offered by common sense, which are often at odds with the analysis of established parties, intellectuals and elites.",[]]],"sy":[["politics of hope",[]],["desperate politics of hope",[]]],"rt":[["thin ideology",[]],["people centrism",[]],["anti-establishment stand",[]],["declinism",[]]],"sb":[["the centrality and elevated status of 'the people' or more precisely 'the ordinary people'",[]],["the betrayal of the ordinary people by an elite that uses its power to its own advantage, neglecting and ignoring the worries and needs of the ordinary people",[]],["anti-elitism",[]],["people-centrism",[]]],"sp":[["thin ideology",[]]],"ex":[["combating Islam, decreasing diversity, strengthening our borders, getting the European Union off our backs, returning to respect, to the values and norms that used to sustain the fulfilling life and the good society",[]],["such as combating Islam, decreasing diversity, strengthening our borders, getting the European Union off our backs, returning to respect, to the values and norms that used to sustain the fulfilling life and the good society",[]]]},{"de":[["unfairly treated by society",[]],["feelings of relative deprivation",[]],["people who feel relatively deprived and unfairly treated by society embrace the core propositions of populism.",[]]]},{"rt":[["egocentric motives",[]]]},{"de":[["Such a conceptualization accommodates the observation that populism can combine with different deep ideologies, can be leftist (as is often the case in Latin America -Hawkins 2009) or rightist, as is predominantly the case in contemporary Europe.",["Hawkins 2009"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["they believe: (1) their country should be ethnically homogenous, consisting only of the native group; and (2) laws are strictly enforced, with any transgression heavily penalized.",[]]],"sb":[["populist radical-right parties",[]],["anti-democratic extreme right",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["cordon sanitaire",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["social frameworks",[]],["socially shaped mental frames",[]],["scaffolds",[]],["schemata of remembering",[]]]},{"de":[["which can be heightened by 'frequent priming' or 'repetitive framing'",["Roskos-Ewoldsen et al 2009, 83"]]],"rt":[["frequent priming",[]],["repetitive framing",[]]]},{"sy":[["autobiographical",[]]],"sp":[["explicit forms of collective memory",[]]]},{"sp":[["explicit forms of collective memory",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["semantic memory",[]]],"sp":[["explicit memory",[]]]},{"sb":[["semantic memory",[]],["episodic memory",[]]]},{"de":[["The production of realities by means of framing is an active process, but not necessarily a conscious one.",[]],["In communication studies, framing is thus about the ways in which mediations can shape and change perceiving and understanding",[]],["For Robert M. Entman (1993, 52), '[f]raming essentially involves selection and salience. To frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation for the item described'.",["1993, 52"]]],"rt":[["priming",[]]]},{"de":[["Elements of this invisible world include narrative schemata, stereotypes, patterns of framing, or world models, which are usually not explicitly known or addressed, but get passed on from generation to generationin order to shape perception and action in new situations.",[]],["while remaining unexposed, it is likely to produce more of the same in the future.",[]],["not primarily backwardlooking, but fundamentally a preforming, a forward-facing dynamics",[]],["a form of 'collective future thinking without thinking'",[]],["What is ultimately at stake with the term of implicit collective memory is the social, medial, and for most people non-conscious aspects of a cultural remembering-imagining system",["Conway et al 2016"]],["The term 'implicit collective memory' is proposed here as an umbrella term for a wide array of phenomena, which all share a certain onto-epistemological mode (they derive from collective memory and most people remain unaware of them) and a function (they preform thought and action).",[]]],"rt":[["social movement studies",[]],["research on conspiracy myths",[]],["philosophy of history",[]],["post-colonial and decolonial debates",[]],["explicit collective memory",[]],["digital unconscious",["Monk 1998"]]],"ex":[["visual icons, narrative patterns, stereotypes, metaphors, world models, values and norms, or certain ways of acting or 'doing' things",[]]]},{"de":[["Implicit memory, on the other hand, is behind all non-conscious acts of memory, which can range from procedural memories (i.e., for binding shoelaces or riding a bike, 'knowing how') all the way to effects of perceptual and conceptual priming",[]],["high efficiency (nonreliance on cognitive resources)",[]],["implicit memory has been defined fairly consistently as influences of past experience on later performance, in the absence of conscious memory for the earlier experience",[]]],"rt":[["automatic (non-conscious) forms of human information processing",[]]],"sb":[["procedural memories",[]],["procedural memories (i.e., for binding shoelaces or riding a bike, 'knowing how')",[]],["effects of perceptual and conceptual priming",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["not primarily backwardlooking, but fundamentally a preforming, a forward-facing dynamics",[]]],"rt":[["media priming",[]],["longue durée-frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Not all of what societies remember is recalled through or in relation to self-conscious or dedicated memory projects. Instead, the past is often incorporated into the present in ways that do not aim at commemoration",[]]],"rt":[["commemorative memory",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["priming is about the automatic activation of non-consciously existent memorata, which may include frames.",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["memory culture",[]],["plurimedial repetitive framing in the longue durée",[]]]},{"rt":[["episodic memory",[]]],"sp":[["explicit memory",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["mere exposure effect",["2017"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the rise of what has been called \"medical nationalism\" (Youde 2020)",[]]]},{"de":[["nationalism assumes the dominant political and social importance of the nation and understands the world to be structured in nations, often with the understanding that these are the natural units of social and political organization.",[]]],"rt":[["exclusionary nationalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["stance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Sentiment analysis techniques have a long history in natural language processing and have become a standard tool in the analysis of political texts, promising a conceptually straightforward automated method of extracting meaning from textual data by scoring documents on a scale from positive to negative.",[]],["many words have a recognizable positive or negative valence which can be recorded in a dictionary of term-valence pairs, then applied to any given document to produce an aggregate measure of its overall tone or polarity.",[]],["public discourse from this time reflects the high levels of (largely negative) emotions that defined the proceedings.",[]],["it is possible for both approving and opposing stances towards the confirmation of Brett Kavanaugh to be expressed using either positive or negative sentiment.",[]],["conceptually tractable",[]],["distinct concepts that, although related, cannot necessarily be treated as interchangeable",[]]],"rt":[["stance",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["VADER (Hutto and Gilbert 2014)",[]]]},{"de":[["stance is distinct from sentiment because it is targeted-it pertains to something specific rather than simply reflecting the overall tone of the language used in the document.",[]],["state and justify a stance on the subject of the review",[]],["In cases where the same stance can be easily expressed in either supportive or oppositional terms, sentiment and stance are not cleanly aligned and cannot be treated as conceptually equivalent.",[]],["it is possible for both approving and opposing stances towards the confirmation of Brett Kavanaugh to be expressed using either positive or negative sentiment.",[]],["complex and multidimensional",[]],["conceptually target-dependent concept",[]],["treating them as conceptually interchangeable can introduce significant measurement error",[]],["makes stance identification a more difficult, context-specific classification task that requires target-aware training data",[]],["attitudinal stance expressed in that document",[]],["makes stance identification a more difficult, context-specific classification task that requires target-aware training data.",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment",[]]],"ex":[["A film review saying \"I absolutely loved this film\" is using positive sentiment and indicating a stance in favor of the movie.",[]],["a review saying \"this movie was horrible, save your money\" is using negative sentiment and indicating a stance against the movie.",[]]]},{"de":[["views \"stance detection\" tasks as distinct from general sentiment analysis",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]]],"sp":[["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the 50c party is not a political party",[]],["most of the scholarly literature describes 50c party members as ordinary citizens hired for very low piecemeal wages.",[]],["almost all 50c workers in our sample are government employees",[]],["information control practices designed for this new form of communication",[]]],"sy":[["50c workers",[]]],"sp":[["information control practices",[]]]},{"de":[["the evidence strongly indicates to the contrary that each was written by a specific, often identifiable, human being under direction from the government",[]],["the focus of these posts is on cheerleading, possibly for purposes of distraction, rather than engaged argumentation and debate",[]],["fabricated by the How the Chinese Government Fabricates Social Media Posts for Strategic Distraction, Not Engaged Argument government",[]],["The posts are not randomly distributed but, as we show in Figure 2, are highly focused and directed, all with specific intent and content.",[]],["the content of 50c party posts across China is largely about cheerleading, and to a lesser extent nonargumentative praise or suggestions and factual reporting.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["reverse censorship",[]]],"rt":[["reverse censorship",[]]]},{"sy":[["volunteer 50c members",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Letting an argument die, or changing the subject, usually works much better than picking an argument and getting someone's back up (as new parents recognize fast).",[]],["Distraction even has the advantage of reducing anger compared to ruminating on the same issue",["Denson et al. 2012"]]],"rt":[["information control",[]]]},{"rt":[["collective action potential",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["50c party members",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["volume bursts",[]]]},{"rt":[["information control",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["astroturfing",[]]],"rt":[["astroturfing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["prestige",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They encapsulate conspiracy theories, \"fake news,\" discussions of political scandals, and negative campaigns.",[]],["spread what we call hostile political rumors in a way that goes \"farther, faster, deeper, and more broadly than truth\"",[]],["included damaging information about the political actors portrayed in the stories",[]],["authentic rumors that could both fulfill partisan goals of denigrating political opponents and, alternatively, disruptive goals of harming the reputation of politicians from both camps",[]],["they all seek to incite hostility toward a specific target and are difficult to verify or disprove.",[]]],"rt":[["hostile news",[]]],"ex":[["sparking significant small-scale incidents-such as protests (Tucker et al. 2017) and cyberbullying of political opponents (Buckels, Trapnell, and Paulhus 2014)-to influencing large-scale political outcomes (e.g., Allcott and Gentzkow 2017).",["Tucker et al. 2017","Buckels, Trapnell, and Paulhus 2014","Allcott and Gentzkow 2017"]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["discussions of political scandals",[]],["negative campaigns",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is not a biological need in the sense of thirst or hunger.",[]],["the underlying evolutionary problem that the desire for chaos expresses relates to status maintenance and acquisition.",[]],["the Need for Chaos is not a stable personality trait, but is expected to emerge in the interplay of environments related to personal status loss and traits related to dominance.",[]],["chaos-seekers strive for status and feel rejected by friends and society as a whole.",[]],["Need for Chaos is thus a mindset to gain status by disrupting the established order.",[]]],"rt":[["need",["1982, 117"]]]},{},{"rt":[["hostile political rumors",[]]]},{"de":[["has been argued to reflect dominance orientations",[]]],"rt":[["dominance orientations",[]]],"sp":[["dominance orientations",[]]]},{"rt":[["understanding",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They provide this understanding by exemplifying important properties of the targetby instantiating important properties of the target in a way that renders them more salient than they would otherwise be",["Elgin 2017, 183-203"]]],"ex":[["the ideal gas law (the model) represents certain gases (the target) in a way that exemplifies, and so highlights, the mathematical relationship between their volume, temperature and pressure",[]]]},{"sb":[["strong factivism",[]],["moderate factivism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["scientists often deliberately incorporate blatant falsehoodsidealizations, simplifications, distortions and so onwithin their models. And they incorporate those falsehoods precisely because doing so often helps achieve greater understanding.",[]],["many falsehoods involved in science 'are ineliminable and epistemically valuable components of the understanding science supplies'. They are, in other words, 'felicitous falsehoods'.",[]],["for a falsehood to be felicitous, the property it renders salient within the account must truly obtain in the account's target. Put differently, the account, with its constituent falsehoods, must help exemplify something that is really there.",[]]],"rt":[["understanding",[]]],"ex":[["The ideal gas law, which models the relationship between the pressure, volume and temperature of a gas, represents gas molecules as infinitely small, as spherical, as never colliding with one another and as exerting no long-range forces on each other.",["Elgin 2017, 15"]],["astronomical models routinely represent planets as point masses when this, of course, is not even approximately true",["Elgin 2017, 27-8"]],["physicists often model energy as a fluid streaming from object to object",["De Regt and Gijsbers 2017, 69-72"]]]},{"de":[["a moderate factivist might instead say that most of an account's cognitive commitments must be true, as well as all of its central cognitive commitments",["Kvanvig 2009;Mizrahi 2012;Strevens 2017"]]],"rt":[["factivists",[]]],"sp":[["factivism",[]]]},{"de":[["alleviate the epistemic costs of felicitous political falsehoods without forgoing their epistemic benefits",[]]],"rt":[["participatory democracy",[]],["political models",[]],["political understanding",[]]]},{"rt":[["understanding",[]]],"sp":[["understanding",[]]]},{"de":[["promote the active participation in public discourse of people from different social groups and different walks of life",[]],["invites diverse groups to interact and exchange narratives expressing their perspectives on matters of public interest.",[]],["it encourages the expression, within the same public arena, of different models of political reality.",[]],["the active participation in public discourse of people from different social groups and different walks of life",["Anderson 2006","Chambers 2018","Landemore 2013","Young 2000"]],["By bringing together diverse narratives that express complementary models of political reality, participatory democracy is the political response to that call.",[]]],"rt":[["multiple modelling",[]]],"sb":[["deliberative",[]],["communicative",[]]]},{"rt":[["filter information in the political world",[]],["roadmap for navigating the political world",[]]]},{"sy":[["political model",[]]]},{},{"de":[["accepting falsehoods within one's model of political reality (one's 'political model') can positively enhance one's understanding of that reality.",[]],["voters do commonly appear to possess integrated systems of political commitments and that the axes along which these are structured (social group identities) seem, in principle, epistemically reasonable.",[]]],"sy":[["political account",[]]],"rt":[["political understanding",[]]],"ex":[["white-supremacist world view",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The acceptance of falsehoods that simplify, idealize or otherwise distort political reality can, in principle, coexist with, and even enhance, voters' understanding of political reality (their 'political understanding').",[]],["Political understanding calls for multiple models of political reality.",[]]],"rt":[["political reality",[]]],"sp":[["Understanding",[]]]},{"rt":[["understanding",[]]],"sp":[["understanding",[]]],"ex":[["S understands that Jupiter is further from the Sun than Mercury",[]]]},{"de":[["Put differently, it is an account or model whose target is rural life.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A strong version of factivism (call it 'strong factivism') might say that all of an account's cognitive commitments must be true",["Lawler 2021"]]],"rt":[["factivists",[]]],"sp":[["factivism",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["political model",[]]]},{"de":[["In the second section, we argue that the style of debate ~as performed and enforced by the host! serves to privilege political speech which is passionate, simple and entertaining.",[]],["Self-consciously adopted and defended by means of a populist logic which defines itself as a utopian alternative to mainstream models of journalism, argutainment justifies itself through its ability to speak to and represent the interests of \"the people.\"",[]],["What people want in commercial terms ~as evidenced by market share! and what people need in political terms ~alternative perspectives which cut through the morass of mainstream media! is represented as ultimately the same thing: a provocative and entertaining style of debate, defined as highly emotional and passionate, strongly opinionated, simple and brief and very confrontational.",[]],["portray the logic of commercialism ~treating political talk as an entertainment commodity! as a politically virtuous invigoration of democracy. According to this logic, the discipline imposed by the need to entertain also keeps political speech honest, accessible and authentic and counteracts the mainstream media's counterproductive pursuit of diversity, balance, objectivity, moderation.",[]],["Argutainment teaches us that we can judge the validity of a particular comment not merely by the ad0pro hominem shorthand offered by epistemological populisms ~such as the subject position and experience of the speaker! but by an even more immediate shorthand of the passion and brevity of a speaker's communication style or our emotional reaction to it.",[]],["schooling its listeners that in the cut-and-thrust of political debate, the only way to find one's own voice is to ignore the voices of those who do not agree.",[]],["plays a key role in helping establishing the political preferences and views privileged by the program",[]],["In defining what is good for the people, it moves effortlessly between political and market tropes in which commercial success and the public good are fused together.",[]],["it moves effortlessly between political and market tropes in which commercial success and the public good are fused together. What people want in commercial terms ~as evidenced by market share! and what people need in political terms ~alternative perspectives which cut through the morass of mainstream media! is represented as ultimately the same thing: a provocative and entertaining style of debate",[]],["argutainment justifies itself through its ability to speak to and represent the interests of \"the people.\" In defining what is good for the people, it moves effortlessly between political and market tropes in which commercial success and the public good are fused together. What people want in commercial terms ~as evidenced by market share! and what people need in political terms ~alternative perspectives which cut through the morass of mainstream media! is represented as ultimately the same thing: a provocative and entertaining style of debate, defined as highly emotional and passionate, strongly opinionated, simple and brief and very confrontational.",[]]],"rt":[["infotainment",["Postman, 1985","Thussu, 2007"]]],"sp":[["infotainment",[]]]},{"sy":[["consumizen",[]]]},{"sy":[["citizumer",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the assertion that individual opinions based upon firsthand experience are much more reliable as a form of knowledge than those generated by theories and academic studies",[]],["the valorization of specific types of experience as particularly reliable sources of legitimate knowledge and the extension of this knowledge authority to unrelated issues",[]],["the privileging of emotional intensity as an indicator of the reliability of opinions",[]],["the use of populist-inflected discourse to dismiss other types of knowledge as elitist and therefore illegitimate",[]],["the appeal to \"common sense\" as a discussion-ending trump card",[]],["knowledge that grows out of an individual's lived experience is knowledge one can trust.",[]],["An individual's lived proximity to something becomes an index of their capacity to truly understand it, care about it, develop valid opinions about it and speak about it with authority.",[]],["epistemological populism tends to elevate individual experience as the only legitimate form and extend that epistemological authority well beyond the realm where the person's immediate experience itself might be seen as relevant.",[]],["uses the other side of the populist trope-the attack on elites-to dismiss contending forms of knowledge and political opinions.",[]],["Both forms of populism challenge the assumption that politics and political discourse should involve forms of mediated and reflective action, reasoning and communication distinct from those immediate ones which govern life in the private sphere.",[]],["modelling a renovation of the public sphere in which the value and authority of knowledge, opinion and argument is directly proportional to ~and a reproduction of! the lived experience of the people",[]],["challenges neo-liberal and technocratic tendencies to dismiss the value of political debate in favour of technical expertise.",[]],["commitment to encouraging ordinary individuals to speak and its valorization of lived experience as a form of legitimate knowledge",[]]],"sy":[["populist epistemology",[]]],"rt":[["political discourses of populism",[]],["common sense",[]],["attack on elites",[]],["conservative populism",[]],["argutainment style",[]],["the people",[]]],"sp":[["populism",[]]],"ex":[["the assertion that individual opinions based upon firsthand experience are much more reliable as a form of knowledge than those generated by theories and academic studies",[]],["the valorization of specific types of experience as particularly reliable sources of legitimate knowledge and the extension of this knowledge authority to unrelated issues",[]],["the privileging of emotional intensity as an indicator of the reliability of opinions",[]],["the use of populist-inflected discourse to dismiss other types of knowledge as elitist and therefore illegitimate",[]],["the appeal to \"common sense\" as a discussion-ending trump card",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["is recast as an instrument of political democratization, the means by which the people are put back in charge of the public sphere",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["According to Entman (1993), selection and salience are two key features of framing.",[]],["Frames are consequential: they lead the audience to interpret issues in various ways.",[]],["the framing process is an influential way through which the media may shape public opinion or alter citizens' attitudes",[]],["This story-telling process is referred to as framing.",[]],["selection and salience are two key features of framing.",["1993"]],["the framing process is an influential way through which the media may shape public opinion or alter citizens' attitudes (Iyengar and Kinder, 1987).",["Iyengar and Kinder, 1987","1987"]]],"sy":[["frames",[]]],"rt":[["topics",[]],["selection and salience",["Entman, 1993"]],["salience",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Subjects respond more quickly to targets that are affectively congruent with the priming stimuli.",[]],["Congruous states may be more easily processed due to priming and spread of activation (e.g. see Bower et al. 1981;Singer & Salovey 1988;Spizzichino & Bonaiuto 1990) or due to the response interference that primes create for distractors (Wentura 1999).",["Bower et al. 1981","Singer & Salovey 1988","Spizzichino & Bonaiuto 1990","Wentura 1999"]]],"rt":[["priming",[]],["spread of activation",[]],["response interference",[]],["perspective taking",[]]]},{"de":[["It implies that the subject has used cognitive perspective taking to project him or herself into the position of the subject to understand, empathize and provide help.",[]],["Likely, because it is more likely to be invoked for familiar/similar objects.",[]],["Working memory, planning and behavioral inhibition are processes known to be subserved by the prefrontal cortex (for reviews see Fuster 1997;Shiamamura 1996;Thierry et al. 1994) and these abilities facilitate cognitive empathy.",[]],["The cognitive capabilities can, however, augment emotional linkage to support more complex forms of empathy.",[]],["cognitively \"advanced\" individuals can use inference, causal reasoning and a refined distinction between self and other to determine the source of distress",[]],["Because cognitive empathy requires perspective taking, it has been reserved for individuals who can pass traditional tests of perspective taking, usually humans after the age of two years and sometimes apes (e.g. Gopnik & Meltzoff 1994;Kummer et al. 1996;Povinelli et al. 1992a;1993;Ungerer 1990).",[]]],"sy":[["True empathy",[]],["Perspective-taking",[]]],"rt":[["Perspective-taking",[]],["emotional linkage",[]],["perspective taking",[]],["empathy",[]],["emotional contagion",[]]],"sp":[["empathy",[]]]},{"de":[["The final effect, cue salience, is related because of its ability to increase the likelihood and extent to which a representation is activated.",[]]]},{"de":[["Emotional contagion includes the spreading of all forms of emotion from one individual to another (e.g. the spreading of joy or distress through a crowd).",[]],["The distinction is lost between the subject and object; both are distressed to a level that precludes appropriate helping behaviors.",[]]],"sy":[["Personal distress",[]],["Vicarious emotion",[]],["emotional transfer",[]]],"rt":[["sympathy",[]],["empathy",[]],["cognitive empathy",[]]],"sp":[["empathy",[]]],"ex":[["infants in a nursery cry in response to other infants' cries",["Sagi & Hoffman 1976","Simner 1971"]],["year-old children seek comfort after witnessing the injury of another",["Hoffman 1990","Zahn-Waxler et al. 1992"]]]},{"de":[["According to an emotional linkage theory of empathy, the subject is distressed because the state of the object is imparted to him directly through emotional linkage.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Empathy is thought to preserve the distinction between self and other, with an emotional state that is object-focused.",[]],["As a process, one is empathizing when they understand the state of the object by activating their own representation of the object's state.",[]],["As an outcome, one is empathizing when actions are aimed to mitigate the object's distress.",[]],["empathy as a broad phenomenon that encompasses identification, emotional contagion, and cognitive empathy",[]],["All of these are processes whereby an individual employs the brain's way of understanding the world to understand the internal states of others.",[]],["When this process is utilized for processing emotional information, emotional contagion, empathy, and cognitive empathy result.",[]],["It is an adaptive structure that allows individuals to use the same tissue for representing self-action and understanding the actions of others, in both cases, facilitating a response from input.",[]],["Empathy is thought to preserve the distinction between self and other, with an emotional state that is object-focused. This may result in succorant or prosocial actions to alleviate the distress of the object.",[]]],"sy":[["True empathy",[]],["Perspective-taking",[]]],"rt":[["emotional contagion",[]],["sympathy",[]],["cognitive empathy",[]],["identification",[]]],"sb":[["emotional contagion",[]],["cognitive empathy",[]]]},{"de":[["A general \"empathy disorder\" has been suggested to be a characteristic component of many other disorders including autism, sociopathy, prefrontal damage, fronto-temporal dementia, and even anorexia nervosa.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["also referred to as \"personal distress\" in the human literature (e.g. Eisenberg et al. 1994).",[]]],"rt":[["emotional contagion",[]]]},{"de":[["increases in working memory could allow for simultaneous representation of the subject's and object's state, facilitating perspective taking.",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive empathy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It differs from empathy and emotional contagion because it can be arrived at without a matching emotional response.",[]],["The subject's state is object-focused and may result in succorant or prosocial actions to alleviate the object's distress.",[]]],"rt":[["empathy",[]],["emotional contagion",[]]]},{"de":[["The media's discriminatory and stereotyping practices were revealed mainly against older adults, mostly underlining their physical incapability and unproductivity (Fealy et al., 2012;Lepianka, 2015).",["Fealy et al., 2012","Lepianka, 2015"]]],"rt":[["internalised ageism",[]]],"sb":[["compassionate ageism",[]],["new ageism",[]],["hostile ageism",[]]]},{"de":[["coverage of older people during the pandemic has been overwhelmingly framed by compassionate ageism (Previtali et al., 2020;Søraa et al., 2020;Zhang and Liu, 2021). These studies predominantly criticise the victimisation of older people.",["Previtali et al., 2020","Søraa et al., 2020","Zhang and Liu, 2021"]],["older people were portrayed as major victims of the public health crisis, leading to feelings of pity and sympathy",["Cuddy and Fiske, 2002"]],["concealed a hostile attitude towards the older population and unrealised anxiety about intergenerational conflict",[]],["The prominent difference between a compassionate attitude and filial piety lies in the motivation and the act of caring for older people.",[]],["A compassionate attitude was rooted in social liberal ideology, which implied 'collective concerns' (Binstock, 2010) of ensuring against the challenge associated with an ageing population and the belief in 'big government' in the social welfare policy process (Rosenblatt, 2018).",["Binstock, 2010","Rosenblatt, 2018"]]],"sp":[["Ageism",[]]]},{"de":[["To take care of the older population was thus viewed as the code of ethics and a compulsory obligation.",[]]]},{"de":[["Contextualised in this study, hostile ageism was defined as addressing generally derogatory attitudes; thus, viewing older people as troublemakers would be categorised into this type.",[]]],"sy":[["Hostile ageist beliefs",[]]],"sp":[["ageism",[]]],"ex":[["Old people are a drain on the health-care system and economy",[]],["Old people are too easily offended",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In the Western world, the interplay of social welfare policy and neoliberal consumerism released space for the media to reposition older people away from the discourse of compassion and intergenerational conflict so that new ageism, encouraging 'active and successful ageing' (Foster and Walker, 2015), emerged as a competing trend.",["Foster and Walker, 2015"]],["The concept of new ageism was primarily rooted in intergenerational conflict",["Biggs et al., 2006","Binstock, 2010"]],["new ageism, encouraging 'active and successful ageing'",["Foster and Walker, 2015"]]],"sb":[["active and successful ageing",["Foster and Walker, 2015"]]],"sp":[["Ageism",[]]]},{"rt":[["'sexual-and gender-based violence'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a layered and compounded process, rather than a singular event",[]],["the effects of the violent event itself are 'further compounded over time through myriad gendered and sexual harms'",[]]],"ex":[["male victims/survivors for example, may render them 'unable to protect, provide and procreate, and thereby challenge their masculine selves and roles on various levels'",["43"]]]},{},{"rt":[["governing technologies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Generally speaking, such acts are framed as a 'method' of torture in that they share a context and purpose with (non-sexual) torture but specifically target parts of the body coded as 'sexual'.",["65"]]],"rt":[["torture",[]],["sexual violence",[]]],"sp":[["torture",["66"]]]},{"de":[["it is not just bodily violence, but violence that specifically impacts upon a victim/survivors social status and identity in a context of gendered inequality.",["60"]],["a label more commonly associated with women",[]],["more closely associated with pleasure on the part of the perpetrator and, thus, within the private sphere",[]]],"rt":[["rape",[]],["sexual torture",[]],["torture",[]]]},{"de":[["an interrelated process that is often obscured in the rush to recognise, catalogue, and redress harm.",[]]]},{"de":[["They are included in the broader concept of values, characterised as important guiding principles in a person's life",[]]],"rt":[["values",[]]]},{"sp":[["double forms",[]]],"ex":[["contracted (joggeur•euses [joggers MASC•FEM ])",[]]]},{"sb":[["complete forms",[]],["contracted forms",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["epicene nouns",[]],["collective nouns",[]],["generic nouns",[]]]},{"rt":[["mental representations of gender",[]]]},{},{"de":[["gender-neutral forms lack explicit gender-markings that correspond to the referred person's gender.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Social networking platforms",[]],["microblogging websites",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook",[]],["Twitter",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["publicity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the attention-directing dimension of celebrity epistemic power",[]],["working to supplement the credibility and attention deficits that have wrongly kept this issue off the agenda for so long",[]],["poses a variety of challenges to a democracy's ability to realize its normative ideals. This power threatens provision of equal opportunities to influence political outcomes in both procedural and substantive respects.",[]],["The source of celebrity epistemic power is of particular concern given its potential to come apart from relevant expertise and hence derail productive and epistemically fruitful deliberative practice, including the knowledge-production capacities of democracy.",[]],["celebrities possess a particularly effective combination of perceived extraexpertise credibility and attention that could increase their epistemic effects relative to others",[]]],"ex":[["celebrity epistemic power has influenced the public agenda in a way that, at least on one level, weakens the legitimacy of existing democracy",[]]]},{"rt":[["perceived credibility",[]]]},{},{"de":[["deliberative democracy pairs equal formal influence with deliberative ideals that are intended to protect equal opportunity to participate in and influence political outcomes.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["First, is the ability to influence what others believe, think, or know.",[]],["The second is the ability to enable and disable others from exerting epistemic influence.",[]],["There are different sources of epistemic power, some of which are entirely legitimate: an articulate person who possesses detailed knowledge of a particular subject may be able to influence what people believe simply by providing clear explanations to others.",[]],["Institutional positions may also bring epistemic power.",[]],["Being the focus of attention is a source of significant epistemic power for celebrities.",[]],["attention can increase one's epistemic power without one's perceived credibility increasing.",[]],["The ability to shape the political agenda is therefore also a source of epistemic power for those to whom attention is paid.",[]],["It enables them to influence the topics people think about and, as a result, what people come to believe and know.",[]],["inequalities in epistemic power seem likely to threaten the (substantive) requirement that participants have equal opportunities to influence others.",[]]],"rt":[["perceived credibility",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["plebiscitary democracy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["which attributed decreasing political trust and rising disaffection to citizens' higher democratic expectations",["Norris, 1999"]],["suggested that pressure and protest can help bring about changes that reflect those higher aspirations",[]]]},{"de":[["distrust is relational and that it characterizes a negative orientation, making it distinct from a neutral or uncertain stance (lack of trust).",[]],["distrust is associated with intense psychological states of anger, anxiety, and even despair, which further influence subsequent action.",[]],["distrust is not self-disconfirming",[]]],"rt":[["political distrust",[]],["trust",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hardin has admitted that trust and distrust are 'functionally very different in their implications for your actions or for social organization' (2002a: 95)",["2002a: 95"]]],"rt":[["semantic asymmetry",[]]]},{"de":[["political distrust reflects the belief that the interests pursued by the political system, the government and its agents, are incongruent with your interests, and hence their actions will prove harmful.",[]]],"rt":[["proximity and congruence",[]]],"sp":[["political distrust",[]]],"ex":[["distrust of a government that is run by political parties a citizen opposes",[]],["distrust in a political system that systematically discriminates against the group a citizen belongs to",["Bertsou, 2015","Krishnamurthy, 2015"]]]},{"de":[["Equating the lack of trust with distrust is equivalent to equating 'something' with the 'absence of something else' (in this case 'harm' with the 'absence of benefit') and assumes low trust and distrust are equivalent notions.",[]]],"rt":[["distrust",[]],["trust",[]]]},{"rt":[["political distrust",[]]]},{"rt":[["distrust",[]]]},{"de":[["relations of distrust mean one will avoid being put in a position of vulnerability, and hence will not have the necessary information and experiences to dispel distrust.",[]]]},{"rt":[["political distrust",[]]],"sb":[["technical incompetence and failure",[]],["conduct that violates shared notions of right and fair",[]],["conduct that is incongruent with the citizens' best interest",[]]]},{"de":[["a conceptualization of political distrust based on evaluations of incompetence, unethical conduct and incongruent interests",[]],["an investigation into its nature, meaning, and function",[]],["The proposed conceptualization of political distrust here is as an attitude based on three underlying dimensions of technical, ethical, and interest-based evaluations, with distinct functions and implications.",[]],["its presence reflects real and/or perceived shortcomings in the set-up, functioning and produced outputs of a political system.",[]],["trust and distrust are both cyclical and selfreinforcing, distrust can create a vicious cycle (Sztompka, 1999).",[]],["Governments can hardly govern effectively when large parts of the citizenry distrust them, further contributing to poor conduct and perceptions of political untrustworthiness, which in turn result in citizens themselves limiting their reliance and vulnerability by cutting ties with political agents and processes.",[]],["point to the function of distrusting attitudes and behaviour as a corrective to democracy.",[]],["The evaluative part of distrusting attitudes is distinctly negative and entails the expectation of harmful outcomes.",[]],["distrust is relational and that it characterizes a negative orientation, making it distinct from a neutral or uncertain stance (lack of trust).",[]],["distrusting attitudes entail a third evaluative component that reflects perceptions of incongruent interests between the citizen and the political system or its agents.",[]],["distrust reflects some certainty about the relation, but it cannot serve to mitigate risk and bridge the two agents.",[]],["citizen distrust of government and political institutions",[]],["reflects citizens' perceptions of democratic failures",[]],["Expectation of harm (negative)",[]],["Retreat, protection, aggression",[]],["untrustworthy citizens",[]],["Fear, anxiety, resentment, despair",[]],["Self-disconfirming",[]],["based on perceptions of unethical practices and unjust outcomes",[]],["more prominent in divided societies and competing groups",[]],["evaluations of incompetence, unethical conduct and incongruent interests",[]],["an attitude based on three underlying dimensions of technical, ethical, and interest-based evaluations",[]],["'Perceptions of untrustworthiness' are the internal cognitive judgements that (consciously or not) give rise to this attitude.",[]],["Political distrust also has behavioural implications as it is linked to subsequent decisions and actions.",[]],["it reflects citizens' perceptions of democratic failures.",[]]],"rt":[["political trust",[]],["cynicism",[]],["alienation",[]],["disaffection",[]],["distrust",[]],["liberal distrust",[]],["trust",[]],["lack of trust",[]]],"sb":[["liberal distrust",[]],["technical incompetence and failure",[]],["conduct that violates shared notions of right and fair",[]],["conduct that is incongruent with the citizens' best interest",[]]]},{"de":[["analytical approaches, and empirical indicators that aim to capture citizen trust in government and support for the political system",[]],["Relational and evaluative",[]],["Probability calculation",[]],["Expectation of benefit (positive)",[]],["Motivating subsequent action",[]],["Risk bridging, cooperation, compliance",[]],["Security, order",[]]],"rt":[["political distrust",[]],["social capital",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["trust",[]]]},{"de":[["Trust can help to mitigate risk and bridge uncertainty, so as to allow cooperative relationships",[]]],"rt":[["distrust",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["distrust",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["cognitive reflection is a thinking disposition that includes more characteristics than originally proposed by Frederick (2005)",["2005"]],["cognitive reflection is a thinking disposition that interacts with knowledge, domain-specific heuristics and characteristics of the environment and that it may play an essential role in the adaptation of the decision maker to different environments and situations.",[]],["cognitive reflection is a thinking disposition that interacts with knowledge, preferences, heuristics and characteristics of the environment.",[]],["cognitive reflection plays an important role in the adaptation of individuals to different environments and situations.",[]],["Our results suggest that cognitive reflection is a thinking disposition that includes more characteristics than originally proposed by Frederick (2005).",[]],["Our study suggests that cognitive reflection is a thinking disposition that interacts with knowledge, preferences, heuristics and characteristics of the environment.",[]],["cognitive reflection, as measured by CRT, is related to Baron's (2008) broader concept of actively open-minded thinking.",[]]],"sy":[["reflectiveness",[]]]},{"rt":[["coherence",[]]]},{"sb":[["System 1",[]],["System 2",[]]]},{"de":[["performance above chance is explained by initiation of heuristic processing",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["explicit reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["Engaging in System 2 (analytic) processing supports the accurate rejection of misleading content and helps individuals discern between what is true and false.",[]],["indicates that people who engage in more (and/or better) reasoning are more likely to accurately reject false partisan content and, therefore, are not more likely to engage in politically motivated System 2 reasoning",[]]],"rt":[["motivated System 2 reasoning",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["Misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["Misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["fake news",[]],["hyperpartisan news",[]],["false news",[]]]},{"de":[["MS2R argues that explicit reasoning typically facilitates politically biased information processing",["Kahan, 2017"]]],"sy":[["MS2R",[]]],"rt":[["motivated reasoning",[]]],"sp":[["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"sp":[["discourses of delay",[]],["climate delay",[]]]},{"de":[["change is impossible suggests surrendering or adapting to climate change. It can also support nontransformative discourses, drawing the solution focus away from stringent policies towards technology and market-based measures with minimal interventions, even if these are ultimately insufficient to address the scale of the problem.",[]],["Rather than searching for a way through these difficulties, change is impossible suggests surrendering or adapting to climate change.",[]]],"sp":[["surrender",[]]],"ex":[["To stop emitting waste carbon completely within the next five or 10 years, we would need to radically reorient almost all human economic and social production, a task that's scarcely imaginable, much less feasible",["New York Times opinion article"]]]},{"de":[["These discourses accept the existence of climate change, but justify inaction or inadequate efforts.",[]],["they often lead to deadlock or a sense that there are intractable obstacles to taking action.",[]],["discourses of delay will disorientate and discourage ambitious climate action.",["Farrell et al., 2019","van der Linden et al., 2017"]],["they often lead to deadlock or a sense that there are intractable obstacles to taking action",[]]],"sy":[["discourses of delay",[]],["delay discourses",[]]],"rt":[["climate denialism",[]],["climate-impact scepticism",[]],["ad hominem attacks",[]]],"sb":[["redirect responsibility",[]],["push non-transformative solutions",[]],["emphasize the downsides",[]],["surrender",[]],["whataboutism",[]],["individualism",[]],["technological optimism",[]],["fossil fuel solutionism",[]],["all talk, little action",[]],["no sticks, just carrots",[]]]},{"de":[["they often lead to deadlock or a sense that there are intractable obstacles to taking action.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The discourses we identify here can be compelling. They build on legitimate concerns and fears as societies move closer to addressing climate change.",[]]],"rt":[["climate denial",[]],["ad hominem frames",[]]],"sb":[["policy perfectionism",[]],["surrender",[]]]},{"de":[["This discourse implies that mitigation is futile and suggests that the only possible response is adaptation or in religious versions, by trusting our fate to \"God's hands\".",[]]],"sp":[["surrender",[]]],"ex":[["The climate apocalypse is coming. To prepare for it, we need to admit that we can't prevent it",["New Yorker opinion article"]]]},{"de":[["This discourse is at the heart of industry pushback against regulation.",[]]],"sp":[["climate delay",[]]]},{"de":[["This discourse narrows the solution space to personal consumption choices, obscuring the role of powerful actors and organizations in shaping those choices and driving fossil fuel emissions (Maniates, 2001).",["Maniates, 2001"]]],"sp":[["climate delay",[]]]},{"de":[["More obviously restrictive measures ('sticks') such as taxes or a frequent-flyer levy are deemed too 'paternalistic' and overburdening for citizens.",[]]],"sp":[["discourses of delay",[]],["climate delay",[]]]},{"de":[["it becomes a delay strategy when the advocate forgoes the need for outreach work and a public deliberation strategy that could reach consensus on just policies and build support towards more ambitious solutions.",[]],["Again, this might be a sensible claim, but it becomes a delay strategy when the advocate forgoes the need for outreach work and a public deliberation strategy that could reach consensus on just policies and build support towards more ambitious solutions.",[]]],"sp":[["discourses of delay",[]]]},{"de":[["the surrender category does not favour the difficult work of building climate engagement and deliberating over effective solutions.",[]]],"sb":[["change is impossible",[]],["Doomism",[]]],"sp":[["discourses of delay",[]]]},{"de":[["while simultaneously obscuring the highly unequal distribution of climate responsibility worldwide.",[]]],"sp":[["climate delay",[]]]},{"de":[["Consonance often takes the form of favorable verbal statements, but includes in principle any public action that signals support, endorsement, or encouragement of the actor, his actions, or his aims",[]],["Consonance often takes the form of favorable verbal statements, but includes in principle any public action that signals support, endorsement, or encouragement of the actor, his actions, or his aims, e.g., court rulings in favor of an actor, or executive action meeting the actor's demands.",[]]],"rt":[["supportive resonance",[]]],"sp":[["resonance",[]]],"ex":[["court rulings in favor of an actor, or executive action meeting the actor's demands",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["visibility",[]],["resonance",[]],["legitimacy",[]]],"sp":[["selection mechanisms",[]]]},{"de":[["Even negative resonance, or dissonance, may be helpful to the diffusion of the original message.",[]],["ranging from unfavorable verbal statements to various forms of repression, as well as countermobilization by political opponents.",[]]],"sy":[["negative resonance",[]]],"sp":[["resonance",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["speakers of communicative messages",[]]]},{"de":[["Ideally, the speaker would like high resonance and high legitimacy, but will usually have to settle for less because normally high resonance is only achieved at the cost of an increase in controversiality and thereby a net decrease in legitimacy.",[]],["Highly legitimate messages may have no resonance at all because they are uncontroversial, while highly illegitimate messages may resonate strongly (e.g., anti-Semitic violence in Germany).",[]],["normally high resonance is only achieved at the cost of an increase in controversiality and thereby a net decrease in legitimacy.",[]],["the degree to which such reactions are supportive",[]]],"rt":[["resonance",[]],["visibility",[]]],"sp":[["discursive opportunities",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["communicative space",[]]]},{"de":[["Some of an actor's public actions will attract more attention and will attain greater legitimacy than others, which will result in a repertoire shift towards the more successful tactics, aims, or frames.",[]]]},{"de":[["Resonance is important for at least two reasons. First, messages that resonate travel farther. Through the reactions of other actors, the message of the original speaker is at least partially reproduced and may reach new audiences.",[]],["The second reason why resonance is important is that it increases the actor's chances to herself reproducing her message in the public sphere. Messages that resonate, be it negatively or positively, become in the eyes of journalists and editors more relevant and the actors behind them more prominent, thus increasing the speaker's chances to achieve a high level of visibility for similar messages in the future.",[]],["the extent to which others -allies, opponents, authorities, etc.-react to a message",[]]],"rt":[["consonance",[]],["dissonance",[]]],"sb":[["consonance",[]],["dissonance",[]]],"sp":[["discursive opportunities",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Visibility is a necessary condition for a message to influence the public discourse, and, other things being equal, the amount of visibility that gatekeepers allocate to a message increases its potential to diffuse further in the public sphere.",["16"]],["the extent to which a message is covered by the mass media",[]],["It ranges from \"invisible\" messages that are not included in any channel at all, via messages with limited visibility, which are, for example, only covered by local media, to \"obtrusive\" messages that are displayed prominently by most channels.",[]]],"sp":[["discursive opportunities",[]]],"ex":[["\"invisible\" messages that are not included in any channel at all",[]],["messages with limited visibility, which are, for example, only covered by local media",[]],["\"obtrusive\" messages that are displayed prominently by most channels",[]]]},{"de":[["conceptualization of state and action orientation in terms of individual differences in the ability to volitionally control negative affect when task conditions require such a control",[]]],"rt":[["state orientation",[]]],"sp":[["Action Control",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["high-level intuition",[]],["tacit knowledge",[]]],"ex":[["When we cannot explain how we perform a certain task or how we arrived at a particular solution we refer to an intuitive feeling (I don't know how I did it, I just feel it is right this way)",["p. 132"]]]},{"de":[["Operationally, we define intuition in terms of the perception of coherence.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the disposition to react more sensitive to minor stresses (i.e., Neuroticism) was found to be a more powerful predictor of high psychological distress than environmental factors (Ormel & Wohlfarth, 1991).",["1991"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["conceptualization of state and action orientation in terms of individual differences in the ability to volitionally control negative affect when task conditions require such a control",[]]],"rt":[["action orientation",[]]],"sp":[["Action Control",[]]]},{"de":[["The Cartesian model gives no basis for repetition to influence apparent truth.",[]],["New information is registered relatively passively and is held in an unanalyzed form until detailed analysis can sort out fact from fiction.",[]]],"rt":[["Spinozan model",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["increased familiarity is an automatic consequence of exposure, and its influence on rated truth is unintentional",[]],["Familiarity increases automatically with repetition, and its influence on rated truth is unintentional",[]],["Subjects do not spontaneously monitor the source of a statement's familiarity or use that information when rating truth",[]],["the unintentional influence of familiarity is an automatic consequence of prior exposure",[]],["increased familiarity is an automatic consequence of exposure, and its influence on rated truth is unintentional.",[]],["In contrast, familiarity is an illogical basis for rating truth, because statements originally paired with a false source should feel more familiar than new statements.",[]],["In contrast, increased familiarity is an automatic consequence of exposure, and its influence on rated truth is unintentional.",[]]],"rt":[["recollection",[]],["statement familiarity",[]]]},{"de":[["memory predictions are accurate if the factors that cause easy processing are relevant for the memory test but are inaccurate when easy processing is because of irrelevant factors that people fail to discount",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Repetition is an illogical basis for truth",[]],["Although repetition does not provide evidence for truth, repetition does increase familiarity",[]],["the illusory truth of repeated statements is based on familiarity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the intentional influence of recollection of sources requires intentional and strategic control.",[]],["Recollection of source is a controlled use of memory, and its influence on rated truth is intentional.",[]]],"rt":[["familiarity",[]],["source recollection",[]]],"sp":[["memory",[]]]},{"rt":[["discounting-cue hypothesis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A statement will be accepted as true if it corroborates remembered facts that are associated with a known, credible source, and it will be rejected as false if the facts are associated with a discredited source.",[]],["recollection of sources requires intentional and strategic control",[]]],"sy":[["recollection",[]]]},{"rt":[["Cartesian model",[]]]},{"de":[["unintentional influence of familiarity is an automatic consequence of prior exposure",[]]]},{"rt":[["source monitoring",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the tendency for subjects to claim that they both saw and read about the misleading suggestions was not attributable to the fact that they were unsure of the suggested item's source.",[]],["subjects can commit substantial source misattribution errors even under conditions of immediate testing when memory for the actual source of the suggestions is good.",[]],["the tendency to commit source misattributions will depend heavily on the reflective and elaborative thought processes subjects engage in when encoding the suggestions, not just the content of the suggestions themselves.",[]],["the measure of interest will be the difference between source misattributions committed to suggested and control (i.e., new) items, a measure we refer to as the source misattribution effect.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["items that are less well remembered are more likely to be misattributed",[]],["we restrict the use of the term to this particular case.",[]]],"sy":[["source misattributions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["From this view, memory for source is a judgment process that is heavily dependent on the amount and nature of source-relevant information that is accessible at the time the judgment is made and on the decision processes and criteria that are brought to bear on the judgment.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["shame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the concept of defensive coping is more parsimonious than the repressive coping concept",[]],["a tendency to avoid negative emotions in interpersonal conflicts and to emphasize logical reasoning as coping strategy in conflicts as well as in life in general",[]]],"rt":[["repressive coping",[]]]},{"sp":[["anxiety",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["the tendency of like to attract like",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["constructive patriotism",[]]]},{"de":[["aiming to explain how feelings about an ingroup shape a tendency to aggress against out-groups.",[]],["Collective narcissism is related to high private and low public collective self esteem and low implicit group esteem.",[]],["It predicts perceived threat from out-groups, unwillingness to forgive outgroups and preference for military aggression over and above social dominance orientation, right wing authoritarianism, and blind patriotism.",[]],["collective narcissism is a form of high but ambivalent group esteem related to sensitivity to threats to the in-group's image and retaliatory aggression.",[]],["collective narcissism is likely to be more concerned with securing the in-group's positive image.",[]],["perceived exceptionality, superiority and authority over others",[]],["a special contribution or significance of the self",[]],["self-absorption",[]],["the need to be the center of attention",[]],["special deservingness and entitlement",[]],["sensitivity to criticism and lack of recognition",[]],["related to variables that indicate identification with a national group, high and uncritical positive attachment to a national group (blind patriotism), belief in its greatness and superiority (social dominance orientation, especially group based dominance component) and attachment to its authorities (right wing authoritarianism)",[]],["different from personal self-esteem",[]],["separate, although positively related variables",[]],["predicts aggressiveness and support for violence in intergroup relations, a tendency to perceive threat from out-group aggression and unwillingness to forgive out-groups for wrongs done to an in-group in the past",[]],["collective narcissism is different from personal self-esteem",[]],["collective and individual narcissism are separate, although positively related variables",[]],["collective narcissism should integrate high regard for the in-group with a belief that others do not sufficiently acknowledge it.",[]],["collective narcissists hold a positive image of their group, they tend to think that their national in-group is an important part of their identity and that they are good members of their group.",[]],["collective narcissism is highest among people who hold their in-group in positive regard but at the same time believe that other people do not share their positive view of the in-group.",[]],["for the collective narcissist, the assumed greatness of the in-group is never stable, and is always threatened and endangered. No objective achievements can reduce preoccupations with possible criticisms, disrespect or doubts.",[]],["for the collective narcissist, the assumed greatness of the in-group is never stable, and is always threatened and endangered.",[]],["No objective achievements can reduce preoccupations with possible criticisms, disrespect or doubts.",[]],["Thus, ambiguous actions of out-groups are likely to be interpreted as threatening the image of an in-group, which is likely to be related to aggressive reactions.",[]],["This concept is proposed in order to help explain the capacity of positive group esteem to inspire out-group enmity.",[]],["collective narcissism is a form of group esteem that is reliably associated with intergroup bias and aggressiveness.",[]],["collective narcissists invest in the grandiose image of the in-group, they demand its constant validation in intergroup situations and are likely to react aggressively to perceived lack of acknowledgement, criticism or insult.",[]],["Collective narcissism is related to inter-group aggressiveness because it increases sensitivity to signs of criticism or unfair treatment in an intergroup context.",[]],["collective narcissism may be seen as an explicit, positive regard of the in-group that is accompanied by unacknowledged doubts about the ingroup's positive evaluation.",[]],["collective narcissism is highest among people who hold their in-group in high regard but believe that others do not recognize its value properly.",[]],["It can be expected that people may narcissistically identify with all social groups with which they share common history.",[]],["We suggest that collective narcissism is likely to develop and flourish in social contexts that emphasize the group's greatness and uniqueness and induce downwards social comparisons.",[]],["aiming to explain how feelings about an ingroup shape a tendency to aggress against out-groups",[]],["collective narcissism is a form of high but ambivalent group esteem related to sensitivity to threats to the in-group's image and retaliatory aggression",[]],["They show that collective narcissism is not associated with personal self-esteem but it is related to variables that indicate identification with a national group, high and uncritical positive attachment to a national group (blind patriotism), belief in its greatness and superiority (social dominance orientation, especially group based dominance component) and attachment to its authorities (right wing authoritarianism).",[]],["Since the need for social admiration is never fulfilled, collective narcissism should integrate high regard for the in-group with a belief that others do not sufficiently acknowledge it",[]],["collective narcissism is a form of high but unstable collective self-esteem that needs constant, external validation, but accepts no validation as sufficient.",[]],["a general tendency to form narcissistic attachment to social groups people belong to",[]],["a form of high but ambivalent group esteem related to sensitivity to threats to the in-group's image and retaliatory aggression.",[]],["Collective narcissists are emotionally invested in a grandiose image of their in-group and are on constant guard for perceived criticism or disrespect towards an in-group.",[]],["collective narcissism is highest among people who express positive beliefs about their in-group and, at the same time, reveal rather negative (or at least lack of positive) implicit evaluation of the in-group's symbols as compared with symbols of other groups, which, we claim, indicates low implicit group-esteem.",[]]],"rt":[["personal self-esteem",[]],["individual narcissism",[]],["group esteem",[]],["intergroup bias",[]],["intergroup aggressiveness",[]],["prejudice",[]],["collective self-esteem",[]],["identification with a national group",[]],["blind patriotism",[]],["social dominance orientation",[]],["right wing authoritarianism",[]],["perceived threat from out-groups",[]],["narcissistic identification",[]],["narcissistic attachment",[]]],"sb":[["specific collective narcissism",[]]],"sp":[["individual narcissism",[]],["collective self-esteem",[]]],"ex":[["predicts ethnic animosity between Blacks and Whites in Great Britain and anti-Semitism in Poland.",[]],["national group, ethnic group, religious group or political party",[]]]},{"rt":[["blind patriotism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["individual narcissism is positively, although moderately, related to ethnocentrism",[]],["grandiose self image and seeking external admiration are among its defining features.",[]],["a grandiose self image and seeking external admiration are among its defining features",[]],["narcissists put the goal of self-worth above other goals and are caught up in the question of whether they are worthless or wonderful",["Crocker & Park, 2004","p. 404"]]],"rt":[["defensive personal self-esteem",[]],["interpersonal aggressiveness",[]],["collective narcissism",[]]]},{"de":[["a tendency to get angry and physically or/and verbally aggress against other people in interpersonal relations",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["national group",[]],["ethnic group",[]],["religious group",[]],["political party",[]]]},{"de":[["However, recent studies suggest that psychological entitlement -a pervasive sense that one deserves more than others (Campbell et al., 2004) -may be the aspect of individual narcissism that is responsible for most of its destructive social effects and its relationship with interpersonal aggressiveness (Campbell et al., 2004).",["Campbell et al., 2004"]],["Psychological entitlement was demonstrated to relate to unconstructive interpersonal behavior such as competitive choices in commons dilemma, selfishness in romantic relationships, and interpersonal aggression following ego threat (Campbell, et al., 2004).",["Campbell, et al., 2004"]],["psychological entitlement, an aspect of individual narcissism associated with interpersonal aggressiveness",[]],["may be the aspect of individual narcissism that is responsible for most of its destructive social effects and its relationship with interpersonal aggressiveness",["Campbell et al., 2004"]]],"rt":[["interpersonal aggressiveness",[]]],"sp":[["individual narcissism",[]]]},{"de":[["Authoritarians are concerned with the security of the social group and the stability of the social order.",[]],["people high on right wing authoritarianism may perceive a positive relationship with their immediate and powerful neighbor as worth preserving since the latter guarantees in-group security.",[]]]},{"de":[["a desire for hierarchical social order and unequal relations among social groups",[]],["especially group based dominance component",[]],["People high on social dominance orientation are preoccupied with securing the group's position and maintaining a hierarchical social order.",[]]],"sb":[["support for group-based dominance",[]],["generalized opposition to equality regardless of the in-group's position in the power structure",[]],["group based dominance",[]],["opposition to equality",[]]]},{"de":[["specific collective narcissism is more likely with reference to groups experiencing fraternal relative deprivation and feeling powerful enough to acknowledge it and act against it.",[]],["more likely with reference to groups experiencing fraternal relative deprivation and feeling powerful enough to acknowledge it and act against it.",[]]],"ex":[["the national group in nations struggling for sovereignty",[]],["the religious group among members of prosecuted religions",[]],["the gender group in a society emphasizing divisions and hierarchical relations between genders",[]],["the ethnic group among members of stigmatized ethnic groups",[]]],"sp":[["collective narcissism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["disorganized attachment can create epistemic hypervigilance, the mistrust of both the attachment figure and strangers as a source of information.",[]]],"sy":[["chronic epistemic vigilance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an individual's willingness to consider new knowledge from another person as trustworthy, generalizable, and relevant to the self",[]],["The improved sense of epistemic trust derived from mentalizing enables learning from social experience",[]]],"rt":[["mentalizing",[]],["epistemic mistrust",[]]]},{"de":[["anxious attachment creates epistemic uncertainty through overreliance on the views of the attachment figure",[]]]},{"de":[["It involves a complex and demanding spectrum of capacities that are susceptible to different strengths, weakness and failings",[]],["a developmental process that relies on good enough attachment relationships and early attachments in particular, as they reflect the extent to which our subjective experiences were adequately mirrored by a trusted other: i.e., the extent to which attachment figures have been able to respond with contingent and marked affective displays of their own experience in response to the infant's subjective experience, thus enabling the child to develop second-order representations of its own subjective experiences",["Fonagy, 1998"]],["mentalizing may be a generic way of increasing epistemic trust and therefore achieving change in mental function.",[]],["a defining human social and psychological achievement",[]]],"rt":[["epistemic trust",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["assessments of bullying do not always emphasize these components (see Hamburger, Basile, & Vivolo, 2011, Compendium of Assessment Tools), making distinctions between bullying and other forms of aggression less clear (see Rodkin, Espelage, & Hanish, 2015).",["Hamburger, Basile, & Vivolo, 2011","Rodkin, Espelage, & Hanish, 2015"]],["the reality of assessing a complex, underground behavior involving multiple participants and influenced by multiple factors is that there may be no single \"gold standard\" for accuracy.",[]]],"rt":[["victimization",[]]],"sb":[["physical bullying",[]],["verbal bullying",[]],["relational or social bullying",[]],["cyberbullying",[]]],"sp":[["interpersonal aggression",[]]]},{"sp":[["bullying",[]]]},{"sp":[["bullying",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["bullying",[]]]},{"sp":[["nudges",[]]]},{"sb":[["game or quiz",[]]],"sp":[["psychological inoculation",[]],["inoculation",[]]]},{"de":[["Active inoculation interventions often come in the form of a game or quiz",["Cook et al., 2023","Roozenbeek & van der Linden, 2019"]]],"sp":[["inoculation interventions",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["it also involves addressing why the misinformation is incorrect and/or providing accurate information",["Ecker et al., 2022"]],["This intervention is deployed after people have been exposed to misinformation and believe it or are unsure of its veracity.",[]],["Corrections should feature prominently with the misinformation so that accurate information is properly processed and later retrieved.",[]],["Because the effectiveness of debunking fades over time, it should be repeated through trusted channels and evidence-based methods.",[]]],"sy":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{"sp":[["Social-norm nudges",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Social-norm nudges",[]]]},{"sb":[["active inoculation interventions",[]],["Passive inoculation interventions",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["psychological inoculation",[]],["inoculation interventions",[]]]},{"rt":[["social media",[]]]},{"rt":[["health literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["nudges",[]]],"ex":[["paying them to correctly identify true and fake news; Rathje et al., 2023",["Rathje et al., 2023"]],["paying them to correctly identify true and fake news",["Rathje et al., 2023"]]]},{},{"rt":[["Accuracy prompts",[]],["Social-norm nudges",[]],["Motivational nudges",[]]],"sb":[["Accuracy prompts",[]],["Social-norm nudges",[]],["Motivational nudges",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["text based",[]],["video based",[]]],"sp":[["psychological inoculation",[]],["inoculation",[]]]},{"de":[["Psychological inoculation interventions can help people identify individual examples of misinformation or the overarching techniques commonly used in misinformation campaigns.",[]],["Prebunking can be scaled to reach millions on social media with short videos or messages, or it can be administered in the form of interactive tools involving games or quizzes.",[]],["However, the effects of prebunking fade over time; regular \"boosters\" may be necessary to maintain resilience to misinformation, along with media and digital literacy training.",[]]],"sb":[["Issue-based interventions",[]],["technique-based interventions",[]]]},{"de":[["The method most commonly used to prebunk misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["inoculation theory",["Compton et al., 2021","W. McGuire, 1964","W. J. McGuire & Papageorgis, 1961","van der Linden, 2023"]]],"sb":[["Issue-based interventions",[]],["technique-based interventions",[]],["Passive inoculation",[]],["active inoculation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["injunctive norms",[]],["descriptive norms",[]]],"sb":[["injunctive norms",[]],["descriptive norms",[]]],"sp":[["nudges",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["psychological inoculation",[]],["inoculation interventions",[]]],"ex":[["logical fallacies, emotional manipulation, conspiratorial reasoning",["Compton et al., 2021","Traberg et al., 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["Curiosity, exploration, desire for the facts, desire to know may certainly be observed easily enough.",[]],["Even after we know, we are impelled to know more and more minutely and microscopically on the one hand, and on the other, more and more extensively in the direction of a world philosophy, religion, etc.",[]]]},{"de":[["This process has been phrased by some as the search for 'meaning.' We shall then postulate a desire to understand, to systematize, to organize, to analyze, to look for relations and meanings.",[]]]},{"rt":[["coping behavior",[]]],"ex":[["A stupid man behaves stupidly, not because he wants to, or tries to, or is motivated to, but simply because he is what he is.",[]],["speak in a bass voice rather than tenor or soprano",[]],["The random movements of a healthy child, the smile on the face of a happy man even when he is alone, the springiness of the healthy man's walk, and the erectness of his carriage",[]]]},{},{"de":[["All people in our society (with a few pathological exceptions) have a need or desire for a stable, firmly based, (usually) high evaluation of themselves, for selfrespect, or self-esteem, and for the esteem of others.",[]]],"sy":[["selfrespect",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Bourdieu identifies that a field is a social arena within which one struggles for social position (Jenkins, 1992).",["Jenkins, 1992"]]]},{"de":[["men were exposed to a gender specific habitus, and through comparison and reinforcement, in a range of fields, these norms formed the men's unconscious schemata.",[]]],"rt":[["unconscious schemata",[]]]},{"de":[["That is, hegemonic masculinity represents a culturally idealised type of masculinity that is aspirational, but is unachievable for most men.",[]],["Hegemonic masculinity is a multidimensional, ever evolving concept (Hargreaves, 1993) that manifests itself through the domination of one particular set of values over others and functions to subordinate other (alternative) masculinities.",["Hargreaves, 1993"]]],"rt":[["masculinities",[]]]},{"de":[["Festinger (1954) argued, as part of the identity formation process, that individuals compare themselves to others to process social information and establish their social self.",["1954"]]]},{},{"de":[["This imposition is often 'subtle and disguised but…effective in its impact and seen as legitimate'",[]],["acts of symbolic violence such as degrading comments and evaluations from peers and educators about how their bodies were inadequate",[]],["This imposition is often 'subtle and disguised but…effective in its impact and seen as legitimate' (See Morgan & Björkert, 2006, p.444).",["2006","Morgan & Björkert, 2006"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["SDO-D constitutes support for the active, even violent, maintenance of oppressive hierarchies in which high status groups dominate and control the prerogatives of low status groups.",[]],["SDO-D better predicted support for aggressive behaviors directed toward subordinate groups (e.g., immigrant persecution), endorsement of beliefs that would justify oppression (e.g., \"old-fashioned\" racism), and a strong focus on group competition and threat.",[]],["SDO-D is more strongly correlated than SDO-E with blatant forms of dehumanization, involving the overt and conscious denial of outgroup humanity, whereas the two subdimensions are equally correlated with more subtle forms of dehumanization (e.g., infrahumanization; Leyens et al., 2000).",["Leyens et al., 2000"]]],"sp":[["Social Dominance Orientation",[]]],"ex":[["support for aggressive behaviors directed toward subordinate groups (e.g., immigrant persecution)",[]],["endorsement of beliefs that would justify oppression (e.g., \"old-fashioned\" racism)",[]],["desire for muscularity among men",[]],["torture",[]],["hierarchy-enhancing beliefs about citizenship and assimilation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["ideological constraint",["(Campbell, Converse, Miller, & Stoke, 1960)"]]]},{"rt":[["ideological asymmetry",[]]]},{"sp":[["Social dominance orientation (SDO)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["scores on any one moral foundation are computed as an average of one's agreement with the moral values in that domain, and a high rating of the moral relevance of transgressions falling within it",["Graham et al., 2009"]]],"sb":[["Harm/care",[]],["Fairness/reciprocity",[]],["Ingroup/loyalty",[]],["Authority/respect",[]],["Purity/sanctity",[]]]},{"sb":[["Harm/care",[]],["Fairness/reciprocity",[]],["Ingroup/loyalty",[]],["Authority/respect",[]],["Purity/sanctity",[]],["harm and fairness dimensions",[]]]},{"rt":[["SDO-D",[]]]},{"de":[["SDO-D would be a stronger predictor (than SDO-E) of intergroup attitudes and behaviors contributing to the overt domination and subjugation of low status groups, such as support for aggression against subordinate groups (e.g., immigrant persecution), support for beliefs legitimizing group dominance and oppression (e.g., old fashioned racism), and heightened attention to group competition (e.g., beliefs about the zero-sum nature of intergroup conflict",[]],["the SDO-D dimension, that reflects active and aggressive subordination of groups",[]],["SDO-D and SDO-E uniquely predict different types of intergroup beliefs.",[]],["SDO-D's relationship with (relatively low) honesty and Machiavellianism would support this latter possibility.",[]],["constituting support for one's in-group irrespective of one's group position.",["Jost and Thompson (2000)"]],["individuals high on SDO-D prefer dominance hierarchies where high power groups oppress and subjugate low power groups, and are willing to achieve this form of inequality by use of very aggressive measures",[]]],"sy":[["group justification",[]],["SDO-Dominance",[]],["support for intergroup dominance",[]]],"rt":[["SDO-E",[]]],"sp":[["social dominance orientation",[]],["SDO",[]]]},{"de":[["The dominance dimension is characterized by support for overt oppression and aggressive intergroup behaviors designed to maintain the subordination of one or more groups",[]],["SDO-D constitutes support for the active, even violent, maintenance of oppressive hierarchies in which high status groups dominate and control the prerogatives of low status groups.",[]]],"sy":[["support for intergroup dominance",[]],["dominance dimension",[]]],"sp":[["Social dominance orientation (SDO)",[]]]},{"de":[["SDO-E was hypothesized to be more related to beliefs that would justify inequality without necessarily entailing the forceful domination of some groups over others: for example, political conservatism in the U.S., opposition to an equal distribution of resources, and opposition to government policies (e.g., social welfare) that promote greater equality",[]],["the SDO-E dimension, that reflects a more subtle opposition to equality",[]],["SDO-E represents more than system justification, status quo bias, or norm conformity alone",[]],["SDO-D and SDO-E uniquely predict different types of intergroup beliefs.",[]],["beliefs that would justify inequality without necessarily entailing the forceful domination of some groups over others",[]],["support for the unequal distribution of resources, opposition to policies that would bring about equality, and relatively subtle prejudice",[]],["individuals high on SDO-E prefer hierarchies where resources are inequitably distributed, and which can be defended by antiegalitarian ideologies",[]]],"sy":[["SDO-Egalitarianism",[]],["intergroup anti-egalitarianism",[]]],"rt":[["SDO-D",[]]],"sp":[["social dominance orientation",[]],["SDO",[]]],"ex":[["political conservatism in the U.S.",[]],["opposition to an equal distribution of resources",[]],["opposition to government policies (e.g., social welfare) that promote greater equality",[]]]},{"de":[["the anti-egalitarianism dimension entails a preference for intergroup inequalities that are maintained by an interrelated network of subtle hierarchy-enhancing ideologies and social policies.",[]],["SDO-E better predicted political conservatism in the United States, support for ideologies that would subtly justify inequality (e.g., the Protestant Work Ethic), and opposition to policies that would bring about more intergroup equality (e.g., affirmative action); in short, it manifested itself in an affinity for ideologies and policies that maintain inequality, especially those that have ostensibly different purposes (such as economic efficiency and meritocracy).",[]],["SDO-E is thus more subtle in nature and represents support for differential intergroup access to power and resources that need not involve outright domination and oppression.",[]],["the two subdimensions are equally correlated with more subtle forms of dehumanization (e.g., infrahumanization; Leyens et al., 2000).",["Leyens et al., 2000"]],["SDO-E is related to negative affect toward migrants (Martinovic & Verkuyten, 2013), hierarchy-attenuating beliefs about citizenship and multiculturalism (Hindriks et al, 2014), and the belief that less democratic forms of government are fair (Ellenbroek, Verkuyten, Thijs, & Poppe, 2014).",["Martinovic & Verkuyten, 2013","Hindriks et al, 2014","Ellenbroek, Verkuyten, Thijs, & Poppe, 2014"]],["the anti-egalitarianism dimension entails a preference for intergroup inequalities that are maintained by an interrelated network of subtle hierarchy-enhancing ideologies and social policies",[]]],"sy":[["intergroup anti-egalitarianism",[]],["anti-egalitarianism dimension",[]]],"sp":[["Social dominance orientation (SDO)",[]],["Social Dominance Orientation",[]]],"ex":[["political conservatism in the United States",[]],["support for ideologies that would subtly justify inequality (e.g., the Protestant Work Ethic)",[]],["opposition to policies that would bring about more intergroup equality (e.g., affirmative action)",[]],["negative affect toward migrants",[]],["hierarchy-attenuating beliefs about citizenship and multiculturalism",[]],["the belief that less democratic forms of government are fair",[]]]},{"de":[["individual differences in the preference for group based hierarchy and inequality",[]],["potent predictor of generalized prejudice against, and persecution of, a wide array of denigrated groups, such as poor people, ethnic minorities, foreigners, gay people, women, immigrants, and refugees",[]],["SDO can even yield accurate predictions about individuals' life choices-for instance, the kinds of jobs they seek and obtain (i.e., whether such jobs promote intergroup hierarchy or equality), the kinds of subjects they choose to study in college, and how well they perform in these areas (for a review, see Haley & Sidanius, 2005).",[]],["an orientation toward group based dominance and inequality, irrespective of the position of one's ingroup in that hierarchy",[]],["treating social dominance orientation as a two-dimensional construct",[]],["individual differences in orientation toward intergroup hierarchy",[]],["social dominance orientation-individual differences in the preference for group based hierarchy and inequality",[]],["providing insight into what drives the myriad forces that contribute to intergroup conflict and inequality",[]]],"rt":[["support for intergroup dominance",[]],["intergroup anti-egalitarianism",[]]],"sb":[["SDO-Dominance (SDO-D)",[]],["SDO-Egalitarianism (SDO-E)",[]],["the dominance subdimension (SDO-D)",[]],["SDO-D",[]],["SDO-E",[]],["dominance",[]],["anti-egalitarianism",[]]],"sy":[["SDO",[]]]},{"rt":[["Social dominance orientation (SDO)",[]],["social dominance orientation",[]]]},{"rt":[["inoculation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["broad-spectrum inoculations that focus on conferring resistance against a range of common techniques used in the production of misinformation",["Basol et al., 2020","Cook et al., 2017","Roozenbeek, van der Linden, et al., 2020","Roozenbeek & van der Linden, 2018","van der Linden & Roozenbeek, 2020"]]],"rt":[["inoculation",[]]],"sp":[["inoculation theory",[]]]},{"de":[["The term 'decay' is often used in inoculation research in general terms without making claims about whether the decay is due to the mere passage of time, or related to memory function.",[]]]},{"de":[["The inoculation procedure includes two components: forewarning and refutational preemption, which influence both cognitive and affective processes.",[]]],"rt":[["forewarning",[]],["refutational preemption",[]],["inoculation theory",[]],["active inoculation",[]]],"sb":[["active inoculation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["inoculating",[]]],"rt":[["debunking",[]],["Inoculation Theory",[]]]},{"rt":[["inoculation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["norm-perception mechanism",[]]]},{"de":[["Because of compassion collapse, people will donate more money to help a single victim than a group of victims (Kogut & Ritov, 2005;Västfall et al., 2014), and will punish perpetrators less severely when the crime harms more people (Nordgren & McDonnell, 2011).",[]]]},{"sy":[["affective habituation",["Dijksterhuis & Smith, 2002"]],["affective adaptation",["Wilson & Gilbert, 2008"]],["hedonic adaptation",["Frederick & Loewenstein, 1999"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["anger, a specific emotional component of moral outrage",["Batson et al., 2007","Salerno & Peter-Hagene, 2013"]]],"sp":[["negative affect",[]]]},{"de":[["business transgressions seem less unethical when repeatedly encountered",[]],["repeated exposure reduced moral condemnation",[]],["Repetition not only made violations of these foundations seem less unethical, but also made them seem less deserving of punishment.",[]],["people rated their affective reactions to the transgressions as less intense when they had seen them before compared to when they had not, and the weaker their affective reactions, the less they condemned the transgressions",[]],["prior exposure to a transgression reduces the intensity of the negative affect it elicits, which in turn reduces how unethical the transgression seems",[]],["even one exposure to a transgression was sufficient to make it seem less unethical",[]],["the marginal effect of each additional repetition falls off steeply after the first",[]],["This moral repetition effect is robust, replicable, generalizes broadly across the moral domain, and occurs because repetition dampens people's emotional reactions to wrongdoing.",[]],["By reducing such outrage in response to a particular event, the moral repetition effect could allow \"cooler heads to prevail.\"",[]],["Additionally, by normalizing once-taboo behaviors, the moral repetition effect could facilitate social reforms that many will regard as moral progress.",[]],["the moral repetition effect occurs with transgressions across the moral domain (not just fake-news sharing)",[]],["a transgression may seem a bit less reprehensible when we have heard about it before.",[]],["Specifically, repeatedly encountering the same description of a bad deed reduced how unethical people thought it was to commit, and reduced how much punishment they thought the perpetrator deserved.",[]],["occurs because repetition dampens people's emotional reactions to wrongdoing.",[]],["participants rated the transgressions as less morally bad when they had encountered them earlier in the study",[]]],"rt":[["affective mechanism",[]],["norm-perception mechanism",[]],["fluency",[]]]},{"ex":[["people skilled at regulating their emotions reacted with less affective intensity to eight malnourished child victims of civil war than to just one (Cameron & Payne, 2011).",["Cameron & Payne, 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["the idea that repeated exposure to the vignettes made the relevant violations seem more common",[]]],"rt":[["affective mechanism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["falsiness (negative values), truthiness (positive values), or zero.",[]],["truthiness and falsiness depend on expectations acquired in the experimental context, and occur only when there is a discrepancy in the expected ease of processing",["Whittlesea & Williams, 1998"]],["depend on expectations acquired in the experimental context, and occur only when there is a discrepancy in the expected ease of processing",["Whittlesea & Williams, 1998"]],["In the context of a truth judgment, additional cognitive effort might be taken as a signal that the information being evaluated is false.",[]]],"rt":[["truthiness",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Related photos might help people generate pseudoevidence by facilitating conceptual processing, perhaps increasing cognitive availability and (or) helping people trawl for evidence",["Kelley & Lindsay, 1993","Nickerson, 1998","Tversky & Kahneman, 1973","Whittlesea, 2011"]],["That evidence could be semantic activation and an experience of conceptual fluency or it could be a more active process where people trawl through the photo interpreting details in the photo as evidence the claim is true.",[]],["help people generate pseudoevidence by facilitating conceptual processing, perhaps increasing cognitive availability and (or) helping people trawl for evidence",["Kelley & Lindsay, 1993","Nickerson, 1998","Tversky & Kahneman, 1973","Whittlesea, 2011"]]]},{"de":[["photos tend to inflate the subjective truth of those claims-a \"truthiness\" effect",["Newman et al., 2012"]],["related photos produced truthiness",[]],["nonprobative photos that are related to trivia claims can foster belief in those claims, true or false.",[]],["truthiness and falsiness depend on expectations acquired in the experimental context, and occur only when there is a discrepancy in the expected ease of processing",["Whittlesea & Williams, 1998"]],["depend on expectations acquired in the experimental context, and occur only when there is a discrepancy in the expected ease of processing",["Whittlesea & Williams, 1998"]],["When people rapidly judge the truth of claims presented with or without related but nonprobative photos, the photos tend to inflate the subjective truth of those claims-a \"truthiness\" effect (Newman et al., 2012).",["Newman et al., 2012"]]],"rt":[["falsiness",[]]],"ex":[["nonprobative related photos lead people to believe a claim",[]]]},{"rt":[["polarization",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["interpersonal influence",[]]]},{},{"de":[["there is a large gray area between human and completely automated accounts.",[]]]},{"de":[["estimating the rate of false positives, i.e, verified articles, in the corpus.",[]]]},{"de":[["false or misleading content -hoaxes, conspiracy theories, fabricated reports, click-bait headlines, and even satire",[]],["false or misleading content -hoaxes, conspiracy theories, fabricated reports, click-bait headlines, and even satire.",[]],["Satire articles are grouped with misinformation, as explained in the main text.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["fabricated content",[]],["manipulated content",[]],["imposter content",[]],["false context",[]],["misleading content",[]],["false connection",[]],["satire",[]],["articles whose claims could not be verified",[]]],"ex":[["hoaxes",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["fabricated reports",[]],["click-bait headlines",[]],["satire",[]],["hoaxes, conspiracy theories, fabricated reports, click-bait headlines, and even satire",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These fake accounts can post content and interact with each other and with legitimate users via social connections, just like real people [51].",["51"]],["These fake accounts can post content and interact with each other and with legitimate users via social connections, just like real people",["51"]]],"sy":[["bots",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["semantic priming",[]]]},{},{"de":[["accuracy prompts offer a promising approach for improving the quality of news that people share online",[]],["accuracy prompts do not require stakeholders such as technology companies or government regulators to decide what is true versus false",[]],["they leverage users' own abilities to identify misinformation and take advantage of the fact that most people want to share accurate content",[]],["accuracy prompts are a promising approach for technology companies, governments, and civil society organizations to investigate in their efforts to reduce the spread of misinformation.",[]],["accuracy prompts are effective because they draw attention back to accuracy",[]],["increasing the salience of the concept of accuracy has downstream consequences on sharing intentions",[]]],"ex":[["asking them to evaluate the accuracy of a random headline at the beginning of the study",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["false headlines",[]],["low-quality news content",[]]]},{"de":[["calculated by taking the difference between sharing intentions for true news and false news",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["activism",[]],["coloniality",[]],["gender",[]],["inequality/inequity",[]],["intersectionality",[]],["intergenerational justice",[]],["justice",[]],["participation",[]],["rights",[]],["vulnerability",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["They reflect objectively disproportionate climate harms experienced by children, and the remarkable moral clarity and courage demonstrated by youth to address the problem.",[]],["this simplistic framing results in a partial understanding of core issues and limits potential responses",[]],["The victim-hero frame also crowds out more nuanced discussion of rights, (intergenerational) justice, and coloniality",[]]],"sy":[["child climate victim and youth climate hero",[]]],"rt":[["rights",[]],["(intergenerational) justice",[]],["coloniality",[]]],"ex":[["The child climate victim and youth climate hero",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["occurs because individuals imitate each other",["13","14","15"]],["even if each is a rational decision-maker",["16"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["positive frequency bias",[]],["negative frequency bias",[]]]},{"de":[["UNRELIABLE",[]]]},{"de":[["UNRELIABLE",[]]]},{"de":[["providing systematically manipulative and fabricated content with the purpose of legitimizing implausible conceptualizations of facts and knowledge through argumentative methods that coarsely mimic those of scientific reasoning, generally targeting individuals or social groups as covert perpetrators of conspiracies or harmful actions",[]]]},{"de":[["UNRELIABLE",[]],["providing manipulative and fabricated content with the purpose of misleading the public opinion on socially relevant issues and to provoke inflammatory responses",[]]]},{"de":[["the infodemic dimensions of a pandemic must be seen as two sides of the same coin.",[]]]},{"de":[["The infodemics can be thought, similarly to epidemics, as an outbreak of false rumors and fake news with unexpected effects on social dynamics (see Fig. 1).",[]],["a phenomenon named infodemics [16][17][18][19] , sharing similarities with more traditional epidemics and spreading phenomena [20][21][22]",["16","17","18","19","20","21","22"]]],"rt":[["epidemics",[]]]},{"de":[["RELIABLE",[]]]},{"de":[["UNRELIABLE",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Affective polarization has political consequences, such as decreasing trust 89 , privileging partisan labels over policy information 90 and believing false information 91 , that can undermine social and economic relationships 88 and impair public health.",["89","90","91","88"]]],"rt":[["Attitudinal polarization",["87","88"]]],"sp":[["political polarization",[]]]},{"rt":[["affective polarization",["87","88"]]]},{},{"de":[["can be maladaptive in a number of ways. For instance, it is associated with a greater focus on defending the image of the country than on caring for its citizens",["213","214","213,214"]],["It is also correlated with seeing out-groups as a threat and blaming them for in-group misfortunes",["215"]]]},{},{"de":[["A sense of the self as independent versus interdependent with others is a dimension of cultural variation 75",["75"]]],"rt":[["interdependent",[]]]},{"sy":[["psychological inoculation",["128","129"]]],"rt":[["prebunking",[]]]},{"rt":[["tight cultures",["82","83"]]],"ex":[["the US, Italy and Brazil",["82","83"]]]},{"rt":[["norms",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A large literature has distinguished different motives for conformity to norms, including the desire to learn from other people and to gain affiliation or social approval",["43","44"]],["Perceived norms are also most influential when specific to others with whom common identities are shared",["50"]],["including for the spread of health behaviors",["51"]],["People's behaviour is influenced by social norms",["43"]]]},{"rt":[["loose cultures",["82","83"]]],"ex":[["Singapore, Japan and China",["82","83"]]]},{"de":[["Research has found that tight cultures, such as those of Singapore, Japan and China, have strict social norms and punishments for deviance, while loose cultures, such as the US, Italy and Brazil, have weaker social norms and are more permissive 82,83",["82","83"]]],"rt":[["looseness",[]]]},{"de":[["Zero-sum thinking means that while it might be psychologically compelling to hoard protective materials (sanitizer, masks, even vaccines) beyond what is necessary, doing so could be self-defeating.",[]]],"rt":[["non-zero-sum nature of pandemic infection",["168"]]]},{"de":[["Information was often from authoritative sources (or otherwise referenced to authoritative sources) such as vaccine groups and scientific organizations",[]]],"ex":[["an update on the current state of COVID-19 vaccine trials",[]],["the importance of a vaccine to get out of the COVID-19 pandemic",[]],["how a candidate vaccine generates a good immune response",[]]]},{"de":[["denoted by the statistic Δ (equation (6), Methods)",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation can be highly country-and context-dependent",[]],["misinformation on social media has been shown to spread faster than factually correct information",["56"]],["misinformation can result in long-term attitudinal and behavioural shifts",["45","57"]],["information shown to respondents-in the form of snippets of social media posts",[]],["which is 'considered incorrect based on the best available evidence from relevant experts at the time'",["43"]]],"ex":[["misinformation identified by our participants after exposure as having the most impact on lowering their vaccination intent was made to have a scientific appeal, such as emphasizing on a direct link between a COVID-19 vaccine and adverse effects while using scientific imagery or links to strengthen their claims.",[]],["a post falsely claiming that a COVID-19 vaccine will alter DNA in humans",[]],["a post falsely claiming that COVID-19 vaccine will cause 97% of recipients to become infertile",[]]]},{"sy":[["conspiracy mentality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The conspiracy mindset is closely associated with belief in a wide range of existing specific conspiracy theories, as well as the endorsement of conspiracy theories created by researchers for experimental purposes 15 .",["15"]],["It differs from concrete conspiracy beliefs in that it taps into the general propensity to suspect that conspiracies are at play, uncontaminated by concrete events, actors or contexts.",[]],["generic conspiracy measure that excludes any reference to concrete events or actors",[]],["conspiracy mentality is a relatively stable disposition",[]],["conspiracy mentality is particularly pronounced on the political right, particularly among voters of traditional, nationalistic and authoritarian parties",[]],["The conspiracy mindset is closely associated with belief in a wide range of existing specific conspiracy theories, as well as the endorsement of conspiracy theories created by researchers for experimental purposes 15 . It differs from concrete conspiracy beliefs in that it taps into the general propensity to suspect that conspiracies are at play, uncontaminated by concrete events, actors or contexts.",["15"]],["relatively stable disposition",[]]],"sy":[["conspiracy mindset",["12","13","14"]]],"rt":[["conspiracy narratives",[]],["conspiratorial beliefs",[]],["anti-elite rhetoric",[]]]},{"sy":[["conspiracy mentality",["12","13","14"]]]},{"de":[["are common across times, cultures and populations",["7","8"]]]},{},{"de":[["By dividing the social realm into clearly antagonistic forces of good and evil, complexity is reduced and taking a firm (and moral) position is comparatively easier.",[]]]},{"de":[["can result from losing elections, so that one's political values are not represented by governing parties.",[]],["The experience of lack of control, in general, stimulates a desire to make sense of the social environment [52][53][54] .",["52","53","54"]],["conspiracy mentality is a reaction to the fact that one's political ideas are not part of the political mainstream",[]],["higher conspiracy mentality because one lost the vote",[]]]},{"rt":[["polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["To be considered as a valid digital media variable in our review, information or discussion forums must be hosted via the internet or need to describe specific features of online communication.",[]],["digital media (A)",[]]],"sb":[["internet",[]],["social media",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["radio was used as a propaganda tool by Nazi Germany",["5"]],["allied radio, such as the BBC, supported resistance against the Nazi regime, for example, by providing tactical information on allied military activities",["6","7"]],["radio was used to incite Rwandan Hutus to massacre the country's Tutsi minority",["8"]],["using the same means to cause different ends, the radio soap opera 'Musekeweya' successfully reduced intergroup prejudice in a year-long field experiment",["9","10"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["trust, news exposure, polarization and network homophily",[]]],"sb":[["affective polarization",[]],["partisan sorting",[]],["issue alignment",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["can have serious negative effects on society and democracy",["1","2"]],["Misinformation exposure can reduce support for climate change",["3","4"]],["the mere repetition of misinformation can increase belief in it",["8","9"]]],"sb":[["fabricated news stories",[]],["false rumours",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["theory of mind",[]]]},{"de":[["To understand that a faux pas has occurred, one must represent two mental states: that the speaker does not know that they should not say what they said, and that the person hearing it (the victim) would feel insulted or hurt by what was said.",[]],["Understanding a faux pas involves two aspects",[]]]},{"de":[["These measures include training to reduce hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["not in the sense of the processes by which biological organisms infer hidden states from their environment",[]],["inference here not in the sense of the processes by which biological organisms infer hidden states from their environment, but rather as any process of reasoning whereby conclusions are derived from a set of propositional premises",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["training to reduce hallucinations, the propensity of GPT models to produce nonsensical content or fabricate details that are not true in relation to the provided content",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Theory of mind is central to human social interactions-from communication to empathy to social decision-makingand has long been of interest to developmental, social and clinical psychologists.",[]],["Far from being a unitary construct, theory of mind refers to an interconnected set of notions that are combined to explain, predict, and justify the behaviour of others",[]],["Far from being a unitary construct",[]],["Theory of mind is central to human social interactions-from communication to empathy to social decision-making",[]],["Theory of mind is crucial in reducing such uncertainty",[]]],"rt":[["indirect measures of belief attribution",[]],["false belief understanding",["11","12"]],["pragmatic language comprehension",["13","14","15","16"]],["looking or searching behaviour",[]]]},{"sp":[["population dynamics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This refers to the inequitable allocation of resources to AAE speakers",[]]]},{"sy":[["covert racism",["69"]]]},{"de":[["emphasizes the avoidance of racial terminology but maintains racial inequities through covert racial discourses and practices",[]]],"rt":[["new racism",[]]]},{"rt":[["matched guise probing",[]]],"ex":[["'aggressive', 'intelligent' and 'quiet'",[]]]},{"de":[["fundamentally different from the racial bias studied so far in language models because the race of speakers is never made overt.",[]],["a form of covert racial prejudice against African Americans that is triggered by dialect features alone",[]]],"rt":[["covert racial prejudice",[]]]},{},{"de":[["provide complementary views on the attitudes a language model has about a dialect.",[]],["measuring how a language model associates certain tokens with an individual text in AAE or SAE.",[]]],"rt":[["matched guise technique",["36","37","93","94"]],["meaning-matched and non-meaning-matched",[]]],"sb":[["meaning-matched",[]],["non-meaning-matched",[]]]},{"de":[["one can avoid mentioning race by claiming not to see colour or to ignore race but still hold negative beliefs about racialized people.",["8"]]],"sy":[["covert racism",[]]]},{"rt":[["covert-stereotype analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the detected stereotypes are inherently linked to AAE and its linguistic features.",[]],["the raciolinguistic stereotypes are directly linked to individual linguistic features of AAE (Fig. 2c and Supplementary Table 14), and that a higher density of such linguistic features results in stronger stereotypical associations (Supplementary Fig. 11 and Supplementary Table 13)",[]]],"sb":[["covert raciolinguistic stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["the pernicious representation of AAE speakers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This was calculated combining all other answer options ('No' , 'Don't know' and 'Refuse') into a single reference category.",[]]]},{"sp":[["psychological inoculation theory",[]]],"ex":[["popular gamified inoculation interventions such as Bad News 38 and GoViral! 110 , where players step into the shoes of a misinformation producer and are exposed-in a simulated social-media environment-to weakened doses of common strategies used to spread misinformation.",["38","110"]]]},{"sb":[["worldview backfire effect",[]],["psychological reactance against the correction itself (the 'worldview' backfire effect)",["92","93"]],["the repetition of false information (the 'familiarity' backfire effect)",["92","93"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["simply labeling information as false or incorrect is generally not sufficient because correcting a myth by means of a simple retraction leaves a gap in people's understanding of why the information is false and what is true instead.",[]],["therapeutic (post-exposure)",[]]],"sy":[["therapeutic (post-exposure)",[]]],"rt":[["prebunking",[]],["fact-checking",[]]],"ex":[["debunking misinformation about autism interventions has shown to be effective in reducing support for non-empirically supported treatments, such as dieting",["84"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["draws on dual-process theories of human cognition, which suggest that people rely on two qualitatively different processes of reasoning",["47"]]]},{},{"de":[["regardless of intent",["24"]],["misinformation has been referred to as an 'umbrella category of symptoms'",["20"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["motivated reasoning",[]],["politically motivated reasoning account",[]]]},{"de":[["the theory of (politically) motivated reasoning [53][54][55] , which posits that information deficits or lack of reflective reasoning are not the primary driver of susceptibility to misinformation.",[]],["Motivated reasoning occurs when someone starts out their reasoning process with a pre-determined goal (for example, someone might want to believe that vaccines are unsafe because that belief is shared by their family members), so individuals interpret new (mis)information in service of reaching that goal",["53"]]],"rt":[["motivated numeracy",[]]],"sb":[["motivated numeracy",["59"]]]},{"sp":[["psychological inoculation theory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["such reminders in and of themselves do not equip people with any new skills to identify and resist misinformation.",[]],["the approach can be implemented without making explicit reference to the vaccination analogy and instead can focus on the value of 'prebunking' and helping people unveil the techniques of manipulation.",[]],["prophylactic (preventative)",[]]],"sy":[["prophylactic (preventative)",[]],["refutational pre-emption",[]]],"rt":[["refutational pre-emption",[]],["debunking",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["prebunking",[]],["therapeutic inoculation",[]],["debunking",[]]]},{"de":[["Inoculation theory operates via two mechanisms, namely (1) motivational threat (a desire to defend oneself from manipulation attacks) and (2) refutational pre-emption or prebunking (pre-exposure to a weakened example of the attack).",[]],["By pre-emptively forewarning and exposing people to severely weakened doses of misinformation (coupled with strong refutations), people can cultivate cognitive resistance against future misinformation",["102"]]],"sy":[["Inoculation theory",[]]],"rt":[["prebunking",[]]],"sb":[["active inoculation",[]],["passive inoculation",[]]],"ex":[["inoculating people against conspiratorial arguments about vaccination before (but not after) exposure to a conspiracy theory effectively raised vaccination intentions",["103"]]]},{"sy":[["prebunking",[]]]},{"sp":[["backfire effect",["92","93"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["choosing what is popular may amplify random fluctuations and ultimately lead to sub-optimal rankings.",[]],["the popularity bias hinders quality because it fails to enhance the signal provided by the quality-based choices",[]],["the popularity bias risks enhancing initial noise rather than the quality-based signal",[]],["distorts assessments of quality",[]]],"rt":[["Popularity based metrics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The usefulness of such rankings is predicated on the wisdom of the crowd [33]",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we propose an alternative method that identifies echo chambers based on users' participatory behaviors in rumor propagation, which can be relatively easily obtained from social media.",[]],["The rumor echo chambers identified in this paper represent two primary properties (i.e., selective exposure and homophily of members) of echo chambers reported in the previous literature, which implies that our proposed method for identifying rumor echo chambers can be alternatively and easily applied when user information are not available.",[]],["Most of the prior work considered the echo chamber as a group of users who have similar political views",["15","19","26"]],["has been identified based on the similarity of personal traits like political standpoint in the social science literature",["18","19"]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]],["homophily",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["echo chambers tend to exhibit stronger selective exposure.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["could even speed up the epidemic process by influencing and fragmenting social response",["6"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["online debates tend to degenerate towards increasingly toxic exchanges of views, in line with Godwin's law.",[]]]},{"de":[["the detection and contrast of hate speech is complicated. There are still ambiguities in the very definition of hate speech, with academic and relevant stakeholders providing their own interpretations 4",["4"]]],"sb":[["violent speech",[]],["inappropriate",[]],["offensive language",[]]]},{"de":[["which is not illegal, but deteriorates public discourse and can lead to a more radicalised society.",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech classes",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["hate speech classes",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["intolerance expressed by aggressive nationalism and ethnocentrism, discrimination and hostility against minorities, migrants and people of immigrant origin",[]]]},{"de":[["contrary to mainstream views",[]]]},{"ex":[["Donors Trust/Donors Capital Fund",["25","32"]]]},{"de":[["expressing a reasonable level of doubt based on available evidence",[]]]},{"de":[["the ability to engage in discriminant trust",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["skills and concepts taught in MediaWise for Seniors and important for detecting disinformation online",[]],["If individuals report using this strategy, they are engaging in lateral reading",[]]]},{"de":[["This tendency is referred to as the truth bias.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["veracity effect",[]],["truth-biased",[]]]},{"de":[["usually more likely to accurately detect true than false messages",[]],["because people are truth-biased (i.e., they interpret most messages as true), they are usually more likely to accurately detect true than false messages",["20"]],["a pattern of results persists across nearly all published studies in which people are more accurate at judging the veracity of true messages than false messages, simply because they are more likely in general to interpret messages as true.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["at least one of the news items they want to share is not correctly identified as fake news.",[]]],"rt":[["deliberate sharing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["those who share more fake news also admit to doing so. This is true for accidental and deliberate sharing. Hence, people are quite aware of their weakness in spotting fake headlines (accidental sharing). For deliberate sharing, the actual behavior matches very well with the answers to the retrospective question.",[]]],"rt":[["accidental sharing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Fake news spreads \"significantly farther, faster, deeper, and more broadly than the truth\"",["6"]],["By altering people's perceptions and attitudes, fake news can shape public debates about critical policy issues such as vaccinations or immigration.",[]],["The spread of fake news is becoming a public and global concern",["1"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["α = α(?) = ℓ + d",[]]]},{"rt":[["Echo chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["By communicating and repeating beliefs within a closed system or network insulated from rebuttal, echo chambers amplify or reinforce beliefs",["6","7"]],["echo chambers limit exposure to diverse perspectives and favor and reinforce presupposed narratives and ideologies",["9","13"]]],"rt":[["social polarization",["10","11"]],["bubble",[]],["Filter bubbles",[]]]},{"de":[["It is believed that Echo chambers in social media may increase social and political polarization and extremism",["16"]]]},{"rt":[["Echo chambers",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["echo",[]],["chamber",[]]]},{"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]],"ex":[["Google Personalized Search and Facebook's personalized feed",[]],["Examples include Google Personalized Search and Facebook's personalized feed.",[]]]},{"de":[["An individual's right to voice their opinions without fear of censorship or legal sanction.",[]]]},{"sy":[["regulation function",[]]],"sp":[["spreading functions",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["social media spreading function",[]],["regulation spreading function",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the annotators can not confirm a definitive action has taken place in relation to a disorder (e.g., if actual suicide has occurred) and can only label them within the constraints of their predefined annotation rules",["9"]]]},{},{"ex":[["children were asked to write a story about a time that they had a problem or fought with other people",[]],["a case study on Greek poetry of the 20th century",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["persists as a challenge in natural language generation, affecting the output quality of LLMs trained on fixed datasets 88 .",["88"]],["persists as a challenge in natural language generation, affecting the output quality of LLMs trained on fixed datasets",["88"]]]},{"sp":[["LLM hallucinations",["78"]]]},{"sp":[["LLM hallucinations",["78"]]]},{"sb":[["faithfulness, when the generated text is not faithful to the input context",[]],["factualness, when the generated text is not factually correct with respect to world knowledge",[]]]},{"sb":[["hallucinatory explanations",[]]]},{"rt":[["cognitive bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This issue extends beyond chatbots to generative search engines. Studies scrutinizing generative search engines also found significant problems with proper citations, with nearly half of the generated sentences lacking citations and only three-quarters of those that have them actually supporting their claims",["44"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["vulnerability is often constructed;",[]]],"ex":[["unplanned urbanization processes, systemic injustice (such as some people being denied access to resources), and marginalization due to religion, caste, class, ethnicity, gender or age",["1","4"]]]},{},{"sy":[["directed skepticism",[]]],"rt":[["general response skepticism",[]],["response skepticism",[]]],"sp":[["response skepticism",[]]],"ex":[["a Brazilian scientist and IPCC author criticized the government for its inadequate policies on green energy (and deforestation)",[]]]},{"sp":[["response skepticism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["often advanced by organized skeptical groups 1,[11][12][13]",["1","11","12","13"]]],"sy":[["discourses of delay",["19"]]],"rt":[["directed response skepticism",[]],["organized skeptical groups",[]]],"sp":[["response skepticism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It includes a variety of arguments, such as taking action will harm the economy and jobs, or that unilateral responses are not appropriate in the absence of a global agreement, or that a measured response is best 6 .",["6"]],["such as the high costs of taking action or the cost falling unfairly on lower-income groups",[]],["suggesting taking action will hurt US competitiveness",[]],["where countryspecific economic, social and political obstacles to enacting national climate policies were raised, rather than where climate action in general was dismissed or questioned",[]],["In most cases, it was the anchor or reporter who voiced skeptical discourses and not invited guests.",[]]],"rt":[["evidence skepticism",[]],["directed response skepticism",[]]],"sb":[["general response skepticism",[]],["directed response skepticism",[]],["The impracticality of taking (urgent) action (in general, without specifying any details)",[]],["Questioning the economic costs of taking (urgent) action (in general)",[]],["Action to tackle climate change is already costing job losses or will do so in the future",[]],["Taking action would or could involve a lot of /too much personal sacrifice (e.g., reducing or not flying, not eating/reducing meat)",[]],["Solutions will hit lower-income groups the hardest",[]],["Solutions will outsource jobs, or hurt national competitiveness",[]],["Solutions will give too much power to governments (to impose new regulations and taxes)",[]],["Questioning the need to take action when other countries (e.g., China) are not doing enough (\"whataboutism\")",[]],["Enough is already being done",[]],["Technology (including Carbon Capture and Storage) should be the main element of the solution (and not so much emphasis on moving away from fossil fuels)",[]],["Preferring adaptation to inevitable impacts rather than mitigation",[]],["Directed response skepticism, where a specific policy, often country-based, is seen as being insufficient in scope and scale to address the climate problem, or unrealistic due to political and other obstacles for the UK to take action when China has higher greenhouse gas emissions, the costs of taking action and that climate policies will disproportionately impact the poor",[]],["directed",[]],["directed skepticism",[]]],"sp":[["skepticism",[]]],"ex":[["suggesting taking action will hurt US competitiveness",[]]]},{"rt":[["general response skepticism",[]],["directed response skepticism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["often described colloquially as \"whataboutism\"",[]]],"sy":[["whataboutism",[]]]},{"de":[["Because confirmatory search probably directs attention to arguments in support of one's initial beliefs (rather than to the limits of one's beliefs and their fallibility), this bias might act as a metacognitive limitation that runs counter to intellectual humility in many situations.",["59","60"]],["When people try to reason through an issue, they often work hard to find evidence that confirms their initial perspective",["55","56","57","58"]]]},{},{"de":[["-calibrate scientific claims to the relevant evidence, buffer against exaggeration, prevent motivated cognition and selective reporting of results that affirm one's hypotheses, and increase the tendency to welcome scholarly critique.",[]]]},{"rt":[["intellectual humility",[]]]},{"rt":[["intellectual humility",[]]]}] |