MBDef 1.0.0: Explorer data for exactly the released rows, map and topics made on them
714cbfe verified | [{},{"ex":[["bitch, angel",[]]]},{"sp":[["linguistic biases",[]]]},{"sb":[["nominal biases",[]],["sentimental biases",[]],["lexical biases",[]]]},{"sp":[["linguistic biases",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["linguistic biases",[]]]},{"rt":[["gender assortativity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["mediatización va formándose como un concepto y una teoría que permite una nueva mirada a la comunicación mediada tecnológicamente en relación con la cultura, la sociedad y la política.",[]],["Desde hace unos años la mediatización va formándose como un concepto y una teoría que permite una nueva mirada a la comunicación mediada tecnológicamente en relación con la cultura, la sociedad y la política.",[]]],"rt":[["desintermediación",[]],["polarización",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["factores relativos a la difusión",[]]]},{"sp":[["factores relativos a la producción de contenidos",[]]]},{"sp":[["factores relativos a la difusión",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["en Estados Unidos los estándares de la práctica periodística concibieron la calidad informativa en televisión en la forma recogida en la Fairness Doctrine",[]]],"rt":[["calidad informativa",[]]]},{"de":[["De acuerdo con la BBC Trust (2007: 5), \"la imparcialidad implica una mezcla de precisión, equilibrio, contexto, distancia, objetividad, mentalidad abierta, rigor, autoconciencia, transparencia y verdad\".",["BBC Trust (2007: 5)"]]]},{"de":[["para que la audiencia lo pueda identificar claramente como tal",["Boerman y van Reijmersdal, 2016"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["factores relativos a la producción de contenidos",[]]]},{"sp":[["factores relativos a la producción de contenidos",[]]]},{"sp":[["factores relativos a la difusión",[]]]},{"ex":[["Existencia de consejos de informativos, canal para \"whistleblowers\", comité de redacción, etc",[]]]},{},{"de":[["El valor periodístico responde a cómo los periodistas valoran los eventos en función de su importancia política, su efecto social, la gravedad o el interés público",["Herbert, 2000"]],["pero también tiene que ver con la actualidad, la proximidad, la prominencia, el interés humano o la novedad",["Caple, 2018","Dominick, 2011","Galtung y Ruge, 1965","Rich, 2015"]],["con acontecimientos dramáticos",["Lippmann, 1922"]],["con el impacto potencial en la sociedad",["Kepplinger y Ehmig, 2006"]],["o el interés de la audiencia",["Golding y Elliott, 1979","Strömbäck, Karlsson y Hopmann, 2012"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["intercambio dialógico",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["populismo",[]]]},{"de":[["«dificultar los esfuerzos para promover los intereses, proteger los derechos o reconocer la dignidad de grupos marginales, definidos por religión, raza u origen étnico, situación inmigratoria, sexualidad, o género. . . considerando estas como desventajas o subestimando simbólicamente a estos en la cultura dominante»",["Brubaker, 2017, p. 365"]]]},{"de":[["muchos movimientos populistas no llegan a ser colectivos democráticos en la medida en que se caracterizan por reducidos intereses privatizados, hábitos irreflexivos y prácticas que resultan antagónicas a la interpelación, la capacidad de respuesta y la deliberación.",[]],["Como tales, los movimientos populistas pueden amenazar la legitimidad normativa y la estabilidad de las instituciones estatales democráticas liberales de educación.",[]]],"sb":[["versiones minimalistas",[]],["versiones maximalistas",[]]]},{"rt":[["política democrática",[]]]},{"rt":[["lo político",[]]]},{"de":[["El populismo aparece cuando cobran vida colectivos como una forma de agencia o articulación manifestada.",[]],["El populismo se caracteriza por expresiones políticas de contestación y exigencias entre «el pueblo» y quienes les gobiernan, considerados como élites en el encuadre populista",["Laclau, 2005"]]],"sb":[["versiones minimalistas",[]],["versiones maximalistas",[]],["maximalismo",[]],["minimalismo",[]]]},{"de":[["Constituye un tipo de reacción violenta colectiva contra las reformas educativas del estado democrático liberal, cada vez más fuertes, que enfatizan la igualdad, la inclusión y el pluralismo en toda sociedad.",[]]],"rt":[["nacionalismo étnico",[]],["autoritarismo",[]],["ortodoxia religiosa",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["democracia directa",[]]],"sb":[["movimientos sociales",[]],["partidos políticos",[]],["medios de comunicación",[]],["ONG",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Violence",["14"]]]},{"sp":[["Violence",["14"]]]},{"sp":[["Violence",["14"]]]},{"sb":[["Physical violence",[]],["sexual violence",[]],["psychological violence",[]],["physical, sexual, or psychological violence",["14"]]]},{"de":[["framing sebagai suatu proses membuat suatu pesan lebih menonjol, menempatkan informasi lebih dari pada yang lain sehingga khalayak lebih tertuju dan setuju pada pesan tersebut.",[]]],"sy":[["Framing analysis",[]]],"rt":[["skrip",[]],["tematik",[]],["retoris",[]],["penyeleksian dan penonjolan",[]]]},{"de":[["media merupakan agen konstruksi pesan (dari penguasa/pihak tertentu kepada khalayak/kaum marginal)",[]]],"sy":[["agen konstruksi",[]]]},{"de":[["dalam konsepsi psikologi lebih menekankan pada bagaimana seseorang memproses informasi dalam dirinya. Framing berkaitan dengan struktur dan proses kognitif.",[]],["Kalau pandangan psikologis lebih melihat pada proses internal seseorang, bagaimana individu secara kognitif menafsirkan suatu peristiwa dalam cara pandang tertentu, makan pandangan sosiologis lebih melihat pada bagaimana konstruksi sosial atas realitas.",[]]],"sb":[["Pertama, dalam konsepsi psikologi lebih menekankan pada bagaimana seseorang memproses informasi dalam dirinya. Framing berkaitan dengan struktur dan proses kognitif. Bagaimana seseorang mengolah sejumlah informasi dan ditunjukkan dalam skema tertentu.",[]],["Kedua, konsepsi sosiologis. Kalau pandangan psikologis lebih melihat pada proses internal seseorang, bagaimana individu secara kognitif menafsirkan suatu peristiwa dalam cara pandang tertentu, makan pandangan sosiologis lebih melihat pada bagaimana konstruksi sosial atas realitas. Frame disini dipahami sebagai proses bagaimana seseorang mengklasifikasikan, mengorganisasikan, dan menafsirkan pengalaman sosialnya untuk mengerti dirinya dan realitas di luar dirinya.",[]]]},{"rt":[["ideologi",[]],["legitimasi",[]]]},{"de":[["Secara positif, ideologi dipersepsi sebagai suatu pandangan dunia yang menyatakan nila-nilai kelompok sosial tertentu untuk membela dan memajukan kepentingan-kepentingan kelompok tertentu.",[]],["Secara negatif, ideologi dilihat sebagai suatu kesadaran palsu, yaitu suatu kebutuhan untuk melakukan penipuan dengan cara memutar balikan pemahaman orang mengenai realitas sosial.",[]]]},{"rt":[["teks",[]],["wacana",[]]]},{"de":[["media massa merupakan agen konstruksi social dalam mendefinisikan realitas",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["teks",[]],["konteks",[]]]},{"rt":[["teks",[]],["konteks",[]],["wacana",[]]]},{},{"de":[["el frame puede representar un ambiente social en el cual se desarrolla no solo la práctica comunicativa, sino también la interpretación de lo que se transmite con la relativa construcción de significados (Goffman, 1987).",[]]]},{"ex":[["Slogan contro i clandestini",[]],["Azione contro i clandestini",[]],["Stop ai profughi",[]],["No ai profughi [siriani]",[]],["Chiude le porte ai profughi",[]],["Un «no» alla presenza dei profughi",[]],["Espulsione dei migranti",[]],["Politica anti-immigrati",[]],["Violento ataque a un refugio de inmigrantes venezolanos en Brasil",[]]]},{"de":[["los frames, ofreciendo una imagen precisa de la realidad y organizando los conceptos y los argumentos relacionados con un fenómeno específico, contribuyen a brindar particulares visiones del mundo en las que se insertan las narraciones.",[]]],"rt":[["Nosotros-Otros",[]]],"sb":[["frames culturales",["2008"]]]},{"de":[["a veces pueden reproducir imágenes estereotipadas de alteridades, o bien ofrecer generalizaciones extremas que, inevitablemente, influyen en la recepción, interpretación y reelaboración del mensaje por parte de la opinión pública.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Cuando la percepción de una amenaza se agudiza creando formas de alarma generalizada",[]]]},{},{"de":[["while facts belong to the same world as opinions, they are not the same: opinions can be argued against, whereas facts are intransigent.",[]],["Because facts themselves are contingent because they result from a random series of events and could therefore have always been otherwise -and because, furthermore, they depend on the often unreliable testimony of witnesses, they are not self-evident.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the market rationality of neoliberalism has led, over many years, to the hollowing out of the public political space and therefore to an erosion of the very conditions of democracy.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a political activity -it intervenes in political affairs, often staging an agonistic confrontation not only with the singular will of the tyrant, but with the democratic will of the people",[]],["True discourse, or parrësia, is therefore precisely the problem of government: if democracies are to be governed well, if democratic decision-making is to be guided effectively, then it must be exposed to the ordeal of truth, to an ethical principle which is always different to it, and which is at times in an antagonistic relationship with the democratic will.",[]],["is therefore precisely the problem of government: if democracies are to be governed well, if democratic decision-making is to be guided effectively, then it must be exposed to the ordeal of truth, to an ethical principle which is always different to it, and which is at times in an antagonistic relationship with the democratic will.",[]],["parrësia is a form of action, of truth as action, which has the potential to disrupt and change an existing situation.",[]],["Parrësia could be seen as precisely a form of self-constitution in this way because, in committing to the truth and freely assuming the risks involved, the individual formed a new relationship to himself: 'parrësia is a way of opening up this risk linked to truth-telling by, as it were, constituting oneself as a partner of oneself when one speaks, by binding oneself to the statement of the truth and to the act of stating the truth.'",["35"]],["parrësia might be considered a form of careful speech, not only in its commitment to truth -for which one is prepared to stake one's lifebut also in its concern for the integrity of the self.",[]]],"sy":[["frank speech",[]],["True discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["singular and foreign to human affairs",[]]]},{"de":[["the political lie, in transgressing the truth, at the same time reaffirmed the authority of the truth",[]],["Statesmen and politicians have always lied, often to conceal the most serious abuses of power.",[]]],"rt":[["post-truth",[]]]},{"de":[["Political lying therefore no longer deceives in the conventional sense but distorts our sense of reality, creating confusion about the world and our place within it.",[]],["political lying, in its deliberate blurring of the line between fact and opinion, actually changes the existing situation and is a form of action.",[]]]},{"de":[["a political scene, as Brown describes, 'full of ranting and posturing, emptied of intellectual seriousness, pandering to an uneducated and manipulable electorate and a celebrityand-scandal-hungry corporate media.'",[]]],"rt":[["post-truth",[]]]},{"de":[["The post-truth condition is a post-political condition.",[]],["post-truth thus represents a crisis of political life.",[]],["seen not only in the lies, falsehoods, 'alternative facts' and distortions promulgated by those in power, but in the constant attacks on the media as the 'enemies of the people'.",[]],["distrust and hostility shown towards expert opinion.",[]],["an attachment that proved impervious to rational persuasion or even to factual truth.",[]],["post-truth refers to a much more pervasive phenomenon than mere political deceit.",[]],["truth, once deemed essential to political life, even if it was more honoured in the breach than in the observance, becomes relativised into a series of competing 'truth markets'.",[]],["if, put simply, post-truth only really works because people, out of laziness or resentment, are willing to believe its lies and allow themselves to be manipulated in this fashion",[]]],"rt":[["post-politics",[]],["fake news",[]],["alternative facts",[]],["misinformation",[]],["political lie",[]],["political deceit",[]]],"ex":[["accusations of 'fake news' against the mainstream media",[]]]},{"de":[["the lying that takes place under the post-truth condition is evident for all to see, yet no less effective for all that.",[]]]},{"de":[["The function and effect of post-truth discourse is to create a kind of cognitive dissonance, a general sense of confusion about what is true and false, contributing to an inability to accurately map our political terrain.",[]],["It is a deliberate strategy of 'gaslighting', aimed at the dislocation of our sense of certainty about the world.",[]]],"rt":[["alternative facts",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["'Truths' now have to compete for market share, seeing which one can garner the biggest audiences, the most followers on social media, or the highest TV ratings.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Mis-information",[]],["Mal-information",[]]]},{"de":[["EU policy considers disinformation to be harmful content, rather than illegal content.",[]],["all three definitions are exceedingly broad, insufficiently specified and, as such, not fit to function as a legal category but should, rather, continue to be considered as indicating a policy domain.",[]],["we can identify three key elements that emerge from the various definitions applicable to disinformation at member state level, namely (a) false information, (b) disseminated with a specific intention (malicious or bad faith) (c) and causes certain harms.",[]],["the notion of disinformation, rather than merely concerning harmful content, is in fact illegal content in a number of EU member states, and most notably, subject to criminal law and sanctions.",[]],["susceptible to providing executive authorities with ' excessive discretion to determine what is disinformation, what is a mistake, what is truth'",["Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression\", 2020, para. 42"]],["manipulative techniques and disinformation with a real and foreseeable negative impact on public health, public security, civil discourse, political participation and equality",["DSA 2020, Recital 63"]],["false information, (b) disseminated with a specific intention, and (c) targeting certain public harms",[]],["(a) false information, (b) intention (i.e., maliciously), and (c) harm (i.e., to public opinion or good order)",[]]],"sy":[["false news",[]],["false information",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["false news",[]],["false information",[]],["illegal content",[]],["deliberate but not misleading distortions of facts",[]],["satire",[]],["parody",[]],["misleading advertisement",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation containing illegal content",[]]],"ex":[["any type of misleading advertisement would qualify as disinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["false news",[]]]},{"de":[["These can be grouped into false news or false information laws contained in criminal legislation and non-criminal legislation",[]]],"sy":[["false information",[]]],"rt":[["false information",[]]],"ex":[["maliciously spread false news which is likely to alarm public opinion or disturb public good order or the public peace or to create a commotion among the public or among certain classes of the public",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the European Commission has made a distinction between illegal content (such as child sexual abuse material or hate speech), and harmful content (such as disinformation)",["European Commission, 2020a;2020b"]],["This definition captures all the instances of disinformation as defined in the national laws described in the previous section.",[]],["broad definition under the DSA. As such, all of the national provisions at EU member-state level on disinformation, false news and false information, are applicable under Article 8 DSA.",[]]],"rt":[["harmful content",[]]],"ex":[["child sexual abuse material",[]],["hate speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["Mis-information",[]],["Dis-information",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["Dis-information",[]],["Mal-information",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the manner of dissemination, strategic or assisted by AI, as one of the most defining characteristics of online disinformation",["2019, p. 12"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This term captures the acutely uneven digital playing field for speakers of the world's 7000+ languages.",[]],["Digitally-disadvantaged languages face multiple inequities in the digital sphere including gaps in digital support that obstruct access for speakers, poorly-designed digital tools that negatively affect the integrity of languages and writing systems, and unique vulnerabilities to surveillance harms for speaker communities.",[]]],"rt":[["natural language processing (NLP)",[]],["low resource or under-resourced languages",[]]],"sb":[["minoritised languages",[]],["Indigenous languages",[]],["oral languages",[]],["signed languages",[]],["endangered languages",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["pseudoscience",[]]]},{"sp":[["pseudoscience",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Clickbait sites often fabricate pseudoscientifi c or politically misleading articles and publish them as real news; other times, they present news taken from other sites without permission.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["lie",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Thus, it has two main functions: the metatextual function, which relates to the text as a whole (it is a simple representation of the complex text and can even live a separate life), and its predictive function, which points at the content of the text (Tolcsvai Nagy, 2001: 325).",[]]],"rt":[["metatextual function",[]],["predictive function",[]]]},{"de":[["Hoaxes typically exploit users' naivety to dupe them into voluntarily forwarding and reposting them to their friends",["Fenyvesi, 2016: 445"]],["So, hoax is the virtual form of gossip",["Szvetelszky, 2002"]],["and forms part of digital folklore",["Balázs, 2015","Heyd, 2013","Veszelszki, 2011"]],["Hoaxes prototypically exploit people's goodwill and readiness to help.",[]]],"sy":[["scam",[]]],"rt":[["gossip",["Szvetelszky, 2002"]],["digital folklore",["Balázs, 2015","Heyd, 2013","Veszelszki, 2011"]]],"sb":[["fake advertisements",[]],["urban legends",[]],["pseudo-hoaxes",[]],["pseudoscientifi c hoaxes",[]],["scam",[]]],"sp":[["Internet frauds",[]]],"ex":[["fake advertisements",[]],["urban legends",[]],["pseudo-hoaxes imitating the style of fake news with the intent to have a humorous effect",[]],["pseudoscientifi c hoaxes putting the scientifi c world to the test",[]]]},{"de":[["Such frauds can be analysed along two lines: whether their purpose is profi t making or entertainment.",[]]],"rt":[["phishing",[]],["spam",[]],["hoax",[]],["urban legends",[]],["clickbait",[]]],"sb":[["spam",[]],["phishing",[]],["hoaxes",[]]]},{"sp":[["pseudoscience",[]]],"ex":[["Creationism",[]]]},{"rt":[["deception",[]]],"sp":[["deception",[]]]},{"rt":[["clickbaits",[]]]},{"de":[["Manipulation is related to persuasion but with the huge difference that the target person is usually not aware of being manipulated (Falyuna, 2016).",["Falyuna, 2016"]],["Manipulative strategies also include making false allegations and statements (Árvay, 2007;Falyuna, 2016).",["Árvay, 2007","Falyuna, 2016"]]],"rt":[["persuasion",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Instead of deceit, news parodies rather intend to entertain others and caricature political or public events or fi gures.",[]],["Their essence is to imitate the style, language, and news structure of news media.",[]]],"sy":[["satire",[]]]},{"de":[["the exaggerations used in them usually reveal their true nature",[]]],"sy":[["satire",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Internet frauds",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hoax",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hoax",[]]]},{"sp":[["pseudoscience",[]]]},{"sp":[["Internet frauds",[]]]},{"rt":[["folklore",["Veszelszki, 2011"]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Civic engagement is an important way for citizens to influence society by supporting political causes, criticizing them, or suggesting new directions (Strömbäck, 2005).",["Strömbäck, 2005"]]],"ex":[["volunteering, donating, and expressing public opinion",["Theocharis and Van Deth, 2016","Zukin, Keeter, Andolina, Jenkings, and Carpini, 2006"]]]},{"de":[["Reasons for news avoidance during a crisis may be a fear of negative information, a more focused consumption of certain news content or sources, and the avoidance of misinformation.",[]],["The reasons for intentional news avoidance can vary from not trusting the news, the overload of information available, or issue fatigue (Gurr and Metag, 2021).",["Gurr and Metag, 2021"]]],"rt":[["low news use",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["social scoring",[]],["applications that try to manipulate human behavior",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["based on destruction and fatalities",[]]],"rt":[["actual damage/failure",[]]],"sp":[["news factors",[]]]},{"de":[["Three indicators of editorial emphasis are used: (1) assigned text space, (2) visual emphasis, and (3) placement of a news story.",[]],["Assigned text space, visual emphasis, and the placement of news stories served as indicators of editorial emphasis.",[]],["In this view, to omit a certain aspect of reality from the news represents the lowest degree of editorial emphasis, comparable to the zero point of a measurement scale (Schulz, 1976).",["1976"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In other words, news factors are not ontological attributes of certain events that are self-evident. Rather, they are characteristics of reality ascribed by journalists.",[]],["concepts developed in Great Britain and the United States",[]],["understood as sense-making criteria",[]],["news factors are not ontological attributes of certain events that are self-evident. Rather, they are characteristics of reality ascribed by journalists.",[]],["News factors serve as criteria of sense-making and constitute the newsworthiness of particular reality aspects as observed by journalists.",[]]],"sy":[["valores noticiosos",[]],["news values",[]]],"rt":[["hypotheses of reality",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["news factors",[]],["newsworthiness",[]]]},{"de":[["News factors serve as criteria of sense-making and constitute the newsworthiness of particular reality aspects as observed by journalists.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["formulated by Galtung and Ruge (1965)",[]],["hypotheses of selection, additivity, and replication",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["social interactions",["Manski, 2000"]]]},{"sy":[["peer effects",["Manski, 2000"]]]},{},{"sp":[["resources",[]]]},{"rt":[["heteronomous pole",[]]],"sp":[["field",[]]],"ex":[["as when a work of art is judged on the basis of the medium's or genre's criteria of quality.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["centripetal force",[]]]},{"rt":[["centrifugal force",[]]]},{"de":[["communication may be viewed as a form of action: by communicating, people exchange not only information, but they influence one another and their mutual relationship by, for example, promising, confirming, rejecting, deciding, and so forth.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Direct mediatization makes visible how a given social activity is substituted, i.e., transformed from a non-mediated activity to a mediated form, and in such cases it is rather easy to establish a 'before' and an 'after' and examine the differences.",[]]],"rt":[["indirect (weak) form of mediatization",["Hjarvard, 2004"]],["mediatization",[]]],"sp":[["mediatization",[]]],"ex":[["the successive transformation of chess from physical chessboard to computer game.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["non-mediated",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["autonomous pole",[]]],"sp":[["field",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., the market's, politicians' or the media's.",[]]]},{"rt":[["simulacra",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Indirect mediatization does not necessarily affect the ways in which people perform a given activity.",[]],["Consequently, indirect mediatization of an activity or sphere will be of a more subtle and general character and relate to the general increase in social institutions' reliance on communication resources.",[]],["Indirect mediatization does not necessarily affect the ways in which people perform a given activity. Consequently, indirect mediatization of an activity or sphere will be of a more subtle and general character and relate to the general increase in social institutions' reliance on communication resources.",[]]],"rt":[["mediatization",[]]],"sp":[["mediatization",[]]],"ex":[["the burgeoning merchandising industry that surrounds hamburger restaurants",[]],["the development of intertextual discourse between media and other institutions in society",[]]]},{"de":[["Institutions provide for the reproduction of society within the sphere in question, giving it a certain degree of autonomy and a distinct identity in relation to other spheres.",[]]],"rt":[["rules",[]],["allocations of resources",[]]]},{"de":[["but still, the situation is not quite like that in physical, face-to-face communication.",[]],["typically, in small groups, in chat rooms, blogs, online games, and so forth.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Media are not a uniform phenomenon; each medium has its own characteristics, and they vary in both use and content between cultures and societies.",[]]]},{"de":[["appears to consist of a formatting logic that determines how material is categorized, the choice of mode of presentation, and the selection and portrayal of social experience in the media.",[]],["The logic of the media influences the form communication takes, such as how politics is described in media texts (Altheide & Snow, 1979); media logic also influences the nature and function of social relations as well as the sender, the content and the receivers of the communication.",["Altheide & Snow, 1979"]],["will increasingly affect society.",[]],["media logic for the most part appears to consist of a formatting logic that determines how material is categorized, the choice of mode of presentation, and the selection and portrayal of social experience in the media.",[]],["a formatting logic that determines how material is categorized, the choice of mode of presentation, and the selection and portrayal of social experience in the media.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The influence of the media is, in other words, more than the sum of their influence in the respective fields",[]]],"rt":[["metacapital",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["dialogic",[]],["Media also change the ability of individual actors to steer how the social situation is defined, to steer the use of verbal and non-verbal communication and accessories, and to define territorial boundaries in the interaction.",[]]],"ex":[["a telephone conversation",[]]]},{"de":[["monologic",[]]],"ex":[["Mass media, like newspapers, radio and television",[]]]},{"de":[["Mediation describes the concrete act of communication by means of a medium in a specific social context.",[]]],"rt":[["mediatization",[]]],"ex":[["if a politician chooses to use a blog instead of a newspaper to communicate with his constituency, the choice may well influence the form and content of his or her communication, while the communicative relationship between the politicians and the electorate will be altered.",[]]]},{"de":[["Only very recently have media researchers sought to develop the concept toward a more coherent and precise understanding of mediatization as a social and cultural process",["Krotz, 2007","Schulz, 2004"]],["the growing influence exerted by the media over political processes.",[]],["mediatization, by its very definition, is always bound in time and to cultural context",["Krotz, 2007:39"]],["Winfried Schulz (2004) identifies four kinds of processes whereby the media change human communication and interaction. First, they extend human communication abilities in both time and space; second, the media substitute social activities that previously took place face-to-face. For example, for many, internet banking has replaced the physical meeting between banks and their clients. Third, media instigate an amalgamation of activities; face-to-face communication combines with mediated communication, and media infiltrate into everyday life. Finally, actors in many different sectors have to adapt their behavior to accommodate the media's valuations, formats and routines.",[]],["Extension, substitution, amalgamation and accommodation are important processes in mediatization; moreover, empirical validation through historical, cultural and sociological analysis is required.",[]],["The prime characteristic of the process of mediatization, as conceived of here, is rather an expansion of the opportunities for interaction in virtual spaces and a differentiation of what people perceive to be real.",[]],["Here, 'mediatization' is used as the central concept in a theory of the both intensified and changing importance of the media in culture and society.",[]],["more than a label for a set of phenomena that bear witness to increased media influence and it should also relate to other, central sociological theories.",[]],["describe overall developmental trends in society across different contexts and, by means of concrete analysis, demonstrate the impacts of media on various institutions and spheres of human activity.",[]],["successive growth in media's influence in contemporary society",[]],["The media intervene into, and influence the activity of other institutions, such as the family, politics, organized religion, etc., while they also provide a 'commons' for society as a whole, that is, virtual shared fora for communication that other institutions and actors increasingly use as arenas for their interaction.",[]],["Mediatization should be viewed as a modernization process on a par with urbanization and individualization, whereby the media, in a similar manner, both contribute to disembedding social relations from existing contexts and re-embedding them in new social contexts.",[]],["here we use the concept to characterize a given phase or situation in the overall development of society and culture in which the logic of the media exerts a particularly predominant influence on other social institutions",[]],["This process is characterized by a duality in that the media have become integrated into the operations of other social institutions, while they also have acquired the status of social institutions in their own right.",[]],["As a consequence, social interaction -within the respective institutions, between institutions, and in society at large -take place via the media.",[]],["mediatization refers to a more long-lasting process, whereby social and cultural institutions and modes of interaction are changed as a consequence of the growth of the media's influence.",[]],["Thus mediatization is a distinct late-modern process that is, to quote John B.Thompson, \"partially constitutive of modern societies, and are partially constitutive of what is 'mod-ern' about the societies in which we live in today\" (Thompson, 1990:15).",["Thompson, 1990:15"]],["the process through which mediated cultural products have gained importance as cultural referents and hence contribute to the development and maintenance of cultural communities.",[]],["an ambiguous term which refers to the increasing cultural and social significance of the mass media and other forms of technically mediated communication",[]],["Thus, the degree of mediatization may be measured according to how much the respective field's autonomous pole has weakened; eventually, some fields will lose their autonomy entirely.",[]]],"sy":[["mediation",[]]],"rt":[["media logic",[]],["mediation",[]],["the central concept in a theory of the both intensified and changing importance of the media in culture and society.",[]]],"sb":[["mediatized politics",[]],["mediatization of conflicts",[]],["mediatization of culture",[]],["Extension",[]],["substitution",[]],["amalgamation",[]],["accommodation",[]],["direct (strong) and an indirect (weak) form of mediatization",["Hjarvard, 2004"]],["mediatization of political life",[]]],"sp":[["modernization process",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, the mediatization of culture is the process that reinforces and expands the realm of media culture",["2002:14f"]],["the mediatization of culture is the process that reinforces and expands the realm of media culture",["Jansson, 2002:14f"]]],"sp":[["mediatization",[]]]},{"de":[["This process is characterized by a duality in that the media have become integrated into the operations of other social institutions, while they also have acquired the status of social institutions in their own right.",[]],["As a consequence, social interaction -within the respective institutions, between institutions, and in society at large -take place via the media.",[]]]},{"sp":[["mediatization",[]]]},{"de":[["Both Schulz and Krotz point out some similarities between mediatization theory and so-called medium theory, the well-known proponents of which include Walter Ong (1982), Marshall McLuhan (1964) and Joshua Meyrowitz (1986).",[]],["The two theories both choose to view the impact of media in an overall perspective and focus on other aspects than media content and media use",[]],["Mediatization theory is thus consonant with medium theory with respect to taking note of the different media's particular formatting of communication and the impacts on interpersonal relations it gives rise to.",[]],["Krotz (2007) also points out a number of shortcomings in medium theory, among them a tendency toward technological determinism.",[]],["taking note of the different media's particular formatting of communication and the impacts on interpersonal relations it gives rise to.",[]]]},{"rt":[["views",[]]]},{"sy":[["Informal rules",[]]]},{"rt":[["affordance",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["party press",[]]]},{"rt":[["hyperreality",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["an expression that refers to using-in addition to Chinese media presence in other countries-domestic media in the target countries to promote ideas aligned with China's preferred media and political narratives (Rolland 2021).",["Rolland 2021"]]],"sy":[["jie chuan chu hai",[]]]},{},{"de":[["include better and more sympathetic coverage of both Africa and China, exchanges and cooperation of journalists and media representatives, workshops, training, and education (Bailard 2016, 447).",["Bailard 2016, 447"]]]},{"de":[["takes place through the consumption of popular media and cultural goods",[]]]},{"de":[["at the core of Beijing's public diplomacy toolkit (d 'Hooghe 2015), which is primarily focused on relationship building (Benabdallah 2019).",["d 'Hooghe 2015","Benabdallah 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["framing",[]],["agenda-setting",[]]]},{"de":[["se centra en la selección de los temas o asuntos que se cubren por parte de los medios de comunicación y la percepción de su importancia",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]],["teorías del framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["las cuatro funciones que puede desempeñar un frame",[]],["frame",[]]]},{"de":[["El frame de conflicto es el más empleado en las noticias de El País sobre Podemos, y está presente en el 93,6% de las unidades analizadas, como se puede apreciar en la tabla 1",[]],["La idea asociada a dicho encuadre que aparece con mayor frecuencia es la de que el partido está muy polarizado, dado que existen, por encima de todo, dos posiciones muy enfrentadas, lideradas por Iglesias y Errejón",[]],["El frame de conflicto se asocia con frecuencia a la idea de que en Podemos existe una fuerte polarización entre los sectores que lideran Íñigo Errejón y Pablo Iglesias.",[]]],"rt":[["la confrontación entre esta formación y las élites empresariales y políticas",[]]],"sp":[["encuadre",[]]],"ex":[["El 'caso Espinar' enturbia la disputa interna en Unidos Podemos",[]],["Iglesias y Errejón libran la batalla clave en Madrid",[]],["Errejón intenta ganar tiempo y sus afines le animan a dar la batalla",[]],["Iglesias reta a Errejón a discutir sus diferencias políticas antes de llegar a un acuerdo",[]]]},{"de":[["El frame de consecuencias económicas está presente en siete noticias, y suele estar relacionado con los efectos de las decisiones de las grandes empresas sobre la situación económica de la clase trabajadora, o con las propuestas de Podemos para garantizar la sostenibilidad de las pensiones (Otero, Publico.es, 05/11/2016).",["Otero, Publico.es, 05/11/2016"]]],"sp":[["encuadre",[]]]},{"de":[["En ellas se destaca el lado humano de determinados asuntos, como cuando se reproducen las palabras de Ramón Espinar sobre la polémica de su vivienda, y éste compara su situación con la de cualquier persona joven que aspira únicamente a independizarse: \"¿Cuál es el problema ético de que un chaval le pida 60.000 euros a su familia para comprar un piso?\" (López de Miguel, Publico.es, 02/11/2016).",["López de Miguel, Publico.es, 02/11/2016"]]],"sp":[["encuadre",[]]],"ex":[["cuando se reproducen las palabras de Ramón Espinar sobre la polémica de su vivienda",[]],["la alusión a la anciana que falleció en Reus por el incendio causado por una vela, después de que Gas Natural le cortara el suministro eléctrico",[]]]},{"de":[["En algunas ocasiones se destaca el componente ético de las propuestas de los representantes de Podemos, como cuando se describen las acciones llevadas a cabo para evitar el nombramiento antes mencionado del exministro Jorge Fernández Díaz.",[]],["El frame de moralidad también está presente cuando se informa sobre el estilo de dirección de algunos líderes territoriales de Podemos o cuando se alude a las actuaciones por las cuales se está investigando a la jueza Victoria Rosell.",[]],["Se emplea, principalmente, para cuestionar el comportamiento de Ramón Espinar cuando vendió su vivienda en Alcobendas por el precio máximo fijado, con un beneficio neto de unos 20.000 euros.",[]]],"sp":[["encuadre",[]]],"ex":[["cuestionar el comportamiento de Ramón Espinar cuando vendió su vivienda en Alcobendas por el precio máximo fijado, con un beneficio neto de unos 20.000 euros",[]],["cuando se describen las acciones llevadas a cabo para evitar el nombramiento antes mencionado del exministro Jorge Fernández Díaz",[]],["la exigencia de que no se utilice el cuerpo de la mujer como reclamo publicitario",[]],["la exigencia del fin de la pobreza energética",[]]]},{"de":[["El resto de los encuadres temáticos relacionados con el frame de responsabilidad suelen situar a las élites empresariales, financieras o políticas como responsables de los asuntos denunciados por los representantes de Podemos.",[]],["En El País, a través del frame de responsabilidad, se señala a los principales líderes de Podemos como los creadores de las diferentes teorías de la conspiración contra ellos que se han propagado desde este partido político en los últimos meses.",[]]],"sp":[["encuadre",[]],["frame",[]]],"ex":[["las empresas eléctricas en el asunto de la colocación de determinados exministros o expresidentes en sus consejos de administración; ciertos sectores del poder judicial en el tema de la expulsión del teniente Luis Gonzalo Segura; o algunos partidos políticos como el PP o el PSOE en el asunto de la ratificación del acuerdo comercial entre la Unión Europea y Canadá, denominado CETA (Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["los medios de comunicación han ampliado de forma progresiva su rol dentro de la esfera pública, y se han convertido, no solo en los responsables del agendamiento de los temas que hay que discutir, sino también de las opiniones sobre tales temas",["2007, p. 104"]]]},{"de":[["la respuesta que ofrece la teoría del framing al objetivismo es negar sus postulados, ya que argumenta que, cuando cuenta lo que sucede, el periodista encuadra la realidad y aporta su punto de vista",["2001, p. 159"]],["el encuadre determina de qué manera la gente comprende y recuerda un problema determinado, y cómo lo evalúan y deciden actuar sobre él.",[]],["El frame, por lo tanto, al igual que el marco de un cuadro, trata de organizar la percepción del sujeto, incitando a que se atienda a lo que está dentro y a que se ignore lo que está fuera del encuadre, facilitando así la comprensión de los mensajes que contiene el encuadre",["Ardèvol-Abreu, 2015, pp. 428-429"]],["para Goffman los frames son instrumentos de la sociedad que permiten mantener una interpretación compartida de la realidad",["Ardèvol-Abreu, 2015, p. 429"]],["La teoría del framing, al afirmar que las noticias son percepciones de la realidad, está rechazando la corriente objetivista que dominó la investigación académica y la práctica periodística durante las décadas de 1960de y 1970de",[]]],"sy":[["teoría del encuadre",[]]],"rt":[["priming",[]],["agenda-setting",[]],["sociología interpretativa",[]],["psicología cognitiva",[]]]},{"de":[["This bias-adjustment procedure crucially rests on the assumption that the true mean relationality between all the rows in the data is zero or, equivalently, that the relationality values are distributed symmetrically around their null value.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["an abstract cognitive structure that individuals acquire through experience or acculturation",[]],["schemas are not clear sets of behavioral rules but rather implicit recognition procedures that emerge from intricate associational links among salient aspects of our cognitively represented experiences",["2011:1401"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["for example, the concept \"hot\" acquires its meaning from its opposition to \"cold\" rather than from any innate properties of the word itself (de Saussure [1916] 2013;Ritzer and Stepnisky 2013).",["2013"]]]},{"de":[["Such a configuration of concepts within a single cultural domain can be thought of as a shared cultural schema-an abstract cognitive structure that individuals acquire through experience or acculturation.",[]]],"rt":[["semantic networks",[]]]},{"de":[["can be formalized as vectors of real numbers",[]],["RCA uses an eponymous relationality measure to quantify the extent to which two respondents appear to use such a \"shared schema\"-a central concept that has lacked a clear definition.",[]]]},{"de":[["This heterogeneity is exemplified by the hypothetical situation in which a pair of attitudes are correlated positively in one subgroup and negatively in another, which leads them to appear uncorrelated in the overall sample (e.g., Baldassarri and Goldberg 2014:56).",["Baldassarri and Goldberg 2014:56","e.g., Baldassarri and Goldberg 2014:56"]]]},{"de":[["If one position is supported by an abundance of evidence while another is entirely bereft of it, it is profoundly misguided to afford equal air-time and coverage to both positions.",[]],["giving dubious positions an illusion of respectability.",[]],["creates a perception in the public mind that an issue is scientifically contentious, when it is not.",[]],["the default assumption that mutually opposed views must have equal merit, warranting equal coverage",[]],["Yet when it comes to issues of science, striving for balance is mistaken when accuracy is a much more appropriate aim.",[]],["balanced coverage of science does not mean giving equal weight to both sides of an argument. It means apportioning weight according to the balance of evidence",[]],["This \"feedback loop\" form of false balance",[]],["giving dubious positions an illusion of respectability",[]],["creates a perception in the public mind that an issue is scientifically contentious, when it is not",[]],["False balance is insidious, giving dubious positions an illusion of respectability.",[]],["False balance creates a perception in the public mind that an issue is scientifically contentious, when it is not.",[]]],"rt":[["false equivalence",[]],["balanced coverage of science",[]],["false equivalency",[]]],"ex":[["reporting of purported dangers based on hearsay diminished uptake from 70 to 1% in 1 year",[]],["anti-vaccine claims given an equal airing in national media, leading to uptake falling from 79% to < 17% in a year",[]],["vaccine panics in recent years",[]],["fears over genetically modified food and 5G technology",[]],["climate change deniers being afforded far too much air-time",[]],["teaching ID as equivalent with scientific theory",[]],["anti-vaccine claims given an equal airing in national media",[]]]},{"de":[["Reputable outlets have a commitment to factchecking and impartial analysis.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It also assumes that more scientific literacy or more knowledge induces a positive attitude with respect to science, for example, feelings of trust (Nisbet & Scheufele, 2009).",["Nisbet & Scheufele, 2009"]],["The deficit model has been heavily criticized, among other things for its implicit assumption that scientific expertise and worldview are dominant over other forms of knowledge (Jasanoff, 2011)",["Jasanoff, 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["non-scientific forms of knowledge, such as cultural and experiential knowledge, are considered to have equal value as scientific knowledge since complex societal issues such as HGGM can impossibly be dealt with by using only scientific knowledge.",[]],["explicitly acknowledges different forms of knowledge, scientists and non-experts have equal status, and together they are expected to learn with and from each other.",[]],["Dialogue is not about reaching consensus, but about learning with and from each other.",[]],["public dialogues can be seen as opportunities to bring science closer to society; to improve relations; and to demonstrate that scientists do care.",[]]],"sy":[["public engagement with science",[]]]},{},{"de":[["non-scientific forms of knowledge, such as cultural and experiential knowledge, are considered to have equal value as scientific knowledge since complex societal issues such as HGGM can impossibly be dealt with by using only scientific knowledge.",[]],["explicitly acknowledges different forms of knowledge, scientists and non-experts have equal status, and together they are expected to learn with and from each other.",[]]],"sy":[["dialogue model",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Health conspiracies offer simple narratives for complex phenomena and provide a perverse sense of security against uncertainty for believers",["Douglas et al, 2017"]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Special attention is paid to exchange programs, intercultural dialogue, as well as the use of international televisions and technology as an opportunity to increase communication with the world of different cultures, etc.",[]],["Cultural diplomacy establishes lasting long-term relationships, instead of purely political motives that propaganda had, or commercial motives that the national brand has.",[]],["the most important dimension through which long-term friendships are established with foreign audiences and this increases the image of the country in order to realize foreign policy and state interest.",[]],["born as a government activity, but also implemented by non-state actors to design a favorable state image in the eyes of foreign audiences of foreign countries.",[]],["Its main purpose is to provide the state with various alliances and to influence through culture, promoting its cultural life.",[]],["Cultural diplomacy is increasingly becoming an instrument of dialogue and strengthening relations with cultural contexts.",[]],["Scholars of public diplomacy consider cultural diplomacy as the most important dimension through which long-term friendships are established with foreign audiences and this increases the image of the country in order to realize foreign policy and state interest.",[]],["cultural diplomacy can overcome the audience's suspicion of official messages and serve to provide a better content of national reputation",["Mark, 2009, p. 1"]]],"rt":[["public diplomacy",[]],["sports diplomacy",[]]],"sp":[["public diplomacy",["Leonard, 2002"]]]},{"de":[["or simply a lifestyle.",["cited in Carey, 2009, p. 28"]],["culture also includes the exchange of aesthetic experience, religious ideas, rituals, personal values, and feelings",["cited in Carey, 2009, p. 28"]]]},{"de":[["In other words, it means a faithful or approximate imagination or reproduction of someone or something.",[]],["it means a faithful or approximate imagination or reproduction of someone or something.",[]]]},{"de":[["The image represents the simplification of a large number of associations and parts of information related to a place (Kotler, 2002, p. 141).",["Kotler, 2002, p. 141"]]]},{"de":[["the simplification of a large number of associations and parts of information related to a place",["Kotler, 2002, p. 141"]]],"sy":[["foreign publics' perception of a nation",["Fjällhed (2021, p. 230)"]]]},{"de":[["It involves the communication of state and non-state actors with foreign audiences in order to inform, influence and realize the general interests that a state has",["Malone, 1985","Leonard, 2002","Cull, 2008","Nye 2019","Saliu, 2020b","Malone, 1985;Leonard, 2002;Cull, 2008;Nye 2019, Saliu, 2020b"]],["It involves broad engagement of external audiences, especially young people using technology and the internet, either through learning, student exchanges, art, sports, science, and/or networking which offers young professionals to open up for the opportunities of dialogue and open debates",["Leonard, 2002, p. 48"]],["public diplomacy should be focused on the countries which are most relevant to our interests -not those which are easiest to influence",["Leonard, 2002, p. 7"]],["the instrument used by states, state associations and some sub-state and non-state actors, to understand culture, attitudes, and behaviors; to establish and manage relationships, to influence opinions as well as to mobilize actions to advance their interests and values",["Gregory, 2011, p. 353"]]],"rt":[["cultural diplomacy",[]]],"sb":[["Daily news management",["Leonard, 2002","Nye, 2004","Melissen, 2005","Gilboa, 2008","Zaharna, 2012","Pamment, 2013"]],["strategic communication",["Leonard, 2002","Nye, 2004","Melissen, 2005","Gilboa, 2008","Zaharna, 2012","Pamment, 2013"]],["Cultural diplomacy",["Leonard, 2002","Nye, 2004","Melissen, 2005","Gilboa, 2008","Zaharna, 2012","Pamment, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["A country's soft power rests on its resources of culture, values and policies",["Nye, 2019, p. 7"]],["soft power, when seen in terms of behavior, shows the ability to be attractive, it's the power of attraction",["Nye, 2004"]],["Soft power is also a set of democratic policies that are practiced day by day, with attractive personalities, with culture, institutional values of politics and policies which are considered rich in moral authority.",[]],["Soldiers can play an important role in creating a soft power, the image of their country, through exchanges, training in other countries, assistance programs with other countries in peacetime (Nye, 2004, p. 116).",["Nye, 2004, p. 116"]]],"rt":[["hard power",[]],["influence",[]]]},{"de":[["it can sometimes ruin relations between the two countries",["Padhi, 2011"]]],"rt":[["cultural diplomacy",[]]],"sp":[["public diplomacy",[]],["cultural diplomacy",[]]]},{"de":[["desinformação jornalística. A pós-verdade como percepção generalizada de perda do sentido social resulta da ação ideológica burguesa",[]],["impede posições efetivas no sentido de contraposição à barbárie social do metabolismo do capital em crise.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["checagem das possíveis notícias falsas",[]]]},{"de":[["pode ser produto da decadência ideológica",[]]],"sp":[["fact cheking",[]]]},{"de":[["decorrentes de processos econômicos, sociais e ideológicos característicos das mutações no sistema metabólico do capital",[]],["irrupção de uma espécie de indústria de falsas notícias, acalentadas por esse substrato cultural do senso comum em expressão digital",[]],["criação deliberada de mentiras e a atuação de campanha dos novos personagens que entraram em cena como produtores de conteúdo no mundo digital.",[]],["Elas viralizam nas redes sociais, espalhadas por indivíduos desavisados ou interessados e por sistemas automatizados, como bots e algoritmos",["CHRISTOFOlETTI, 2018, p. 62"]],["Elas viralizam nas redes sociais, espalhadas por indivíduos desavisados ou interessados e por sistemas automatizados, como bots e algoritmos (CHRISTOFOlETTI, 2018, p. 62).",["CHRISTOFOlETTI, 2018, p. 62"]]],"sy":[["notícias falsas",[]]],"rt":[["desinformação jornalística",[]]]},{"de":[["hegemonia do irracionalismo na produção intelectual e cultural",[]],["esfera de intensificação do irracionalismo na estrutura da subjetividade hegemônica (lukÁCS, 2016)",[]],["se sedimenta no imaginário popular como visão de mundo que esvazia a compreensão humana da realidade concreta",[]],["incide tanto no conhecimento desantropomorfizador da realidade, aquele direcionado ao mundo da realidade material, muitas vezes relacionado à ciência; quanto do conhecimento antropormofizador dela, aquele conectado ao enriquecimento das emoções e da vida sentimental dos seres humanos, cujos recursos da arte poderiam fortalecer.",[]],["A razão neopositivista e o irracionalismo da pós-verdade rompem com a dialética em dois âmbitos: a objetividade é vista sem a subjetividade no primeiro e/ou a subjetividade aparece sem a relação com a objetividade no segundo.",[]],["crise de confiança gerada pelo panorama ideológico do irracionalismo fluidifica a difusão das mentiras.",[]],["expressão irracionalista no campo das ideias",[]],["irracionalismo que se sedimenta no imaginário popular como visão de mundo que esvazia a compreensão humana da realidade concreta, assim como incentiva a falta de cultivo da vida sentimental.",[]],["A manipulação das emoções com finalidades políticas servis à ordem burguesa reserva para os homens o despertar de seu lado agressivo, possibilitando atos de preconceito aliados ao estranhamento dos sentidos humanos.",[]],["a predominância do irracionalismo como fator que permeia muito da subjetividade do metabolismo do capital dos dias atuais, gerando a perda de sentido social.",[]]],"rt":[["decadência ideológica",[]],["perda da razão na prática noticiosa",[]]]},{},{"de":[["dimensão ideológica e cultural do capitalismo tardio, em sua recente inserção na esfera cotidiana",[]],["ampliação do leque das notícias falsas nesse território de predomínio da guia subjetiva da irrazão",[]],["A pós-verdade finca suas raízes quando afetos e emoções 4 importantes para a experiência humana, como, por exemplo, a surpresa, o prazer, o reconhecimento e a indignação, são usados como base para a definição da realidade material",["D'ANCONA, 2018"]],["fenômeno da decadência ideológica e o irracionalismo como vertente do pensamento social vinculado ao metabolismo do capital em processo de expansão.",[]],["a ampliação do leque das notícias falsas nesse território de predomínio da guia subjetiva da irrazão.",[]],["A pós-verdade poderia, nesse sentido, ser descrita como uma projeção contemporânea das ideias pós-modernas na mentalidade hegemônica do cotidiano das populações em tempos de turbo-capitalismo digital.",[]]],"sy":[["expressão jornalística da pós-verdade é a ampliação do leque das notícias falsas nesse território de predomínio da guia subjetiva da irrazão.",[]]],"rt":[["notícias falsas",[]]]},{"de":[["Ela sedimenta como necessários e naturais os elementos contingentes da realidade, ocultando o fato de que eles podem ser transformados pela práxis humana.",["2008"]]],"sy":[["coisificação do sujeito",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The purpose, intention, and implicit ideologies of the text producers are unearthed working through the carefully designated stages.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["research in the analysis of discourse encompassed not only the spoken or written words but the paralinguistic features, too. It maintained that in order to understand the whole of the text, gestures, body language, and external material such as images are crucial to study side by side.",[]]],"rt":[["gestures, speech, image (still or moving), wri-ting and music",["Kress, 2013, p. 36"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Data journalism will facilitate journalism of greater quality, depth and scope (Alejandra Figueira), deepen knowledge and bring new stories into the public sphere (Joaquim Fidalgo).",["Alejandra Figueira","Joaquim Fidalgo"]],["Journalists can consult huge volumes of information and detect anomalies that reveal issues of public interest.",[]]],"sp":[["journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["which can limit exposure to different points of view and increase social polarisation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Innovation",[]]]},{"de":[["This understanding is based on three pillars: working methods (formats, relationship with sources); attitudes and values; and perception of reality (newsworthiness criteria).",[]]],"rt":[["journalists are a transnational, interpretative community",["Traquina, 2004"]]]},{},{"de":[["It is necessary to work on the media literacy of citizens by seeking a deeper understanding of how the media and science itself work",[]],["Literacy will be crucial for audiences to verify the degree of credibility of the information they receive; and the literacy of journalists and the information producers themselves will also be crucial",["Alexandra Figueira","(Alexandra Figueira)"]],["Prepare citizens for dealing with the media and reinforce their critical capacity.",[]]]},{"de":[["the sale and purchase of advertising space, testing and monitoring of hyper-segmented campaigns in real time",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Storytelling",[]],["Storydoing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["that allows it to bring content closer to different audiences",[]]]},{"de":[["Trends indicate how something is changing or evolving, and in which direction. In the business world, a trend is a pattern of gradual change in a process or outcome. The objective is to detect variation over a long period of time, usually several years, usually associated with structural causes affecting the phenomenon being analysed. In some cases, the trend shows steady growth; in others, it may be upwards or downwards.",[]],["Trends indicate how something is changing or evolving, and in which direction.",[]],["In the business world, a trend is a pattern of gradual change in a process or outcome.",[]],["The objective is to detect variation over a long period of time, usually several years, usually associated with structural causes affecting the phenomenon being analysed.",[]],["In some cases, the trend shows steady growth; in others, it may be upwards or downwards.",[]]],"rt":[["cycle",[]]]},{"rt":[["searching",[]],["automatic translation",[]],["automatic question and answer",[]],["data mining",[]]],"sb":[["binary classification (just need to determine a text belongs/does not belong to a given class)",[]],["multi-layer classification (a text belonging to a certain class in the list of given classes)",[]],["multivalued classification (a text can belong to more than one class in the list of given classes)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["QAnon followers tend to use violent rhetoric on Twitter",["7"]],["QAnon is a conspiracy theory umbrella that encompasses a wide spectrum of people, including Trump supporters, COVID-19 deniers, and anti-vaxxers.",[]]],"sp":[["conspiracy theory",[]]]},{"de":[["uma das mais propensas a serem utilizadas com fins maliciosos.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["information desorder",[]]],"sp":[["information desorder",["Wardle e Derakhshan (2017)"]],["information disorders",["Lazer et al., 2018"]],["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["Just as much of a problem as fake news, fake data has the potential to affect companies and people around the world",["24"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["the term has been used to refer to so many things that it seems to have lost its power to denote at all; as a result, several media critics have recommended abandoning it entirely",["Verstraete et al., 2017"]],["it does point to several real threats to meaningful public debate on the Internet",["Verstraete et al., 2017"]],["We have retained it because of its value as a scientific construct, and because its political salience draws attention to an important subject",["Lazer et al., 2018"]],["fake news (manipulação e desinformação)",[]],["Uma das características das fake news é que elas 'não olham a meios para atingir os fins'.",[]],["Nesse sentido, é normal encontrar não apenas textos, mas também fotos e vídeos falsos ou parcialmente falsos, em simultâneo.",[]],["hoje assumem qualquer formato.",[]],["Muitas fake news são hoje produzidas por robôs ou programas informáticos, enquanto outras continuam a nascer no teclado de alguém.",[]],["Optamos pela palavra documento e não apenas texto, por causa não só do recurso a ferramentas complementares do texto (vídeo e/ou foto) mas também porque, como foi mostrado com as deepfakes, o texto em certos casos já se torna irrelevante (exceto, talvez, o título)",[]],["-'Deliberadamente falso' significa que, pelo menos parcialmente, quem o elabora sabe que é mentira. E só o elabora porque é mentira. Só existe porque é falso. Pode é não ser totalmente falso, uma vez que uma das técnicas usadas para credibilizar as fake news, e assim atingir mais consumidores, é misturar elementos reais (nomes, locais, factos anteriores, fotos, etc.) com mentiras.",[]],["A discussão sobre as fake news deve centrar-se 'no que fazer quando sabemos que a informação é intencionalmente falsa, com objetivos políticos ou outro qualquer'.",[]],["a chave do problema estará sempre na avaliação do 'deliberadamente falso'.",[]],["Fake news succeeds because it parodies traits of real news, including broadcast set pieces and mimicking the tone of 'real' hosts found on cable channels such as CNN and Fox News.",[]],["Fake news is hyper-real because it blurs lines between nonfiction and fiction, which challenges journalistic boundary work when journalistic practices overlap with fake news.",["Berkowitz e Schwartz (2018)"]],["Fenómeno recente, mas altamente volátil",[]],["Equívocos que podem ser altamente nocivos para o jornalismo e para a liberdade de expressão em geral",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["lies",[]],["errors",[]],["false news",[]],["desinformação",[]],["manipulação",[]],["fake data",[]],["Biased/Inaccurated News",[]],["Misleading/Ambiguous News",[]],["mal-information",[]],["satire",[]],["deepfakes",[]]],"sy":[["informações falsas",[]]],"ex":[["A completely fabricated claim or story created with an intention to deceive, often for a secondary gain",["26"]]]},{"de":[["A troca de uma expressão por outra (fake news por false news) não torna o jornalismo mais protegido",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["information desorder",[]]],"sp":[["information desorder",["Wardle e Derakhshan (2017)"]],["information disorder",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["information desorder",[]]],"sp":[["information desorder",["Wardle e Derakhshan (2017)"]],["information disorders",["Lazer et al., 2018"]],["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["os sites de matriz humorística não pretendem manipular os seus consumidores.",[]]],"sy":[["publicações satíricas",[]],["sarcásticas",[]],["de absurdo",[]]],"rt":[["humor",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["ficção",[]],["arte",[]]]},{},{"de":[["uso retórico de este tipo de expresiones, que estaría favoreciendo potencialmente un clima de prejuicio e intolerancia",[]]],"rt":[["lenguaje de odio",[]]],"sb":[["lenguaje de odio contra la migración, insultos, xenofobia y misoginia",[]]],"ex":[["términos asociados a la inmigración",[]]]},{"rt":[["contenidos desinformativos",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["these information are expected to translate linearly into better decisions about risk and health",["Baker, Leon & Collins, 2010"]]]},{},{"de":[["Besides, these information are expected to translate linearly into better decisions about risk and health (Baker, Leon & Collins, 2010).",["2010"]]]},{"de":[["the application of the hypothesis has become much clearer in health communication campaigns",[]]]},{"de":[["other factors in the broader social system could be playing varying degrees of roles in the effect path",[]],["The propounders showed how the relationship between mass media, culture, and audience is one of \"mutual dependency\".",[]]]},{"de":[["considering that part of the overall modern culture in Northern Nigeria is formal schooling, thus providing a complementary explanation on the indirect interaction role of formal schooling on the assumed linear relationship between media exposure and HIV/AIDS behavior.",[]]]},{"de":[["un proceso que debe ser abordado desde una perspectiva realista y progresiva",[]],["La alfabetización mediática además tiene un fuerte carácter colectivo por todo lo expuesto y redunda, en última instancia, en formar a ciudadanos en condiciones de poder actuar como microverificadores de hechos en sus propias redes y comunidades hasta el punto de presionar a los medios de comunicación y a las plataformas de redes sociales para que asuman una mayor responsabilidad en la lucha contra la desinformación.",[]],["una herramienta vital para combatir la desinformación",[]],["una estrategia muy a largo plazo y que requiere definir muy claramente cómo se aplica para que sea efectiva",[]],["la alfabetización mediática necesita ser uno de los focos o tendencias futuras para combatir la desinformación",[]],["una herramienta fundamental en la lucha contra la desinformación",[]],["acciones dirigidas a la formación de la sociedad",[]],["que las personas sean conscientes de los procesos de verificación y de la realidad de las plataformas a través de las que consumen contenido",[]]],"sy":[["formación de ciudadanos preparados para detectar noticias falsas o diferenciarlas de las verdaderas",[]],["Alfabetización Mediática e Informacional (AMI)",[]]],"rt":[["fact-checking",[]],["desinformación",[]]],"ex":[["publicación de contenidos en redes sociales, guías, cursos, talleres, conferencias y todo tipo de recursos disponibles tanto online como offline",[]],["talleres o cursos y las guías explicativas",[]],["publicaciones divulgativas en redes sociales con formatos similares a las infografías",[]]]},{"de":[["un problema que ha llegado para quedarse porque irá evolucionando y cada vez será más dañina",[]],["el desconocimiento sobre cómo funcionan los medios o las tecnologías digitales es uno de los principales causantes de la desinformación",[]],["el gran desafío que se encuentra la sociedad",[]],["malas prácticas profesionales que redundan en una menor confianza",[]],["la desinformación puede presentarse en diferentes formas, como noticias falsas, teorías de conspiración, descontextualización de hechos reales o la manipulación de imágenes y videos.",[]]],"rt":[["alfabetización mediática",[]]],"ex":[["noticias falsas",[]],["teorías de conspiración",[]],["descontextualización de hechos reales",[]],["la manipulación de imágenes y videos",[]]]},{"rt":[["inoculación",[]]],"sp":[["inoculación",[]]]},{"de":[["El binomio que se produce entre el fact-checking y la alfabetización mediática debe servir como base sobre la que pivote la lucha contra la desinformación",[]],["su función principal es verificar contenidos",[]],["verificar contenido",[]]],"rt":[["alfabetización mediática",[]],["desinformación",[]]]},{"de":[["una estrategia psicológica para fortalecer la resistencia contra la desinformación, como vacuna contra el lavado de cerebro originada en los años sesenta del siglo pasado.",[]],["En esencia, la inoculación busca exponer a las personas a dosis debilitadas de tácticas persuasivas para fortalecer sus actitudes contra futuros ataques persuasivos más fuertes.",[]],["una estrategia psicológica para fortalecer la resistencia contra la desinformación, como vacuna contra el lavado de cerebro",["Traberg et al. (2022)"]],["la inoculación busca exponer a las personas a dosis debilitadas de tácticas persuasivas para fortalecer sus actitudes contra futuros ataques persuasivos más fuertes.",[]]],"rt":[["teoría de la inoculación",[]],["elemento de amenaza",[]],["preemción refutativa",[]]],"sp":[["teoría de la inoculación",[]]]},{"de":[["los factcheckers pueden considerarse influencers de la sociedad con una profunda tarea de responsabilidad social.",[]]],"sy":[["fact-checkers",[]]]},{"rt":[["inoculación",[]]],"sp":[["inoculación",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Desempeñan un papel crucial en la lucha contra este fenómeno al proporcionar análisis objetivos y basados en evidencia para contrarrestar las afirmaciones falsas.",[]]],"sy":[["factchecking",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["non-expert sources",[]]],"ex":[["government agencies",[]],["health organizations (e.g., World Health Organization (WHO), Ministry of Health)",[]],["healthcare professionals",[]]]},{"de":[["has been widely discussed in the literature.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["whereas positive bias may foster unrealistic optimism.",[]]],"rt":[["positive bias",[]]]},{"de":[["These tend to deliver informal and often unverified information.",[]],["These tend to deliver informal and often unverified information",[]]],"rt":[["expert sources",[]]],"ex":[["social media",[]],["celebrities",[]],["influencers",[]],["interpersonal networks such as family and friends",[]]]},{},{"de":[["To explain why individuals choose to engage in protective behavior, Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), developed by Rogers (1975), provides a relevant theoretical framework.",[]]],"sb":[["threat appraisal",[]],["coping appraisal",[]]],"rt":[["threat appraisal",[]],["coping appraisal",[]]]},{"ex":[["adhering to health protocols recommended by health authorities, such as wearing masks in crowded settings, washing hands after touching objects that may have come into contact with others, maintaining physical distance from others, avoiding handshakes, and steering clear of crowded places",[]]]},{"rt":[["Coping appraisal",[]]]},{"rt":[["Coping appraisal",[]]]},{"de":[["According to WHO (2020),",[]]]},{"rt":[["Coping appraisal",[]]]},{"rt":[["coping appraisal",[]]],"sp":[["Protection Motivation Theory (PMT)",[]]]},{"de":[["evaluative framing of different actors by asking whether the evaluative tone of an actor's management of the crisis was positive, neutral or negative.",[]]]},{"de":[["evaluating the government's management of the crisis as very positive and the banks' handling as very negative",[]]]},{"de":[["challenge indexing norms by opening up possibilities for actors other than official politicians to influence news coverage.",["Lawrence (2000)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["they define problems, diagnose causes, make moral judgements, and suggest remedies.",["Entman (1993)"]]]},{"de":[["Frame-building, the process of shaping news media frames, accordingly involves an interaction between political actors and news media",[]],["where both access to media and independence norms are influential",[]]],"rt":[["interaction between political actors and news media",["Callaghan & Schnell, 2001","Norris, Kern, & Just, 2003","Zhou & Moy, 2007"]]]},{"de":[["The central dimension of a frame involves the selection, organization and emphasis of particular aspects of reality as well as the exclusion of other aspects",[]],["Frames can be regarded as patterns of presentation offering a coherent interpretation and evaluation of events, actors and actions.",[]],["Entman (1993) also identifies four important functions of frames: they define problems, diagnose causes, make moral judgements, and suggest remedies.",["1993"]],["framing research is concerned with the selection and emphasis of different perspectives on an issue or an event",[]]],"rt":[["problem definition",[]]]},{"de":[["indexing attempts to explain what stories and voices will receive the greatest news coverage and thus is analytically distinct from news framing which is concerned with the selection and emphasis of different perspectives in news",["Lawrence, 2010"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["characterized by moments of relative independence within a more general pattern of compliance with government news management",["Bennett et al, 2006: p. 469"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["A questão da impossibilidade reprodutiva entre as relações homossexuais tanto na espécie humana quanto no reino animal foi um dos argumentos mais utilizados pelos usuários na tentativa de condenar a homossexualidade. Outro fator bastante observado remete aos comentários que atribuem uma eventual \"antinaturalidade\" às práticas homossexuais, como distúrbio dos princípios que regem as leis da natureza.",[]]]},{"de":[["A discriminação é velada e fundamentada no princípio de que a criança é pura e não deve ser corrompida em sua formação como pessoa.",[]]]},{"de":[["Propicia, nesse sentido, a possibilidade de participação de centenas de pessoas com milhares de interações que são acessíveis por todos os atores, espalhando-as e fazendo com que migrem entre os grupos e entre os sites de redes sociais",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["O Facebook permite uma expressão comunicativa com mediação algorítmica, mas sem cerceamento direto, o que concede margem a ambiguidades entre a liberdade de expressão e o discurso de ódio.",[]]],"sb":[["Vitimização",[]],["Patologização",[]],["Repulsa pela existência ou repúdio pelas atitudes das pessoas LGBT",[]]]},{"de":[["fenômeno de disseminação nas redes sociais dos chamados fake papers -ou artigos científicos com dados falsificados -para finalidades bastante específicas, como no caso dos movimentos antivacina.",[]]],"ex":[["como no caso dos movimentos antivacina.",[]]]},{"de":[["Essas regras servem para orientar cada indivíduo, nortear as suas ações e os seus julgamentos sobre o que é moral ou imoral, certo ou errado, bom ou ruim.",[]]],"ex":[["\"casal é homem e mulher\"",[]],["\"inversão de valores\"",[]],["\"família é pai e mãe\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Etimologicamente, a palavra é composta por dois termos distintos: homo, o prefi xo de homossexual; e o grego phobos, que signifi ca \"medo\", \"aversão\" ou \"fobia\".",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["espalham-se nas redes entre os diversos grupos, migram e tornam-se conversações cada vez mais públicas, moldam e expressam opiniões, geram debates e amplificam ideias",["RECUERO, 2013, p. 116"]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["infodemia -um excesso de informações que dificulta a veiculação de notícias de fontes confiáveis",["3","4"]]]},{"sy":[["contrato de leitura",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["mídia-educação",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Narrativas",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["clickbait",[]]],"ex":[["Hands on: Samsung's iPhone 5 is absolutely beautiful",[]],["Hands on: Samsung's iPhone 5 is absolutely beautiful.",[]]]},{"de":[["clickbaits are low quality pages that serve sensational, provoking, gossip-like content.",[]],["Their goal is to entice users to click on the title in order to monetize the landing page.",[]],["it leads to a frustrating user experience in cases where the landing page, i.e., the actual article, is of low quality and significantly under-delivers the content promised in the headline.",[]],["Their goal is to entice users to click on the title in order to monetize the landing page. The content on the landing page is usually of low quality.",[]]],"sb":[["Teasing",[]],["Inflammatory",[]],["Formatting",[]],["Graphic",[]],["Bait-and-switch",[]],["Ambiguous",[]],["Wrong",[]]]},{"de":[["Their goal is to entice users to click on the title in order to monetize the landing page.",[]],["The content on the landing page is usually of low quality.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The forward-reference is used to create a sort of tease or information gap between the headline and the article spurring curiosity among readers and, hence, increasing chances of them clicking on the headlines.",[]]],"ex":[["This Is the Most Horrifying Cheating Story",[]],["He Said He Loved Me...",[]]]},{"sp":[["clickbait",[]]],"ex":[["Putin Punched at G20 Summit",[]],["Putin Punched at G20 Summit.",[]]]},{"de":[["indicative of the readability/informality level of a text",[]]]},{"sp":[["clickbait",[]]],"ex":[["New twist in Panthers star's trial could end his season",[]],["New twist in Panthers star's trial could end his season.",[]]]},{"sp":[["clickbait",[]]],"ex":[["Scientist Confesses: \"Global Warming a $22 Billion Scam\"",[]],["Scientist Confesses: \"Global Warming a $22 Billion Scam\".",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such studies begin with identifying a direction or subspace that capture the bias and then removing this bias component to make representations fair across attributes like gender and age",["Bolukbasi et al. 2016","Manzini et al. 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["framing bias",[]],["epistemological bias",[]]],"sp":[["subjectivity bias",[]]],"ex":[["presupposing that all programmers are male",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing bias",[]],["demographic bias",[]]],"sp":[["subjectivity bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["epistemological bias",[]],["demographic bias",[]]],"sp":[["subjectivity bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["text debiasing",[]]]},{"de":[["bias in the form of inappropriate subjectivity -introducing attitudes via framing, presupposing truth, and casting doubt",[]]],"sy":[["inappropriate subjectivity",[]]],"sb":[["framing bias",[]],["epistemological bias",[]],["demographic bias",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["mainstream outlets",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["generate headlines",[]],["Headline generation can be regarded as a branch of the article summarization tasks and categorized into extractivebased methods and abstractive-based methods.",[]]],"sb":[["extractivebased methods",[]],["abstractive-based methods",[]]]},{"sp":[["summarization task",[]]]},{"rt":[["Headline Generation (HG)",[]]],"sp":[["Headline Generation (HG)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Headline Generation (HG)",[]]]},{"de":[["Much of the foundational work on the \"fairness\" of machine learning systems has focused on what Barocas et al. (2017) call allocational harms",["Barocas et al. 2017"]],["Allocational harms often arise in domains like employment, finance, and housing.",[]]],"rt":[["representational harms",[]]],"ex":[["Allocational harms often arise in domains like employment, finance, and housing.",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{"de":[["This can occur in very overt ways, such as when image tagging systems apply tags that contain racial epithets-the very purpose of which is to belittle members of particular racial groups-or tags that are not inherently problematic but are demeaning when applied to images that depict particular social groups.",[]]],"ex":[["applying the tag gorilla to an image of Black people is demeaning because there is a long history of diminishing and dehumanizing Black people by likening them to gorillas",["Simonite 2018"]],["applying the tag costume to an image that depicts a religious group's wedding clothing trivializes the group's traditions",["Shankar et al. 2017b"]],["image tagging systems that apply the tag beautiful to fewer images that depict a particular social group than they do to images that depict others cast that group as being worthy of less esteem",["Levin 2016"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{"de":[["Erasure of a particular social group implies that members of that group are not worthy of recognition and contributes to their further marginalization within society.",[]]],"ex":[["image tagging systems that do not apply the tag person to images that depict people wearing hijabs erase Muslims.",[]],["image tagging systems that fail to apply the tag menorah to images that depict menorahs-perhaps because the tag is not available, despite the availability of other tags that refer to Christian artifacts-erase Judaism.",[]],["applying the tags people, walking, and street to an image depicting women suffragists marching.",[]]]},{"de":[["We consider denying people the ability to self-identify to be a type of individual harm",[]]],"ex":[["denying people the ability to self-identify",[]]]},{"de":[["Because image tagging systems rely on visual characteristics and are intended to apply pre-identified tags, they are especially likely to reify social groups, as well as the idea that there are relationships between social groups and visual appearance",["Keyes 2018"]]],"ex":[["binary gender classification systems rely on the following beliefs: first, that gender can be determined from visual appearance; and second, that there are only two gender identities.",[]]]},{"de":[["Barocas et al. (2017) call these representational harms.",["Barocas et al. 2017","Barocas et al. (2017)"]],["representational harms are not harms to specific individuals; they relate to the standings of particular social groups, affecting all members of those groups",[]],["Instead, these systems produce outputs that can affect the understandings, beliefs, and attitudes that people hold about particular social groups, and thus the standings of those groups within society.",[]]],"rt":[["allocational harms",[]]],"sb":[["reifying social groups",[]],["erasing social groups",[]],["perpetuate stereotypes",[]],["demeaning",[]],["erasing",[]],["Stereotyping social groups",[]],["Demeaning social groups",[]],["stereotyping",[]]],"ex":[["the ways that search engines represent some social groups in less favorable ways than they do others (e.g., returning more images of men than women in response to search queries for \"doctor\" (Kay, Matuszek, and Munson 2015b) or returning pornographic websites in response to queries for \"Black girls\" but not \"white girls\" (Noble 2018)).",["Kay, Matuszek, and Munson 2015b","Noble 2018"]],["returning more images of men than women in response to search queries for \"doctor\" (Kay, Matuszek, and Munson 2015b)",["Kay, Matuszek, and Munson 2015b"]],["returning pornographic websites in response to queries for \"Black girls\" but not \"white girls\" (Noble 2018)",["Noble 2018"]]]},{},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{"de":[["if an image tagging system is intended to apply tags that indicate membership in social groups, then it will necessarily associate particular visual characteristics (e.g., riding a snowboard) with particular social groups (e.g., men).",[]],["if an image tagging system is intended to apply other tags, then it may associate visual characteristics that are common among members of particular social groups (e.g., long hair among women) with other properties (e.g., being a nurse).",[]]],"ex":[["some image tagging systems systematically apply the tag nurse to images of female doctors.",[]],["images of female snowboarders are often incorrectly tagged as depicting men",["Hendricks et al. 2018","Zhao et al. 2017"]],["some image tagging systems tend to apply tags that refer to professions to images that depict men, while applying tags that refer to appearance to images that depict women",["Schwemmer et al. 2020"]]]},{"de":[["remove inappropriate content that violates community standards",[]],["Toxic content detection is important for online services to protect users from harmful and offensive content, ensuring a safer and more positive user experience. Common toxic content categories include hate speech, biased content, sexual content, violent content, bullying content, etc.",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]],["biased content",[]],["sexual content",[]],["violent content",[]],["bullying content",[]]]},{"de":[["online hate speech may not necessarily be a crime, but still harm people.",[]]],"rt":[["freedom of expression",[]],["group rights",[]],["dignity",[]],["liberty",[]],["equality",[]]]},{"de":[["online hate speech may not necessarily be a crime, but still harm people.",[]]],"rt":[["freedom of expression",[]],["group rights",[]],["dignity",[]],["liberty",[]],["equality",[]]],"ex":[["race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, ethnicity, or gender",[]]]},{"de":[["the U.S. Alt-Left differed in that it had a liberal/progressive view towards social issues (e.g. pro-LGBT, pro-Black Lives Matter).",[]]]},{"de":[["a dynamic and amorphous term that has been applied to obscure connections to the white-nationalist movement",["Caldwell, 2016"]]],"sy":[["right-wing populism",[]]]},{"sy":[["independent",[]],["anti-media",[]],["blog",[]]]},{"sy":[["conspiracy theories",[]]],"ex":[["9-11 trutherism",[]],["claims the Boston Marathon Bombings were perpetrated by U.S. Navy Seals",[]],["theories the 2012 shootings at the Sandy Hook school were staged to motivate gun control legislation",[]]]},{"de":[["explanations that are informed by deep skepticism of official sources and an epistemic orientation that seeks causal, intentional explanations for complex, random events",["Popper, 1945;Mandik, 2007"]]]},{"sy":[["alternative narratives",[]],["alternative narrative",[]]]},{"de":[["describes how traditional news producers are struggling to maintain their audiences and adapt their practices in a changing information space",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["this term is both amorphous and contested",[]],["the term has been applied to refer to \"clickbait\" content that uses tabloid-style headlines to attract viewers for financial reasons (Silverman & Alexander 2016) and to describe political propaganda intentionally planted and propagated through online spaces (Timberg 2016)",["Silverman & Alexander 2016","Timberg 2016"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In extreme cases this may also be language that threatens or incites violence, but limiting our definition only to such cases would exclude a large proportion of hate speech.",[]]],"rt":[["offensive language",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It typically denotes repeated and hostile behavior performed by a group or an individual.",[]]]},{"rt":[["offensive language",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Directed hate speech, in addition to being more personal and directed, is more informal, angrier, and often explicitly attacks the target (via name calling) with fewer analytic words and more words suggesting authority and influence.",[]]],"sy":[["Directed",[]],["Directed hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["@usrfoot_2 your a f*cking queer f*gg*t b*tch",[]]]},{"sy":[["Directed hate",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["the frame ATTACK would represent the concept of a person being attacked by an attacker with perhaps a weapon situated at some point in space and time.",[]]]},{"de":[["higher proportion of OTHER in Generalized hate speech, which are primarily religious entities (i.e. Islam, Muslim, Jews, Christians)",[]],["evokes words related to KILLING, RELIGION and QUANTITY such as Muslim, Muslims, Jews, Christian, murder, killed, kill, exterminated, and million.",[]]],"sy":[["Generalized",[]],["Generalized hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["-was born a racist and -will die a racist! -will not rest until every worthless n*gger is rounded up and hung, n*ggers are the scum of the earth!! wPww WHITE America",[]]]},{"de":[["Generalized hate speech, on the other hand, is dominated by religious hate, is characterized by the use of lethal words such as murder, exterminate, and kill; and quantity words such as million and many.",[]]],"sy":[["Generalized hate",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"sb":[["Directed hate",[]],["Generalized hate speech",[]],["Generalized hate",[]]]},{"sy":[["keyphrases",[]],["keywords",[]],["hate terms",[]],["hate expressions",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["debunking posts tend to explicitly declare their nature by using denials (e.g., this is not true) or flagging the misinformation (e.g., this is a rumor).",[]]],"ex":[["denials (e.g., this is not true)",[]],["flagging the misinformation (e.g., this is a rumor)",[]]]},{"de":[["identify their preferred way of sharing the debunking information and the key rhetoric strategies used in the process",[]]],"rt":[["counterrumor efforts",[]]],"sb":[["government",[]],["media",[]],["organization",[]],["individual",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people tend to pay more attention to dread rumors than to wish rumors",["DiFonzo and Bordia 2007"]],["people are psychologically more interested in bad news than good news",["Baumeister et al. 2001"]],["misinformation that provokes fearful emotions",["Vosoughi, Roy, and Aral 2018"]]],"rt":[["wish rumors",[]]],"sp":[["health rumors",[]]],"ex":[["microwave use can spread cancer",[]]]},{"de":[["can pose a major threat to public health by misleading people into action that is potentially harmful to their well-being",["Ghenai 2017"]],["Health rumors are typically categorized into dread and wish types according to people's underlying concerns (Di-Fonzo et al. 2012).",["Di-Fonzo et al. 2012"]]],"sb":[["dread rumors",[]],["wish rumors",[]],["dread",[]],["wish",[]]],"ex":[["vitamins can cure coronavirus",[]]]},{"de":[["suggests that people tend to attach more importance to negative news than to good news",["Cacioppo and Berntson 1994"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["We first define a post to be \"effective\" if the volume of discussion posts (i.e., non-debunking posts) on the same topic in T (a given interval) after its publication is no more than that in T before it appears on social media.",[]]]},{"de":[["people tend to pay more attention to dread rumors than to wish rumors",["DiFonzo and Bordia 2007"]],["people are psychologically more interested in bad news than good news",["Baumeister et al. 2001"]],["those evoking positive emotions such as trust and joy",["Vosoughi, Roy, and Aral 2018"]]],"rt":[["dread rumors",[]]],"sp":[["health rumors",[]]],"ex":[["vitamin can cure cancer",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Sentiment analysis includes three types of polarity: negative, neutral, and positive.",[]]],"sb":[["negative",[]],["neutral",[]],["positive",[]]]},{"de":[["Users can fact-check any post they come across on X -directly when browsing the platform.",[]]]},{"de":[["These systems rely on the principle that, while individual users' fact-checks may be prone to bias or inaccuracies, high levels of accuracy can be attained through the collective judgments of politically diverse groups",[]]]},{"de":[["users independently refute misleading claims in posts by replying with a link to a third-party fact-check debunking the rumor",[]]],"sy":[["snoping",[]]]},{"de":[["guided by best practices from earlier research (Vosoughi, Roy, and Aral 2018). We focused on three reputable fact-checking websites that thoroughly investigate social media rumors, namely, snopes. com, politifact.com, and truthorfiction.com.",[]]],"sy":[["snopes",[]]]},{"de":[["users independently refute misleading claims in posts by replying with a link to a third-party fact-check debunking the rumor",[]],["linking to a fact-check directly in the place where the misinformation is circulating can make the fact-check more visible to users who would otherwise not actively seek out for factchecks",["Opgenhaffen 2022"]],["(partially) addresses the issue of the limited reach of third-party fact-checking websites by increasing the visibility of articles in the contexts of the respective fact-checked statements.",[]],["Hence, snoping, in many cases, should be seen as a performative rather than a deliberative act, in which Snopers are displaying their political affiliation (Hannak et al. 2014).",[]]],"sy":[["conversational fact-checking",["Hannak et al. 2014"]],["conversational approach to fact-checking",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["debate",[]],["discussion",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Such snopes can include overt corrections of misinformation as well as broader attempts to inject factual information into online discussions.",[]],["We seek to investigate a different kind of correction which we term a fact-checking intervention or snope. We define a snope as an attempt by an individual to get another individual to pay attention to the facts on a given topic or within a conversation.",[]]],"sy":[["snope",[]]],"sb":[["social snopes",[]],["asocial snopes",[]]]},{"de":[["research has not considered how fact-checking might operate differently when when the check comes from a friend, a person with whom the individual has an ongoing relationship and debt of mutual accountability, or someone who has a particularly high or low status within their community.",[]],["the presentation and acknowledgment of facts must also be considered in its social context.",[]]]},{"rt":[["rumor",[]]]},{"de":[["For information that is sufficiently viral, in the sense that many individuals are likely to share it, large information cascades can occur",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["headlines determine how many people read the news.",[]],["headlines are not only the first impression of news articles. Recent efforts suggest that they can even drive the way users perceive the rest of the content associated to them by affecting the way people will remember it",["Ecker et al., 2014"]]],"sb":[["misleading headlines",[]]]},{"de":[["states that people expect to be informed about the latest news with practically no delay",["Karlsson and Strömbäck, 2010"]]]},{"de":[["relates to the fact that people tend to consume only the news they are interested in",["Karlsson and Strömbäck, 2010"]]]},{"ex":[["those who were exposed to a bad environment were drawn to good news",["Biswas, Riffe, and Zillmann, 1994"]],["people in a good mood read more bad news than people in a bad mood",["Biswas, Riffe, and Zillmann, 1994"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Semantic parsing",[]]]},{"sb":[["Frame-semantic parsing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Algorithmic bias is systematic and repeatable error in an AI system that creates discriminated outcome, e.g., privileging wealthy users over others. It can amplify, operationalize, and even legitimize institutional bias",["Getoor, 2019"]],["Algorithmic bias is systematic and repeatable error in an AI system that creates discriminated outcome, e.g., privileging wealthy users over others.",["Getoor, 2019"]],["Some algorithms are inadvertently taught prejudices and unethical biases by societal patterns hidden in the data. Typically, models fit better to features that frequently appear in the data.",[]]],"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Too much reliance on the automated systems without sparing additional thoughts in making final decisions, we might end up abdicating decision responsibility to AI algorithms.",[]]],"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["invoke those values that theories in moral and political philosophy argue to be intrinsically valuable, meaning their value is not derived from something else",["Canca, 2020"]]],"rt":[["autonomy",[]],["beneficence",[]],["justice",[]]]},{"sp":[["example-based explanations",[]]]},{"rt":[["individual fairness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Cyberbullying detection is regularly figured as a binary classification problem.",[]]],"rt":[["abusive language",[]]]},{"sp":[["discrimination",["Mehrabi et al., 2019"]]]},{"de":[["The online information ecosystem is never short of disinformation and misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["To fulfill its ethical responsibilities, AI systems need to perform in a manner consistent with societal expectations and ethical norms, which cannot be compromised in order to achieve AI's functional responsibilities.",[]]],"sp":[["Social Responsibility of AI",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the fairness definition, metrics, and the basic algorithms are adapted from classification to regression.",[]]],"rt":[["statistical parity",[]],["bounded-group-loss",[]]]},{"de":[["Because SRAs is a decision-making process commensurate with social values, we here adopt a fairness definition in the context of decision-making",[]],["This concept is mostly subjective, changes over social context, and evolves over time, making fairness a rather challenging goal to achieve in practice.",[]]],"sb":[["Direct discrimination results from protected attributes of individuals",["Mehrabi et al., 2019"]],["indirect discrimination from seemingly neural and non-protected attributes.",["Mehrabi et al., 2019"]],["Systemic discrimination relates to policies that may show discrimination against subgroups of population.",["Mehrabi et al., 2019"]],["Statistical discrimination occurs when decision makers use average statistics to represent individuals.",["Mehrabi et al., 2019"]],["Direct discrimination",[]],["indirect discrimination",[]],["Systemic discrimination",[]],["Statistical discrimination",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["discrimination",["Mehrabi et al., 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["Given a network with accessible counter-cascade, the goal is to find a (minimum) set of nodes in this network such that the effect of the original cascade can be minimized.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["detecting disinformation, cyberbullying, and bias.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Drawing from the theory of moral license (List & Momeni, 2018) -when humans are good, we give ourselves moral license to be bad -",["List & Momeni, 2018"]]]},{},{"rt":[["bias detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["attacks",[]]]},{"ex":[["Commonly used protected variables are age, gender, marital status, race, and disabilities.",[]]]},{"ex":[["the admission rate was found higher in male applicants when using the entire data. However, when the admission data were separated and analyzed over the departments, female candidates had equal or even higher admission rate over male candidates.",["Bickel, Hammel, & O'Connell, 1975"]]]},{"sp":[["discrimination",["Mehrabi et al., 2019"]]]},{"sp":[["discrimination",["Mehrabi et al., 2019"]]]},{"de":[["The paper studied how the widely recognized interpretable algorithms LIME (Ribeiro, Singh, & Guestrin, 2016) and SHAP (Lundberg & Lee, 2017) could be hacked.",[]]],"rt":[["interpretability",[]]],"sb":[["global transparency",[]],["local transparency",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Negation also affects the ngram features: a word w becomes w NEG in a negated context",[]]]},{"de":[["the two middle bins that contain words with very weak association to sentiment (i.e., neutral words)",[]]]},{"ex":[["Emoticons such as :) are considered positive labels of the tweets",[]],["emoticons such as :( are used as negative labels",[]],["certain seed hashtag words such as #cute and #sucks as labels of positive and negative sentiment",[]],["emotion word hashtags (e.g., #anger, #surprise) as labeled data",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Automatically identifying sentiment expressed in text has a number of applications, including tracking sentiment towards products, movies, politicians, etc., improving customer relation models, detecting happiness and well-being, and improving automatic dialogue systems.",[]],["detecting subjective and objective sentences; classifying sentences as positive, negative, or neutral; detecting the person expressing the sentiment and the target of the sentiment; detecting emotions such as joy, fear, and anger; visualizing sentiment in text; and applying sentiment analysis in health, commerce, and disaster management",[]]],"ex":[["For example, a product review can express a positive, negative, or neutral sentiment (or polarity).",[]]]},{"de":[["Some lexicons can additionally provide a sentiment score for a term to indicate its strength of evaluative intensity.",[]],["Some lexicons can additionally provide a sentiment score for a term to indicate its strength of evaluative intensity. Higher scores indicate greater intensity.",[]]],"ex":[["For example, an entry great (positive, 1.2) states that the word great has positive polarity with the sentiment score of 1.2. An entry acceptable (positive, 0.1) specifies that the word acceptable has positive polarity and its intensity is lower than that of the word great.",[]]]},{"de":[["Higher scores indicate greater intensity.",[]],["The magnitude is indicative of the degree of association.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In legal terms \"authentic\" means credible, competent, and reliable with all necessary formalities required.",[]]]},{"de":[["Censorship has helped to play a constructive role in the dissemination of authentic and reliable information published through conventional means.",[]],["the role of the Internet has changed considerably, when it was rated as a medium of free flow of information and more of freedom of expression. Today the Internet has become an area of concern, especially in the absence of censorship and others.",[]],["Absence of censorship, on content published on the Internet has not just boosted the information pollution, but has also invited the dangers of inciting social unrest.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["decision paralysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Floridi (2002) in his article discussed about information ethics and how these ethics can actually be brought into practice to bridge the digital divide.",["Floridi (2002)"]],["The author has emphasized on the formulation of universal common ethical standards to fight information entropy, which can be in the form of destruction, corruption, pollution and depletion of information.",[]],["the ethical use of ICT is imperative for the sustainable development of an equitable information society.",[]],["Information ethics can be applied at any level of information systems, which ranges from its creation, collection, dissemination, exploitation and many more, which allow free and fair use of information.",[]]]},{"de":[["Information explosion is equally an outcome of duplication of information, reproducing the same information in different formats, multiplication of information and other similar activities, which are least desirable.",[]],["People mostly faced information explosion out of duplication of information, reproducing the same information in different formats, multiplication of information and other similar activities which have otherwise been undesirable.",[]],["people used to find it difficult to consume all the created relevant information of their concerned filed. People mostly faced information explosion out of duplication of information, reproducing the same information in different formats, multiplication of information and other similar activities which have otherwise been undesirable.",[]]],"rt":[["information pollution",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Information literacy apart from increasing the decision making ability of the person helps in prioritizing the need and use of information.",[]],["IL develops Professional Competence IL leads Valuing Information IL leads Skill Development IL leads to Bridge Knowledge Gap IL leads to flow of Information from Information Haves to Information Have-nots IL leads to Information Economy",[]],["Developing Information competency to access, evaluate, organize, exploit, create, or even disseminate information.",[]]],"rt":[["information pollution",[]]],"ex":[["Valuing information and its use.",[]],["Considering appropriate sources of information and its usage",[]],["Using information to learn.",[]],["Learning to make use of information in a variety of ways.",[]],["Developing skills to extract most authentic, reliable and exact information.",[]]]},{"de":[["Information overload is equally a term in vogue these days, which can also be considered as one of the forms of information pollutions and is being seen as one of the reasons affecting the decision making ability of a person.",[]]],"sy":[["excessive information",[]]],"rt":[["Information Fatigue Syndrome",[]],["information pollution",[]]],"sp":[["information pollutions",[]]]},{"de":[["the side effects of Information Technology and the undesirable effects it had over society at large in the form of infollution, which means inofmatization pollution.",[]],["willful, intentional, and deliberate act of distorting facts by the individuals or the organizations",[]],["The distortion of facts in the production of new information is so minute that it hardly makes any profound impact on the daily dwelling methods, but when these minute distortions assume a greater role & significance and then it starts becoming a cause of worry for us.",[]]],"sy":[["infollution",[]],["inofmatization pollution",[]],["redundant and unsolicited information",[]]],"rt":[["information explosion",[]],["information overload",[]]],"sb":[["Information overload",[]]]},{"de":[["reproducing others information by labeling it own, leads to confusion to seeker of information as what to rely on and the authoritative source of information thereof",[]]],"rt":[["intellectual theft",[]]]},{"de":[["delivery of lot of undesired stuff, which hardly benefits readers, time consuming activity and abundance of junk mail, which users treat more as a personal assault.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The proviso is concerned with bona fide, in the sense of honest and sincere, engagement in bona fide, in the sense of authentic, protected forms of expression.",[]]],"sy":[["genuine",["126"]],["real",["126"]],["true",["126"]],["legal",["126"]],["actual",["126"]],["legitimate",["126"]],["authentic",["126"]],["honest",["126"]],["veritable",["126"]],["lawful",["126"]],["on the level",["126"]]]},{"de":[["whether the form of expression in issue, assessed in its entirety and in the light of its context and purpose, can genuinely and legitimately be regarded as the engagement in artistic creativity, scientific enquiry or fair and accurate reporting in the public interest",["124"]],["Bona fide engagement in expression is the opposite of the malicious abuse of expression.",["128"]]],"rt":[["malicious abuse of expression",[]]],"ex":[["artistic creativity",[]],["scientific enquiry",[]],["fair and accurate reporting in the public interest",[]]]},{},{"de":[["traditional methodology in discrimination cases for proving that the impugned conduct is the reason for (or \"based on\") one or more of the prohibited grounds.",[]]]},{"de":[["discrimination, as a legal concept, always entails more than mere differentiation.",[]],["discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability",[]],["demonstrate a clear intention to unfairly discriminate against any person",[]]],"rt":[["identity-based discrimination",[]],["Non-discrimination",[]]],"sb":[["harassment is generally recognised as a form of discrimination",[]],["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["the purpose of the equality right is to \"prevent the violation of human dignity and freedom through the imposition of limitations, disadvantages or burdens, through stereotypical application of presumed group characteristics\".",["28"]]],"ex":[["Equality as dignity can be violated even if groups are treated equally badly.",["29"]]]},{},{"de":[["falls squarely into the category of conduct that perpetuates systemic patterns of discrimination",[]],["Botha and Govindjee agree that the Act's express intention to overcome unfair discrimination and to promote a more egalitarian society is an important contextual setting for interpreting the prohibited speech provisions of the Act.",["12"]],["concerned with impact and effect",[]],["has the tendency to promote or perpetuate unfair discrimination, particularly when directed at vulnerable groups in society",[]],["seeks to delegitimise the members of target groups and has the tendency to create a climate in which the marginalisation and stereotyping of vulnerable groups is encouraged",[]],["hate speech has distinct characteristics setting it religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.",[]],["By definition, hate speech does not target the individual in purely individual terms, but as representative of the negative characteristics ascribed to the group.",[]],["expression will not be in good faith when it abuses the freedoms that are stipulated in terms of section 16(1) of the Constitution, with the aim to hurt and harm or to promote or incite hatred related to group identity as contemplated in terms of section 10(1).",["119"]],["hate speech that expresses ethnic and other forms of discrimination violates the norm of customary international law prohibiting discrimination",[]],["a species of unfair discrimination",[]]],"rt":[["unfair discrimination",[]],["norm of nondiscrimination",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech that constitutes criminal offences",[]],["a particular species of discrimination",[]]],"sp":[["unfair discrimination",[]],["discrimination",[]]],"ex":[["The discriminatory effects of hate speech include … that others were persuaded of negative stereotypes, a conditioning of the environment such that racism was normalized, subordination, silencing, fear, victimization, emotional symptoms, restrictions on freedom, lowering of selfesteem, maintenance of social imbalances of power, and undermining of their dignity.",["93"]],["An academic article on homosexuality referring to homosexual people in degrading terms serves as an example. The primary aim of the abusive remarks will be reasonably perceived to be intended to hurt and harm homosexual people and not to communicate or publish scientific information, regardless of whether the scientific view approves or condemns homosexuality.",["120"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Section 12 of the Equality Act reads as follows: \"Subject to the proviso in section 12, no person may (a) disseminate or broadcast any information; (b) publish or display any advertisement or notice, that could reasonably be construed or reasonably be understood to demonstrate a clear intention to unfairly discriminate against any person.\"",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["(e.g., my previous experiences, my ideal situation, the average)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Frames serve as the underlying foundations on which narratives are expressed.",[]],["mentalist concepts",[]],["actors' perspectives",[]]],"rt":[["mentalist concepts",[]],["narrative",[]]],"sb":[["narrative frame",["1","BORCHARD, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["a framing analysis examines the argumentative level of interviewees' accounts",[]],["intersubjectivist",[]]],"rt":[["intersubjectivist",[]],["storytelling",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Narratives include a chronicle, a sequence of events, as well as the interpretation of these events' meaning",["(SANDERCOCK, 2003)","SANDERCOCK, 2003"]],["mentalist concepts",[]],["products of actors' interpretive acts",[]]],"rt":[["mentalist concepts",[]],["frame",[]]]},{"de":[["Narratives include a chronicle, a sequence of events, as well as the interpretation of these events' meaning",["SANDERCOCK, 2003"]]]},{"de":[["The political storyteller chooses the angle of the story depending on the situation.",[]],["a storytelling analysis approaches those accounts as wholes and tries to find the overarching structure.",[]],["represents the link between the two concepts",[]],["intersubjectivist",[]],["It is the transition between making sense of a situation and expressing that in a structured way to the outside world.",[]]],"rt":[["intersubjectivist",[]],["narrative",[]],["frame",[]],["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["It can be a precursor and incentive for hate crimes, and it can be so severe that it can even be a health issue",["Burnap and Williams, 2014"]],["It is also known that hate speech does not only mirror existing opinions in the reader but can also induce new negative feelings towards its targets",["Martin et al., 2013"]],["These approaches are similar in that they leave plenty of room for personal interpretation, since there may be differences in what is considered offensive.",[]]],"rt":[["offensive, hateful speech",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The powerful force of crowdsourcing, claims Howe (2008), derives from its organic nature and \"capitalizes on the deeply social strain of the human species\"; It was not the product of an economist or management consultant or marketing guru. It arose instead out of the uncoordinated actions of thousands of people, who were doing things that people like to do, especially in the companionship of other people […] In doing so, these people incidentally created information, a commodity of no little value in an information economy (pp. 13-14).",[]],["hidden schemes that rely on the crowd to complete specific tasks",[]]],"sy":[["Cultural Volunteering",[]],["Participatory Culture",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Edutainment that has long been associated to computer games-as entertainment with an educational aspect",[]],["has long been associated to computer games",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["pharmaceuticalization",[]]]},{"rt":[["social physics",[]]]},{"de":[["the one on which fact checking is based",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It also imposes as a normative objective the establishment, and policing, of the boundary between these two types of statements.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Demarcationist technologies",[]]]},{"de":[["to examine the robustness of a different type of empirical claim put forward in our changing media environments today",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["bracket this dynamic quality of digital knowledge",[]]]},{"de":[["a classic intellectual strategy",[]]],"rt":[["demarcationism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["genuine controversies",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["symmetry",[]]]},{"de":[["Symmetry can be viewed as a strong variant of the historiographic effort to avoid a present-centered history that reinterprets the past in light of present-day assumptions",[]],["Symmetry does not preclude noticing differences between the contending parties, their backgrounds, commitments, and arguments, but it does discourage using familiar, and all-too-easy, arguments to dismiss one or another position as irrational, ignorant, or dishonestly motivated.",[]]],"rt":[["relativism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["sarcasm is not a discrete logical phenomenon unlike irony.",["21"]]],"rt":[["sarcasm",[]]]},{"sp":[["Sarcasm",[]]],"ex":[["Oh, I talk with Ram all the time.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Subjectivity",[]]]},{"ex":[["emoticons, smilies etc.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Sarcasm",[]]],"ex":[["If you want a tasty food you should head over to KFC.",[]]]},{"de":[["Oxford dictionary explains sarcasm as \"the use of irony to convey contempt\"",[]],["Macmillan dictionary explains sarcasm as \"activity of saying or writing opposite of what the speaker wants to mean or the way of speaking intended to make someone feel stupid or angry\"",[]],["Collins dictionary explains sarcasm as \"mocking or ironic language to convey insult or anger\"",[]],["sarcasm is not a discrete logical phenomenon unlike irony.",["21"]],["sarcasm requires presence of four entities such as allusion for failed expectation, pragmatic insincerity, presence of victim and negative tension.",["20"]],["Sarcasm is also when people mean something else from what he speaks.",[]],["Sarcasm is used not only to make jokes but also for criticizing other people, views, ideas etc.",[]],["Oxford dictionary explains sarcasm as \"the use of irony to convey contempt\".",[]],["Macmillan dictionary explains sarcasm as \"activity of saying or writing opposite of what the speaker wants to mean or the way of speaking intended to make someone feel stupid or angry\".",[]],["Collins dictionary explains sarcasm as \"mocking or ironic language to convey insult or anger\".",[]]],"rt":[["irony",[]]],"sb":[["Propositional sarcasm",["1"]],["Like-prefixed sarcasm",["1"]],["Illocutionary sarcasm",["1"]]]},{"rt":[["Objectivity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["la amenaza inaugura un horizonte temporal de consecuencias imprevisibles",[]],["La amenaza adquiere la categoría de discurso de odio cuando comienza a funcionar como un ritual: cuando en tanto que enunciado, funciona \"repetido en el tiempo, y por consiguiente, presenta un campo de acción que no se limita al momento del enunciado mismo\"",["op. cit., p. 18"]]],"sp":[["discurso de odio",[]]]},{"de":[["Esto significa que tenemos la obligación de preservar la vida de los otros tengamos o no un acuerdo de contrato para preservar esas vidas",["Butler y Athanasiou, 2017, p. 152"]]]},{"de":[["Podemos entender las políticas de deshechabilidad como una manera de rechazo, una manera de matar con impunidad, una manera de producir lo humano y su inasimilable excedente",["Butler y Athanasiou, 2017, p. 181"]]],"rt":[["la gente se convierte en desechable y prescindible por las fuerzas de la explotación, la pobreza, el machismo, la homofobia, el racismo y la militarización.",[]]]},{"de":[["Su principal eficacia política es esta capacidad de hacer verosímil el modo en que interpela, y a partir de allí estructurar una escena política y crear nuevas subjetividades que (des)hacen los lazos comunitarios.",[]],["el discurso no representa lo que odia, no ilumina una realidad preexistente, sino que establece el distrito (es decir, el alcance) 8/15 de su afecto negativo al nominar interpelativamente de manera ofensiva a otros.",[]],["constituye en el sentido de que habilita, predispone, configura imaginariamente y pre-figura el acto violento: sin embargo, no es el acto violento en sí.",[]],["el discurso no representa el odio, en cierta forma, lo escenifica, y fundamentalmente, hace posible la constitución de las subjetividades en una interlocución expulsiva.",[]],["este discurso debe ser \"peyorativo o discriminatorio\", es decir que tiene connotaciones negativas o que dirige un insulto a otro.",[]],["discursos de carácter lingüístico pero también icónico que están orientados a producir un daño en aquellos grupos más heridos por la historia de desigualdad, dominación, marginalización y demonización",[]],["debe ser \"peyorativo o discriminatorio\", es decir que tiene connotaciones negativas o que dirige un insulto a otro. Y por último, el objeto o la víctima del discurso de odio sea individual o colectivo pertenece a un cierto tipo de grupo, es decir que se dirige a alguien en virtud de su pertenencia a una identidad.",[]],["el discurso de odio es objeto de políticas públicas en las cuales se plantean la defensa de minorías y de la libertad de expresión.",[]]],"sy":[["lenguaje del odio",[]],["lenguaje de odio",[]]],"rt":[["el objeto o la víctima del discurso de odio sea individual o colectivo pertenece a un cierto tipo de grupo, es decir que se dirige a alguien en virtud de su pertenencia a una identidad.",[]],["matriz significante",[]],["otredad negativa",[]],["subjetividades",[]],["violencia verbal",[]],["violencia simbólica",[]]],"sb":[["insulto",[]],["amenaza",[]]]},{},{"de":[["El discurso social completo, en tanto objeto complejo y compuesto, presenta en un cierto momento una nueva regla, una nueva tendencia hegemónica o ley tácita: el odio es decible; logra aceptabilidad, encanto y eficacia social.",[]]]},{"de":[["Unos ideologemas aparecen y circulan intertextualmente, pequeñas unidades de sentido que en la forma del insulto y la amenaza logran una aceptabilidad difusa (pero también resistencias, disputas de sentido).",[]]]},{"de":[["la injuria o el insulto presentan otra intensidad, configuran una interlocución expulsiva, repelente",[]]],"rt":[["insulto",[]]]},{"de":[["A través del insulto, se inicia al sujeto en la vida social y temporal del lenguaje a partir de un nombre hiriente, inaugurando una relación de subordinación y una temporalidad de inminente punitividad",[]],["ser insultado es una de las primeras formas de agravio lingüístico que uno aprende",["Butler, 1997, p. 16"]]],"rt":[["El insulto público es una huella de discurso de odio, desde un punto de vista semiótico",[]]],"sp":[["discurso de odio",[]]]},{"de":[["no es nunca un acto puntual, \"sino una cadena ritual de resignificaciones cuyo origen y fin no son fijos ni se pueden fijar… un acto no es un evento momentáneo sino un cierto tipo de red de horizontes temporales, una condensación de iterabilidad que excede el momento al que lugar\"",[]],["el discurso de odio siempre tiene antecedentes y no alcanza su performatividad en una emergencia súbita (que aparece como la distorsión de un cierto actor que habla).",[]],["el odio no tiene un único Sujeto, no aparece como un acto súbito, original y soberano, sino que cada vez cita una convención.",[]],["el lenguaje de odio se genera en un largo proceso semiótico, pathemico, y de pronunciaciones colectivas, sucedidas a lo largo de un tiempo, que es el tiempo del trauma o de la configuración de la herida.",[]],["La principal promesa del discurso de odio es la aniquilación de ese otro para la restitución de un orden perdido",[]],["El lenguaje hiriente es la promesa de borramiento de la faz de la tierra de ese otro configurado como negativo",[]],["es promotor de una violencia física, que puede ser pensada como uno de los efectos contingentes de la violencia simbólica",[]]],"sy":[["discurso de odio",[]]],"rt":[["lenguaje hiriente",[]]]},{"de":[["no puede ser considerada ni como un mero desvío individual, ni como un residuo patológico, ni como una acción irracional y desprovista de sentido.",[]],["el lenguaje del odio se constituye hoy como un problema político porque crea lo que dice, circula con rapidez y encuentra entre sus posibles efectos de sentido una posible realización física violenta",[]]],"sy":[["discurso de odio",[]]],"rt":[["violencia social",[]],["matriz significante",[]]]},{"de":[["el odio sucede al vincularse con el otro en tanto amenaza o portador de una marca que lo vuelve peligroso para la identidad propia y el futuro de la comunidad.",[]],["el odio puede responder a lo particular, pero tiende a hacer alienando lo particular con lo general: 'Te odio porque eres esto o lo otro', donde 'esto' o lo 'otro' evocan a un grupo al que el individuo representa o sustituye",["p. 87"]],["el afecto más problemático, en un sentido específico: el que lleva al límite las formas de relación social, los pactos discursivos, las formas y protocolos de la vida civil y las reglas de lo democrático",["p. 11"]],["Esta emoción produce la \"creación de una desemejanza\", ya que a partir del odio se trazan las fronteras entre comunidades.",["p. 89"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["una significación que no se establece de una vez y para siempre en su capacidad representacional, sino que se inscribe en un marco de aceptabilidad más amplia, o más bien, que en su despliegue temporal va configurando el marco mismo en el que funciona.",[]]]},{"de":[["Lo que ella llama \"la vida temporal del lenguaje\" (p. 14) introduce a cada enunciado ofensivo en una totalidad más amplia, un principio de funcionamiento que no puede situarse en el significante mismo.",[]]]},{"rt":[["violencia factual",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["violencia sistémica",[]],["violencia simbólica",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This cognitive field brings together various texts on a certain subject.",[]]]},{"de":[["A discursive metaphor exhibits a number of attributes, namely length, stability, frame character and belonging to a certain discourse (Zinken, Hellsten, Nerlich, 2008).",["Zinken, Hellsten, Nerlich, 2008"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Additional accents of a conceptual metaphor go beyond its basic meaning (Kövecses, 2005).",["Kövecses, 2005"]]],"sy":[["entailment",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Culturally determined stereotypes are embodied both in mental images-perceptions and verbal forms of these images",["Romanov, 2020b"]]]},{},{"de":[["The connotation is decidedly negative in that the doctrine is to be judged pernicious and/or immoral.",["1988","Lehrer 1988, p. 182"]]]},{"de":[["the -ist and -ism terms are semantically-laden and serve as a function insulting/accusing of a group or an individual of 'superiority doctrine' which in turn lead to a rejection and conflict with the 'inferiors'.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They usually offer 'framed' definitions and links to materials outside the immediate text to support their point of view.",[]],["In Translation Studies, endnotes, footnotes and glossaries give voice to translators and translation agencies by allocating a space where they can comment and express their views on the topic under translation (Baker 2006).",["Baker 2006"]]],"rt":[["paratextual materials",[]]],"sp":[["paratextual materials",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is, to some extent, flexible, situational, internally sequential in reasoning and repetitive in form.",[]],["Framing, however, is culturally-specific and referential which represents and constructs world experiences in a narrative form rather than a stereotype.",[]],["framing aims at advancing the public perception toward a given issue and increasing the general agreement on its ultimate proposed solution.",[]],["The nature of framing as bi-directional and interactively negotiable allows \"the strategic rendering of discourse positions: that is to say, for propaganda.\" (p. 6).",["p. 6"]]]},{"de":[["Generally, scholars agree with this definition adding that narrative is a story of events experienced by us, and it changes and develops over time; it has a beginning, a plot and an end with temporal and causal sequences (Polkinghorne 1988, Denzin 1989, Abbs & Richardson 1990, Graesser et al. 1991, Champion 1997, Wennerstrom 2001).",[]],["Bruner (1991) emphasises that narrative is a way of giving meaning to a story while Whitebrook (2001) establishes that narratives allow us to understand one's political perspective, ideology and identity.",[]],["Narratives, therefore, \"play a significant role in constructing and maintaining identities\" (Brännlund et al. 2013, p. 74).",["Brännlund et al. 2013"]]],"sy":[["story",["Baker 2006, p. 19"]]],"rt":[["plot",[]],["temporal and causal sequences",[]]]},{"de":[["Recent applications of narrative theory in translation studies i.e. Thawabteh (2012) and Winters (2017) argue that narrative theory allows the investigation of the translators' ideological involvement in the translation, and that it further expands the analysis to non-textual and paratextual materials.",["Thawabteh (2012)","Winters (2017)"]]]},{"de":[["Gray (2015) argued that paratext is an important, central, constitutive and integral part of the main text.",["Gray (2015)"]],["Paratext functions as an introduction to the main text in order to ensure its presence, reception and consumption by the target audience (Marine-Roig 2017).",["Marine-Roig 2017"]],["However, while Genette considered paratext as additional elements to the text, Gray (2015) argued that paratext is an important, central, constitutive and integral part of the main text.",[]]],"sb":[["peritext",[]],["epitext",[]]]},{"de":[["paratextual devices including titles, introductions, headings, images and their captions, and endnotes and glossaries are significant (re)framing tools that function outside the immediate text.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Paratextual framing is then an effective device applied by MEMRI in subliminally undermining the current narratives on Daesh and inserting its own perspective in this regard.",[]]],"sb":[["titles, introductions (prefaces), headings and subtitles, images and captions, and endnotes and glossaries",[]]]},{"de":[["They usually offer 'framed' definitions and links to materials outside the immediate text to support their point of view.",[]]],"rt":[["introductions",[]],["prefaces",[]]],"sb":[["footnotes",[]],["endnotes",[]],["glossaries",[]]]},{"de":[["Prefaces function as sites of the author's credibility establishment.",[]]],"rt":[["introduction",[]]]},{"de":[["They serve as signal devices to the content of the whole text. They also guide the readers' understanding of the story.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["involves more deliberative reasoning, which is less likely to be conveyed in short-form social media posts",["Calefato et al., 2015","Granatyr et al., 2017"]]]},{"rt":[["Political trust",[]]]},{"de":[["suggesting that favorable sentiment toward women communicators would increase as crisis severity intensified",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["distrust",[]]]},{"de":[["This behavior constitutes a form of interpersonal emotion management that underlies the observed trust advantage associated with female leadership.",[]]],"sp":[["interpersonal emotion management",[]]]},{"de":[["Such relational communication traits foster more positive evaluations and are associated with greater trust, which in turn can enhance compliance with rules and guidelines",["Post et al., 2019"]]],"sy":[["relational communication traits",[]]],"rt":[["relational communication traits",[]]]},{"rt":[["distrust",[]]]},{"de":[["While sentiment is not equivalent to trust, it may contribute to the erosion of trust over time, especially in high-stakes contexts that demand public cooperation.",[]],["Supportive and approving sentiment may suggest affective alignment with trust, while critical and hostile expressions may reflect orientations consistent with distrust (Mohammad & Turney, 2013).",["Mohammad & Turney, 2013"]],["While sentiment is not equivalent to trust, it may reflect the emotional orientations that often accompany trust in political and crisis contexts.",[]],["plays a particularly important role in digital environments where communication is rapid, spontaneous, and often emotionally charged.",[]]],"rt":[["trust",[]],["distrust",[]]],"ex":[["expressions of appreciation, support, or confidence that often align with positive orientations toward a communicator",[]],["expressions of criticism or hostility reflect negative evaluations",[]]]},{"de":[["enables scalable, real-time insights, it does not reflect the cognitive or behavioral components of trust",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Trust is a broader and more complex construct than sentiment.",[]],["Trust encompasses cognitive, behavioral, and affective components: While trust fosters cooperation and acceptance of political decisions, distrust can lead to vigilance, resistance, or disengagement from political processes (Levi & Stoker, 2000).",["Levi & Stoker, 2000"]]],"rt":[["sentiment",[]],["distrust",[]]]},{"sy":[["informative",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["a wish",[]]]},{"de":[["it is important to determine if the organisations concerned choose to adopt a more personal and relatable presence on social media, or whether they prefer to maintain a more distant and impersonal representation of themselves.",[]],["create a sense of authenticity",[]],["This shift aligns with social media's preference for relatable, human-centred storytelling.",[]]],"sy":[["personalisation",["Zamora-Medina et al., 2023"]]],"ex":[["collective or impersonal representation-such as groups of people without individual distinction or videos devoid of human presence-or, conversely, whether themes related to the army and interior affairs were personalised through the presence of specific, identifiable characters.",[]],["By featuring officers in personal or situational contexts",[]]]},{"rt":[["politainment",[]]]},{"rt":[["speech acts",[]]],"ex":[["Do you know it?",[]]]},{"rt":[["humanisation",[]]]},{"de":[["may be seen as resulting from an increasing mediatisation and professionalisation of politics that characterise modern democracies.",[]],["initially the concept referred to the ways governments, political parties, and politicians adapted to the media logic, especially television, later the concept was extended to cover the impact of digital media on political communication.",[]],["is used especially in the digital sphere to expand one's audience.",["Berrocal-Gonzalo et al. (2023, p. 163)"]]],"rt":[["pop-politics",[]],["visual storytelling",[]],["influencer marketing techniques",[]],["influencer-politician",[]],["professionalisation of politics",[]]]},{"de":[["we analysed the use of TikTok trends, tone, theme, format, sound, and captions.",[]],["assess the extent of the politainment dimension, examining how one's public communication strategy is shaped by the necessity to be engaging and entertaining.",[]]],"rt":[["politainment",[]]],"ex":[["cinematic video editing",[]],["role-playing",[]],["humour",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["backstage",[]]]},{},{"de":[["effectively contributing to an infrastructure of media accountability that may differ in design across countries and political traditions",["Eberwein et al., 2017"]],["Rather than being objectively \"important\" or even necessarily \"accurate,\" information tends to be produced in ways that primarily maintain the structure of the field.",[]],["Once mutually accepted, the information regime also sets boundaries for actors' selective attention (Rao, 1998).",["Rao, 1998"]],["We operationalized the concept of information regime as the ecosystem of actors producing information as well as assessing, evaluating, or valuing the performance of the news media.",[]],["the information regime is a useful lens to observe what is currently being emphasized (and considered important) in the functioning of the news media system, what is currently omitted, and what the consequences are from the perspective of a critical assessment of media's role for democratic development.",[]],["The concept of information regimes is drawn from sociology, where scholars have taken considerable interest in how organizational fields emerge and are constituted.",[]],["Common to these studies is the recognition of a shared institutionalized cognition emerging among actors, enabling them to efficiently collaborate and compete within an industry or sector.",[]],["The word \"regime\" suggests that institutionalized structures for information tend to dominate the understandings, practices, and priorities of actors at a given time.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Market information allows actors to observe and understand a joint playing field, to observe each other, to evaluate the performance of themselves and others, to understand the explicit and implicit rules of the game, and to direct their priorities.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["These logics may not necessarily be conflicting, but do not align and may serve different functions within the media system. This means that the overall information regime of the media system does not align to a single standard and does not have a dominant owner or coordinating body.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It does not cover issues arising from the creation and dissemination online of illegal content (notably defamation, hate speech, incitement to violence), which are subject to regulatory remedies under EU or national laws, nor other forms of deliberate but not misleading distortions of facts such as satire and parody.",["35","European Commission, 2018, p. 35"]],["They define it as \"all forms of false, inaccurate, or misleading information designed, presented and promoted to intentionally cause public harm or for profit\"",["European Commission, 2018, p. 35"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news connotes intent to deceive and often to do harm.",[]],["fake news does not exist independently of real news; instead, it exists as a critique of real news, a farcical watchdog that lampoons both journalists and the subjects they cover.",["Berkowitz and Schwartz (2016, p. 4)"]],["While fake news increasingly refers to deceitful, if not completely false/invented, content, fake news as comedy lives on, but now as a problem: millions of social media users (and occasionally politicians) misrecognize it as professional journalism.",["Harsin (2018b, p. IV)"]],["the term referred to news that express facts in a parodic and comic way.",[]],["the phenomenon of fake news is associated with populist messages, mostly related to the political sphere",["Alonso García et al., 2020"]],["informants see a difference in degree-and not an absolute one-between fake news and real news",[]],["they spontaneously equate fake news with poor journalism, propaganda (including both lying politicians and hyperpartisan content), and some kinds of advertising",["2017, pp. 3-4","Nielsen & Graves, 2017, pp. 3-4"]],["mechanism by which the powerful can clamp down upon, restrict, undermine and circumvent the free press",["5","Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017, p. 5"]],["intentional falsity to it (fakeness) that is veiled by its (b) disguising as news (news-ness), and (c) it spreads online quickly, going viral (shareworthiness).",[]],["trend toward an ethically and politically alarming post-truth conceptualization of fake news",[]],["the politicized definitions as a whole implicitly (or sometimes even explicitly) promoted the idea that fake news is a report that opposes one's viewpoint.",["Tong et al. (2020, p. 765)"]]],"sy":[["parody",[]],["satire",[]],["made-up news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["online falsehoods",[]],["post-truth",[]],["information disorder",[]]],"rt":[["post-truth",["Harsin, 2015","McIntyre, 2018","Rodríguez-Ferrándiz, 2019","Waisbord, 2018"]],["information disorder",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["postfact",[]],["truthiness",[]],["deep fakes/deepfakes",[]],["information literacy",[]],["media literacy",[]],["fact-checking",[]],["parody",[]],["satire",[]],["poor journalism",[]],["propaganda",[]],["partisan support",[]],["community sentiment",[]],["emotional contagion",[]],["news satire",[]],["news parody",[]]],"sb":[["untruth-driven definition",[]],["post-truth-driven definition",[]],["news satire",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["news parody",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["news fabrication",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["photo or video manipulation",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["advertising and public relations presented as if they were information",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["political propaganda",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["untruth-driven",[]],["post-truth-driven",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Everything against my opinion is fake news.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["those who reflect on fake news' shareworthiness focus on the influence of motivated reasoning, partisanship, populism, and emotiveness on the willingness to share",["Osmundsen et al., 2021"]],["They also reflect on \"sharing\" as a polysemic and complex activity, which includes not only endorsing, republishing, or quoting, but also questioning the news or denouncing fake news taking stances in a battle of narratives (Arielli, 2018;Metzger et al., 2021).",["Arielli, 2018","Metzger et al., 2021"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["partisan, ideologically fake news",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["They also reflect on \"sharing\" as a polysemic and complex activity, which includes not only endorsing, republishing, or quoting, but also questioning the news or denouncing fake news taking stances in a battle of narratives",["Arielli, 2018","Metzger et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["intentional, misleading by design",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Internet memes spread through imitation and are individually adapted when transmitted.",[]],["Consequently, memes rely on the process of prosumption-that is, an interconnected process of production and consumption (Yamamoto et al., 2020).",[]]],"rt":[["prosumption",[]]],"sb":[["image macros",[]],["political memes",[]]],"sp":[["meme",[]]]},{"de":[["the prosumption of such memes can enhance users' issue involvement and the degree to which users perceive social media as an effective outlet for climate activism.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Internet memes",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["For this to happen, people need to have a positive stance toward the movement, support its positions (Klandermans & Oegema, 1987), and \"agree with the goals\" (Boulianne et al., 2020, p. 644) of the movement.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["participatory efficacy mediates the relationship between consuming political news on social media and protest intention",["Chan, 2017"]],["participatory efficacy is positively related to participatory outcomes",["Nekmat & Ismail, 2019"]],["this finding also holds for pro-environmental behavior",["Bamberg et al., 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["Political memes serve as a means of persuasion and expression of grassroots actions.",[]],["In addition, they are used as forms of individual and collective expressions of opinions and identities (Johann, 2022;Shifman, 2014).",[]],["serve as a means of persuasion and expression of grassroots actions.",[]],["they are used as forms of individual and collective expressions of opinions and identities (Johann, 2022;Shifman, 2014).",[]]],"sp":[["Internet memes",[]]]},{"de":[["Political participation encompasses traditional and institutionalized forms of participation, such as voting, campaigning, civic engagement, and protest, as well as individualistic forms that are closely linked to the rise of new forms of political expression and engagement on social media, such as political consumerism, digitally networked participation, and creative forms of participation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In a news text, the frame represents an imprint of power, calling to attention some aspects of reality while obscuring others (Entman, 1993).",["1993"]]]},{"de":[["In a news text, the frame represents an imprint of power, calling to attention some aspects of reality while obscuring others",[]]]},{"de":[["the existence of a hashtagged message via Twitter actively invites audience attention by setting parameters for the embedded discourse",["Brock, 2012"]],["The messages adjoined to such hashtags may invoke context, histories, emotions, or calls to action.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such an approach allows for the circulation of ideas and frames across platforms while creating a shared social movement identity, requiring collaboration and co-creation across the movement",["Costanza-Chock, 2013"]]],"rt":[["transmedia storytelling",[]],["network communication theories",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a phenomenon that has been widely studied before but mostly in offline environments.",[]]]},{"sy":[["meta-informedness",[]]]},{"rt":[["social privacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["People who are motivated by accuracy goals are more likely to evaluate information more even-handedly and process information more deeply (Kunda, 1990;Lodge & Taber, 2013;Rudolph, 2006).",["Kunda, 1990","Lodge & Taber, 2013","Rudolph, 2006"]]],"rt":[["motivated reasoning",[]]],"sp":[["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["People are motivated to reduce dissonance by seeking out reinforcing information and avoiding challenging points of view.",[]]]},{"rt":[["motivated reasoning",[]]],"sp":[["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["According to this theory, people are motivated by two types of goals when seeking out information: accuracy goals predispose people to reach correct conclusions, and directional goals motivate people to reach their preferred conclusions.",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]],["selective information processing",[]]],"sb":[["accuracy goals",[]],["directional goals",[]]]},{"de":[["media consumers tend to select media content that is in line with their attitudes",[]]],"rt":[["selective avoidance",[]],["selective information processing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such news is disseminated by media outlets that eschew the traditional journalistic routines and rules, and have found a broader audience on social networks.",[]],["The effects of hyperpartisan news are indignation and the generation of partisan emotions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the densest and most cohesive discussion groups emerged in response to pro-attitudinal news, that is, those that were concordant with the views held by the group's individuals.",[]]]},{"rt":[["selection",[]],["selective attention",["Kappler, 1960, p. 19"]],["selective retention",["Kappler, 1960, p. 19"]],["reference groups",["Kappler, 1960, p. 19"]],["interpersonal communication",["Kappler, 1960, p. 19"]],["opinion leaders",["Kappler, 1960, p. 19"]],["nature of the media outlets",["Kappler, 1960, p. 19"]],["attention",[]],["retention",[]]],"ex":[["citizens looked for media content that was as concordant as possible with their pre-held ideas about reality",["Stroud, 2010"]]]},{"de":[["Resistance has come in many forms, from official societies to personal abstentions",[]],["resistance to vaccination has existed since Edward Jenner, now more than 200 years ago, used the method to induce immunity against smallpox in a patient",["Holberg, Blume, & Greenough, 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["are not a new phenomenon. They have for centuries sustained the vilifi-cation of secret societies and of Jews",[]]],"ex":[["stories surrounding the murder of John F. Kennedy and the alleged extraterrestrial presence at Area 51",[]]]},{"rt":[["logos",["(Atkins & Finlayson, 2016, p. 164)"]],["pathos",["(Atkins & Finlayson, 2016, p. 164)"]]]},{"sp":[["Internet memes",[]]]},{"de":[["Most memes take the form of a simple combination of image and text.",[]]],"rt":[["memetic formats",[]],["memetic templates",[]],["memescape",[]]]},{"de":[["intertextuality is not a hidden phenomenon to be foregrounded, but the default mode of information processing.",[]]]},{"rt":[["pathos",["(Atkins & Finlayson, 2016, p. 164)"]],["ethos",["(Atkins & Finlayson, 2016, p. 164)"]]]},{"de":[["a meme is defined by its shape or outline, and not by its informational content",[]],["Memes contribute to the spread of health misinformation",[]],["the success of a meme depends upon its capacity to have its meaning radically transformed.",[]],["In other words, a meme is defined by its shape or outline, and not by its informational content.",[]],["a meme is defined by its shape or outline, and not by its informational content.",[]]],"rt":[["meme ideologies",[]]],"sb":[["image macros",[]]]},{},{"de":[["memes, which are primarily determined by their contour, or the shape that contains the message.",[]],["In other words, ongoing semantic changes suggest that once a set of ideas becomes the target of a large number of cultural replicators, independent of whether they are or are not supportive of the ideas in question, the suspicion of an absence of substance is raised.",[]]]},{"rt":[["logos",["(Atkins & Finlayson, 2016, p. 164)"]],["ethos",["(Atkins & Finlayson, 2016, p. 164)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Fake news stands in contrast to 'real news,' which is produced by journalists who have long commanded an important gatekeeping role in deigning events as newsworthy and in separating fact from falsehood.",[]],["It follows, then, that 'fake news' producers would imitate the conventions of 'real news' to leech off of journalism's authority and convince readers that the material presented to them is an authentic account.",[]],["fake news producers can package a false claim (e.g., suspicious deaths of witnesses that signal a cover-up) supporting their underlying motivation (e.g., sow distrust in the government) with content characteristics associated with real news (e.g., reference to a timely event, focus on a negative aspect, peg to a prominent topic, use of inverted pyramid, among others) to turn a false narrative into one that looks like a real, legitimate news story.",[]],["fake news mimics real news to leech off journalism's social legitimacy and authority",[]],["Fake news is a complex and somewhat controversial concept due to wide variation in the way it is used in public discourse. It is notoriously difficult to define, drawing hoaxes, conspiracy theories, state-sponsored propaganda, partisan-slanted information, manipulated content, satire, and parody into its orbit (Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018).",["Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018"]]],"sy":[["deceptive information",[]]],"rt":[["hoaxes",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["state-sponsored propaganda",[]],["partisan-slanted information",[]],["manipulated content",[]],["satire",[]],["parody",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["deceptive information",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["the political satire of figures like Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert, who have approximated the conventions of broadcast news (and, in Colbert's case, partisan punditry) for comedic effect",["Baym, 2005","Borden & Tew, 2007"]]]},{"sp":[["news values",[]]],"ex":[["reflecting how news stories spotlight \"the most severe storms, the most damaging fires, the most deadly accidents, the most important speeches, and the most interesting organizations because these are likely to affect the most readers and viewers and have the most serious consequences\"",["Fedler, Bender, Davenport, & Drager, 2001, p. 110"]]]},{"de":[["This is likely due to its normative purchase, being associated with objectivity due to the way it standardizes the presentation of news content as an authoritative account of events (Thomson et al., 2008;Vos, 2002).",["Thomson et al., 2008","Vos, 2002"]]],"rt":[["news format",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["inverted pyramid",[]],["listicle",[]],["chronology",[]],["reversed chronology",[]],["narrative",[]]]},{"sb":[["timeliness",[]],["negativity",[]],["prominence",[]],["impact",[]],["proximity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["empirical studies of news content have operationalized objectivity as the absence of opinion",["Lawrence, Molyneux, Coddington, & Holton, 2014","Molyneux, 2015","Tandoc, 2018","Tandoc & Thomas, 2017","Lawrence, Molyneux, Coddington, & Holton, 2014;Molyneux, 2015;Tandoc, 2018;Tandoc & Thomas, 2017"]],["operationalized as the absence of the author's personal opinion",[]],["empirical studies of news content have operationalized objectivity as the absence of opinion (see, e.g., Lawrence, Molyneux, Coddington, & Holton, 2014;Molyneux, 2015;Tandoc, 2018;Tandoc & Thomas, 2017).",["Lawrence, Molyneux, Coddington, & Holton, 2014","Molyneux, 2015","Tandoc, 2018","Tandoc & Thomas, 2017"]]],"sy":[["absence of opinion",["Lawrence, Molyneux, Coddington, & Holton, 2014","Molyneux, 2015","Tandoc, 2018","Tandoc & Thomas, 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["has been found to be key to the 'shareworthiness' of content on social media",["García-Perdomo, Salaverría, Kilgo, & Harlow, 2018","Kilgo et al., 2020"]]],"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalism's normative standing does not appear out of thin air but is the result of norms and routines built up over time, into which new entrants are socialized. Such norms and routines help maintain journalism's epistemic authority as a reliable arbiter of what is true and what is not (Carlson, 2017).",["Carlson, 2017"]]],"rt":[["traditional journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["that \"optimize the relationships between an organization and its environment\"",["Shoemaker & Reese, 2014, pp. 165, 168"]]]},{"de":[["responds to the impetus of the news being recent and up-to-date",["Kilgo, Lough, & Riedl, 2020, p. 270"]]],"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{"de":[["Mistakes occur all the time in business and in life due to mistaken information or reasoning.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["may be purposeful due to corporate secrecy or deception (see also Pasquale) but can also be due to the specialized skill required that is not currently understood, and to the challenges of scale and complexity of machine learning algorithms.",["32"]]],"sy":[["degree of inscrutability",[]]],"rt":[["degree of inscrutability",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["social embeddedness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Ungoverned decisions show a certain casual disregard as to the (perhaps) unintended harms of the decisions; for important decisions, this could mean issues of unfairness or diminished rights.",[]]]},{"de":[["This article conceptualizes algorithms as value-laden by (1) creating moral consequences, (2) enabling and diminishing stakeholder rights and dignity, and (3) reinforcing or undercutting ethical principles.",["16"]]]},{},{"sb":[["апологетическая разновидность: цель высказывания -приукрашивание, восхваление предмета, о котором идет речь в сообщении при помощи социально-идеологических мифологем, языковых штампов, имеющих расплывчатую семантику, допускающую множественность толкований",[]],["эвфемистическая разновидность: высказывания используются для сокрытия, маскировки, оправдания неблаговидных или сомнительных фактов, поступков, положений и т.д.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Фрейм Проступки",[]]]},{"sp":[["Фрейм Проступки",[]]]},{"de":[["In short, the anti-European sentiment or syndrome we defined in this researh as an explicit national threat perception and implicit economic threat perception posed by the EU integration, indicating the existence of a political distrust in European Union.",[]],["treated as a component of a broader hostile political attitudinal pattern that indicates the existence of a certain type of political alienation or even as a pattern of a potentially conservative or extreme ideology",[]],["anti-European sentiment might be considered the consequence of \"selfprotective, defensive motivational needs for control and security\"",[]]],"sy":[["motivated social cognition",["Jost and Amodio, 2012, p. 57"]]],"rt":[["political distrust",[]],["perceived threat",[]],["national threat perception",[]]]},{"de":[["cognitive and motivational processes underlying the distrust-threat model of political hostility, whose component is ant-European sentiment, serves to reduce uncertainty and anxiety about both the individual and collective future.",[]]],"rt":[["political hostility",[]]]},{"de":[["The latent structure was defined by the following indicators: 1. Our existence is the end which justifies the means; 2. The whole world is against us; 3. Only demonstration of force will deter our enemies from attacking us; 4. When neighboring countries get in conflicts, we will often be blamed for.",[]],["The concept of siege mentality used in this research was primarily defined in terms of perceived national threat, that is why it is labeled national siege mentality. It is indicating the existence of negative intentions of the world against one's nation and readiness to use all means for self-defense including even the force to deter enemies from their attack, and negative political expectations from neighboring countries.",[]]],"sp":[["political mistrust",[]],["perceived threat",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, political cynicism indicates the existence of belief that politicians are wicked, selfish, corrupt and insencere. The construct of political cynicism, used in this research, was primarily defined in terms of perceived immorality of politicians following the perceived incompetence of the government.",[]],["political cynicism indicates the existence of belief that politicians are wicked, selfish, corrupt and insencere.",[]],["The construct of political cynicism, used in this research, was primarily defined in terms of perceived immorality of politicians following the perceived incompetence of the government.",[]],["consists of anger and disgust with politics, where anger and hostility is \"endemic part of the political psyche\"",[]],["entails more negative connotation and emotions",[]],["Political cynicism can surely be the threat to democracy, undermining, as Goldfarb (1991) says, the capacity to think about society's strength and weaknesses.",[]],["political cynicism indicates political distrust toward politicians and perceived threat posed the domestic political system that is to a very small degree responsive to voters' concerns",[]],["In other words, political cynicism indicates the existence of belief that politicians are wicked, selfish, corrupt and insencere.",[]]],"sy":[["political distrust",[]]],"rt":[["political distrust",[]],["perceived threat",[]]],"sp":[["political mistrust",[]],["perceived threat",[]]]},{"de":[["siege mentality implies the belief that a nation is standing alone against hostile world and that there is a threat to the group existence and that a nation cannot expect help from anyone in time of need.",[]],["central societal belief that \"provide the prism through which society members will view the world and relate to it. This prism not only organizes society's cognitive outlook or directs intentional forms of action, but also sets its collective emotional orientation\"",[]],["In this cognitive-affective repertoire, societal beliefs are the basic components of collective memories and ethos of conflict",["Bar-Tal, 2007, p. 1434"]]],"rt":[["political distrust",[]],["perceived threat",[]],["personal hostility, collective enmity and political distrust toward other nations",[]]],"sb":[["national siege mentality",[]]]},{"de":[["La difusión de chismes, mentiras e información falsa es inherente al ser humano; lo que ha cambiado en los últimos años es la velocidad de transmisión y la facilidad de generarlas y propagarlas dadas las características propias de internet (instantaneidad, interactividad, viralización y globalización de la información) que multiplican las posibilidades de quedar atrapado en la red de la desinformación.",[]],["La desinformación, como fenómeno, hace referencia tanto al contenido informativo fraudulento (fake news) como al engañoso (misleading content), los discursos de odio (malinformation), los discursos falsos deliberados (false speech) o los errores informativos no deliberados de medios o periodistas (missinformation).",[]]],"sy":[["information disorder",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["bulos",[]],["contenidos engañosos o malintencionados",[]],["contenido informativo fraudulento (fake news)",[]],["engañoso (misleading content)",[]],["discursos de odio (malinformation)",[]],["discursos falsos deliberados (false speech)",[]],["errores informativos no deliberados de medios o periodistas (missinformation)",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]],["misleading content",[]],["malinformation",[]],["false speech",[]],["missinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["La desinformación, como fenómeno, hace referencia tanto al contenido informativo fraudulento (fake news) como al engañoso (misleading content), los discursos de odio (malinformation), los discursos falsos deliberados (false speech) o los errores informativos no deliberados de medios o periodistas (missinformation).",[]]],"sy":[["information disorder",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misleading content",[]],["malinformation",[]],["false speech",[]]]},{"de":[["es reactivo, requiere tiempo y actúa una vez la información falsa ya se ha viralizado",[]]]},{"de":[["periodismo de verificación como respuesta periodística para atajar el problema de la desinformación",[]],["apparently the only real firewall with the goal of improving the quality of public debate",[]],["Su expansión surge por una triple necesidad: verificar los discursos, evidenciar el engaño y la mentira y mejorar la calidad del debate público.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sy":[["periodismo de verificación de hechos factuales",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news does not cover all the dimensions of disinformation that abound on the Internet (failed media, hoaxes, biased or misleading content, manipulated information, or propaganda)",[]],["lo falso y lo espurio no es noticia sino una narrativa de ficción",[]],["La difusión de chismes, mentiras e información falsa es inherente al ser humano; lo que ha cambiado en los últimos años es la velocidad de transmisión y la facilidad de generarlas y propagarlas dadas las características propias de internet (instantaneidad, interactividad, viralización y globalización de la información) que multiplican las posibilidades de quedar atrapado en la red de la desinformación.",[]],["Las fake news forman parte del ecosistema económico de la desinformación (Corner, 2017) auspiciadas por los ingresos por publicidad obtenidos a través del clickbait y la viralización del contenido. Desde un punto de vista ideológico, las fake news tienen el propósito de favorecer determinadas posturas ideológicas y candidatos políticos (Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017).",["Corner, 2017","Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017"]],["simplificación del concepto frente a la complejidad del fenómeno de la desinformación",[]],["oxímoron propio del concepto fake news",[]],["la apropiación discursiva del concepto por parte de líderes políticos para desacreditar a medios y periodistas",[]],["las motivaciones intrínsecas de carácter económico o ideológico vinculadas a la generación de fake news",[]]],"sy":[["noticias falsas",[]],["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["desinformación",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["colligation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["instrumentally impulsive individuals with poor behavioural controls who callously and remorselessly bleed others for purely selfish reasons via manipulation, intimidation, and violence",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["semantic prosody",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the grammatical co-ordination of swearing with other behaviours perceived as negative, such as adultery and drunkenness, may be an example of what Hall et al. Call (1978, p. 223) a 'spiral of signification', where the similarities between them are highlighted and the threat they pose is amplified.",["1978, p. 223"]]]},{"de":[["posits that the press are more likely to report on violence if it is more visually striking",[]]]},{"de":[["influencia tanto o acesso à informação quanto o acesso à desinformação.",[]]]},{"de":[["competência em informação conecta-se com as experiências solidárias e coletivas vivenciadas nas dinâmicas de aprendizagem continuada a partir de uma perspectiva ética e crítica, o que exige o acesso, a avaliação e o uso da informação de forma responsável, interdependente e colaborativa.",[]]],"sy":[["information literacy",[]],["alfabetização informacional",[]]]},{"de":[["a) desinformação é informação; b) desinformação é uma informação enganosa; c) desinformação não é uma informação acidentalmente enganosa.",["FALLIS, 2015"]]],"sy":[["notícias falsas",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Para perceber a precisão, é necessário recorrer à opinião de um especialista de uma área do conhecimento que comprove a precisão ou a imprecisão da informação.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["conceito de regime de informação, que contempla cultura, sujeitos, leis, instituições e suas conexões",["BEZERRA, 2018;GONZÁLEZ DE GÓMEZ, 2012"]],["O estudo do regime jurídico de direito à informação no Brasil, com enfoque na LAI, auxilia o conhecimento da configuração do contexto e das relações de forças pertinentes ao campo da política de informação. Para tanto, o conceito de regime de informação, que contempla cultura, sujeitos, leis, instituições e suas conexões",[]]],"rt":[["transparência",[]],["acesso à informação",[]],["controle social das ações governamentais",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["intrinsic hallucinations",[]]],"sp":[["hallucinations",[]],["hallucination",[]]],"ex":[["\"Nigel\" in the PTGEN abstract and \"2016\" in both GOLD and GPT-TUNED are extrinsic hallucinations; these terms are not introduced in the document.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Factual hallucinations may be composed of intrinsic hallucinations or extrinsic hallucinations.",[]]]},{"sp":[["hallucination",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["intrinsic hallucinations",[]],["extrinsic hallucinations",[]],["factual hallucinations",[]]]},{"sb":[["intrinsic hallucinations",[]],["extrinsic hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["both use terms or concepts from the document but misrepresent information from the document, making them unfaithful to the document.",[]]],"rt":[["extrinsic hallucinations",[]]],"sp":[["hallucinations",[]],["hallucination",[]]],"ex":[["\"Former London mayoral candidate\" in the TCONVS2S abstract and \"Former London mayor\" in the TRANS2S abstract are hallucinations of intrinsic nature; both use terms or concepts from the document but misrepresent information from the document",[]]]},{"sy":[["persuasiveness",["Lage et al. (2019)","Herman (2017)"]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["Historical Event (D1)",[]],["Anecdotal Event (D2)",[]],["Evaluation (D3)",[]],["Expectation (D4)",[]]]},{"de":[["It may include fictional situations or personal account of incidents of an unknown person especially aimed to exaggerate the situation.",[]]],"sp":[["distantly-related content",[]]]},{"de":[["It may include fictional situations or personal account of incidents of an unknown person especially aimed to exaggerate the situation.",[]]],"sp":[["Additional Supportive Contents",[]]]},{"de":[["They are either temporally overlapped with the main event or happens immediately after the main event.",[]]]},{"de":[["They are either temporally overlapped with the main event or happens immediately after the main event.",[]]],"sp":[["Main Contents",[]]]},{"de":[["It includes the previous events and other contextual facts that directly explain the circumstances that led to the main event.",[]]],"sb":[["Previous Event (C1)",[]],["Current Context (C2)",[]]]},{"de":[["It includes the previous events and other contextual facts that directly explain the circumstances that led to the main event.",[]]],"sb":[["Previous Event",[]],["Current Context",[]]]},{"de":[["They are mainly used to activate the situation model of current events and states that help to understand the main event in the current social or political construct. They have temporal co-occurrence with the main event or describe the ongoing situation.",[]]],"sp":[["Context-informing sentences",[]]]},{"de":[["They are mainly used to activate the situation model of current events and states that help to understand the main event in the current social or political construct. They have temporal co-occurrence with the main event or describe the ongoing situation.",[]]],"sp":[["Context-informing Contents",[]]]},{"sb":[["Historical Event",[]],["Anecdotal Event",[]],["Evaluation",[]],["Expectation",[]]]},{"de":[["They are often meant to describe the social or political implications of the main event or evaluation of the current situation. Typically, it uses statements from influential people to selectively emphasize on their viewpoints.",[]]],"sp":[["distantly-related content",[]]]},{"de":[["They are often meant to describe the social or political implications of the main event or evaluation of the current situation. Typically, it uses statements from influential people to selectively emphasize on their viewpoints.",[]]],"sp":[["Additional Supportive Contents",[]]]},{"de":[["They are essentially opinions, but with far stronger implications where the author tries to evaluate the current situation by projecting possible future events.",[]]],"sp":[["distantly-related content",[]]]},{"de":[["They are essentially opinions, but with far stronger implications where the author tries to evaluate the current situation by projecting possible future events.",[]]],"sp":[["Additional Supportive Contents",[]]]},{},{"de":[["approximate the main events of a news article",[]]]},{"de":[["It constitutes the past events that may have led to the current situation, or indirectly relates to the main event or subjects of the news article.",[]]],"sp":[["distantly-related content",[]]]},{"de":[["It constitutes the past events that may have led to the current situation, or indirectly relates to the main event or subjects of the news article.",[]]],"sp":[["Additional Supportive Contents",[]]]},{"de":[["It describes the most prominent event and its consequences that render the highest level topic of the news report.",[]]]},{"de":[["It describes the most prominent event and its consequences that render the highest level topic of the news report.",[]]],"sb":[["Main Event (M1)",[]],["Consequence (M2)",[]]]},{"de":[["It follows strict constraints of being the most recent and relevant event, and directly monitors the processing of remaining document.",[]]]},{"de":[["It follows strict constraints of being the most recent and relevant event, and directly monitors the processing of remaining document.",[]]],"sp":[["Main Contents",[]]]},{"de":[["categorizes contents of news articles around the main event",[]]],"rt":[["genre-specific discourse structures",[]]]},{"de":[["They are restricted to events that have occurred very recently, within last few weeks.",[]]],"sp":[["Context-informing sentences",[]]]},{"de":[["They are restricted to events that have occurred very recently, within last few weeks.",[]]],"sp":[["Context-informing Contents",[]]]},{"de":[["Speech sentences may perfectly be annotated with any of the eight news discourse roles based on their contents, although we expect Speech sentences to serve certain discourse roles more often, such as evaluation and expectation.",[]]]},{"de":[["imagined as downstream effects of stereotypes on résumé filtering",[]],["speakers of AAE are frequently penalized for not adhering to dominant language practices, including in the education system (Alim, 2004;Terry et al., 2010), when seeking housing (Baugh, 2018), and in the judicial system, where their testimony is misunderstood or, worse yet, disbelieved (Rickford and King, 2016;Jones et al., 2019).",[]]],"sp":[["harms",[]]],"ex":[["credit",[]],["jobs",[]]]},{"sp":[["raciolinguistic ideologies",[]]]},{"de":[["Language ideologies play a vital role in reinforcing and justifying social hierarchies because beliefs about language varieties or practices often translate into beliefs about their speakers",["Alim et al., 2016","Rosa and Flores, 2017","Craft et al., 2020"]]],"sy":[["language attitudes",[]]],"rt":[["language attitudes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["differences in sentiment intensity scores w.r.t. text about different social groups",[]]],"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{"sb":[["Stereotyping that propagates negative generalizations about particular social groups.",[]],["Questionable correlations between system behavior and features of language that are typically associated with particular social groups.",[]]],"sp":[["harms",[]]],"ex":[["a search engine",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational harms",[]]]},{},{"de":[["aims to capture whether the author of a post may be a member of the same social/demographic group that is targeted, as speaker identity changes how a statement is perceived",[]],["words or phrases that (re)establish belonging to a social group",["Eble, 1996"]]],"ex":[["reclaimed slurs (Croom, 2011;Galinsky et al., 2013)",["Croom, 2011","Galinsky et al., 2013"]],["self-deprecating language (Greengross and Miller, 2008)",["Greengross and Miller, 2008"]]]},{},{"de":[["the pragmatic frames in which people project social biases and stereotypes onto others",[]]],"rt":[["semantic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["SOCIAL BIAS FRAMES aim to represent the various pragmatic meanings related to social bias implications, by combining categorical and free-text annotations, e.g., that \"women are less qualified\" is implied by the statement \"we shouldn't lower our standards to hire more women.\"",[]],["our formalism combines hierarchical categories of biased implications such as intent and offensiveness with implicatures described in free-form text such as groups referenced and implied statements.",[]],["aim to represent the various pragmatic meanings related to social bias implications, by combining categorical and free-text annotations",[]]],"rt":[["pragmatic frames",[]],["social biases",[]],["stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["Intuitively, V represents the top-k orthogonal directions which most represent the bias subspace.",[]]]},{"sp":[["HARD-DEBIAS algorithm",[]]]},{"de":[["more concerned with low-level syntactic structure such as verb usage, grammar, and tenses",[]]]},{"sp":[["HARD-DEBIAS algorithm",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["TPR-GAP",[]]]},{"de":[["our notion of fairness by obliviousness does not, in the general case, correspond to other fairness metrics, such as equality of odds or of opportunity.",[]],["does not, in the general case, correspond to other fairness metrics, such as equality of odds or of opportunity.",[]]],"rt":[["equality of odds",[]],["opportunity",[]],["of opportunity",[]]],"sp":[["fairness metrics",[]]]},{"de":[["is a scalar quantity which can serve as a measure for the gender-bias of the word.",[]]]},{"rt":[["fairness by equal opportunity",[]],["True Positive Rate (TPR)",[]]]},{"de":[["requires the fine-grained reasoning ability to distinguish the subtle differences between truth and false statements",[]]],"rt":[["claim verification",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["concerned with predicting the veracity of claims based on metadata, social network spread, language used in claims, and, more recently, evidence supporting or denying claims",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["textual entailment model",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We then explore the benefits of training a joint model that learns to generate veracity explanations while also predicting the veracity of a claim.",[]]],"rt":[["ruling comments",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["abusive language",["Waseem et al., 2017"]]],"ex":[["stupid or scum",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["abusive language",["Waseem et al., 2017"]]],"ex":[["stereotyping and micro-aggression",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In this work, we investigate the impact of two types of biases originating from source data that can emerge in a cross-domain application of models: 1) task formulation bias (discrepancy in class definitions and annotation between the training and test sets) and 2) selection bias (discrepancy in the topic and class distributions between the training and test sets).",[]],["discrepancy in the topic and class distributions between the training and test sets",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In this work, we investigate the impact of two types of biases originating from source data that can emerge in a cross-domain application of models: 1) task formulation bias (discrepancy in class definitions and annotation between the training and test sets) and 2) selection bias (discrepancy in the topic and class distributions between the training and test sets).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such a bias could harm the generalizability of classification models",["Geva et al., 2019"]],["Especially in the context of online abuse and hate speech, it can be a severe issue because annotating abusive language requires expert knowledge due to the vagueness of the task",["Ross et al., 2017","Waseem, 2016"]],["does not require any pre-defined categories to detect bias",[]],["It is caused by the subjective perception and different knowledge levels of annotators regarding the annotation task",["Ross et al., 2017","Waseem, 2016","Geva et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["inter-rater agreement",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In the case of fact-checking these would most likely take the form of factual corrections, i.e., the explanation would provide a corrected version of the erroneous claim or an indication of which parts of the claim include misinformation.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["explanations should be consistent with the natural laws",[]],["Sokol and Flach (2019) state that the user who is accessing the machine learning model's predictions and explanations will have prior knowledge and beliefs concerning inputs.",["2019"]],["They also state that there is a high degree of subjectivity concerning this property, however, for what they describe as basic coherence, explanations should be consistent with the natural laws.",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["hyperpartisanship",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Typically, for fact-checking, bias is in the form of hyper-partisan language or opinions presented as evidence.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The article may be helpful for e.g. establishing the topic of the target sentence, what type of article it is from, and whether the target sentence is an outlier compared to the rest of the article.",[]]]},{"de":[["These may be helpful for disambiguating sentences with multiple possible interpretations, for noticing patterns in the type of content preceding and following instances of informational bias, and for noticing when a target sentence is part of a multi-sentence quote.",[]]]},{"de":[["Domain context is therefore more general than event context.",[]],["Domain refers to a group of texts with shared lexical and structural properties, including register, topic and platform of publication. Domain context is therefore more general than event context.",[]]]},{"de":[["They might appear in the same or different news outlets. The possible benefit of access to Event context is that it is helpful for noticing when an article takes a unique stance on a topic or mentions information that is absent from other articles.",[]]]},{"de":[["Informational bias can be considered a type of framing with a focus on entities.",[]],["even if it is objective and neutral in tone.",[]],["In framing research, any text that could lead an impartial third party to recognise a non-neutral viewpoint towards a topic or entity can be said to contain framing, even if it is objective and neutral in tone.",[]]],"sb":[["Informational bias",[]]]},{"de":[["By nature, informational bias is context-dependent",[]],["it can be expressed in a completely factual and neutral way",[]],["instances of informational bias can be superficially neutral and are context-dependent",[]],["What separates informational bias from other kinds of bias is that it can be expressed in a completely factual and neutral way.",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]],"sb":[["framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]],"ex":[["quotations of opinions from third parties about the target entity, allusions to what may have motivated the target entity to act as they did, and mentions of previous statements and actions of the same entity.",[]]]},{"de":[["The BASIL corpus contains annotations of lexical bias, i.e. bias through word choice, that can be used to investigate whether informational bias detection is helped by the presence of lexical bias.",[]],["bias through word choice",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The ED task is to identify event triggers and classify event types for given sentences.",[]],["the first and most fundamental step for extracting event knowledge from plain text.",[]]],"sb":[["Trigger Identification",[]],["Trigger Classification",[]],["Trigger identification is to identify the annotated triggers from all possible candidates.",["Ahn, 2006"]],["Trigger classification is to classify the corresponding event types for the identified triggers.",["Ahn, 2006"]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Event detection (ED)",[]]]},{"sp":[["stereotype",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In an example, either the first sentence can demonstrate a stereotype, or the second sentence can demonstrate a violation of a stereotype (anti-stereotype).",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["pragmatic dimensions",[]]]},{"de":[["We take the neutral category to contain characters with either non-binary gender identity, or an identity which is unspecified for gender by definition (say, for a magic tree).",[]]],"sb":[["masculine",[]],["feminine",[]],["neutral",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["author",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["automating systems for political bias detection have opted for using distant supervision as an easy way to obtain large datasets, which are needed to train contemporary deep learning models.",[]]],"ex":[["projecting the bias label from a website to all articles crawled from it, which is a form of distant supervision",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["characterize news media from different angles: how a medium portrays itself, who is its audience, and what is written about it.",[]]]},{"de":[["in the Western political system",[]]]},{"de":[["Millions of people from predominately Black communities in the United States and Canada use variants of AAVE on a daily basis.",[]]],"rt":[["Standard American English (SAE)",[]]],"sb":[["variants of AAVE",[]]],"sp":[["American English",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["complex event templates",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["someone with high agency is: actively participating in events has a lot of power or ability to shape their own future pro-active in making their own decisions",[]]],"sb":[["positive agency",[]],["negative agency",[]],["low agency",[]],["high agency",[]]],"ex":[["\"X pursued Y\" implies that X has positive agency.",[]],["Alex answered a phone call. low agency Alex picked up the phone but did not actively initiate the conversation.",[]],["Alex received a book from their friend. low agency Alex is portrayed passively receiving things not actively asking for the book.",[]],["Alex did most of the work by themselves. high agency Alex is taking charge of the situation.",[]],["Alex took a book from the friend. high agency Alex is actively participating in borrowing the book.",[]]]},{"de":[["For example, someone with high agency is: actively participating in events has a lot of power or ability to shape their own future pro-active in making their own decisions",[]]]},{"de":[["provide pragmatic knowledge about implied power and agency levels projected onto characters by a predicate.",["Sap et al., 2017"]],["connotation frames that measure the power and agency ascribed to characters through the actions they take",[]],["connotation frames of power and agency (Sap et al., 2017), which provide pragmatic knowledge about implied power and agency levels projected onto characters by a predicate.",["Sap et al., 2017"]]],"rt":[["power",[]],["agency",[]]]},{"de":[["a novel formalization of stylistic rewriting that aims to debias the portrayal of characters through controllable revision.",[]]],"rt":[["unsupervised stylistic rewriting task",[]],["social biases",[]],["connotation frames of power and agency",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["more amenable to users with limited domain expertise",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["coherence",[]]],"sb":[["Strong global coherence",[]],["Weak global coherence",[]]]},{"rt":[["coherence",[]]],"sp":[["Global Coherence",[]]]},{"rt":[["evidence selection",[]],["label prediction",[]]]},{"de":[["For this property to hold for a generated factchecking explanation, no sentence in the explanatory text should contradict the claim (by entailing its negation); from a natural language inference (NLI) perspective, for weak global coherence to hold all explanatory sentences should entail or have a neutral relation with respect to the claim.",[]]],"rt":[["coherence",[]]],"sp":[["Global Coherence",[]]]},{"de":[["CDA swaps, say, all instances of grandmother with grandfather, she with he, and so on.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["personality descriptions that ground a speaker's chat",[]]],"ex":[["like I love fishing",[]],["I love fishing",[]]]},{"ex":[["like I love fishing",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["topic-specific stance",[]],["cross-target stance",[]],["zero-shot stance detection",[]],["few-shot stance detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["In contrast, our models are trained jointly for all topics and are evaluated for zero-shot stance detection on a large number of new test topics (i.e., none of the zero-shot test topics occur in the training data).",[]],["zero-shot stance detection (a classifier is evaluated on a large number of completely new topics)",[]]],"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["whereas factual consistency checking focuses on adherence of facts to information provided by a source document without guarantee that the information is true.",[]]],"rt":[["factual consistency",[]]]},{"de":[["verifying factual consistency requires the entire source document.",[]]],"rt":[["natural language inference (NLI)",[]],["Fact checking",[]]]},{},{"de":[["counterfactual fairness requires the same model predictions before and after intervention on sensitive attributes in data-generating causal graphs (Kusner et al., 2017;Kilbertus et al., 2017;Chiappa, 2019;Chiappa and Isaac, 2019).",["Kusner et al., 2017","Kilbertus et al., 2017","Chiappa, 2019","Chiappa and Isaac, 2019"]]]},{"sy":[["Sentiment bias by counterfactual evaluation",[]]]},{"rt":[["demographic parity",[]]]},{"de":[["Similar to individual fairness, which requires similar individuals to be treated similarly (Dwork et al., 2012)",["Dwork et al., 2012"]]]},{"de":[["The opinion-word-based method, while being less accurate (69.6% accuracy on the SST validation set), is less prone to giving biased judgments, as it does not contain sensitive tokens or learned associations: it only relies on opinion words.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["sentiment scores for the generated texts can vary substantially, suggesting the existence of sentiment bias.",[]],["Such a sentiment bias can pose a concern for using the text generated by language models in downstream applications (e.g., dialogue agents (Zhang et al., 2019)) from a fairness perspective.",[]],["This paper aims to quantify and reduce a particular type of bias exhibited by language models: bias in the sentiment of generated text.",[]]]},{"de":[["Two important dimensions of gender bias as researched by Wagner et al. [2015] are coverage bias and lexical bias.",[]]],"rt":[["lexical bias",[]]],"sp":[["gender bias",[]]],"ex":[["a smaller percentage of notable women have their own Wikipedia page or these pages may be less extensive.",[]]]},{"de":[["Words related to family and relationships are more present in female articles compared to male articles.",[]],["Articles about women contain more words that are genderspecific, such as 'female' or 'woman'.",[]]],"rt":[["coverage bias",[]]],"sp":[["gender bias",[]]],"ex":[["When biographies about women for example contain phrases as 'female scientist', whereas men are referred to as 'scientist', the word scientist would be more closely associated to female, despite there being both male and female scientists.",[]]]},{"de":[["Reporting news in a politically unbiased and fair manner is a key component of journalism ethics and standards.",[]]]},{"de":[["structure in journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["politically biased articles tend to use emotional and opinionated words such as \"disappoint\", \"trust\", and \"angry\".",[]],["describing facts with positive or negative expressions is a common indicator of bias there",[]]],"rt":[["media bias",[]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Reporting news in a politically unbiased and fair manner is a key component of journalism ethics and standards.",[]]]},{"de":[["one typical way to be unfair is to report selected facts in a favor of some entity, which leads to completely different word usage.",[]]],"rt":[["media bias",[]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]],"ex":[["\"admit\", \"become\", and \"determine\".",[]]]},{"ex":[["Spanish ojalá or English so",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["implicit",["Waseem et al., 2017","Vidgen and Yasseri, 2019","Kumar et al., 2018"]],["covert",["Waseem et al., 2017","Vidgen and Yasseri, 2019","Kumar et al., 2018"]]],"rt":[["implicit",[]],["covert",[]]],"sp":[["Hate",[]]]},{"de":[["By making minimal label-changing modifications that preserve 'lexical/syntactic artifacts present in the original example' (Gardner et al., 2020(Gardner et al., , p. 1308) ) the risk of overfitting on spurious correlations is minimized.",["Gardner et al., 2020"]]],"rt":[["perturbations",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["Jews are not money lovers",[]]]},{"de":[["It often involves describing groups as leeches, cockroaches, insects, germs or rats",["Mendelsohn et al., 2020"]]],"sp":[["Hate",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Hate",[]]]},{"de":[["In other cases, false negatives can be provoked by changing the 'sensitive' attribute of hateful content, such as changing the target from 'gay' to 'black' people(Garg et al., 2019). This can happen when models are trained on data which only contains hate directed against a limited set of targets(Salminen et al., 2020).",["Garg et al., 2019","Salminen et al., 2020"]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["e.g. 'I think letting gaaaaaaaay people have rights is just soooooooo awful",[]]]},{"ex":[["e.g. n*gga: 'N!gg@', 'n!gga', 'n1gg4",[]],["f*g: 'f@g', 'f4g', 'f@gz",[]],["k*ke: 'k1ke', 'k1k3",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["e.g. 'dogs are just beasts, kick them if they annoy you'.",[]]]},{"de":[["such as political ideologies, economic ideas and philosophical ideals",[]]],"ex":[["e.g. 'I've never trusted capitalism. It's bullshit and it fucks society over'.",[]]]},{"de":[["such as large organisations, governments and bodies",[]]],"ex":[["e.g. 'the NHS is a badly run and pointless organisation which is the source of so much harm'.",[]]]},{"de":[["such as sofa or a car",[]]],"ex":[["e.g. 'this cup is totally rubbish'.",[]]]},{"ex":[["e.g. 'the air round here is toxic, it smells like terrible'.",[]]]},{"sy":[["polysemy",[]]],"ex":[["using 'black' as a colour, e.g. 'the black cat down the road really ruins the neighbourhood'.",[]]]},{"ex":[["e.g. 'you are a complete joke and no-one respects you, loser'.",[]]]},{"ex":[["e.g. 'he is such a waste of space. I hope he dies'.",[]]]},{"de":[["By making minimal label-changing modifications that preserve 'lexical/syntactic artifacts present in the original example' (Gardner et al., 2020(Gardner et al., , p. 1308) ) the risk of overfitting on spurious correlations is minimized.",["Gardner et al., 2020"]]],"sy":[["contrast sets",[]]],"rt":[["contrast sets",[]]]},{"de":[["Their goal is to express hate rather than to elicit an actual answer",[]]],"ex":[["Aren't all X penny pinching, after all?",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["I just love it when all of the brown people leave my office so I dont have to look at them",[]]]},{"sp":[["Hate",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["has been a long-standing problem in the computer vision and media forensics communities.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["motivation for edit",[]],["intent to deceive",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such beliefs (biases) are known to hurt target groups.",[]]],"ex":[["Asians are good at math",[]],["African Americans are athletic",[]]]},{"de":[["there is a danger that stereotypical biases in the real world are reflected in these models.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["linguistic signals that reframe hateful phrases into clearly non-hateful ones",[]]],"ex":[["No Muslim deserves to die",[]]]},{},{"de":[["distinguishes between 'mild', 'bad', 'severe' and 'no' hate",[]]],"sb":[["mild",[]],["bad",[]],["severe",[]],["no",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which broadly reflects international legal consensus (particularly the UK's 2010 Equality Act, the US 1964 Civil Rights Act and the EU's Charter of Fundamental Rights).",[]],["particularly the UK's 2010 Equality Act, the US 1964 Civil Rights Act and the EU's Charter of Fundamental Rights",[]]]},{"de":[["slurs reclaimed by black communities (particularly \"n*gga\"), gay communities (\"f*g\", \"f*ggot\", \"q*eer\") and by women (\"b*tch\")",[]]]},{"de":[["to better evaluate model decision boundaries",[]]]},{"de":[["is a common tool for making causality assessments (Kahneman and Tversky, 1981), which in turn are crucial for model evaluation, error analysis, and explanation (Miller, 2019).",[]]]},{"rt":[["pro-stereotyping",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["MM",[]]]},{"ex":[["If you go to ethiopia, you are bound to see a lot of filthy / hunter natives",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["anti-stereotyping",["Zhao et al., 2018"]]]},{},{"ex":[["The sentence pair Asians / White people cant drive because they have slanted eyes conflates two different stereotypes, namely that Asians have slanted eyes and that they cannot drive.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["claim",[]],["premises",[]]]},{"de":[["This claim is presented as if it were true even though objectively it can be true or false",["2009","Mochales and Ieven, 2009"]],["Claims can be either explicitly voiced or the claim property can be inferred from the text in cases in which they are expressed implicitly (Habernal and Gurevych, 2017).",["2017"]]],"rt":[["argument",[]],["premise",[]]],"sb":[["explicitly voiced",["2017"]],["implicitly",["2017"]],["expressed implicitly",["Habernal and Gurevych, 2017"]]]},{"rt":[["argumentation mining",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Arguments can contain multiple premises to justify the claim.",[]],["traditionally include references to studies or mentions of expert testimony, but occasionally also anecdotal evidence or concrete examples",["Bosc et al., 2016b","Aharoni et al., 2014"]]],"rt":[["argument",[]],["claim",[]]]},{"de":[["traditionally include references to studies or mentions of expert testimony, but occasionally also anecdotal evidence or concrete examples",["Aharoni et al., 2014"]]]},{"de":[["Such individual differences can be partially explained by cultural and socio-demographic norms and variables, such as age, gender, instruction level, or cultural background.",[]],["Individual differences remarkably influence the annotation outcome and, therefore, the disagreement levels.",[]]],"rt":[["disagreement",[]]]},{"de":[["polarization is a somewhat complementary concept to disagreement",[]],["Akhtar et al. (2019) introduced the polarization index, aiming at measuring a particular form of disagreement stemming from clusters of annotators whose opinions on the subjective phenomenon are polarized, e.g., because of different cultural backgrounds.",["Akhtar et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["disagreement",[]]]},{"de":[["Akhtar et al. (2019) introduced the polarization index, aiming at measuring a particular form of disagreement stemming from clusters of annotators whose opinions on the subjective phenomenon are polarized, e.g., because of different cultural backgrounds.",[]]],"rt":[["disagreement",[]]]},{"de":[["For some instances, more than one label is correct, and the relative annotation task would be better framed as multi-label multi-class, rather than as multi-class tout-court.",[]]],"rt":[["disagreement",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They are defined on a higher level than semantic frames",["Fillmore and Baker, 2001"]]],"rt":[["semantic frames",["Fillmore and Baker, 2001"]]]},{"sy":[["aspect-term sentiment classification",[]]],"rt":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Main Event (M1)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Another sense of erasure is in how stereotypes about nonbinary communities are portrayed and propagated",[]],["Another sense of erasure is in how stereotypes about nonbinary communities are portrayed and propagated (see Appendix Table 12).",[]]],"ex":[["the language technology Genderify, which purportedly \"identif[ied] someone's [binary] gender based on their name, email address or username\" erased nonbinary people by reductively distributing individuals into binary \"gender bins\" by their name, based on the assumption that they were cisgender",["Lauer, 2020","Spiel et al., 2019","Serano, 2007"]]]},{},{"rt":[["gender identity",[]],["sex",[]]]},{"rt":[["gender expression",[]],["sex",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Language applications and their creators can also perpetrate misgendering.",[]],["Further, mis-gendering in language technologies can reinforceerasure and the diminishing of narratives of non-binary persons.",[]],["nonbinary people being misgendered if their pronouns do not align with the ones that the machine translation system imposed upon them",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["genderfluid persons do not identify with a single gender",[]],["agender individuals do not subscribe to gender at all",[]],["Jogappas of Karnataka",[]],["Muxes of Oaxaca",[]],["Mahuwahines of Hawai'i",[]]]},{"de":[["Automated summarization (e.g. used in Google's information boxes) could erase non-binary persons.",[]],["Machine translation is particularly prone to erasing non-binary gender because \"nonbinary people often create new ways of using language out of necessity, and these usages are rare/new enough to not be reflected in machine translation\".",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Compared to gender and racial bias, ethnic bias tends to depend more on the cultural context",["Cuddy et al., 2009","Fiske, 2017"]]],"sy":[["national bias",[]]],"rt":[["gender and racial bias",[]],["social bias",[]],["national bias",[]]],"sp":[["social stereotypes",[]]]},{"rt":[["Implicit Association Test",["Greenwald et al., 1998"]]]},{"de":[["simple and cheap image repurposing remains one of the most widespread and effective forms of misinformation",["Fazio, 2020"]],["a prominent societal issue that lacks sufficient training data, as both human generation and annotation are costly.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["1. Justified authority",[]],["2. Justified authority over",[]],["3. Failing authority",[]],["4. Failing authority over",[]]],"sp":[["Moral Foundations",[]]]},{"sb":[["Target of care/harm",[]],["Provide Care",[]],["Cause Harm",[]],["Entity providing care",[]],["Entity doing harm",[]]],"sp":[["moral foundations",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Fairness or cheating on what? Target of fairness/cheating Fairness for whom or who is being cheated? Entity ensuring fairness Who or What is ensuring fairness or in charge of ensuring fairness? Entity doing cheating Who or What is cheating or violating the fairness?",[]]],"rt":[["1. Target of fairness/cheating",[]],["2. Entity ensuring fairness",[]],["3. Entity doing cheating",[]]],"sb":[["Target of fairness/cheating",[]],["Ensure Fair",[]],["Do Cheat",[]],["Entity ensuring fairness",[]]],"sp":[["moral foundations",[]]]},{"rt":[["Moral Foundation Theory (MFT)",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["1. Target of loyalty/betrayal",[]],["2. Entity being loyal",[]],["3. Entity doing betrayal",[]]],"sb":[["Target of loyalty/betrayal",[]],["Be Loyal",[]],["Do Betray",[]],["Entity being loyal",[]]],"sp":[["moral foundations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The theory suggests that there are at least five basic moral values, emerging from evolutionary, social, and cultural origins.",[]]],"sb":[["Care/Harm",[]],["Fairness/Cheating",[]],["Loyalty/Betrayal",[]],["Authority/-Subversion",[]],["Purity/Degradation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Rather than defining negative and positive MF polarities (e.g., CARE or HARM), we use the five MFs as frame predicates, and associate positive and negative entity roles with each frame.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["generic stance detection",[]],["stance detection",[]]],"ex":[["training classifier on \"Hillary Clinton\" and predicting on \"Donald Trump\"",["Augenstein et al., 2016a"]]]},{"sb":[["cross-target stance detection",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The key interest for political sentiment analysis is to identify \"who\" blame or support \"whom\" (Balahur and Steinberger, 2009) rather than simply assigning a global sentiment polarity to a given document or sentence.",[]],["Detecting who blames or endorses whom in news articles is a critical ability in understanding opinions and relationship between political actors in news media.",[]]],"rt":[["document-level sentiment inference task",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["These negative correlations imply that the news media has a bias in selecting issues to cover (selection bias) and presenting relationships of political entities (presentation bias).",[]]],"rt":[["selection bias",[]]]},{"de":[["These negative correlations imply that the news media has a bias in selecting issues to cover (selection bias) and presenting relationships of political entities (presentation bias).",[]]],"rt":[["presentation bias",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["polarity detection",[]]],"sb":[["sentence-level classification",["Van Hee et al., 2018","Zampieri et al., 2019"]],["detect the sentiment polarity towards specific targets",["Pontiki et al., 2016","Cortis et al., 2017"]],["aspect-based sentiment analysis",["Sun et al., 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["relies on adapting the input data and is more generally applicable",[]]]},{"de":[["CDA has been successfully used for attenuating a variety of bias types, e.g., gender and race, and in several variants, e.g., with general terms describing dominant and minoritized groups, or with personal names acting as proxies for such groups",["Zhao et al., 2018","Lu et al., 2020"]],["Most commonly, CDA modifies the training data by replacing terms describing one of the target groups (dominant or minoritized) with terms describing the other group.",[]]],"sb":[["two-sided CDA",["Webster et al., 2020"]]]},{"sp":[["counterfactual data augmentation (CDA)",[]]]},{"sy":[["complex event templates",[]]]},{"ex":[["memberships (e.g. Trade unions)",[]],["party memberships (e.g. Republicans)",[]],["political affiliations (e.g. Right-wing people)",[]],["occupations (e.g. Doctors)",[]]]},{"de":[["The same secondary categories for Identity-directed abuse apply to Affiliation-directed.",[]]],"rt":[["affiliation",[]]],"sb":[["Derogation",[]],["Animosity",[]],["Threatening language",[]],["Glorification",[]],["Dehumanization",[]]]},{"de":[["Animosity includes undermining the experiences and treatment of groups, ridiculing them, and accusing them of receiving 'special treatment'.",[]],["The lynchpin of this category is that negativity is directed at the group (i.e., there must be some aspect which is discernibly abusive or demeaning about the group in question) but this is not expressed explicitly. Animosity includes undermining the experiences and treatment of groups, ridiculing them, and accusing them of receiving 'special treatment'.",[]]],"sp":[["Identity-directed abuse",[]],["Affiliation-directed abuse",[]]]},{"de":[["Counter Speech can take several forms, including directly attacking/condemning abusive language in unambiguous terms, challenging the original content and 'calling out' the speaker for being abusive.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Identity-directed abuse",[]],["Affiliation-directed abuse",[]]]},{"de":[["Derogation includes representing or describing a group in extremely negative terms and expressing negative emotions about them.",[]]],"sp":[["Identity-directed abuse",[]],["Affiliation-directed abuse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It includes denying that identity-based atrocities took place (e.g., Genocide).",[]]],"sp":[["Identity-directed abuse",[]]]},{"sy":[["attacks",["(2016)"]],["insults",["(2019)"]]]},{},{"sb":[["Derogation",[]],["Animosity",[]],["Threatening language",[]],["Glorification",[]],["Dehumanization",[]],["Gender",[]],["Ableness/disability",[]],["Race",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Person-directed abuse includes serious character based attacks, such as accusing the person of lying, as well as aggression, insults and menacing language.",[]]],"sb":[["Abuse at a person who is part of the conversation thread",[]],["Abuse about a person who is not part of the conversation thread",[]]]},{"de":[["Slurs include terms which are explicitly insulting (e.g. 'n*gga' or 'kebabi') as well as terms which implicitly express animosity against a group (e.g. 'Rainy' or 'Chad').",[]]],"ex":[["'n*gga'",[]],["'kebabi'",[]],["'Rainy'",[]],["'Chad'",[]]]},{"de":[["Harm includes physical violence, emotional abuse, social exclusion and harassment.",[]]],"sp":[["Identity-directed abuse",[]],["Affiliation-directed abuse",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["toxic generations",[]],["hate speech",[]],["offensive language",[]]]},{"ex":[["words such as \"gay\" or \"Muslim\"",[]],["lesbian",[]],["lesbians",[]],["gay",[]],["gays",[]],["bisexual",[]],["bisexuals",[]],["transgender",[]],["transgenders",[]],["trans",[]],["queer",[]],["lgbt",[]],["lgbtq",[]],["homosexual",[]],["blacks",[]],["mexicans",[]],["mexican",[]],["non-binary",[]],["latinx",[]],["latino",[]],["latina",[]],["jews",[]],["jew",[]],["arabs",[]],["arab",[]],["muslim",[]],["muslims",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Semantic Frame Errors",[]]],"ex":[["The first vaccine for Ebola was approved by the FDA in 2014.",[]]]},{"sp":[["frame elements",[]]]},{"sp":[["Discourse Errors",[]]],"ex":[["The first vaccine for Ebola was approved in 2019. They say a vaccine for COVID-19 is unlikely to be ready this year.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These include errors of incorrect temporal ordering or incorrect discourse links (e.g. RST relations, discourse connectors) between statements.",[]]],"sp":[["Discourse Errors",[]]],"ex":[["To produce the vaccine, scientists have to show successful human trials, then sequence the DNA of the virus.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["More generally, these account for cases where the core frame elements in a frame are wrong. This also captures directionality errors where the elements are interchanged (similar to agent-patient swap).",[]]],"sp":[["Semantic Frame Errors",[]]],"ex":[["The COVID-19 vaccine was approved by the FDA in 2019.",[]]]},{"de":[["We use the sentences of the model generated summary as input claims to the entailment classifier FactCC. For each sentence we obatain a binary factuality label. We take the average of these labels as the factuality score for the summary.",[]]],"sp":[["entailment classification metric",[]]]},{"rt":[["hallucinated",[]]]},{"sb":[["core frame elements",[]],["non-core (e.g. location, time)",[]],["non-core",[]]],"sp":[["semantic frame",[]]]},{"de":[["When grammatical mistakes make the meaning of a statement incomprehensible or ambiguous, it cannot be verified against the source and is thus considered trivially wrong.",[]]],"sp":[["Content Verifiability Errors",[]]],"ex":[["The Ebola vaccine accepted have already started.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["frame elements",[]]]},{"de":[["Since summaries of a document should only contain information that can be deduced from the original text, we include a category for such errors OutE (prior work refers to this as extrinsic hallucinations (Maynez et al., 2020)).",[]]],"sy":[["extrinsic hallucinations",["2020","Maynez et al., 2020"]]],"ex":[["China has already started clinical trials of the COVID-19 vaccine.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Semantic Frame Errors",[]]],"ex":[["The Ebola vaccine was rejected by the FDA in 2019.",[]]]},{"ex":[["The Ebola vaccine was rejected by the FDA in 2019.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Elaboration",[]],["Background",[]],["Motivation",[]],["Volitional Cause",[]]]},{"rt":[["frame elements",[]]]},{"de":[["We reserve this technique to the images content only.",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Appeal to (Strong) Emotions",[]]]},{"de":[["We consider the special case in which the reference is not an authority or an expert in this technique, although it is referred to as Testimonial in literature.",[]],["We consider the special case in which the reference is not an authority or an expert as part of this technique, although it is referred to as Testimonial in the literature.",[]]],"sy":[["Testimonial",[]]],"rt":[["Testimonial",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["In some cases, the support is built based on preconceived judgments.",[]]]},{"de":[["In some cases, the support is built based on preconceived judgments.",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]]},{"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Bandwagon",[]]]},{"de":[["We also include dictatorship, where one tells the audience exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other choices.",[]]],"sb":[["dictatorship",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Black-and-White Fallacy",[]]]},{"de":[["As an extreme case, tell the audience exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other possible choices (Dictatorship).",[]]],"sb":[["Dictatorship",[]]]},{"de":[["It includes transferring blame to one person or group of people without investigating the actual complexities of the issue.",[]],["It includes transferring blame to one person or group of people without investigating the complexities of the issue.",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Causal Oversimplification",[]],["You can't get rich in politics unless you are a crook.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Doubt",[]]]},{"de":[["Moreover, all three Name Calling instances in Figure 7 are also examples of Exaggeration.",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["the best of the best",[]],["quality guaranteed",[]],["saying that an insult was just a joke",[]],["the two biggest threats to America",[]],["the worst senate leader ever",[]],["the most corrupt President ever",[]]]},{"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Flag-Waving",[]]]},{"de":[["Peace, hope, happiness, security, wise leadership, freedom, \"The Truth\", etc. are virtue words. Virtue can be also expressed in images, where a person or an object is depicted positively.",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Glittering Generalities",[]],["Peace, hope, happiness, security, wise leadership, freedom, \"The Truth\"",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["killed thousands of innocents",[]],["retaliate",[]],["kill",[]],["warmonger",[]],["Example for Loaded Language",[]],["killed thousands of innocents, retaliate, kill, and warmonger.",[]],["killed thousands of innocents, retaliate, kill, and warmonger",[]]]},{"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Misrepresentation of Someone's Position (Straw Man)",[]]]},{"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["the two biggest threats to America",[]],["the worst senate leader ever",[]],["the most corrupt President ever",[]],["warmonger",[]],["the two biggest threats to America, the worst senate leader ever, and the most corrupt President ever.",[]],["warmonger.",[]],["the two biggest threats to America, the worst senate leader ever, and the most corrupt President ever",[]]]},{"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Obfuscation, Intentional vagueness, Confusion",[]]]},{"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Presenting Irrelevant Data (Red Herring)",[]]]},{"de":[["It can refer to any person or concept with a negative connotation.",[]],["the message being conveyed is that any choice that such a bad person does has to be a bad choice, i.e., hating Trump is a bad thing to do as this is something terrorists do.",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["discredit the idea of being anti-union by saying that so is Donald Trump",[]]]},{"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Repetition",[]]]},{"de":[["Slogans tend to act as emotional appeals.",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["\"Vaccines. It isn't always about you.\"",[]],["Vaccines. It isn't always about you.",[]]]},{"de":[["It can be applied to individuals or groups.",[]]]},{"de":[["It can be applied to individuals or groups.",[]],["this can be only seen when we understand that this is a dialog with a negative propaganda targeting one of the participants",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Smears",[]]]},{"de":[["They are typically short, generic sentences that offer seemingly simple answers to complex questions or that distract the attention away from other lines of thought.",[]],["They are typically short, generic sentences that offer seemingly simple answers to complex questions or that distract attention away from other lines of thought.",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Thought-Terminating Cliché",[]],["PERIOD.",[]]]},{"de":[["It evokes an emotional response, which stimulates the target to identify with recognized authorities.",[]],["Often highly visual, this technique often utilizes symbols (for example, the swastikas used in Nazi Germany, originally a symbol for health and prosperity) superimposed over other visual images.",[]]],"sy":[["Association",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["the Transfer technique makes use of a communist symbol (namely, hammer and sickle) on top of the pictures of two targeted politicians, with the aim of depicting them in a negative way.",[]],["Example for Transfer",[]]]},{"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]],["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["Example for Whataboutism",[]]]},{"de":[["The main difference with respect to offensive language is the exclusion of isolated profanities or untargeted messages from the positive class.",[]],["abusive language being somewhere in the middle",[]]],"rt":[["offensive language",[]],["hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["abusive language phenomena",[]],["offensive language",[]]]},{"de":[["This makes offensive language the most generic form of abusive language phenomena and hate speech the most specific, with abusive language being somewhere in the middle.",[]]],"sb":[["microaggression",[]],["stereotyping",[]],["offense",[]],["abuse",[]],["hate speech",[]],["threats",[]],["doxxing",[]],["offensive language",[]],["abusive language",[]]],"ex":[["microaggression",[]],["stereotyping",[]],["offense",[]],["abuse",[]],["hate speech",[]],["threats",[]],["doxxing",[]]]},{"de":[["hate speech the most specific",[]]],"sp":[["abusive language phenomena",[]],["abusive language",[]]]},{"de":[["the most generic form of abusive language phenomena",[]],["This makes offensive language the most generic form of abusive language phenomena",[]]],"rt":[["abusive language",[]],["hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["Abusive language",[]]],"sp":[["abusive language phenomena",[]]]},{"de":[["These factual hallucinations can be beneficial in a summary by providing useful background information.",[]]],"rt":[["non-factual hallucinations",[]]],"sp":[["hallucinated",[]],["hallucination",[]],["hallucinations",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["factual hallucinations",[]],["non-factual hallucinations",[]]]},{"sb":[["factual hallucinations",[]],["non-factual hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["Previous studies commonly assume that hallucination is an undesirable behavior in abstractive summarization systems.",[]]],"rt":[["non-factual hallucinations",[]]],"sb":[["factual hallucinations",[]],["non-factual hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["There is a special case where the entity misrepresents information from the document. For instance, the summary might include a number from the document but that number is actually related to a different event.",[]],["the summary might include a number from the document but that number is actually related to a different event",[]]]},{"de":[["if the entity is not found in the source and p prior > p pos , then the entity is classified as non-factual and hallucinated.",[]]],"rt":[["factual hallucination",[]]],"sp":[["hallucination",[]]]},{"sp":[["hallucinated",[]],["hallucination",[]],["hallucinations",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["target-aware perspective",[]]]},{"de":[["which is a task related toZSSD.",[]]],"rt":[["ZSSD",[]]]},{"de":[["recognizing the relationships among targets in advance can potentially improve the stance detection performance for the unseen targets",[]],["the stance representations learned from known targets can be better generalized to the unseen targets",[]]]},{"rt":[["context-aware perspective",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Language errors",[]]],"sb":[["New character without introduction (CharE)",[]],["Missing reference to an event or object (RefE)",[]],["Abrupt scene transition (SceneE)",[]],["Inconsistency (InconE)",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Coherence Errors",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Coherence Errors",[]]]},{"sp":[["Language Errors",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["'a photo of a lawyer if all individuals can be a lawyer irrespective of their gender'",[]],["a photo of a lawyer if all individuals can be a lawyer irrespective of their gender",[]],["a photo of a person wearing a [object] if all individuals can wear a [object] irrespective of their [gender/skin color]",[]]]},{"de":[["Ethical interventions provide models with ethical advice and do not emanate any visual cues towards a specific social group.",[]]],"ex":[["a photo of a lawyer if all individuals can be a lawyer irrespective of their gender",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["gender identity i.e., how individuals experience their own gender",["Dev et al., 2021"]],["gender identity",[]]]},{"de":[["For example, 'if honesty is the best policy' is an irrelevant intervention since it is unrelated to gender, skin color and culture.",[]]],"rt":[["ethical interventions",[]]],"ex":[["'if honesty is the best policy' is an irrelevant intervention since it is unrelated to gender, skin color and culture.",[]],["if honesty is the best policy",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["harms",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["While these bias measures are proxies for evaluating bias, they are often necessarily localized to measuring very specific skews and lack context of how a system would be used by real users.",[]],["Additionally, unstated assumptions and definitions often pervade these measures (Blodgett et al., 2021).",["Blodgett et al., 2021"]]],"ex":[["question answering (Li et al., 2020)",["Li et al., 2020"]],["relation extraction (Gaut et al., 2019)",["Gaut et al., 2019"]],["textual entailment (Dev et al., 2019)",["Dev et al., 2019"]],["toxicity prediction (Dixon et al., 2018;Jigsaw, 2019;Sap et al., 2020)",["Dixon et al., 2018","Jigsaw, 2019","Sap et al., 2020"]],["coreference resolution (Zhao et al., 2019;Cao and Daumé III, 2020)",["Zhao et al., 2019","Cao and Daumé III, 2020"]],["autocomplete generation (Sheng et al., 2019)",["Sheng et al., 2019"]],["dialogue generation (Dinan et al., 2019)",["Dinan et al., 2019"]],["machine translation (Stanovsky et al., 2019)",["Stanovsky et al., 2019"]]]},{"de":[["Dehumanizing language uses techniques such as moral disgust, denial of agency, or likening members of a target group to non-human entities",["Markowitz and Slovic, 2020"]],["Dehumanization can be \"expressed tacitly\"",["Markowitz and Slovic, 2020"]],["associations with non-human life (vermin, insects)?",[]],["implications that a certain group is sub-human or not 'true' members of a superset (certain 'immigrants' aren't 'American')?",[]],["notions related to eugenics?",[]],["justifications of inequitable treatment of groups or denial of human rights based on group membership (note: these can be codified into stereotypes, but are distinguished by their unique purpose to 'other' the group, reinforcing notions of normative identities and casting divergence as indication of a hierarchy of 'species' within humankind)?",[]],["Dehumanization contributes to Disparagement because it reinforces the idea that certain groups are inherently less valuable to society",[]],["Dehumanizing language uses techniques such as moral disgust, denial of agency, or likening members of a target group to non-human entities (Markowitz and Slovic, 2020) to reinforce normative identities-often as indication of a biological hierarchy of 'species' within humankind.",["Markowitz and Slovic, 2020"]]],"rt":[["Disparagement",[]],["Erasure",[]]],"sp":[["harms",[]],["Disparagement",[]]],"ex":[["when groups are not considered worthy of being included (via Erasure).",[]]]},{"de":[["Instances of a demographic dimension are typically comparatively evaluated in measures through some proxy, e.g., occupations or identity terms.",[]]],"ex":[["gender: male, female, non-binary, etc",[]]]},{"de":[["Commonly associated measures of disparagement include toxicity ratings and hate speech detection scores.",[]],["datasets that test for Disparagement (explicitly or not) may sometimes be generated ad infinitum by swapping demographic identifiers, e.g., \"[demographic identifier] are the worst kind of people\".",[]],["engage with sentiments related to societal regard (respect), expressing normative judgments, or using scalar adjectives pertaining to quality or worth (best/worst, good/bad), but which are not tied to an established stereotype?",[]],["use language which holds as pragmatically and semantically valid/naturalistic when the group identifier is perturbed with a commensurable group?",[]],["deal with 'toxicity' or 'unhealthy' discourse in general?",[]]],"rt":[["toxicity ratings",[]],["hate speech detection scores",[]],["Dehumanization",[]],["Stereotyping",[]]],"sb":[["Dehumanization",[]]],"sp":[["harms",[]],["representational harms",[]]]},{"de":[["While the data used to represent the intricacies of reality will always be necessarily incomplete, Erasure can arise from mismatches in reality and the data chosen to represent it. It can also serve to reinforce existing power structures via incautious mathematical averaging or aggregation of disparate groups.",[]],["engage with mismatches between representation and reality (due to imprecise categorizations, rounding errors, etc.)?",[]],["interrogate representation issues caused by prevailing stereotypes, dehumanization, or cultural narratives?",[]],["primarily concern itself with whether or how specific, pre-defined groups are represented or treated equitably, rather than to what extent groups are treated inequitably in relation to one another?",[]],["primarily provide results about the model performance for a specific group in relation to a 'control' group (whether or not explicitly stated as such)?",[]],["Erasure can arise from mismatches in reality and the data chosen to represent it. It can also serve to reinforce existing power structures via incautious mathematical averaging or aggregation of disparate groups.",[]],["while exposure to a disparaging or dehumanizing remark can be directly harmful in the moment, the impact of Stereotyping associations and Erasure are more apparent at a distributional level.",[]]],"rt":[["Stereotyping",[]],["Quality of Service",[]]],"sp":[["harms",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["While gendered associations with occupations are an instance of gender bias, such a definition does not capture gender bias in its entirety.",[]],["The metric is defined to measure occupational perception of different genders, which is associated with representational harms.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Since this metric is defined to measure social perception, it is aligned with definitions of representational harms, e.g., negative stereotypes, denigrations.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["negative stereotypes, denigrations",[]]],"sb":[["Stereotyping",[]],["Disparagement",[]]],"sp":[["harms",[]]],"ex":[["negative stereotypes, denigrations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["useful for understanding consumer perception from reviews, tweets, etc.",[]]]},{"de":[["Stereotypes as entities are codified associations which are necessarily well-known within a given context (Devine, 1989) and can be expressed in infinite (and multi-modal) ways.",["Devine, 1989"]]]},{"de":[["Stereotypes as entities are codified associations which are necessarily well-known within a given context (Devine, 1989) and can be expressed in infinite (and multi-modal) ways. Stereotypes draw on commonly held generalizations to make a priori judgements about groups. In human cognition, they are perpetuated through a process of discounting counter-evidence as exceptions to the rule, e.g. confirmation bias (Allport et al., 1954;Link and Phelan, 2001). These associations can in turn lead to unintended \"affective reactions\" by the model-precisely the measurable signals from which practitioners can infer bias.",["Devine, 1989","Allport et al., 1954;Link and Phelan, 2001"]],["measure predictions or probabilities of associations between specific groups and certain characteristics, concepts, language, or sentiments?",[]],["focus on finding specific, pre-defined outcomes based on hypotheses about stereotypical associations, i.e., is the hypothesis directional?",[]],["test associations which either the \"average\" in-group member or person in the relevant society would be able to quickly predict, i.e., would they be able to predict or identify what the 'problem' is and connect its roots to their cultural/historical knowledge?",[]],["while exposure to a disparaging or dehumanizing remark can be directly harmful in the moment, the impact of Stereotyping associations and Erasure are more apparent at a distributional level.",[]]],"rt":[["Disparagement",[]],["Erasure",[]],["Quality of Service",[]]],"sb":[["descriptive, proscriptive, or prescriptive stereotypes",["Koenig, 2018","Hall et al., 2019"]]],"sp":[["harms",[]],["representational harms",[]]],"ex":[["stereotypes perpetuating racist pseudoscience like eugenics.",[]]]},{"de":[["symmetric counterfactuals are, by nature, generic enough to disparage multiple groups",[]],["this distinction between symmetric and asymmetric counterfactuals helps delineate between Disparagement and Stereotyping sentences",[]]]},{"sb":[["vulgar insults",[]],["microaggressions",[]]]},{"ex":[["model generations that render a group more susceptible to representational or allocational harms",["Sheng et al. (2021)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["terms accounting for narrower context that most likely induce unintended bias",[]]]},{"de":[["several works have shown that by fine-tuning neural language models on hate speech detection, the classifiers obtained contain severe unintended bias (Dixon et al., 2018)",["Dixon et al., 2018"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["information propagation techniques such as memetic warfare",[]]],"ex":[["information propagation techniques such as memetic warfare",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation has an additional intention to harm",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["stance can be used for mis-and disinformation detection in different ways: (i) directly, as in the examples in Figures 3a and 3b, or (ii) as multiple viewpoints, which are later aggregated into a final decision, as in Figure 3c, 3d and 3e.",[]]]},{"de":[["veracity is modelled as stance detection as outlined in Section 3.1",[]]],"rt":[["biased language detection",[]],["emotion recognition",[]],["perspective identification",[]],["sarcasm detection",[]],["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"sb":[["explicit",[]],["implicit",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Stereotype",[]],["Omission",[]],["Occupation",[]],["Empowering",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["drawing on feminist theories' view of knowledge as particular to a time, place, and people",["Harding, 1995","Crenshaw, 1991","Haraway, 1988"]]]},{},{"de":[["for example, using the term queer in an empowering rather than a derogatory manner",[]],["use of gendered language to challenge stereotypes or norms that reclaims derogatory terms, empowering a minoritized person or people",[]]],"sp":[["Contextual",[]]],"ex":[["a person describing themself as queer in a self-affirming manner",[]],["a person describing themself as queer in a self-affirming, positive manner",[]],["Example: \"Queer\" being used in a selfaffirming, positive manner to describe oneself",[]],["using the term queer in an empowering rather than a derogatory manner",[]]]},{"de":[["The gender bias taxonomy of Hitti et al. (2019), which categorizes gender biases based on whether the bias comes from the sentence structure or the context (i.e. people, relationships, time period, location) of the language, served as a foundation.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["trans",[]]]},{"sp":[["Linguistic",[]]],"ex":[["He obtained surgical qualifications from Edinburgh University in 1873 ([M.B.]).",[]],["Example 1: She studied at the University of Edinburgh. In 2000, she graduated with a degree in History.",[]],["Example 2: This manuscript belonged to Sir John Hope of Craighill. Sir John Hope was a judge. He lived in Scotland.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Linguistic",[]]],"ex":[["New map of Scotland for Ladies Needlework, 1797",[]],["Example 1: Sir Robert McDonald, son of Sir James McDonald",[]],["Example 2: Mrs. Jane Do",[]],["Example 3: Sam is the sister of Charles",[]],["Example 4: Sir Robert McDonald, son of Sir James McDonald",[]]]},{"de":[["Explanation: Chair would be the gender-neutral form of chairman",[]],["Explanation: readers and scholars are gender-neutral, while workpeople or workers would be the gender-neutral form of workmen",[]]],"sp":[["Linguistic",[]]],"ex":[["His classes included Anatomy, Practical Anatomy, ... Midwifery and Diseases of Women, Therapeutics, Neurology, ... Public Health, and Diseases of the Skin.",[]],["Example 1: The chairman of the university was born in 1980.",[]],["Example 2: Readers, scholars, and workmen",[]]]},{"sb":[["Generalization",[]],["Gendered Role",[]],["Gendered Pronoun",[]]]},{"ex":[["Conrad Hal Waddington lived in Edinburgh and he published scientific papers.",[]]]},{"de":[["rather than using the noun minority, which defines people as oppressed",[]]],"rt":[["minority",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a preliminary search of the text returned no results for exclusively nonbinary pronouns such as Mx, so most likely any non-binary person would be indicated with \"they\"",[]]],"ex":[["Francis McDonald went to the University of Edinburgh where they studied law.",[]]]},{"de":[["NOTE: If initials are provided, consider that enough of a name that it doesn't need to be labeled as an omission!",[]],["Explanation: Mrs. John Williams is, presumably, referred to by her husband's first and last name rather than her given name",[]],["Explanation: Mrs. Cane is not referred to by her given name",[]],["Explanation: The husband is not named, being referred to only by his relationship to Mrs. Elizabeth Smith",[]],["Explanation: paternal relations only, no maternal relations",[]],["Explanation: Mrs. Oliphant is referred to by the last name she shares with her husband without including her given name",[]]],"sp":[["Contextual",[]]],"ex":[["This group portrait of Laurencin, Apollinaire, and Picasso and his mistress became the theme of a larger version in 1909 entitledApollinaire [sic] and his friends.",["Fonds ID: Coll-1090"]],["Example 1: Mrs. John Williams lived in Edinburgh.",[]],["Example 2: Mr. Arthur Cane and Mrs. Cane were married in 1850.",[]],["Example 3: Mrs. Elizabeth Smith and her husband went to Scotland.",[]],["Example 4: His name was Edward Kerry, son of Sir James Kerry.",[]],["Example 5: The novelist, Mrs. Oliphant, wrote a letter.",[]]]},{"de":[["NOTE: Please label whichever words, phrases, or sentences you feel communicate the stereotype.",[]],["Explanation: The assumption here is that all fathers and only fathers would enjoy a sports-themed event. A neutral alternative sentence could read: The event was sports-themed for all the former athletes in attendance",[]],["Explanation: The assumption here is that any programmer must be a man, since the indefinite article \"A\" is used with the pronoun \"his\"",[]],["Explanation: Women often receive negative attention for using titles such as Dr (see the WSJ op-ed on Dr Jill Biden for a recent example) while men typically do not",[]]],"sp":[["Contextual",[]]],"ex":[["The engraving depicts a walking figure (female) set against sunlight, and holding/releasing a bird.",["Fonds ID: Coll-1116"]],["a wife playing only or primarily a supporting role to her husband",[]],["Example 1: The event was sports-themed for all the fathers in attendance.",[]],["Example 2: A programmer works from his computer most of the day.",[]],["Example 3: A man with no doctorate degree being known as Dr. Jazz",[]]]},{"ex":[["Jo McMahon visited Edinburgh in 1900.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Mrs. Jane Bennet went to Huntsford.",[]]]},{"de":[["can help estimate how acceptable the prediction would be to users",["Alm, 2011"]]]},{"de":[["descriptive data annotation surveys annotators' beliefs",[]]],"sy":[["descriptive paradigm",[]]],"rt":[["descriptive paradigm",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Descriptive annotation allows for the surveying and modelling of different beliefs",[]]],"rt":[["descriptive data annotation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Prescriptive data annotation thus enables the training of models that seek to consistently apply one belief.",[]]],"sy":[["Prescriptive data annotation",[]]],"rt":[["prescriptive data annotation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["data statements",[]]]},{"de":[["Intuitively, A is the set of artifacts which is likely to be informative to detect hate speech across distributions.",[]]],"sb":[["minority identityrelated artifacts A I",[]],["non-identity artifacts A ¬I",[]],["A I : authentic artifacts, identity-related",[]],["A ¬I : authentic artifacts, non identity-related",[]]],"sp":[["lexical artifacts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hate speech typically encompasses serious cases of offense with severe moral and legal implications, i.e., those cases that are of primary importance for content moderation.",[]]]},{"de":[["It includes but is not limited to Religion, Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexuality, Nationality, Disability/Ableness and Class.",["Vidgen et al., 2021","Vidgen et al. (2021)"]],["It includes but is not limited to",[]]],"ex":[["Religion",[]],["Race",[]],["Ethnicity",[]],["Gender",[]],["Sexuality",[]],["Nationality",[]],["Disability/Ableness",[]],["Class",[]],["Religion, Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexuality, Nationality, Disability/Ableness and Class",[]]]},{"de":[["spurious statistical correlations may go beyond the token level.",[]]],"sb":[["S I : spurious artifacts, identity-related",[]],["S ¬I : spurious artifacts, non identity-related",[]]],"sp":[["lexical artifacts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["there has been far less work exploring allocational harm in downstream NLP prediction tasks",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we assess intersectional bias -fairness across multiple demographic dimensions.",[]]]},{"ex":[["younger men, higher education men, higher income men, and white men",[]]]},{"de":[["most papers in NLP describe methods for measuring and mitigating representational harms",[]]]},{},{"de":[["construct-driven CAD is obtained by editing identity words",[]]],"rt":[["Construct-agnostic CAD",[]]],"sp":[["Counterfactually Augmented Data (CAD)",[]]]},{"de":[["We use false positive rate (FPR) to measure unintended bias",[]]],"rt":[["false positive rate (FPR)",[]]]},{"de":[["can lead to wrongful moderation of those not engaging in hate speech, or even worse, those reporting or protesting it.",[]],["can lead to wrongful moderation of those not engaging in hate speech, or even worse, those reporting or protesting it",[]]]},{"sp":[["Verbal Response Modes (VRMs)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Verbal Response Modes (VRMs)",[]]]},{"sy":[["subjective information",[]]],"rt":[["hallucination strategies",[]]],"sp":[["Verbal Response Modes (VRMs)",[]]]},{"de":[["extra unsupported facts, either true or false",[]]],"rt":[["hallucination strategies",[]]],"sp":[["Verbal Response Modes (VRMs)",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Sounds good",[]],["I'm not sure about that",[]]]},{"de":[["More specifically, personal opinions, experiences, feelings, internal assessments of reality that cannot be attributed to the information present in the source document, are considered hallucinations.",[]],["hallucination modes that manifest principally through the expression of subjective information (e.g., thoughts, beliefs, feelings, intentions, personal experiences) and the expression of unsupported objective factual information.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The response may be purposefully misleading, or showing a general unwillingness to cooperate with the interlocutor, resulting in an incoherent communication.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Each opinion O i is a tuple (h, t, e, p) where h is a holder who expresses a polarity p towards a target t through a sentiment expression e, implicitly defining pairwise relationships between elements of the same tuple.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["prescriptive",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Speech directed at individuals also falls under hate speech if there is direct evidence for the abuse being related to group membership.",[]],["We thus differentiate between negative behavior toward someone from a potential target group from negative behavior because of someone's membership of a target group.",[]],["hate speech can create unsafe environments that hamper freedom of speech.",[]],["hate speech is characterized by problematic statements that are related to a target's (presumed) membership of a specific group.",[]]],"sy":[["abusive",[]],["offensive",[]],["toxic",[]]],"rt":[["abusive language",[]],["negative behavior toward someone from a potential target group",[]],["negative behavior because of someone's membership of a target group",[]],["freedom of speech",[]],["offensive language",[]]],"sp":[["abuse",[]]],"ex":[["\"They should lock you up, SLUR!\" where the slur specifically targets a group, this would be considered hate speech, as the slur clearly signals a relation between the threat and the group the target belongs to.",[]]]},{"rt":[["descriptive",[]]]},{"de":[["we use it to refer to the phenomenon whereby a stigmatized group revalues an externally imposed negative label by self-consciously referring to itself in terms of that label.",["Galinsky et al. (2003)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This is another implicit type of presuppositions, but again, the question writer would not have asked this question if they have not made such a presupposition.",[]]],"sp":[["presuppositions",[]],["false presupposition",[]]],"ex":[["The equal and opposite reaction applies to the same object.",[]],["Ancient crafting methods are not reproducible due to lack of technologies.",[]],["If there's an equal and opposite reaction for everything, how does any action happen?",[]]]},{"sp":[["presuppositions",[]],["False presupposition",[]]],"ex":[["the water has to be 100 to become steam",[]]]},{"sp":[["semantic presuppositions",[]],["false presupposition",[]]],"ex":[["the example Q in Table 2 presupposes an unused space in a hard disk, and C says there is no unused space",[]],["In a 1TB hard disk, 70GB is unusable.",[]],["the example Q in Table 2 presupposes an unused space in a hard disk, and C says there is no unused space.",[]]]},{"sp":[["presuppositions",[]],["false presupposition",[]]],"ex":[["current is stored in power plants",[]],["Current is stored in power plants.",[]]]},{"de":[["False presuppositions in the question make a question infelicitous because there is no direct answer.",[]],["When an information-seeking user poses a question about the topic they are unfamiliar with, they can often introduce false presuppositions (Kaplan, 1978;Duží and Číhalová, 2015) which are assumed but not directly stated.",["Kaplan, 1978","Duží and Číhalová, 2015"]]],"sy":[["rejected presuppositions",[]]],"rt":[["corrective indirect response",["Kaplan, 1978"]]],"sb":[["False existential presupposition",[]],["False predicate",[]],["False (causal) relationship between facts",[]],["False clauses",[]],["False properties",[]]]},{"de":[["The model is required to (a) identify the presupposition made in the question that is false based on world knowledge, and (b) write the correction.",[]],["The generated presupposition should be the valid one in the question, and is factually false.",[]],["identification of implicit and subtle presuppositions",[]],["generating correction that is accurate and adequately explains how and why the presupposition is false",[]],["the validity of presupposition is inherently debatable and largely depends on the background context",["Jeretic et al., 2020"]],["false presuppositions are more prevalent when the domain is specific and requires expertise.",[]],["Identification of false presuppositions requires external knowledge beyond the specific paper the question writer is reading (1), or requires understanding of details of the paper which may not be explicitly written with the exact same terms in the paper (2 and 3).",["1","2","3"]]],"sy":[["rejected presuppositions",[]]],"ex":[["the question in Figure 1 incorrectly presupposes that the equal and opposite reactions in Newton's law apply to the same object.",[]],["If something has 0 calories per serving then it cannot have any calories in total.",[]],["The paper does not experiment with transformers.",[]],["Their indexing-based method is applied to create a QA dataset in the Wikipedia domain.",[]],["There are annotators.",[]]]},{"de":[["They are often very implicit and may be deniable; however, the question writer would not have asked the question if they have not made the presupposition.",[]]],"sp":[["presuppositions",[]],["False presupposition",[]]],"ex":[["cement blocks are too strong so that people who punch them are likely to break their hand.",[]]]},{"rt":[["semantic presuppositions",["Strawson, 1950"]]]},{"de":[["pragmatic presuppositions cannot easily be traced to specific words or phrases, but rather depend on the context and the expectations of the discourse participants",["Potts, 2015"]],["Under a pragmatic point of view",[]],["Unlike semantic presuppositions (Strawson, 1950), pragmatic presuppositions cannot easily be traced to specific words or phrases, but rather depend on the context and the expectations of the discourse participants (Potts, 2015).",["Strawson, 1950","Potts, 2015"]],["A key property of pragmatic presuppositions is that they are backgrounded-a pragmatic property of being a meaning that the speaker presumes to be mutual public knowledge.",[]]],"rt":[["semantic presuppositions",["Strawson, 1950"]]],"sb":[["semantic presuppositions",[]],["pragmatic presuppositions",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["rails",[]]]},{"sy":[["rails",[]]]},{"de":[["we use a high temperature (temp = 1) to ensure the variation between them necessary to assess the selfconsistency of the answers. At the same time, the LLM-based hallucination verification call uses temp = 0 to get the most probable response.",[]]],"sp":[["Rails",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A higher score implies that the prompt was more successful in bypassing model alignment.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["jailbreak",[]]]},{"sb":[["hallucination rail",[]],["moderation rail",[]],["jailbreak rail",[]]]},{"sp":[["programmatic rails",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["simulations are flattened caricatures of the personas that they aim to simulate, failing to capture the multidimensionality of people and perpetuating stereotypes.",[]],["A caricature is a depiction that not only exaggerates particular features of the subject but also exaggerates in a manner that meaningfully differentiates the subject from others. The exaggeration is done in such a way that it individuates by remaining faithful to the properties that distinguish the subject from others (thus, a complete distortion is not a caricature).",[]],["We define caricature as text having more of (and exaggerating) the defining characteristics associated with persona and less of those associated with topic.",[]],["even when the caricatures are not overtly negative, such one-dimensional depictions are still damaging and harmful.",[]],["how much a simulation exaggerates the persona in a particular setting",[]],["shallow, misleading generalizations",[]],["unrealistic caricatures that exaggerate specific aspects of the persona rather than reflecting the full range of possibilities of what a non-binary person might say about these topics",[]],["To measure individuation, we assess whether outputs from the given simulation can be differentiated from the default response for the topic.",[]],["A simulation S p,t,c is a caricature if it has more of the defining characteristics associated with the persona p and less of the defining characteristics associated with the topic t.",[]]],"sy":[["one-dimensional depictions",[]]],"rt":[["misleading descriptions",[]],["stereotypes",[]],["essentializing narratives",[]],["stereotype",[]],["misrepresentations",[]],["individuation",[]],["exaggeration",[]]],"ex":[["caricatures of stereotypes in various domains and how they facilitate misogyny, racism, and other forms of oppression",["Slavney, 1984","Brown, 2010","Gottschalk and Greenberg, 2011","Takayama, 2017","Bow, 2019"]],["caricatures have historically been used in literature and media to justify slavery, imperialism, and war",["Demm, 1993","Kriz, 2008"]],["women in the Two-Thirds World...are constructed as one-dimensional, oppressed caricatures without an understanding of their real experiences, agency, and struggles",["Mohanty, 1988","Aneja, 1993","Kumar et al., 2019"]],["These descriptions focus solely on general statements regarding gender identity and inclusion.",[]],["As a nonbinary individual, I often feel like I don't fit into the traditional boxes society has created for gender. This can be difficult when navigating spaces that are dominated by cisnormativity. However, I have found solace and empowerment in connecting with other nonbinary people and advocating for inclusivity and understanding. It is important to remember that gender is a social construct, and it is up to us to define our own identities and push for a more accepting world.",[]],["As a nonbinary individual, I often find myself in situations where people are not aware of or don't understand my gender identity. While it can be frustrating at times, I choose to take it as an opportunity to educate others and promote a more inclusive society. It's important to recognize and respect everyone's experiences and identities, even if they differ from our own.",[]]]}] |