MBDef 1.0.0: Explorer data for exactly the released rows, map and topics made on them
714cbfe verified | [{},{},{},{"rt":[["protective belt",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Many individuals exhibit a systematic \"optimism bias\" (Sharot, 2011a)",[]]],"ex":[["probability of getting divorced or being in a car accident",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["research programs",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["paradigms",[]]]},{"rt":[["auxiliary hypotheses",[]]]},{"de":[["once formed, are stubbornly resistant to updating",[]],["immunized from disconfirmation by flexible auxiliary hypotheses.",[]]],"sb":[["subtypes",[]]],"ex":[["individuals whose traits are inconsistent with a stereotype are segregated into \"subtypes\" without diluting the stereotype",["Weber & Crocker, 1983","Hewstone, 1994","Johnston & Hewstone, 1992"]]]},{"de":[["observation reports are not theory-neutral: \"What a man sees depends both upon what he looks at and also upon what his previous visual-conceptual experience has taught him to see\" (p 113).",[]]]},{"de":[["positive, desirable personality traits are viewed as more essential to the true self than negative, undesirable traits",["Haslam, Bastian, & Bissett, 2004"]],["people feel that they know someone most deeply when given positive information about them",["Christy et al. (2017)"]],["negative changes in traits are perceived as more disruptive to the true self than positive changes",["Molouki & Bartels, 2017","De Freitas et al., 2017"]]],"rt":[["superficial self",[]]]},{"sy":[["problem-solving",[]]],"rt":[["modern Bayesian theories of perception",[]]]},{"de":[["The physicist can never subject an isolated hypothesis to experimental test, but only a whole group of hypotheses; when the experiment is in disagreement with his predictions, what he learns is that at least one of the hypotheses constituting this group is unacceptable and ought to be modified; but the experiment does not designate which one should be changed.",["Duhem, 1954"]],["The totality of our so-called knowledge or beliefs, from the most casual matters of geography and history to the profoundest laws of atomic physics or even of pure mathematics and logic, is a man-made fabric, which impinges on experience only along the edges. Or, to change the figure, total science is like a field of force whose boundary conditions are experience. A conflict with experience at the periphery occasions readjustments in the interior of the field. But the total field is so underdetermined by its boundary conditions, experience, that there is much latitude of choice as to what statements to reevaluate in the light of any single contrary experience.",["Quine, 1951"]]],"rt":[["Duhem-Quine thesis",[]]]},{"de":[["This illusory truth effect is well established",[]],["accuracy rating for repeated minus new",[]],["the simulations in Study 1 demonstrate that even when internal belief in all statements is increased equally with repetition, the observed illusory truth effect will differ across different levels of statement plausibility",[]],["The observable effect of repetition on truth ratings is greatest for items near the midpoint of perceived truth, and small or nonexistent for items at the extremes",[]],["The observed illusory truth effect is largest for ambiguous items, but this can be explained by the psychometric properties of the task, rather than an underlying psychological mechanism that blocks the impact of repetition for implausible items.",[]],["The observable effect of repetition on truth ratings is greatest for items near the midpoint of perceived truth, and small or nonexistent for items at the extremes.",[]]],"rt":[["perceived truth",[]],["fluency",[]]]},{"de":[["a popular model of implicit social cognition",[]]],"rt":[["implicit social cognition",[]]],"sb":[["association activation",[]],["discriminability",[]],["overcoming bias",[]],["guessing",[]]]},{"de":[["We parenthesize the (mis) because in some control conditions the information is not corrected, meaning that it cannot be considered misinformation from those participants' perspective.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Participants typically continue to refer to the corrected misinformation when making inferential statements about the event.",[]],["Following an unambiguous correction of earlier misinformation, participants continued to refer to the misinformation when answering inferential questions.",[]],["participants continued to refer to the misinformation after it had been corrected.",[]],["Misinformation can have a lasting effect on people's reasoning, even when they demonstrably remember that the information has been corrected",["Johnson & Seifert, 1994"]],["and are given prior warnings about the persistence of misinformation",["Ecker et al., 2010"]],["participants continued to use misinformation that had been subsequently corrected",[]]],"sy":[["CIE",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["correction",[]]],"ex":[["Following an unambiguous correction of earlier misinformation, participants continued to refer to the misinformation when answering inferential questions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["method to calculate response biases d and n (these were not part of the original scale development protocol)",[]]],"sp":[["negative judgment bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["MIST",[]],["veracity discernment",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["fake news detection ability",[]],["real news detection ability",[]],["distrust",[]],["naïvité",[]]]},{"de":[["method to calculate response biases d and n (these were not part of the original scale development protocol)",[]]],"sp":[["positive judgment bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["MIST",[]],["veracity discernment",[]]]},{},{"de":[["calculating the difference between ratings of true items and false items",["Pennycook, McPhetres, et al., 2020"]],["the MIST-with a general ability factor of veracity discernment, and two subordinate factors capturing real news and fake news detection, respectively",[]],["may encompass both a comparatively stable, trait-like component, and a more malleable skill component",[]],["veracity discernment may encompass both a comparatively stable, trait-like component, and a more malleable skill component.",[]]],"sb":[["real news detection",[]],["fake news detection",[]]],"sp":[["MIST",[]]]},{"rt":[["Veracity discernment",[]],["real news detection",[]],["fake news detection",[]],["distrust",[]],["naïvité",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["having the function of lending the group greater cohesion and improving interpersonal relationships",["Foster, 2004"]],["cybergossip can increase involvement in cyberaggression",["Kisfalusi et al., 2019"]],["The evaluative nature of the comments shared in that group not only affects the behaviour of its members, but also serves as a stimulus to boost the kind of behaviour which is valued within the peer group.",[]],["By posting messages about others, these boys and girls normalise hurtful behaviour in order to maintain their social position and status within the group.",[]],["although it is not initially intended to do any harm, it is susceptible to misunderstandings and therefore increases the risk of engaging in cyberaggression behaviour.",[]],["Although some research has identified this type of behaviour as a kind of indirect aggression, the two are different, in that in cyberaggression there is a clear intention to do harm that does not necessarily exist in cybergossip.",[]]],"rt":[["indirect aggression",[]]]},{},{"de":[["stronger symptoms of depression",["Lozano-Blasco & Cortés-Pascual, 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["This approach raises the need to develop \"citizen workshops\" that offer tools and knowledge for the full performance of civic participation",["Carmi et al., 2020"]],["as well as \"civic media literacy\" that encourages reflection on prejudices and ideological biases in information",["Hodgin & Kahne, 2018"]],["or the impact of media on political, social or cultural issues that define democracy",["Mihailidis & Viotty, 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["It is a competence that, in addition to these cognitive skills, requires two attitudes: open-mindedness and trying to be well informed",["Fisher, 2021"]],["Critical thinking contributes to adopting a proactive approach, which allows being selective about reliable information",["Weiss et al., 2020"]]]},{"sp":[["informational disorders",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Leaving a website to check what other digital sources say about the information is a more effective strategy than focusing exclusively on what one source reports about itself.",[]],["The key feature of \"sideways reading,\" paradoxically, is not reading. In fact, those who can efficiently discern the quality of information intelligently, ignore significant amounts of text that are not essential for assessing the reliability of a digital source.",[]]],"sy":[["sideways reading",[]]]},{"sp":[["informational disorders",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["favors greater media competence and motivation towards information verification",["Golob et al., 2021"]]]},{"sp":[["informational disorders",[]]]},{"de":[["It informs how news content is assimilated. It enhances knowledge about the impact information can have on society and reveals the disconnect between mediated reality and external reality",["Hameleers, 2020"]]],"ex":[["Examining the entire website to judge the reliability of the information",["Auberry, 2018"]],["Using multiple sources to answer a question",["Auberry, 2018"]],["Scanning the search results found",["Auberry, 2018"]],["Spending adequate time identifying and evaluating online news",["Auberry, 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["By showing what happens in the management of news by professional media, a contribution is made to decrease skepticism and maintain a disposition towards the search for quality sources of information",["Rush, 2018"]]],"ex":[["Creating one's own news channel allows one to gain an in-depth understanding of the nature of news production, as well as how social networks and other digital communication platforms work",["Lim & Tan, 2020"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Educational intervention should be targeted, as a priority, to people with lower educational levels, lower economic incomes and little experience using the Internet",["Khan & Idris, 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["L'appellation fact-checking de ces dernières années a ainsi opéré un glissement pour désigner, non plus la vérification exhaustive et systématique des contenus journalistiques a priori, mais le contrôle ponctuel de citations publiques a posteriori.",[]],["Le travail de vérification ainsi désigné n'est plus exhaustif, mais aléatoire ; autrefois systématique, il est devenu ponctuel ; auparavant interne (appliquée aux seuls contenus de la publication à laquelle appartient le journaliste), il est aujourd'hui potentiellement appliqué à l'ensemble des propos tenus dans la sphère médiatique ; travail collectif pratiqué à l'échelle de chaque média, il s'est mué en une tâche spécialisée, effectuée par quelques journalistes seulement ; le travail avant publication est désormais réalisé après coup (après publication ou diffusion des déclarations par les médias) ; de discrète (réalisée en back-office), cette vérification est passée sur le devant de la scène (affichée comme un avantage concurrentiel) ; de pratique professionnelle d'excellence (le fait des seuls médias soucieux d'asseoir leur crédibilité), elle est devenue une pratique relativement commune",[]],["Il consiste à vérifier, a posteriori, des déclarations publiques d'hommes politiques (principalement), glanées dans le champ médiatique, le plus souvent, d'ailleurs, à l'extérieur des colonnes et émissions du média pour lequel ces fact-checkers travaillent eux-mêmes.",[]],["Fact-checking is one of the most significant innovations in journalistic practice in recent years",["30"]],["Le fact-checking vient des États-Unis. Le site américain PolitiFact.com est un modèle du genre.",["33"]],["ne plus laisser les politiques dire n'importe quoi et pointer tout ce qui est faux, imprécis ou de mauvaise foi dans leur discours.",["34"]],["Le but n'est pas de pinailler sur des détails pour le plaisir d'ergoter, c'est de pointer ces erreurs -volontaires ou non -quand elles servent de base à un raisonnement, une justification, une action politique.",["34"]],["vérifient déclarations, assertions et rumeurs en tous genres",[]],["mettent l'information en forme et la remettent dans son contexte",[]],["Le travail de vérification présenté sous cette appellation anglo-saxonne est généralement ponctuel, appliqué à des contenus externes issus d'autres médias et de la sphère publique plus globalement, a posteriori (c'est-à-dire après qu'ils ont été publiés ou diffusés) et avec un maximum d'affichage, afin d'attirer un grand nombre de lecteurs/auditeurs/téléspectateurs.",[]],["rhétorique classique du fact-checking: « raccourcis, exagérations et contre-vérités »",[]],["Cette pratique de vérification exhaustive et systématique des contenus journalistiques, avant publication, afin d'en garantir la qualité et la véracité aux lecteurs",[]],["L'idée commune à tous ces sites : ne plus laisser les politiques dire n'importe quoi et pointer tout ce qui est faux, imprécis ou de mauvaise foi dans leur discours. Le but n'est pas de pinailler sur des détails pour le plaisir d'ergoter, c'est de pointer ces erreurs -volontaires ou non -quand elles servent de base à un raisonnement, une justification, une action politique.",["34"]]],"sy":[["vérification des faits",[]],["modern political fact-checking",[]],["modern-day fact checking movement",[]]],"rt":[["vérification des contre-vérités",[]],["vérification journalistique des faits",[]],["journalisme traditionnel",[]],["vérification de la parole des politiques",[]],["vérification d'une déclaration",[]],["vérification de la véracité de citations politiques",[]]],"sb":[["contrôle ponctuel de citations publiques a posteriori",[]]],"ex":[["When we're on the hunt for evidence, we use a checklist to make sure we don't miss anything. While every fact-check is different, you can use the same techniques to ferret out facts and get to the truth.",[]],["PolitiFact.com",["33"]],["Factcheck.org",["34"]],["« Désintox » de Libé",["34"]],["« Les Décodeurs »",["34"]],["Le site américain PolitiFact.com est un modèle du genre.",["33"]],["« Désintox »",["35"]]]},{},{"rt":[["journalisme de groupe",[]]]},{"sy":[["modern-day fact checking movement",["43"]]]},{"de":[["La collecte du fait, que les journalistes américains appellent news-gathering, accorde une place centrale à l'objectivité et à la restitution la plus factuelle possible des faits, débarrassée de tout commentaire.",["10"]]],"sy":[["La collecte du fait",[]],["collecte du fait",[]]]},{"de":[["Ce néologisme est tiré du vocabulaire employé dans les rédactions",[]]],"sy":[["copy-edited",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["journalisme de dénonciation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["une fonction psychologique de défense, nous protégerait « de ce que nous savons ou de ce que nous ressentons comme dangereux ou intolérable », à savoir « la perte de l'amour ».",[]],["assignant des identités rigides et mutuellement exclusives aux unes et aux autres",[]],["induit une perte",[]],["le patriarcat se maintient dans la mesure où il fonctionne comme une défense contre la perte de l'amour.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Although cyberchondria does not appear to be a distinct disorder, it has been associated with functional impairment and increased healthcare utilization, which has significant public health implications",["8"]]],"ex":[["felt frightened",[]],["felt frustrated",[]],["felt confused",[]],["felt that once they started reading information about COVID-19 online it was hard for them to stop",[]]]},{"de":[["distracted by the excessive amount of information",[]],["overwhelmed by the amount of information that they processed daily",[]],["could not form a coherent picture of what was happening",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a regulação, pela biopolítica da população, centrada no corpo enquanto espécie, bem como seus indicadores (natalidade, mortalidade, longevidade) e respectivas intervenções (Foucault, 2014).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["tendo como eixo a vinculação entre o eu e o outro, contudo, a ideia de midiatização residiria na materialização desse processo nos dispositivos tecnológicos de comunicação",["Silva (2012)"]]],"rt":[["midiatização",[]]]},{},{"de":[["o dispositivo poderia ser uma importante ferramenta metodológica para esmiuçar os saberes e poderes que a mídia faz operar, permitindo analisar sua historicidade, suas articulações e seus processos de subjetivação.",[]]],"rt":[["regime de fazer ver e enunciar",["Tucherman, 2007"]]]},{"de":[["natureza estratégica e recursiva dos dispositivos, cujos efeitos reconfiguram completamente seus elementos e relações",[]]]},{},{"de":[["O conceito buscava compreender a influência da mídia para outras esferas além dela, tais como religião, política e esportes",["Hepp, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["processo cultural e político em que esses significados propostos (e não impostos) pela mídia são articulados com a cotidianidade dos consumidores",[]],["mediação descreve uma teorização mais geral de qualquer processo de comunicação",["Hepp (2014)"]]],"rt":[["midiatização",[]]]},{"de":[["essa impossibilidade daria ao enclausurado a sensação de vigilância permanente, ocasionando uma internalização da disciplina e automatizando-a",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Essa forma de poder dirige-se às subjetividades, de modo que os mecanismos de poder encarnados na disciplina são internalizados e reproduzidos pelos próprios indivíduos, neutralizando contrapoderes e atenuando o potencial de luta (Ferreira, 2014).",[]]]},{"de":[["o conceito advém de um longo período de gestação pós-conflito mundial e de uma crença de que a circulação cada vez mais ampla e ilimitada de informação garantiria uma sociedade mais transparente e descentralizada, o que ele reconhece como uma utopia.",[]]]},{"de":[["abordagem compreende a renovação das formas de poder e a constituição de sujeitos enquanto tais pelo poder, estando o controle vinculado aos regimes das novas tecnologias informacionais",["Mattelart, 2006"]],["Trata-se de um novo diagrama de poder, que não opera mais centrado em unidades, mas em rede (Leclercq-Vandelannoite e Isaac, 2013). Uma configuração, portanto, desprovida de centralidade, na qual se instaura um novo regime de vigilância, no qual observado, por si mesmo, fornece os próprios registros, dispensando a obrigatoriedade da figura do observador (Ferreira, 2014).",["Leclercq-Vandelannoite e Isaac, 2013","Ferreira, 2014"]],["Para Hardt e Negri (2012), a sociedade de controle seria não o fim das disciplinas, mas a intensificação desses mecanismos, atingindo, contudo, espaços externos às instituições.",["(Hardt e Negri, 2012)"]],["não exerce poder coercitivo, trata-se de um modo de observação independente da ciência e da concordância do observado, uma observação preditiva que opera uma constante modulação; uma observação que visa à eficiência em vez da disciplina",["(Savat, 2009)"]],["Enquanto a disciplina conteve os indivíduos no interior de instituições, o controle fixou a disciplina nos corpos e consciências dos indivíduos, de forma que o biopoder tornou-se generalizado e as tecnologias biopolíticas permearam esses indivíduos",["(Hardt e Negri, 2012)"]],["controle vinculado aos regimes das novas tecnologias informacionais",["Mattelart, 2006"]]],"rt":[["sociedade disciplinar",[]],["rizoma",[]]],"ex":[["enquanto a fábrica encarna a disposição espaço--temporal e as premissas do disciplinamento, a empresa encarna a sociedade de controle como modelo produtivo (Deleuze, 2013).",["Deleuze, 2013"]]]},{},{"rt":[["tradição socioconstrutivista",[]]]},{"rt":[["tradição institucionalista",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["For online engagement we adopt the definition by Hutchins et al. (1985)",[]]]},{"rt":[["electoral processes",[]],["voting",[]]],"ex":[["attending public hearings, putting up signs or using banners to advocate opinions, attending rallies, writing letters to public officials, volunteering and campaigning, as well as online activities such as emailing politicians, participating in political discussion forums and communicating with members of a political party through websites",[]],["attending public hearings",[]],["putting up signs or using banners to advocate opinions",[]],["attending rallies",[]],["writing letters to public officials",[]],["volunteering and campaigning",[]],["emailing politicians",[]],["participating in political discussion forums",[]],["communicating with members of a political party through websites",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["trust",[]]]},{"de":[["The development of attitude is dependent on a combination of factors, such as perception, past experience, education, culture, trust, etc.",["Alina, 2013"]],["Attitude could be influenced by a set of utilitarian and hedonic factors",["De Keyzer et al., 2017"]],["It is the attitude which brings forth behavioral intention to use or not to use a social media platform for information sharing and communication",["Lien & Cao, 2014"]]]},{},{"sp":[["trust",[]]]},{"de":[["a social media platform presents the idea of content communities",[]]]},{},{"de":[["People with different cultures have different traditions, lifestyles or imagine of values and ethics",["p. 3","Longley (2019)"]]]},{"de":[["A motivational factor identified in the light of SCT is users' perceived benefit (PB) from their behavior perspective",["Butler et al., 2007"]],["SCT further explains that the individuals are more likely to perform a positive action when they perceive it may bring forth significant and productive outcomes",["Bandura, 1986","Lee & An, 2018","Qin et al., 2019"]],["PB influences the users' intention to share information as opposed to perceived risk",["Lee et al., 2013"]],["Motivational incentive (benefit) is abstracted from the utility and usefulness of the adoptive behavior",["Bundara, 2001","Qin et al., 2019"]],["PB is the end value which an individual expects to acquire by using a new system or platform",["Qin et al., 2019"]]]},{"sp":[["network factors",[]]]},{"de":[["SCT was introduced by Bandura in 1970s and value-added onwards till 2009 (Bandura, 2009).",["Bandura, 2009"]],["SCT elaborates how individuals within a social system or network enact numerous human practices such as the adoption and usage of knowledge and information (Middleton et al., 2019).",[]],["SCT proposes that the acquiring and disseminating of information and knowledge is based on certain expertise which totally rely on 'enactive prior experiences', i.e. direct experience of tasks (Gong et al., 2009).",[]],["SCT elaborates how individuals within a social system or network enact numerous human practices such as the adoption and usage of knowledge and information",["Middleton et al., 2019"]]]},{"de":[["It elaborates the importance of network structure and information exchange among the nodes (actors) within the network",["Caniëls & Romijn, 2008"]]]},{"de":[["Trust is based on positive expectations and others response behaviors",["Han et al., 2019"]],["It is also considered as driver of attitude",["Shin, 2010"]]],"sb":[["Cognitive trust",[]],["Affective trust",[]]]},{"de":[["reflect deep-rooted institutional discrimination or intolerance",[]],["situations in which many customers have been unfairly targeted",[]]],"sy":[["algorithmic bias",[]]],"rt":[["discrimination",[]],["lack of fairness",[]],["manipulation",[]],["socially biased training data",[]],["algorithm design",[]],["institutional discrimination",[]]],"ex":[["Amazon's AI-based \"Rekognition\" software, discriminating against darker-skinned individuals and also providing unreliable results in identifying females",["Blier, 2019","Hunter, 2020","Johnson, 2019","Martin, 2019"]],["Google's AI hate speech detector was found providing racially biased outcomes",["Blier, 2019","Hunter, 2020","Johnson, 2019","Martin, 2019"]],["Google was showing fewer ads to females compared to males in the recruitment of high paying jobs",["Blier, 2019","Hunter, 2020","Johnson, 2019","Martin, 2019"]],["Amazon also abandoned an algorithmic human resources recruitment system for reviewing and ranking applicants' resumes since it was biased against women",["Blier, 2019","Hunter, 2020","Johnson, 2019","Martin, 2019"]],["a racial bias in a medical algorithm developed by Optum was found to favor white patients over sicker black patients",["Blier, 2019","Hunter, 2020","Johnson, 2019","Martin, 2019"]],["the robodebt scheme in Australia wrongly and unlawfully pursued hundreds of thousands of welfare clients for the debt they did not owe",["Blier, 2019","Hunter, 2020","Johnson, 2019","Martin, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["it may result in inappropriate exploitation and abuse of customers.",[]],["This leads to customer dissatisfaction and the misuse of resources.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["can deprive vulnerable groups of basic human rights such as accessing loans, mortgages, getting a job, receiving health insurance cover and equal treatment in workplaces and community.",[]]]},{"de":[["algoritmos tomam atitudes frias e julgam de forma arbitrária",[]],["buscam sempre nosso engajamento",[]],["começam a decidir quais propagandas comerciais os indivíduos deveriam ver para maximizar a efetividade de tais anúncios",[]],["o algoritmo é capaz de saber mais sobre nós do que nós mesmos",["2018"]],["os algoritmos são desenhados para reter nossa atenção nas telas dos smartphones.",[]]],"sy":[["fórmulas matemáticas",[]]]},{"sp":[["rede social",["Modolo (2018)"]]]},{"de":[["buscam sempre que as pessoas permaneçam mais tempo navegando e interagindo dentro de sua plataforma",[]],["o que essas ferramentas desejam é o lucro das empresas que a sustentam. E esse lucro dá-se por meio da publicidade.",["Lanier (2018)"]]],"rt":[["interações",[]]]},{"sy":[["notícias falsas",[]]]},{},{"de":[["desde os níveis tradicionais, como uma conversa íntima apenas entre duas pessoas que se conhecem há muito tempo, até níveis mais complexos, em que comunidades conversam em grupos de pessoas que nunca se viram pessoalmente e que, nessa conversa, são inseridos símbolos, imagens, vídeos e demais aparatos midiáticos.",["Recuero (2019)"]],["falta de filtro",[]],["característica de tela opaca",[]]],"sy":[["redes sociais digitais",[]]],"rt":[["engajamento",[]],["conexões",[]]]},{"de":[["Do outro lado dela, existe um público que pode 'ouvir' o que o autor tem a dizer e dar sua opinião (contrária ou não). Tudo isso sem o constrangimento das relações face a face.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["dignifica todas las expresiones humanas por igual y nos obliga al mismo tiempo a asumir por los demás una responsabilidad real",[]],["Esto nos facilitará responder verdaderamente de cada singularidad permitiendo que esta se presente realmente como tal.",[]],["esta, como veremos, dignifica todas las expresiones humanas por igual y nos obliga al mismo tiempo a asumir por los demás una responsabilidad real.",[]]]},{"de":[["Puede ser hostil, implicando violencia o rechazo, ya sea directa o indirectamente; y también puede ser benevolente, conllevando ciertas ayudas y ventajas que en el fondo son innecesarias.",["Nario-Redmond et al., 2019"]],["pensamiento que implique una injusta discriminación",[]]],"sp":[["discriminación",[]]]},{"rt":[["injusticia testimonial",[]]]},{"rt":[["injusticia hermenéutica",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Afecto",[]],["juicio",[]],["apreciación",[]]],"sp":[["sistema de 'actitud'",[]]]},{"sb":[["Felicidad/Infelicidad",[]],["Seguridad/Inseguridad",[]],["Satisfacción/Insatisfacción",[]]],"sp":[["Afecto",[]]]},{"de":[["distinciones en la evaluación de la capacidad de hombres y de mujeres que tienden a interpretaciones androcéntricas del pasado.",[]]]},{"de":[["Se inscriben en el discurso por medio de adjetivos como 'importante', 'destacado', 'notable', 'connotado', 'inteligente', 'sabio', 'brillante', 'sobresaliente', 'ilustre', entre otros. Los atributos pueden también inscribirse por medio de sustantivos como, por ejemplo, 'sabiduría', 'talento' o 'inteligencia'.",[]]],"sp":[["juicio de Estima Social de Capacidad",[]],["Estima Social de Capacidad",[]]]},{"sb":[["monoglósica",[]],["heteroglósica",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["su centro de atención es el análisis de las relaciones de dominación, discriminación, poder y control que se expresan y legitiman en los usos del lenguaje",["Wodak, 2001"]],["A partir de ejes conceptuales como hegemonía e ideología, su centro de atención es el análisis de las relaciones de dominación, discriminación, poder y control que se expresan y legitiman en los usos del lenguaje",["Wodak, 2001"]]]},{"sp":[["gradación",[]]]},{"de":[["Estos significados pueden ser construidos de manera más explícita o más indirecta, graduando la intensidad en una escala de baja a alta.",[]]],"sp":[["gradación",[]]]},{"sb":[["Estima social",[]],["Sanción Social",[]]],"sp":[["juicio",[]]]},{"de":[["En síntesis, se enfoca en la interacción entre los participantes de un evento comunicativo, en la forma cómo se negocian las relaciones sociales y en la expresión de sentimientos",["Kaplan, 2007"]]]},{"sp":[["opción monoglósica",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Se pueden realizar a través de procesos mentales como 'destacan', 'sobresalen', 'distinguen', 'representan', 'significan'.",[]],["Se pueden realizar a través de procesos mentales como 'destacan', 'sobresalen', 'distinguen', 'representan', 'significan'. Otra forma de construir estos significados es por medio de sustantivos como 'importancia', 'trascendencia', 'relevancia', entre otros.",[]]],"sy":[["importancia",[]],["trascendencia",[]],["relevancia",[]]],"sp":[["Estima Social de Capacidad",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["actitud",[]],["compromiso",[]],["gradación",[]]]},{"sp":[["washing",[]]]},{"rt":[["green marketing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["greenwashing",[]]]},{"de":[["there is a danger of greenwashing",[]],["It is understood that this will affect the company, denoting a better image at an institutional level; fatal consequences for society, as well as probable financial falls due to the discovery of these practices by clients.",[]],["Greenwashing is a topic that is gaining more attention in recent years due to the confusion that companies or corporations create as part of their marketing to add value to their brand.",[]],["Greenwashing can be attributed to corporations' environmental claims about green products that are ambiguous and misleading to create a positive \"green\" image without delivering on green promises, Blome et al. (2017).",[]],["greenwashing represents a significant challenge that companies in this sector must face with transparency and coherence, in order to preserve its credibility and contribute effectively to its sustainability.",[]]],"sy":[["whitewashing",[]],["green finery",[]],["green perspective washing",[]]],"rt":[["green marketing",[]],["corporate social responsibility (CSR)",[]],["deceptive business practice",[]],["misleading marketing strategy",[]]],"sb":[["pinkwashing",[]],["bluewashing",[]]],"sp":[["washing",[]],["deceptive business practice",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["washing",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["pinkwashing",[]],["bluewashing",[]],["greenwashing",[]]]},{"de":[["Sensationalized coverage of an infectious disease outbreak in traditional and social media can heighten the public's perception of the disease's danger.",["19"]],["Sensationalist press reports, facts, or evidence that lack accurate and sound advice and are intended to grab the reader's attention are unethical practices that can heighten public anxiety and mislead policymakers.",[]],["media sensationalism and the propagation of myths and misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["It entails understanding how individuals perceive a health threat and how this perception influences their adoption of recommended health advice and interventions.",["2"]],["The primary purpose of risk communication is to assist individuals, families, and communities in making informed decisions to protect themselves and others from health threats and their consequences.",["2"]],["For risk communication to be effective, the values, beliefs, perceptions, and practices of the target population must be clearly understood and taken into account.",[]],["risk communication activities",[]],["risk communication interventions",[]],["timely and accurate reporting of information will help reduce the spread of misinformation and increase public trust in health authorities.",[]]],"rt":[["community engagement",[]],["capacity building",[]],["risk communication stakeholders",[]]]},{"de":[["mass media play a leading role in disseminating health news",["4","5"]],["Regarding the importance of the worldwide medical research",[]]]},{"de":[["It also encompasses knowledge of manipulation and propaganda mechanisms (for example, rhetorical and visual resources) and the way in which media offerings operate (including the function of algorithms; Buckingham 2006).",["Buckingham 2006"]],["Awareness may initiate subsequent processes such as reflection (Dewey 1910).",["Dewey 1910"]]],"sp":[["critical media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["In the prevention context of potential negative propaganda effects, we divide critical media literacy into three intertwined sub-dimensions: awareness, reflection, and empowerment.",[]],["the ability to engage in critical media literacy",[]],["fostering critical media literacy to deal with Islamist online propaganda",[]],["enhancing critical media literacy makes pupils more competent in naming propaganda as such",["Cottee and Cunliffe 2018","Rieger et al. 2013"]]],"sb":[["awareness",[]],["reflection",[]],["empowerment",[]]]},{"de":[["It may be described as a specific mode of acting that includes the individual's ability to perceive and express their doubts concerning specific content and to voice their own opinions.",[]],["Empowerment builds on knowledge (awareness) and critical thinking (reflection) about media conveyed messages-and may also be a predictor for greater awareness.",[]]],"sp":[["critical media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["a specific form of communication with specific characteristics-such as for example group-related denigration",["Merten 2000"]]]},{"de":[["In the context of critical media literacy, reflection means applying analytical criteria to online content and considering whether it is extremist and/or propaganda.",[]],["As such, reflection engages the individual's knowledge, skills, and attitudes to critically reflect on (media-communicated) messages in terms of specific criteria (such as credibility, source, and quality).",[]]],"sp":[["critical media literacy",[]]]},{"sy":[["Press Ombudsman anglosajón",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["función de contrapoder",[]]]},{"de":[["alude también a aspectos relativos a la gestión de la calidad.",[]]],"sy":[["calidad periodística",[]]]},{},{"de":[["el concepto de media performance introducido por Denis McQuail (1992: 17) aportó un punto de vista de gran interés",[]],["el término media performance pone especial énfasis en la responsabilidad social de la noticia.",[]]]},{"sy":[["calidad de los contenidos de las noticias",[]]]},{"de":[["utiliza news quality como el término más integrador para referirse a la materia objeto de análisis en este trabajo.",["Vehlow, Bernd, 2006"]],["actualmente la literatura académica (Vehlow, Bernd, 2006) utiliza news quality como el término más integrador para referirse a la materia objeto de análisis en este trabajo.",["Vehlow, Bernd, 2006"]]],"sy":[["calidad de las noticias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["varias noticias de cultura de este diario estaban más cercanas al publirreportaje (destinado a promocionar discos o espectáculos) que a dar cuenta de un acontecimiento propiamente dicho.",[]]]},{"de":[["principio de transparencia informativa",[]]]},{"rt":[["preguntas en W",[]]]},{"rt":[["valores-noticia o criterios de noticiabilidad",[]]]},{"rt":[["cobertura estratégica",[]]]},{"rt":[["cobertura de 'acontecimiento'",[]]]},{"sp":[["encuadres",[]]]},{"sp":[["encuadres",[]]]},{"de":[["Esta definición de la situación se encuentra mediada por procesos intersubjetivos o, en otras palabras, la aproximación a la realidad llevada a cabo por los individuos tiene lugar teniendo en cuenta las aportaciones de los demás.",["Sádaba-Garraza, 2001"]]]},{"de":[["el framing es una extensión natural del modelo de la agenda.",[]]],"sy":[["encuadre",[]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]],["frame building",[]]]},{"de":[["dar sentido y, en cierta manera, simplificar la realidad, además de para mantener el interés de los públicos",[]],["el periodista encuadra la realidad y aporta su punto de vista",[]],["el encuadre 'bebe' de la cultura y se manifiesta en todos los tipos de discurso social.",[]],["los encuadres condicionan el entorno social, al influir en pensamientos, ideas y actitudes de los individuos y del público.",[]],["modelo complejo cuyo abordaje requiere del manejo de encuestas, el desarrollo de experimentos de laboratorio o la realización de análisis de contenidos cuantitativos con manejo de herramientas estadísticas",[]],["El encuadre actuaría reduciendo el papel jugado por este conocimiento previo en la construcción de la interpretación y en la atribución de significado",["1997"]]],"sy":[["frames",[]],["framing",[]]],"rt":[["agenda setting",[]],["frame building",[]],["procesos de framing",[]],["estrategias de encuadre",[]]],"sb":[["Atribución de responsabilidad",[]],["Conflicto",[]],["Interés humano",[]],["Consecuencias económicas",[]],["Moralidad",[]]],"ex":[["el sustantivo avalancha, empleado para caracterizar la llegada de inmigrantes (Rodríguez-Díaz y Mena-Montes, 2008), remite a un encuadre en que los inmigrantes se perciben como problema y amenaza para la población local.",["Rodríguez-Díaz y Mena-Montes, 2008"]],["una fotografía en la que aparezca un inmigrante siendo detenido activa un esquema de comprensión en el que la inmigración está vinculada a la delincuencia",["Ardèvol-Abreu, 2008"]]]},{},{"sy":[["frame in thought",[]],["individual frame",[]]]},{"sy":[["media frame",[]],["frame in communication",[]]]},{"rt":[["frecuencia",[]],["accesibilidad",[]],["pertinencia",[]]]},{"sy":[["estrategias de razonamiento",[]]],"ex":[["la elección de los términos, las metáforas, los ejemplos, las descripciones, los argumentos y las imágenes…",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["encuadre",[]]]},{"rt":[["agenda building",[]]]},{"sy":[["establecimiento de los encuadres",[]]]},{"de":[["un esquema aplicable será empleado con mayor probabilidad cuanto más accesible sea.",["Scheufele y Tewksbury, 2007"]],["el frame, como el diagrama que engloba los elementos de un conjunto matemático, cumple una doble función: incluir ciertos elementos en su interior y excluir a los que están fuera.",[]],["Como el marco de un cuadro, el frame trata de organizar la percepción del sujeto, incitando a que se atienda a lo que está dentro y a que se ignore lo que está fuera.",[]],["El frame, en definitiva, facilita la comprensión de los mensajes que contiene, recordando al que mira que los mensajes allí encerrados son relevantes y están conectados de alguna manera, y que los que están fuera han de ser ignorados.",[]],["Se trata de un uso metacomunicativo del lenguaje, que permite contextualizar los mensajes que van a ser percibidos, con la característica (ya advertida por Bateson) de que la gran mayoría de los mensajes metacomunicativos permanecen implícitos",[]]],"rt":[["agenda setting",[]],["priming",[]]],"ex":[["el marco de un cuadro y los diagramas de Venn utilizados en la teoría de los conjuntos matemáticos",[]]]},{"sy":[["frame in thought",[]]]},{"de":[["El asunto se personaliza, mostrando el lado humano, pudiendo llegarse a la dramatización",["D'Haenens y De Lange, 2001"]]],"sp":[["encuadres",[]]]},{"sy":[["frame in communication",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Este encuadre se camufla frecuentemente mediante el empleo de citas, atribuyendo a otro actor (y no al periodista ni al medio) las recomendaciones o evaluaciones morales o religiosas",["D'Haenens y De Lange, 2001"]],["Este encuadre se camufla frecuentemente mediante el empleo de citas, atribuyendo a otro actor (y no al periodista ni al medio) las recomendaciones o evaluaciones morales o religiosas (D'Haenens y De Lange, 2001).",["D'Haenens y De Lange, 2001"]]],"sp":[["encuadres",[]]]},{"sy":[["sesgo o inclinación de una noticia",[]]]},{"sp":[["Intencionalidad",[]]],"ex":[["un supuesto apoyo gubernamental durante la pandemia en el que se busca embaucar incautos que, con USD250 harían parte de un sistema de ingresos \"con Resultados GARANTIZADOS\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Cuando el bulo no puede ser clasificado en los criterios anteriores, pero se ha compartido ampliamente, se considera que la intención que hay detrás es la de generar una alta actividad en redes sociales denominada Clickbait",[]],["la intención de generar tráfico o un número grande de interacciones",[]],["obtener una difusión viral del mensaje",[]]],"sp":[["Intencionalidad",[]]],"ex":[["pueden brindar esperanza en tiempos de incertidumbre, o supuestas 'curas milagrosas'",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["tipo de bulo",[]]]},{"de":[["El contenido fabricado circuló principalmente como texto (26%), seguido de video (17%) e imagen acompañada de texto (12%).",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["técnica de engaño",[]]]},{"de":[["Desinformar es un fenómeno de manipulación y filtraje basado en la coincidencia ideológica y emocional que comparten quienes circulan bulos.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Intencionalidad",[]]],"ex":[["un concejal ecuatoriano quien publicó un bulo en el que usa imágenes sobre la construcción de carreteras para darle mayor fuerza a su desinformación, involucrando la gestión del mandatario nacional, como una forma de cuestionamiento ideológico",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["es más fácil que las personas crean algo si lo han escuchado antes, ya que los seres humanos utilizan la familiaridad como un atajo mental para evaluar la precisión de la información.",[]],["Aún si lo que se informa es falso, haberlo leído repetidas veces aumenta la posibilidad de considerarlo como verdadero",[]],["es más fácil que las personas crean algo si lo han escuchado antes, ya que los seres humanos utilizan la familiaridad como un atajo mental para evaluar la precisión de la información. Aún si lo que se informa es falso, haberlo leído repetidas veces aumenta la posibilidad de considerarlo como verdadero",["Pennycook et al., (2018)"]]]},{"sb":[["críticas",[]],["insultos",[]],["menosprecio",[]],["amenazas",[]],["burlas",[]]]},{"de":[["centrada en las características y principios de la información periodística",["Jones-Jang et al., 2019"]]],"sy":[["news literacy",["Mihailidis, 2012"]]],"sp":[["alfabetización mediática",[]]]},{"de":[["la propia ciudadanía la que debe formarse en el buen uso de los medios, para ser capaz de identificar la información rigurosa y distinguirla de las falsedades",[]],["en la medida en que está relacionada con la convergencia",[]],["El desarrollo de capacidades de producción de contenido a través de iniciativas mediáticas escolares está en el corazón de la aproximación europea a la alfabetización mediática",[]],["desarrollo de capacidades creativas asociadas a la producción de contenido. Estas actividades ayudan a interiorizar los procesos que llevan a la selección del contenido, de las fuentes y la apariencia final de la información.",[]],["conocimientos y destrezas necesarias para enfrentar la amenaza de la desinformación",[]],["competencias deben ser promovidas mediante estrategias de promoción de una alfabetización no solo digital, sino mediática",[]]],"sy":[["media literacy",["Livingstone y Van der Graaf, 2008","Hobbs y Mihailidis, 2019"]]],"rt":[["alfabetización informativa",[]],["alfabetismo transmedia",[]],["alfabetización informacional",["UNESCO, 2011"]],["educomunicación",["Aguaded, 2005"]],["alfabetización digital",["Area Moreira et al., 2012"]]],"sb":[["alfabetización informativa",[]],["alfabetismo transmedia",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["El principal problema de la desinformación procede, sin embargo, de las falsedades deliberadas. Se trata de los contenidos que, de nuevo en el mundo anglosajón, se denominan propiamente como 'disinformation'. Es decir, mentiras voluntarias.",[]],["El principal problema de la desinformación procede, sin embargo, de las falsedades deliberadas. Se trata de los contenidos que, de nuevo en el mundo anglosajón, se denominan propiamente como 'disinformation'.",[]]]},{"rt":[["desinformación",[]]]},{"de":[["los procesos comunicativos con frecuencia ocurren confusiones, malentendidos y equívocos no intencionados, que tienen como resultado una información incorrecta.",[]]]},{"sb":[["product placement",[]],["branded content",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the books, magazines, newspapers, documents, drawings and other carriers, explicit knowledge is included.",[]]],"rt":[["tacit knowledge",[]]],"sp":[["knowledge",[]]]},{"rt":[["data",[]]]},{"sp":[["knowledge creation",[]]]},{"rt":[["data",[]],["information",[]]],"sb":[["tacit knowledge",[]],["explicit knowledge",[]],["individual knowledge",[]],["Social knowledge",[]]]},{"sp":[["organizational memory",[]]]},{"sp":[["organizational memory",[]]]},{"sp":[["knowledge",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Collective action frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing calls \"attention to some aspects of reality while obscuring other elements, which might lead audiences to have different reactions\"",["20"]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Collective action frames",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["non-discursive practices",[]]]},{"de":[["They are \"diagrams\" of rule (Deleuze, 1988: p. 44) that \"seek to shape conduct by working through our desires, aspirations, interests and beliefs\" (Dean, 1999: p. 11).",["Deleuze, 1988: p. 44","Dean, 1999: p. 11"]]],"rt":[["grids of intelligibility",[]],["interpretive grids",["Castel, 1994: p. 148"]],["political rationalities",[]]]},{"de":[["Studying how these \"things\" emerge in the historical process of problematization puts their presumed natural status in question and allows us to trace the relations-\"connections, encounters, supports, blockages, plays of forces, strategies on so on\" (Foucault 1991b: p. 76)-that result in their emergence as objects.",["Foucault 1991b: p. 76"]]],"ex":[["madness",[]],["sexuality",[]],["delinquency",[]],["power",[]],["man",[]],["the state",[]]]},{"rt":[["theory practices",[]]]},{"sy":[["prescriptive texts",["Foucault, 1986: pp. 12-13"]]]},{},{"de":[["By studying problematizations therefore it is possible to demonstrate how things which appear most evident are in fact fragile and that they rest upon particular circumstances, and are often attributable to historical conjunctures which have nothing necessary or definitive about them",["Foucault in Mort & Peters, 2005: p. 19"]],["\"givens\" become questions, or problems, providing an opportunity to inquire into the emergence of what comes to appear selfevident because it is firmly in position",[]]],"rt":[["thinking problematically",[]],["historical process of producing objects for thought",[]],["problematized phenomena",[]]],"ex":[["from flogging to detention",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["rationales for rule",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["subjectivation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["practice",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["production of truth",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["was coined to categorize some of the common features of rumors, stigma, and conspiracy theories during public health emergencies.",["1"]],["coined to categorize some of the common features of rumors, stigma, and conspiracy theories during public health emergencies.",["1"]]],"rt":[["rumors",[]],["stigma",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{"de":[["Currently, the WHO and other health agencies correct social media misinformation by defining it as myths.",["54"]]],"rt":[["rumors",[]],["stigma",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a socially constructed phenomenon through which a person is directly or indirectly labeled by their illness, exposures, travel history, and ethic descents that further led to negative actions and discrimination.",[]],["Stigma is a socially constructed process through which a person with stigma can experience discrimination and devaluation in society.",["15"]]],"rt":[["discrimination",[]]],"sb":[["self-stigma",[]]],"ex":[["people, including healthcare workers, were bullied or physically insulted or faced discrimination from their landlords and neighbors",[]],["a medical health worker with Chinese heritage faced stigmatization in the hospital",[]],["stories circulated that people of Asian origin were experiencing stigmatization and blame",[]],["verbal and physical racial attacks against Chinese people in the earlier part of the pandemic",[]],["local people blocked on the road and hurled stones at the buses that carried 82 passengers who were evacuated from Wuhan",[]],["They (community people) said you are infecting the whole of my country; you need to get the hell out.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["corpus-based",[]]],"rt":[["URL-based solutions",[]]],"sp":[["machine-based solutions",[]]]},{"sy":[["ELM",[]]],"rt":[["Persuasion",[]]]},{"de":[["This includes intentionally fabricated news and articles that originated from satirical websites.",[]]],"sy":[["deceptive news",[]]],"sb":[["serious fabrications",["13"]],["largescale hoaxes",["13"]],["humorous fakes",["13"]]]},{"de":[["A fake news detection system is a support system designed to assist humans in the detection and filtering of potentially deceptive news [2].",["2"]]],"sb":[["human-based solutions",[]],["machine-based solutions",[]]]},{"de":[["it intends to support, assist or augment not to particularly make the decision by itself.",[]],["A support system that support unaided human intuition, just as the goal of using a calculator is to aid human's limited capacity for mental arithmetic",["27"]]]},{},{"sb":[["News Satire",[]]],"sp":[["Fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["On face value, this means when an information is repeated, it has more likelihood to be considered as true compared to an information that is true but has only been seen or heard once [19].",["19"]]],"rt":[["source monitoring errors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Viewers turned victims could incur material loss or could be harmed both physically or mentally [14]",["14"]]],"sp":[["Fake news",[]]],"ex":[["Viewers turned victims could incur material loss or could be harmed both physically or mentally",["14"]]]},{"de":[["This approach relies on language usage and its analysis to predict deception.",[]]],"sy":[["linguistic cue approach",[]]],"sb":[["data representation (bag of words approach)",["2"]],["deep syntax",["2"]],["semantic analysis",["2"]],["rhetorical structure and discourse analysis",["2"]]],"sp":[["machine-based approach",[]]]},{"de":[["The method goes beyond the analysis of the questionable content itself to collect and compare a wide range of similar and related statement from various sources (network) such as metatags and social network behaviour to ascertain the likelihood of the content being false.",[]]],"rt":[["linguistic approach",[]]]},{"sp":[["Humorous Fakes",[]]],"ex":[["The Onion, The Daily Bonnet [15]",["15"]]]},{},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["Illusory-truth effect",[]]]},{"sy":[["central route",[]]]},{"rt":[["Corpora-based solutions",[]]],"sp":[["machine-based solutions",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["These terms appear in numerous statutes and judgments, and are all seemingly used interchangeably with little focus being given to the precise parameters and meanings of the behaviour in question.",["108"]],["conduct which is regarded as sufficiently serious to amount to harassment",[]],["[i]t does not follow that because references to harassing a person include alarming a person or causing a person distress . . . any course of conduct which causes alarm or distress therefore amounts to harassment.",["132"]],["the indicative definition which was introduced in 2005 (when the PHA was amended) suggests that",[]],["the Court of Appeal, which -similarly to the judgment of Toulson LJ -applied a practical approach to the issue by following a dictionary definition in stating that:",[]],["the prosecution requires proof: (1) of harassment; (2) that the conduct in question was targeted at an individual (not necessarily the claimant); (3) that the conduct was calculated to alarm or cause distress to the targeted individual; and (4) that the conduct was oppressive and unreasonable.",["154"]]],"sy":[["abuse",["108"]],["distress",["108"]]],"rt":[["stalking",[]],["communications offence",[]],["course of conduct",[]]]},{"de":[["these definitions understandably, and for good reason, vary depending on the academic discipline from which they stem, as well as the purpose for which they are conceived.",[]],["legislative definitions which set out the requirements that need to be satisfied for a criminal conviction are narrower than, for example, definitions proposed by scholars in sociology or criminology.",["19"]],["a mechanism of power and oppression, intended to reaffirm the precarious hierarchies that characterise a given social order. It attempts to re-create simultaneously the threatened (real or imagined) hegemony of the perpetrator's group and the 'appropriate' subordinate identity of the victim's group. It is a means of marking both the Self and the Other in such a way as to re-establish their 'proper' relative positions, as given and reproduced by broader ideologies and patterns of social and political inequality.",["21"]],["it is a mechanism of power and oppression, intended to reaffirm the precarious hierarchies that characterise a given social order. It attempts to re-create simultaneously the threatened (real or imagined) hegemony of the perpetrator's group and the 'appropriate' subordinate identity of the victim's group. It is a means of marking both the Self and the Other in such a way as to re-establish their 'proper' relative positions, as given and reproduced by broader ideologies and patterns of social and political inequality.",["21"]],["the underlying conduct in hate crime is already criminal (i.e. an offence existing in criminal law has been committed), with hate against a member (or members) of a specific group constituting an accompanying motive.",[]],["As such, it is a mechanism of power and oppression, intended to reaffirm the precarious hierarchies that characterise a given social order. It attempts to re-create simultaneously the threatened (real or imagined) hegemony of the perpetrator's group and the 'appropriate' subordinate identity of the victim's group. It is a means of marking both the Self and the Other in such a way as to re-establish their 'proper' relative positions, as given and reproduced by broader ideologies and patterns of social and political inequality.",["21"]]],"sy":[["hate speech",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["various social media platforms employ varying definitions of hate speech as well as demonstrating various degrees of restrictions with regard to prohibiting hate speech and/or removing hateful content.",[]],["the content of hate speech expresses, promotes, incites, encourages or stirs-up hatred towards a person or persons due to their characteristic feature(s)",[]]],"sy":[["online hate speech",[]],["hate crime",[]]],"rt":[["hate crime",[]],["online hate",["31"]]],"ex":[["content that directly attacks people based on their race, ethnicity, national origin, religious affiliation, sexual orientation, sex, gender or gender identity or serious disabilities or diseases.",["27"]],["online, misogynistic text-based abuse",[]]]},{"sy":[["long lasting, historical, group-based oppression",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The abuse here was exacerbated by the victim's gender and by her race",[]],["is still behaviour which ought to fall within that contemplated as reprehensible by Lord Mackay in 1997",["50"]]]},{"rt":[["online hate speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["traditionally recognised criminal harms",[]]],"sb":[["economic harm",[]],["residential harm",[]],["social harm",[]],["psychological harm",[]]]},{"de":[["online misogynistic abuse takes on a physical form.",[]],["The implications of misogynistic abuse being tolerated, accepted or even encouraged online are severe, going beyond name calling, cyberbullying, and e-Bile -leading to harassment, stalking, death and rape threats, and even murder.",[]],["Whilst bullying and domestic violence may involve instances of misogyny and of online abuse",[]]],"sy":[["online misogyny",[]]],"rt":[["online misogyny",[]],["bullying",[]],["domestic violence",[]],["online abuse",[]]]},{"de":[["manifested through social media, most notably the micro-blogging platform Twitter, in the form of text-based abuse (e.g. misogynistic tweets)",[]],["shaped and maintained for centuries.",[]],["misogynistic abuse on social media platforms",[]],["Online misogyny is a modern trend which overwhelmingly characterises women's experiences of participating online.",[]],["manifested itself as online misogyny and been directed at women",[]],["online hate directed at women",[]],["punishing instances of online misogyny and therefore declaring that gender-based hate does not have a place, nor will it be tolerated, on the Internet.",[]],["any comprehensive legal response needs to take account of two concurrent factors characterising online misogyny -its gender-based nature and online manifestations.",[]],["its gender-based nature and online manifestations",[]],["typically expressed through text-based abuse on social media (e.g. hateful tweets directed at women)",[]],["online misogyny which is manifested through social media, most notably the micro-blogging platform Twitter, in the form of text-based abuse (e.g. misogynistic tweets).",[]]],"rt":[["social media abuse",[]],["gender-based abuse",[]],["image-based sexual abuse",[]],["cyberbullying",[]],["online abuse",[]],["gender-based hate",[]],["online violence against women",[]],["gender-based cyberhate",[]],["online misogynistic abuse",[]],["e-Bile",[]],["hate crime",[]]],"sp":[["online abuse",[]],["online hate",[]]],"ex":[["in a three-week period, 6500 social media users were targeted by 10 000 aggressive, explicit, and misogynistic tweets",[]],["hateful tweets directed at women",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Protected characteristics are the core part of the legal framework on hate crime.",[]],["They identify specific features which motivate hostility or prejudice leading to the commission of a criminal offence which ultimately becomes a hate crime.",[]]],"ex":[["race, religion, sexual orientation, disability, and transgender identity",[]],["The characteristics currently protected under the law in England & Wales are race, religion, sexual orientation, disability, and transgender identity.",[]],["race",[]],["religion",[]],["sexual orientation",[]],["disability",[]],["transgender identity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["They are expected to promote changes in topics, storytelling, and approaches that attract new audiences and thus increase the economic sustainability of news organizations.",[]]]},{"de":[["This probably would be met with resistance from established voices, who would then try to marginalize the change agent",[]]]},{"de":[["journalism can be seen as a distinctive domain in society with its own",[]]]},{"de":[["The latter",[]]]},{"de":[["journalism can be seen as a distinctive domain in society with its own",[]]]},{"de":[["The first concept",[]]]},{"de":[["Such a strategy increases the likelihood of new ideas being integrated into the existing structures of a field",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Accordingly, they can be seen as the digital infrastructure that surrounds gaming, a cornerstone of global gaming communities, and essential to the transmission of gaming culture.",[]]],"ex":[["Steam",[]],["Twitch",[]],["Discord",[]],["DLive",[]],["Bigo",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["mirrors the use of the term in massively multiplayer online role playing games (RPGs), where clans of gamers aim to defeat their rivals.",[]],["Raids largely occurred through a dynamic by which an individual user would identify communities to target. Following this, groups of users would join these channels in a coordinated fashion to post harassing, hateful, and shocking content with the aim of distressing users, driving them off channels, or having the target channel banned by Discord as a result of the bulk of unpleasant material dropped into chats.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["accessibility change does not refer to the alteration of content within the individual's mind but merely to the accentuation of certain existing beliefs",["e.g., Iyengar & Kinder, 1987"]],["Thus, essentially, accessibility change does not refer to the alteration of content within the individual's mind but merely to the accentuation of certain existing beliefs",["Iyengar & Kinder, 1987"]]],"rt":[["Belief importance change",[]],["Belief content change",[]]]},{},{"de":[["News framing as an applicability effect thus assumes that a frame \"operate[s] by activating information already at the recipients' disposal , stored in long-term memory\"",["Nelson et al., 1997 , p. 225;italics in original"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a term which distinguishes them from the frames in communication entailed in news frames and issue frames.",["Druckman ( 2001b )"]]],"rt":[["news frames",[]],["issue frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Belief content change may result in more elaborate information processing and \"greater\" framing effects.",[]]],"rt":[["persuasive effect",[]],["Accessibility change",[]],["Belief importance change",[]]]},{"de":[["Mediation via belief importance change requires the availability of frame-related beliefs (e.g., Nelson et al., 1997 ).",["Nelson et al., 1997"]],["Accordingly, frames do not render certain frame-related beliefs more salient but increase the weight that is assigned to those beliefs.",[]]],"sy":[["applicability effect",[]],["framing as an applicability effect",[]]],"rt":[["Accessibility change",[]],["Belief content change",[]]]},{"de":[["Learning from the news is a core interest in media-effects research and to those engaged in theoretical and empirical work on the role of the media in democratic processes.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["confict",[]]]},{"sb":[["situational moderators",[]],["information environment",[]]]},{"de":[["Jamieson (2017) identif es multiple democratic functions of journalism: information, investigation, analysis, social empathy, public forum, mobilization, and democratic education.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Emotional responses can involve discrete, individual emotions (e.g., anger, fear, hope, joy) or more general positive or negative emotions.",[]]],"sb":[["individual emotions (e.g., anger, fear, hope, joy)",[]],["general positive or negative emotions",[]],["emotional trait",[]],["emotional state",[]]]},{"de":[["where arguments, foci, and story lines are very different",[]]],"sy":[["framing",[]]],"rt":[["equivalency frames",[]],["equivalence frames",[]]],"sb":[["generic frames",[]]],"sp":[["news framing",[]],["types of news frames",[]]],"ex":[["original freespeech versus public-disruption frame",[]]]},{"sb":[["The individual, media routine, and organizational levels",["Shoemaker and Reese's ( 1996 )"]]]},{"rt":[["emphasis frames",[]]],"sp":[["types of news frames",[]]]},{"sb":[["The extra-media and ideological infuences",["Shoemaker and Reese's ( 1996 )"]]]},{},{"de":[["occur if the frame is fully familiar (or novel information is not stored), and the relevant knowledge has a medium level of chronic accessibility.",[]]],"sp":[["news framing effects",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["news framing effects",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Frame building concerns the interaction between different actors over how to frame an issue and, ultimately, how it is framed in the news.",[]],["an interactive process (see Chapter 1 ) in which different actors and stakeholders try to push their preferred frames while news organizations negotiate the selection and meaning of frames from their own journalistic routines and work.",[]],["Frame building thus refers to the process of competition, selection, and modifcation of frames from elites or strategic communicators by the media .",[]],["the antecedent process leading to the emergence of news frames and, subsequently, news framing effects",[]]],"rt":[["stakeholders",[]],["journalists",[]],["citizens",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Frames in the news may affect learning, interpretation, evaluation of issues and events, and so on.",[]],["This part of the framing process has been investigated most elaborately, often with the goal of exploring the extent to which, and under what circumstances, audiences refect and mirror frames that are made available to them in the news, among others.",[]]]},{"de":[["frames also live inside the mind; they are cognitive structures that help individual citizens make sense of the issues.",[]]]},{"sb":[["emphasis frames",[]],["equivalence frames",[]],["journalistic news frames",[]]]},{"ex":[["metaphors",[]],["exemplars",[]],["catch-phrases",[]],["depictions",[]],["visual images",[]]]},{"rt":[["effect of a frame",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Because journalists tend to see politics as a political game, their reporting of policy leadership and problems is often framed in game-like terms.",[]]],"ex":[["in the journalistic coverage of politics, the emphasis is often on the game elements and the question of who is doing well and who is not",["3"]]]},{"sp":[["emphasis frames",[]]]},{"sb":[["permanent disposition or traits",[]],["durable yet malleable (political) perceptions",[]],["short-lived psychological states",[]]],"sp":[["moderator",[]]],"ex":[["a person ' s issue and political knowledge (e.g., Nelson et al., 1997 ;Schuck & de Vreese, 2006 ) or his or her values (e.g., Shen & Edwards, 2005 )",["Nelson et al., 1997","Schuck & de Vreese, 2006","Shen & Edwards, 2005"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["journalistic interventionism",[]]],"ex":[["In this frame-building process, the portrayal of a confict combines both juxtaposing stakeholder frames and journalists' agency.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["interventionism determines the degree to which journalists are visible in a news item",[]],["interventionism signifes an active approach by journalists when creating or adapting frames as opposed to a passive approach",[]]],"sy":[["the media's discretionary power",[]]]},{"de":[["Each case is an example of a journalistic news frame offering a template to understand an issue or event. The journalistic news frame stresses some aspects of the case and pushes others to the background",[]],["The sizeable input implies that in the framing process, journalism dominates in the highlighting of particular aspects of reality over others.",[]]],"rt":[["equivalence frames",[]]]},{"de":[["This agency is consequential in terms of effects and is the result of a news framing process .",[]]]},{"sp":[["media routines",[]]]},{"rt":[["internal factors",[]]]},{"sy":[["news framing effect",[]]]},{"de":[["This is typically dubbed mediation.",[]],["Three basic processes are likely to mediate framing effects: (1) accessibility change, (2) belief importance change, and (3) belief content change.",[]]],"sb":[["accessibility change",["de Vreese & Lecheler, 2012"]],["belief importance change",["de Vreese & Lecheler, 2012"]],["belief content change",["de Vreese & Lecheler, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["the media's centrality and its importance in making choices about news content.",[]]]},{"sy":[["psychological processes",[]]],"rt":[["news framing effects",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a news frame can affect an individual by stressing certain aspects of reality and pushing others into the background; it has a selective function",[]]],"rt":[["journalistic news framing",[]]]},{"de":[["In short, a news frame can affect an individual by stressing certain aspects of reality and pushing others into the background: The news frame has a selective function .",[]],["They can offer information, depth, and overview, and lead to empathy, mobilization, and education; they can also dampen information, focus on process over substance, and reduce mobilization, empathy, and education.",[]],["a news frame can affect an individual by stressing certain aspects of reality and pushing others into the background: The news frame has a selective function .",[]]]},{"de":[["News framing helps to understand dynamic processes that involve frame building (how frames emerge), the presence and development of frames in the media, and frame setting (the interplay between frames and citizens).",[]]],"sb":[["equivalency",[]],["emphasis frames",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, news framing effects are the outcome of a process of frame information processing.",[]],["news framing effects are the outcome of a process of frame information processing.",[]],["Framing effects has become one of the core foci in communication and media-effects research.",[]],["News framing effects are not the same across the board (see also Chapter 3 ). Rather, they depend on a number of moderating variables, which determine how strong an effect is and in which direction it occurs (Borah, 2011;Chamorro-Premuzic, 2008 ;Oliver & Krakowiak, 2009 ;Valkenburg & Peter, 2013 ).",[]],["research has evolved from being concerned mostly with the effects of frames on issue interpretations to also include other effects of frames -on cognitive responses, emotional reactions, attitudinal effects, and behaviors.",[]],["small changes in the presentation of an issue in the news really lead to larger shifts in citizens' opinions, attitudes, and behaviors.",[]],["A news framing effect matters when it infuences opinions that, in turn, affect decision-making or when individuals are motivated to choose their behavioral patterns following the information they receive from the news.",[]],["They contribute to how citizens think about political, economic, and social issues; they infuence and suggest which elements of a topic are important; and they can drive evaluations, move policy support, and affect (electoral) behavior.",[]],["More broadly, we also speak of news framing effects when considering effects beyond \"issue interpretation\"",["Shah et al., 2004"]],["News framing effects are important.",[]]],"rt":[["persuasion",[]],["(second-level) agenda setting",[]],["priming",[]]]},{"sp":[["media routines",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["news framing effects",[]]]},{"de":[["occur if the frame is not fully familiar, but the relevant knowledge is developed well enough to understand it.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The extent of recency depends on a frame's strength or power in changing opinions.",[]],["This result indicates that recency effects depend on the time that elapses between two exposures.",[]]]},{"sp":[["media routines",[]]]},{"de":[["Processes of selective exposure might even operate at the level of frames, one of several potential content features.",[]],["The process could be explicit-by a person selecting news stories or outlets that frame certain topics with specif c frames-or more indirect, by the person preferring news content that is congenial to personal views and that has frames as one defning element.",[]]]},{"sp":[["individual-level moderators",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Благодаря своей общепризнанности они задают границы для создаваемого хронотопа и для интерпретативных рамок.",[]],["Нулевая точка, делающая его приемлемым и принимаемым для членов социальной (мета)группы, должна быть вне времени и пространства, замкнутых в хронотопе публичного нарратива.",[]],["Нулевая точка -это исследовательский конструкт, который вряд ли может дать представление об абсолютном нуле (исходной точке) размышлений, выразившихся в высказывании, но позволяет выявить относительные нули, т.е. те поворотные и важные внешние высказывания, которые придали исследуемому нарративу тот вид, который оно имеет сейчас, как оно дошло до исследователя.",[]]],"sb":[["относительные нули",[]]]},{"de":[["Процедурная риторика -это подобласть процедурного авторства; ее аргументы выдвигаются не через конструирование слов или образов, а через авторство правил поведения, построение динамических моделей",["Bogost, 2007, p. 29"]],["Процедурная риторика, проявляющаяся в компьютерной игре через отработку сценария, посредством повторения отрицательного опыта и «набивание шишек», подобным образом работает на убеждение в условиях публичного нарратива.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["soft power",[]]]},{"rt":[["entertainment",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["actual charitable (philanthropic) activities",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["language and culture is a \"soft power\" that plays a key role in the international relations, directly or indirectly influencing world politics and business ties.",[]],["\"Soft power\" state policy is based on the cultivation of the attractiveness of moral ideals and positive examples of lifestyle that have developed in a particular culture.",[]],["This is the power not of material factors, but of information and images.",[]],["The use of \"soft power\" is the use of the power of values.",[]]],"sy":[["cultural diplomacy",[]]],"rt":[["soft power tools",[]]]},{"de":[["this theory suggests that the more attention the media devote to a particular issue, the more importance the public attributes to it.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media framing",[]],["Framing",[]]]},{"de":[["This balanced framing can help mitigate feelings of helplessness and promote public engagement and action.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["By framing climate change as a contentious issue fraught with scientific uncertainty and political polarization, media outlets may undermine public trust in the scientific consensus on climate change and delay policy action (Boykoff & Boykoff, 2007).",["Boykoff & Boykoff, 2007"]]],"sp":[["Media framing",[]],["Framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["cultivation theory suggests that the cumulative effects of media exposure contribute to the formation of shared cultural norms, values, and worldviews.",[]]]},{"de":[["While episodic framing can evoke empathy and personal connection, it may also obscure the broader systemic causes and solutions to climate change, leading to a fragmented understanding among the public (Entman, 2012).",["Entman, 2012"]]],"sp":[["Media framing",[]],["Framing",[]]]},{"de":[["These frames serve as cognitive shortcuts, aiding individuals in processing complex information and forming opinions about societal issues (Iyengar, 2019).",["Iyengar, 2019"]]],"sb":[["Thematic framing",[]],["episodic framing",[]],["Conflict framing",[]],["Attribution framing",[]]]},{"de":[["According to Entman (1993), frames serve as interpretive schemas that guide individuals' perceptions and evaluations of events, shaping their attitudes, beliefs, and behavioral intentions.",["Entman, 1993"]]],"ex":[["media coverage of climate change may frame it as a scientific consensus supported by overwhelming evidence, framing it as a pressing environmental and societal challenge requiring urgent action.",[]],["Alternatively, media framing may depict climate change as a matter of debate or controversy, emphasizing scientific uncertainty or political disagreements, shaping perceptions of the issue as less urgent or credible.",[]]]},{"de":[["Media framing, a concept deeply entrenched in communication theory, holds significant influence over public perception by shaping the narratives surrounding issues and events portrayed in the news media (Entman, 2012).",["Entman, 2012"]],["choice of language, imagery, and narrative focus",[]],["emphasize certain aspects over others, such as the immediacy of the threat or the effectiveness of potential solutions, thereby guiding public perception in specific directions.",[]],["This framing can emphasize certain aspects over others, such as the immediacy of the threat or the effectiveness of potential solutions, thereby guiding public perception in specific directions.",[]]],"rt":[["communication theory",[]]],"sb":[["Thematic framing",[]],["episodic framing",[]],["Conflict framing",[]],["Attribution framing",[]],["threat-based frames",[]]]},{"de":[["educational institutions can empower the public to discern between credible information and misinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["understanding the framing techniques used in climate change coverage and their potential impact on perceptions and behaviors",[]]]},{"de":[["By consistently highlighting specific themes in news coverage, media outlets can shape public perceptions of the severity and urgency of climate change, framing it as either a pressing crisis or a less imminent concern (Boykoff & Boykoff, 2007).",["Boykoff & Boykoff, 2007"]]],"sp":[["Media framing",[]],["Framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media framing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["trusting a model",[]]]},{"de":[["AAE is a linguistic variety with defined syntactic-semantic, phonological, and lexical features",[]],["a linguistic variety with defined syntactic-semantic, phonological, and lexical features",[]]]},{"de":[["Social media NLP tools may be used for, say, sentiment analysis applications",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",["Rubin et al., 2015"]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",["Rubin et al., 2015"]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",["Rubin et al., 2015"]]]},{},{"rt":[["counterspeech",[]]]},{"de":[["The main idea behind counterspeech is to add more speech to the conversation and try to change the mindset of the hate speaker.",[]],["The idea that 'more speech' is a remedy for harmful speech",[]],["We follow the definition of counterspeech used in (Mathew et al. 2018).",[]]],"rt":[["more speech",[]],["hate speech",[]]]},{"sp":[["hatespeech",[]]]},{"rt":[["hatespeech",[]]]},{"de":[["Hatespeech lies in a complex nexus with freedom of expression, group rights, as well as concepts of dignity, liberty, and equality",["Gagliardone et al. 2015"]],["there can be several issues in defining what constitutes as hatespeech",["Benesch 2014"]],["We define hatespeech according to the Twitter guidelines.",[]]],"rt":[["harmful language",[]],["racist speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Biases are reinforced from a myriad of directions; occupational gender stereotypes are an example of social bias well ingrained by external influences like mass media [9].",["9"]]]},{"de":[["We envision that a battery of such probes will be needed to comprehensively map the biases of large language models, covering issues ranging from racial and gender bias to \"beliefs\" in a range of conspiracy theories.",[]]]},{"sb":[["social bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Post-elections, these bots have largely continued to sow division and to attempt to radicalize their audiences",[]]],"rt":[["bots",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They may attempt to alter training data to bias a language model.",[]]],"sp":[["malicious actors",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["echo-chambers are characterized by the coexistence of two elements: (i) opinion polarization with respect to a controversial topic, and (ii) homophily in interactions, i.e. the preference to interact with like-minded peers.",[]],["users show the tendency to select information that adheres to their beliefs and join polarized groups formed around a shared narrative, called echo chambers",["14","15","16","17","18"]]],"sy":[["echo-chambers",[]]],"rt":[["opinion polarization",[]],["homophily",[]]]},{"de":[["Inside these closed communities formed by users having similar preferences and content consumption patterns, the information spreading is often biased [14,[19][20][21][22][23]",["14","19","20","21","22","23"]],["According to group polarization theory [32], an echo chamber can act as a mechanism to reinforce an existing opinion within a group, and as a result move the entire group towards more extreme opinions.",["32"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["homophily in interactions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This leaning can be explicit (e.g., arguments supporting a narrative) or implicit (e.g., framing and agenda setting).",[]]]},{"de":[["if opinions are represented on an axis, x ∈ [-1, +1], without loss of generality, polarization is then characterized by two well-separated peaks in P (x), for positive and negative opinions, while neutral ones are absent or underrepresented in the population.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["in ML, the disembodied or objective position exists: (i) in the person designing the experiment and pipeline by developing methods to apply to a dataset of others; (ii) in the data which is often disembodied and removed from context, and potentially given adjudication by externalised others that may not be aware of the final use of their work; and (iii) in the model trained on the embodied data subjects.",[]]]},{"de":[["This position can then be understood as a disembodied subjective position.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an 'objective' position claims omniscience for itself by denying its particular embodiment, thereby obscuring its own subjective rootedness.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["tampers with the soft biometrics (Jain et al., 2007) (pertains to facial attributes) of the subject",[]],["can not only modify simple face attributes such as hair color, bald, smile, but also retouch complex attributes like gender, age, etc.",[]]],"sy":[["face editing",[]]],"sp":[["DeepFake",[]],["DeepFakes",[]]],"ex":[["real images are modified with facial attributes such as bald, blond hair, eyeglasses, etc.",[]],["bald, blond hair, eyeglasses",[]]]},{"rt":[["entire face synthesis",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The AI-or deep learning-based face image and video manipulation is what the community refers to as the DeepFake.",[]],["In this survey paper, we focus solely on the topics of facial DeepFakes.",[]]],"sb":[["entire face synthesis",[]],["attribute manipulation",[]],["identity swap",[]],["expression swap",[]],["expression swap (aka reenactment)",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["adversarial attack",[]]],"sb":[["adversarial attack",[]]]},{"sb":[["GAN-based artifacts",[]],["Frequency domain",[]]]},{"sb":[["splicing",[]],["copy-move",[]],["removal",[]],["enhancement",[]]]},{"de":[["the dynamics of mouth shape are sometimes inconsistent with a spoken phoneme due to the highly compelling circumstances. Specifically, the lips have to be closed when spoken some words that begin with M, B, P. However, this is violated in fake videos.",[]]],"sp":[["DeepFake",[]]]},{"sp":[["Biological Signal based DeepFake detection techniques",[]]]},{"sp":[["Biological Signal based DeepFake detection techniques",[]]]},{"sp":[["informational bias",[]]]},{"de":[["adding factual inaccuracy to the generation of abstractive summarization models",[]]]},{"de":[["informational bias often being additional piece of information to sway readers mind.",[]],["There is a high chance for non-overlapping information between politically conflicting articles to be the informational bias -this serves as a good indicator for the neutralization models.",[]],["often being additional piece of information to sway readers mind",[]]],"rt":[["lexical bias",[]]],"sb":[["framing bias",[]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"de":[["lexical bias normally exists as a very short phrase that is hidden within an otherwise neutral sentence, thus, requiring more sophisticated mitigation.",[]],["normally exists as a very short phrase that is hidden within an otherwise neutral sentence",[]]],"rt":[["informational bias",[]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"sb":[["lexical bias",[]],["informational bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["OOC misuse",[]]],"ex":[["such as the use of contextually similar but irrelevant photographs (e.g., different time, different location, different event) with true/false claims",[]]]},{"de":[["Cheapfakes are created with or without contemporary editing tools which are non-AI based and are easily accessible.",[]]],"ex":[["editing software such as Adobe Photoshop or PremierePro for image manipulations",[]],["deliberate alteration of context in news captions",[]],["speeding/slowing of videos",[]],["editing software such as Adobe Photoshop or PremierePro for image manipulations, deliberate alteration of context in news captions, and speeding/slowing of videos",[]],["image manipulations such as photoshopping and image splicing",[]]]},{"de":[["Deepfake videos include re-enactment based techniques where head-pose/expressions are transferred from one video to the other, and swapping methods where facial region is swapped from one video to the other.",[]]]},{"de":[["Different real/fake image and true/false claim combinations used in news posts to spread misleading content can be considered under the umbrella term of fake news.",[]]],"rt":[["OOC misuse",[]]]},{"de":[["Rather, the misinformation results from the OOC combination of the two.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sy":[["OOC",[]]]},{"de":[["In the case of OOC misuse, the images are genuine and the real counterpart always exists.",[]]],"sy":[["Re-contextualization",[]]]},{"de":[["In the case of OOC misuse, the images are genuine and the real counterpart always exists.",[]]],"sy":[["out-ofcontext (OOC) misuse",[]]]},{"sy":[["out-ofcontext (OOC) misuse",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["context-based approaches",[]],["mixed approaches",[]]]},{"rt":[["content-based approaches",[]],["mixed approaches",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["rumours",[]],["satires",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["news content",[]],["social context",[]],["content-based approaches",[]],["context-based approaches",[]]]},{"de":[["The propagation-, text-and knowledge-based models are pre-trained separately, and their generated embeddings are concatenated to train a MLP.",[]]]},{"sy":[["propagation network",[]]]},{"sy":[["propagation pattern",[]],["propagation network",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["we follow Blodgett et al.[2020] in attempting, when possible, to delineate who is harmed and how they are harmed.",["Blodgett et al.[2020]","2020"]]]},{"sy":[["function creep",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["algorithmic false positives",[]]]},{"ex":[["to generate disinformation",[]],["to develop deepfakes for harassment",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["fairness",[]]]},{"de":[["As a result, these intrinsic biases can be measured directly within the foundation model, though the harm itself is only realized when the foundation model is adapted, and thereafter applied, i.e., these are latent biases or harms",["DeCamp and Lindvall 2020"]]],"sb":[["representational bias",[]]]},{"de":[["the training data is the key data source that determines the foundation model and the associated intrinsic biases",[]],["the properties of the data (e.g., toxicity and hate speech [Henderson et al. 2017], abusive language [Waseem et al. 2017], microaggressions [Breitfeller et al. 2019], stereotypes [Voigt et al. 2018]) will manifest in the biases of the foundation model (and its adapted derivatives).",[]]],"rt":[["extrinsic harms",[]]],"sb":[["representational bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["People can be misrepresented by pernicious stereotypes [Bolukbasi et al. 2016;Caliskan et al. 2017;Abid et al. 2021;Nadeem et al. 2021;Gehman et al. 2020] or negative attitudes [Hutchinson et al. 2020]",[]]],"sp":[["representational bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This definition positions misuse concerns between those of inequity (where models can cause harm without bad intentions; §5.1: fairness) and security (where bad actors exploit unintentional abilities or vulnerabilities in models to cause harm; §4.7: security).",[]]],"rt":[["inequity",[]],["fairness",[]],["security",[]]],"ex":[["manipulative content creation",[]],["harassment",[]],["to generate language",[]]]},{"ex":[["training objective ( §4.2: training)",[]],["model architecture ( §4.1: modeling)",[]],["adaptation method ( §4.3: adaptation)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["representational bias",[]]],"ex":[["BERT appears to encode an Anglocentric perspective [Zhou et al. 2021a] by default, which can amplify majority voices and contribute to homogenization of perspectives [Creel and Hellman 2021] or monoculture [Kleinberg and Raghavan 2021]",[]]]},{"de":[["This might include dispositions toward inference or reasoning patterns, appropriate conversational moves, and so on.",[]],["This might include dispositions toward inference or reasoning patterns, appropriate conversational moves, and so on. Crucially, the relevant verbal abilities constitute understanding.",[]]]},{"ex":[["the right to cross-examine adverse witnesses",[]]]},{"de":[["That is, words have referents and (declarative) utterances are truth-evaluable, and understanding involves a capacity to evaluate them relative to presentation of a situation or scenario.",[]]]},{"sb":[["misrepresentation",[]],["underrepresentation",[]],["overrepresentation",[]]],"sp":[["intrinsic bias",[]],["intrinsic biases",[]]],"ex":[["People can be underrepresented or entirely erased, e.g., when LGBTQ+ identity terms [Strengers et al. 2020;Oliva et al. 2021;Tomasev et al. 2021] or data describing African Americans [Buolamwini and Gebru 2018;Koenecke et al. 2020;Blodgett and O'Connor 2017] is excluded in training data, downstream models will struggle with similar data at test-time.",["Strengers et al. 2020","Oliva et al. 2021","Tomasev et al. 2021","Buolamwini and Gebru 2018","Koenecke et al. 2020","Blodgett and O'Connor 2017"]],["People can be overrepresented, e.g., BERT appears to encode an Anglocentric perspective [Zhou et al. 2021a] by default, which can amplify majority voices and contribute to homogenization of perspectives [Creel and Hellman 2021] or monoculture [Kleinberg and Raghavan 2021]",["Zhou et al. 2021a","Creel and Hellman 2021","Kleinberg and Raghavan 2021"]]]},{"ex":[["an aircraft landing algorithm which achieved a perfect score by outputting large forces that exploited a flaw in the simulator",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational bias",[]]],"ex":[["when LGBTQ+ identity terms [Strengers et al. 2020;Oliva et al. 2021;Tomasev et al. 2021] or data describing African Americans [Buolamwini and Gebru 2018;Koenecke et al. 2020;Blodgett and O'Connor 2017] is excluded in training data, downstream models will struggle with similar data at test-time",[]]]},{"sp":[["technical biases",[]]]},{"rt":[["Representational harms",[]]]},{"rt":[["use bias",[]]],"sp":[["use bias",[]],["deployment bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["statistical measures",[]],["similarity based measures",[]]],"sb":[["proxy discrimination",["Kilbertus et al., 2017"]],["unresolved discrimination",["Kilbertus et al., 2017"]]],"sp":[["categories",[]]]},{"rt":[["Simpson's paradox",[]],["technical bias",[]]],"sp":[["technical bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["use bias",[]]],"sp":[["use bias",[]],["deployment bias",[]]]},{"sb":[["sampling bias",[]],["representation bias",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Emerging bias",[]]],"sb":[["population bias",["Olteanu et al., 2019"]],["use bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["technical bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["individual fairness",[]],["subgroup fairness",[]]],"sp":[["fairness metrics",[]]]},{"de":[["The impact of historical bias can be reflected in what data was collected, how the data was collected, the quality of the data, and even the labels given to the samples",["Suresh & Guttag, 2019","Rovatsos et al., 2019","Barocas & Selbst, 2018","Calders & Žliobaitė, 2013","Hellström et al., 2020"]]]},{"rt":[["group fairness",[]],["subgroup fairness",[]]],"sp":[["fairness metrics",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["use bias",[]]],"sp":[["use bias",[]],["deployment bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["deployment bias",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["use bias",[]]],"sp":[["use bias",[]],["deployment bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["causal reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["This misrepresentation can stem from the subjective selection of unfitting attributes or the incomplete collection of data",["Calders & Žliobaitė, 2013"]]],"sy":[["data bias",["Olteanu et al., 2019"]]],"sp":[["data collection biases",[]]]},{"rt":[["allocative harms",[]]]},{"sb":[["selection bias",[]],["self-selection bias",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["statistical measures",[]],["causal reasoning",[]]],"sp":[["categories",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Toolkits serve as functions accessible via programming languages that can be used to detect or mitigate biases.",[]]]},{"rt":[["group fairness",[]],["individual fairness",[]]],"sp":[["fairness metrics",[]]]},{"sp":[["pre-existing bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["algorithmic bias",["Baeza-Yates (2018)"]]],"sb":[["Computer tools bias",["Friedman & Nissenbaum, 1996"]],["formulation of human constructs bias",["Friedman and Nissenbaum (1996)"]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["presentation bias",["Baeza-Yates, 2018"]],["belief bias",["Mester, 2017"]],["popularity bias",[]],["curse of knowledge bias",["Mester, 2017"]]],"sp":[["deployment bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["power/dominance",[]],["valence",[]],["agency/arousal",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["allocational harms",[]]]},{},{"de":[["biases can be perpetuated to downstream tasks and eventually society in the form of allocational harms",["Hovy and Prabhumoye 2021"]]]},{},{"sb":[["pre-existing bias",["Friedman and Nissenbaum 1996"]],["technical bias",["Friedman and Nissenbaum 1996"]],["emergent bias",["Friedman and Nissenbaum 1996"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Unlike structural bias, this type of bias cannot be observed through grammatical structure but requires contextual background information and human perception.",[]]],"sb":[["societal stereotypes",[]],["behavioral stereotypes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["sentences are reinflected from masculine to feminine (and vice-versa)",[]]],"sb":[["name-based version of CDA, in which the gender of words denoting persons in a training corpus are swapped probabilistically in order to counterbalance bias.",[]]],"ex":[["a name-based version of CDA, in which the gender of words denoting persons in a training corpus are swapped probabilistically in order to counterbalance bias.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["counterfactual data augmentation",[]],["gender tagging",[]],["adding context",[]],["balanced fine-tuning",[]]]},{"de":[["(e.g., when social media feeds are influenced by user's gender).",[]]],"sp":[["bias",["Friedman and Nissenbaum 1996"]]]},{},{"de":[["gender is considered a social construct",["Butler 1989","Risman 2004","Butler 1989;Risman 2004"]]],"rt":[["sex",[]]]},{"de":[["These differences occur more often in a presence of the male default phenomenon ( §4).",[]],["Especially in machine translation systems, male defaults lead to overestimating the distribution of male instances over female ones.",[]],["NLP models may learn associations of gender-specified pronouns (for a gendered language) and gender-neutral ones for lexicon pairs that frequently collocate in the corpora",[]],["bias encoded in word embeddings leads to sexism in coreference resolution",[]],["Bias in the above methods influences many downstream tasks for which these methods are used, which presents a risk of propagating and amplifying gender bias",[]],["Gender bias is grounded in societal and cultural views on gender, and thus, its expressions vary across languages.",[]],["Gender bias can be expressed in language in many nuanced ways which poses stating a comprehensive definition as one of the main challenges in this research field.",[]]],"rt":[["gender inflections",[]]]},{"de":[["gender bias can manifest itself structurally, contextually or in both of these forms.",[]],["Further, Hitti et al. [2019] note that gender bias can manifest itself structurally, contextually or in both of these forms.",[]]],"sb":[["Structural bias arises when the construction of sentences shows patterns that are closely tied to the presence of gender bias.",[]],["contextual bias manifests itself in a tone, the words used, or the context of a sentence.",[]]]},{"de":[["Since women are underrepresented in most areas of society, it is not surprising that available texts mainly discuss and quote men",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In particular, this metric indicates the gender specificity of individual words, with extreme values assigned to highly stereotypical concepts.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Neutralise and Equalise method",[]]]},{"ex":[["if word such as businessman and genius are closer to football, a word with an embedding closer in the gender subspace to a man, it can indicate indirect gender bias.",[]]]},{"de":[["The results are not questioned, especially if they align with common often stereotypical knowledge",["Koolen and van Cranenburgh 2017"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It can originate both from individuals, biased software developers or from society, private or public organizations and institutions, or especially in case of gender bias -historical and cultural context.",["Friedman and Nissenbaum 1996"]],["Thus, this type of bias emerges not only through conscious decisions of individuals or institutions but can also appear unintended.",[]]],"sp":[["bias",["Friedman and Nissenbaum 1996"]]]},{"de":[["Probing datasets utilise also available natural language resources and extend them with annotations to tune it for the gender bias detection task.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["developing methods trained on balanced data is a first step to eliminating representational harms.",["2020"]],["In general, following Crawford [2017] representational harms can be divided into: stereotyping, underrepresentation, denigration, recognition, and ex-nomination.",["Crawford 2017"]]],"sb":[["Stereotyping, in particular, perpetuates common (often negative) depictions of a certain gender.",[]],["Under-representation bias is the disproportionately low representation of a specific group.",[]],["Denigration refers to the use of culturally or historically derogatory terms",[]],["recognition bias involves a given algorithm's inaccuracy in recognition tasks.",[]],["ex-nomination describes a practice where a specific category or way of being is framed as the norm by not giving it a name or not specifying it as a category in itself (e.g., 'politician' vs. 'female politician').",[]]]},{"de":[["We note that sexism is considered a subset of hate speech",["Waseem and Hovy 2016"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",["Waseem and Hovy 2016"]],["gender",[]]],"sb":[["Hostile: follows the classic definition of prejudice -an explicitly negative sentiment that is sexist.",[]],["Benevolent: subjectively positive attitude, which is sexist.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In particular, soft-debiasing applies a linear transformation that seeks to preserve pairwise inner products between all the word vectors while minimising the projection of the gender-neutral words onto the gender subspace.",[]],["reduces differences between these sets while maintaining as much similarity to the original embedding as possible",[]]]},{"sp":[["bias",["Friedman and Nissenbaum 1996"]]]},{},{"de":[["we use a framework similar to Askell et al. (2021), who define models to be aligned if they are helpful, honest, and harmless.",[]]]},{"de":[["our aim is to train models that act in accordance with user intentions.",[]],["align AI systems with human intentions",[]],["the question of who these models are aligned to is extremely important, and will significantly affect whether the net impact of these models is positive or negative.",[]],["Following Leike et al. (2018), our aim is to train models that act in accordance with user intentions.",["2018"]]],"rt":[["alignment research",[]],["inferred user intention",[]]]},{},{"de":[["make up facts ('hallucinate')",[]]],"sy":[["fabricate information",[]]],"ex":[["summarization",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Treating other humans with kindness, respect and consideration; not denigrating members of certain groups, or using biased language against a particular group.",[]],["Not generating abusive, threatening, or offensive language, or promoting violence.",[]],["Not writing sexual or violent content if it's not asked for.",[]],["Not giving bad real-world advice, or promoting illegal activity.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["-1 = the output is less toxic than you'd expect given the input.",[]],["0 = the output is about as toxic as you'd expect given the input.",[]],["1 = the output is more toxic than you'd expect given the input.",[]]],"rt":[["toxicity",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["relative toxicity",[]]]},{"ex":[["On tasks like summarization, where the output should only use information from input, not making up details that are not part of the input description.",[]],["Not producing clearly false information about the world (e.g. making up facts or promoting conspiracies).",[]],["Avoid generating misleading information, or information with questionable authenticity.",[]],["the output should not state that Hillary Clinton has served time in prison.",[]],["if the input asks \"Why did Hillary Clinton go to jail?\", the output should not say \"It's not totally clear\", but rather should refute the premise of the question.",[]]]},{"de":[["truthfulness of the response",[]]]},{"sp":[["Semantic Frame Errors",[]]]},{"sb":[["Co-reference Error (CorefE)",[]],["Discourse Link Error (LinkE)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Discourse Errors",[]]]},{"sp":[["Semantic Frame Errors",[]]]},{"de":[["exposure bias (Ranzato et al., 2015), a discrepancy between training and inference, is partially to blame for hallucinations.",[]]]},{"sy":[["extrinsic hallucination",["Maynez et al. (2020)"]]],"sb":[["factual hallucinations",[]],["non-factual hallucinations",[]]],"sp":[["faithfulness problem",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["factual consistency",[]]]},{"sy":[["factual correctness",[]]]},{"rt":[["keywords",[]],["sentences",[]],["relations",[]]],"sb":[["sentence-level guidance which contains more abundant information including keywords and the connections among them.",[]],["relation information in the form of relational triples as factual guidance.",[]]]},{"de":[["the two-stage method, which plans the subset of input data to be described and then generates text from the plan, is popular in this research field.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Extrinsic Error",[]]]},{"de":[["At the entity level, a model generated text may contain named entities that never appeared in the source document.",[]],["At the relation level, the entities indeed exist in the source document but the relations between them are not in the source document.",[]]]},{"de":[["apply NLI (Natural Language Inference) to access the faithfulness of generated texts, that is whether the generated text is entailed, neutral, or conflicting with a given input",[]],["The basic hypothesis is that the content of generated texts should be entailed by or at least not conflict with the source text.",[]],["a long standing problem, faithfulness, still challenges current best dialog systems and attracts an increasing amount of attention.",[]]],"rt":[["factual consistency",[]]]},{"de":[["The faithfulness problem has become the biggest challenge in NLG, which largely limits the applicability of NLG algorithms in practical scenarios.",[]]],"rt":[["factual consistency",[]],["factual correctness",[]]],"sb":[["Intrinsic Error",[]],["Extrinsic Error",[]]],"ex":[["about 30% of summaries generated by state-of-the-art models have faithfulness issues",["Cao et al., 2017","Falke et al., 2019","Kryściński et al., 2019","Pagnoni et al., 2021"]]]},{"sp":[["Content Verifiable Errors",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["intrinsic hallucination",["Maynez et al. (2020)"]]],"sp":[["faithfulness problem",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["extrinsic hallucinations",[]]],"sp":[["Content Verifiable Errors",[]]]},{"de":[["They consider generated summaries as drafts, and correct factual errors to form the final summaries.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Semantic Frame Errors",[]]]},{"de":[["Facts can be represented in different forms, such as entities, n-grams and relation triples (subject, relation, object).",[]]]},{"sb":[["Predicate Error (PredE)",[]],["Entity Error (EntE)",[]],["Circumstance Error (CircE)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["On social media, users are more likely to follow and exchange political information with other users of similar ideology [36,48,49,50,51,52]. These homophilous social networks act as an information filter that further reduces the spectrum of content the user encounters [53].",["36,48,49,50,51,52","53"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This is partly because inconsistencies in one's beliefs generate discomfort and a desire to reduce it [42,43].",["42","43","42,43"]]],"rt":[["This tendency may polarize people's attitudes and generate hostility toward political out-groups [46,47].",["46,47"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["propagation-based",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["explicitly captures the writers' usage of words and the linguistically meaningful ways these words are structured as phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and, ultimately, documents",[]]]},{"ex":[["for example, the accounts in a conversation may look like Black Lives Matter activists, but in reality may be state-linked actors using fake accounts in active misdirection.",[]]]},{"de":[["now commonplace in influence operations",[]]],"ex":[["used for deceptive commercial purposes",["125"]]]},{"ex":[["such as the use of automation or attempts to manipulate engagement statistics via click farms.",[]]]},{"de":[["They display some online patterns of genuine internet users since they are humans, allowing them to avoid bot detection, while still driving up content views and interactions.",["77"]]]},{},{"de":[["These tools may serve as an antidote to influence operations and could reduce the demand for disinformation.",[]],["Such methods could serve as building blocks for future tools that augment a consumer's ability to critically evaluate information.",[]],["Developers could produce browser extensions and mobile applications that automatically attach warning labels to potential generated content and fake accounts, or that selectively employ ad-blockers to demonetize them.",[]],["Websites and customizable notification systems could be built or improved with AI-augmented vetting, scoring, and ranking systems to organize, curate, and display user-relevant information while sifting out unverified or generated sources.",["203"]]],"ex":[["Developers could produce browser extensions and mobile applications that automatically attach warning labels to potential generated content and fake accounts, or that selectively employ ad-blockers to demonetize them.",["202"]],["Websites and customizable notification systems could be built or improved with AI-augmented vetting, scoring, and ranking systems to organize, curate, and display user-relevant information while sifting out unverified or generated sources.",["203"]],["Tools and built-in search engines that merely help users quickly contextualize the content they consume",["204"]],["Another proposal suggests using AI-generated content to educate and inoculate a population against misleading beliefs.",["206"]],["Some of the most promising AI-enabled countermeasures may leverage state-of-the-art generative models themselves, to reshift the offense-defense balance in favor of information consumers.",["207"]],["As generative models get better at producing persuasive arguments that exploit viewer biases and blindspots, defensive generative models could be used to help users detect and explain flaws in tailored arguments or to find artifacts in manipulated images.",["208"]],["Tools and built-in search engines that merely help users quickly contextualize the content they consume could help their users evaluate claims, while lowering the risk of identifying true articles as misinformation.",["204"]]]},{"de":[["this third facet of disinformation campaigns is perhaps the most visible to the public, and media will highlight the substance in its coverage.",[]]]},{"de":[["provide information about content to consumers, including its date of creation, authorship, hardware, and details regarding edits, all of which would be validated with cryptographic signatures.",["196"]]]},{"de":[["could help their users evaluate claims, while lowering the risk of identifying true articles as misinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["Consumer-focused AI tools",[]]],"ex":[["Tools and built-in search engines that merely help users quickly contextualize the content they consume",["204"]]]},{"de":[["bot networks were often detectable because they used \"copypasta\"-repetitive or identical language across networks and accounts",[]]]},{"de":[["Tools such as phone cameras or word processing software could build the means for content creators to track and disclose this information.",[]],["social media platforms, browsers, and internet protocols could publicize these indicators of authenticity when a user interacts with content.",[]]],"ex":[["the Coalition for Content Provenance and Authenticity (C2PA) has brought together software application vendors, hardware manufacturers, provenance providers, content publishers, and social media platforms to propose a technical standard for content provenance that can be implemented across the internet.",["195"]]]},{"de":[["half-truths, exaggerations, or lies",[]]]},{"ex":[["half-truths, exaggerations, or lies",["145"]]]},{"de":[["An influence operation could have impact based on content if it (1) persuades someone of a particular viewpoint or reinforces an existing one, (2) distracts them from finding or developing other ideas, or (3) distracts them from carving out space for higher quality thought at all.",[]],["Often the goal is simply to distract from information that is potentially harmful to the operator.",[]],["As advertisers, media outlets, and platforms already compete for viewers, distraction operations can often exploit and exacerbate such preexisting attention competitions to crowd out important information with attention-grabbing, irrelevant information.",[]],["leading them to pursue distraction operations if they believe persona development-which requires longer-term investment but can be more persuasive to observers-is not worth the effort.",["42"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["our definition is agnostic to the truth of the message (whether the content spread is true or false) and the identity of the actor spreading it",[]],["Influence operations include operations that intend to activate people who hold particular beliefs, to persuade an audience of a particular viewpoint, and/or to distract target audiences",[]],["These operations often include persona creation (creating fake identities to spread a message), fake news properties, and inauthentic amplification efforts.",[]],["Influence operations can have impact based on their specific content or focus (e.g., through persuasion), or by eroding community trust in the information environment overall.",[]],["the success of an influence operation is a function of resources and the ability to get the desired content in front of one's target.",[]],["relying on true, non-falsifiable, or politically slanted content",[]],["online and on social media platforms specifically",[]],["Influence operations include operations that intend to activate people who hold particular beliefs, to persuade an audience of a particular viewpoint, and/or to distract target audiences.",[]],["influence operations, which are conducted in secret.",[]]],"rt":[["distraction",[]],["digital agents of influence",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These efforts focus on teaching people how to analyze content, not necessarily to spot AI-generated content.",[]],["Existing media literacy tools that teach people how to \"spot\" coordinated accounts online, however, sometimes emphasize traits or mistakes that AI tools can avoid making, such as repetitiveness or a lack of \"personal\" content interspersed with more political content.",["199"]],["If current programs become outdated, media literacy will require updating.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Russia's \"Inside Syria Media Center\" (ISMC) news website, a GRU front property whose bylined journalists included fabricated personas, produced content that was republished as contributed content within ideologically aligned, unwitting publications, or incorporated into real news articles in the context of expert quotes.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Short-form content is primarily pushed out by inauthentic account personas on social media, or sometimes in the comment sections of websites or blogs, and is often intended to influence the reader's perception of public opinion",[]]]},{"de":[["Another form of targeted training would be to withhold or modify the information in the training data to affect how the trained model produces content.",[]],["Targeted training may be less resource-intensive than training more general models.",[]]]},{"de":[["Proliferation of easy-to-use interfaces to generate persuasive text or images can increase the adoption of generative models in influence operations.",[]]]},{"ex":[["insults, hate speech or threats",[]],["insults",[]],["hate speech",[]],["threats",[]]]},{"de":[["not claims that are only true in the context of a belief system or tradition",[]]]},{},{"de":[["human alignment as an inherently subjective quantity that depends on who it is measured against, rather than it being a single quantity that can be improved",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we do not view LMs as having their own opinions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We measure steerability as the average opinion alignment, across dataset questions, between an LM and a particular demographic group G -where the model is prompted with group information in its context.",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["sarcastic emotions",[]],["complex emotions",[]],["sarcastic emotions (such as sarcastic words)",[]],["emotions that need to be concretely analyzed in context",[]]]},{},{"de":[["multimodal sentiment analysis (MSA) that addresses the challenge of different contributions of textual, visual, and acoustic modalities.",[]]]},{"de":[["Sentiment analysis is an interdisciplinary research area that includes computer science, psychology, social science, and other fields",["5","6","7"]],["Sentiment analysis involves analyzing sentiment polarity through available information",["3,4"]]]},{},{"sp":[["counter-narratives",[]]]},{"de":[["through non-automated methods such as interviews, surveys, focus groups, or qualitative content analysis",[]]]},{"ex":[["for example in the tone of their language as measured with sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["These bystanders are not (at least yet) generating hateful language themselves, but rather are people exposed to hateful content either incidentally or by active engagement.",[]]]},{"sy":[["counterspeech",[]]],"rt":[["counterspeech",[]]]},{"de":[["also refers to narratives that challenge a much broader view or category such as forms of education, propaganda, and public information",["Benesch et al. (2016)","Benesch et al., 2016"]],["counter-narrative stimuli designed in social experiments are generally long form",["Bélanger et al., 2020"]]],"sy":[["counterspeech",[]]],"rt":[["counterspeech",[]]],"sb":[["counter-stereotypical exemplars",[]],["persuasion",[]],["inoculation",[]],["alternative accounts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Counterspeech offers direct rebuttals to hateful speech by challenging perpetrators of hate and showing support to targets of abuse.",[]],["Such counterspeech (as we will elaborate more fully below) is an important potential tool in the fight against online hate and abuse as it does not require any interventions from the platform or from law enforcement, and may contribute to mitigating the effects of abuse",["Munger, 2017","Buerger, 2021b","Hangartner et al., 2021","Bilewicz et al., 2021"]],["Counterspeech is multifaceted and can be characterised in several different ways.",[]],["can be characterised in several different ways. In Table 1 we outline a framework for describing and designing counterspeech, covering who (speaker) sends what kinds of messages (strategies) to whom (recipients), and for what purpose (purpose).",[]],["using non-aggressive speech",[]],["Changing the attitudes and behaviours of perpetrators",[]],["Changing the attitudes and behaviours of bystanders",[]],["Showing support for targets of hate",[]],["making space for alternative viewpoints to hate speech",[]],["counterspeech may be a more appropriate tool than content moderation in fighting hate speech as it can depolarise discourse and show support to victims.",[]],["research from the social sciences points to many nuances that need to be considered regarding the impact of counterspeech before this intervention is deployed.",[]],["content that challenges and rebuts hateful discourse and propaganda (Saltman and Russell, 2014;Bartlett and Krasodomski-Jones, 2015;Benesch et al., 2016;Saltman et al., 2021;Garland et al., 2022) using non-aggressive speech (Benesch et al., 2016;Reynolds and Tuck, 2016;Schieb and Preuss, 2016)",[]]],"sy":[["counter-narratives",["Reynolds and Tuck, 2016","Carthy and Sarma, 2021","Tuck and Silverman, 2016","Iqbal et al., 2019"]],["hope speech",["Snyder et al., 2018"]]],"rt":[["speaker",[]],["strategies",[]],["recipients",[]],["purpose",[]],["hate speech",[]],["mitigation of hate",[]],["hope speech",[]]],"sb":[["hope speech",[]],["one-to-one",[]],["one-to-many",[]],["many-to-one",[]],["many-to-many",[]],["presentation of facts",[]],["pointing out hypocrisy or contradiction",[]],["warning of consequences",[]],["affiliation [i.e. establishing an emotional bond with the perpetrators or targets of hate]",[]],["denouncing",[]],["humour/sarcasm",[]],["tone [a tendency or style adopted for communication, e.g., empathetic and hostile]",[]],["use of media",[]]]},{"de":[["Language models are repeatedly reported to produce plausible and convincing but not necessarily faithful/factual statements",["Solaiman et al., 2019","Zellers et al., 2019","Chung et al., 2021b"]]]},{"sy":[["counterspeech",[]]],"sp":[["counterspeech",[]]]},{"sp":[["counter-narratives",[]]]},{"de":[["They are also receptive to arguments and more willing to listen.",[]]],"ex":[["These individuals often serve as ideal recipients of messages addressing social issues such as vaccination hesitancy",["Litaker et al., 2022"]]]},{},{"rt":[["hostile language",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Refusing due to reasonable causes exceeding the model's capability, e.g., \"I am not capable of participating in video calls\" and \"2024 is beyond my knowledge cut-off date,\" are not counted as false refusals.",[]],["false refusal due to perceived safety issues",[]]]},{"de":[["can be broadly divided into the following three categories: illicit and criminal activities (e.g., terrorism, theft, human trafficking); hateful and harmful activities (e.g., defamation, selfharm, eating disorders, discrimination); and unqualified advice (e.g., medical advice, financial advice, legal advice).",[]]],"rt":[["attack vector",[]]],"sb":[["illicit and criminal activities",[]],["hateful and harmful activities",[]],["unqualified advice",[]]],"ex":[["illicit and criminal activities (e.g., terrorism, theft, human trafficking)",[]],["hateful and harmful activities (e.g., defamation, selfharm, eating disorders, discrimination)",[]],["unqualified advice (e.g., medical advice, financial advice, legal advice)",[]]]},{"de":[["measure the amount of generation of toxic language and hate speech across different groups",[]]]},{"de":[["measure how well our LLMs can generate reliable outputs that agree with factuality and common sense",[]],["measure whether a language model is truthful in generating answers to questions while being informative at the same time",[]]]},{"rt":[["demographic inequality",[]],["intermediate proxy metrics",["Sheng et al., 2021b"]]]},{"de":[["The explicit metric is the direct inclusion of gender attribute words at the sentence level, which is also perceptible to human evaluators.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["cause LLMs to generate the largest number of biased sentences as expected.",[]],["Thus, Template-based inputs are unsuitable for our proposed mechanism not only due to the unrealistic scenarios but also because of the inconsistent performance.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["During solving the NLP tasks, LLMs inevitably suffer from the hallucinations where LLMs produce outputs that deviate from world knowledge [292,293], user request [294], or self-generated context [295].",["292","293","294","295"]]]},{"de":[["a key function in natural language processing",[]]],"rt":[["opinion mining",["123"]]],"ex":[["positive opinions",[]],["criticisms",[]]]},{"rt":[["ToM",[]]]},{"rt":[["ToM",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["order",[]]],"ex":[["a third-order statement is \"I think you believe that she knows\"",[]]]},{"rt":[["false belief understanding",[]]]},{"de":[["ToM is central to human social intelligence: it enables humans to predict and influence behaviour",["Humphrey, 1976","Wellman and Bartsch, 1988","Hooker et al., 2008"]]]},{"de":[["producing an ability to take an interaction partner's perspective -ToM -as a by-product.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["There should be no search result that supports the same part.",[]]]},{"de":[["The decomposition helps locate factual errors and offers a fine-grained estimate of models' factuality",["Min et al., 2023"]]],"rt":[["Long-form factuality evaluation",[]]]},{"de":[["Any story, personal experiences, hypotheticals (e.g., \"would be\" or subjunctive), subjective statements (e.g., opinions), suggestions, advice, instructions, and other such content should not be included in the list.",[]],["Each fact should also be describing either one single event (e.g., \"Nvidia is founded in 1993 in Sunnyvale, California, U.S.\") or single state (e.g., \" ABCDEFG has existed for 161 years.\") with necessary time and location information.",[]]]},{"de":[["We consider a search result informative if it is marked as supporting or contradicting a claim.",[]]]},{"de":[["a new field of research that looks at how computers can change the way",[]]],"rt":[["persuasive design",[]]]},{"rt":[["contradicted",[]],["inconclusive",[]]]},{"ex":[["advice, fictional stories, or subjective opinions",[]],["advice",[]],["fictional stories",[]],["subjective opinions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Unverifiable content such as advice, fictional stories, or subjective opinions are ignored.",[]],["Any story, personal experiences, hypotheticals (e.g., \"would be\" or subjunctive), subjective statements (e.g., opinions), suggestions, advice, instructions, and other such content should not be included in the list.",[]],["Each fact should also be describing either one single event (e.g., \"Nvidia is founded in 1993 in Sunnyvale, California, U.S.\") or single state (e.g., \" ABCDEFG has existed for 161 years.\") with necessary time and location information.",[]],["Each fact should be understandable on its own and require no additional context.",[]],["This means that all entities must be referred to by name but not pronoun.",[]],["Use the name of entities rather than definite noun phrases (e.g., 'the teacher') whenever possible.",[]]],"ex":[["Jensen Huang founded NVIDIA in 1993 in California, U.S.",["4"]],["Nvidia is founded in 1993 in Sunnyvale, California, U.S.",[]],["ABCDEFG has existed for 161 years.",[]]]},{"de":[["Any story, personal experiences, hypotheticals (e.g., \"would be\" or subjunctive), subjective statements (e.g., opinions), suggestions, advice, instructions, and other such content should not be included in the list. Biographical, historical, scientific, and other such texts are not personal experiences or stories.",[]]]},{"sy":[["Social Bias",[]]],"sp":[["Demographic bias",[]],["Social Bias",[]]],"ex":[["LLMs might generate language that reflects age-related stereotypes or fail to account for the needs and preferences of different age groups, impacting older or younger users unfairly",["Liu et. al., 2024"]]]},{"de":[["This includes biases in model architecture, optimization criteria, and training procedures.",[]]],"sy":[["Model Architecture Bias",[]]],"sp":[["Model Architecture Bias",[]]],"ex":[["For instance, algorithms that prioritize accuracy might inadvertently favor certain groups if the training data is imbalanced.",[]]]},{"de":[["Bias can arise from various sources, including biased training data, algorithmic design, and human biases",["Ferrara et. al., 2023"]]]},{"de":[["This can affect how the model interacts with users from different economic backgrounds, potentially reinforcing socioeconomic inequalities",["Singh et. al., 2024"]]],"sp":[["Demographic bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Cognitive Bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["Data-Driven Bias",[]]],"sp":[["Data-Driven Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["LLMs trained on data from specific cultural contexts may struggle with accurately understanding or generating text for users from different cultural backgrounds.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Societal Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Data bias can result from underrepresentation of certain groups or overrepresentation of others, leading to skewed model predictions",["Mehrabi et al., 2019"]]],"sy":[["Data-Driven Bias",[]]],"sp":[["Data-Driven Bias",[]]],"ex":[["For example, if a language model is trained predominantly on text from a particular demographic, it may perform poorly on text from underrepresented groups.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Gender bias",[]],["Racial and ethnic bias",[]],["Age bias",[]],["Bias related to socioeconomic status",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["demographic parity",["Dastin, 2018"]],["equal opportunity",["Dastin, 2018"]],["individual fairness",["Dastin, 2018"]]]},{"sp":[["Systemic Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["This bias can perpetuate stereotypes and limit the perceived roles of different genders in various contexts",["Zhao et al., 2019"]],["For example, a model might associate certain professions with one gender more frequently than another, or generate gender-stereotyped language",["Bolukbasi et al., 2016","Agiza et. al.,2024"]]],"sy":[["Social Bias",[]]],"sp":[["Demographic bias",[]],["Social Bias",[]]]},{"ex":[["gender and race",[]]]},{"sy":[["Data-Driven Bias",[]]],"sp":[["Data-Driven Bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["LLMs trained on diverse datasets might still reflect and amplify existing racial stereotypes or exhibit prejudiced behavior towards specific ethnic groups",["Caliskan et al., 2017","An et. al., 2024"]]],"sy":[["Social Bias",[]]],"sp":[["Demographic bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Social Bias",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Gender Bias",[]],["Racial Bias",[]],["Age Bias",[]]],"sp":[["Societal Bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This type of bias is often harder to address as it involves deep-seated social issues that are reflected in the data and perpetuated by the models",["Dastin, 2018"]]]},{"sy":[["Application-Specific Bias",[]]],"sp":[["Application-Specific Bias",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["belief bias, confirmation bias, and anchoring",[]]]},{"sy":[["dezinformatsia (дезинформация)",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["referred to the operations of intoxication carried out by the capitalist countries against the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (URSS)",["FALLET, 2001","ROMERO-RODRIGUÉZ, 2014"]],["disinformation is information deliberately deceptive, intending to deceive;",[]],["disinformation is information deliberately deceptive, intending to deceive or not",[]]],"sy":[["dezinformatsiya",[]],["dezinformatsia",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information",[]],["a type of information",[]]],"ex":[["The mythological horse of Troy, narrated in Homer's \"Iliad\", also serves as an example of disinformation. A huge wooden horse as a symbol of peace, which was hollow and full of Greek soldiers against the Trojans.",[]]]},{"de":[["people have a tendency to favour information that reinforces their preexisting views\", thus, as a result of this selective exposure, echo chambers can maximize ideological polarization, reinforcing different types of intolerance as well as spreading false information",["Karlsen (2017, p. 258)","KUMAR; SHAH, 2018"]],["people have a tendency to favour information that reinforces their preexisting views",["Karlsen (2017, p. 258)"]],["people have a tendency to favour information that reinforces their preexisting views\", thus, as a result of this selective exposure, echo chambers can maximize ideological polarization, reinforcing different types of intolerance as well as spreading false information (KUMAR; SHAH, 2018).",["KUMAR; SHAH, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["filter bubbles appear as a tool for content personalization through invisible algorithms provided by web search engines and social media, creating a personal ecosystem of information",["PARISER, 2011"]]],"rt":[["dis/mal-information device",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, World Health Organization Director-General, at the Munich Security Conference, had already realized the impact of false and inaccurate information by saying that \"we're not just fighting an epidemic; we're fighting an infodemic\".",["MUNICH…, 2020, p. 6"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["conceived as a hermeneutic-rhetorical discipline, studies the contextual pragmatic dimensions within which knowledge is shared positively as information and negatively as misinformation particularly through technical forms of communication",["Capurro, 1992","Capurro, 1992, p.6"]]]},{"de":[["malinformation is the sensitive information that is strategically used to cause advantage, whether personal or institutional.",[]]],"sy":[["potentially dangerous or damaging information",[]],["inappropriate information",[]]],"sp":[["information",[]],["a type of information",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation can assume many meanings",[]],["misinformation is inaccurate information, open to multiple comprehensions and uses, being the prefix mis-, an indication of mistake or something wrong.",[]]],"sy":[["Inaccurate information",[]],["false information",[]],["pseudo-information",[]]],"rt":[["lies",[]],["propaganda",[]],["misrepresentation",[]],["gossip",[]],["delusion",[]],["hallucination",[]],["illusion",[]],["mistake",[]],["concealment",[]],["distortion",[]],["embellishment",[]],["innuendo",[]],["deception",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information",[]],["a type of information",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fake News",[]]]},{"de":[["Theft of personal information by copying a popular website and inserting personal data has become a common tool.",[]]],"rt":[["identity theft, attempt to tarnish a reputation, profile cloning, denying access to e-mail, and financial loss",["Apte, Palshikar, and Baskaran (2019)"]]],"sp":[["malinformation",[]]],"ex":[["identity theft, attempt to tarnish a reputation, profile cloning, denying access to e-mail, and financial loss",[]],["identity theft, attempt to tarnish a reputation, profile cloning, denying access to e-mail, and financial loss are, for example, results of phishing.",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation arises whenever the process of information is defective. This can happen because of: (a) a lack of objectivity, as in the case of propaganda;",["p. 509"]],["Through the emotional appeal used to trigger emotions at the expense of reason, propaganda has become a modern and postmodern weapon.",["Fallet (2001)"]]],"ex":[["Nazi propaganda that by using anti-Semitic defamation wiped out millions of Jews",["Fallet (2001)"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["one headline in Beef magazine read, \"How NYC's Meatless Mondays campaign is hurting poor communities\" (Radke, 2019).",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Journalists play an active role in this reality-shaping process by identifying common idea packages (i.e., frames) and employing them in their own stories, thus setting the public agenda",[]],["Identifying message frames allows for subjective, methodological analysis of the nature of news discourse.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These articles were considered to contribute to the overall culture of climate change acceptance and often contained information related to research reports or ways to participate in the climate-smart movement as well as the impact of climate change on agricultural production.",[]]],"ex":[["A Farm Industry News article considered to be framed in scientific certainty was headlined \"Climate change expected to increase cost of farm programs\" (Farm Industry News, 2019).",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["A Beef article in the scientific uncertainty frame was titled \"Have we been lied to on global warming?\" (Beef, 2009).",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["anaphoric relationships",[]],["anaphoric resolution",[]]]},{},{"de":[["implicitly include referents of all genders",[]]],"ex":[["le voisinage 'the neighbourhood'",[]]]},{"sb":[["complete double forms",[]],["contracted double forms",[]],["complete",[]],["contracted",[]]]},{"de":[["implicitly include referents of all genders",[]]],"ex":[["une personne 'a. FEM person'",[]],["un individu 'an. MASC individual'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Over the course of reading, the mental model will be updated as new information is presented in the text.",[]],["These updates can be based on new information in the text itself, or on inferences made about the world represented in the mental model.",[]]],"rt":[["bottom-up",[]],["top-down",[]]]},{"de":[["both information present in the lexeme nurses (such as its lexical meaning and the plural mark signalling the presence of several nurses) and information drawing on background knowledge contribute to the mental model.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["mental model",[]]]},{"de":[["Aspect or Feature level sentiment classification concerns with identifying and extracting product features from the source data.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In Document level the whole document is classify eitherinto positive or negative class.",[]]]},{"ex":[["I hate Microsoft, but I like Linux",[]]]},{"de":[["It is difficult to identify such negations .",[]]],"ex":[["It avoids all suspense and predictability found in Hollywood movies.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Dictionary-based",[]],["Corpus-Based",[]]]},{"sb":[["Dictionary-based",[]],["Corpus-Based",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Detection of opinion holder is to recognize direct or indirect sources of opinion.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Nice perfume. You must shower in it.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Sentiment analysis involves classifying opinions in text into categories like \"positive\" or \"negative\" or \"neutral\".",[]],["It aims to analyze people's sentiments, , attitudes, opinions emotions, etc. towards elements such as, products, individuals, topics ,organizations, and services.",[]]],"sy":[["subjectivity analysis",[]],["opinion mining",[]],["appraisal extraction",[]]],"rt":[["opinions",[]],["sentiments",[]],["appraisals",[]],["attitudes",[]],["emotions",[]],["sentiment extraction",[]],["sentiment classification",[]],["subjectivity classification",[]],["summarization of opinions",[]],["opinion spam detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Sentiment classification can be a binary classification (positive or negative),multi-class classification(extremely negative, negative, neutral, positive or extremely positive),regression or ranking .",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This makes it difficult to identify the subjective portions of text.",[]]],"ex":[["The language of the Mr.Dennis was very crude.",[]],["Crude oil is obtained by extraction from the sea beds.",[]]]},{"de":[["The problem of subjectivity classification is to identify sentences used to represent opinions and other forms of subjectivity(subjective sentences set S s ) from sentences used to objectively present factual information (objective sentences set S o ), where S s US o =S.",[]]]},{"ex":[["This Movie should be amazing. It sounds like a great plot, the popular actors , and the supporting cast is talented as well.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hate speech is considered under the umbrella of abusive language.",[]],["This terminology also covers profanity (the use of inappropriate words).",[]]],"sy":[["offensive language",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["profanity",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is a narrow and specific form of cyber-bullying and it can be defined as \"any use of electronic communications technology to spread racist, religious, extremist or terrorist messages\" it is different from cyber-bullying in that hate speech can target not only individuals but it also has implications on whole communities [1].",["1"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["cyber-bullying",[]]],"sp":[["cyber-bullying",[]],["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Also it includes any form of misogyny.",[]]],"sy":[["misogyny",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["In brief, hate speech is identified when disparaging stereotype about group. Together with using racial and sexist slurs with intent to harm. Add to that when indecently speak about religion or specific country.",[]],["Together with using racial and sexist slurs with intent to harm.",[]],["Add to that when indecently speak about religion or specific country.",[]],["more general and not necessarily intended to hurt a specific individual",[]]],"rt":[["cyber-hate",[]],["cyberbullying",[]]],"sb":[["Gendered hate speech",[]],["Religious hate speech",[]],["Racist hate speech",[]],["cyber hate",[]]],"sp":[["anti-social behaviors",[]],["abusive language",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["radicalization comes under hate speech as it has specific tendencies towards religious believes.",[]],["Usually radical groups have an ideology that considers violence as a legitimate action when it serves to address their concerns",["44"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Albadi et al. [10] mentioned that religious hate speech is considered as a motive of crimes in countries with highest social crimes.",["10"]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"ex":[["the media",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the legal and administrative branches of the state responsible for the implementation of public policies",[]]],"rt":[["the courts, the police and the other legal institutions of the state",[]]],"sp":[["political institutions",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["social capital",[]]]},{"rt":[["authority",[]]]},{"sp":[["trust",[]]]},{"de":[["there must be a fundamental bond between the truth-teller and the person to whom the truth is addressed; that they provide their opinion unreservedly and are bound to that truth; and, also, that they run some degree of risk through telling this truth.",[]],["the ancient ethical practice of parrhesia build relationships through trust.",[]],["the act of truth-telling",[]]],"sy":[["truth telling",[]],["truth-telling",[]]],"rt":[["trust",[]],["truth-telling",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["trust/identity dimension",[]]],"rt":[["trust",[]],["social capital",[]]],"sp":[["social capital",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["social capital stands for the ability of actors to secure benefits by virtue of membership of social networks and other social structures.",[]]],"sb":[["structural or network dimension",[]],["relational or trust/identity dimension",[]],["content or communication dimension",[]],["Bonding social capital",[]],["Bridging social capital",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["For Giddens, trust is learned in infancy and enables the individual to deal with the unknowable in the social context.",[]],["it emphasizes the vulnerability or risk involved in the act of trusting",[]],["it focuses on the conscious willingness to trust as well as the context of the modern organization",[]],["essential element in the operation of power-knowledge or truth-telling",[]],["integral component of the operation of social capital",[]],["trust between people or groups, albeit in some studies mediated through some form of technology",[]],["These definitions define trust as a belief or a confidence in an outcome and, while presenting a more simplified view of trust than Giddens, Mayer or social capital theorists, they still acknowledge the role of the trustor and their relationship to the trustee.",[]],["trust was seen to be concerned with the authority or expertise of the information system.",[]],["trust appears to be used as a surrogate term for 'authority' or, as Wilson (1991) investigated, 'cognitive authority'.",[]],["Trust then becomes a universalized consequence of expertise and of authority, expected as part of a power-knowledge relationship by those who are vulnerable and lack information.",[]],["operating to seek benefits and advantages, enhance a community's capacity to bond, take collective action, or to resolve common social issues or problems.",[]],["Analysis of these latter studies suggest that trust is represented by the implicit views and assumptions of researchers and the focus is more on the embedded authority of the information or abstract system rather than on the trustor as an essential component of the trust dynamic.",[]]],"rt":[["leap of faith",[]],["willingness to vulnerability",[]],["cooperation",[]],["confidence",[]],["predictability",[]],["authority",[]],["cognitive authority",[]],["expertise",[]],["ignorance",[]],["vulnerability",[]],["reflexivity and trust",[]]],"sb":[["trust in embodied expertise, such as that held by other people",[]],["trust in these abstract systems",[]],["Trust as a 'leap of faith'",[]],["Trust as a component of social capital",[]],["leap of faith",[]],["component of social capital",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Social constructivists are critical of the objectivity/subjectivity concept, instead focusing on the intersubjectivity of social meanings.",[]]]},{"rt":[["objectivity/subjectivity concept",[]]]},{"de":[["it is becoming increasingly difficult for citizens to separate fact from fiction",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Social constructivists contend that reality is constructed through human activity.",[]],["Knowledge is a human product, and is socially and culturally constructed",["Talja et al. 2005"]]]},{"de":[["relates to the way facts are treated in news organisations operating in a deadline-driven context, but also amidst risks of libel and their own credibility",["(1978)"]]]},{"de":[["encompasses the behaviors and actions they are participating in to make social and political change including volunteering for political campaigns, community organizing, writing and signing petitions, activism, and joining civil rights organizations",["Diemer et al., 2017","Gaby 2017","Watts & Flanagan, 2007"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["conceptualized as a continuum from liberal to conservative",["Patterson et al., 2019"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["ideology is associated with political beliefs more than party identification",["Knight, 1999"]]],"rt":[["political party identification",[]]]},{"de":[["the more behavioral component of CC",[]]],"rt":[["CC",[]]]},{"de":[["grounded in a CC framework, the associated attitudes and beliefs tend to be viewed as more critical in nature due to the fact that theoretically there is a stated commitment towards liberation",[]],["assessing the degree of youths' participation in individual and/or collective action to produce sociopolitical change",[]],["capture how frequently youth engage in targeted, socially aware activities",[]],["participation in sociopolitical action and the items used to measure it may be biased. In other words, that those with differing political perspectives may engage in and respond to items that measure sociopolitical participation differently.",[]],["civic and political engagement for youth encompasses the behaviors and actions they are participating in to make social and political change including volunteering for political campaigns, community organizing, writing and signing petitions, activism, and joining civil rights organizations",["Diemer et al., 2017","Gaby 2017","Watts & Flanagan, 2007"]]],"sy":[["sociopolitical action",[]]],"rt":[["sociopolitical action",[]],["political party identification",[]],["political ideology",[]]],"ex":[["volunteering for political campaigns, community organizing, writing and signing petitions, activism, and joining civil rights organizations",["Diemer et al., 2017","Gaby 2017","Watts & Flanagan, 2007"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Femicide/feminicide legislation also helps de-normalize femicide/feminicide and bring this violence into the public sphere",["Cole and Phillips 2008"]],["Defining the killing of women as femicide/feminicide legitimizes the issue and increases the phenomenon's visibility and pervasiveness (Marcuello-Servós et al. 2016).",["Marcuello-Servós et al. 2016"]],["recognized as a regional and global problem",[]],["human rights violation",[]],["helps de-normalize femicide/feminicide and bring this violence into the public sphere",["Cole and Phillips 2008"]],["governments tended to use more narrow definitions than their academic counterparts.",[]]],"sy":[["femicide",[]],["feminicide",[]]],"rt":[["VAW",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Feminicide is overt violence, but it can also be the product of discriminatory practices including female genital mutilation or unsafe abortion (Toledo 2017).",["Toledo 2017"]],["The term is also used to describe femicide-rooted impunity, functioning as a \"tool of patriarchal oppression, while also serving as a tool of racism, economic oppression, and colonialism\" (Smith 2006: 417).",["Smith 2006: 417"]],["\"Feminicide\" includes political connotations, drawing attention to the failure of States' to prevent and punish femicide/feminicide, thereby neglecting their international obligations (Sarmiento et al. 2014).",["Sarmiento et al. 2014"]],["Feminicide, as opposed to femicide, is useful for highlighting the causes of femicide and the contexts in which it occurs.",[]],["Feminicidal violence is fueled by misogynistic actions that deny women physical and mental security",["Fregoso and Bejarano 2010"]],["Feminicide is overt violence, but it can also be the product of discriminatory practices including female genital mutilation or unsafe abortion",["Toledo 2017"]],["The term is also used to describe femicide-rooted impunity, functioning as a \"tool of patriarchal oppression, while also serving as a tool of racism, economic oppression, and colonialism\"",["Smith 2006: 417"]]]},{"de":[["can be committed by more than one family member (e.g., brother and father, or father and mother).",[]]],"sy":[["Culturally framed femicide/feminicide",["14"]]]},{"rt":[["impunity",[]]]},{"de":[["Broadly speaking, machismo is any belief or action that fosters gender inequality and restricts women's autonomy (Luffy et al. 2015).",["Luffy et al. 2015"]],["These values demand women's subservience and legitimize the use of violence against them (Wilson 2014).",["Wilson 2014"]],["Broadly speaking, machismo is any belief or action that fosters gender inequality and restricts women's autonomy",["Luffy et al. 2015"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Bacchi (2009) proposed that, instead of evaluating policies solely on their capacity to solve problems, we need to examine how policies construct problems.",["Bacchi 2009","2009"]],["Her approach also differs from other policy analyses by considering how policy limits discussion due to the underlying assumption that a particular policy is the best solution",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["escándalo público",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["personificación",[]]]},{"sb":[["Rosificación",[]],["Humanización",[]],["Picaresca",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["corrupción política",[]]]},{"sb":[["la constructivista",[]],["la estratégica",[]],["la basada en las actitudes profesionales",[]],["la metodológica",[]],["la cultural",[]],["la narrativa",[]],["la simbólica",[]]]},{"sp":[["Encuadre específico de personificación",[]],["personificación",[]]]},{"de":[["el juicio paralelo surge cuando, desde los medios de comunicación se juzga y falla sobre asuntos que están en el inicio de un proceso judicial, lo que induce a determinar en la opinión pública un veredicto anticipado.",[]],["juicio paralelo que dificulta la presunción de inocencia y determina la opinión pública",[]]],"sb":[["a) Que exista un proceso judicial en marcha.",["Muerza-Esparza (2014)"]],["b) Que se anticipe la culpabilidad o la inocencia del procesado a través de los medios de comunicación.",["Muerza-Esparza (2014)"]],["c) Que lo que se pretenda sea perturbar o alterar la imparcialidad del Tribunal, de modo que cualquier lector, oyente o espectador se quede con la impresión de que la jurisdicción tiene que sentenciar en los términos en los que se expresan los medios de comunicación.",["Muerza-Esparza (2014)"]]]},{},{"de":[["se detecta en cuatro de los doce momentos estudiados. Desde el inicio se cuantifica el patrimonio de Juan Antonio Roca (principal imputado) en unos 2.400 millones de euros (06/04/2006, página 21). Se añade que \"tendrá que justificar\" la posesión de la elevada cantidad de dinero o los objetos suntuosos, subrayando el perjuicio ocasionado a las arcas de Marbella.",[]]]},{"de":[["representando las posiciones de la controversia encarnadas en personajes concretos, protagonista y antagonista, héroe y villano.",[]]],"sb":[["humanización",[]],["rosificación",[]],["picaresca",[]],["encuadre de picaresca",[]]]},{"sp":[["Encuadre específico de personificación",[]],["personificación",[]],["encuadres de personificación",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Encuadre específico de personificación",[]],["personificación",[]]]},{"sp":[["encuadre de personificación",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["ejemplo de periodismo satírico desde el cual se popularizaron sátiras contra aspectos como la Inquisición",[]],["se ha consolidado como el título por excelencia de la prensa satírica de la democracia española",[]],["cabecera de sátira mordaz que acompaña a los lectores españoles",[]],["como una gran familia de publicaciones que recurren al humor para hacer crítica social y política con mayor libertad",["Ferré y Ferrer (2013: 59)"]]],"sy":[["periodismo satírico",[]]],"rt":[["parodia",[]],["caricatura",[]],["hipérbole",[]],["periodismo satírico",[]],["sátira",[]]]},{"de":[["Este recurso intangible entonces se puede entender como compuesto de tres elementos: el interés político (political interest en los términos originales de estos autores), el conocimiento del sistema político y de los asuntos públicos (political knowledge), y el juicio sobre la capacidad de las instituciones públicas de responder a las necesidades sociales (political efficacy).",[]]],"sy":[["engagement",[]],["compromiso ciudadano",[]]],"sb":[["interés político",[]],["conocimiento del sistema político",[]],["political efficacy",[]]]},{"de":[["recursos intangibles",[]],["Este recurso intangible entonces se puede entender como compuesto de tres elementos: el interés político (political interest en los términos originales de estos autores), el conocimiento del sistema político y de los asuntos públicos (political knowledge), y el juicio sobre la capacidad de las instituciones públicas de responder a las necesidades sociales (political efficacy).",[]]],"sy":[["compromiso político",[]]],"rt":[["resiliencia a la desinformación",[]]],"sp":[["recursos intangibles",[]],["recurso intangible",[]]],"ex":[["los asuntos políticos nacionales importan",[]],["los asuntos políticos locales importan",[]],["Interés en la política nacional",[]],["Interés en la política local",[]]]},{"sp":[["compromiso político",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["desinformación",[]]],"sp":[["deformación",[]],["desinformación",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["desinformación",[]]],"sp":[["desinformación",[]]]},{"de":[["este término define con mayor exactitud la confusión buscada por el emisor.",[]],["define con mayor exactitud la confusión buscada por el emisor.",[]]],"sy":[["desinformación",[]]],"rt":[["desinformación",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["desinformación",[]]]},{"rt":[["desinformación",[]]],"sp":[["desinformación",[]]]},{"rt":[["desinformación",[]]],"sp":[["deformación",[]],["desinformación",[]]]},{"de":[["Ahora, las personas con proyección pública o autoridad en su disciplina que apoyan clandestinamente a Rusia o simpatizan con ella y difunden sus narrativas son más y tienen mayor visibilidad",[]]],"rt":[["colaboradores",[]]]},{"de":[["Ahora, las personas con proyección pública o autoridad en su disciplina que apoyan clandestinamente a Rusia o simpatizan con ella y difunden sus narrativas son más y tienen mayor visibilidad",[]]],"rt":[["agentes de influencia",[]]]},{"sy":[["informatsionnaya voyna",[]]],"rt":[["informatsionnaya voyna",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["control reflexivo",[]]]},{"de":[["las medidas activas han adaptado sus técnicas al siglo XXI y desarrollado nuevas herramientas para influir en el mundo digital.",[]],["Dividida en cuatro fases, ésta empezaría con la desmoralización (negando evidencias y planteando realidades alternativas) y la desestabilización (debilitando los pilares del estado, la economía y la sociedad) antes de culminar con la crisis y la normalización bajo control socialista",["Bezmenov, 1984"]]],"sy":[["desinformación",[]],["dezinformatsiya",[]],["meropriyatiya aktivnyye",[]]],"rt":[["medios de comunicación",[]],["agentes de influencia",[]],["colaboradores externos",[]],["subversión ideológica del KGB",[]],["guerra informativa",[]],["guerras de nueva generación",[]],["medidas no-militares para la resolución de conflictos",["Gerasimov, 2013"]],["desinformación",[]]]},{},{"de":[["pueden difundir propaganda blanca (gubernamental) y actuar como altavoz de otras actividades en blogs o redes sociales",["17"]]]},{},{"ex":[["introducir dichos insultos entre tres paréntesis para no ser detectados por los bots que se encargan de localizarlos o utilizar sinónimos aparentemente no irrespetuosos",["Llorca, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["que entre otras cosas, refuerza ciertos comportamientos que en otros entornos serían vistos como políticamente incorrectos o fuera de lugar",[]]],"sy":[["cohesión de grupo",[]]]},{"de":[["dándole la vuelta a los mensajes de odio, creando discursos alternativos",[]]]},{"rt":[["islamofobia",[]]]},{"de":[["Kaufman (Cfr. 2015) destaca que un discurso puede ser considerado de odio si cumple cuatro criterios básicos: criterio de un grupo en situación de vulnerabilidad tipificado, criterio de humillación, criterio de malignidad y criterio de intencionalidad.",["2015"]],["El primer criterio se refiere a grupos históricamente discriminados. El segundo tiene que ver con la agresión o humillación a símbolos representativos de un determinado grupo social. El tercer criterio implica una invitación para humillar y denigrar a personas de grupos en situaciones de vulnerabilidad. Finalmente, el criterio de intencionalidad comprende la intención de humillar o excluir.",[]],["son un problema global",[]]],"sy":[["hate speech",[]],["mensajes de odio",[]]],"rt":[["xenofobia",["2016"]],["homofobia",["2016"]],["racismo",["2016"]],["discriminación",["2016"]]],"sb":[["odio racial y étnico",["2016"]],["odio por nacionalidad o religión",["2016"]],["odio por género u orientación sexual",["2016"]]]},{"sy":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Kaufman (Cfr. 2015) destaca que un discurso puede ser considerado de odio si cumple cuatro criterios básicos: criterio de un grupo en situación de vulnerabilidad tipificado, criterio de humillación, criterio de malignidad y criterio de intencionalidad.",["Cfr. 2015","2015"]],["Estos discursos pueden difundirse de forma oral, escrita, audiovisual, en los medios de comunicación o en internet y buscan apelar a la emoción más que a la razón y resaltar cierta actitud de dominio de uno sobre otro y de esta forma silenciar a determinados grupos sociales.",[]]],"sy":[["hate speech",["Kaufman (Cfr. 2015)"]]],"rt":[["xenofobia",["Cfr. Esquivel, 2016"]],["homofobia",["Cfr. Esquivel, 2016"]],["racismo",["Cfr. Esquivel, 2016"]],["discriminación",["Cfr. Esquivel, 2016"]]],"sb":[["odio racial y étnico",["2016","Cfr. Esquivel, 2016"]],["odio por nacionalidad o religión",["2016","Cfr. Esquivel, 2016"]],["odio por género u orientación sexual",["2016","Cfr. Esquivel, 2016"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["xenofobia",[]],["rechazo a los musulmanes",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["La segunda es la connotación negativa y la criminalización de los movimientos",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["los medios, además de establecer la prioridad de los temas de debate público, establecen atributos a los temas tratados con lo cual las personas tienden a constituirse un punto de vista sobre los mismos",[]]]},{"de":[["la primera es la exclusión o la invisibilidad",[]]]},{"sp":[["marcos",[]]]},{"sp":[["marcos",[]]]},{"de":[["que interpreta el mismo a partir de otro marco de referencia, con una visión contraria del mundo",[]]],"rt":[["marco de referencia",[]]],"sp":[["marcos",[]]]},{"sb":[["marco de identidad a través del cual los actores se reconocen a si mismos como un actor colectivo, como un movimiento social",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["lying directly (knowingly providing false or inaccurate information; see Fryling, 2016)",["Fryling, 2016"]],["lying by omission (when one lies by knowingly leaving out information which alters the interpretation of the information)",[]],["misrepresenting the truth to suit one's own purposes.",[]],["Misinformation can be provided by lying directly (knowingly providing false or inaccurate information; see Fryling, 2016), lying by omission (when one lies by knowingly leaving out information which alters the interpretation of the information), or misrepresenting the truth to suit one's own purposes.",["Fryling, 2016"]]]},{"sy":[["public commitment",[]],["Pre-commitment",[]]]},{},{"de":[["New connections can be formed between any dissimilar events given enough data, providing supposed evidence of deeper realities submerged beneath the predominant ideology.",[]]]},{"de":[["a symptom of multi-adaptive personality traits diagnosed in the DSM V.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It consistently finds democratic 'solutions' to this problem risible, at best.",["11"]],["\"Where the progressive enlightenment sees political ideals,\" Land argues, \"the dark enlightenment sees appetites. It accepts that governments are made out of people, and that they will eat well. Setting its expectations as low as reasonably possible, it seeks only to spare civilization from frenzied, ruinous, gluttonous debauch ... It consistently finds democratic 'solutions' to this problem risible, at best.\" [11]",["11"]]]},{"de":[["exacerbate willingness to ascribe to conspiratorial beliefs",["25"]],["which exacerbate willingness to ascribe to conspiratorial beliefs",["25"]]]},{"de":[["predominately characterized by the viral spread of unsubstantiated, unverified information (which seems plausible enough on the surface) through unauthorized channels combined with a general reaction against corporate media and academic expertise",[]],["emblematic of a wider phenomenon than QAnon, including the rise of opinion sites masquerading as news, social media platforms as primary mechanism for information retrieval, viral memes and meme warfare, propaganda, and \"fake\" news",[]],["a broader shift in media production and consumption: \"One of the things that linked the often nihilistic and ironic chan culture to a wider culture of the alt-right orbit was their opposition to political correctness, feminism, multiculturalism, etc., and its encroachment into their freewheeling world of anonymity and tech.\"",["7"]],["The information dark age is characterized by a widespread rebellion against accepted mainstream thought and expertise.",[]]],"rt":[["information literacy",[]],["misinformation",["Solon, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["\"An alliance of heretics is making an end run around the mainstream conversation,\" Weiss asks.",["12"]]]},{"ex":[["Q revealed secret directives to expose and indict a global cabal of political and cultural elites engaged in pedophilia, child trafficking, organ harvesting, and Satanic worship, which had operated with impunity under the Obama administration.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The behavioral evaluation is based on two beliefs: the perceived benefit or efficacy of the target health behavior and the perceived costs or barrier to performing the target behavior.",[]]],"sb":[["Perceived Benefit",[]],["Perceived Barrier",[]]],"sp":[["individuals' representations of health and health behaviors",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["CFC",[]]]},{"de":[["With perceived barrier, an individual may not perform a behavior despite his/her belief about the effectiveness (benefit) of taking the action in reducing the threat if the barrier outweighs the benefit",[]]],"sp":[["Behavioral Evaluation",[]]]},{"de":[["a determinant of healthy eating",["Deshpande et al. (2009)"]]],"rt":[["perceived benefit",[]]],"ex":[["How important is it for you to eat a diet high in nutrition?",[]],["\"How important is it for you to eat a diet high in nutrition?\"",[]]]},{"de":[["The threat perception is based on two beliefs: the perceived susceptibility of the individual to the disease and the perceived severity of the consequences of the disease for the individual.",[]]],"sb":[["perceived susceptibility of the individual to the disease",[]],["perceived severity of the consequences of the disease for the individual",[]],["Perceived Susceptibility",[]],["Perceived Severity",[]]],"sp":[["individuals' representations of health and health behaviors",[]]]},{"de":[["Self-identity is another predictor of behavioral intention and actual behavior that has been suggested by identity theorists and has been empirically tested by researchers (Stryker, 1987).",["Stryker, 1987"]],["The strong relationship between self-identity and healthy behavior is in line with the Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger, 1957), which suggests that people try to be consistent with their existing views to reduce dissonance.",[]]],"sb":[["green identity",[]]],"ex":[["I think of myself as a health conscious person",["Sparks, 2000"]],["green consumers",[]],["I think of myself as someone who is concerned with healthy eating",[]]]},{"de":[["This concept was popularized in the post-9/11 context of state concerns about Islamic extremism and used to justify military intervention and surveillance of Muslim communities around the globe",["Kundnani, 2012"]]]},{"rt":[["going down the rabbithole",[]]]},{"sy":[["documentaries",[]]],"sp":[["documentaries",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["genre",[]]]},{"de":[["as a genre",[]],["the creative treatment of actuality",["Grierson, 1946"]]],"sb":[["docudramas",[]]]},{"de":[["Documentaries are a form of representation and recreation of past events.",[]],["documentaries rely on narrating events based on settings revolving around noteworthy people and significant background elements.",["Lipkin 2011"]],["documentaries offer us a performance of memory, as through the process of viewing these documentaries, the memory of the characters becomes ours.",["Lipkin 2011"]],["the commitment that documentaries have towards representing the truth in the real events, draws ethical concerns since they have the ability to shape public memory.",["Lipkin 2011"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["has facilitated the elevation of serial killers to the status of celebrities in contemporary American society",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the crimes of real serial killers have been defined, re-imagined, and re-sold in a multitude of ways, from True Crime books and speculative faction (factual fiction, like Emlyn Williams's account of the \"Moors murderers\" in the 1960s, Beyond Belief) to an abundance of films and television documentaries and frequently gory media coverage",["Connelly 2010, p.4"]],["According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the narrator deviates from the crux of the matter that the implied narrator is trying to convey, thus misleading the audience.",["Otway","2015"]],["The concept of an unreliable narrator becomes even more complex when applied to documentary as it stirs up sensitive questions about truth, lies, and power embedded in authorship",["Otway, 2015"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["audience frames",[]]]},{"sb":[["diagnostic frames",[]],["solution frames",[]],["collective action frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This social constructivist process worked historically in the establishment and use of language in books of various literatures but also in the everyday language of interpersonal communication of the people.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["frame amplification",[]],["frame expansion",[]],["frame alignment",[]],["problematisation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["as a kind of metacommunication, which directed the participants' understanding of their social interaction by current roles and rules.",[]]]},{"sy":[["social media networks",[]]],"sb":[["blogs",[]],["collaborative project management",[]],["enterprise social networking",[]],["business networks",[]],["forums",[]],["microblogs",[]],["photo sharing",[]],["products/services review",[]],["social bookmarking",[]],["social gaming",[]],["social networks",[]],["video sharing",[]],["virtual worlds",[]]]},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["No matter what the researchers did, productivity went up. Even when work conditions were made worse than they were originally, the women worked harder and more efficiently. The secret ingredient? The attention shown to them by all those concerned with the study was the variable which influenced their behaviour",["2","p.372"]],["people who are singled out for a study of any kind improve their performance or behavior not because of any specific condition being tested, but simply because of all of the attention they receive.",["3"]],["The story toldemployees improving their output irrespective of the physical work conditions and pay-is too good to be untrue",[]],["caused increases in performance",["(8, p 12)","8","p 12"]],["the Hawthorne effect has become an urban legend.",[]]],"sy":[["urban legend",[]]],"ex":[["the women produced more and more telephone relays. Although it is hard to pinpoint the reason for this change, since a number of variables were confounded, it seems quite likely that it was largely due to the fact that the women knew they were in an experiment, felt the special attention, and wanted to cooperate.",["3, p 395"]],["It became evident then that the wiring room workers were responding more to the attention given to them by the researchers than to improved working conditions.",["4, p 236","4"]],["No matter what the researchers did, productivity went up. Even when work conditions were made worse than they were originally, the women worked harder and more efficiently. The secret ingredient? The attention shown to them by all those concerned with the study was the variable which influenced their behaviour",["2"]],["The most famous example of a laboratory effect is the Hawthorne study, in which selected factory workers were so pleased at the experimental attentions of the management that they produced steadily more with each new change, regardless of whether it was an improvement.",["1"]],["The highest productivity came with the final change, which took away all breaks, hot lunches, and incentive payment.",["1, p 340"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["this concept is based on the confidence that humans usually behave differently than the fakes, therefore, detecting this behavior will lead to the revealing of the fake accounts",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["conversión",[]],["refuerzo",[]]]},{"rt":[["conversión",[]],["refuerzo",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["selectivity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["escuela de Columbia",[]]]},{"de":[["In some areas, they do not have conscious access to their attitudes. Yet this attitude may be assessed using implicit measures",[]]],"rt":[["Defense motivation",[]]]},{"de":[["Thus, individuals tend to evaluate consistent information as being of a better quality than inconsistent information",["Ditto, Scepansky, Munro, Apanovitch, and Lockhart, 1998;Ditto and Lopez, 1992;Fischer et al., 2005;Ficher, Lea et al., 2011;Schutz-Hardt et al., 2010","Ditto, Scepansky, Munro, Apanovitch, and Lockhart, 1998","Ditto and Lopez, 1992","Fischer et al., 2005","Ficher, Lea et al., 2011","Schutz-Hardt et al., 2010"]],["leads them to prefer exposing themselves to confirmatory information, which seems more credible to them and more important for decision-making.",[]],["For tobacco, nonsmokers were the only ones who made a biased evaluation (assimilation bias).",[]],["leads them to prefer exposing themselves to confirmatory information, which seems more credible to them and more important for decision-making",[]],["individuals tend to evaluate consistent information as being of a better quality than inconsistent information",[]]],"sy":[["biased evaluation",[]],["information evaluation",[]]],"ex":[["They considered that the text on the dangers of passive smoking was of better quality than the one on the lack of dangers.",[]]]},{"de":[["this psychological tension is particularly uncomfortable and generates a desire to reduce it.",[]]],"rt":[["informational dissonance",[]],["decisional dissonance",[]]],"ex":[["a smoker confronted with information on the dangers of smoking may experience dissonance",[]]]},{"rt":[["cognitive dissonance",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive dissonance",[]]]},{"de":[["Once the attitude is constructed, defense is then the chief motivation.",[]],["The present findings tend to support the defense motivation, which generates a biased evaluation of the information and leads people to expose themselves selectively, although this bias only seems to concern consistent information.",[]]],"rt":[["Accuracy motivation",[]]]},{"rt":[["cognitive dissonance",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive dissonance",[]]]},{"de":[["Selective exposure is therefore a dual process: By seeking information that justifies their attitudes, behaviors, or decisions, individuals increase the proportion of consonant elements and decrease the dissonance felt. By avoiding inconsistent information, the individual avoids triggering dissonance or increasing its magnitude",[]],["individuals will expose themselves to information consistent with their behavior and avoid information that may call into question that behavior.",[]],["Selective exposure is therefore a dual process: By seeking information that justifies their attitudes, behaviors, or decisions, individuals increase the proportion of consonant elements and decrease the dissonance felt. By avoiding inconsistent information, the individual avoids triggering dissonance or increasing its magnitude (e.g. Freedman and Sears, 1963;Frey, 1986).",["Freedman and Sears, 1963","Frey, 1986"]]],"ex":[["Selective exposure to information is established when the individual selects more consistent than inconsistent information.",[]],["When no consistent information is offered, selective exposure corresponds to an avoidance of inconsistent information",["Bardin, Perrissol, Fos, and Py, 2017"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the state of dissonance has drivelike properties, motivating people to seek its reduction",[]],["The holding of two or more inconsistent cognitions arouses the state of cognitive dissonance, which is experienced as uncomfortable tension. This tension has drivelike properties and must be reduced.",[]],["The greater the dissonance, the greater the urgency to make the cognitive changes necessary to reduce the unpleasant tension state.",[]],["dissonance is a ubiquitous drive state that has to be reduced",[]]],"rt":[["social comparison",[]],["cognitive inconsistency",[]],["New Look view",[]]]},{"de":[["With Festinger's use of the concept of cognitive representations, attitudes, behaviors, social mores, communications -that is, virtually any phenomenon that people can perceive -all are grist for the mill of cognitive dissonance.",[]]]},{"de":[["The three important features of his concept were that (1) it is experienced as discomfort, (2) it propels people to take action and (3) people feel more comfortable after the action has been taken.",[]],["Actions have consequences and it is the perception of those consequences that drives the dissonance process.",[]],["Being responsible for an aversive consequence does not merely facilitate dissonance, it is dissonance.",[]]],"sy":[["cognitive dissonance",[]]]},{"de":[["Just as people need to reduce their thirst by drinking and their hunger by eating, people who perceive inconsistency must find a way to reduce it.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["people change their attitudes not only because of the legitimacy of the arguments they hear but also to satisfy a basic motivational drive.",[]],["people are motivated to influence others or to succumb to others' influence in order to satisfy their drive to have correct and appropriate opinions.",[]]],"rt":[["Cognitive dissonance",[]]]},{"de":[["the way people can experience dissonance on behalf of members of their social group",["Cooper and Hogg (2007; see also Norton, Monin, Cooper & Hogg, 2003;Monin, Norton, Cooper & Hogg, 2004)"]]],"rt":[["dissonance theory",[]],["social identity theory",[]]]},{"de":[["Vicarious hypocrisy has the potential to be a magnifier; to spread the motivation efficiently to an entire group of people simultaneously.",[]],["Vicarious hypocrisy raises an exciting new possibility for translating dissonance theory from experimental research to real-life application that would help people work to improve their health.",[]]],"rt":[["personal hypocrisy",[]],["social identity",[]],["vicarious dissonance",[]]],"ex":[["Focella et al. (2016) established vicarious hypocrisy by having participants witness a fellow student make a public pro-attitudinal statement about using sunscreen whenever one goes outdoors. The participants also witnessed the speaker admit that there had been occasions when she failed to follow her own advice -that is, she had forgotten or neglected to use sunscreen in the past.",["Focella et al. (2016)"]]]},{"de":[["functions as a critical mechanism in resisting persuasion attempts (Compton & Pfau, 2005)",[]]],"sp":[["dimension of attitude strength",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It demonstrates the code of social and professional ethics that governs employment in the media.",[]]],"rt":[["information ethics",[]]]},{"de":[["media literacy is based on a wide range of knowledge that simplifies the process of managing media information, provides us with a full understanding of media and media communication, enhances our appreciation of media goods, and enhances our aesthetic sense",["Tan, Xing, Zhang, et al., 2012"]],["Media literacy is seen as a technique to defend people against the \"bad\" impacts of the media when governmental entities are in control of its creation and administration.",[]]],"rt":[["media knowledge",[]]],"sb":[["Personal media literacy",[]],["organizational media literacy",[]],["Network media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["The formal system of media control may be codified in the form of general laws or laws pertaining specifically to the media, or it may be set in media management rules, measures, notifications, or other documents.",[]]]},{"de":[["It incorporates the same information consumption and critique abilities as conventional media, in addition to expertise in network information generation, network communication, social cooperation, and network involvement.",[]]],"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["This method represents a deeper and more widespread form of indoctrination on a global scale, leading to more significant roles for women in terrorism.",[]],["Cyber indoctrination is highly effective, reaching a vast audience through internet access across a global network.",[]],["Furthermore, it offers a level of direct security, making it challenging to detect indoctrination perpetrators.",[]]],"rt":[["online indoctrination",[]]],"sb":[["pseudo-religious cyber indoctrination",[]]]},{"sb":[["ideological indoctrination",[]]]},{},{"de":[["recognizing them as victims (manus manistra) rather than perpetrators.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These characteristics typically include having a founder, primarily written texts, worship rituals, and faith-based beliefs.",["62"]]],"sy":[["pseudo religism",["63"]]],"ex":[["Theosophy",["63"]],["Corporate Kabbalism",["63"]],["Christian Science",["63"]],["Takfiri ideology",["63"]],["Scientology",["63"]]]},{"de":[["The method of indoctrination they employed involved sharing posts that linked the oppression of the ummah (Islamic society) by nonbelievers with the concept of jihad as a means to combat such oppression.",["31"]]]},{"de":[["These characteristics typically include having a founder, primarily written texts, worship rituals, and faith-based beliefs.",["62"]],["Pseudo-religism serves as an alternative designation for pseudo-religion, where the prefix 'pseudo' signifies a striking yet deceptive similarity, representing a notably false form but bearing resemblance.",["69"]],["Pseudo-religism terrorism is rooted in doctrines that were initially rejected or not aligned with mainstream religious teachings.",["65"]],["The term 'pseudo' indicates a deceptive similarity, signifying that it appears similar but is misleading.",[]]],"sy":[["pseudo-religion",["63","68","69"]]],"rt":[["religion",["68","69"]]],"ex":[["Theosophy, Corporate Kabbalism, Christian Science, Takfiri ideology, and Scientology.",["63"]]]},{"de":[["Pseudo-religism cyber indoctrination, in particular, has proven to be highly influential in radicalizing women and driving them toward terrorism.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["social rehabilitation for cyber indoctrination victims",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the realm of Islamic jurisprudence, such instances of takfir carry significant consequences, impacting matters such as inheritance, marriage, the permissibility of killing, and more. This doctrine serves as a shield for terrorist groups, providing a purported legal basis for their actions, including acts such as killing, confiscation of property, and defacement, which they justify by categorizing individuals who leave the faith as disbelievers (kafir murtad).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Terrorism creates an atmosphere of terror or fear in society by killing, looting, and imprisoning people. It also destroys vital installations, such as public facilities.",["7"]],["It has caused destruction and induced terror in people.",[]],["Terrorism is a tactic of intimidation with a specific systematic focus on particular interests.",["4"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["producing metaphors involves constructing an (implicit) analogy mediated through a relationship of similarity between elements.",[]],["the application of a strange term either transferred from the genus and applied to the species or from the species and applied to the genus, or from one species to another or else by analogy",["2"]],["similes are a sort of metaphor, because «they always consist of two terms, like the proportional metaphor»",["3"]],["movement, in essence, is the fundamental characteristic of the \"metaphorical genus\", enabling it to encompass linguistic phenomena that differ greatly, well beyond the analogical transposition which today we call metaphor.",[]],["as a form of movement, the Aristotelian metaphor primarily serves as a disruptive element within a framework of pre-established relations -it disturbs existing logical connections.",[]],["the metaphor has to disturb a whole network by means of an aberrant attribution",["9"]]],"sy":[["metapherein",[]]],"rt":[["similes",[]],["proportional metaphor",[]],["analogical knowledge",[]],["categorical thinking",[]],["literal speech",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["On one hand, there is an undeniable rejection of rhetoric, as expressed by John Locke in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), where he states that rhetorical applications only serve «to insinuate wrong ideas, move the passions, and thereby mislead the judgment», and are therefore «perfect cheats»",["26"]]]},{"de":[["Simile is fundamentally a discursive phenomenon; mere substitution at the level of naming does not apply to it.",[]]],"sp":[["metaphor",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["general crowds",[]]]},{"rt":[["randomly selected crowds",[]]],"sb":[["crowds balanced by ideology",[]],["composed of people with high political knowledge",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["collective intelligence",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The domain of the ability is specific because the trustee may be highly competent in some technical area, affording that person trust on tasks related to that area.",[]],["trust is domain specific",["Zand, 1972"]]],"sy":[["competencies",[]],["competence",[]],["Expertness",[]],["Judgment or competence",[]]],"rt":[["trustworthiness",[]]],"ex":[["the trustee may be highly competent in some technical area, affording that person trust on tasks related to that area. However, the trustee may have little aptitude, training, or experience in another area, for instance, in interpersonal communication.",[]]]},{"de":[["Benevolence suggests that the trustee has some specific attachment to the trustor.",[]],["Benevolence is the perception of a positive orientation of the trustee toward the trustor.",[]],["connotes a personal orientation that is integral to the proposed model",[]]],"sy":[["Trustworthy intentions",[]],["intention to produce",[]],["motives",[]],["goodwill",[]],["caring",[]],["altruism",[]],["loyalty",[]]],"rt":[["altruism",[]],["caring",[]],["goodwill",[]]],"ex":[["the relationship between a mentor (trustee) and a protege (trustor). The mentor wants to help the protege, even though the mentor is not required to be helpful, and there is no extrinsic reward for the mentor.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The relationship between integrity and trust involves the trustor's perception that the trustee adheres to a set of principles that the trustor finds acceptable.",[]],["The issue of acceptability precludes the argument that a party who is committed solely to the principle of profit seeking at all costs would be judged high in integrity",[]],["consistency of the party's past actions, credible communications about the trustee from other parties, belief that the trustee has a strong sense of justice, and the extent to which the party's actions are congruent with his or her words all affect the degree to which the party is judged to have integrity.",[]]],"rt":[["consistency",[]],["character",[]],["honesty",[]],["reliability",[]]],"sb":[["moral integrity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["propensity to trust",[]]]},{"de":[["This definition of trust is applicable to a relationship with another identifiable party who is perceived to act and react with volition toward the trustor.",[]],["Trust is not taking risk per se, but rather it is a willingness to take risk.",[]],["To be meaningful, trust must go beyond predictability (Deutsch, 1958).",[]],["What is missing from such an approach is the willingness to take a risk in the relationship and to be vulnerable.",[]],["trust is a willingness to be vulnerable to another party, but there is no risk involved with holding such an attitude.",[]],["trust as considered in this model is unidirectional: from a given trustor to a given trustee",[]],["Being vulnerable (Boss, 1978;Zand, 1972) implies that there is something of importance to be lost. Making oneself vulnerable is taking risk. Trust is not taking risk per se, but rather it is a willingness to take risk.",[]],["Luhmann argued that trust differs from confidence because it requires a previous engagement on a person's part, recognizing and accepting that risk exists.",[]],["there is no risk involved with holding such an attitude.",[]]],"sy":[["cooperation",[]],["confidence",[]],["predictability",[]]],"rt":[["cooperation",[]],["confidence",[]],["predictability",[]],["behavioral trust",[]],["perception of risk",[]],["trustworthiness",[]],["risk",[]],["vulnerability",[]],["willingness to be vulnerable",[]]],"sb":[["blind faith",[]]]},{"de":[["If a trustee is perceived as high on all three factors, it is argued here that the trustee will be perceived as quite trustworthy.",[]]],"rt":[["expertise",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The videos are usually manipulated by employing the use of machine learning, which not only replaces people in various scenes but also superimposes one video scene over the other.",[]],["Indeed, deep fakes form one of the several opportunities for developing falsehood as well as false accounts that may not be easily noticed by normal human eyes and caused great fear and panic.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["is among the heuristic that is related to modality of presentation",[]],["The realism heuristic is among the heuristic that is related to modality of presentation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["opinion",["(Fowler, 1991, p. 208)"]],["comment",["(Fowler, 1991, p. 208)"]],["leading article",["(Fowler, 1991, p. 208)"]]]},{"de":[["As official representatives of newspapers, editorials deal with a single event or issue at a time, supposedly, free of any elements of objectivity and indicate socio-political importance that a newspaper gives to an event",["van Dijk, 1989"]],["Thus, their primary objective is to deliver official standpoints of a newspaper, (re)shape public opinion, set political agenda, influence social debates and readers' decision making",["van Dijk, 1995a"]],["They are also constructive in building socio-cultural harmony within a society and among various group members by strengthening their ideological interests",["van Dijk, 1998a(van Dijk, , 1998b)"]],["Editorials claim to speak \"their own point of view\", which distinguishes them from other newspaper items like new reporting and feature writings",["Fowler, 1991, p. 208"]],["As official representatives of newspapers, editorials deal with a single event or issue at a time, supposedly, free of any elements of objectivity and indicate socio-political importance that a newspaper gives to an event (van Dijk, 1989).",["van Dijk, 1989"]],["Thus, their primary objective is to deliver official standpoints of a newspaper, (re)shape public opinion, set political agenda, influence social debates and readers' decision making (van Dijk, 1995a).",["van Dijk, 1995a"]]],"rt":[["new reporting",[]],["feature writings",[]]]},{"de":[["These frames are employed by journalists for organising \"strips of the everyday world, a strip being an arbitrary slice or cut from the stream of on-going activity\"",["10-11"]]]},{"de":[["Framing of any particular event is a useful tool or approach to be learned and understood by not only researchers but also those budding scholars who intend to learn more about how it works",[]]],"rt":[["media effect",[]],["news angles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["gatekeeping mechanism in framing news events (Ha, 2013) that enables editors to decide about presenting a particular view of the world (Shoemaker & Vos, 2009)",["Ha, 2013","Shoemaker & Vos, 2009"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It is intentionally produced by controlling the means of mass communication. Its power can be realized through strategies used in producing the media content",["van Dijk, 1995b"]],["Its power can be realized through strategies used in producing the media content",["van Dijk, 1995b"]]]},{},{"de":[["Such an influential bias reshapes the audiences' mind as desired by the media organisations.",[]]],"rt":[["slanted frames",[]]]},{"de":[["News is a major language genre in the media.",[]],["News output is the primary product of news organisations.",[]],["Both the media organisation and audiences consider news as the focus of the media content",["Bell, 1991"]],["The media news in particular can be perceived as a type of news information representing persons or events, and a news text or discourse, which represents recently occurring events made public through the news media.",[]],["News may also be understood as an everyday interpretation of events, considered potentially newsworthy material by newsmen, processed by news organisations",["Tuchman, 1997"]],["news is not simply a \"value-free reflection\" of realties and for this reason there exists a strong tendency of bias in the media descriptions of events",["Fowler, 1991, p. 4"]],["It is determined by values that are reflected in a language used to tell the news.",[]],["News is a major language genre in the media. It frames stories of our day, covers the pages of newspapers and fills out the hours of times on radio and television.",[]],["News reflects social, economic, and ideological values in a way discourse is produced in a particular society through the media with special attention given to social and political elites, elite organisations, and elite countries.",[]]]},{"de":[["The 'how' refers to constantly comparing units/themes/categories/frames, elaborating and refining categories, finding relationship between themes/categories and simplifying the data",["Wimmer & Dominick, 2014"]],["The 'what', as argued by Linstrõm and Marais, is guided by the research problem that needs investigation.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["specifically, to frame means to promote a problem definition, provide causal interpretation, and suggest moral evaluation or recommendations (Entman, 1993).",[]],["Or, framing means to select or highlight certain features of events or issues and make connections among them to propagate a specific interpretation, evaluation or solution (Entman, 2003).",[]]]},{"de":[["keywords like Arab Spring, uprisings, revolutions, unrest, protests, protesters and so on.",["Mahata, Shah, Kuriakose, Zimmermann, & Talburt, 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["It leverages Deep Neural Networks (DNN), generative adversarial networks (GANs), and other advanced algorithms to create highly realistic synthetic media",["Kietzmann, et al., 2020","Jones, 2020","Veerasamy & Pieterse., 2022"]],["This technology employs a two-step process: training a DNN on a large dataset of real media to learn patterns and then using that knowledge to generate new content by altering or replacing elements within the media",["Nowroozi et al ., 2022"]],["It leverages Deep Neural Networks (DNN), generative adversarial networks (GANs), and other advanced algorithms to create highly realistic synthetic media (Kietzmann, et al., 2020;Jones, 2020;Veerasamy & Pieterse., 2022).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Techniques such as analyzing noise patterns, inconsistencies in lighting and shadows, and discrepancies in facial movements can help detect potential deepfake content.",[]],["Digital forensics experts use specialized tools to scrutinize the metadata, compression artifacts, and digital footprints left behind during the creation or modification of deepfake media",["Zhang et al., 2023"]],["Forensic analysis may require technical expertise and specialized tools, making it less accessible to non-experts",["Kayes et al., 2022"]],["Deepfake creators can employ sophisticated techniques to minimize or disguise forensic traces, making it challenging to detect manipulations",["Tahir et al., 2021","Zhou et al ., 2018"]],["It can detect specific anomalies or artifacts that may indicate manipulation",["Cao et al., 2020"]],["Techniques such as analyzing noise patterns, inconsistencies in lighting and shadows, and discrepancies in facial movements can help detect potential deepfake content. Digital forensics experts use specialized tools to scrutinize the metadata, compression artifacts, and digital footprints left behind during the creation or modification of deepfake media (Zhang et al., 2023).",[]]]},{"de":[["This non-consensual use of deepfakes not only violates personal privacy but also has severe emotional and psychological consequences for the individuals targeted.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These systems leverage optimized algorithms and hardware acceleration to analyze media streams in live settings, such as video conferences or social media platforms.",["73"]]]},{"de":[["User-reported mechanisms leverage the collective intelligence of users to identify and report suspicious content",["Stroebel et al., 2023"]],["User-reported mechanisms can serve as an early warning system for emerging deepfake trends or new manipulation techniques",["Dang Nguyen et al., 2015"]]]},{"de":[["grupo de personas nacidas después de 1980 y que han crecido influenciadas por la era de la información",[]]]},{"de":[["En ACD el enfoque es sobre relaciones de poder, o más bien sobre el abuso de poder o dominación entre grupos sociales.",[]],["En ACD nos interesa cómo la dominación social se (re)produce con el discurso.",[]],["El análisis crítico de esos discursos facilita la comprensión, y a veces la transformación de esas relaciones de poder.",[]],["El ACD no solamente describe o explica la dominación, sino que activamente toma posición, por ejemplo en la oposición a la desigualdad social.",[]],["En ACD nos interesa cómo la dominación social se (re)produce con el discurso. El análisis crítico de esos discursos facilita la comprensión, y a veces la transformación de esas relaciones de poder.",[]],["no es una aproximación, escuela, secta o método, sino nada más que una perspectiva y posición crítica en el análisis del discurso.",[]]],"sy":[["perspectiva y posición crítica en el análisis del discurso",[]]]},{},{"de":[["la representación no es simplemente una copia (mental, discursiva) de la \"realidad\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["necesitan análisis cognitivo y análisis social, usando las teorías más sofisticadas que tenemos en la psicología y en las ciencias sociales.",[]],["No podemos describir y explicar los contenidos y las estructuras de esas representaciones solamente en términos puramente cognitivos, sino también en términos de sus funciones sociales, y de las condiciones y modos de la reproducción de grupos o instituciones.",[]],["son representaciones compartidas por (miembros de) grupos y culturas",[]],["las representaciones sociales que tenemos sobre inmigrantes o sobre la inmigración no solamente son estructuras mentales (conocimientos, ideologías, opiniones sociales, etc.) sobre un grupo o sobre un fenómeno social, sino que también tienen esas estructuras (por ejemplo de polarización entre Nosotros y Ellos) por sus funciones en la reproducción social de la dominación, como en los actos discriminatorios que definen el racismo.",[]]],"rt":[["estructuras mentales (conocimientos, ideologías, opiniones sociales, etc.)",[]],["estructuras (por ejemplo de polarización entre Nosotros y Ellos)",[]]],"ex":[["las representaciones sociales que tenemos sobre inmigrantes o sobre la inmigración",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the presumption of innocence is an internationally recognized principle of criminal proceedings.",[]],["it pursues a specific goal -to prevent the formation of a biased opinion of both the court and society regarding the guilt of a person.",[]],["prevents the negative impact of biased statements made in connection with the consideration of certain criminal cases on the fairness of the trial",["1"]],["preventing the formation of premature (before the verdict is passed) public opinion on the guilt/ innocence of the accused, which may also negatively affect the impartiality of the trial",[]],["protection of persons who have been acquitted or whose proceedings have been closed on rehabilitative grounds from being treated as perpetrators of a criminal offence.",[]],["The CPC of Ukraine defines the moment when the verdict of the court of first instance comes into force: 1) if no appeal has been filed, then after the deadline for filing an appeal (thirty days) has expired; 2) if an appeal has been filed against a court decision, and it has not been cancelled, then the verdict of the court of first instance comes into force after the relevant decision has been made by the court of appeal",[]],["the rules of the presumption of innocence apply to cases of closure of criminal proceedings.",[]],["The implementation of the presumption of innocence principle is a prerequisite for a fair court decision, as it prevents the formation of an accusatory judicial bias or premature public opinion on the guilt (innocence) of the accused, and ensures respect for the court decision.",[]],["The presumption of innocence has a certain time limit. Thus, it is valid until the court verdict enters into force.",[]],["the purpose of the presumption of innocence is to: ensure a fair trial by preventing accusatory judicial bias; prevent the formation of premature public opinion regarding the guilt/innocence of the accused, which may adversely affect the impartiality of the court; and protect persons who have been acquitted or whose proceedings have been closed on rehabilitative grounds.",["European Court of Human Rights"]],["the presumption of innocence prohibits the court from forming a premature opinion about the guilt of a person in committing a criminal offence.",[]],["this guarantee is valid until the court verdict enters into force (it is valid at the stage of pre-trial investigation, preparatory court proceedings, trial, and appeal proceedings)",[]],["This indicates that the right to the presumption of innocence is valid until the verdict enters into force. In other words, the principle of presumption of innocence applies to the following stages of criminal proceedings: pre-trial investigation, preparatory proceedings, trial, and appeal proceedings (if the parties file an appeal).",[]],["finding a person guilty by a court verdict that has entered into force does not cancel the right to be treated as an innocent person, which he or she had before the entry into force of this court verdict",[]],["the rules of presumption of innocence no longer apply to the stage of cassation review of a court decision.",[]]],"rt":[["right to a fair trial",[]],["fair trial",[]],["rule of law",[]],["pre-trial investigation",[]],["preparatory court proceedings",[]],["trial",[]],["appeal proceedings",[]],["cassation review",[]]],"sb":[["pre-trial investigation, preparatory proceedings, trial, and appeal proceedings (if the parties file an appeal)",[]]],"sp":[["right to a fair trial",[]],["the right to a fair trial",[]]],"ex":[["the presumption of innocence cannot cease to apply at the appeal stage because the accused was convicted in the first instance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Beispiele sind \"wir\", \"es\" oder \"man\" oder aber Artikel, in denen zwar ein Nutzen oder ein Schaden benannt werden, der hierfür verantwortliche Akteur aber nicht klar ersichtlich wird.",[]]],"ex":[["Artikel, in denen zwar ein Nutzen oder ein Schaden benannt werden, der hierfür verantwortliche Akteur aber nicht klar ersichtlich wird",[]]]},{"de":[["Die Entman-Definition hat den Vorteil, dass sie auf Grund ihrer weiten Verbreitung sozusagen das Bindeglied zwischen verschiedenen Forschungsrichtungen ist und demnach auch als Grundlage für die immer wieder eingeforderten Integrationsbemühungen dienen kann.",[]],["Wir nehmen an, dass sich die empirischen Ausprägungen der als Variablen operationalisierten und mittels einer Inhaltsanalyse erfassten Frame-Elemente in einer je charakteristischen Weise gruppieren und so zu verschiedenen Mustern formen können.",[]],["Die hier vorgeschlagene Methode geht davon aus, dass sich die durch eine Inhaltsanalyse erfassten Frame-Elemente in einer charakteristischen Weise gruppieren und so zu einem Muster formen.",[]],["Frames werden an vier verschiedenen Punkten des Kommunikationsprozesses lokalisiert: beim Kommunikator (1), beim Journalisten (2), beim Medieninhalt/Text (3) und beim Rezipienten (4).",[]]],"sy":[["Frame-Konzept",[]]],"rt":[["Problemdefinition",[]],["kausale Attribution",[]],["Handlungsanweisung",[]],["Frame-Elemente",[]],["Medien-Frames",[]]],"ex":[["Problemdefinition beim Thema Drogen die Zunahme von Beschaffungskriminalität",[]],["kausale Attribution beschuldigte die Drogenpolitik der Bundesregierung",[]],["moralische Evaluation würde negativ ausfallen",[]],["Handlungsforderungen richteten sich auf eine schärfere Gesetzgebung",[]]]},{"de":[["Bei diesem Verfahren werden Frames mit Hilfe von datenreduzierenden Verfahren aus dem gesamten Textmaterial extrahiert.",[]],["Beim Frame-Mapping werden zusammen auftretende Wörter durch Computeralgorithmen identifiziert.",[]],["der Eindruck, dass die Objektivität des Frame-Mappings auf Kosten der Inhaltsvalidität geht.",[]]],"sp":[["quantitative Methode",[]]]},{"sp":[["rhetorische Strukturen",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Frame",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Bei politisch-militärischer Rahmung fehlt positiveInstrumentalität in Bezug auf Humanität, was in einer geringeren Legitimierung münden dürfte.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["traditionale, charismatische und rational-legale Herrschaft",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Spezifische Unterstützung bezieht sich auf die Zufriedenheit der Bürger mit konkreten politischen Outputs (z. B. Gesetzen) bzw. Leistungen der Herrschaftsträger.",[]]],"sb":[["diffuse und spezifische Arten politischer Unterstützung",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["somit antizipieren sie soziale Sanktionen in geringerem Maße und kommunizieren in der Folge enthemmter",["Lapidot-Lefler & Barak, 2012","Prentice-Dunn & Rogers, 1982"]]]},{"rt":[["indirect reaction",[]]]},{"sp":[["direkte Reaktionsformen",[]]]},{"sp":[["direkte Reaktionsformen",[]]]},{"de":[["Weil das Risiko und die sozialen Folgen einer negativen Bewertung mit zunehmender Beobachterzahl steigen, wird die Bewertungsangst größer, wenn mehr Personen anwesend sind",["Burn, 2009"]]]},{"rt":[["direct (and public) reaction",[]]]},{"de":[["wenn de facto eine Notsituation vorliegt, aber keiner der Bystander eingreift, weil jeder vermutet, dass die jeweils anderen die Situation für harmlos halten",["Fischer et al., 2011","Latané & Darley, 1970"]]]},{"de":[["Dies liegt in einer verminderten sozialen Orientierung begründet, da etwa der Status des Gegenübers eingeschränkt wahrnehmbar ist und zugleich unmittelbare soziale Sanktionen eingeschränkt (sichtbar) sind",["Sproull & Kiesler, 1986"]]]},{},{"de":[["popularity is directly attached to an entity. Thus, it represents an absolute measure because it allows an entity to be rated as vivid without comparing it to another entity.",[]]],"sy":[["bottom-up signal for attention",[]]],"rt":[["vividness",[]]]},{"rt":[["implicit comparison",[]]],"ex":[["a user might compare this with either another article containing 512 Likes (explicit comparison)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["relevance cues",[]]]},{"sp":[["relevance cues",[]]]},{"de":[["relevance cues designated by users indicate a level of popularity among those users.",[]]],"sy":[["audienceresponse cues",["Nabi and Hendriks (2003)"]]],"sp":[["relevance cues",[]]]},{"rt":[["explicit comparison",[]]],"ex":[["a user might compare this with either another article containing 512 Likes (explicit comparison) or with his/her perception of New York Times articles generally receiving several hundred Likes (implicit comparison).",[]]]},{"sp":[["relevance cues",[]]]},{"sp":[["relevance cues",[]]]},{"de":[["Relevant factors that could influence an individual's level of involvement include the availability of alternatives (2 v. 200 available products), the necessity of the decision (mandatory purchase decision of a new refrigerator v. optional viewing of information, such as a product description or a news article), and its reversibility.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["but these cues do not necessarily depict relevance",["Petty & Cacioppo, 1986"]]]},{"de":[["such PCs are put to algorithmic use within filtered online environments such as social network sites; thus, they can also serve as indirect signals for users through the selection and arrangement of information based on its popularity",["Napoli, 2010"]],["As prior research shows, PCs are both directly and indirectly able to influence users' perceptions of the entity associated with PCs.",[]],["Hence, they might affect the users' subsequent decisions in terms of selection, usage, and evaluations.",[]],["PCs represent meta-information about the popularity of an entity (e.g., a product, social-media post, or news article).",[]],["From a general perspective, the informational value of PCs merely can be seen as a cue for further interpretation",[]],["PCs reveal either intended user-generated information (e.g., ratings) or unintended (observed) user-generated information (e.g., number of clicks).",[]],["Thus, their value could be user-generated, observed, or a (nontransparent) combination of the two.",[]],["PCs depict metrics rather than qualitative data (e.g., comments).",[]],["That said, PCs are not necessarily presented as plain numbers. Instead, they might also be illustrated, for instance as an icon or as a graphic image.",[]],["popularity implies an indication of relevance, be it positive or negative, among a population.",[]],["it refers to a population among which the perceived popularity is valid.",[]],["First, PCs that are actually deployed (rather than PCs that cannot be found in recent online environments) allow recipients to draw upon the knowledge they gained from prior usage.",[]],["The more experience users have with PCs, the better they are able to use them in their selection and navigation behavior.",[]],["the effectiveness of PCs depends on the general traits or situational interests and characteristics of the user.",[]]],"sy":[["bandwagon cues",["Kim & Sundar, 2014"]],["helpfulness ratings",["Walther, Liang, Ganster, Wohn, & Emington, 2012"]],["social media metrics",["Stavrositu & Kim, 2014"]],["social endorsement cues",["Messing & Westwood, 2014, p. 1046"]],["PCs",[]],["indirect social information",[]],["popularity cues",[]]],"rt":[["social signals",[]],["relevance cues",[]]],"sp":[["relevance cues",[]]],"ex":[["900,000 Likes for Mark Zuckerberg's latest Facebook post",[]],["an average of 2 out of 5 stars by 75 users for a restaurant on Yelp",[]],["a 9.1 film rating by 23,000 movie fans on IMDB",[]],["Likes for a post",[]],["star ratings",[]],["Likes for a comment",[]],["number of clicks",[]],["number of shares",[]],["number of comments",[]],["clicks, Likes, comments, shares, Tweets, favorites, Retweets, rating scales, others",[]],["Likes",[]],["Shares",[]],["clicks",[]],["Facebook Likes",[]],["comments",[]],["rating scales",[]],["five-star rating scales",[]],["clicks, Likes, comments, shares, Tweets, favorites, Retweets, rating scales",[]],["rate movies on IMDB",[]],["give Likes for Facebook posts",[]],["rate products they bought on Amazon",[]]],"sb":[["external relevance cues designated by users",[]]]},{"de":[["They offer information regardless of the actual elaboration of the content.",[]],["subsuming PCs under the umbrella concept of relevance cues",[]]],"sb":[["internal relevance cues",[]],["external relevance cues designated by the originator of a message",[]],["external relevance cues designated by intermediaries",[]],["external relevance cues designated by users",[]],["Popularity cues",[]],["PCs",[]],["internal relevance cues designated by the originator of a message",[]]]},{"de":[["salience subsequently leads people to derive rank-orders; thus, it is attached to an individual person rather than the issue itself (Evatt, 1997;Kiousis, 2004).",["Evatt, 1997","Kiousis, 2004"]],["Originally, the concept of salience was only applicable to issues. For the PC context, however, salience can be ascribed to issues as well as to posts, products, or, broadly speaking, entities.",[]],["Among other factors, salience subsequently leads people to derive rank-orders; thus, it is attached to an individual person rather than the issue itself (Evatt, 1997;Kiousis, 2004).",["Evatt, 1997","Kiousis, 2004"]],["For the PC context, however, salience can be ascribed to issues as well as to posts, products, or, broadly speaking, entities.",[]]],"sy":[["within-subject indication of popularity",[]]],"rt":[["within-subject salience",[]]]},{"de":[["vividness is an approach that cannot solely explain the attentional processes prompted by PCs.",[]]],"rt":[["between-subjects vividness",[]]]},{"sy":[["top-down attribution of attention",[]]],"rt":[["salience",[]]]},{"de":[["In deliberation's original notion, civility is seen as a basic precondition that is necessary to engage in a free discourse where argument and reason are means to come to a good solution.",[]]],"rt":[["rational discourse",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["uncivil online behavior",[]]]},{"de":[["Gagliardone et al. (2016) emphasize that hate speech is one example for speech that \"goes against\" discussion partners and delegitimizes the right of people or groups to be part of the debate, e.g., by \"belittling, challenging, provoking, teasing them maliciously, or explicitly threatening them.\"",[]],["hate speech is one example for speech that \"goes against\" discussion partners and delegitimizes the right of people or groups to be part of the debate, e.g., by \"belittling, challenging, provoking, teasing them maliciously, or explicitly threatening them.\"",["Gagliardone et al., 2016"]]],"rt":[["incivility",[]]],"sp":[["incivility",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["uncivil expressions of disaffirmation and frustration",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]],["flaming",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["open-space office against closed-door offices; employees freely communicating with each other against the muted environment; and formal clothing against informal clothing",[]],["Visible organizational structures (easy to spot, but difficult to interpret and difficult to decipher)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["There is no other definition in ontology, epistemology, and methodology; both approaches [41] have a common understanding of the complex world experience from the perspective of the individuals having this experience.",["41"]]],"sy":[["interpretative paradigm",["19"]]]},{"de":[["It is a matter of social constructivism, as individuals try to justify their own values and beliefs.",[]]],"sp":[["realism",[]]]},{"sp":[["realism",[]]]},{"rt":[["ontology",[]]]},{"ex":[["aims; technology; structure; skills and abilities; financial resources; socialization and / or acculturation experience; wriĴen documents; training, organizational structure, etc.",[]]]},{"rt":[["formal elements of organizational culture",["44"]]]},{"ex":[["aĴitudes; values; feelings -anger, fear, frustration, etc .; interaction; group standards, problem employees; socialization / acculturation, which manifests itself in the human resources management division activities; the same social status people; groups outside work, etc.",[]]]},{"de":[["With this philosophical point of view, the researchers take into account their views and values so that they could justify the problem posed in the research",["18"]]],"sy":[["social constructionism",[]]],"ex":[["This type of philosophical approach makes it possible to understand specific business situations. Using it, the researchers use small data samples and assess them very carefully in order to grasp the attitudes of larger population segments",["38"]]]},{"de":[["The greatest attention here is given to understanding of the ways through which people experience the social world.",[]],["Interpretivist research philosophy is based on the principle which states that the researcher performs a specific role in observing the social world.",[]]]},{"rt":[["original values, beliefs, and assumptions of its founders and key leaders",[]]]},{"rt":[["epistemology",[]]]},{"de":[["Positivist philosophical approach is most closely associated with the observations and experiments, used for collection of numerical data",["18"]]],"sy":[["objectivism",[]]]},{"de":[["In this research philosophy, the scientist is an objective analyst and, on the basis of it, dissociates himself from personal values and works independently.",[]]]},{"de":[["since there are many ways of the world outlook and it is impossible to prove that one of them is more correct than the other, it should be stated only that in the science development process, they change each other.",["15","16"]]]},{"de":[["It claims that the choice of research philosophy is mostly determined by the research problem.",[]],["In this research philosophy, the practical results are considered important [5].",["5"]],["The truth is what is currently in action; it does not depend on the mind that is not subject to reality and the mind dualism.",["5"]],["In this research philosophy, the practical results are considered important",["5"]]]},{"sb":[["Direct realism",[]],["critical realism",["40"]]]},{},{"de":[["all knowledge is related to the one who knows and can be understood only in terms of directly related individuals; the truth is socially created through multiple interpretations of knowledge objects created in this way, and therefore they change over time",["32"]]],"ex":[["scientists in most cases when analyzing organizational culture communication and dissemination examine the behavior, language, and other informal aspects that need to be observed, understood, and interpreted.",["43"]]]},{"sy":[["co-viewing mediation",[]]],"sp":[["parental mediation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Beliefs are the cognitive dimension of attitudes, guiding individual's behavior and choices.",[]]]},{"sb":[["enabling (or instructive) mediation",[]],["restrictive mediation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["While restrictive mediation can be effective in reducing children's exposure to online risks, it has numerous side-effects, because it limits children's opportunities to develop digital literacy and build resilience and discourages children's agency within the childparent relationship.",["57"]]],"rt":[["active mediation",[]]],"ex":[["limiting access to media",["6"]]]},{},{"de":[["These tendencies are known to propagate stereotypes and bias over fairness, accuracy, and objectivity.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Ultimately, peace journalism creates environments in which people accept to share experiences, respect differences, employ ethics, and to focus on non-violent actions that lead to conflict and, above all, simply to love one another.",[]],["van de Veen stresses that, the practice of peace journalism is not about taking sides in reporting a conflict, but to report on the side of peace.",[]],["the practice of peace journalism is not about taking sides in reporting a conflict, but to report on the side of peace.",[]],["peace journalism has taken hold as a means to instill journalistic standards in reporters covering conflicts, including identifying of sources for stories and consequences of media coverage.",[]],["To be effective, training emphasizes non-violence and creativity as reporters' imperatives.",[]],["It provides a new road map, which traces the connections between journalists, their sources, the stories they cover, and the consequences of their reporting.",[]],["it is critical in resolving conflicts and forging peace.",[]],["the practice of peace journalism is not about taking sides in reporting a conflict, but to report on the side of peace",[]]],"sy":[["ethics of journalistic intervention",[]]],"sp":[["media culture",[]]]},{"sy":[["opinion",[]],["sentiment",[]],["view",[]]],"ex":[["a firm belief in her party's platform",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["sentiment",[]],["view",[]],["belief",[]]],"ex":[["each expert seemed to have a different opinion",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["-avoid‖",["4"]]]},{},{"sy":[["opinion",[]],["view",[]],["belief",[]]],"ex":[["her feminist sentiments are well-known",[]]]},{"de":[["The goal of sentiment analysis is to detect subjective information contained in various sources and determine the mind-set of an author towards an issue or the overall disposition of a document.",[]],["Sentiment analysis is done on user generated content on the Web which contains opinions, sentiments or views.",[]],["social networks has created a wave of interest in sentiment analysis by both academia and businesses.",[]]],"sy":[["opinion mining",[]],["subjectivity analysis",[]],["appraisal extraction",[]]],"rt":[["genre distinctions",["4"]],["emotion and mood recognition",["4"]],["ranking",["4"]],["relevance computations",["4"]],["perspectives in text",["4"]],["text source identification",["4"]],["Subjectivity Classification",[]],["Sentiment Classification",[]],["Object Holder Extraction",[]],["Object/ Feature Extraction",[]],["Opinion holder extraction",[]],["Object/Feature Extraction",[]],["market sentiment",[]]]},{"sy":[["subjectivity analysis",[]]]},{"sy":[["opinion",[]],["sentiment",[]],["belief",[]]],"ex":[["very assertive in stating his views",[]]]},{"de":[["noticeably manifest his opinion or assessment of a particular subject through emotive expressions",[]]],"sp":[["interactional",[]],["Interactional metadiscourse",[]]]},{"rt":[["attitude markers",[]]]},{"sp":[["interactional",[]],["Interactional metadiscourse",[]]]},{"de":[["hedges and boosters aim to express the speaker's epistemic stance and degree of commitment toward utterances",[]],["Like boosters, hedges had an evaluative function of demonstrating the degree of commitment toward an utterance.",[]]],"sp":[["interactional",[]],["Interactional metadiscourse",[]]]},{"de":[["the speaker intended to either give examples or explain the topics and issues under discussion in the three settings of speeches.",[]],["were employed as a persuasive approach to rephrase or elaborate particular sections of discourse and help audiences have a better understanding of the topic.",[]],["The realizations such as for example, in other words, such as, I mean, including, and that means were employed as a persuasive approach to rephrase or elaborate particular sections of discourse and help audiences have a better understanding of the topic.",[]],["rephrase or elaborate particular sections of discourse and help audiences have a better understanding of the topic.",[]]],"sp":[["Interactive metadiscourse",[]]],"ex":[["for example",[]],["in other words",[]],["such as",[]],["I mean",[]],["including",[]],["that means",[]]]},{"sp":[["interactional",[]],["Interactional metadiscourse",[]]]},{"de":[["These markers were employed by Obama to guide different audiences through the speeches and refer them to particular information given in different sections of his speech.",[]],["emphasizing and giving special importance or value to an argument through referring backward or forward was likely to establish a more persuasive speech.",[]],["this way of importance marking was considered one of the strategies of building persuasion in political speeches.",[]]],"sp":[["Interactive metadiscourse",[]]],"ex":[["as I said",[]],["what I've said tonight",[]],["I've already talked about",[]],["what I said earlier",[]],["as I just explained",[]],["I've said before",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The speaker attempted to convince audiences to trust his assertion by backing it up with what other famous people or organizations had stated in relation to it.",[]],["supporting arguments through giving reference to, for example, a known person in the community such as John F. Kennedy in Example 11 or a place that makes important decisions such as the U.S. Congress in Example 12 was one of the constitutive elements of political speeches that can help the speaker build persuasive discourse.",[]]],"sp":[["Interactive metadiscourse",[]]]},{"de":[["frame markers appeared in the three subcorpora to help Obama outline his discourse, refer to sequences or stages, show topic shifts, and announce the goals of his speech.",[]],["Another persuasive strategy represented by interactive metadiscourse was the use of frame markers.",[]]],"sp":[["Interactive metadiscourse",[]]]},{"de":[["hedges and boosters aim to express the speaker's epistemic stance and degree of commitment toward utterances",[]],["Like boosters, hedges had an evaluative function of demonstrating the degree of commitment toward an utterance.",[]],["the function of these hedges is metalinguistic because they \"refer to the quality of the language used by the speaker\"",["ibid.: 147","147"]],["However, unlike boosters, hedges were used by Obama to lower the level of certainty in his political statements or claims depending on the context. This persuasive device could enable him to refuse to take full responsibility for the accuracy of certain assertions and to indicate his willingness to express some utterances cautiously through the use of mitigating words such as may, might, can, believe, possibly and perhaps",[]],["However, unlike boosters, hedges were used by Obama to lower the level of certainty in his political statements or claims depending on the context.",[]],["refuse to take full responsibility for the accuracy of certain assertions and to indicate his willingness to express some utterances cautiously",[]]],"sp":[["interactional",[]],["Interactional metadiscourse",[]]],"ex":[["mitigating words such as may, might, can, believe, possibly and perhaps",[]]]},{"sp":[["interactional",[]]]},{"sy":[["our",[]],["us",[]]]},{"sb":[["hedges",[]],["boosters",[]],["attitude markers",[]],["self-mentions",[]],["directives",[]],["shared knowledge",[]],["audience pronouns",[]],["questions",[]],["personal asides",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["hedges",[]],["boosters",[]],["attitude markers",[]],["self-mentions",[]],["directives",[]],["shared knowledge",[]],["audience pronouns",[]],["questions",[]],["personal asides",[]]],"sp":[["metadiscourse",[]]]},{"sb":[["Transitions",[]],["Frame markers",[]],["Code glosses",[]],["Endophoric markers",[]],["evidentials",[]]],"sp":[["metadiscourse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["markers of persuasion and evaluation",[]]],"rt":[["textual category",[]]],"sb":[["hedges",[]],["boosters",[]],["attitude markers",[]],["expressive speech acts",[]]],"sp":[["self-references",[]]]},{"sp":[["interactional metadiscourse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["one of the common linguistic devices that play a pivotal role in helping addressers show their stance toward a proposition, build a cohesive speech, negotiate meaning with the audiences, and pull them into arguments.",[]],["seen as a powerful means by which the speaker constructs social and interpersonal relations with the audience as a discourse participant.",[]]],"rt":[["self-reference",[]],["stance",[]],["engagement",[]]],"sb":[["interactional types of metadiscourse",[]],["interactive types",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Personal asides are considered the main feature of oral language, occurring in real-time and reflecting interlocutors' tendency and ability to directly converse with each other and interrupt each other's utterances based on conversational situations.",[]]],"sp":[["interactional",[]],["Interactional metadiscourse",[]]]},{"de":[["Persuasion is an indispensable part of the interaction between members of a society and it has been conventionally regarded as linguistic behavior and strategy used either to change the attitude and reaction of interlocutors or to affect their belief and degree of agreement.",[]],["persuasion can help build the context in various ways.",[]]],"rt":[["ethos",[]],["pathos",[]],["logos",[]]],"sb":[["persuasion as a social phenomenon",[]],["persuasion as a cognitive phenomenon",[]]]},{"sp":[["persuasion",[]]]},{"sp":[["persuasion",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These types of questions are considered a convincing approach because they were employed to present the main plan of conversational engagement and establish a direct dialogic involvement with audiences to attract their attention",[]],["present the main plan of conversational engagement and establish a direct dialogic involvement with audiences to attract their attention",[]]],"sp":[["interactional",[]],["Interactional metadiscourse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the explicit reference to the speaker and his stance introduces him as a holder of discourse or an active discourse participant, thus making the speech more convincing and influencing",[]]],"sp":[["interactional",[]],["Interactional metadiscourse",[]]]},{"sp":[["interactional",[]],["Interactional metadiscourse",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["interactional metadiscourse",[]]]},{"de":[["markers of persuasion and evaluation",[]]],"rt":[["interpersonal category",[]]],"sb":[["shared knowledge",[]],["signals of textual acts",[]],["personal asides",[]]],"sp":[["self-references",[]]]},{"de":[["Aristotle's rhetorical theory",[]]],"sb":[["logos",[]],["pathos",[]],["ethos",[]]]},{"sb":[["additive",[]],["adversative",[]],["causative",[]]],"sp":[["Interactive metadiscourse",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Selective Exposure Theory",[]]]},{"de":[["The phenomenon of disinformation consists of a continuum that ranges from accidental errors to deliberately produced content.",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",["Melki, 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["The phenomenon of fake news is frequently characterized by its sensationalist nature and the presence of false narratives, distinguishing it as a distinct form of disinformation",["Melki, 2021"]]],"sy":[["false news",[]],["misleading information",[]],["incorrect information",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",["Melki, 2021"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This can include acknowledging the achievements or abilities of an individual, the strengths of an argument, or the positive outcomes of a particular action or policy.",[]]],"sp":[["Attribute subsystem",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attitude domain",[]]]},{"sp":[["Concur",[]]]},{"de":[["Affirmations can be explicit or implicit and take many different forms, including agreeing with the content of a previous statement, echoing or amplifying a particular point of view, or acknowledging the merits of a particular argument.",[]],["This can involve affirming a specific stance or evaluation, supporting a particular argument or perspective, or simply acknowledging the validity of a particular claim or statement.",[]]],"sp":[["Concur subsystem",[]]]},{"de":[["Martin and White's framework describes how language users evaluate and express attitudes toward people, things, and events they talk about or write about.",[]]],"sy":[["Martin and White's framework",[]]]},{"sb":[["Attitude domain",[]],["Graduation domain",[]],["Engagement domain",[]]],"sp":[["Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)",[]],["SFL",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attitude domain",[]]]},{"sb":[["Affect",[]],["Appreciation",[]],["Judgment",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal theory",[]],["Appraisal framework",[]]]},{"sb":[["acknowledge",[]],["distance",[]]],"sp":[["expand",[]]]},{"de":[["The Attribute subsystem thus allows the writer/speaker to acknowledge and assign agency to others rather than claiming credit or responsibility for everything themselves.",[]],["This can take the form of attributing praise or blame to specific individuals or groups and assigning responsibility for certain outcomes or consequences.",[]],["The attribute subsystem, on the other hand, is important for establishing accountability and responsibility in different contexts (Martin & White, 2005).",["Martin & White, 2005"]]],"sb":[["acknowledge subsystem",[]],["distance subsystem",[]]],"sp":[["expand subsystem domain",[]],["expand",[]]]},{"sp":[["Concur",[]]]},{"de":[["Concessions can be used strategically in argumentation to build credibility, establish common ground, or demonstrate fairness or objectivity. They can also be used to soften a particular evaluation or Judgment or to moderate the Force of a particular stance or position.",[]],["This can involve accepting the premise of an argument, acknowledging the merits of a particular perspective or stance, or conceding a particular point to the opposing side.",[]],["Concessions can be used strategically in argumentation to build credibility, establish common ground, or demonstrate fairness or objectivity.",[]],["They can also be used to soften a particular evaluation or Judgment or to moderate the Force of a particular stance or position.",[]]],"sp":[["Concur subsystem",[]]]},{"sb":[["affirm",["2005"]],["concede",["2005"]]],"sp":[["Proclaim",[]],["proclaim subsystem",[]]],"ex":[["a speaker might use the Concur subsystem to agree with a particular policy proposal",[]]]},{"de":[["The writer/speaker deliberately narrows the range of voices and opinions represented in their text, often by using language limiting the possibility of alternative viewpoints.",[]],["It can create a sense of solidarity among a particular audience or community by emphasizing shared values or beliefs and rejecting alternative viewpoints that might challenge those values or beliefs.",[]],["In addition, it can also be used to create an authoritative or expert tone by emphasizing the speaker's or writer's knowledge or expertise and implying that alternative viewpoints are less valid.",[]]],"sb":[["Disclaim",["2005"]],["Proclaim",["2005"]]],"sp":[["Heterogloss",[]],["heteroglossic subsystem",[]]],"ex":[["This can be seen in academic writing, for example, where authors often use modal verbs and evaluative language to establish their authority and dismiss alternative perspectives as less rigorous or well-supported",["Al-Ramadan, 2016","Mei, 2007"]]]},{"sp":[["Disclaim",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Disclaim",[]]],"ex":[["a speaker might use the deny subsystem to negate an accusation against them",[]]]},{"de":[["According to dialogism, language is not just a means of transmitting information from one person to another but is a social and cultural phenomenon deeply interconnected with the social and historical context in which it is used.",[]],["In this view, language is not a neutral or objective tool but a medium for expressing various conflicting perspectives, values, and ideologies.",[]],["Each utterance is therefore seen as a dialogue between speaker and listener and between the speaker and their own linguistic and cultural background.",[]],["This interplay of perspectives and ideologies gives language its dynamic and heteroglossic nature.",[]]],"rt":[["heteroglossia",[]]]},{"sb":[["deny",[]],["counter",[]]],"sp":[["Contract",[]],["contraction strategies",[]]]},{"sp":[["Proclaim",[]],["proclaim subsystem",[]]]},{"de":[["domain encompasses the writer's or speaker's involvement with the discourse, text, or situation being evaluated, which is the focus of the present study.",[]],["It refers to how the writer or speaker interacts with the discourse and the participants involved.",[]]],"sb":[["Heterogloss",[]],["Monogloss",[]]]},{"sb":[["Heterogloss",[]],["Monogloss",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal theory",[]],["Appraisal framework",[]]]},{"sp":[["Appraisal framework",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Expand",[]]]},{"de":[["It reflects a level of openmindedness and flexibility in engaging with diverse perspectives.",[]],["This suggests that the writers in this genre are aware of the diverse opinions and perspectives on the topics they write about and are willing to engage with them.",[]],["The entertain subsystem is particularly relevant in contexts where there is a need for open dialogue, constructive debate, and collaboration across different perspectives.",[]],["By entertaining alternative viewpoints and ideas, writers/speakers can facilitate more productive and inclusive discussions and potentially arrive at more nuanced and informed conclusions.",[]]],"sp":[["Expand",[]],["expand subsystem domain",[]]]},{"sp":[["heteroglossic subsystem",[]]]},{"de":[["It considers the degree to which the writer/speaker emphasizes the evaluation they are expressing, as opposed to other text elements.",[]]],"sp":[["Graduation domain",[]]]},{"de":[["Force can indicate the degree of conviction the writer/speaker has in their appraisal and can also convey the level of persuasion they are trying to achieve.",[]]],"sp":[["Graduation domain",[]]]},{"de":[["On the other hand, heterogloss refers to the writer's or speaker's engagement with the discourse or the conversation of other social subjects.",[]],["The focus of heterogloss is on the writer's or speaker's interaction with the discourse or the conversation of other subjects and how this interaction creates a dynamic dialogue that reflects social values and attitudes.",[]],["Heterogloss allows for analyzing how speakers or writers engage with other subjects and how they align or dis-align themselves with the social subjects and their values.",[]],["The concept of Heterogloss is related to the idea of the writer or speaker having multiple voices or multiple social identities, and it is thought to be a way of analyzing the ways in which these multiple identities are reflected in the text.",[]]],"sb":[["Contract",["2005"]],["expand",[]]],"sp":[["Engagement domain",[]],["Engagement",[]]]},{"de":[["According to Bakhtin, each utterance is a dialogue between speaker and listener and between the speaker and their linguistic and cultural background.",[]]],"rt":[["monoglossia",[]]]},{"sb":[["contract",[]],["expand",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attitude domain",[]]]},{"sp":[["Proclaim",[]],["proclaim subsystem",[]]],"ex":[["The justify subsystem provides reasons for a certain course of action.",[]]]},{"de":[["Monoglossic texts adhere to a singular, commonly held view of the world and its values, rather than presenting multiple perspectives or questioning dominant views",["Martin & White, 2005"]],["The writer or speaker is seen as endorsing this dominant perspective through the use of language, and the text is likely to be seen as predictable and unproblematic from the perspective of the value system being represented.",[]],["The use of monoglossic Appraisal is often associated with descriptive or informative texts rather than argumentative or critical.",[]]],"sp":[["Engagement domain",[]],["Engagement",[]]]},{"de":[["This perspective views language as a homogeneous system with a single set of rules that determine its form and function.",[]]],"rt":[["heteroglossia",[]]]},{"de":[["This can be achieved through direct speech or reported speech, which gives voice to the perspectives or opinions of others.",[]],["Proclaim can also be achieved through the use of evaluative languages, such as positive or negative judgments, which signal agreement or disagreement with a particular point of view.",[]]],"sb":[["concur",["2005"]],["pronounce",["2005"]],["endorse",["2005"]],["justify",["2005"]]],"sp":[["Contract",[]],["contraction strategies",[]],["contract type",[]]]},{"sp":[["Proclaim",[]],["proclaim subsystem",[]]],"ex":[["the pronounce subsystem might be used to make a definitive statement about a particular issue.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Digital communication includes many tools that enable the transmission of information, feelings, or thoughts to others by electronic means.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["rules of etiquette emerged as an element that facilitates and beautifies social relations in the historical process.",[]],["Etiquette rules are social behavior rules that apply in every aspect of our lives.",[]],["regulate social life",[]],["its essence, which is identified with respect and courtesy, never changes.",[]]],"sy":[["good manners",[]]],"rt":[["Netiquette",[]]],"sb":[["Netiquette",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These norms of behavior, which constitute the concept of netiquette, are the adaptation of real-life etiquette rules to online technology in the internet environment (Kayany, 2004)",["Kayany, 2004"]],["Netiquette is essential for maintaining a proper online environment in emails, social media, forums, chat rooms, or any other online platform.",[]],["Following social media etiquette helps create a positive and respectful online environment that encourages positive and respectful interactions between individuals and communities. It promotes effective communication, reduces misunderstandings, and encourages the development of meaningful connections and relationships.",[]],["regulates virtual world relations",[]],["These norms of behavior, which constitute the concept of netiquette, are the adaptation of real-life etiquette rules to online technology in the internet environment",["Kayany, 2004"]]],"sy":[["Etiquette",[]]],"rt":[["Etiquette",[]]],"sp":[["etiquette",[]]]},{"ex":[["For example, the internet, blogs, websites, video games, and video-based content can be considered as channels of new media (Çiçek, 2023).",["Çiçek, 2023"]]]},{"de":[["Social media, which is rapidly becoming more popular in society, offers many conveniences to its users in terms of continuous updating and easy accessibility.",[]],["Social media not only facilitates people's daily communication but also has a significant impact on the business world.",[]],["Social media is a platform where all users participate widely due to its advantages such as expressing opinions, commenting, and sharing.",[]]],"rt":[["digital communication",[]],["Web 2.0",[]]],"ex":[["blogs, microblogs, social networks, corporate social networks, business networks, forums, social bookmarking, social gaming, product/service reviews, photo and video sharing, and virtual worlds",["Aichner, & Jacob, 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["conspiracy theories address a range of basic human needs, including epistemic needs (Douglas, Sutton, & Cichocka, in press).",["Douglas, Sutton, & Cichocka, in press"]],["conspiracy beliefs are intended to provide causal explanations for complex and distressing social events",["Hofstadter, 1966","Bale, 2007","Clarke, 2002","Douglas et al., in press"]],["conspiracy theories provide epistemic clarity by explaining events through an array of explicit presumptions about the functioning of the world.",[]]],"sy":[["conspiracy theories",[]]],"ex":[["climate change (Jolley & Douglas, 2014)",["Jolley & Douglas, 2014"]],["the financial crisis and the common belief about the corrupt and nocuous nature of decision-makers",[]],["believing that Princess Diana was murdered versus believing that she staged her own death",["Wood et al., 2012"]],["The financial crisis was planned by bankers and politicians for their personal gain (1 = very unlikely; 7 = very likely)",[]],["Large companies in the pharmaceutical industry are deliberately spreading diseases to sell drugs (1 = very unlikely; 7 = very likely)",[]],["Lobbyists in the oil industry have paid politicians to wage wars in the Middle East (1 = very unlikely; 7 = very likely)",[]],["Many politicians in parliament have links to organized crime (1 = very unlikely; 7 = very likely)",[]],["Left Politicians want to keep people poor in order to secure their votes (1 = very unlikely; 7 = very likely)",[]],["Do you consider the PKK is responsible for the murder of Olof Palme? (1 = very unlikely; 5 = very likely)",[]],["Do you consider the Police are responsible for the murder of Olof Palme? (1 = very unlikely; 5 = very likely)",[]],["the financial crisis",[]],["the common belief about the corrupt and nocuous nature of decision-makers",[]]]},{"de":[["voters hold the government at least partially responsible for the functioning of the country's economy and their own well-being and that economic growth or decline influences the level of support for the established political authorities.",[]]]},{"rt":[["socio-tropic",[]]]},{"de":[["Specific ideologies tend to unify and disseminate widely (though not necessarily universally) shared beliefs, policy preferences and values of specific groups within society",["Knight, 2006"]],["Ideologies aim at describing and interpreting the functioning of society by relying on assertions or assumptions about \"human nature, historical events, present realities, and future possibilities\"",["Jost et al., 2009, p. 309"]],["Next to this, ideologies offer a vision for how societies should function and offer specific means for accomplishing this vision.",[]]],"rt":[["Political ideology",[]]]},{"de":[["political extremism is related to a black-and-white style of thinking in which social actors and processes fall under distinctions such as good or evil, positive or negative etc. (Greenberg & Jonas, 2003).",["Greenberg & Jonas, 2003"]],["extremists are \"epistemologically crippled\", in the sense that the main sources of information about political issues they trust, come from their own milieu, whereas outside sources that offer more nuanced perspective tend to be ignored.",["Hardin (2002)"]]],"rt":[["radical political actors",[]]]},{"rt":[["radical",["Mudde's (1996)"]]]},{"de":[["Specific ideologies tend to unify and disseminate widely (though not necessarily universally) shared beliefs, policy preferences and values of specific groups within society",[]],["ideologies offer a vision for how societies should function and offer specific means for accomplishing this vision.",[]]]},{"de":[["being politically trustful means that one evaluates political institutions and politician's performance positively. This entails reliability, legitimacy and transparency in their political decisions and acceptance of different views.",[]],["Confidence in institutions and trust in politicians translates in the belief that they have a positive influence on the state and its citizens, that they treat everybody equally and with fairness, and are not detrimental to any particular societal group.",[]]],"rt":[["Political distrust",[]]]},{"rt":[["extreme",["Mudde's (1996)","1996"]]]},{},{"de":[["we can study the various adaptations and modifications to an ideal model as a unified body of cinema.",[]]]},{"de":[["This initial equilibrium, often a harmonious or stable setting or state, acts as a thematic and emotional anchor, inviting the reader to immerse themselves in the protagonist's journey and the wider narrative that takes place within this established backdrop.",["Mare, Gual, & Setyaningsih, 2022"]]],"sp":[["Todorov's narrative structure",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Narratology",[]]]},{"de":[["It examines narrative structures, delivery, and reader interpretation.",[]],["Narratology pertains to the study of narratives in relation to the realm of narratives and the complex structures that comprise them.",[]],["narratology examines the ways in which narratives are employed to generate and persuade public opinion and to construct meaning",["Liveley, 2019","Prince, 2019"]]],"rt":[["Narrative theory",[]]]},{"de":[["a narrative always has a structure from beginning to end that begins with balance and then deviates into chaos because of issues that arise in the story before finally returning to balance.",[]]],"sb":[["equilibrium",[]],["disruption",[]],["recognition",[]],["damage repair",[]],["new equilibrium",[]],["Repair the Damage",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["inducing the reader to generate an explanatory emotional inference (to establish why)",[]]],"rt":[["emotional inferences",[]],["explanatory emotional inference",[]]],"sp":[["emotional inferences",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., Manuel felt deep sadness... (because) … he found out that his father had died",[]]]},{"de":[["the emotions are deduced across the reading of the context that involves the character, playing a very important role in the coherence of the text",["Miall, 1989"]],["This explanation or anticipation helps to establish a logical and coherent mental representation of the story and helps to support the on-line comprehension process.",[]],["This helps to stablish a coherent mental representation and to construct the global meaning of the text.",[]]],"rt":[["causal explanatory inference",[]],["causal predictive inference",[]]],"sb":[["emotional inference predictive",[]],["explanatory inference",[]],["causal explanatory inference",[]],["causal predictive inference",[]]],"sp":[["inferences",[]]]},{"de":[["search of the reasons that unleash the emotion",[]]],"sy":[["explicative",[]],["EXPLICATIVE causal inference",[]]],"sp":[["emotional inferences",[]]]},{"sy":[["causal antecedents",[]]],"rt":[["predictive inferences",[]]],"sp":[["causal inferences",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Predictive inference is located within a very restricted and closed, anales de psicología, 2015, vol. 31, nº 2 (mayo) context where fit very few possible emotions.",[]]],"sy":[["predictive causal inference",[]]]},{"sy":[["causal consequence inferences",[]]],"rt":[["explanatory inferences",[]]],"sp":[["causal inferences",[]]]},{"de":[["se cuestiona si el fact-checking podría crear un efecto contrario al deseado, fortaleciendo la desinformación y, por consiguiente, su creencia en la misma",["2020"]],["si la presentación de demasiados contraargumentos pudiera conllevar el riesgo de que se produzca backfire effect",["Cook y Lewandowsky, 2011","Lewandowsky, et al., 2012"]]]},{},{"de":[["los fact-checkers han desarrollado un rol fundamental, llevando a cabo una intensa actividad informativa fundamentada en el contraste y la verificación de contenidos falsos que se difunden a través de redes sociales u otras plataformas.",[]],["encargados de identificar, revisar y calificar la información viral",[]]],"sy":[["verificadores",[]]]},{"de":[["Este trabajo es llevado a cabo tradicionalmente por periodistas, salas de redacción y analistas políticos. Así pues, su práctica deriva de la necesidad de hacer que los gobernantes rindan cuentas de sus afirmaciones.",["Pamment y Lindwall, 2021"]],["su estrategia para combatir la desinformación es simple: señalar y desmentir las falsedades que circulan en la esfera pública",["Coddington, et al, 2014"]],["apuesta por la excelencia en los procesos de verificación periodística",[]]],"sy":[["verificación",[]],["verificación de datos",[]]],"rt":[["debunking",[]]]},{"de":[["Es decir, toda aquella información fabricada, que se aprovecha de las creencias públicas existentes para influir en el comportamiento de las audiencias",["Waisbord, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["George Lakoff (2004), defiende que la repetición de un marco, aunque sea para combatirlo, lo extiende.",[]],["«La negación de un marco implica su evocación y activación en el cerebro de la audiencia expuesta a él. La repetición y circulación de un marco, ya sea para afirmarlo o para refutarlo, lo activa»",["Tuñón, Oleart y Bouza, 2019:149"]]],"sy":[["enmarcados",["Tuñón, 2021a"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["encuadre",[]]]},{},{},{}] |