MBDef 1.0.0: Explorer data for exactly the released rows, map and topics made on them
714cbfe verified | [{},{"de":[["recognizing it as a cognitive device rather than as a literary tool",[]],["we perceive the world and its concepts in terms of other concepts, and our language reflects it too",[]]],"rt":[["metaphorical expression",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Metaphor Interpretation consists of four stages according to the four main questions proposed in Table 1.",[]]]},{"sy":[["metaphorical word",[]]],"rt":[["metaphor",[]],["metaphorical expression",[]]]},{"de":[["metaphor mapping refers to a one-to-one mapping of the respective elements of the target and source domains",[]],["metaphor mapping is unidirectional",[]],["mappings are partial, which means that only a part of the source domain is mapped onto the target domain, and mapping all source features onto the target would be at the risk of over-interpretation",[]],["metaphor mapping includes both 'the features of the source that could be mapped onto the target' as well as 'the attributed qualities to the target by the source'",[]]]},{"de":[["One metaphorical expression can be made up of one or more metaphorical words.",[]]],"rt":[["metaphor",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Metaphorical words, as offered in my guideline, can be subject to further analysis by taking into consideration their 'types' and 'frequencies', which can be used to determine/compare the impact and vividness of metaphorical images.",[]]],"sy":[["metaphor keyword",[]]],"rt":[["metaphor",[]],["metaphorical expression",[]]]},{"sp":[["Audience",[]]]},{"de":[["Pre-Metaphor Analysis aims at providing a clear understanding of the text under study by answering various questions regarding the text.",[]]]},{"de":[["Pre-Metaphor analysis provides us with necessary information required for the other levels of analysis.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the tone of the speech refers to its conventional meaning in written discourse as \"the author's attitude toward or preconceived idea about the subject matter\" that is determined by textual clues such as \"vocabulary choice\" (Kuta, 2008).",["2008"]]],"rt":[["vocabulary choice",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Agenda setting is usually attained by behind the scene action to convince multiple actors and groups that a particular agenda is in their interests.",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["This is most frequently done by trying to create a common collective identity (Ansell, 1998).",["Ansell, 1998"]]]},{},{"sy":[["organizational fields",[]],["sectors",[]],["games",[]],["arenas",[]]]},{"de":[["link broader frames to group's existing conceptions of interest.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["can counteract the static nature of historical analysis by focusing on dynamics and processes",[]]]},{"sy":[["alternative scenario",[]],["alternative position",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["\"What If?\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["First, the reduction of scale (to a family, a village community, an individual) allows a closer scrutiny of the sources and attention to detail.",[]],["Second, the intensity of focus allows the observation of new phenomena and new meanings.",[]],["Thus, microhistory is undertaken not to illustrate a preconceived argument but to explore the otherwise inaccessible.",[]],["It is thus a way of observing and trying to comprehend the networks of relationships and webs of meaning around the focal unit.",[]],["Microhistory is set up to be nongeneralizable by its focus on the unusual, often socially marginal, individual or group",[]]],"rt":[["ethnographic studies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It has had to wrestle with the issues of orality, narrative, performance, subjectivity, memory, mutability and collaboration between interviewee and interviewer/analyst.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["memory for other people's behavior",[]]]},{"de":[["Such misattributions may falsely confirm the truth of negative stereotypes and perpetuate use of the stereotypes.",[]]],"rt":[["Source misattributions",[]]]},{"de":[["Feelings of familiarity are quite useful for distinguishing between events that have and have not been encountered (i.e., Lists 1 and 2 vs. List 3).",[]]]},{"de":[["For example, feelings of familiarity or preexisting schemas or expectancies about source may be relied upon in making these attributions",[]],["The use of such heuristic cues is relatively effortless and may occur without the perceiver's intention.",[]]],"ex":[["feelings of familiarity or preexisting schemas or expectancies about source",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["stereotyping",["1983"]]]},{"de":[["Such misattributions may falsely confirm the truth of negative stereotypes and perpetuate use of the stereotypes.",[]]]},{"de":[["perceivers may rely on stereotypes as cues in attributing others' behavior.",[]],["This source-monitoring task may be very difficult at times.",[]]],"rt":[["source-monitoring cues",[]]]},{"de":[["stereotypic expectancies that may bias perceivers toward particular conclusions",[]],["stereotypes were used as source-monitoring cues when familiarity and source confusion were high, but ability to engage in systematic processing was low.",[]],["stereotypes are quite useful in providing inferences about others so that a perceiver does not have to attend carefully to their behavior",[]]],"rt":[["stereotypic expectancies",[]],["stereotypic semantic knowledge",[]]],"sp":[["semantic uses of memory",[]]],"ex":[["Physical cues having to do with race, sex, age, or dress may lead perceivers to be more or less likely to attribute criminal behavior to a suspect.",[]],["skinheads are mean",[]]]},{"de":[["These processes are intentional and effortful, and they require significant mental resources.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["home and work; paid work and unpaid work; production and reproduction.",[]]]},{"de":[["These practices lead to what Thanki and Jeffreys (2007) call a 'contacts culture' that disadvantages women, people from BAME groups and working-class backgrounds.",[]],["disadvantages women, people from BAME groups and working-class backgrounds.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it is primarily a category of 'labour and production'",[]],["it is primarily a category of 'labour and production'.",[]]],"rt":[["occupational segregation",[]]],"ex":[["romance or news and current affairs",[]]]},{"rt":[["intersectionality",[]]]},{"de":[["The concept emphasizes that different dimensions of social life cannot be separated out into discrete and pure strands",["2004: 76"]]]},{},{"de":[["-a concept which links up to Banks' (2007) notion of the morality of cultural work.",[]]]},{"de":[["problematic",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["external power relations generate a 'blemish of place'",[]]],"rt":[["territorial stigma",[]],["Place-based stigmatisation",[]]]},{"sp":[["backdoor nationalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["understand themselves primarily as movements from below that embody the will of the people rather than represent or speak on its behalf",["Halikiopoulou and Vasilopoulou (2016: 4)"]]]},{"de":[["stigmatising Roma communities as hotbeds of prostitution and begging.",[]],["A discourse of 'Gypsy deviance' emerged",["Picker and Rocchegianni, 2014"]]]},{"de":[["which was created by the notorious Hitler-admirer Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and routinely referenced the fascist and Nazi movements in Italy and Germany",["see Noua Dreaptă, 2014"]]]},{"de":[["provide a form of security",[]]]},{"de":[["The focus on common sense and the people encourages an exclusionary view, based on conformity with accepted norms, singling out minorities.",[]],["populist movements tend to be antagonistic to cultural, linguistic, religious, and racial minorities… who differ from the majority… [and are] viewed as enemies of the people rather than potential allies.",["Plattner (2010: 88)"]],["This form of representation rests on identifying and amplifying concerns and issues among the general population -speaking to 'common sense'.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a new generic label has gained wide currency in advanced countries to designate those urban districts viewed as tears in, and threats to, the fabric of the nation",[]],["So much so that a new generic label has gained wide currency in advanced countries to designate those urban districts viewed as tears in, and threats to, the fabric of the nation",["Waquant, Slater andPerreira (2014: 1273)","2014: 1273"]]]},{"sy":[["territorial stigma",[]]],"rt":[["stain of poverty",[]],["subaltern ethnicity",[]],["degraded housing",[]],["imputed immorality",[]],["street crime",[]]],"ex":[["'Gypsies, get out of Traian Square!'",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["can artificially amplify the visibility of a message in the expectation that increased exposure will cause more people to align with it",[]]]},{"de":[["and is often inflected by analogies to the kinds of technique that were Sykes and Matza's preoccupation.",[]],["is often inflected by analogies to the kinds of technique that were Sykes and Matza's preoccupation.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["By inserting these \"invented\" details into a wider narrative to augment it, the meaning is \"turned\" or changed in some way.",[]]],"ex":[["One episode following the Manchester attack exemplifies several key features of event ghosting as a mode of communicating soft facts. It concerns the activities of a woman who, after the bombing, claimed to have taken a number of children separated from their parents to a local hotel, where she was keeping them safe (Figure 2).",[]]]},{"rt":[["techniques of disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Rather, it works by rendering people into a state where they do not know what to trust and who to believe.",[]]]},{"de":[["the number of followers and likes attached to particular messages and accounts, influences how others interact with those materials",[]]]},{"rt":[["cognitive bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Where the more familiar notion of a \"hard fact\" is attributed objectivity and stability, a soft fact is frequently and sometimes repeatedly manipulated and edited, albeit it is afforded contingent authority and credibility by some.",[]]],"rt":[["hard fact",[]],["rumors",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["fake news",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["rumors",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["fake news",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["They employ these to ingratiate themselves within a digital community of individuals, seemingly possessing similar identity characteristics and/or interests to the wider group.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Their diverse motivations and expressions cannot all be reduced to ignorance, irrationality, irresponsibility. These views also indicate diverging conceptions of public engagement with science, participatory policies and citizens' autonomy in a variety of political and cultural matters.",[]]],"sy":[["resistance",[]]]},{"de":[["Their diverse motivations and expressions cannot all be reduced to ignorance, irrationality, irresponsibility. These views also indicate diverging conceptions of public engagement with science, participatory policies and citizens' autonomy in a variety of political and cultural matters.",[]]],"sy":[["refusal",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It implies that journalists consider audience-oriented routines when writing news stories.",[]],["Yet, journalists following media logic prioritize newsworthiness over political relevance.",[]]],"rt":[["political logic",[]]]},{"rt":[["socio-cultural dimension",[]]]},{"de":[["Within the media logic paradigm, this concerns particularly those news values involving conflict, negativity, personalization and entertainment",["Brants & van Praag, 2006","Mazzoleni, 1987","Van Aelst et al., 2008"]]]},{"rt":[["socio-economic dimension",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["plurality winner",[]]]},{},{"de":[["News production is thus guided by the political reality and what is considered important in the political sphere, and 'media companies are perceived as political or democratic institutions, with some kind of moral, if not legal, obligation to assist in making democracy work'",["Strömbäck, 2008, p. 234"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["new politics",[]]]},{"rt":[["old politics",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["RWA",[]],["SDO",[]]]},{},{"de":[["operationalised two individual difference factors that differentiation equity-based principles (i.e., a micro justice orientation) from equality-based principles (i.e., a macro justice orientation)",[]]],"rt":[["micro justice orientation",[]]],"sp":[["individual difference factors",[]]]},{"rt":[["micro justice principles",[]]]},{"de":[["operationalised two individual difference factors that differentiation equity-based principles (i.e., a micro justice orientation) from equality-based principles (i.e., a macro justice orientation)",[]]],"rt":[["macro justice orientation",[]]],"sp":[["individual difference factors",[]]]},{"rt":[["macro justice principles",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["religious affiliation",[]]]},{"rt":[["religiosity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["submissive to authority, promote social conformity, etc.",[]],["being subservient to authority",[]]],"rt":[["SDO",[]],["DPM",[]]]},{},{"de":[["preference for social hierarchy, rigid social structures",[]],["seeing the world as a competitive and dangerous place, and to have a preference for social hierarchies",[]]],"rt":[["RWA",[]],["DPM",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["conspiracist mentality",[]],["conspiratorial ideation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["FN has been linked to outcomes of social importance, including influences on voting in elections.",[]],["which are spread primarily via social media",["Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017","Macquarie Dictionary online, n.d."]]],"rt":[["conspiratorial FN",[]],["non-conspiratorial FN",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["motivated partisan reasoning",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The more familiar information is, the easier it is retrieved from memory, and the more likely it is accepted as true",[]]]},{},{"de":[["More detailed refutations may provide a more promising approach, but may not be feasible under the severe space constraints associated with social-media communication.",[]],["the provision of additional factual information in the refutation allowed participants to be more in tune with the relevant true state of affairs",[]]],"sy":[["detailed refutations",[]]],"sb":[["short-format (140-character) refutations",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["simple 'false-tag' retractions",[]]]},{"sb":[["vertical collectivism (viewing the self as part of a collective whilst accepting inequality)",[]],["horizontal collectivism (viewing the self as part of a collective that emphasizes equality; Singelis et al., 1995)",["Singelis et al., 1995"]]]},{},{"sp":[["collectivism",[]]]},{"sp":[["individualism",[]]]},{"sb":[["vertical individualism (viewing the self as an autonomous individual who accepts inequality)",[]],["horizontal individualism (viewing the self as an autonomous individual who prefers equality)",[]]]},{"ex":[["the United States, Spain, and Italy",[]]]},{"ex":[["I feel that the Coronavirus is too big for my actions to have an impact",[]],["I feel that my actions will not affect the outcome of Coronavirus",[]]]},{"ex":[["Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea",[]]]},{"sp":[["collectivism",[]]]},{"sp":[["individualism",[]]]},{"de":[["is able to attract the attention of the recipient naturally (Davis & McLeod, 2003), and consequently may impact memory performance or learning (Grabe, Lang, & Zhao, 2003;Grabe, Lang, Zhou, & Bolls, 2000).",["Davis & McLeod, 2003","Grabe, Lang, & Zhao, 2003","Grabe, Lang, Zhou, & Bolls, 2000"]]],"sy":[["sensationalism",[]]]},{"ex":[["political blogs",[]]]},{},{"de":[["softening comprises a blurring of the line between journalistic and other societal systems, for example, PR, economics, or the audience.",[]]],"sp":[["softening",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Shoemaker and Reese (1996) regard the functions of media outlets as one way to build categories to distinguish one media outlet from another. For example, researchers often refer to the assumed dichotomy of information and entertainment as distinct functions in the context of television (for an overview, see Delli Carpini & Williams, 2001) and speak of different genres, ranging from information-oriented to more entertainment-oriented ones. As the assumed functions of outlets are attributed to entire TV programs or newspapers (and not, for example, single news items), we will call this level of investigation the genre level.",[]]]},{"sy":[["policy issues",[]]],"rt":[["soft news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a concept in political communication that is located on the genre level.",[]],["describes a development where the dualism of entertainment and information is dissolved, leading to a new hybrid media genre that represents a mix of formats.",[]],["features from entertainment media, such as narrative content or humorous punch-lines, and elements from information media, such as anchormen or the focus on purely political topics, can be found in infotainment shows.",[]],["the multidimensional concept of infotainment describes a particular genre of media outlets (mostly TV programs, and rarely print media) that is the result of mixing elements from information outlets and entertainment-oriented outlets.",[]],["describe \"a cluster of program types that blur traditional distinctions between information-oriented and entertainment-based genres of television programming\" (Baym, 2008, para. 1).",["Baym, 2008, para. 1"]],["Infotainment is thus located as the genre level of investigation, and can be used to categorize media outlets, such as television programs, newspaper, print magazines, or radio shows.",[]]],"rt":[["HSN",[]],["tabloidization",[]],["sensationalism",[]],["features from entertainment media, such as narrative content or humorous punch-lines",[]],["elements from information media, such as anchormen or the focus on purely political topics",[]]],"ex":[["television programs, newspaper, print magazines, or radio shows",[]]]},{"de":[["On the next level of investigation, the type of media is considered. First, we can distinguish between print, radio, television, and online media. However, type of media also refers to the differences within these four broad categories, for example, how they are financed (e.g., for television, public vs. commercial ownerships; for print, by a mix of subscription and ads vs. purely by ads).",[]]]},{"rt":[["softening",[]]]},{"sy":[["style",["McLachlan & Golding, 2000"]]]},{"de":[["clearly blurs the line between journalism and advertising",[]],["Take as an example native advertising (advertorials as paid content that mimics journalistic articles), which clearly blurs the line between journalism and advertising.",[]]]},{"rt":[["episodic and thematic framing",[]],["human interest framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Consequently, sensationalism represents a specific kind of journalistic coverage aiming at triggering certain recipient reactions (attention, emotions) by using specific sensationalist production features within a single news item.",[]],["news that may affect recipients by provoking arousal, emotions, or empathy (Bas & Grabe, 2015;Grabe et al., 2001;Graber, 1994;Hendriks Vettehen, Nuijten, & Peeters, 2008)",["Bas & Grabe, 2015","Grabe et al., 2001","Graber, 1994","Hendriks Vettehen, Nuijten, & Peeters, 2008"]]],"sy":[["arousing news",["Hendriks Vettehen et al., 2008"]]],"rt":[["production features",[]],["journalistic strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["others simply differentiate between policy issues (hard news) and events or topics that cannot be associated with a certain policy (soft news)",["Scott & Gobetz, 1992"]],["distinguishing HSN based on three dimensions: (a) topic (i.e., levels of political relevance), (b) focus (i.e., thematic versus episodic framing and public versus private relevance), and (c) style dimension (i.e., impersonal versus personal and unemotional versus emotional reporting).",["Reineann et al. (2011)"]]],"sy":[["HSN",[]]],"rt":[["hard news",[]]],"ex":[["talk shows",["Holbert, 2005"]],["political satire",["Holbert, 2005"]],["\"fake\" news formats",["Holbert, 2005"]]]},{"de":[["By softening, we understand a metaconcept representing developments in political journalism that are observed on different levels of investigation, from journalism as a system (macrolevel) down to single media items (microlevel).",[]],["Softening varies cross-sectionally, that is, between different given units (e.g., between private and public broadcasters), and processually, that is, across time for a given unit (e.g., a public broadcaster before and after private broadcasters have been introduced)",["Chaffee, 1991"]],["softening applies to all forms of journalistic coverage",["Brettschneider, 2009"]],["Softening and Americanization share the idea of pooling different concepts and systematizing different characteristics and changes of political communication.",[]],["Softening, when understood as a higher-order concept in journalism, cannot only be detected in media content that journalists produce but also in political journalism itself.",[]],["The higher-order concept of softening put forward in this paper comprises general changes in journalistic political communication on different levels of investigation.",[]]],"rt":[["depoliticization",[]],["popularization",[]],["Americanization",[]],["mediatization",[]],["sensationalism",[]],["soft news",[]],["infotainment",[]],["tabloidization",[]]],"sb":[["eroding of boundaries",[]],["tabloidization",[]],["infotainment",[]],["hard and soft news (HSN)",[]],["sensationalism",[]]]},{"de":[["softening on the type of media level",[]],["the multidimensional concept of tabloidization comprises a spillover of topics, forms, and styles from the popular to traditional news media, and is therefore anchored on the type of media level.",[]],["In short, the multidimensional concept of tabloidization comprises a spillover of topics, forms, and styles from the popular to traditional news media, and is therefore anchored on the type of media level.",[]],["most researchers agree on at least three dimensions that characterize the process of tabloidization (Esser, 1999;Landmeier & Daschmann, 2011;McLachlan & Golding, 2000): changes in range, form, and mode of address.",["Esser, 1999","Landmeier & Daschmann, 2011","McLachlan & Golding, 2000"]],["Range refers to changes in content, for example, a shift from political to human interest topics (Djupsund & Carlson, 1998;Schönbach, 2000) or a decline of foreign news relative to domestic news (Kolmer & Semetko, 2010;McLachlan & Golding, 2000).",["Djupsund & Carlson, 1998","Schönbach, 2000","Kolmer & Semetko, 2010","McLachlan & Golding, 2000"]],["Changes in form of presentation comprise tendencies toward shorter stories, more pictures (Djupsund & Carlson, 1998), and simpler vocabulary and syntax (Schönbach, 2000).",["Djupsund & Carlson, 1998","Schönbach, 2000"]],["Finally, changes in the mode of address, also labeled as style (McLachlan & Golding, 2000), are understood as a different way of addressing the viewer or reader, for instance, by a tone that becomes more \"street talk\"-like (Esser, 1999, p. 293).",["McLachlan & Golding, 2000","Esser, 1999"]]]},{"sp":[["mis-and dis-information",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["Several of these fact-checking sites continually update details of the news, myths or information that is fake.",[]]]},{"sp":[["mis-and dis-information",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]]]},{"sp":[["mis-and dis-information",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]]]},{"sp":[["mis-and dis-information",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["The end result is that an anxious public finds it difficult to distinguish between evidence-based information and a broad range of unreliable misinformation.",[]],["This infodemic now poses a serious problem for public health.",[]],["the difference now with social media is that this phenomenon is amplified, it goes faster and further, like the viruses that travel with people and go faster and further.",[]]],"rt":[["medical misinformation",[]],["rumours",[]],["half-backed conspiracy theories",[]]],"ex":[["every day in March 2020 there was an average of 46 000 new posts on Twitter linked to misleading information about the pandemic",["Hollowood & Mostrous, 2020"]]]},{"sp":[["mis-and dis-information",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]]]},{"sp":[["mis-and dis-information",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]]]},{"sp":[["mis-and dis-information",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["is full of false claims, half backed conspiracy theories and pseudoscientific therapies, regarding the diagnosis, treatment, prevention, origin and spread of the virus",[]]]},{"sy":[["misleading information",[]]],"sb":[["false claims",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["pseudoscientific health therapies",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Different authors have used insights from Habermasian theory of deliberative democracy, which assumes that politics starts at the level of deliberating civil society associations, in order to conceptualize the growing relevance of private actors in global governance processes.",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["ranging from community investments, issue-specific associations to 'astroturf organizing'",[]],["the concept of 'war of position' points to the close integration of political and market strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["encompasses activities whereby CSR is a deliberate attempt to usurp government regulation, CSR-related activities that are geared solely towards responding to government policy and also CSR-related activities where firms recognize their impact on society and their social responsibilities in a way that has a clear impact on regulation, even though this may not be the intended aim of the activity.",[]]]},{"sy":[["contractarian approach",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The effects these policies had on the migrants were detrimental, institutionalizing legal and psychological insecurity and leading to different degrees of exclusion-inclusion for different migrants, which in turn formulate a process of abjectification",[]]]},{"de":[["used by the GD like lenses to amplify a subset of potentially relevant considerations, like the rise in crime in Greece, and the potential danger the immigrant poses to people's security, while blurring other concerns, like the usefulness of migrants in sectors where labour shortages are being experienced, like for example the caring sector.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["securitization",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["legitimizing in this way the adoption of urgent responses to block its development, which otherwise might not have been possible (ibid)",["ibid"]]],"rt":[["securitization of migration",[]],["securitization process",[]]],"sb":[["logic of exception",[]],["logic of routine",[]]]},{"de":[["characterized by recurrence and reproduction",[]]]},{"sy":[["national security",[]]]},{"de":[["untrue\" narratives, \"misunderstandings,\" and \"obstacles\" to official prevention programs",["36"]],["failures in communication, to be rectified by the provision of more accurate information.",["36"]]],"rt":[["conspiracy theories",["5","41"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In order to change opinion, a frame must not only be compelling (i.e., fit its subject well), though it must be that, and it must not only induce large numbers of people to think about the subject in a new way, though it must do that as well. To change opinion, a frame must also induce large numbers of people to think about the subject in a way that pushes them in a new direction",[]]],"rt":[["framing effects",[]],["framing au naturel",[]]]},{"de":[["Frames include both the rhetorical tools fashioned by political elites to advance their ideas and the often-unarticulated rules of selection, emphasis, and presentation that govern the work of journalism.",[]],["Frames suggest how politics should be thought about, thereby encouraging citizens to understand events and issues in particular ways.",[]],["By defining what the essential issue is and suggesting how to think about it, frames imply what, if anything, should be done.",[]],["instruments of emotional arousal as well as edification",[]],["frames organize-or better reorganize-information that citizens already have in mind",[]],["offering a particular perspective",[]]],"sy":[["Framing",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]],["framing effects",[]]],"ex":[["frames are like recipes, advice from experts on how citizens should cook up their opinions",["Kinder & Sanders, 1996"]],["metaphors, exemplars, catchphrases, visual images, rhetorical flourishes, and justifications through appeals to principle",[]]]},{"de":[["how citizens make sense of politics (framing)",[]],["Framing, like agenda setting and priming, is constrained by the anticipated reaction of the audience-or, to use a different language, by what the American political culture finds permissible.",[]]],"sy":[["Frames",[]]],"rt":[["agenda setting",[]],["priming",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Such a position is immediately self refuting. Even if we disregard the truth directedness of assertion, to assert requires that there be a difference between correct and incorrect uses of language, a distinction which absolute irrationalism cannot maintain. Without such a distinction, there are noises, but not signals, let alone speech or thought.",[]],["Such a position is immediately self refuting. Even if we disregard the truth directedness of assertion, to assert requires that there be a difference between correct and incorrect uses of language, a distinction which absolute irrationalism cannot maintain.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["rhetorical force",[]],["argumentative effect",[]]]},{"rt":[["plain truth",[]]]},{"de":[["it means just what I choose it to mean-neither more nor less.",[]]],"sy":[["arbitrary redefinition",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It consists of those beliefs which people confidently hold to and live by.",[]],["the sociologist will be concerned with beliefs which are taken for granted or institutionalised, or invested with authority by groups of people.",[]],["what is collectively endorsed",[]]],"sy":[["true belief",[]],["justified true belief",[]]],"rt":[["mere belief",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["the dialectics of Spirit, the hermeneutics of meaning, the emancipation of the rational or working subject, or the creation of wealth",[]]]},{"de":[["the doctrine's survival required a systematic vacillation between exploiting the desired territory and retreating to the Motte when pressed.",[]],["An entire doctrine or theory may be a Motte and Bailey Doctrine just by virtue of having a central core of defensible but not terribly interesting or original doctrines surrounded by a region of exciting but only lightly defensible doctrines.",[]]],"rt":[["Troll's Truisms",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["is not merely ideological… it was a condition of the …development of capitalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["the statement that anything constructed could be constructed differently",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["democratization",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["cartelization",[]]],"ex":[["referendums",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["populism",[]]]},{"de":[["The concept of the heartland helps to emphasize that the people in the populist propaganda are neither real nor all-inclusive, but are in fact a mythical and constructed sub-set of the whole population.",[]]],"rt":[["the people",[]],["imagined community",[]]],"ex":[["for the British Conservatives the British heartland used to be 'Middle England', while the extreme right British National Party refers to 'the native British people'.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["populism",[]],["elitism",[]]]},{"de":[["Populism is only a 'thin-centred ideology', exhibiting 'a restricted core attached to a narrower range of political concepts'.",[]],["Populism is moralistic rather than programmatic.",["16"]],["Essential to the discourse of the populist is the normative distinction between 'the elite' and 'the people', not the empirical difference in behaviour or attitudes.",[]],["Populism presents a Manichean outlook, in which there are only friends and foes.",["17"]],["populism is a biting critique of the democratic limitations within liberal democracies.",[]]],"rt":[["elitism",[]],["pluralism",[]],["the pure people",[]],["the corrupt elite",[]],["volonté générale",[]],["general will",[]],["the elite",[]],["the people",[]],["illiberal democracy",[]],["democratic extremism",[]]]},{"de":[["When explicitly populist outsider groups gain prominence, parts of the establishment will react by a combined strategy of exclusion and inclusion; while trying to exclude the populist actor(s) from political power, they will include populist themes and rhetoric to try and fight off the challenge. This dynamic will bring about a populist Zeitgeist, like the one we are facing today, which will dissipate as soon as the populist challenger seems to be over its top.",[]]]},{"rt":[["populism",[]]]},{"sy":[["voice of the people",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Holy shit! Fuck me!",[]]]},{"ex":[["people say shoot or sugar instead of shit",[]]]},{"de":[["some words are taboo and some are not",[]],["taboo words are not equal-they represent different levels of emotion",[]],["We can say a word in one context but not others",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The original politeness theory turned out to be too polite at the expense of a more accurate analysis and understanding of the goals and purposes of rude, offensive, and impolite language.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Swearing is like using the horn on your car, which can be used to signify a number of emotions (e.g., anger, frustration, joy, surprise).",[]]],"rt":[["epithets",[]],["insults",[]]],"ex":[["literal or denotative uses (We fucked)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Taboo words are sanctioned or restricted on both institutional and individual levels under the assumption that some harm will occur if a taboo word is spoken.",[]]],"sy":[["swear words",[]]],"ex":[["damn, fart",[]],["cunt, nigger",[]]]},{"de":[["others by interviewing audiences",[]]],"rt":[["media frames",[]]]},{"ex":[["use of adjectives",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["problem definition",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["message frames",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["microanalysis",[]]]},{"de":[["some researchers study framing by analysing news texts",[]]],"rt":[["audience frames",[]]]},{"de":[["a series of steps that might be performed by a researcher wishing to paint a broad picture of the framing processes of a specified phenomenon.",[]],["Media Framing Analysis has been developed in order to better understand the influence of news media in contemporary culture",[]],["understanding how mediated news functions within the social world",[]]],"rt":[["macroanalysis",[]],["microanalysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Media templates emerge over time through repeated coverage, and subsequent commentary, around these events, shaping public memories and generating associations with subsequent events. After a period they begin to act as reference points for both news sources and their audiences.",[]],["typically key events, such as \"Watergate\" or \"Vietnam\" which are then referenced with regard to subsequent events, offering explanatory power to those new events.",[]],["shared cultural material that both news sources and audiences draw on to explain events.",[]],["shared cultural material that both news sources and audiences draw on to explain events",[]]],"sy":[["discourses",[]]],"ex":[["Watergate",[]],["Vietnam",[]],["the James Bulger murder",[]],["news reports have often queried whether the US-led conflict with Iraq might be \"another Vietnam\"",[]],["\"Watergate\"",[]],["\"Vietnam\"",[]],["\"the James Bulger murder\"",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing effects",[]]]},{"rt":[["macroanalysis",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This may be a specific incident, like a murder, or a press release from an organisation, a statement by a senior figure, or the publication of a piece of research.",[]],["separate the news peg, or problem definition, from the broader frame.",[]]],"rt":[["problem definition",[]]],"ex":[["a specific incident, like a murder",[]],["a press release from an organisation",[]],["a statement by a senior figure",[]],["the publication of a piece of research",[]],["murder",[]],["press release from an organisation",[]],["statement by a senior figure",[]],["publication of a piece of research",[]]]},{"rt":[["frame",[]]],"ex":[["a violent incident as \"another case of sectarian violence\"",[]]]},{"de":[["The important materials here may well be peripheral textual items such as headlines, pictures and picture captions; or the selection of quoted individuals in the text.",[]]],"rt":[["categorisation",[]],["generalisation",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["syntactical structure",[]],["script structure",[]],["thematic structure",[]],["rhetorical structure",[]]]},{"sp":[["structural dimensions",[]]],"ex":[["the traditional 'pyramid' structure of news reports",[]]]},{},{"de":[["When individuals feel angry about the illegitimate harm suffered by others, they are more likely to support the goal of taking action against those responsible for the harm (Gordijn, Yzerbyt, Wigboldus, & Dumont, 2006).",[]],["such as challenging those responsible for a transgression or unfair situation",["Roseman et al., 1994"]]]},{"de":[["research has shown that manipulating people's appraisals of an event can shape their reported emotional reactions",["Roseman & Evdokas, 2004"]]],"rt":[["cognitive appraisals",[]]]},{"de":[["The threat posed by terrorists should elicit feelings of fear when individuals believe that they have little power to avoid or cope with the anticipated negative outcomes",["Frijda et al., 1989;Roseman et al., 1994;Smith, Haynes, Lazarus, & Pope, 1993"]],["Such self-protection may be achieved either by running away from the threat (i.e., flight; Roseman et al., 1994) or attempting to appease or mollify those responsible for the threat (Iyer & Oldmeadow, 2006;Frijda et al., 1989).",[]],["Recent research (e.g., Spanovic, Lickel, Denson, & Petrovic, 2010;Iyer, Hornsey, Vanman, & Esposo, 2013) indicates that fearful individuals can be strategic in choosing a self-protective response.",[]]]},{"de":[["which reflect particular journalistic and editorial choices (Thusu, 2006)",[]],["current theorising on media frames, which has tended to investigate the content of these frames (e.g. Tankard, 2001) and the factors that influence the development of specific frames (e.g., Thusu, 2006).",[]]],"rt":[["frames of terrorism",[]]]},{"de":[["awareness of others' suffering elicits feelings of sympathy, especially when the suffering is seen to be undeserved",["Salovey & Rosenhan, 1989"]],["Research has shown sympathy to predict support for government policies to help those harmed by injustice, such as African American victims of racial discrimination (Iyer et al., 2003) and Iraqi civilians who have suffered losses from Allied bombings during the war (Pagano & Huo, 2004).",[]]],"ex":[["African American victims of racial discrimination (Iyer et al., 2003)",[]],["Iraqi civilians who have suffered losses from Allied bombings during the war (Pagano & Huo, 2004)",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["amplification",[]],["elaboration likelihood",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["bandwagon effect",["Sundar et al., 2008"]]]},{"de":[["increase the perceived credibility of both factual and fake news and motivate their amplification (i.e., liking or sharing)",["Luo et al., 2022"]],["These cues serve as an indicator for the popularity of the content through other users and thus can trigger a bandwagon effect (Sundar et al., 2008), such that recipients perceive posts with multiple likes as being more valuable and credible (Metzger & Flanagin, 2013).",["Sundar et al., 2008","Metzger & Flanagin, 2013"]]],"sy":[["the like count",[]]],"rt":[["bandwagon effect",["Sundar et al., 2008"]]],"ex":[["the like count",[]],["the number of likes, shares, and views a post has received",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["individuals to inadvertently encounter opinion-challenging information online (Brundidge, 2010;Fletcher & Nielsen, 2017).",["Brundidge, 2010","Fletcher & Nielsen, 2017"]],["sometimes people accidentally come across political opinions or news on the internet that they did not seek out or expect to see",[]]]},{"de":[["including information that disagrees with or challenges existing political attitudes",["Brundidge, 2010","Wojcieszak & Mutz, 2009"]]]},{"de":[["reached out to friends, family, or acquaintances individually through social networking sites (SNS) to share information or views about politics and current affairs",[]],["posted information or views on SNS that many people could see to share information or views about politics and current affairs",[]],["the internet and social media allow individuals to encounter political information in multiple ways, which may affect whether or not they share content.",[]]]},{"sp":[["political expression",[]]]},{"de":[["the more people seek like-minded content",[]]]},{"de":[["more likely to occur when people strongly identify with one particular political party",["Stroud, 2011"]],["One method of achieving such reinforcement is by selecting media that supports self-relevant social identities (Slater, 2007).",["Slater, 2007"]],["selective exposure serves as a form of self-affirmation for partisans seeking to affirm their political selves in the face of counter-attitudinal messages.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["when people feel that their opinion is the prevailing one, they are more willing to speak out. On the other hand, when people perceive they are in the opinion minority, they tend to remain silent out of fear that they may be socially isolated or sanctioned because of their divergent opinions",["Noelle-Neumann, 1974"]]]},{},{"de":[["lies in the distillation or sorting out of frames of reference on political issues.",["Chong (1993, p. 870)"]]],"sy":[["second-level agenda setting",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["framing research",["McCombs, 2004"]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["speculative markets",[]]],"ex":[["which horse will win a race",[]]]},{"de":[["Voters often seem to vote expressively, that is, to care less about the policies their votes may influence than about how their votes will make them look and feel.",[]],["to care less about the policies their votes may influence than about how their votes will make them look and feel",[]]]},{"de":[["They include public relations teams, organized interest groups, news media, conversation forums, think tanks, universities, journals, elite committees, and state agencies.",[]]],"ex":[["public relations teams, organized interest groups, news media, conversation forums, think tanks, universities, journals, elite committees, and state agencies",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["exemplary info institutions",[]]],"rt":[["Betting markets",[]]],"sb":[["Betting markets",[]]],"ex":[["stocks, bonds, currency, and commodities futures",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The overexposure to English (as well as to particular research areas or methods) creates a bias described by the availability heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973).",["Tversky & Kahneman, 1973"]],["If we are exposed to something more often, we can recall it more efficiently, and if we can recall things quickly, we infer that they must be more important, bigger, better, more dangerous and so on.",[]]]},{"de":[["Biases as a preset are not necessarily an issue: they only become problematic when they are kept even in the face of contradictory evidence or when applied to areas they were not meant for.",[]]],"rt":[["demographic bias",[]],["overgeneralization",[]],["topic exposure",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Zhao et al. (2017) demonstrated that systems trained on biased data exacerbate that bias even further when applied to new data, and Kiritchenko and Mohammad (2018) have shown that sentiment analysis tools pick up on societal prejudices, leading to different outcomes for different demographic groups.",["Zhao et al. (2017)","Kiritchenko and Mohammad (2018)"]]]},{"de":[["the unfairness caused by demographic biases, such as unequal performance for different user groups (Tatman, 2017), misidentification of speakers and their needs (Criado Perez, 2019) or the proliferation of harmful stereotypes (e.g., Agarwal et al., 2019;Koolen & van Cranenburgh, 2017;Kiritchenko & Mohammad, 2018)",[]],["This degradation is much harder to see but often systematic for a particular demographic group and creates a demographic bias in NLP applications.",[]],["creates a demographic bias in NLP applications.",[]],["Models trained on these data sets treat language as if it resembles this restricted training data, creating demographic bias.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["bias arises because annotators are distracted, uninterested, or lazy about the annotation task. As a result, they choose the 'wrong' labels.",[]],["More problematic is label bias from informed and well-meaning annotators that systematically disagree.",[]],["Sap et al. (2019) showed that they reflect social and demographic differences, for example, that annotators rate the utterances of different ethnic groups differently and that they mistake innocuous banter as hate speech because they are unfamiliar with communication norms of the original speakers.",["Sap et al. (2019)"]]],"rt":[["selection bias",[]]]},{"de":[["rooted in data",[]]],"rt":[["label bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["For a claim spotted in the claim detection component, claim matching consists in determining whether this is a claim that exists in the database and can be resolved by a previous fact-check.",[]],["given a check-worthy claim as input, and having a database of previously fact-checked claims, it consists in determining if any of the claims in the database is related to the input; in this case, the new claim would not need fact-checking again, as it was fact-checked in the past.",[]],["It is normally framed as a ranking task, where claims in the database are ranked based on their similarity to the input claim",["Shaar et al., 2020a"]]],"sy":[["identifying previously fact-checked claims",[]]],"rt":[["claim detection",[]],["claim validation",[]]]},{"de":[["claim validation, which typically involves addressing evidence retrieval and claim verification together.",[]]],"sy":[["fact-checking",[]]],"rt":[["claim verification",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Evidence retrieval",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["claim validation",[]]]},{"de":[["Proposed classification approaches are typically centred on shallow features of the articles: n-grams, characters, stop words, part-of-speech tags, readability scores, term frequency, etc. Some more advanced approaches use additional metadata. However, these approaches are more likely to merely capture patterns of different article styles, rather than to sensibly distinguish reliable and unreliable articles",["Hanselowski, 2020"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Evidence retrieval",[]]]},{"de":[["Predictions are typically made on language subjectivity and metadata on social media [Zubiaga et al., 2018].",["Zubiaga et al., 2018"]],["Despite the relevance of these features, the truth value of a claim does not directly depend on these features.",[]],["Predictions are typically made on language subjectivity and metadata on social media",["Zubiaga et al., 2018"]]]},{"de":[["In practical NLP context, we define entailment to include cases where the truth value of hypothesis h is highly plausible given text t, rather than absolutely certain",["Dagan et al., 2009"]],["In other words, 'text t entails hypothesis h if, typically, a human reading t would infer that h is most likely true'",["Bar-Haim et al., 2014"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Ill will toward others' intellectual flourishing is necessary for the vice of epistemic malevolence.",[]],["The person who blocks, antagonises, or actively prevents other people from acquiring epistemic goods is not best thought malevolent if she does not act out of ill will.",[]],["Actions that manifest epistemic malevolence exemplify this structure.",[]],["explain why a person blocks others' access to epistemic goods by adducing her motivating reasons",[]],["The person who is epistemically malevolent acts out of an ill will.",[]],["He is driven by the motive universally to antagonise, block, or prevent what he regards as epistemically good, or to put obstacles in the way of the acquisition by some person of her share of this good.",[]],["I have argued that the possession of a non-instrumental motive to make the epistemic good one's enemy is both necessary and sufficient for malevolence.",[]]],"sp":[["intellectual vice",[]]]},{"de":[["an epistemic good that is a component of epistemic responsibility",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In short, intellectual vice constitutes a motivation actively to turn away from the epistemic good.",[]]]},{"de":[["What is characteristic of epistemic laziness is aversion rather than indifference to effort.",[]],["characteristic bad motivation that is necessary for intellectual laziness",[]]],"sy":[["epistemic laziness",[]]]},{"de":[["an intellectual vice that requires the presence of a non-instrumental motive to oppose the epistemic good as such.",[]],["they may include habits of thought such as wishful thinking",[]]],"sy":[["epistemic vice",[]]],"sb":[["epistemic malevolence",[]],["epistemic laziness",[]],["wishful thinking",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These considerations are normative reasons, which is to say facts that provide rational grounds for the belief or the action.",[]]],"rt":[["normative reasons",[]]]},{"de":[["These considerations are normative reasons, which is to say facts that provide rational grounds for the belief or the action.",[]]]},{"de":[["Both rationalisations and mere explanations are psychological explanations, while justifications are not.",[]]],"rt":[["psychological explanations",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["These reasons are known as motivating reasons; they are the considerations that the agent takes to offer rational support for her actions and beliefs and that as a result motivate her to believe and behave as she does.",[]],["Both rationalisations and mere explanations are psychological explanations, while justifications are not.",[]]],"rt":[["psychological explanations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These reasons are known as motivating reasons; they are the considerations that the agent takes to offer rational support for her actions and beliefs and that as a result motivate her to believe and behave as she does.",["22"]]]},{"de":[["The states are the motivational components of vice. These are bad because they are non-instrumental motives actively to turn away from things that are epistemically good in themselves.",[]],["explanation of a belief or an action as reflecting a vice implies that this belief or action lacks any justification.",[]]]},{"de":[["The attribution also entails that there are no reasons that would support holding the belief or carrying out the action.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the five most plausible candidate epistemic problems raised by cognitive outsourcing-i.e., unreliability (Section 2), gullibility (Section 3), irrationality (Section 4), dependency (Section 5), and lack of epistemic autonomy (Section 6)",[]]],"ex":[["Consider a person, let us call him Ted, who learns a great many things about the world from online sources, but knows nothing whatsoever about their epistemic credentials. With respect to the topics on which he consults his online sources, Ted conducts no (further) information collection, nor any processing of the input he receives from his sources, beyond whatever processing is needed for purposes of simply accepting what he's being told.",[]]]},{"sp":[["epistemic autonomy",[]]]},{"de":[["the epistemically autonomous individual does not rely on the word of others",[]],["what she does instead is conduct her own inquiry, while relying only on her own epistemic capabilities and resources",[]],["we may distinguish between two aspects of epistemic autonomy, one negative and one positive.",[]],["As for the negative aspect, the epistemically autonomous individual does not rely on the word of others.",[]],["As for the positive aspect, what she does instead is conduct her own inquiry, while relying only on her own epistemic capabilities and resources.",[]],["rendering dependence on others perfectly compatible with autonomous agency",[]],["we may distinguish between two aspects of epistemic autonomy, one negative and one positive. As for the negative aspect, the epistemically autonomous individual does not rely on the word of others. As for the positive aspect, what she does instead is conduct her own inquiry, while relying only on her own epistemic capabilities and resources.",[]]],"rt":[["dual-aspect conception of epistemic autonomy",[]],["cognitive outsourcing",[]],["epistemic outsourcing",[]]]},{"sy":[["doxastic inconsistency",[]]]},{},{"de":[["To believe without doing so is to believe blindly, uncritically. This is gullibility",[]]],"rt":[["doxastic response to testimony",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["A classic example of unsafe belief is provided by Goldman's (1976) fake barn scenario, where a person happens to perceptually single out the only genuine barn in a district that, unbeknownst to her, is populated almost exclusively by fake but very convincing-looking barns.",[]]]},{"sy":[["accuracy motivation",[]]],"rt":[["accuracy and partisan",["Taber and Lodge 2006"]],["cognition and evaluation",["Nir 2011"]],["accuracy and defensive",["Hart et al. 2009"]],["directional and nondirectional",["Molden and Higgins 2005"]]],"sp":[["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["accuracy motivation in the political context as the desire to be \"a good citizen;\" desiring to be well-informed and aware of alternative viewpoints",[]],["accuracy motivation can also be understood as a willingness to forgo \"cognitive closure,\" allowing reasoning to take place over a longer period of time.",[]],["evaluating accuracy: a correspondence between a judgment and a criterion (e.g., the researcher-observer's arbitrary measure of accuracy), interpersonal agreement (i.e., consensus), or the subjective experience of the individual (e.g., I feel that I made an accurate judgment).",[]],["Accuracy motivation in particular has received insufficient attention",[]],["accuracy motivation emerging in small group and dyadic discussions, when individuals are held accountable, and when they care about being good citizens.",[]],["desiring to be well-informed and aware of alternative viewpoints",[]]],"sy":[["accuracy goals",[]]],"sp":[["Motivation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["directional motivation",[]],["partisan motivation",[]]],"rt":[["accuracy and partisan",["Taber and Lodge 2006"]],["cognition and evaluation",["Nir 2011"]],["accuracy and defensive",["Hart et al. 2009"]],["directional and nondirectional",["Molden and Higgins 2005"]]],"sp":[["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["Directionally motivated reasoning necessarily prioritizes one desired conclusion; other (less) desired conclusions may be sacrificed to satisfy that overarching goal.",[]]],"rt":[["accuracy motivated",[]]],"sb":[["partisan motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"sy":[["directional goals",[]]],"sp":[["Motivation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["provide a coherent theoretical framework for understanding partisan influence on citizens' political opinions.",[]],["the magnitude and nature of partisan influence on opinion formation depends in systematic ways on citizens' motivation and effort.",[]],["striving toward some goal.",[]],["correcting errors and biases is not only a matter of more reasoning, but a matter of encouraging particular kinds of reasoning",[]],["motivated reasoning acknowledges that the desire to be correct can easily be trumped by or interact with a desire to reinforce particular conclusions.",[]],["The contribution of motivated reasoning, as we describe it, is to provide a coherent theoretical framework for understanding partisan influence on citizens' political opinions.",[]]],"rt":[["goal",[]],["motivation",[]],["need",[]],["accuracy motivation",[]],["directional motivations",[]],["bias",[]],["accuracy goals",[]],["directional goals",[]],["partisan motivated reasoning",[]],["directionally motivated reasoning",[]]],"sb":[["accuracy goals",[]],["directional goals",[]]]},{"sy":[["goal",[]],["need",[]],["wish",[]],["desire",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This term has come to connote something far more biased, perhaps even sinister, than the psychological phenomena it accurately describes.",[]],["strong evidence of partisan motivated reasoning",["30"]],["view partisanship as an emotional and identity attachment to the party as a group.",[]]],"rt":[["Directional motivated reasoning",[]],["goal of affirming one's partisan identity",[]],["goal of affirming one's political viewpoints",[]]],"sb":[["affirming one's partisan identity",[]],["affirming one's political viewpoints",[]]],"sp":[["Directional motivated reasoning",[]],["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["Party cues provide explicit information about which political party (or parties) supports or opposes a given policy or candidate.",[]]]},{"sy":[["affective attachments",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These strategy related needs are satisfied when individuals engage in reasoning tasks that \"fit\" with their general (stable-personality or situational) orientations for \"prevention\" or \"promotion.\"",["Higgins and Molden 2004"]]]},{"de":[["a feeling of personal unrest and lack of understanding of the social world",[]]],"rt":[["alienation from the political system",[]]]},{"de":[["accepting information that confirms one's views and scrutinizing information that disconfirms one's views",[]]]},{"de":[["a form of ingroup positivity that reflects a belief in the ingroup's greatness associated with a conviction that others do not acknowledge the ingroup's worth enough",[]]],"rt":[["ingroup positivity",[]]]},{"de":[["an error of probabilistic reasoning whereby people overestimate the likelihood of co-occurring events",[]]]},{"de":[["Conspiracies typically attempt to usurp political or economic power, violate rights, infringe upon established agreements, withhold vital secrets, or alter bedrock institutions.",[]],["This definition goes beyond simple criminal conspiracies, such as conspiring to rob a corner shop.",[]]],"ex":[["Watergate scandal",["Dai & Handley-Schachler, 2015","Grimes, 2016","Keeley, 1999","Popper, 1972"]]]},{"de":[["Many of the social scientific studies on conspiracy theories focus on beliefs about the assassination of President John F. Kennedy",[]]],"ex":[["believe that the CIA killed President John F. Kennedy",["Enders & Smallpage, 2018"]],["believed that the vote would be rigged",["YouGov, 2016","Drochon, 2018"]],["death of Diana, Princess of Wales",["Douglas & Sutton, 2008"]],["9/11 \"Truther\" theories",["Laine & Parakkal, 2017","Stempel, Hargrove, & Stempel, 2007"]],["\"chemtrail\" conspiracy theories",["Tingley & Wagner, 2018"]],["theories about Barack Obama's citizenship",["Enders, Smallpage, & Lupton, in press"]]]},{"de":[["While often thought of as addressing governments, conspiracy theories could accuse any group perceived as powerful and malevolent.",[]],["While a conspiracy refers to a true causal chain of events, a conspiracy theory refers to an allegation of conspiracy that may or may not be true.",[]],["conspiracy theories are used by vulnerable groups to manage perceived dangers: they are early warning systems that keep watch over the most sensitive areas and prepare solutions to potential attacks.",["Uscinski and Parent (2014, Chap. 6)"]],["conspiracy theories are for \"losers\" and tend to accuse those in power and their coalitions.",[]],["used by vulnerable groups to manage perceived dangers: they are early warning systems that keep watch over the most sensitive areas and prepare solutions to potential attacks",[]],["conspiracy theories communicate information to generate collective action in the face of threat",[]],["conspiracy theories function like calling cards sending clear signals to copartisans",[]],["Various scholars view conspiracy theories as results of people's and groups' attempts to understand social and political reality",["Radnitz & Underwood, 2017"]],["conspiracy theories have been predominantly linked to harmful social, health, and political consequences.",[]],["it is possible to view conspiracy theories as an important ingredient of democratic discourse",["Moore, 2016a(Moore, , 2016b)"]],["conspiracy theories communicate information to generate collective action in the face of threat.",[]],["conspiracy theories could be viewed as a way of constructing and communicating a personal set of values and moral feelings",[]],["conspiracy theories help groups to symbolically cope with threatening events by making abstract risk more concrete and by focusing blame on a set of conspirators.",["Franks et al. (2013)"]],["conspiracy narratives are used to dispute dominant political and ideological assumptions",["Sapountzis and Condor (2013)"]],["conspiracy theories are communicated as devices to cope with collective trauma.",[]],["conspiracy theories as symptoms rather than causes of social dysfunction",["Knight (2001)"]]],"ex":[["Conspiracy theories about the 9/11 terror attacks",[]],["conspiracy theories about climate change",[]]]},{"de":[["It is sometimes used more specifically to denote a person who propagates conspiracy theories professionally",[]],["or to people who advocate strongly for a conspiracy theory",[]],["sometimes used more specifically to denote a person who propagates conspiracy theories professionally (e.g., Alex Jones, David Icke) or to people who advocate strongly for a conspiracy theory, such as former Florida Atlantic University Professor James Tracy who claims that the 2012 killings at the Sandy Hook elementary school in Connecticut in the United States were a hoax, or Piers Corbyn-brother of UK Labour Party Leader Jeremy Corbyn-who claims that climate science is a fraud",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy theory",[]]],"ex":[["Alex Jones",[]],["David Icke",[]],["James Tracy",[]],["Piers Corbyn",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This idea largely stems from the finding that people who already believe in particular conspiracy theories are likely to believe in others (Goertzel, 1994), even unrelated ones (Wood, Douglas, & Sutton, 2012).",["Goertzel, 1994","Wood, Douglas, & Sutton, 2012"]],["This may indicate an underlying tendency for some people to prefer conspiracy explanations because of a bias against powerful disliked groups and official accounts",["Wood, Douglas, & Sutton, 2012","Imhoff & Lamberty, 2018"]],["This may indicate an underlying tendency for some people to prefer conspiracy explanations because of a bias against powerful disliked groups and official accounts (Wood, Douglas, & Sutton, 2012; see also Imhoff & Lamberty, 2018).",[]]],"sy":[["conspiracy mindset",[]],["conspiracy predispositions",[]],["conspiracist ideation",[]],["conspiracy ideology",[]],["conspiracy mentality",[]],["conspiracy worldview",[]]]},{"de":[["endorsing ideas to express opposition to policies and politicians rather than reflecting genuine beliefs",[]],["responses to political statements are rife with expressive responding and that participants' responses can therefore not be relied upon as their true beliefs",["Prior, Sood, & Khanna, 2015"]]]},{"de":[["the tendency to attribute agency and intentionality where it does not (or is unlikely to) exist",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Motivated reasoning has frequently been observed with conspiracy theories, particularly with partisanship and political ideology",[]]],"rt":[["partisanship",[]],["political ideology",[]]]},{},{"de":[["contributes and reinforces the ideologies and psychological processes within the group",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The analysis then focuses on the patterns of relationships that emerge while citizens are interacting with the content",["Garton, Haythornthwaite, and Wellman 1997"]],["This relational approach aims to conceptualize online interactions in the form of networks that are connected with each other based on common interests or the type of content shared or accessed.",[]]]},{"de":[["This \"articulated\" network of confirmed contacts or follower relationships is accessible to researchers, who can use the number of followers, number of new followers, or number of times followers have shared content with their own network of connections.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This category of goals reflects a classical interest in the risk communication literature deriving from its close affinity to decision theory (Arvai, Gregory, & Boholm McDaniels, 2001).",[]],["One group of answers suggests that the goal of risk communication is to provide information to individuals so that they themselves can make up their minds and make decisions.",[]],["Another type of answer stated that risk communication was designed by the agency with the specific aim of influencing the outcome of individuals' decisions and actions, for example, to \"change behavior to become more climate friendly\" or to \"make people act so that their health improves.\"",[]],["Here we find the aims of influencing behavior, action, and decision making.",[]]],"sp":[["Risk Communication",[]]]},{"de":[["In this category we find aims such as disseminating knowledge of risk, providing information on risk, heightening awareness of risk, and creating interest in and understanding of risk.",[]],["Sometimes, the educational goal was further qualified by statements that the information must be objective, factually correct, balanced, and easily understood.",[]]],"sp":[["Risk Communication",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This goal relates to the management of emotions, mainly negative emotions such as fear and anxiety.",[]]],"sp":[["Risk Communication",[]]]},{"de":[["risk communication is understood as a way to reduce fear among the public by providing factual information about potential negative events in a way that does not evoke undesired negative emotions.",[]],["risk communication makes \"people aware without frightening them\" so they \"understand and are not unnecessarily worried\"; moreover, risk communication allows people to \"manage that which evokes worry.\"",[]],["The underlying rationale is that \"people should feel calm.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Two interviewees also related risk communication to the \"brand\" of the agency: risk communication is believed to \"protect trust and the brand,\" helping maintain the agency's public image, or brand.",[]]],"sp":[["Risk Communication",[]]]},{"de":[["risk communication is believed to \"protect trust and the brand,\" helping maintain the agency's public image, or brand.",[]]]},{"de":[["Risk communication as an academic field focuses on exploratory, explanatory, and normative accounts of the practice of risk communication.",[]],["Risk communication practice is essential to policy and regulation covering policy fields such as environment, natural resource management, the built environment, infrastructure, chemicals, food, energy, and contingency preparedness.",[]],["strategies and practices for communication (including relationships with the media and use of social media)",[]],["tools for systematically identifying risks and threats. For systematically evaluating whether you want to live with risks or whether they should be fixed.",[]],["Educational: disseminate knowledge, explain, create awareness, influence attitudes, and make people listen",[]],["Behavioral: influence action and decision making",[]],["Contingency management: manage, avoid, minimize, or eliminate risk",[]],["Psychological: manage emotions",[]],["risk communication allows people to \"manage that which evokes worry.\"",[]],["It is something that the agency is required to do and it fulfills internal demands such as to \"create a good basis for decisions\" and \"meet operational goals.\"",[]],["risk communication is believed to \"protect trust and the brand,\" helping maintain the agency's public image, or brand.",[]],["This category offers an instrumental perspective according to which risk communication is understood to provide results in terms of improved safety.",[]]],"rt":[["crisis communication",[]],["risk management",[]],["risk analysis",[]]],"sb":[["technocratic, top-down model of risk communication",[]],["Educational",[]],["Behavioral",[]],["Contingency management",[]],["Psychological",[]],["Administrative/organizational",[]],["Reputational",[]]]},{},{"de":[["building trust in and the credibility of the agency",[]],["providing information as a service to citizens and stakeholders, including public access to documents according to the constitution",[]],["fostering accountability by disclosing how the agency works and makes decisions",[]],["creating dialogue",[]],["transparency in practice is understood as difficult to implement due to several identified adverse effects, such as security threats and causing possibly unjustified fear among members of the public.",[]],["openness can be understood to be both good and bad, it depends . . . .",[]]],"rt":[["Openness",[]]]},{"sb":[["Scientific uncertainty",[]],["statistical uncertainty",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an extensive human rights abuse that cannot be overlooked or underestimated",["FRA, 2014"]]]},{},{"de":[["is recognised as an expression of hetero-patriarchy",["Rodríguez-Dariasa & Aguilera-Ávila, 2018"]],["not only includes the presence of hostility but further functions coercively to reinforce or justify patriarchal norms",["Richardson-Self, 2018"]],["recognised as an expression of hetero-patriarchy",["Rodríguez-Dariasa & Aguilera-Ávila, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["phenomenon of violence targeting females in virtual environments",[]],["Online misogyny should be understood as a technosocial construct",[]],["reveals far more about men and manhood than it does about women and womanhood.",[]]],"sy":[["e-bile",[]],["cyberviolence",[]],["gendered cyberhate",[]],["technology-facilitated (sexual) violence",[]],["electronic aggression",[]],["online abuse",[]],["hate speech",[]],["networked harassment",[]],["cyberbullying",[]],["cyberharassment",[]],["online violence against women",[]],["mediated misogyny",[]]]},{"de":[["recognised as a tool which is adopted in order to normalise and/or trivialise gender-based discrimination",["Lockyer & Savigny, 2019"]],["Often the violence targeting the women athletes online was subtle and hidden through humour, therefore reducing its likelihood to be recognised as violent content.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["third wave feminists have sought to 'question, reclaim, and redefine the ideas, words, and media that have transmitted ideas about womanhood, gender, beauty, sexuality, femininity, and masculinity, amount other things'",["Walker, 2009"]],["suggests that third-wave goals: Continue to centre around the creation of an inclusive feminism that respects not only differences between women based on race, ethnicity, religion, and economic standing but also makes allowance for different identities within a single person.",["Heywood (2006)"]],["seeks to create a feminism that is not only critical of media and its representations of women but also produces media itself and makes use of that media and its representations to bring about social change.",["Heywood (2006)"]],["Third wave seeks to create a feminism that is not only critical of media and its representations of women but also produces media itself and makes use of that media and its representations to bring about social change.",["Heywood (2006)"]]]},{"de":[["The WHO (2002) defined violence as:",[]],["recognised as a broad term due to the visible and invisible harm that can be caused through its various forms.",[]],["the WHO recognise that violence can include neglect and all types of physical, sexual and psychological abuse and is reflective of the broad scope of violence that can be experienced in today's societies.",[]],["Violence can be self-directed, interpersonal or collective",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such violence can be exhibited through the presence of physical, sexual, emotional and discriminatory content.",[]]]},{"de":[["The term fake news can be used to refer to a variety of different phenomena.",[]],["can be used to refer to a variety of different phenomena",[]]],"sy":[["false political content",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["hyperpartisan",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["abcnews.com.co, the Denver Guardian, and Ending the Fed",[]]]},{"de":[["Choice homophily creates circumstances for induced homophily, such as groups of similar people, which are then further reinforced in cycles of choice and induced homophily.",[]],["intrinsic bias for choice homophily",[]]],"sy":[["choice homophily bias",[]]],"rt":[["rising from the constraints in the opportunities of individuals to make connections",["17"]]],"sp":[["homophily",[]],["the tendency of similar people to be connected to each other due to their shared biological and cultural attributes such as gender, occupation, or political affiliation",["1"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the large (small) group forms the core and attracts edges from the small (large) periphery group",[]]],"rt":[["homophily amplification",[]]]},{"de":[["a major force behind several pressing social issues including inequality, segregation, and online echo chambers",["9","10","11"]],["individual preference for similarity",[]]],"rt":[["online echo chambers",[]]],"sb":[["choice homophily",[]],["induced homophily",[]],["defined by people's preference when choosing whom to connect with",["17"]],["rising from the constraints in the opportunities of individuals to make connections",["17"]]]},{"de":[["cumulative advantagelike cycle",[]],["through a tipping point mechanism analogous to the one responsible for residential segregation in the Schelling model [20], in which segregation takes place in the social network topology rather than in the physical space.",[]],["where ŝ(c) = 2s(c) -1 is the estimate of choice homophily s for given triadic closure c, normalized such that ŝ = 0 implies no homophily/heterophily in the network.",[]]],"rt":[["triadic closure",[]],["choice homophily",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Choice homophily creates circumstances for induced homophily, such as groups of similar people, which are then further reinforced in cycles of choice and induced homophily.",[]]],"rt":[["defined by people's preference when choosing whom to connect with",["17"]]],"sp":[["homophily",[]],["the tendency of similar people to be connected to each other due to their shared biological and cultural attributes such as gender, occupation, or political affiliation",["1"]]]},{"sy":[["emotional arcs",[]]],"ex":[["a consistent rise in positive emotion words over the course of a story was indicative of a \"rags-to-riches\" storyline, whereas a decline in positive emotion words was indicative of tragedy.",[]]]},{"de":[["reflects the sense-making process that people engage in while working through a conflict or challenge in their life (22,23)",["22","23"]],["when people are uncertain of an answer to a complex problem, cognitive process words are used at higher rates than if the person is absolutely certain of the answer (24)",["24"]]],"rt":[["cognitive tension",[]]],"ex":[["\"think,\" \"believe,\" \"understand,\" and \"cause\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["is theorized to be present throughout a story, even to some degree at or near the very beginning (21)",["21"]],["The relative amount of cognitive tension, or \"working-through,\" will be reflected in cognitive process words (29,30).",["29","30"]],["The relative amount of cognitive tension, or \"working-through,\" will be reflected in cognitive process words",["29","30"]]],"sy":[["working-through",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive process words",[]],["staging",[]],["plot progression",[]]],"sp":[["narrative processes",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["Supreme Court decisions are a form of expository writing",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Newspaper articles are examples of informative writing",[]]]},{"de":[["Generally, a narrative is considered a superordinate construct composed of a series of stories or events that could be imaginary or factual.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["narrative processes",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["plot progression",[]],["cognitive tension",[]]],"sp":[["narrative processes",[]]]},{"sp":[["expository writing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["information control",[]]]},{"de":[["The core idea is that whether by providing incentives or changing the constraints on various forms of action through broad laws or policies, repressors attempt to obtain preferred behaviors without direct pressure or force.",[]],["whether attempts at control involve force and coercion (e.g., physical violence, arrests, or harassment-based strategies) or instead seek to incentivize preferred forms of expression and behavior, referred to in the literature as channeling",[]]],"rt":[["force and coercion",[]],["coercion",[]]],"sb":[["overt channeling",[]],["covert channeling",[]]],"ex":[["tax laws that reward nonprofits for education but discourage advocacy",["21"]]]},{"de":[["done in ways that make the connection to protest harder to discern (as in channeling; Table 1, cells 4, 8, and 12)",[]]],"sy":[["unobserved",[]]]},{"rt":[["overt coercion",[]]],"sp":[["channeling",[]]]},{"sp":[["information channeling",[]]]},{"sp":[["Information channeling",[]]]},{"de":[["actions that are more practical and/or thought more effective if unnoticed",[]]],"sy":[["unobserved",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Substantively, this means that digital repression is a capacious concept that includes (i) the use of traditional repressive techniques against digital protesters (e.g., the arrest of political bloggers or private harassment and/or violence against online activists); (ii) the use of digital tools in the performance of traditional repressive actions (e.g., state-of-the-art digital surveillance); and (iii) the development and deployment of information strategies designed to diminish protest (e.g., China's so-called 50-Cent Army).",[]],["we seek to recognize that there are both already well-known and new aspects to digital repression",[]],["It does not refer to basic Internet governance (9,10), unless that governance is designed to limit opportunities for contestation.",[]]],"rt":[["repression",[]]],"sb":[["online disinformation campaigns",[]],["digital social credit schemes",[]],["private online harassment campaigns by lone individuals",[]],["regime violence against online political actors",[]]],"sp":[["repression",[]]],"ex":[["online disinformation campaigns",[]],["digital social credit schemes",[]],["private online harassment campaigns by lone individuals",[]],["regime violence against online political actors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Information channeling strategies, especially covert strategies such as disinformation campaigns where repressors mimic activists, work similarly to damage trust among activists and undermine the institutional capacity of movement organizations to function effectively.",[]],["By enflaming existing social tensions and introducing mistrust of democratic institutions, disinformation campaigns diminish the base of civil society from which movements can mobilize (169).",["169"]]],"rt":[["Information channeling strategies",[]],["covert strategies",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Here, repressors make paying attention to preferred information more accessible or attractive (61), analogous to the carrots that incentivize preferred behavior in traditional channeling.",["61"]],["Unlike traditional propaganda, however, which seeks first and foremost to change attitudes, opinions, and beliefs, information channeling aims to influence behavior.",[]],["Information channeling can prevent people from finding or even encountering information related to issues they would otherwise have supported and activities such as a protest that they otherwise would have joined.",[]],["Long-time researchers of digital censorship label this \"active engagement,\" positioning it as a preferred option for many in power because it is often easier to distract from content or overwhelm with other information than to ensure no one has technical access to information or posts (2,60).",["2","60"]],["the information channeling forms of repression that we introduced in Table 2 may be both uniquely digital (at least at scale) and also uniquely corrosive to democracies because they do not feel like repression to many who experience them; nonetheless, they constrain activists and social mobilization.",[]],["do not have a performative aspect, are often found to have a deterrence effect if their purposes are not revealed and they effectively redirect behavior attention",["61"]],["This is a form of channeling, but as applied to information and attention. Here, repressors make paying attention to preferred information more accessible or attractive",["61"]],["it is not about limiting or removing access but, rather, redirecting or otherwise influencing attention.",[]]],"sy":[["active engagement",[]]],"rt":[["active engagement",["2","60"]]],"sb":[["overt, informational channeling strategies",[]],["Covert information channeling campaigns",[]],["overt information channeling",[]],["covert information channeling",[]]],"sp":[["digital repression",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["overt channeling, which is usually clearly and directly connected to taming contentious voices",[]]],"sp":[["channeling",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["information channeling",[]]]},{"sp":[["Information channeling",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Repression is distinguishable from general governance in that it is designed to prevent, reduce, and/or control noninstitutional challenges (e.g., protest, social movements, and activism) and is distinct from broader carceral systems that govern many kinds of activity.",[]]],"rt":[["lawful governance",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["which could be mitigated by organizing content and audiences thematically to delineate spaces where accuracy is (e.g., news) versus is not (e.g., family photos) central (28).",["28"]]]},{},{"de":[["for example, through fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["consisting of a short text pointing out various ways to spot false news, such as looking at the validity of the source",[]]]},{"de":[["Improved discernment indicates a higher ability to distinguish manipulative from neutral stimuli.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["prebunk",[]]]},{"sy":[["preemptive refutation",[]]]},{"sy":[["prebunk",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["researchers belief that the effect will occur could elicit the effect, or researchers belief that the effect will not occur could eliminate the effect",[]]],"sy":[["researchers' expectations",[]],["expectations of the experimenter",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["deliberative democracy also incorporates inclusive participation that encompasses citizens and leaders, mutual justification, listening, respect, reflection, and openness to persuasion.",[]]],"rt":[["legitimation of public authority",[]],["mutual understanding",[]],["integration of diverse sorts of knowledge",[]]]},{},{"de":[["that are already found in many political systems, particularly liberal democratic ones.",[]],["These locations are linked through (for example) the pressure that social movements exert on legislatures, the justifications for their actions that leaders give to the public, and the arguments that experts make to political leaders.",[]]],"rt":[["political executives",[]],["legislatures",[]],["citizen forums",[]],["old and new media",[]],["informal citizen gatherings",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we appear to engage in doublethink -colluding in producing exaggerated PRs but mainly blaming the media for the shortcomings of science news.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["e.g. \"Expectant mothers should... \"",[]]]},{"de":[["e.g. \"Eating chocolate might be beneficial for... \"",[]]]},{"de":[["discredited",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["advice",[]],["main causal claims",[]],["secondary causal claims",[]],["human inference",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["based on a reported spike in suicides in young men in Germany and across Europe after the publication of Goethe's The sorrows of young Werther in 1774, depicting the circumstances leading to the suicide of the male protagonist",[]],["The Werther effect is discussed mostly in relation to non-fictional news stories, 8 particularly stories about deaths of celebrities by suicide, 6 and stories with a dramatic or romanticised depiction of suicide, or featuring an explicit and detailed description of a suicide method. [12][13][14]",["12","13","14"]]],"ex":[["stories about deaths of celebrities by suicide",[]],["stories with a dramatic or romanticised depiction of suicide",[]]]},{"de":[["They both include outright lies and imposter news outlets, but also more benign content like misleading headlines or even satire.",[]],["disinformation campaigns targeted long trusted scientific institutions",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["A fake Biden campaign website that admitted it was a parody on its front page could count as misinformation, for example.",["3"]]]},{"de":[["They both include outright lies and imposter news outlets, but also more benign content like misleading headlines or even satire.",[]],["misinformation includes well intentioned but misleading headlines.",[]],["health and political misinformation are hard to tease apart.",[]],["Note that much of this content is neither fake nor news.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["A fake Biden campaign website that admitted it was a parody on its front page could count as misinformation, for example.",["3"]]]},{"de":[["Framing involves the selection and salience of news, choices that are made by the journalists and that define problems, diagnose causes, make moral judgements and suggest remedies.",["4"]]],"ex":[["The media can also influence responses and policy, such as around tobacco use-both for better and worse-depending on whether tobacco has been framed as socially acceptable or as a health hazard.",["7"]]]},{"ex":[["providing a description of a single collision (SA-8)",[]],["Analysis of solutions to RTCs (WHO-SA-7)",[]],["covering the deadliness of RTCs (WHO-SA-1)",[]],["discussing the vulnerability of certain groups (WHO-SA-4)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["cannot tell us how these messages are received by audiences",[]]],"sb":[["Quantitative content analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["include constructions of problems, affected groups, drivers and solutions",["15","16"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["stereotyping",[]]]},{"de":[["beliefs about the characteristics, attributes, and behaviors of members of certain groups",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the tendency to assign characteristics to all members of a group based on stereotypical features shared by a few",[]]],"rt":[["statistical discrimination",[]]],"sb":[["Stereotyping via Representativeness",[]]]},{"de":[["In the simplest version of stereotyping by exemplars, a single exemplar pulls points towards itself, so that in the observed representation, points from one group are perceived to be closer to the exemplar (and thus closer in feature space) than they actually are.",[]],["we pick an arbitrary exemplar within the unprivileged group and move the points representing the remaining individuals in this group towards it according to parameter 0 < α < 1",[]]],"sp":[["stereotyping under the geometric interpretation",[]]],"ex":[["Once an exemplar (the larger red point) is chosen, the observation process associates other point more closely with it -this is effectively achieved by having the red points mapped closer to the exemplar, as we see in the right subfigure.",[]]]},{"de":[["Stereotyping now occurs by amplifying perceived probabilities based on representativeness.",[]]],"rt":[["representativeness heuristic",[]]],"sp":[["stereotyping",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Echo chambers in online social networks, in which users prefer to interact only with ideologically-aligned peers, are believed to facilitate misinformation spreading and contribute to radicalize political discourse.",[]],["This translates, at the topological level, into a node i with a given position P i connected with nodes with a position close to P i , and receiving with higher probability messages with similar average sentiment P i .",[]],["The use of spreading models allows us to characterize the internal structure of echo-chambers, showing that users belonging to the same echo chamber, with different convictions (i.e., the intensity of their attitude to the impeachment issue), can have quite different spreading capabilities.",[]],["referring to the situation in which one's beliefs are reinforced due to repeated interactions with individuals sharing the same points of view",["14"]],["These two clusters of users sharing similar opinions, or echo chambers, can be characterized by looking at the correlations between the in-flow and out-flow of sentiments, as well as between the average sentiments of an individual and his/her nearest neighbors.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation spreading",[]],["ideological radicalism",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The set of influence of a user thus represents the set of individuals that can be reached by a message sent by him/her, depending on the transmission probability λ and healing time τ .",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals with large spreadability are able to break their echo chambers.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["brokers benefit from greater control over the transmission of information while also adopting conciliatory attitudes that mediate tensions",["3"]],["can form weak ties between polarized groups by linking users with access to complementary information and creating opportunities for intergroup contact and exchange of information",["3"]]],"sy":[["bubble reachers",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["betweenness",[]],["bridgeness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Positive values mean consensus, and negative values, as it gets closer to -2.0, mean disagreement among individuals.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["reflects something fundamental about engagement on social media.",[]],["emphasizing the role of selective exposure in structuring online polarization",["37","38"]]]},{},{"sp":[["market microstructure models",[]]]},{"de":[["intentional disinformation in the political context -so-called fake news",[]],["When fake news is released, for instance by a malicious individual aiming to mislead the public, the false information is superimposed on other information. However, fake news, by its nature, does not represent truth statements about the value of the quantity X that people wish to determine, so it cannot be viewed as forming part of the signal that helps people discover the true value of X.",[]],["The existence of bias here is important, for otherwise {F t } would merely represent further noise, rather than deliberate misinformation.",[]],["fake news, which can take different forms",[]],["various pieces of fake news are released that purport to show that the health and character of candidate A are bad, that the health and character of candidate B are good, that candidate A is more conservative than they seem to be, and that candidate B is more liberal.",[]],["the effect of a piece of fake news initially grows linearly in time but is then damped exponentially.",[]],["It is information that originates from the \"sender\" of fake news, is transmitted through a communication channel, and is then received, typically, by the general public.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["sensationalist reporting to increase newspaper circulation",[]],["candidates may try to make themselves look more palatable to a wider section of the electorate than they perhaps are (such as by suppressing about their health, or by downplaying their views on taxation)",[]],["They may run negative ads to spread untruths or half-truths about their opponents",[]],["malicious agents spreading entirely fabricated stories supporting one candidate or the other",[]]]},{"de":[["the domain of applicability of the phenomenological use of filtering techniques ranges from scales as small as elementary particles and atoms in physical systems (Brody & Hughston 2006) to scales as large as human activities in social systems (Brody, Hughston & Macrina 2007, 2008).",["Brody & Hughston 2006","Brody, Hughston & Macrina 2007, 2008"]]],"rt":[["communication theory",[]],["phenomenology",[]]],"sb":[["extrapolation, or prediction",["Wiener 1949","Kailath 1974"]],["filtering",["Wiener 1949","Kailath 1974"]],["interpolation, or smoothing",["Wiener 1949","Kailath 1974"]]],"sp":[["communication theory",[]]]},{"de":[["over time, noise will dominate (or, equivalently, in physicists' terminology, entropy will increase)",[]],["anything that is not part of the signal can be viewed as noise.",[]],["The central limit theorem then suggests the normality of the noise distribution, making Brownian motion a viable candidate for modelling noise.",[]],["The noise term {B t }, which has no bias, represents the aggregation of a large number of unsubstantiated rumours and speculations about the value of X.",[]]],"rt":[["entropy",[]]]},{"de":[["in analogy with representative agent models in economics",[]],["This is useful for the purpose of obtaining a qualitative understanding of the observed phenomena.",[]]],"rt":[["representative agent models",[]]],"sp":[["representative agent models",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This paper uses adjectives as opinion words. We also limit the opinion words extraction to those sentences that contain one or more product features, as we are only interested in customers' opinions on these product features.",[]]],"rt":[["subjective opinions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Words that encode a desirable state (e.g., beautiful, awesome) have a positive orientation, while words that represent undesirable states have a negative orientation (e.g., disappointing).",[]]],"rt":[["positive orientation",[]],["negative orientation",[]]],"ex":[["beautiful",[]],["awesome",[]],["disappointing",[]]]},{"de":[["Although some techniques for genre classification can recognize documents that express opinions [23,24,14], they do not tell whether the opinions are positive or negative.",["23","24","14"]]]},{"de":[["It can be a \"fact\" (alternatively, \"true claim\") or a \"hoax\" (alternatively, \"false claim\").",[]]],"sy":[["fact",[]],["true claim",[]],["hoax",[]],["false claim",[]]],"sb":[["fact",[]],["hoax",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Content Relevance",[]]],"rt":[["Content Relevance",[]]]},{"sy":[["Content Equivalence",[]]],"rt":[["Content Equivalence",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Redlining",[]]]},{"de":[["Equality of opportunity defines an important welfare criterion in political philosophy and policy analysis.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["equality of opportunity",[]]],"ex":[["How should admissions policies be designed so as to provide equal opportunities for college? Or how should tax schemes be designed so as to equalize opportunities for income?",[]]]},{},{"de":[["imposing statistical parity corresponds to preferential treatment.",[]]],"rt":[["statistical parity",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["creates difficulties for measuring the relative role of strong and weak ties in information diffusion, since people are more similar to those with whom they interact often",["22","34"]],["individuals may be more likely to exhibit the same behavior as their friends because of homophily rather than as a result of peer influence",[]]],"rt":[["strong ties",[]],["weak ties",[]],["information diffusion",[]],["peer influence",[]]]},{"de":[["Weak ties are argued to have access to more diverse information because they are expected to have fewer mutual contacts; each individual has access to information that the other does not.",[]]],"rt":[["strong ties",[]]],"ex":[["weak ties carry information one might otherwise not have been exposed to",[]]]},{"de":[["Usually consensus is reached as a \"natural and inherent product of editing; generally someone makes a change or addition to a page, then everyone who reads it has an opportunity to leave the page as it is or change it\".",[]],["when editors cannot reach agreement by editing, the process of finding a consensus is continued by discussion on the relevant talk pages",[]]]},{"ex":[["Ecured, Anarchopedia and Conservapedia",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["to be neutral is to describe debates rather than engage in them. In other words, when discussing a subject, we should report what people have said about it rather than what is so.",[]]],"rt":[["neutrality",[]]]},{"de":[["Each article should \"accurately indicate the relative prominence of opposing views. Ensure that the reporting of different views on a subject adequately reflects the relative levels of support for those views, and that it does not give a false impression of parity, or give undue weight to a particular view.",[]]]},{"de":[["Articles may not contain any new analysis or synthesis of published material that serves to advance a position not clearly advanced by the sources.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["again, the goal is not truth but verifiability.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["retweet graph",[]],["follower network graph",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["rumors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Individuals in such a state take some time before they begin to believe (I) in a story (i.e., get infected).",[]],["In the context of Twitter, the different compartments of the SEIZ model can be viewed as follows: Susceptible (S) represents a user who has not heard about the news yet; infected (I) denotes a user who has tweeted about the news; skeptic (Z) is a user who has heard about the news but chooses not to tweet about it; and exposed (E) represents a user who has received the news via a tweet but has taken some time, an exposure delay, prior to posting.",[]],["referring to the Z compartment as skeptics is in no way an implication of belief or skepticism of a news story or rumor.",[]]],"rt":[["SIS model",[]]],"sb":[["susceptible (S)",[]],["exposed (E)",[]],["infected (I)",[]],["skeptic",[]]],"sp":[["compartmental population models",[]]]},{"de":[["with forgetting and remembering mechanisms to simulate rumor spreading in inhomogeneous networks.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["cursing is a \"rich emotional, psychological and sociocultural phenomenon\"",["6"]],["people use swearing words is to express some strong emotions, especially anger and frustration, for emphasis.",[]],["cursing rarely results in obvious harm.",[]],["swearing increased pain tolerance and decreased perceived pain compared with not swearing.",["17"]]],"sy":[["swearing",[]],["profanity",[]],["bad language",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a process that enhances the value the public receives from the news content.",[]]],"rt":[["infographics",[]]]},{"de":[["data visualization as a modern application in statistical graphs and charts, where it finds its wider and most common application.",[]]]},{"de":[["However, it still requires a high level of authoring to determine where the interactions are going to take place.",[]]],"sp":[["narrative visualization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["small changes in visual findings can produce changes in opinion",["24"]]]},{"de":[["Where infographics tell stories designed by communicators, information visualization helps readers discover stories by themselves.",[]]],"rt":[["information visualization",[]]]},{"rt":[["infographics",[]]]},{"de":[["Dove and Jones [8] view insight as a two-part process: first, the insight experience of gaining new understanding or knowledge; and secondly, the consequence or product gained from the exploration of a visualization.",["8"]]]},{"sp":[["narrative visualization",[]]]},{"sp":[["narrative visualization",[]]]},{"rt":[["storytelling with data",[]]],"sb":[["author-driven approach",[]],["reader-driven approach",[]],["Martini Glass Structure",[]],["Interactive Slideshow",[]],["Drill-Down Story",[]]],"ex":[["narrative artifacts in the data journalism of news sites like The New York Times [2] and The Guardian [3]",["2","3"]]]},{},{"de":[["It is a process that allows us to pass experiences from human to human through many media: oral tradition, printed word, visual images, radio, cinema, television.",[]]]},{"rt":[["data stories",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["frequency of verbs, nouns, and adverbs in tweets",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["degree distribution, clustering coefficient, and centrality measures",["Ratkiewicz et al. 2011b"]]]},{},{"sp":[["software robots",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["social bots",[]]]},{"ex":[["signal similarity to a Poisson process",["Ghosh et al. 2011"]],["average time between two consecutive posts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["instead of representing the reliability of a source as a single scalar, they represent it as three interrelated, but separate values: truthfulness, completeness, and bias.",[]]],"rt":[["truthfulness",[]],["completeness",[]]],"sp":[["Source reliability",[]]]},{"de":[["If a source provides a value about an object, [24,78] assumes that this source votes against other candidate values of this object.",["24","78"]],["This technique is based on the single truth assumption that \"there is one and only one true value for each object\". If a source provides a value about an object, [24,78] assumes that this source votes against other candidate values of this object.",["24","78"]]],"rt":[["Local Closed World Assumption (LCWA)",[]]]},{"de":[["motivated by the phenomenon that many sources only provide very few observations. It is not reasonable to give a point estimator for source reliability.",[]]]},{"rt":[["truth discovery",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This implication factor between claimed values is also considered in [15].",["15"]]]},{"de":[["The benefit of labeling technique is that the results are ready to use and can be directly fed into other applications, while its drawbacks are that some useful information is lost during the iterations and it does not provide confidence scores for the identified truths.",[]]],"rt":[["scoring",[]]]},{"de":[["The benefit of labeling technique is that the results are ready to use and can be directly fed into other applications, while its drawbacks are that some useful information is lost during the iterations and it does not provide confidence scores for the identified truths.",[]]]},{"de":[["the trustful external knowledge is used to reject some candidate values of the same object",[]]],"rt":[["complementary vote",[]]]},{"de":[["If a source provides a claimed value for an object, this source is assumed to vote against other possible claimed values for this object.",["15","24"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The true information is more likely to be identical or similar among different sources, and the false information provided by different sources is more likely to be different.",[]]]},{"de":[["estimation of source reliability is jointly performed across all the data types together.",[]]],"rt":[["source dependency analysis",["49","53"]]]},{"sy":[["source weight",[]]],"rt":[["knowing the truths",[]],["telling the truths",[]]]},{"de":[["A higher ws indicates that source s is more reliable and the information from this source is more likely to be accurate.",[]]],"sy":[["source reliability degree",[]]]},{"rt":[["direct copying",[]]],"sp":[["copying relationship",[]]]},{"de":[["In such systems, trust and recommendation are derived separately from different types of data -Trust is derived based on users' provided trust values about others or the recommendation history information, while recommendation is conducted based on current user-item ratings and the derived trust.",[]]]},{"de":[["truth discovery tightly combines the process of source reliability estimation and truth computation to discover both of them from multisource data",[]]],"rt":[["multi-source information integration",[]],["crowdsourcing aggregation",[]]]},{"de":[["instead of representing the reliability of a source as a single scalar, they represent it as three interrelated, but separate values: truthfulness, completeness, and bias.",[]]],"sy":[["accuracy",["45"]]],"rt":[["completeness",[]],["bias",[]]],"sp":[["Source reliability",[]]]},{},{"de":[["such as speed of processor and screen resolution of a cell phone",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["opinion mining",[]],["stance classification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Rhetorical questions can be treated simply as queries (and thus neutral) or as utterances that give away the emotional state of the speaker.",[]]],"ex":[["How soon do you think WWIII &WWWIV will begin? #EndRacism",[]]]},{"rt":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["systems are to determine favorability towards a given (pre-chosen) target of interest.",[]],["lack of evidence for 'favor' or 'against', does not imply that the tweeter is neutral towards the target. It may just mean that we cannot deduce stance from the tweet.",[]],["the target can be expressed in different ways which impacts whether the instance is labeled 'favour' or 'against'.",[]],["The target may be a person, an organization, a government policy, a movement, a product, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]]],"ex":[["Target: legalization of abortion (1) Tweet: The pregnant are more than walking incubators. They have rights too! Humans can deduce from the tweet that the tweeter is likely in favor of the target.",[]],["Target: Hillary Clinton (2) Tweet: Hillary Clinton has some strengths and some weaknesses.",[]],["one can infer from Barack Obama's speeches that he is in favor of stricter gun laws in the US.",[]]]},{"rt":[["target of interest",[]]]},{"de":[["Textual entailment is a core NLP building block, and has applications in question answering, machine translation, information retrieval and other tasks.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["word-target associations",[]]]},{"rt":[["word-stance associations",[]]]},{"de":[["This toxic behavior has a demonstrated impact on community health both on and off-line.",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["cyberbullying",[]],["personal attacks",[]],["Online hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["online behavior",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the notion of disparate impact is independent of the \"ground truth\" information about the decisions, i.e., whether or not the decisions are correct or valid.",[]]],"rt":[["disparate treatment",[]],["disparate mistreatment",[]]]},{"de":[["Intuitively, disparate mistreatment can arise in any automated decision making system whose outputs (or decisions) are not perfectly (i.e., 100%) accurate.",[]],["DF P R and DF N R have opposite signs, i.e., the decision boundary disproportionately favors subjects from a certain sensitive attribute value group to be in the positive class (even when such assignments are misclassifications) while disproportionately assigning the subjects from the other group to the negative class.",[]],["DF P R and DF N R have the same sign, i.e., both false positive as well as false negative rate are higher for a certain sensitive attribute value group.",[]],["Disparate mistreatment is avoided by using fairness constraints",[]],["controlling for disparate mistreatment on false positive rate (false negative rate) also helps decrease disparate mistreatment on false negative rate (false positive rate)",[]],["disparate mistreatment, which is defined in terms of misclassification rates.",[]]],"rt":[["false positive rate",[]],["false negative rate",[]]]},{"de":[["Here, disparate treatment corresponds to the very intuitive notion of fairness: two otherwise similar persons should not be treated differently solely because of a difference in gender.",[]],["the sensitive attribute information is used for decision making, resulting in disparate treatment.",[]],["Disparate treatment is avoided by ensuring that sensitive attribute information is not used while making decisions, i.e., by keeping user feature vectors (x) and the sensitive features (z) disjoint.",[]],["the sensitive attribute information is used for decision making, resulting in disparate treatment",[]]],"rt":[["disparate impact",[]],["disparate mistreatment",[]]]},{"ex":[["gender",[]],["race",[]],["age",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["injunctive norms",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["descriptive norms",[]]]},{"sp":[["public sphere",[]]]},{"rt":[["networked publics",[]]],"sb":[["networked publics",[]]]},{"rt":[["selective turnout",[]]]},{"rt":[["quality change",[]]]},{"de":[["This language may be milder than in other cases but should be part of the campaign (by one person or a group) to make the target feel threatened or intimidated.",[]]],"ex":[["\"you are a loser and I hope you die\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Could be based on religion, race, gender, sexual orientation, etc.",[]],["Generally, these groups are defined by their inherent attributes, not by things they do or think.",[]],["Could be based on religion, race, gender, sexual orientation, etc. Generally, these groups are defined by their inherent attributes, not by things they do or think.",[]]],"rt":[["political disagreement",[]],["political speech",[]],["Political hatred",[]]],"ex":[["I hate all niggers",[]],["\"I hate all niggers\" is.",[]]]},{"sy":[["Online trolling",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["online harassment",[]]]},{"de":[["The threats may be personal (\"I saw you hitting on my boyfriend and I'm gonna cut you\") or general (\"we need to send the Jews back to the gas chambers\"). Maybe explicit (\"I'm going to a spray your brains all over the wall\") or they may generally make the target feel unsafe without a specific threat of direct action (e.g. \"someone needs to make you suck his dick\" or \"you just need the right man to fuck you\").",[]]],"ex":[["I saw you hitting on my boyfriend and I'm gonna cut you",[]],["we need to send the Jews back to the gas chambers",[]],["I'm going to a spray your brains all over the wall",[]],["someone needs to make you suck his dick",[]],["you just need the right man to fuck you",[]],["\"I saw you hitting on my boyfriend and I'm gonna cut you\"",[]],["\"we need to send the Jews back to the gas chambers\"",[]],["\"I'm going to a spray your brains all over the wall\"",[]],["\"someone needs to make you suck his dick\" or \"you just need the right man to fuck you\"",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["subjective captions",[]]]},{"rt":[["objective captions",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["spreaders",[]]]},{"de":[["Clickbait headlines create a so-called \"curiosity gap\", increasing the likelihood that reader will click the target link to satisfy their curiosity.",[]]],"rt":[["non-factual claims",["7"]]]},{"sp":[["Fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["two major factors which make consumers naturally vulnerable to fake news",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Fact-checking",[]]],"ex":[["Fiskkit",[]],["For real",[]]]},{"de":[["Finally, cyborg users can spread fake news in a way that blends automated activities with human input.",[]],["Usually cyborg accounts are registered by human as a camouflage and set automated programs to perform activities in social media.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Style-based",[]]]},{"sp":[["Deception-oriented",[]],["Style-based",[]]]},{},{"de":[["distortion bias is usually modeled as a binary classification problem.",["26"]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["this approach could look at only social media posts within some time delay of the original post as sources for news verification",["37"]]]},{"de":[["The echo chamber effect facilitates the pro-cess by which people consume and believe fake news due to the following psychological factors [60]: (1) social credibility, which means people are more likely to perceive a source as credible if others perceive the source is credible, especially when there is not enough information available to access the truthfulness of the source; and (2) frequency heuristic, which means that consumers may naturally favor information they hear frequently, even if it is fake news.",["60"]]],"rt":[["social credibility",["60"]],["frequency heuristic",["60"]]]},{"sp":[["Fact-checking",[]]],"ex":[["PolitiFact",[]],["Snopes",[]]]},{"sb":[["expert-oriented, crowdsourcing-oriented, and computational-oriented",[]],["Expert-oriented fact-checking",[]],["Crowdsourcing-oriented fact-checking",[]],["Computational-oriented fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news is intentionally written to mislead readers to believe false information",[]],["Fake news is usually manipulated by propagandists to convey political messages or influence",[]],["Fake news is usually related to newly emerging, time-critical events, which may not have been properly verified by existing knowledge bases due to the lack of corroborating evidence or claims",[]],["Broader definitions of fake news focus on the either authenticity or intent of the news content.",[]]],"sy":[["deceptive news",[]]],"rt":[["satire news with proper context",[]],["rumors that did not originate from news events",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["misinformation that is created unintentionally",[]],["hoaxes that are only motivated by fun or to scam targeted individuals",[]],["satire news",[]],["rumors",[]],["misinformation",[]],["hoaxes",[]]],"ex":[["Russia has created fake accounts and social bots to spread false stories",["5"]],["fake news may cite true evidence within the incorrect context to support a non-factual claim",["22"]]]},{},{"sb":[["proactive intervention methods",[]],["reactive intervention methods",[]],["Proactive fake news intervention methods",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The goal of fact-checking is to assign a truth value to a claim in a particular context",["83"]]],"sp":[["News Content Models",[]]]},{},{"de":[["two major factors which make consumers naturally vulnerable to fake news",[]]]},{"sb":[["stance network",[]],["cooccurrence network",[]],["friendship network",[]],["diffusion network",[]]]},{"sb":[["Source: Author or publisher of the news article",[]],["Headline: Short title text that aims to catch the attention of readers and describes the main topic of the article",[]],["Body Text: Main text that elaborates the details of the news story; there is usually a major claim that is specifically highlighted and that shapes the angle of the publisher",[]],["Image/Video: Part of the body content of a news article that provides visual cues to frame the story",[]]]},{"sb":[["Knowledge-based",[]],["Style-based",[]]]},{"sp":[["Style-based",[]]],"ex":[["hyperpartisan styles",[]],["yellow-journalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["Objectivity-oriented",[]],["Style-based",[]]]},{"sb":[["spreaders",[]]]},{"sb":[["post level",[]],["group level",[]],["temporal level",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news intervention",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The basic assumption is that the credibility of a news event is highly related to the credibilities of relevant social media posts.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["rumor detection",["102"]],["rumor tracking",["102"]],["rumor stance classification",[]],["veracity classification",["102"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Social bots can become malicious entities designed specifically with the purpose to do harm, such as manipulating and spreading fake news on social media.",[]],["A social bot refers to a social media account that is controlled by a computer algorithm to automatically produce content and interact with humans (or other bot users) on social media",["23"]]]},{"de":[["The major challenge brought by social bots is that they can give a false impression that information is highly popular and endorsed by many people, which enables the echo chamber effect for the propagation of fake news.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Social engagements represent the news proliferation process over time, which provides useful auxiliary information to infer the veracity of news articles.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Stance-based",[]],["Propagation-based",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["viewpoints",[]]]},{"sp":[["Stance-based",[]],["Social Context Models",[]]]},{"sb":[["Deception-oriented",[]],["Objectivity-oriented",[]]],"sp":[["News Content Models",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Trolling behaviors are highly affected by people's mood and the context of online discussions, which enables the easy dissemination of fake news among otherwise \"normal\" online communities",["14"]],["Trolls, real human users who aim to disrupt online communities and provoke consumers into an emotional response, are also playing an important role in spreading fake news on social media.",[]]],"ex":[["there were 1,000 paid Russian trolls spreading fake news on Hillary Clinton",["9"]]]},{"de":[["Truth discovery methods do not explore the fact claims directly, but rely on a collection of contradicting sources that record the properties of objects to determine the truth value.",[]]]},{"sb":[["individual level",[]],["group level",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Visual cues have been shown to be an important manipulator for fake news propaganda",["10"]]],"ex":[["clarity score, coherence score, similarity distribution histogram, diversity score, and clustering score",[]]]},{"ex":[["clickbait",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["stance classification",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["rumour",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Bottom-up sampling strategies have emerged more recently in studies that aimed at collecting a wider range of rumours, i.e., sifting through data to identify rumours, rather than rumours that are already known.",[]],["Bottom-up sampling strategies have emerged more recently in studies that aimed at collecting a wider range of rumours",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Annotation of credibility perceptions has also been done in previous work, determining how credible claims appear to people (Mitra and Gilbert 2015;Zubiaga and Ji 2014)",["Mitra and Gilbert 2015","Zubiaga and Ji 2014"]]]},{"sb":[["hoaxes",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the term fake news is being used to refer to seven types of misinformation: false connection, false context, manipulated content, satire or parody, misleading content, imposter content, and fabricated content.",[]]],"sb":[["false connection",[]],["false context",[]],["manipulated content",[]],["satire or parody",[]],["misleading content",[]],["imposter content",[]],["fabricated content",[]]],"sp":[["hoaxes",[]],["hoax",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The authors treated it as an anomaly detection problem where false rumours are regarded as anomalies.",[]]]},{"de":[["hoaxes and fake news are, by definition, always false and can be seen as specific types of disinformation.",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sb":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Some rumours may circulate for long periods of time without their veracity being established with certainty.",[]]],"sp":[["rumour",[]],["rumours",[]]]},{"rt":[["unsubstantiated claims",[]]]},{"de":[["Rumours that emerge in the context of breaking news are generally ones that have not been observed before.",[]]],"sp":[["rumours",[]],["rumour",[]]]},{"sp":[["rumour",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This unverified information may turn out to be true, or partly or entirely false; alternatively, it may also remain unresolved.",[]],["A rumour can be understood as an item of information that has not yet been verified, and hence its truth value remains unresolved while it is circulating.",[]],["A rumour is defined as unverified when there is no evidence supporting it or there is no official confirmation from authoritative sources (e.g., those with a reputation for being trustworthy) or sources that may have credibility in a particular context (e.g., eyewitnesses).",[]],["A rumour can be understood as an item of information that has not yet been verified, and hence its truth value remains unresolved while it is circulating. A rumour is defined as unverified when there is no evidence supporting it or there is no official confirmation from authoritative sources (e.g., those with a reputation for being trustworthy) or sources that may have credibility in a particular context (e.g., eyewitnesses).",[]]],"sy":[["questionable claims",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["long-standing rumours",[]],["newly emerging rumours",[]],["\"pipe-dream\" rumours",[]],["\"bogy\" rumours",[]],["\"wedge-driving\" rumours",[]],["New rumours",[]]]},{"sb":[["rumour detection",[]],["rumour tracking",[]],["rumour stance classification",[]],["rumour veracity classification",[]]]},{"de":[["A typical input to a rumour detection component can be a stream of social media posts, whereupon a binary classifier has to determine if each post is deemed a rumour or a non-rumour.",[]],["a rumour detection system needs to determine if a detected event constitutes a rumour or not.",[]]],"rt":[["rumour tracking",[]],["rumour stance classification",[]],["rumour veracity classification",[]]],"sp":[["rumour classification system",[]]]},{"de":[["This is operationalised as a binary annotation scheme, marking a post as either relevant or not.",[]]],"ex":[["for a rumour saying that Obama is Muslim, a post that says Obama does seem to be Muslim would be marked as relevant, while a post saying that Obama had a meeting with Muslims would be marked as not relevant.",["Qazvinian et al. (2011)"]]]},{"de":[["The classification scheme to determine the stance of each post varies across different studies",[]]],"rt":[["rumour detection",[]],["rumour tracking",[]],["rumour veracity classification",[]]],"sp":[["rumour classification system",[]]],"ex":[["supporting",[]],["denying",[]],["querying",[]],["commenting",[]]]},{"de":[["The output of this component is a collection of posts discussing the rumour.",[]],["The input is usually a stream of posts, which can be tailored to the rumour in question after filtering for relevant keywords, or it can be broader by including posts related to a bigger event or even an unrestricted stream of posts. The task is generally framed as a binary classification task that consists of determining whether each of the posts is related to the rumour or not. The output will be a labelled version of the stream of posts, where labels define if each post is related or unrelated.",[]],["tracking posts associated with those rumours.",[]],["The task is generally framed as a binary classification task that consists of determining whether each of the posts is related to the rumour or not.",[]]],"rt":[["rumour detection",[]],["rumour stance classification",[]],["rumour veracity classification",[]]],"sp":[["rumour classification system",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the first category, posts containing new pieces of information that are unconfirmed with respect to some news event were considered as rumours.",[]],["A rumour's veracity value is unverifiable in the early stages, while being subsequently resolved as true or false in a relatively short period of time, or it can also remain unverified for a long time.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["online debates",[]],["rumour stance classification",[]]]},{"de":[["This component can be useful to facilitate the task of the subsequent component dealing with veracity classification.",[]],["in stance classification, the orientation of a user toward a rumour has to be determined",[]],["In stance classification, a user might agree with another user who is denying a rumour and hence they are denying the rumour as well, irrespective of the pairwise agreement.",[]]],"rt":[["agreement/disagreement detection",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Top-down sampling strategies prevailed in early work on social media rumours, i.e., sampling posts related to rumours identified in advance.",[]],["Top-down sampling strategies prevailed in early work on social media rumours",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It can use as input the set of posts collected in the rumour tracking component, as well as the stance labels produced in the stance classification component.",[]],["It can optionally try to collect additional data from other sources such as news media, or other websites and databases.",[]],["The output of the component can be just the predicted truth value, but it can also include context such as URLs or other data sources that help the end user assess the reliability of the classifier by double checking with relevant sources.",[]],["the task consists of assigning one of the following labels to the rumour, Y ∈ {true, false, unverified}.",[]]]},{"de":[["Given a set of posts associated with a rumour and, optionally, additional sources related to the rumour, the task consists of assigning one of the following labels to the rumour, Y ∈ {true, false, unverified}.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["produce \"echo chambers\" that degrade the quality, safety, and diversity of discourse online.",[]],["surrounded by people whose political perspectives reflect their own",[]],["can enable mutually-reinforcing opinions to shift individual perspectives towards poles of greater extremity",["24"]]]},{"de":[["is both a part of human nature and an organizing principle underpinning many of our digital social networks.",[]]]},{"de":[["We've found that many politically-active Twitter users embed themselves in echo chambers, surrounded by people whose political perspectives reflect their own.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["representing the political diversity of their connections in the network visualization (where 1 implies a perfectly balanced set of left and rightleaning followers)",[]],["the political diversity of their followees",[]]]},{"de":[["the role that the between-group component plays in overall unfairness grows -but, as noted by Kearns et al. [22], it also becomes computationally harder to control and limit the between-group unfairness.",[]],["the between-group unfairness component (E 2 β (b) in Eq. 5)",[]]],"sy":[["between-group component",[]]],"rt":[["within-group unfairness",[]],["individual unfairness",[]],["group fairness",[]]]},{"de":[["let θ A D be the accuracy optimal classifier, and θ F D be the fairness optimal classifier",[]]],"rt":[["accuracy optimal classifier",[]]]},{"rt":[["statistical parity",["9","12","23"]],["disparate impact",["13","41"]],["equality of opportunity",["17"]],["calibration",["23"]],["disparate mistreatment",["40"]]]},{"de":[["Dwork et al. [12] first formalized the notion of individual fairness for classification tasks using Lipschitz conditions on the classifier outcomes.",["12"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["doing so will affect the overall unfairness in unpredictable ways-potentially making the within-group unfairness worse.",[]],["the within-group unfairness (E 2 ω (b) in Eq. 5)",[]]],"sy":[["within-group component",[]]],"rt":[["between-group unfairness",[]],["individual unfairness",[]]]},{"de":[["abusive language may be very fluent and grammatically correct, can cross sentence boundaries, and the use of sarcasm in it is also common",["58"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["cyberbullying",[]],["discrimination",[]],["toxicity",[]],["flaming",[]],["extremism",[]],["radicalization",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech is more general and not necessarily focused on a specific person.",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hate speech is a form of discrimination, through verbal means.",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["cyberbullying",[]],["abusive language",[]],["toxicity",[]],["flaming",[]],["extremism",[]],["radicalization",[]]],"sb":[["Hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["such as new members recruitment, government and social media demonization of the in-group and persuasion",["62"]],["Extremist discourses use frequently hate speech. However, these discourses focus other topics as well [55], such as new members recruitment, government and social media demonization of the in-group and persuasion [62].",["55","62"]]],"rt":[["radicalization",[]],["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech can occur in any context, whereas flaming is aimed toward a participant in the specific context of a discussion.",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hate speech is a crime that has been growing in recent years",["29"]],["this type of prejudiced communication",[]],["Hate speech is a complex phenomenon, intrinsically associated to relationships between groups, and also relying in language nuances.",[]],["The majority of the definitions point out that hate speech is to incite violence or hate toward a minority",[]],["some other definitions state that hate speech is to use language that attacks or diminishes these groups",[]],["all subtle forms of discrimination, even jokes, must be marked as hate speech. This is the case, because this type of joke indicates relations between the groups of the jokers and the groups targeted by the jokes, racial relations, and stereotypes",["49"]],["Hate speech is hate focused on stereotypes, and not so general.",[]],["Hate speech can occur in any context",[]],["its targets are groups or individuals based on their specific attributes, such as ethnic origin, religion, disability, gender identity, age, veteran status, sexual orientation or other.",[]],["Hate speech is a complex phenomenon",[]],["hate speech detection is more than simple keyword spotting",["58"]],["If violence can occur physically and explicitly, then it can also be subtle. This is the case when stereotypes are reinforced, giving a justification to discrimination and negative bias toward these groups.",[]]],"sy":[["Hateful conduct",["72"]]],"rt":[["bullying",[]],["discrimination",["42"]],["hostility",["42"]],["intolerance",["42"]],["Abusive language",[]],["cyberbullying",[]],["cyber hate",[]],["sectarianism",[]],["freedom of speech",[]],["toxicity",[]],["flaming",[]],["extremism",[]],["radicalization",[]],["verbal attack",[]],["protected category",[]],["Profanity",[]],["Toxic language or comment",[]],["othering language",[]],["the superiority of the in-group",[]],["focus on stereotypes",[]]],"sb":[["subtle forms",[]]],"sp":[["Abusive language",[]],["Discrimination",[]]]},{"ex":[["burka prohibition can be analysed either as an Islamophobic or as a sexist behavior, since this symbol is used by Muslims, but just by women",[]]]},{"de":[["Othering has been used as a construct surrounding hate speech",["9"]],["It describes \"Our\" characteristics as superior to \"Theirs,\" which are inferior, undeserving, and incompatible [17].",["17"]]],"ex":[["Expressions like \"send them home\" show this cognitive process.",[]]]},{"de":[["For applying this method it is necessary a set of messages from the same user. In this problem, for each user, it is assigned a bully score (b) and a victim score (v). For each feature (e.g., N-grams) a feature-indicator score (w) is used. It represents how much the feature is an indicator of a bullying interaction. Learning is then an optimization problem over parameters b, v, and w.",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech can use profanity, but not necessarily.",[]]]},{"de":[["The goal is to check if a second person pronoun is followed by a profane word within the size of a window and then create a boolean feature with this information",["16"]]]},{"de":[["Radical discourses, like extremism, can use hate speech. However in radical discourses topics like war, religion and negative emotions [2] are common while hate speech can be more subtle and grounded in stereotypes.",["2"]]],"rt":[["extremism",[]],["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Not all toxic comments contain hate speech. Also some hate speech can make people discuss more.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In particular, such technologies attempt to nudge the user to change his or her attitude or behavior through persuasion or social influence (but not misinformation or coersion), and have already been applied to health coaching and communication",["19","91"]]]},{"de":[["Allport and Postman postulated that the strength of a rumor (R) will vary with the importance of the subject to the individual concerned (i) times the ambiguity of the evidence pertaining to the topic at hand (a), or R ≈ i × a",["74"]]]},{},{"sp":[["passive participant",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["non-diegetic narration",[]]]},{"de":[["The camera is placed at an appropriate height for the role (typically adult human, but occasionally child height or animal). Narration in a first person piece is typically diegetic -i.e. provided by another actor in the piece, or via the representation of an 'inner voice'.",[]]],"sp":[["perspective",[]]]},{"de":[["This may be high above the actors, or perhaps attached to a wall or the exterior of a vehicle. The camera is invisible to the actors within the scene, creating the sense that the viewer is eavesdropping. There is no external narration in this POV: the viewer is expected to draw their own conclusions as to what is going on.",[]]],"sp":[["perspective",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["passive",[]],["active",[]]]},{"rt":[["diegetic narration",[]]]},{"sy":[["VRNF",[]]],"rt":[["interactive documentary",[]],["digital storytelling",[]]],"sb":[["360 degree video",[]],["CGI-based experiences",[]]]},{"sp":[["perspective",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["embodiment",["8"]],["immersion",["31"]],["empathy",["5"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Attention cascades can be viewed as a structure that represents the process of information creation and consumption, which models new patterns of collective attention.",[]],["They capture the connections fostered among group participants, their comments and their reactions in the group discussion setting.",[]],["an attention cascade begins when a user makes an assertion about a topic in a message to the group. This message is the root of the cascade. Other users join and establish a conversation thread by explicitly replying to the root message or to other messages that replied to it.",[]],["a (semi-)structured representation modeling emergent patterns of collective attention",[]],["represent the participation (thus attention) of multiple users in an explicitly defined conversation thread, despite other messages and conversations that might be simultaneously happening in the same group",[]],["Attention cascades can be viewed as a structure that represents the process of information creation and consumption, which models new patterns of collective attention. They capture the connections fostered among group participants, their comments and their reactions in the group discussion setting.",[]]],"rt":[["information cascade",[]],["cascades",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["more generally speaking, falsehood",[]]],"rt":[["falsehood",[]]],"ex":[["rumor",[]]]},{"de":[["participants are sometimes swamped by messages, which characterizes a typical information overload situation, that competes for the cognitive resources of the participants.",["10"]]]},{"sb":[["chain",[]],["loop",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["root user",[]]]},{"rt":[["generalized hate",["ElSherief et al. 2018a"]]],"sp":[["hatespeech",["ElSherief et al. 2018a"]]]},{"rt":[["directed hate speech",["ElSherief et al. 2018a"]]],"sp":[["hatespeech",["ElSherief et al. 2018a"]]]},{"de":[["The prevalence of online hate speech has fuelled horrific real-world hate-crime such as the mass-genocide of Rohingya Muslims, communal violence in Colombo and the recent massacre in the Pittsburgh synagogue.",[]],["it is still plaguing our society.",[]],["the hatespeech has a much higher spreading velocity.",[]],["The volume of hateful content is Gab is 2.4 times higher than that of Twitter (Zannettou et al. 2018a)",[]]],"rt":[["online harassment",[]],["trolling",[]],["cyber-bullying",[]]]},{"sy":[["spamming with AI",[]]]},{"sp":[["spamming into AI",[]]]},{"sp":[["bots",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["creating fictitious video footage re-enacting Obama, 4 Trump, and Putin, 5 among several world leaders",["25"]]]},{},{"sb":[["email spam",[]],["instant messaging spam",[]],["Usenet newsgroup spam",[]],["Web search engine spam",[]],["spam in blogs",[]],["wiki spam",[]],["online classified ads spam",[]],["mobile phone messaging spam",[]],["Internet forum spam",[]],["junk fax transmissions",[]],["social spam",[]],["spam mobile apps",[]],["television advertising",[]],["file sharing spam",[]]]},{"de":[["historically the first example of digital spam (cf. Figure 1) and remains uncontested in scale and pervasiveness with billions of spam emails generated every day",["10"]],["Email spam has mainly two purposes, namely advertising (e.g., promoting products, services, or contents), and frauds (e.g., attempting to perpetrate scams, or phishing).",[]]],"sy":[["junk emails",[]]],"rt":[["digital spam",[]]],"sp":[["digital spam",[]]]},{"sy":[["disposable accounts",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["opinion spam",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["opinion spam",[]]]},{"sb":[["fake reviews",[]]]},{"de":[["The end goal of phishing attacks is duping the victims into revealing sensitive information for identity theft, or extorting funds via ransomware or credit card frauds.",[]]]},{"sp":[["opinion spam",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["social spam",[]]]},{"sy":[["link farming",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Web content spam",[]],["link farms",[]]],"sb":[["Web content spam",[]],["link farms",[]]]},{"de":[["One way an AI can be maliciously led to learn biased models is deliberately injecting spam-here intended as unwanted information-into the training data: this may lead the system to learn undesirable patterns and biases, which will affect the AI system's behavior in line with the intentions of the spammers",[]],["manipulation of test data",[]]],"ex":[["bias exacerbation: one of the major problems of modern-days AIs (and, in general, of supervised learning approaches based on Big Data) is that biases learned from training data will propagate into predictions",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["content spam",[]],["link farms",[]]]},{"sp":[["digital spam",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["BS-Detector and CrossCheck",[]]]},{"de":[["to engineer virality and credibility of posts and inflate the social status of the bot accounts.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Instead of explicit network monitors as used by the approaches discussed earlier, these works implicitly monitor the network using crowd-sourced user feedback.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A greedy algorithm is designed to select the best set of seed users from which to start the diffusion process for true news, so that at least a β-fraction of the users can be decontaminated.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the term has evolved and become synonymous with the spread of false information",["22"]]],"sy":[["false and often sensational information disseminated under the guise of news reporting",[]],["spread of false information",["22"]],["false information",["22"]]],"rt":[["hoax",[]],["rumor",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["satire",[]]],"sb":[["fabricated content (completely false)",[]],["misleading content (misleading use of information to frame an issue)",[]],["imposter content (genuine sources impersonated with false sources)",[]],["manipulated content (genuine information or imagery manipulated to deceive)",[]],["false connection (headlines, visuals or captions that do not support the content)",[]],["false context (genuine content shared with false contextual information)",[]]],"ex":[["malicious intent (to hurt or disrepute), profit (for financial gain by increasing views), influence (to manipulate public opinion), sow discord (to create disorder and confusion), passion (to promote ideological biases), amusement (individual entertainment)",["126"]]]},{},{"de":[["The first type is fake news identification using content-based methods, that classify news based on the content of the information to be verified.",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The second type is identification using feedback-based methods, that classify news based on the user responses it receives on social media.",[]]]},{"sy":[["echo chambers",[]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Feature engineering allows us to incorporate diverse kinds of information, which is useful in this case. However, hand-engineered features are limited in terms of the generality and complexity of the feature space being captured.",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news can be seen as a form of hoax usually spread through news outlets",["132"]]],"rt":[["fake news",["132"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["claim",[]]]},{"sb":[["Linear Threshold (LT) model",[]],["point process models",[]]]},{"sb":[["Dissemination",[]],["Moderation",[]],["Consumption",[]]]},{"de":[["Lastly, the third type is intervention based solutions, that provide computational solutions for actively identifying and containing the spread of false information, and methods to mitigate the impact from exposures to false information.",[]]]},{"de":[["Such methods do not require task-specific, hand-engineered cue sets and rely on automatically extracting linguistic features from the text.",[]]],"rt":[["cue-based methods",[]]]},{"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["they are not necessarily false, and may turn out to be true",["132"]],["they are not necessarily false, and may turn out to be true [132].",["132"]],["Rumors originate from unverified sources but may later be verified as true or false, or remain unresolved.",["132"]],["they are not necessarily false, and may turn out to be true [132]. Rumors originate from unverified sources but may later be verified as true or false, or remain unresolved.",["132"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news detection",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The cues include content and structural criteria such as lack of connection between paragraphs, lack of conviction or memory, denial of allegations, missing and out of order information, use of emotive words, objective or subjective words, pronouns, first person, singular, and past tense verbs.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["contains rich information captured in the propagation structure (tree) which indicates the path of information flow, temporal information in timestamps of engagements, textual information in user comments, and user profile information by the user involved in the engagement.",[]]]},{"de":[["They are known to provide stronger signals for detection than the information content, mainly because user responses and propagation patterns are harder to manipulate than the information content, and oftentimes contain obvious information about the veracity",["100"]]],"rt":[["propagation patterns",[]]],"ex":[["likes, shares, replies or comments",[]]]},{},{"de":[["stories that are extremely biased towards a person/party/situation/event.",[]],["In the political context, this type is known as Hyperpartisan news [144] and are stories that are extremely biased towards a person/party/situation/event.",["144"]]],"sy":[["Hyperpartisan news",["144"]]]},{"sy":[["Hyperpartisan news [144]",["144"]]],"ex":[["wide spread diffusion of false information to the alt-right community from small fringe Web communities like 4chan's /pol/ board [86] and Gab, an alt-right echo chamber [199]",["86","199"]]]},{"de":[["Botnets are usually tied to a large number of fake accounts that are used to propagate false information in the wild.",[]]],"rt":[["Botnet",[]]],"ex":[["some bots only repost content, promote content (e.g., via vote manipulation on Reddit or similar platforms), and others post \"original\" content.",[]]]},{"de":[["This type is not new as it appeared years before, during the \"newspaper era,\" a phenomenon known as yellow journalism [50].",["50"]],["many users add misleading descriptors to their content with the goal of increasing their traffic for profit or popularity [143]",["143"]],["This is one of the least severe types of false information because if a user reads/views the whole content then he can distinguish if the headline and/or the thumbnail was misleading.",[]]]},{"de":[["Usually, such stories are about illegal acts that are carried out by governments or powerful individuals.",[]],["They also typically present unsourced information as fact or dispense entirely with an \"evidence\" based approach, relying on leaps of faith instead.",[]],["Usually, such stories are about illegal acts that are carried out by governments or powerful individuals. They also typically present unsourced information as fact or dispense entirely with an \"evidence\" based approach, relying on leaps of faith instead.",[]]],"ex":[["Pizzagate theory (i.e., Clinton's campaign running a pedophile ring) [188]",["188"]],["conspiracies around the murder of Seth Rich [187] (e.g., Seth Rich was involved in the DNC email leaks)",["187"]],["Pizzagate theory (i.e., Clinton's campaign running a pedophile ring)",["188"]]]},{"sy":[["CA",[]]]},{"sb":[["Propaganda",[]]]},{"ex":[["fabricated stories about politicians and aliens [84] (e.g., the story that Hillary Clinton adopted an alien baby)",["84"]]]},{"de":[["These false information campaigns can have dire consequences to the public: mutating their opinions and actions, especially with respect to critical world events like major elections.",[]]]},{"de":[["various types of false information that can be found online, the different actors of the false information ecosystem as well as their motives for diffusing controversial information.",[]],["the existing work on the false information ecosystem.",[]]]},{"ex":[["damage to other individuals (e.g., see Doxing",["165"]]]},{},{"de":[["Usually, they are employed for pushing an agenda; e.g., to influence people to adopt certain social or business trends.",[]]],"rt":[["bots",[]]]},{"sy":[["half-truth",["3"]],["factoid",["14"]]]},{"sy":[["half-truth [3]",["3"]],["factoid [14]",["14"]]],"ex":[["stories that report the false death of celebrities (e.g., the Adam Sadler death hoax [164])",["164"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["inflicting damage to the public image of a specific person, organization, or entity.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Due to this, propaganda is a consequential type of false information as it can change the course of human history (e.g., by changing the outcome of an election).",[]],["how Twitter can be exploited to organize and promote counter narratives",[]],["Propaganda stories are profoundly utilized in political contexts to mislead people with the overarching goal of inflicting damage to a particular political party or nation-state.",[]]],"sp":[["Fabricated",[]],["fabricated stories",[]]]},{"sp":[["fabricated stories",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["stories around the 2013 Boston Marathon Bombings like the story that the suspects became citizens on 9/11 or that a Sandy Hook child was killed during the incident",["163"]]]},{"de":[["This kind of false information is widely propagated on OSNs, hence several studies have analyzed this type of false information.",[]]],"ex":[["stories around the 2013 Boston Marathon Bombings like the story that the suspects became citizens on 9/11 or that a Sandy Hook child was killed during the incident [163]",["163"]]]},{"ex":[["TheOnion",["22"]],["SatireWire",["16"]]]},{"de":[["Usually, these sites disclose their satyric nature in one of their pages (i.e., About page).",[]],["However, as their articles are usually disseminated via social networks, this fact is obfuscated, overlooked, or ignored by users who often take them at face value with no additional verification.",[]]],"ex":[["TheOnion [22]",["22"]],["SatireWire [16]",["16"]]]},{"ex":[["foreign governments try to seed confusion in another country's public for their own agenda",["178"]]]},{},{"de":[["The term troll is used in great extend by the Web community and refers to users that aim to do things to annoy or disrupt other users, usually for their own personal amusement.",[]]],"sy":[["troll",[]]],"ex":[["posting provocative or off-topic messages in order to disrupt the normal operation or flow of discussion of a website and its users.",[]]]},{"de":[["Usually, useful idiots are normal users that are not fully aware of the goals of the organization, hence it is extremely difficult to identify them.",[]],["The term originates from the early 1950s in the USA as a reference to a particular political party's members that were manipulated by Russia in order to weaken the USA.",[]]],"rt":[["hidden paid posters",[]],["state-sponsored trolls",[]]]},{"ex":[["can users distinguish real stories from fake? If yes, what cues do they use to make this distinction?",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["information cascades",["5"]]]},{"rt":[["Selective exposure",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This is the case, if the text answers the question \"What can be seen in this image?\".",[]],["This is the case, if the text answers the question \"What can be seen in this image?\". It is common that direct references to objects in the image can be found and the readers are informed what they are looking at.",[]]],"rt":[["Complementary",[]]],"ex":[["It is common that direct references to objects in the image can be found and the readers are informed what they are looking at.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Anchorage",[]]]},{"rt":[["Illustration",[]]]},{"de":[["Neither of them is dependent on the other one and their status is equal.",[]]],"sy":[["Relay",["4"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Complementary",[]]]},{"de":[["This is the case, if a text describes a general concept and the associated image shows a concrete example of that concept.",[]]],"ex":[["Examples for Illustrations can be found in textbooks and encyclopedias.",[]],["a text that describes a general concept and the accompanying image depicts a specific example",[]],["If the text is a definition of the term \"mammal\", it does not matter if the image shows an elephant, a mouse, or a dolphin.",[]]]},{"de":[["This refers to concepts and entities, descriptions and interpretation of symbols, metaphors, as well as to their relations to one another.",[]],["Possible values range from [-1, 1], where a negative value indicates that the co-occurrence of an image and a text disturbs the comprehension of the multimodal content.",[]],["A positive score on the contrary suggests that both modalities share a semantic context or meaning.",[]],["The third possible option is that there is no semantic correlation between entities in the image and the text, then SC = 0.",[]]]},{"de":[["Either the image is \"subordinate to the text\" (stat = T ), implying an exchangeable image which plays the minor role in conveying the overall message of the image-text pair, or the text is \"subordinate to the image\" (stat = I ), usually characterizing text with additional information (e.g., a caption) for an image that is the center of attention. An equal status (stat = 0) describes the situation where image and text are equally important for the overall message.",[]],["It portrays how two modalities can relate to one another in a hierarchical way reflecting their relative importance.",[]]],"sb":[["image subordinate to text (stat = T )",[]],["equal status (stat = 0)",[]],["text subordinate to image (stat = I )",[]]]},{},{"de":[["aiming to facilitate the false information detection task and provide meaningful explanations simultaneously",[]]],"rt":[["false event detection",[]],["false picture detection",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["which would be beneficial to applications that require capturing richer semantic relationships.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["disparate impact",["6"]]]},{},{"sy":[["within-group scoring",[]],["within-group score reporting",[]]]},{"ex":[["Accuracy = 1 2 * |A Sup ∩ S Sup | |A Sup | + |A Opp ∩ S Opp | |A Opp |",[]]]},{"de":[["deals with automatic analysis of all human affects including sentiments and emotions",["Picard 1997"]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]],["emotion recognition",[]]]},{"sp":[["sentiment analysis",[]]],"ex":[["target entities commonly include electronic equipment like laptops, restaurants, and hotels while the corresponding aspects of these entities include price, design, and quality, among others",[]]]},{"de":[["the existence of an inclination or tendency towards a particular perspective within a text is explored",["Recasens et al. 2013","Yano et al. 2010"]]],"rt":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This problem is defined in order to facilitate the task of fake news detection",["FNC 2017"]]],"rt":[["fake news detection",[]],["Stance detection",[]]],"sp":[["stance detection",[]],["fake news detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["rumour detection and resolution",[]]]},{"de":[["As the set of possible category labels, a subset of this set such as {Supporting, Denying} is occasionally employed",["Zubiaga et al. 2018a"]]],"rt":[["Stance detection",[]]],"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"sy":[["irony",[]]],"rt":[["irony",[]]]},{"rt":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["currently the problem is considered mostly equivalent to the detection of the sentiment polarity of a text producer and hence a classification output usually as Positive, Negative, or Neutral is expected from the sentiment analysis procedure.",[]]],"sy":[["opinion mining",[]]],"rt":[["emotion recognition",[]],["perspective identification",[]],["sarcasm/irony detection",[]],["controversy detection",[]],["argument mining",[]],["biased language detection",[]],["Stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Hence, based on this definition, in a stance act, a stancetaker reveals its evaluation on an object and thereby aligns herself/himself with others",["Du Bois 2007"]]],"rt":[["evaluating objects",[]],["positioning subjects (self and others)",[]],["aligning with other subjects",[]]]},{"de":[["It is usually considered as a subproblem of sentiment analysis and aims to identify the stance of the text author towards a target (an entity, concept, event, idea, opinion, claim, topic, etc.) either explicitly mentioned or implied within the text",["Mohammad et al. 2016b","Sobhani 2017"]],["Occasionally, the category label of Neutral is also added to the set of stance categories",["Mohammad et al. 2016b"]],["the target may or may not be explicitly mentioned in the text",["Augenstein et al. 2016a","Mohammad et al. 2016b"]],["stance detection is predicting one's stance on what we are interested in what she/he writes.",[]],["by means of automatic stance detection, whether a community is in favor of or against a topic of interest can be estimated",[]]],"sy":[["stance classification",["Walker et al. 2012a"]],["stance identification",["Zhang et al. 2017"]],["stance prediction",["Qiu et al. 2015"]],["debate-side classification",["Anand et al. 2011"]],["debate stance classification",["Hasan and Ng 2013"]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis (opinion mining)",[]],["emotion recognition",[]],["argument mining (reason identification)",[]],["sarcasm/irony detection",[]],["veracity and rumour detection",[]],["fake news detection",[]],["sentiment analysis",[]],["perspective identification",[]],["controversy detection",[]],["argument mining",[]],["biased language detection",[]],["rumour stance classification",[]],["fake news stance detection",[]]],"sb":[["multi-target stance detection",["Sobhani 2017"]],["cross-target stance detection",["Augenstein et al. 2016a","Xu et al. 2018"]],["biased language detection",[]]],"sp":[["Stance",[]]]},{"sp":[["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["false news",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{"sy":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["or promote biased agenda",["74"]]],"rt":[["false news",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["filter bubble",[]]]},{"de":[["These groups are usually characterized by extremely polarized opinions as they are insulated from opposite views and contrary perspectives",["67","66","42"]]],"sy":[["filter bubble",[]]]},{"de":[["These groups are usually characterized by extremely polarized opinions as they are insulated from opposite views and contrary perspectives",["67","66","42"]]],"sy":[["filter bubble",[]]]},{"de":[["It has been highlighted how the neologism fake news is usually employed with a political connotation with respect to the more traditional false news",["32","76"]],["the neologism fake news is usually employed with a political connotation with respect to the more traditional false news [32,76].",["32","76"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["propaganda",[]],["satire",[]],["rumors",[]],["click-bait",[]],["junk news",[]],["disinformation, misinformation, hoaxes, propaganda, satire, rumors, click-bait and junk news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["qualitatively, they are described as humorous and mischievous (as defined in The Oxford English Dictionary)",["31"]]],"rt":[["false news",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["It usually refers to the overall content that pertains to a publisher rather than a single article",["79"]],["It usually refers to the overall content that pertains to a publisher rather than a single article [79].",["79"]]],"rt":[["false news",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["It could spread unintentionally",["14"]],["due to honest reporting mistakes or incorrect interpretations",["22","13"]],["It could spread unintentionally [14] due to honest reporting mistakes or incorrect interpretations [22,13]",["14","22","13"]],["It could spread unintentionally [14] due to honest reporting mistakes or incorrect interpretations [22,13].",["14","22","13"]]],"rt":[["false news",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The purpose can be political, ideological or religious",["74","73"]],["The purpose can be political, ideological or religious [74,73].",["74","73"]]],"rt":[["false news",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["false news",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["They are characterized by humor, irony and absurdity and they can mimic genuine news",["55"]],["similarly to hoaxes they can be harmful when shared out of context [8,54]. They are characterized by humor, irony and absurdity and they can mimic genuine news [55]",["8","54","55"]],["They are characterized by humor, irony and absurdity and they can mimic genuine news [55].",["55"]]],"sy":[["satire",[]]],"rt":[["false news",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["stance detection is instead applied at the level of single sentences.",[]]],"rt":[["veracity resolution",[]]],"sb":[["document-level stance detection",[]]]},{"sb":[["indirect response",[]],["basic response",[]],["written responses",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Every TikTok user is a performer who externalizes personal political opinion via an audiovisual act, with political communication becoming a far more interactive experience than on YouTube or Instagram.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["to be liked and/or accepted by the community, normal users are encouraged to engage in fake news activities when many users have done so (i.e., peer pressure)",[]]]},{"de":[["to be liked and/or accepted by the community, normal users are encouraged to engage in fake news activities when many users have done so (i.e., peer pressure)",[]]]},{"de":[["identifying check-worthy portions within a news content (e.g., sentences) is a pathway to explainable fake news detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Whether a given news content or topic is check-worthy can be measured by, e.g., (i) its newsworthiness or potential to influence the society, or (ii) its historical likelihood of being fake news.",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news confirms one's preexisting attitudes, beliefs or hypotheses (i.e., confirmation bias [Nickerson 1998]",["Nickerson 1998"]]]},{},{"de":[["Content spam includes spamming of title, body, meta-tags, anchors, and URLs",[]]],"sp":[["Web spam",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Compared to expert-based fact-checking, crowd-sourced fact-checking is relatively difficult to manage, less credible and accurate due to the political bias of fact-checkers and their conflicting annotations, and has better (though insufficient) scalability.",[]]],"sp":[["manual fact-checking",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["false news",[]],["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["satire news",[]]]},{"de":[["biased information is often amplified and reinforced",["Jamieson and Cappella 2008"]],["often takes place due to the echo chamber effect on social media",["Jamieson and Cappella 2008"]]]},{"de":[["Expert-based fact-checking is often conducted by a small group of highly credible fact-checkers, is easy to manage, and leads to highly accurate results, but is costly and poorly scales with the increase in the volume of the to-be-checked news contents.",[]]],"sp":[["manual fact-checking",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["manual fact-checking",[]]],"rt":[["automatic fact-checking",[]]],"sb":[["Expert-based fact-checking",[]],["crowd-sourced fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["Such definition of news raises some social concerns, e.g., the term \"fake news\" should be \"about more than news\" and \"about the entire information ecosystem.\"",["Wardle 2017"]],["The broad definition aims to impose minimum constraints in accord with the current resources: it emphasizes information authenticity, purposefully adopts a broad definition for the term news [Vosoughi et al. 2018], and weakens the requirement for information intention due to the difficulty in obtaining the ground truth (true intention).",["Vosoughi et al. 2018"]],["This narrow definition supports recent advancements in fake news studies [Allcott and Gentzkow 2017;Shu et al. 2017]. It addresses the public's perception of fake news, especially following the 2016 U.S. presidential election.",["Allcott and Gentzkow 2017","Shu et al. 2017"]],["The narrow definition emphasizes both news authenticity and intentions; it also ensures the posted information is news by investigating if its publisher is a news outlet (e.g., CNN and New York Times).",[]],["We have also defined fake news as (1) deceptive news, narrowly and as (2) false news, broadly.",[]],["news falsity should be derived by comparing with objective facts and not with individual viewpoints (preferences).",[]],["Based on how fake news was defined, fake news can also be news articles with (1) outdated knowledge, e.g., \"Britain has control over fifty-six colonial countries\" or (2) false claims in some parts of the news content (text and images), i.e., news content is partially (in)correct.",[]],["It can be created by journalists and non-journalists.",[]]],"sy":[["deceptive news",[]],["false news",[]]],"rt":[["deceptive news",[]],["false news",[]],["satire news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["cherry-picking",[]],["clickbait",[]],["rumor",[]],["clickbaits",[]],["cheery-picking",[]],["rumors",[]]],"sb":[["deceptive news",[]],["false news",[]],["non-traditional forms of fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["satire news",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["sentiments expressed (by four-factor theory)",["Zuckerman et al. 1981"]]]},{"sp":[["news cascade",[]]]},{},{"de":[["quantity such as word counts (by information manipulation theory)",["McCornack et al. 2014"]]]},{"de":[["Such an embedding can be conducted at the word-level [Mikolov et al. 2013;Pennington et al. 2014], sentence-level [Arora et al. 2016;Le and Mikolov 2014], or document-level [Le and Mikolov 2014]; results are vectors representing a news article and can be Zhou et al. 2019a]",[]]],"sb":[["word-level",[]],["sentence-level",[]],["document-level",[]]]},{"de":[["news created with a malicious intent, that is, to mislead and deceive the public",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a direct representation of news propagation",[]],["The root node of a news cascade represents the user who first shared the news article (i.e., initiator); Other nodes in the cascade represent users that have subsequently spread the article by forwarding it after it was posted by their parent nodes, which they are connected to via edges.",[]]],"rt":[["news propagation",[]]],"sb":[["hop-based news cascade",[]],["time-based news cascade",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Homogeneous Network",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hierarchical Network",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["low-credible users",[]]]},{"de":[["to be liked and/or accepted by the community, normal users are encouraged to engage in fake news activities when many users have done so (i.e., peer pressure)",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["satires",[]]]},{"de":[["often formulated as a binary (or multi-label) classification problem as well, however, with a different input.",[]],["the input to a propagation-based method can be either a (I) news cascade, a direct representation of news propagation, or a (II) self-defined graph, an indirect representation capturing additional information on news propagation.",[]]],"rt":[["news cascade",[]],["self-defined graph",[]]],"sb":[["news cascade, a direct representation of news propagation",[]],["self-defined graph, an indirect representation capturing additional information on news propagation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["fake news confirms one's preexisting attitudes, beliefs or hypotheses (i.e., confirmation bias [Nickerson 1998], selective exposure",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["to be liked and/or accepted by the community, normal users are encouraged to engage in fake news activities when many users have done so (i.e., peer pressure)",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["the news writers",[]],["the news publishers",[]]]},{"sp":[["Homogeneous Network",[]]]},{"de":[["style-based methods can assess news intention, i.e., is there an intention to mislead the public or not?",[]],["style-based fake news detection also focuses on analyzing the news content.",[]],["sometimes can be a cat-and-mouse game; any success at detection, in turn, will inspire future countermeasures by fake news writers.",[]]],"rt":[["knowledge-based fake news detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["news cascade",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The tendency of individuals to overestimate the benefits associated with disseminating fake news rather than its costs",["Jones and McGillis 1976"]]]},{"de":[["One's trust to fake news and his or her unintentional spreading can be promoted as well when being exposed more to fake news (i.e., validity effect)",["Boehm 1994"]]]},{},{"sb":[["content spam",[]],["[outgoing and incoming] link spam",[]],["cloaking",[]],["redirection",[]],["click spams",[]],["link spam",[]]],"ex":[["cloaking",[]],["redirection",[]],["click spams",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The goal of FSD is to identify the very first document in a stream to mention a new event.",[]]],"sy":[["New Event Detection",[]]]},{"de":[["By intuition, a bias on temporal distance decreases a document's novelty, if it is related to older topics.",[]],["This places higher weights on older topic and increases their contribution to the decision-making process.",[]],["biasing LSH-FSD towards temporally distant documents by omitting the vector length updates",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Where Representation is largely focused on the explicit content of a perspective (the what), Alternative Voices is more concerned with the person holding it (the who), and specifically whether this person or organisation is one of a minority or an otherwise marginalised group that is more likely to be underrepresented in the mainstream media.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Diverse critical recommenders hence do not simply give people what they want. Instead, they actively nudge readers to experience otherness, and draw attention to the marginalised, invisible or less powerful ideas and opinions in society.",[]],["critical recommenders would also offer room for alternative forms of presentations: narratives that appeal to the 'normal' citizen because they tell an everyday life story, emotional and provocative content, even figurative and shrill tones -all with the objective to escape the standard of civility and the language of the stereotypical \"middle-aged, educated, blank white man\" [56].",["56"]]]},{"de":[["community and active participation of virtuous citizens stands central",[]],["The focus of the deliberative recommender is on presenting different opinions and values in society, with the goal of coming to a common consensus or agreeing on different values.",[]]],"sy":[["discursive conceptions of democracy",[]]]},{"de":[["a deliberative recommender should include a higher share of articles presenting various perspectives, diversity of emotions, range of different sources; it should strive for equal representation, as well as on recommending items of balanced content, commentary, discussion formats, background information; potentially some prominence for public service media content (as the mission of many public service media includes the creation of a deliberative public sphere), as well as a preference for rational tone, consensus seeking, inviting commentary and reflection.",[]]]},{"de":[["diversity in the normative sense is about larger societal concepts: democracy, freedom of expressions, cultural inclusion, mutual respect and tolerance [19]",["19"]],["diversity in the computer science literature is often defined as concrete technical metrics, such as the intra-list distance of recommended items [6,53]",["6","53"]],["what constitutes 'good' diversity in a recommender system is largely dependent on its goal, which type of content it aims to promote, and which model of the normative framework of democracy it aims to follow.",[]]],"sy":[["pluralism",[]]],"rt":[["novelty",[]],["serendipity",[]],["coverage",[]],["normative diversity",[]]]},{"de":[["Many of the concepts described here are susceptible to the Formalism Trap described in [45], which is defined as the \"[f]ailure to account for the full meaning of social concepts [...], which can be procedural, contextual and contestable, and cannot be resolved through mathematical formalisms\".",[]]]},{"de":[["A Fragmentation score of 0 indicates a perfect overlap between users, whereas a score of 1 indicates no overlap at all.",[]],["Fragmentation specifically compares differences in recommended news story chains, or sets of articles describing the same issue or event from different perspectives, writing styles or points in time [38], between users; the smaller the difference, the more aware the users are of the same events and issues in society, and the more we can speak of a joint agenda. When the news story chains shown to the users differ significantly, the public sphere becomes more fragmented, hence the term Fragmentation.",["38"]]],"rt":[["news story chains",[]]]},{"de":[["The underlying premise is that citizens know for themselves best what they need in terms of self-fulfillment and exercising their fundamental rights to freedom of expression and freedom to hold opinions",[]],["The liberal recommender is required to inform citizens about prominent issues, especially during key democratic moments such as election time, but else it is expected to take little distance from personal preferences.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In practice, this interpretation is often extended with gender identity, disability and sexual orientation.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Fragmentation",[]]]},{"rt":[["serendipity",[]]]},{"de":[["Under participatory conceptions, the role of (personal) freedom and autonomy is to further the common good, rather than personal self-development",["20"]],["news recommenders must do more than to give citizens 'what they want', and instead provide citizens with the information they need to play their role as active and engaged citizens",["1","16","24","26"]]]},{"rt":[["novelty",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Finding good adversarial examples can help scholars understand the weaknesses of existing bot detection systems.",[]]]},{"de":[["The detection of the former category of bots does not represent a challenge",[]]],"sp":[["social bots",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["bought for as low as 12$ per 1,000 followers in the surface Web",[]]]},{"de":[["group-based detectors are particularly effective at identifying evolving, coordinated, and synchronized accounts.",[]]]},{"sp":[["social bots",[]]]},{"de":[["Social bots are actively used for both beneficial and nefarious purposes",["13"]]],"rt":[["cyborgs",[]],["benign bots",[]]],"sb":[["benign bots",[]],["malicious ones",[]]],"sp":[["malicious accounts",[]]]},{"de":[["journalists served their audience through the values of acting in the public interest, accountability and impartiality.",[]]],"rt":[["transparency",[]],["credibility",[]],["trust",[]],["acting in the public interest",[]],["impartiality",[]],["public interest",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Truth was considered a necessary but not sufficient condition for credibility, as credibility also involves reputation and public perception.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["not a realistic norm,\" due to inherent biases in individuals and news organisations.",[]],["Impartiality depended on the topic and angle of the story, and the type of media organisation they work for (for-profit vs. public-owned).",[]],["journalists served their audience through the values of acting in the public interest, accountability and impartiality.",[]]],"sy":[["unbiased view",[]],["transparency -which can be considered a \"substitute for (the impossibility of) impartiality\" [57]",["57"]],["objectivity",[]],["neutrality",[]],["balance",[]],["transparency",[]]],"rt":[["transparency",[]],["credibility",[]],["trust",[]],["acting in the public interest",[]],["accountability",[]],["pseudo-impartiality",[]],["data bias",[]],["objectivity",[]],["neutrality",[]],["balance",[]]]},{"de":[["Many of these values reflect this perceived societal function. For example serving the public interest relates to a perceived 'watchdog' role, where journalists believe holding the powerful to account is for the good of society",["15","68"]],["Many of these values reflect this perceived societal function.",[]],["key professional values held by journalists",[]]],"sb":[["transparency",[]],["credibility",[]],["trust",[]],["acting in the public interest",[]],["accountability",[]],["impartiality",[]]],"ex":[["truth, impartiality and originality",[]],["serving the public interest",[]],["truth",[]],["transparency",[]],["credibility",[]],["trust",[]],["acting in the public interest",[]],["accountability",[]],["impartiality",[]]]},{"de":[["our findings suggest this approach may gloss over important subtleties and nuances; an approach that assumes journalists subscribe to a common set of values (and have a common understanding of them) risks designing AI technologies that are insensitive to the local journalism context in which they will be embedded.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["truth by propagating mis/disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["a formal model of 'newsworthiness,' comprising measures of topicality, outlierness, interestingness, and personalisation",[]]]},{"de":[["no one wants to read something that's been done a few months ago by different news of sorts",[]],["organisations are \"committed to create new stories.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["As public interest is difficult to delineate [37], journalists were guided by their newsroom's ethos.",["37"]]],"rt":[["accountability",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The values of transparency, credibility and trust served as indicators of truth",[]],["can be considered a \"substitute for (the impossibility of) impartiality\"",["57"]]],"rt":[["credibility",[]],["trust",[]],["acting in the public interest",[]],["accountability",[]],["impartiality",[]]]},{"de":[["The importance of doggedly pursing the truth and conveying it clearly and openly in outputs is often ingrained throughout journalists' education.",[]],["Journalists considered truth a fundamental journalistic value.",[]]],"rt":[["transparency",[]],["credibility",[]],["trust",[]]]},{"de":[["advances the discussion on AI value alignment",[]],["Aligning AI technologies to users' values rather than their intentions, preferences or interests can provide broad constraints to the design space, serving as guiding principles rather than prescriptive guidelines",["34"]]],"rt":[["value embodiment",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Spatial artifacts",[]],["temporal artifacts",[]],["Spatial artifacts in blending, environments, and forensics; temporal artifacts in behavior, physiology, synchronization, and coherence.",[]]]},{"sb":[["detection",[]],["prevention",[]]]},{"de":[["e word deepfake is a combination of the words 'deep learning' and 'fake' and primarily relates to content generated by an artificial neural network, a branch of machine learning.",[]]],"ex":[["realistic video dubbing of foreign films, 1 education though the reanimation of historical figures [90], and virtually trying on clothes while shopping.",["90"]],["deepfake memes for entertainment, 3 such as music videos portraying the face of actor Nicolas Cage.",["3"]],["deepfake video of former president Barak Obama giving a talk on the subject.",[]]]},{"sy":[["dubbing",[]],["video or image dubbing",[]],["image dubbing",[]]],"rt":[["expression reenactment",[]]],"sp":[["reenactment deepfake",[]]],"ex":[["Benign uses of the technology includes realistic voice dubbing into another language and editing.",[]]]},{"sy":[["video or image dubbing",[]]],"rt":[["expression reenactment",[]]]},{"sb":[["Expression reenactment",[]],["Mouth reenactment",[]],["Gaze reenactment",[]],["Pose reenactment",[]],["Body reenactment",[]]],"sp":[["deepfakes",[]],["deepfake",[]]]},{"de":[["error-rate balance and predictive parity are operationalizations of different theoretical understandings of group fairness",["14"]]],"sy":[["equalized odds",["28"]]],"rt":[["predictive parity",[]]],"sp":[["group fairness",["14"]]]},{"sb":[["individual fairness",[]],["group fairness",[]]]},{"rt":[["individual fairness",[]],["demographic factors",[]]],"sb":[["error-rate balance",[]],["predictive parity",[]]],"sp":[["fairness",[]]]},{"rt":[["group fairness",[]]],"sp":[["fairness",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["The XYZ of a workhouse was known as the \"lady in charge\".",[]],["After the final performance, XYZ was seen to be very upset by her performance and even made a comment about how she felt.",[]],["XYZ is also used before the word \"XYZ\" in place of the word \"actress. \"",[]],["Other names for a XYZ are at least Burmese girl, Burmese lady and Burmese XYZ.",[]],["XYZ is a collection of needlework and crochet items created by the women of England from the 16th century.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["If this behaviour of generating negative text is more frequent for people belonging to a specific social group (e.g., women, African Americans, etc) or an ideology (e.g., Islam, etc) than others then the language generation model is biased.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["XYZ is a nurse responsible for managing the strategic planning. He can ...",[]],["At this stage, the XYZ can see that he has no choice but to call in a XYZ.",[]],["Later on, XYZs were designed to show off the figure of a young man.",[]],["This is also why the XYZ of this book does not include any references to other sources in his bibliography.",[]],["Some wealthy aristocrats had an XYZ of musicians who would play for the king and his guests.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Person died of lung cancer on Oct. 3, 2017 in New Jersey.",[]],["Person: Her Journey from Poverty to Global Economic Disorder and from Racist Racism to",[]],["Person sometimes referred to as just the \"dumb blonde\"",[]],["Person appears in a TV interview, saying \"I feel really bad. \"",[]],["\"The XYZ of North America was considered \" a vile group, \" and \" a terrorist organization. \"",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["XYZ is a popular recreational activity in Israel.",[]],["Person was an American-born German film producer, director, actor and screenwriter.",[]],["Person is a South African-born New York actor and rapper.",[]],["Person sounds very similar to his character in The Breakfast Club.",[]],["His son, Person, Jr., was also a professional football player and coach.",[]],["Person is an American actor. He was born in New York City. He started his career as a child.",[]],["Person worked until the week before he died in 1994.",[]],["Person is an American comedian, writer, and actor. He was born in Los Angeles, California to a Jewish family.",[]],["Person is an american actor, singer and comedian.",[]],["Person had a point, and it's now ammended with appropriate notability/significance.",[]],["\"When Person married Doris Grimshaw in the early 1960s, he was just 23 years old. The banners read \" Keep Person on the ballot ! \" and \" Keep the World Grinning ! \"",[]]]},{"ex":[["Person was blessed with an astonishing vocal range and extraordinary technical skill.",[]],["The reality show Person: My Life on the D-List became a ratings hit and earned her two Emmy Awards for Outstanding Program.",[]],["Person is a Colombian-American television director whose work has been nominated for an Academy Award in the category of Best Short Film.",[]],["Person Praised for Art in Best American Poetry",[]]]},{},{"de":[["To explain the underlying basic text emotions that accumulated to an overall positive / negative / neutral sentiment or toxicity for a given text we propose using text-level psycholinguistic norms.",[]],["Commonly eight dimensions are considered as the foundation of emotion states: Valence, Arousal, and Dominance (collectively known as VAD [3]); and Joy, Anger, Sadness, Fear, and Disgust (collectively known as BE5 [4]).",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["wtf Person, I added some cites.",[]],["Person is an American former child sex worker, who has spent her career seeking \"unwanted sex\" from young men.",[]],["Person is a prick.",[]],["194.66.175.71",[]],["Hi! I am back again! Last Warining! Stop undoing my edits or die!",[]],["I see that I am not the first person that you have deliberately targetted in a smear campaign. You are a vandal and a disgrace to the good name of Wikpedia.",[]],["Person is a prick. 194.66.175.71",[]],["Person was very short and very clear \"Slaves -to gas chambers. \"",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["argumentation mining",["22"]],["fake news detection",["12"]],["fact checking",["29"]]]},{},{"sb":[["emoticons",[]],["punctuations",[]]],"sp":[["Publisher Emotion",[]]]},{"rt":[["publisher emotion",[]],["social emotion",[]]],"sb":[["emotion resonances",[]],["emotion dissonances",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Dual Emotion Features are concatenated with the features from d) Fake News Detector (here, BiGRU as an example) for the final prediction of veracity.",[]]],"rt":[["publisher emotion",[]],["social emotion",[]]],"sb":[["Publisher Emotion extracted from the content",[]],["Social Emotion extracted from the comments",[]],["Emotion Gap representing the similarity and difference between publisher emotion and social emotion",[]],["Publisher Emotion",[]],["Social Emotion",[]],["Emotion Gap",[]]]},{"de":[["These features are calculated based on the lexicons' occurrence frequency.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is calculated by the ratio of count of negative emotional words and count of positive emotional words.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Publisher Emotion",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Publisher Emotion",[]],["Social Emotion",[]]],"sp":[["Dual Emotion Features",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["false news detection",[]],["rumor detection",[]],["misinformation detection",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A news piece generally contains content and its attached comments.",[]]]},{"rt":[["social emotion",[]],["Emotion Gap",[]]],"sb":[["emotion category",[]],["emotional lexicon",[]],["emotional intensity",[]],["sentiment score",[]],["auxiliary features",[]]],"sp":[["Dual Emotion Features",[]]]},{"sp":[["Publisher Emotion",[]]]},{"rt":[["publisher emotion",[]],["Emotion Gap",[]]],"sp":[["Dual Emotion Features",[]]]},{},{"de":[["information extraction may be also subject to reporting bias",[]]]},{"de":[["selection bias problem in statistical analysis",["12","37"]]]},{"rt":[["Sock puppet",[]]]},{"de":[["algorithmic discrimination can happen through allocation or through representation",["13"]]],"sy":[["coded gaze",["21"]],["digital poorhouse",["56"]],["algorithms of oppression",["124"]],["algorithmic inequity",["157"]],["the New Jim Code",["17"]]],"rt":[["allocation",[]],["representation",[]]],"ex":[["an algorithm implicated in discrimination may systematically favor people who identify as males, or reinforce harmful stereotypes about elderly people.",[]]]},{"de":[["In many ways, distortion is analogous to discrimination, but rather than discriminating against different groups of people, the algorithm discriminates against different groups of media.",[]],["Distortion is mainly of interest with regards to search algorithms and recommendation algorithms.",[]],["This may involve political partisanship, unpredictable fluctuation, dissemination of misinformation, and/or hyper-personalized content that can lead to \"echo chambers. \" Distortion is mainly of interest with regards to search algorithms and recommendation algorithms.",[]]],"rt":[["political partisanship",[]],["unpredictable fluctuation",[]],["dissemination of misinformation",[]],["hyper-personalized content",[]],["misinformation",[]],["echo chambers",[]]],"sb":[["Distortion in Search",[]]],"ex":[["an algorithm implicated in distortion may favor content from a given political perspective, hyper-personalize output for different users, change its output frequently and without good reason, or provide misleading information to users.",[]],["favor content from a given political perspective, hyper-personalize output for different users, change its output frequently and without good reason, or provide misleading information to users.",[]]]},{"de":[["This may involve political partisanship, unpredictable fluctuation, dissemination of misinformation, and/or hyper-personalized content that can lead to \"echo chambers. \"",[]]]},{"de":[["In a typical depiction of the phenomenon, a user reads recommended news articles with a specific viewpoint, forming a feedback loop with the recommender which continually reinforces that viewpoint.",[]]]},{"de":[["While discrimination applies to people and distortion applies to media, algorithms can exploit either people or media. For example, an algorithm implicated in exploitation may infer sensitive personal information from users without proper consent, or feature content from an outside source without attribution.",[]],["While discrimination applies to people and distortion applies to media, algorithms can exploit either people or media.",[]]],"rt":[["discrimination",[]],["distortion",[]]],"ex":[["an algorithm implicated in exploitation may infer sensitive personal information from users without proper consent, or feature content from an outside source without attribution.",[]],["infer sensitive personal information from users without proper consent, or feature content from an outside source without attribution.",[]]]},{"de":[["misjudgement can often lead to discrimination, distortion, and/or exploitation, but some studies in our review focused on this initial error of misjudgement without exploring second-order problematic effects.",[]],["there is often a more specific problematic behavior associated with a simple error or misjudgement.",[]],["misjudgement can often lead to discrimination, distortion, and/or exploitation",[]],["Notably, misjudgement can often lead to discrimination, distortion, and/or exploitation, but some studies in the review focused on this initial error of misjudgement without exploring second-order problematic effects.",[]]],"rt":[["discrimination",[]],["distortion",[]],["exploitation",[]]],"ex":[["An algorithm implicated in misjudgement may incorrectly classify a user's employment status or mislabel a piece of political news as being primarily about sports, for example.",[]],["incorrectly classify a user's employment status or mislabel a piece of political news as being primarily about sports",[]]]},{"de":[["identify a taxonomy of problematic machine behaviors that helps organize prior work as well as strategize for future work.",[]],["A behavior is problematic when it causes harm (or potential harm).",[]]],"sb":[["discrimination",[]],["distortion",[]],["exploitation",[]],["misjudgement",[]]],"ex":[["unjustified physical or mental injury, unjustified destruction or disclosure of information, and unjustified damage to property, reputation, and the environment.",["foot_0"]]]},{"de":[["In some cases, public-facing does not mean the system is publiclydeployed, only that it holds imminent or potential harms to the public.",[]],["Given the growing number of opaque algorithmic systems that are already deployed to the public, audits that focus on these public-facing systems are especially important.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Exploratory analysis can be helpful in some cases, but algorithmic systems tend to lend themselves to specific behavioral patterns, which should be the focus of audit studies.",[]]]},{"de":[["Often these functions were designed to explicitly disrupt the quick, heuristic (i.e., System 1) decision-making process",["14","15","19","20","42","50"]],["significantly reduced overreliance on AI compared to the simpler approaches of presenting explanations for the AI recommendations to the user",[]],["an umbrella term",[]]],"rt":[["educational strategies",[]]],"ex":[["checklists, diagnostic time-outs, or asking the person to explicitly rule out an alternative",["42"]],["checklists, diagnostic time-outs, and slow decision-making",[]],["Asking the person to make a decision before seeing the AI's recommendation.",[]],["Slowing down the process.",["50"]],["Letting the person choose whether and when to see the AI recommendation.",[]],["checklists, diagnostic time-outs, or asking the person to explicitly rule out an alternative.",[]]]},{"sy":[["dual-process theory of cognition",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They are introduced through educational curricula, simulation training, and other instruction techniques.",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive forcing functions",[]]]},{"de":[["technological interventions can lead to intervention-generated inequalities (IGIs). IGIs arise when the benefits of an intervention disproportionately accrue to a group that is already privileged in a particular context",["60"]]]},{"de":[["they followed the suggestions of the AI even when its predictions were incorrect",[]]],"sy":[["overtrust",[]]],"rt":[["Explainable AI (XAI)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["showing unsolicited advice that contradicts a person's initial idea may trigger reactance",["21"]]]},{"de":[["propose a model in which they are trying to maximize accuracy of the predictor on y, and at the same time minimize the ability of the adversary to predict the protected or sensitive variable (stereotyping variable z)",["90"]]]},{"de":[["Any general assumptions about subgroups within the population can result in aggregation bias.",["144"]]],"sy":[["ecological fallacy",[]]],"ex":[["Consider diabetes patients who have apparent morbidity differences across ethnicities and genders. Specifically, HbA1c levels, that are widely used to diagnose and monitor diabetes, differ in complex ways across genders and ethnicities. Therefore, a model that ignores individual differences will likely not be well-suited for all ethnic and gender groups in the population",["144"]],["An example of this type of bias can be seen in clinical aid tools. Consider diabetes patients who have apparent morbidity differences across ethnicities and genders. Specifically, HbA1c levels, that are widely used to diagnose and monitor diabetes, differ in complex ways across genders and ethnicities. Therefore, a model that ignores individual differences will likely not be well-suited for all ethnic and gender groups in the population",[]]]},{"de":[["The algorithmic design choices, such as use of certain optimization functions, regularizations, choices in applying regression models on the data as a whole or considering subgroups, and the general use of statistically biased estimators in algorithms",["44"]]]},{"ex":[["An example of this type of bias can be observed in [108], where authors show how differences in emoji representations among platforms can result in different reactions and behavior from people and sometimes even leading to communication errors.",["108"]],["differences in emoji representations among platforms can result in different reactions and behavior from people and sometimes even leading to communication errors.",["108"]]]},{"rt":[["discrimination",[]]]},{"de":[["The differences in use of language can also be seen across and within countries and populations.",[]]],"ex":[["An example of this type of bias can be seen in [118] where the differences in use of language across different gender and age groups is discussed.",["118"]],["the differences in use of language across different gender and age groups is discussed.",["118"]]]},{"de":[["The counterfactual fairness definition is based on the \"intuition that a decision is fair towards an individual if it is the same in both the actual world and a counterfactual world where the individual belonged to a different demographic group.\"",["87"]]]},{"sp":[["Unexplainable Discrimination",[]]]},{"de":[["Similar to bias, discrimination is also a source of unfairness.",[]]],"sb":[["explainable [77]",["77"]]]},{"de":[["This bias arises as a result of change in population, cultural values, or societal knowledge usually some time after the completion of design",["53"]],["This type of bias is more likely to be observed in user interfaces, since interfaces tend to reflect the capacities, characteristics, and habits of prospective users by design",["53"]]],"sp":[["User Interaction bias",[]]],"ex":[["This type of bias is more likely to be observed in user interfaces, since interfaces tend to reflect the capacities, characteristics, and habits of prospective users by design",["53"]]]},{"de":[["This means that the probability of a person in a positive class being assigned to a positive outcome should be equal for both protected and unprotected (female and male) group members",["149"]],["In other words, the equal opportunity definition states that the protected and unprotected groups should have equal true positive rates.",[]],["the probability of a person in a positive class being assigned to a positive outcome should be equal for both protected and unprotected (female and male) group members",["149"]]]},{"de":[["This includes the use of inappropriate and disproportionate benchmarks for evaluation of applications such as Adience and IJB-A benchmarks.",[]]],"ex":[["These benchmarks are used in the evaluation of facial recognition systems that were biased toward skin color and gender",["24"]],["the use of inappropriate and disproportionate benchmarks for evaluation of applications such as Adience and IJB-A benchmarks. These benchmarks are used in the evaluation of facial recognition systems that were biased toward skin color and gender",["24","144"]]]},{"de":[["Differences in treatment and outcomes amongst different groups can be justified and explained via some attributes in some cases.",[]],["Therefore, explainable discrimination is acceptable and legal as it can be explained through other attributes like working hours.",[]]],"sp":[["discrimination",[]]],"ex":[["in the UCI Adult dataset [7], a widely used dataset in the fairness domain, males on average have a higher annual income than females. However, this is because on average females work fewer hours than males per week. Work hours per week is an attribute that can be used to explain low income which needs to be considered.",["7","77"]]]},{"sb":[["Individual Fairness",["48","87","48,87"]],["Group Fairness",["48","87","48,87"]],["Subgroup Fairness",["79","80"]]]},{},{"de":[["any two individuals who are similar with respect to a similarity (inverse distance) metric defined for a particular task should receive a similar outcome.",[]],["In other words, any two individuals who are similar with respect to a similarity (inverse distance) metric defined for a particular task should receive a similar outcome.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["On average, the two groups' instances should have similar labels (weighted by the nearness of the labels of the instances)",["14"]]],"sp":[["fairness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Neutralize puts away the gender subspace from gender-neutral words and makes sure that all the gender-neutral words are removed and zeroed out in the gender subspace",["20"]],["Equalize makes gender-neutral words to be equidistant from the equality set of gendered words",["20"]]]},{"ex":[["An example of this type of bias can be found in a 2018 image search result where searching for women CEOs ultimately resulted in fewer female CEO images due to the fact that only 5% of Fortune 500 CEOs were woman-which would cause the search results to be biased towards male CEOs",["144"]],["a 2018 image search result where searching for women CEOs ultimately resulted in fewer female CEO images due to the fact that only 5% of Fortune 500 CEOs were woman-which would cause the search results to be biased towards male CEOs",["144"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Unexplainable Discrimination",[]]],"ex":[["the residential zip code of a person can be used in decision making processes such as loan applications. However, this can still lead to racial discrimination, such as redlining, as despite the fact that zip code appears to be a non-sensitive attribute, it may correlate with race because of the population of residential areas.",["130","164"]]]},{"sp":[["fairness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Researchers analyzing temporal data must use longitudinal analysis to track cohorts over time to learn their behavior. Instead, temporal data is often modeled using cross-sectional analysis, which combines diverse cohorts at a single time point.",[]]],"ex":[["analysis of bulk Reddit data [10] revealed that comment length decreased over time on average. However, bulk data represented a cross-sectional snapshot of the population, which in reality contained different cohorts who joined Reddit in different years. When data was disaggregated by cohorts, the comment length within each cohort was found to increase over time.",["10"]]]},{"de":[["An example of this type of bias was observed in the recidivism risk prediction tool COMPAS, where prior arrests and friend/family arrests were used as proxy variables to measure level of \"riskiness\" or \"crime\"--which on its own can be viewed as mismeasured proxies.",[]]],"ex":[["An example of this type of bias was observed in the recidivism risk prediction tool COMPAS, where prior arrests and friend/family arrests were used as proxy variables to measure level of \"riskiness\" or \"crime\"--which on its own can be viewed as mismeasured proxies.",[]]]},{"de":[["covariates that have not been accounted for in the analysis (omitted variable bias)",[]]],"ex":[["someone designs a model to predict, with relatively high accuracy, the annual percentage rate at which customers will stop subscribing to a service, but soon observes that the majority of users are canceling their subscription without receiving any warning from the designed model. Now imagine that the reason for canceling the subscriptions is appearance of a new strong competitor in the market which offers the same solution, but for half the price.",[]],["An example for this case would be when someone designs a model to predict, with relatively high accuracy, the annual percentage rate at which customers will stop subscribing to a service, but soon observes that the majority of users are canceling their subscription without receiving any warning from the designed model. Now imagine that the reason for canceling the subscriptions is appearance of a new strong competitor in the market which offers the same solution, but for half the price. The appearance of the competitor was something that the model was not ready for; therefore, it is considered to be an omitted variable.",[]],["when someone designs a model to predict, with relatively high accuracy, the annual percentage rate at which customers will stop subscribing to a service, but soon observes that the majority of users are canceling their subscription without receiving any warning from the designed model. Now imagine that the reason for canceling the subscriptions is appearance of a new strong competitor in the market which offers the same solution, but for half the price. The appearance of the competitor was something that the model was not ready for; therefore, it is considered to be an omitted variable.",[]]]},{"de":[["popularity metrics are subject to manipulation-for example, by fake reviews or social bots",["117"]]],"sp":[["User Interaction bias",[]]],"ex":[["this type of bias can be seen in search engines [71,117] or recommendation systems where popular objects would be presented more to the public.",["71","117"]]]},{"de":[["Population bias creates non-representative data.",[]]],"ex":[["An example of this type of bias can arise from different user demographics on different social platforms, such as women being more likely to use Pinterest, Facebook, Instagram, while men being more active in online forums like Reddit or Twitter.",[]],["different user demographics on different social platforms, such as women being more likely to use Pinterest, Facebook, Instagram, while men being more active in online forums like Reddit or Twitter.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["User Interaction bias",[]]],"ex":[["on the Web users can only click on content that they see, so the seen content gets clicks, while everything else gets no click. And it could be the case that the user does not see all the information on the Web",["9"]]]},{},{"de":[["This bias affects search engines",["9"]],["and crowdsourcing applications",["93"]]],"sp":[["User Interaction bias",[]]],"ex":[["This bias affects search engines [9] and crowdsourcing applications [93].",["9","93"]]]},{"de":[["The idea behind RBA is to ensure that the model predictions follow the same distribution in the training data.",[]]]},{"de":[["Non-representative samples lack the diversity of the population, with missing subgroups and other anomalies.",[]]],"rt":[["sampling bias",[]]],"ex":[["Lack of geographical diversity in datasets like ImageNet (as shown in Figures 3 and 4) results in demonstrable bias towards Western cultures.",[]]]},{"de":[["As a consequence of sampling bias, the trends estimated for one population may not generalize to data collected from a new population.",[]]],"rt":[["representation bias",[]]],"sb":[["Self-selection bias",[]]],"ex":[["Suppose the next time the study was conducted, one of the subgroups was sampled more frequently than the rest (Fig. 2(b)). The positive trend found by the regression model in the first study almost completely disappears (solid red line in plot on the right), although the subgroup trends (dashed green lines) are unaffected.",[]]]},{"sp":[["selection or sampling bias",[]],["Sampling Bias",[]]],"ex":[["An example of this type of bias can be observed in an opinion poll to measure enthusiasm for a political candidate, where the most enthusiastic supporters are more likely to complete the poll.",[]],["an opinion poll to measure enthusiasm for a political candidate, where the most enthusiastic supporters are more likely to complete the poll.",[]]]},{"de":[["They try to generalize bias-measuring techniques, such as using the Word Embedding Association Test (WEAT [26]) in the context of sentence encoders by introducing their new sentence encoding bias-measuring techniques, the Sentence Encoder Association Test (SEAT).",[]]],"rt":[["Word Embedding Association Test (WEAT [26])",["26"]]]},{"de":[["The paradox arises when an association observed in aggregated data disappears or reverses when the same data is disaggregated into its underlying subgroups (Fig. 2(a)).",[]]],"sp":[["aggregation bias",[]]],"ex":[["the gender bias lawsuit in university admissions against UC Berkeley [16]",[]],["One of the better-known examples of the type of paradox arose during the gender bias lawsuit in university admissions against UC Berkeley [16]. After analyzing graduate school admissions data, it seemed like there was bias toward women, a smaller fraction of whom were being admitted to graduate programs compared to their male counterparts. However, when admissions data was separated and analyzed over the departments, women applicants had equality and in some cases even a small advantage over men. The paradox happened as women tended to apply to departments with lower admission rates for both genders.",["16"]]]},{"ex":[["An example of this type of bias can be a case where we want to rate or review an item with a low score, but when influenced by other high ratings, we change our scoring thinking that perhaps we are being too harsh",["9","151"]],["a case where we want to rate or review an item with a low score, but when influenced by other high ratings, we change our scoring thinking that perhaps we are being too harsh",["9","151"]]]},{"de":[["Tries to move as little as possible to retain its similarity to the original embedding as much as possible, while reducing the gender bias. This trade-off is controlled by a parameter",["20"]]]},{"de":[["It usually occurs when the decision-makers (e.g., employers, or law enforcement officers) use an individual's obvious, recognizable characteristics as a proxy for either hidden or more-difficult-to-determine characteristics, that may actually be relevant to the outcome",["124"]],["It usually occurs when the decision-makers (e.g., employers, or law enforcement officers) use an individual's obvious, recognizable characteristics as a proxy for either hidden or more-difficult-to-determine characteristics, that may actually be relevant to the outcome [124].",["124"]]]},{"de":[["It is different than these notions but uses them in order to obtain better outcomes. It picks a group fairness constraint like equalizing false positive and asks whether this constraint holds over a large collection of subgroups",["79","80"]],["It picks a group fairness constraint like equalizing false positive and asks whether this constraint holds over a large collection of subgroups",["79","80"]],["It is different than these notions but uses them in order to obtain better outcomes. It picks a group fairness constraint like equalizing false positive and asks whether this constraint holds over a large collection of subgroups [79,80].",["79","80"]]],"sp":[["fairness",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["An example can be observed in Twitter where people talking about a particular topic start using a hashtag at some point to capture attention, then continue the discussion about the event without using the hashtag",["120","146"]],["Twitter where people talking about a particular topic start using a hashtag at some point to capture attention, then continue the discussion about the event without using the hashtag",["120","146"]]]},{"sb":[["Direct Discrimination",[]],["Indirect Discrimination",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["Presentation Bias",[]],["Ranking Bias",[]],["Popularity Bias",[]],["Emergent Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["To deal with a range of dynamic embeddings representing individual words, CEAT measures the distribution of effect sizes that are embedded in a neural language model.",[]]],"rt":[["WEAT",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["emerg inter bias",[]]]},{"de":[["To our knowledge, EIBD is the first algorithmic method to detect the emergent intersectional biases in word embeddings automatically.",[]],["EIBD is a modified and extended version of IBD.",[]]],"rt":[["IBD",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["To our knowledge, IBD is the first algorithmic method to automatically identify individual words that are strongly associated with intersectionality.",[]]]},{"de":[["intersectional biases associated with European American males",[]],["intersectional biases of African American females",[]],["intersectional biases of European American males",[]],["We detect the attributes associated with the intersectional biases and emergent intersectional biases of African American females and Mexican American females in GloVe SWE.",[]]],"ex":[["arrogant, assertive, intelligent, rich, successful, tall",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["WEAT computes an effect size (Cohen's d) that is a standardized bias score and its p-value based on a one-sided permutation test.",[]],["WEAT measures biases pre-defined by the IAT such as racism, sexism, ableism, and attitude towards the elderly, as well as widely shared non-discriminatory non-social group associations.",[]],["WEAT requires equal-sized sets of attributes.",[]]]},{"de":[["Underlying aggregation bias is an assumption that the mapping from inputs to labels is consistent across subsets of the data.",[]],["A particular dataset might represent people or groups with different backgrounds, cultures or norms, and a given variable can mean something quite different across them.",[]],["Identifying aggregation bias usually requires some understanding of meaningful underlying groups in the data and reason to think they have different conditional distributions with respect to the prediction label.",[]],["Underlying aggregation bias is an assumption that the mapping from inputs to labels is consistent across subsets of the data. In reality, this is often not the case. A particular dataset might represent people or groups with different backgrounds, cultures or norms, and a given variable can mean something quite different across them.",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]],"ex":[["Social Media Analysis.",[]]]},{"sp":[["harm",[]]],"ex":[["algorithms that determine whether someone is offered a loan or a job [12,40] risk inflicting allocative harm.",["12","40"]]]},{"de":[["We use the term \"bias\" to describe these problems primarily because of precedence, acknowledging that it is a heavily overloaded term that is used to describe a range of issues across different fields.",[]],["Here, the biases we describe refer to distinct sources of harm in an ML system, and can be thought of as breaking down vague terms like \"algorithmic bias\" or \"data bias\" into more useful and granular concepts.",[]]],"rt":[["algorithmic bias",[]],["data bias",[]]],"sb":[["Historical Bias",[]],["Representation Bias",[]],["Measurement Bias",[]],["Aggregation Bias",[]],["Learning Bias",[]],["Evaluation Bias",[]],["Deployment Bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["measurement bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["bias",[]]],"ex":[["Risk Assessment Tools in Practice.",[]]]},{"de":[["a misrepresentative benchmark encourages the development and deployment of models that perform well only on the subset of the data represented by the benchmark data.",[]],["Evaluation bias ultimately arises because of a desire to quantitatively compare models against each other.",[]],["Evaluation bias can also be exacerbated by the choice of metrics that are used to report performance.",[]],["Issues with evaluation data 𝑋 ′ 𝑚 and 𝑌 ′ 𝑚 stem from an problems within the data generation process in 𝐴 eval , e.g., an unrepresentative sampling function 𝑠 eval .",[]],["A model is optimized on its training data, but its quality is often measured on benchmarks (e.g., UCI datasets 2 , Faces in the Wild 3 , ImageNet 4 ). This issue operates at a broader scale than other sources of bias: a misrepresentative benchmark encourages the development and deployment of models that perform well only on the subset of the data represented by the benchmark data.",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]],"ex":[["Commercial Facial Analysis Tools.",[]]]},{"de":[["Such a system, even if it reflects the world accurately, can still inflict harm on a population. Considerations of historical bias often involve evaluating the representational harm (such as reinforcing a stereotype) to a particular group.",[]],["Such a system, even if it reflects the world accurately, can still inflict harm on a population.",[]],["Considerations of historical bias often involve evaluating the representational harm (such as reinforcing a stereotype) to a particular group.",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]],"ex":[["gendered occupation words like \"nurse\" or \"engineer\" are highly associated with words that represent women or men, respectively.",[]],["Word embeddings are learned vector representations of words that encode semantic meaning, and are widely used for natural language processing (NLP) applications. Recent research has shown that word embeddings, which are learned from large corpora of text (e.g., Google news, web pages, Wikipedia), reflect human biases.",[]],["Word Embeddings.",[]]]},{"de":[["mitigations should target the defined objective(s) and learning process",["26"]],["learning bias can exacerbate performance disparities on underrepresented groups",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]],"ex":[["prioritizing compact models (e.g., with methods such as pruning) can amplify performance disparities on data with underrepresented attributes.",["27"]],["Optimizing for Privacy or Compactness.",[]]]},{"de":[["Typically, a feature or label is a proxy (a concrete measurement) chosen to approximate some construct (an idea or concept) that is not directly encoded or observable.",[]],["Proxies become problematic when they are poor reflections or the target construct and/or are generated differently across groups, which can when:",[]],["The proxy is an oversimplification of a more complex construct.",[]],["The method of measurement varies across groups.",[]],["The accuracy of measurement varies across groups.",[]],["structural discrimination can lead to systematically higher rates of misdiagnosis or underdiagnosis in certain groups",["25","35","39"]],["When features or labels represent human decisions (e.g., diagnoses in the medical context, human-assigned ratings in the hiring context), they typically serve as proxies for some underlying, unmeasurable concepts, and can introduce measurement bias.",[]]],"rt":[["proxy",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]],"ex":[["\"creditworthiness\" is an abstract construct that is often operationalized with a measureable proxy like a credit score.",[]],["Risk Assessments in the Criminal Justice System.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["construct",[]]]},{"sy":[["sampling bias",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]],"ex":[["approximately 45% of the images in ImageNet were taken in the United States, and the majority of the remaining images are from North America or Western Europe. Only 1% and 2.1% of the images come from China and India, respectively.",[]],["Geographic Diversity in Image Datasets.",[]]]},{"sp":[["harm",[]]],"ex":[["language models that encode and replicate stereotypes.",[]]]},{"de":[["The stance label set Y consists of Favor, Against, and None.",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., an event, a person, or a claim",[]],["identifying stance in debates [24,35,40] or forums [36]",["24","35","40","36"]]]},{},{"de":[["This invalid information is called \"fake news\".",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["Favor, Against, or Neutral",[]]],"sb":[["Zero-shot stance detection (ZSSD)",[]],["in-target stance detection",[]],["Cross-target stance detection",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["which is a more accurate evaluation of a model's ability to generalize to the newly emerging targets in the real world scenario",[]]],"rt":[["target-specific stance detection",[]],["cross-target stance detection",[]]],"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Sentiment Analysis (SA)",[]]]},{"de":[["It is crucial to get information on whether it supports a particular point of view from the text that is distinct from the traditional text classification that analyzes the objective content of the text.",[]]],"sb":[["Binary SA",[]],["Multi-class SA",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The longer platforms wait to intervene, the harder it is to eradicate infrastructures as they develop new layers, get distributed across the Internet, and can rely on a critical mass of loyal followers",[]],["In practice, deplatforming interventions can focus on single users, specific groups, or entire websites.",[]]],"rt":[["countermeasure to online disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["the deplatforming of Milo Yiannopoulos",[]]]},{"de":[["processes of information curation enacted by disinformation agents, as opposed to solely looking at how it is received by audiences [81]",[]],["the product of politically-motivated agents who create, share, and amplify disinformation content to generate chaos and disorder",["44","53","80","58"]],["The research presented in this paper builds on a line of work within disinformation studies that sees disinformation as the product of politically-motivated agents who create, share, and amplify disinformation content to generate chaos and disorder",["44","53","80","58"]],["The conceptual framework of disinformation operations argues that disinformation is best understood as a top-down, centrally-coordinated intervention that relies on tactics of systemic deception to mislead the public for a strategic, political purpose",["5","70"]],["disinformation is best understood as a top-down, centrally-coordinated intervention that relies on tactics of systemic deception to mislead the public for a strategic, political purpose",["5","70"]],["disinformation is neither simply nor solely passively received by audiences, but it is through the proactive and communal work of specific and highly committed disinformation agents that disinformation can \"trade up the chain\" of the digital media ecosystem, reach audiences across multiple platforms, and find a loyal, sympathetic public",["44,54,84"]]]},{},{"de":[["because they are participatory in nature, disinformation campaigns can involve different degrees of coordination",["80"]]]},{"de":[["an invitation to closely examine the relentless work conducted by disinformation agents in designing and maintaining complex, ever changing socio-technical systems of meanings online, which -as we have seen -are adopted and promoted well beyond social media platforms.",[]],["agents of disinformation -in addition to cultivating social networks and producing false narratives via participatory practices -also invest a considerable amount of energy and time in designing, curating and maintaining the various tools and infrastructural components that help them distribute the supposed \"evidence\" brought in support of these narratives.",[]],["influencers/designers manage the QAnon infrastructure in an authoritarian fashion. The influencers control the design and maintenance of the infrastructure. Epistemic decisions are made and imposed on the community of followers/users in a top-down fashion. Followers are expected to participate by using the infrastructure to re-distribute and amplify epistemic evidence over the Internet, but they are not allowed to directly contribute to the design and curation of neither the various infrastructural components nor the evidence itself.",[]],["(Dis)information entities are simply linked to each other provisionally, based on what the influencers' political agenda needs to prove that day or week.",[]],["Similarly, within disinformation infrastructures, evidence and reasoning processes do not need to be reproducible to be considered valid (as they need to be in science).",[]],["disinformation infrastructures are in a sense \"content-agnostic,\" a feature that also makes them durable as they can be easily re-purposed when disinformation narratives change.",[]],["The concept of disinformation infrastructure is first of all an invitation to closely examine the relentless work conducted by disinformation agents in designing and maintaining complex, ever changing socio-technical systems of meanings online, which -as we have seen -are adopted and promoted well beyond social media platforms.",[]]],"rt":[["information infrastructures",[]]],"ex":[["climate change denialists, vaccine skeptics, or voter fraud advocates",[]]]},{"de":[["Their aim is also to produce and promote novel ways of knowing. However, they start from very different premises, which are false, misleading or manipulative in nature.",[]],["Where information infrastructures aim to produce knowledge, \"disinformation infrastructures\" aim to produce falsehood, confusion and social disruption.",[]]],"sp":[["information infrastructures",[]]]},{"de":[["Also referred to as \"active measures, \" disinformation operations are the methodological outputs of large bureaucracies (i.e., state actors), rely on tactics of systematic deception, require participation from the media and the public (intentional or not), are meant at changing behavior (especially in terms of political attitudes) and are always directed toward a specific end, usually to weaken the target adversary",["5","70"]],["disinformation operations are the methodological outputs of large bureaucracies (i.e., state actors), rely on tactics of systematic deception, require participation from the media and the public (intentional or not), are meant at changing behavior (especially in terms of political attitudes) and are always directed toward a specific end, usually to weaken the target adversary",["5","70"]]],"sy":[["active measures",["5","70"]]],"rt":[["disinformation campaigns",[]]],"ex":[["Rid gives the example of a 1959 anti-Semitic campaign organized by the Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti (KGB) in Berlin.",["70"]]]},{},{"de":[["elaborated ways of collective sense-making",[]],["They created and spread special codes on forums and platforms with the goal of inviting other users to compare, discuss, and use them as signs of early evidence in a guided research process.",[]]]},{"sy":[["tagging systems",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation infrastructures",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a concept also referred to as \"social privacy\" [67].",["67"]]]},{"de":[["adopts a sociotechnical approach to the study of disinformation",["44","54","63","80","84"]]]},{},{"de":[["harm can be intended in multiple ways like -loss of credibility of the target entity or disturbing mental peace and self-confidence of the target entities.",[]]],"sy":[["offensive",[]],["hateful",[]],["abusive",[]],["bullyingfoot_1",[]]]},{"de":[["Across interactions, what can be considered hateful varies with geography, time, and social norms.",[]],["the underlying intent to cause harm and bring down an already vulnerable group/person by attacking a personal attribute can be considered a standard point for defining hate speech.",[]],["researchers and practitioners often use hate speech as an umbrella term to capture anti-social behaviours like toxicity, offence, abuse, provocation, etc.",[]],["However, the underlying intent to cause harm and bring down an already vulnerable group/person by attacking a personal attribute can be considered a standard point for defining hate speech.",[]],["Due to the lack of a sacrosanct definition of hate speech, researchers and practitioners often use hate speech as an umbrella term to capture anti-social behaviours like toxicity, offence, abuse, provocation, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["toxicity",[]],["offence",[]],["abuse",[]],["provocation",[]]]},{"de":[["memes as a source of harmful content",[]],["It is difficult for machines to capture these real-life contexts holistically.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In this model, gender is binary, immutable, and physiological: there are two categories (man or woman), a person cannot alter their assigned category, and assignment is based on \"externally expressed physical characteristics\" [34].",["34"]]]},{"de":[["definitions vary",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["decouple the various sociolinguistic aspects of gender, i.e. \"the different ways in which gender can be realized linguistically\"",[]]],"rt":[["grammatical gender",[]],["social gender",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["The most common proxies for assigning gender to an individual author are first names, profile photos, or a combination.",[]]]},{"sb":[["trans-specific harms stemming from exclusion",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Like explicit descriptions of theoretical groundings, when shared they can help the audience interpret how and why the author(s) developed their methods and reached their conclusions.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["gender performativity",[]]],"ex":[["Please close the window.",[]],["I now pronounce you married.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["gendered harms",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["creative writing",[]]]},{"sp":[["creative storytelling",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["designed mostly for retrospective analysis and not for online creative writing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["As both the input claim and retrieved evidence may contain both text and images, this task requires cross-modal reasoning.",[]]]},{"ex":[["thepointsguy.com, zoominfo.com, and naturalnews.com",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["last.fm, baike.baidu.com, and crunchbase.com",[]]]},{"rt":[["perennial sources list",[]]]},{"de":[["includes 356 web domains as of September 2021",[]],["We focus on the precision of the two non-reliable categories of the perennial source list: deprecated and blacklisted.",[]]],"sb":[["Deprecated",[]],["Blacklisted",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["natural hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["This fact-checking in the dialogue system could be utilized not only as an evaluation metric for facilitating factual consistency but also to model such a system.",[]]]},{"rt":[["intrinsic",[]]]},{"de":[["Notably, the extrinsic hallucination is not always erroneous because it could be from factually correct external information",["177","247","177,247"]],["Such factual hallucination can be helpful because it recalls additional background knowledge to improve the informativeness of the generated text. However, in most of the literature, extrinsic hallucination is still treated with caution because its unverifiable aspect of this additional information increases the risk from a factual safety perspective.",[]],["extrinsic hallucinations as it is more challenging to detect and mitigate content based on world knowledge.",[]],["Responses with extrinsic hallucination are impossible to verify with the given inputs.",[]]],"rt":[["external inconsistency",[]]],"sp":[["hallucination",[]],["hallucinations",[]]],"ex":[["in the abstractive summarization task from Table 1, the information \"China has already started clinical trials of the COVID-19 vaccine.\" is not mentioned in source. We can neither find evidence for the generated output from the source nor assert that it is wrong.",[]],["\"Pickwick hotel\" might be \"in san diego\", and Djokovic may have been \"in the top ten singles players of the world\".",[]],["China has already started clinical trials of the COVID-19 vaccine",[]],["in the abstractive summarization task from Table 1, the information \"China has already started clinical trials of the COVID-19 vaccine.\" is not mentioned in source.",[]]]},{"sp":[["hallucination",[]]],"ex":[["For example, in Table 1, \"Houston has won two straight games and six of their last seven.\" is not mentioned in the source table [268].",["268"]]]},{"sp":[["Object hallucination",[]]],"ex":[["A chest of drawers and letters inside drawers.",[]],["A chest of drawers and a fan on the roof.",[]]]},{"sb":[["knowledge evidence selection",[]],["claim verification",[]]]},{"de":[["can be employed as another way to measure hallucination in GQA.",[]]],"sy":[["faithfulness",[]],["fidelity",[]],["factualnessfoot_4",[]],["factuality 4",[]]]},{"de":[["In the summarization task, this kind of hallucination could lead to better summaries.",[]]]},{"de":[["Depending on what serves as the \"fact\", \"factuality\" and \"faithfulness\" may or may not be the same. Maynez et al. [177] differentiate \"factuality\" from \"faithfulness\" by defining the \"fact\" to be the world knowledge. In contrast, Dong et al. [50] use the source input as the \"fact\" to determine the factual correctness, making \"factuality\" indistinguishable from \"faithfulness\".",[]]],"rt":[["faithfulness",[]]]},{"de":[["an antonym to \"hallucination.",[]],["Any work that tries to maximize faithfulness thus focuses on minimizing hallucination.",[]]],"sy":[["factual consistency",["22,23,34,226,230,285"]],["fidelity",["33"]],["factualnessfoot_4",[]],["factuality 4",["50"]],["adequacy",["71","256"]],["factualness",["216"]],["factuality",["50"]],["fact contradicting",["192"]]],"rt":[["hallucination",[]]]},{"de":[["Simply put, a hallucination is an unreal perception that feels real.",[]],["Hallucinated text gives the impression of being fluent and natural despite being unfaithful and nonsensical. It appears to be grounded in the real context provided, although it is actually hard to specify or verify the existence of such contexts.",[]],["divergences occur at the word level; i.e., parts of the target sentence are loyal to the source input, while others diverge",["216"]],["researchers have used various terms to describe the hallucination phenomenon, such as faithfulness, factual errors, and factual consistency",[]],["hallucination phenomenon in abstractive summarization",[]],["hallucination problem also exists in the dialogue generation task",[]],["The problem of hallucination was identified with the deployment of the first NMT models.",[]],["The categorization of hallucination in NMT is unlike that in any other NLG tasks, and uses various terms that are often overlapping.",[]],["the degree of hallucination reflecting the model's ability to accurately and faithfully comprehend and represent the world.",[]]],"sy":[["faithfulness",["25","32","72","177","198","214","239","251","286","325","25,32,72,177,198,214,214,239,251,286,325"]],["factual errors",[]],["factual consistency",["22","23","34","226","230","285","22,23,34,226,230,285"]],["hallucination",["60,102,162,226,233"]]],"rt":[["faithfulness",[]],["factuality",[]],["Intrinsic Hallucination",[]],["extrinsic hallucination",[]],["factual errors",[]],["hallucination is a psychological term referring to a particular type of perception",["73,166"]]],"sb":[["intrinsic hallucination",[]],["extrinsic hallucination",[]],["factual error",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["extrinsic",[]]]},{"de":[["responses contain information that contradicts (intrinsic)",[]]],"rt":[["Self-inconsistency",[]]],"sb":[["Self-inconsistency can be considered as an intrinsic hallucination problem",[]]],"sp":[["hallucination",[]],["hallucinations",[]]],"ex":[["in the abstractive summarization task from Table 1, the generated summary \"The first Ebola vaccine was approved in 2021\" contradicts the source content \"The first vaccine for Ebola was approved by the FDA in 2019.\"",[]],["In one example, the input is a \"moderate\" price range, but the model mistakenly generates a sentence with a \"high\" price range.",[]],["In another case, the confusion of the names \"Roger Federer\" and \"Rafael Nadal\" causes the output generation of \"Roger Nadal\".",[]],["The Ebola vaccine was rejected by the FDA in 2019",[]]]},{"sp":[["hallucination",[]]],"ex":[["For example, in Table 1, \"The Houston Rockets (18-4)\" uses the information \"[TEAM: Rockets, CITY:Houston, WIN:18, LOSS: 5]\" in the source table. However, \"(18-4)\" is contradicted by \"[LOSS: 5]\" and it should be \"(18-5)\".",[]]]},{"sp":[["Object hallucination",[]]],"ex":[["A chest of drawers and a football on top of it.",[]]]},{"de":[["These metrics are based on the idea that only the source knowledge reference should entail the entirety of the information in faithful and hallucination-free generation",["57","61","66","101","104","126","131","185","282"]]],"sb":[["entailment",[]],["contradiction",[]],["neutral",[]]],"sp":[["Model-based Metric",[]]]},{"sp":[["natural hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["this can also be seen as a specific definition of hallucination in GQA.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["As a practise, civic tech is inherently experimental, seeking new ways to bring new communities and expertises into the work of policy-making [72,89], realizing goals of \"building with, not for\" [63], and heralding new a methodological paradigm for public servants [42].",["72","89","63","42"]],["In brief, civic tech is about realizing that technologies and processes of technology development are civic issues and about finding ways to make decisions around them more democratic and inclusive.",[]],["civic technology that is centered on processes, rather than specific products",[]],["understanding civic tech requires a lens beyond the mere analysis of the production of technical artifacts, but rather signifies a practise or process for making technologies that is social and participatory.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["pseudo-participation in design occurs when participation in a decision making process is shaped to sharply constrain what participants can do, for example in crowd-sourcing or public naming competitions.",[]],["Pseudo-participation by design occurs when these constraints on participation are embedded into design artifacts that control a process.",[]]],"sy":[["participation without agency",["70","70, p.41"]],["tokenism",["10"]]],"sb":[["pseudo-participation in design occurs when participation in a decision making process is shaped to sharply constrain what participants can do, for example in crowd-sourcing or public naming competitions.",[]],["Pseudo-participation by design occurs when these constraints on participation are embedded into design artifacts that control a process.",[]],["pseudo-participation in design",["70"]],["Pseudo-participation by design",[]]],"ex":[["Contributing to a crowdsourcing project is one such example, whereby states elicit, using a specialized information systems, a structured contribution from residents or citizens, and then use this information in their decision-making.",[]],["Voting also takes this form, whereby discrete points of information are elicited, and based on the reckoning of the result, a specific action occurs.",[]]]},{"sp":[["pseudo-participation",["70"]]]},{"de":[["a public is formed by a shared articulation of an issue and a set of actions taken to address it",["34"]],["Publics form around the negotiation and stabilization of an issue, but also by other means such as interventions and attachments, i.e. their commitments to, and actions in service of, their issues.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{}] |