MBDef 1.0.0: Explorer data for exactly the released rows, map and topics made on them
714cbfe verified | [{},{"rt":[["agenda (agenda setting)",[]]]},{"de":[["tales como ARRIBA/ABAJO, DENTRO/FUERA, DELANTE/DETRÁS, EQUILIBRIO, RECIPIENTE, etc.",[]]],"ex":[["ARRIBA/ABAJO",[]],["DENTRO/FUERA",[]],["DELANTE/DETRÁS",[]],["EQUILIBRIO",[]],["RECIPIENTE",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["palabra clave, que juega un papel esencial en el discurso político y mediático y que ayuda a definir el actual contexto social y cultural en España.",[]],["el incremento de la frecuencia de uso en la última década está relacionado, como hemos visto, con otro significado, propio de contextos sociales y políticos.",[]],["la polarización política o social suele verse como un fenómeno negativo",[]],["la gran mayoría de apariciones se da en artículos sobre la situación política, principalmente en España, pero también, de forma significativa, en países latinoamericanos (México, Perú, Ecuador) y en otros países (Alemania, EEUU, Israel…)",[]],["la polarización se presenta en la prensa como un fenómeno creciente, y por tanto cada vez más fuerte, que tiene un carácter no sólo político, sino sobre todo emocional o afectivo, vinculado con los populismos entre otros factores, y que conduce a un entorno, o clima, de crispación y enfrentamiento que los ciudadanos viven con preocupación.",[]],["la polarización se presenta como un virus, que se reproduce y se propaga con facilidad, capaz de mutar e infectar a diversos sectores sociales y que es difícil de contener",[]],["La sociedad o la política se representan como enfermas, afectadas o sufriendo de polarización, una enfermedad dañina, grave o aguda, a veces cronificada, que las debilita, y que se debe prevenir, o mitigar con la adecuada receta",[]],["Utilizado principalmente en contextos políticos, se asocia habitualmente a la idea de distanciamiento ideológico, que se puede interpretar como algo negativo por cuanto implica alejarse del centro, es decir de la posibilidad de alcanzar acuerdos.",[]],["el término se usa más bien como un sinónimo de choque o confrontación, acentuando aún más la evaluación negativa original.",[]],["la polarización no se refiere ya a dos extremos, como se desprende del significado originario, sino a una situación de enfrentamiento constante en la que se rechaza la posibilidad de negociación o de diálogo, más difícil aun cuando hay más de dos participantes implicados.",[]],["interpretamos el pensamiento político como posicionamientos ideológicos, normalmente en términos de derecha o izquierda.",[]],["Una extensión lógica de esta metáfora es LA DIFERENCIA IDEOLÓGICA ES DISTANCIA ESPACIAL, que se manifiesta en expresiones comunes como «extrema derecha/extrema izquierda», o de «posturas alejadas entre sí».",[]],["en ese espacio metafórico, los extremos más alejados son los dos polos y por tanto el fenómeno de la polarización, implica «moverse» hacia los extremos, interponiendo la máxima distancia posible entre dos posiciones políticas.",[]],["un fenómeno creciente, y por tanto cada vez más fuerte, que tiene un carácter no sólo político, sino sobre todo emocional o afectivo, vinculado con los populismos entre otros factores, y que conduce a un entorno, o clima, de crispación y enfrentamiento que los ciudadanos viven con preocupación.",[]],["un término metafórico, cuyo significado se deriva de la metáfora conceptual LA IDEOLOGÍA ES ESPACIO",[]]],"sy":[["crispación",[]],["choque",[]],["confrontación",[]],["enfrentamiento",[]]],"rt":[["política",[]],["social",[]],["redes",[]],["España",[]],["sociedad",[]],["afectiva",[]],["creciente",[]],["factores",[]],["clima",[]],["crispación",[]],["preocupa",[]],["enfrentamiento",[]],["vive",[]],["populismo",[]],["fuerte",[]],["confrontación",[]],["radicalización",[]],["metáforas",[]],["dominios fuente",[]],["populismos",[]],["LA IDEOLOGÍA ES ESPACIO",[]],["LA DIFERENCIA IDEOLÓGICA ES DISTANCIA ESPACIAL",[]],["tensión",[]],["colapso",[]]],"sb":[["polarización institucional",[]],["polarización geográfica",[]],["polarización afectiva",[]]],"ex":[["[el reguetón] explica cosas importantes sobre las sociedades actuales y la evolución de la industria musical, pero la polarización y la polémica en las redes sociales eclipsan cualquier reflexión",["EP092"]],["[Shyamalan] el director de origen indio (…) o se le ama o se le odia, una polarización que no ayuda a entender qué se esconde detrás de sus giros de guion.",["EM054"]],["El relato (…) sería más que suficiente para mermar su concurso y más cuando la serie documental de Rocío Carrasco está tan polarizada",["EM037"]],["La polarización de las criptomonedas. (…) Desde su aparición, las criptomonedas han dividido a la sociedad inversora entre detractores y seguidores de una forma nunca vista en los mercados financieros.",["EP090"]],["El consumidor está más polarizado (…) Por un lado, aquellos cuyos ahorros han crecido y, por otro lado, los que se han visto afectados y han visto reducidos sus ingresos.",["EP012"]],["Primero, la polarización geográfica con el liderazgo entre Norteamérica y China. Segundo, la polarización institucional. El liderazgo en la investigación de la IA no está en una universidad sino en las grandes empresas tecnológicas.",["EM057"]],["… donde se quejaba de la polarización entre ciencias y letras en la sociedad moderna: dualidad que ha originado la actual brecha entre disciplinas complementarias",["EP006"]],["«extrema derecha/extrema izquierda»",[]],["«posturas alejadas entre sí»",[]],["polarización y crispación",[]],["crispación y polarización",[]]]},{},{"de":[["learning experiences embedded in IPBL JEMBER directly support the development of higherorder thinking skills, which are essential components of critical thinking.",[]]]},{"de":[["Critical thinking skills enable students to analyze, evaluate, and solve problems systematically",[]],["With critical thinking skills, a person can analyze information, organize their thoughts, and effectively express their thoughts in writing",[]],["The concept of critical thinking includes analysis, reasoning, inference, comparing, hypothesis formulation, synthesis, testing and comprehensive conclusions",[]],["Critical thinking in the writing process involves analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the place in which I fi nd myself, my actual 'here,' is the starting point for my orientation in space",["Schutz, 1975, p. 36"]],["the point from which the world unfolds: the here of the body and the where of its dwelling",["Ahmed, 2006, p. 545"]],["bridges notions of presence and movement",[]]],"rt":[["emplacement",[]]]},{"de":[["magnitude, media type, optimization goal, autonomy, and role orientation",["Guerrero-Sole, 2022","Hancock et al., 2020"]],["Magnitude is the extent of the changes that AI enacts on messages, with applications ranging from correcting spelling mistakes to creating subtitles for videos or texts from summaries.",["Hancock et al., 2020"]],["Media type refers, for example, to the automatic filling of messages while they are still being written.",["Hancock et al., 2020"]],["the third dimension, optimization goal, assists in this process, presenting oneself as appealing, reliable, witty, authoritative, etc.",["Hancock et al., 2020, p. 91"]],["Autonomy is associated with the level to which the AI can operate without supervision from the issuer, such as chatbots or product recommendation systems based on, for example, purchase history.",["Hancock et al., 2020"]],["Role orientation refers to the role that the AI system plays in the communication process: sender or receiver.",["Hancock et al., 2020, p. 92"]]],"sb":[["Magnitude is the extent of the changes that AI enacts on messages, with applications ranging from correcting spelling mistakes to creating subtitles for videos or texts from summaries.",[]],["Media type refers, for example, to the automatic filling of messages while they are still being written.",[]],["optimization goal, assists in this process, presenting oneself as appealing, reliable, witty, authoritative, etc.",["Hancock et al., 2020, p. 91"]],["Autonomy is associated with the level to which the AI can operate without supervision from the issuer, such as chatbots or product recommendation systems based on, for example, purchase history.",[]],["Role orientation refers to the role that the AI system plays in the communication process: sender or receiver.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Artificial Intelligence-Mediated Communication (AI-MC) paradigm",[]]]},{"de":[["La importancia es tal, que suponen el 53,2% del contenido de la muestra.",[]]],"ex":[["Ayúdame a frenar la invasión de Ceuta. Dile a Marlaska que autorice la expulsión inmediata de los ilegales en Ceuta YA #invasionCeuta",[]],["Marruecos coló entre los 8.000 que invadieron Ceuta a jóvenes adoctrinados.",[]],["Pedro Sánchez oculta a Transparencia cuántos ilegales ha trasladado desde Canarias, Ceuta y Melilla.",[]],["El diario El País explota las fotos de un bebé para los refugiados en Turquía.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a more subtle form of hype",[]]],"sp":[["science hype",[]]],"ex":[["media portrayal of platelet rich plasma (PRP), an unproven therapy for various ailments including musculoskeletal injuries, found that it was most commonly covered in sports-related stories, and specifically in relation to elite athletes using the therapy as part of injury recovery or performance preparation [87]. The therapy was portrayed as routine, and its use by elite athletes may imply that it is a cutting edge treatment [87].",["87"]]]},{"de":[["Narrative is a powerful tool that can enhance engagement and understanding of both truths and falsehoods",["10"]],["research has shown that the construction and dissemination of narratives requires the efforts of numerous participants with differing levels of engagement",["11"]],["It is dynamic, incorporating numerous discursive elements (multiple sources, hashtags, hyperlinks, memes, etc.) as well as flexible, adopting and discarding both story elements and participants as time passes",["11"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Science hype can cause a range of social issues, including, inter alia, eroding public trust [83], confusing policy debates [35], and facilitating the premature implementation of technologies and the marketing of unproven therapies [85,86].",["83","35","85","86"]]],"sb":[["implicit hype",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the politics of depoliticisation (Bourdieu 1998).",["1998"]]],"rt":[["politicisation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Politicisation is then not something new to EU integration but rather it is constitutive of EU integration itself.",[]],["alludes to claims that a political aspect can be identified in phenomena or situations, which were previously not marked as political.",[]],["politicisation to the extension of the borders of this order, for example in the relationship to other sphere concepts, such as culture, law, economy or religion.",[]],["politicisation is an \"either or\" matter. A phenomenon is political or not, tertium non datur.",[]],["This view is based on the nominalistic view of concepts, inspired by the work of among others Max Weber and Ludwig Wittgenstein",[]],["It allows us to understand that what is political is in itself a historical phenomenon and that politicisation is the action or the process responsible for all the historical forms of politics.",[]],["Politicisation can be either a claim or an experience. The passive form of politisation, either as an improper activity of political adversaries or as the unintended result of some processes of change, has been the most common dimension in the meaning of the concept.",[]],["It crucially involves political contestation and protest, citizen and NGO activity, and in a general sense the development of political awareness, the marking of issues as political, and the opening up of new political opportunities and arenas through creative political action.",[]],["Politicisation thus creates times, spaces and issues for political action as well as alternative power resources. It aims to transform so far uncontested assumptions, identities and principles into objects of political controversies.",[]],["Politicisation refers to different perceptions of the political that different agents have.",[]]],"sy":[["politisation",[]]],"rt":[["politics",[]],["political",[]],["politicise",[]],["politise",[]],["pre-politicisation",[]],["partisanisation",[]],["polemicisation",[]],["politisation",[]],["politification",[]],["depoliticisation",[]]],"ex":[["proposing a new perspective on a phenomenon marks always a politicisation through a marking of a new type of power share",[]]]},{},{"de":[["By politi-fication he meant the transfer of power from the national to the supranational level, a level that would be equipped with considerable executive power.",["Duclos 1962","Sidjanski 2003","Meynaud and Sidjanski 1965"]],["a broad development that has to do with procedure or the rules of the political game, the substitution of a diplomatic procedure with a political procedure that could include parliamentary and democratic procedures",[]],["refers to an asymmetry in which certain actors politicise issues, in this case EU integration, while presenting them as not being politicised.",[]],["a form of politicisation/depoliticisation",[]]],"rt":[["politicisation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["bad-faith users whose goal is to push false narratives",[]]]},{"de":[["moderation workflows commonly revolve around three elements: content facticity, user intent, and harm.",[]]],"rt":[["user intent",[]],["perceived harm",[]]]},{"de":[["crowd wisdom provides a practical mechanism that scales with the magnitude of online content, and it also affords stakeholders (e.g., platform admins, managers of online communities) certain legitimacy to remove problematic content [51].",["51"]],["Reddit moderators broadly rely on two types of crowd wisdom for misinformation detection: the wisdom of ordinary users, and the wisdom of other moderators.",[]],["a powerful tool for detecting COVID-19 misinformation",[]],["crowds can gain experience and become better at fact-checking over time",["213"]],["crowdsourced flagging and modteam support",[]]],"rt":[["crowdsourced flagging",[]],["modteam support",[]]],"sb":[["crowdsourced flagging",[]],["crowdsourced fact-checking",[]],["the wisdom of ordinary users",[]],["the wisdom of other moderators",[]],["wisdom of ordinary users",[]],["wisdom of other moderators",[]],["synthetic crowds",[]],["organic crowds",[]]]},{"de":[["crowdsourced fact-checking signals are public but not always easily accessible to platform admins unless they discover the comments.",[]],["crowdsourced fact-checking posts are public, but platform stakeholders like community moderators may not be aware of them unless they stumble upon the related threads.",[]],["Scholars suggested that crowdsourced fact-checking posts can serve to correct viewer misconceptions and curtail the spread of misinformation [224,258,179], particularly when the refuting sources are reputable, or when the user who wrote the fact-checking post is perceived to be credible.",["224","258","179"]],["aggregated crowdsourced fact-checking across entire social media platforms can be used to detect misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["crowd signals",[]],["crowdsourced flagging",[]]],"sp":[["crowd wisdom",[]],["organic crowds",[]]],"ex":[["the comments \"This is misinformation. The term refers to simultaneously getting the flu and covid. See [link]\" and \"Fake!\" are both crowdsourced factchecking comments",[]],["a user replies to another user's submission and says, \"this post is fake\"",[]]]},{"ex":[["the comments \"This is misinformation. The term refers to simultaneously getting the flu and covid. See [link]\" and \"Fake!\" are both crowdsourced factchecking comments",[]]]},{"de":[["Crowdsourced flagging signals are only available to platform stakeholders (e.g., platform admins).",[]],["Crowdsourced flagging is one of the most common ways for platform stakeholders to solicit help from ordinary users to identify problematic content",["90"]],["crowdsourced flagging provides a practical mechanism that scales with the magnitude of online content",[]],["affords stakeholders such as moderators the legitimacy to remove flagged content",[]],["Crowdsourced flags serve to directly alert platform stakeholders and are only available to such stakeholders.",[]],["crowdsourced flagging is well integrated into the moderation pipeline",[]],["report rate can be low",[]],["flag contains very limited information",[]]],"sy":[["user report",[]]],"rt":[["crowd signals",[]],["crowdsourced fact-checking",[]]],"sp":[["crowd wisdom",[]],["organic crowds",[]]]},{"de":[["Third-party fact-checkers have high expertise, but they differ in defining and conceptualizing misinformation",["32"]],["Further, fact-checkers may preferentially fact-check certain content over others",["32"]],["Similarly, fact-checker evaluation procedures are sometimes surprisingly opaque to outsiders, and may even change over time. Additionally, as mentioned previously, this approach also lacks scalability.",[]],["Despite this approach's lack of scalability and timeliness, its proponents underscored the high accuracy of expert labels and their capacity to correct viewer misperceptions [184].",["184"]],["high accuracy and high agreement are commonly considered the key strength of expert labeling.",[]],["Critics of expert labeling have similarly argued that there is lack of consistency in expert labels [184].",["184"]],["critics have also expressed concerns about bias and transparency issues in expert labeling [184,82].",["184","82"]],["the preferred approach for small scope detection and high-stake scenarios",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["mixed factualness",[]]]},{"de":[["Leading scholars have advocated to focus on the fake news publishers rather than individual stories because \"we view the defining element of fake news to be the intent and processes of the publisher.\"",["145"]],["the spread of false information weakens the legitimacy and public trust in the established political and media institutions",["233","15"]],["it is difficult for the general public to distinguish fake news from credible content.",[]],["repeated exposure causes readers to perceive false content as more accurate",["15"]]],"rt":[["false content",[]],["false information",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",["246,275"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["i) detecting misinformation amid significant external shocks",[]],["ii) fact-checking public speeches and debates involving elites",[]],["iii) when platforms are using the labels to make long-lasting decisions (e.g., permanently blocking a fake news publisher from using its platform)",[]],["detecting misinformation amid significant external shocks",[]],["fact-checking public speeches and debates involving elites",[]],["when platforms are using the labels to make long-lasting decisions (e.g., permanently blocking a fake news publisher from using its platform)",[]]]},{"de":[["purposefully masquerading themselves as well-known sources",[]]],"ex":[["abcnews.com.go",[]],["times.com.mx",[]]]},{"ex":[["downplay the effects of COVID-19 (e.g., COVID-19 is just the flu or COVID-19 hasn't killed that many people)",[]],["discourage others to get vaccinated",[]],["encourage people to pursue \"alternative cures\" such as hydroxychloroquine or ivermectin",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["crowdsourced flagging",[]],["crowdsourced fact-checking",[]]],"sp":[["crowd wisdom",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Here, we define prevalence as the fraction of tweets containing URLs that are from fake news sites.",[]]]},{"de":[["moderation workflows commonly revolve around three elements: content facticity, user intent, and harm.",[]],["academic scholars have contended that intent is highly subjective and difficult to quantify",["176"]]],"rt":[["content facticity",[]],["perceived harm",[]]]},{"de":[["was found to match or even exceed the knowledge of experts in a wide range of domains, including financial markets, education, and health services",["70","4","238","7"]]]},{"de":[["Van Dijk (2009, 149) define el Análisis Crítico del Discurso como una perspectiva crítica",["Van Dijk (2009, 149)"]],["estudia las estructuras y las estrategias del texto, y plantea también sus relaciones con el contexto social y político",["Van Dijk 2009, 149-152"]],["los principales temas de estudio son el abuso de poder, el control social, la dominación, el mantenimiento o la intensificación de las desigualdades sociales, la exclusión o el silenciamiento",["Martín, Pardo y Whittaker 1998"]],["una perspectiva crítica",["Van Dijk (2009, 149)"]],["Van Dijk agrega que el Análisis Crítico del Discurso estudia las estructuras y las estrategias del texto, y plantea también sus relaciones con el contexto social y político",["Van Dijk 2009, 149-152"]]],"rt":[["historia",["Van Dijk 2003","Wodak 2003"]],["ideología",["Wodak 2003"]]]},{},{"de":[["También se busca promover el compromiso con la nación y su defensa, que, en caso de ser necesario, se activará ante un discurso que muestre la amenaza real o ficticia de un bando o grupo considerado como enemigo, ya sea en el ámbito interno (pueblos originarios-inmigrantes) o externo (países limítrofes).",[]]]},{"rt":[["racismo",[]],["chovinismo",[]]]},{"sp":[["identidad nacional",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["nación",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["such events are generally positively received, yet the attention toward them quickly phases out after their happening [41,44,40]",["41","44","40"]]],"sy":[["anticipatory discussion",[]]],"ex":[["a political election, a sport match, a movie release, an entertainment event, or a recurring festivity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["individuals online clearly tend to prefer positive tweets, which are favored as much as five times more than negative or neutral ones; the same holds true for the amount of retweets collected by positive posts, which is up to 2.5 times more than negative or neutral ones.",[]]],"sy":[["Pollyanna effect",[]]]},{"sy":[["Pollyanna hypothesis",["14"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["unlike fake detection, fact-checking works at the level of a particular statement or claim",[]]],"rt":[["fake detection",[]]],"sb":[["manual verification through expert-oriented fact-checking",[]],["using computational tools (e.g., knowledge graphs and open web sources) for computational fact-checking",[]],["crowd evaluation as in crowdsourced fact-checking",[]],["assessment sites for fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["this generality makes it the most common area when collecting datasets of fake information.",[]],["prediction of the chances of a particular piece of information (news article, reviews, posts, etc.) being intentionally deceptive",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["satire",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["rumors",[]]],"sb":[["hoaxes",[]],["rumors",[]],["satire",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["captures different types of application purposes, including rumor detection, clickbait detection, and veracity classification.",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news articles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["in the news domain, a dataset is homogeneous if all the news items collected are chosen because they are frogman equal or similar news domain",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["veracity classification",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news articles",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news articles",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["formulate the issue of automatically detecting fake news as a supervised binary classification problem",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["rumor detection",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Offensive language and abusive language are both used as umbrella terms for harmful content in the context of automatic detection studies.",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["hate speech is also different from other sub-types of offensive language.",[]]],"sp":[["offensive language",[]],["abusive language",[]]]},{"de":[["Implicit hate speech conveys the same desire to distance such social groups as explicit hate speech",["Alorainy, Burnap, Liu, & Williams, 2019"]],["and are no less harmful",["Breitfeller, Ahn, Jurgens, & Tsvetkov, 2019"]],["Implicit cases of hate speech are hard to identify because they can be understood only within their specific context or with the help of relevant real-world knowledge such as stereotypes.",[]],["Inability to detect nuanced, implicit expressions of hate means the models do not go beyond lexical features and cannot capture the underlying hateful intent, let alone generalise to hate speech cases where there are no recurring hate-related words and phrases.",[]]],"rt":[["Implicit expressions",[]],["explicit hate speech",[]]]},{"sb":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"sp":[["offensive language",[]]]},{"de":[["Minority groups are underrepresented in available data and/or data annotators, thus causing biases against them when models are trained from this data.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["On the collectivist side we find cultures in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) that continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty, and oppose other ingroups.",[]]],"rt":[["Individualism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is always a collective phenomenon, but it can be connected to different collectives.",[]],["Societal cultures reside in (often unconscious) values, in the sense of broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others",["Hofstede, 2001, p. 5"]],["Organizational cultures reside rather in (visible and conscious) practices: the way people perceive what goes on in their organizational environment.",[]]],"sb":[["Societal cultures",[]],["Organizational cultures",[]],["the culture of occupations",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the modest, caring pole 'feminine'",[]]],"rt":[["Masculinity",[]]]},{"rt":[["Grid",[]]]},{"rt":[["low-context cultures",[]]]},{"de":[["On the individualist side we find cultures in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family.",[]]],"rt":[["Collectivism",[]]]},{"de":[["On the individualist side we find cultures in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family.",[]],["On the collectivist side we find cultures in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) that continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty, and oppose other ingroups.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["high-context",[]]]},{"de":[["The assertive pole has been called 'masculine'",[]]],"rt":[["Femininity",[]]]},{"de":[["The assertive pole has been called 'masculine' and the modest, caring pole 'feminine'.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Culture",[]]]},{"sy":[["local",[]]],"rt":[["cosmopolitan",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["cosmopolitan",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Culture",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations.",[]]],"rt":[["risk avoidance",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Fake news is a phenomenon that can cause serious consequences.",[]],["These consequences may result in personal, national or global harm.",[]],["The rapid dissemination of fake news can have serious repercussions.",["6"]],["The spread of fake news can cause the democratic processes to be undermined and create chaos.",[]],["It can create distrust in neutral agencies and spread pseudo-science, thus hurting the communities on a large scale.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumors",[]],["satire",[]],["improper and personally offensive news",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["miss rate",[]]]},{"sy":[["fall-out",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The media agenda affects the public agenda.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Breitbart News.",[]],["Breitbart News",[]]]},{"de":[["characterized by a deeply ironic, self-referential culture in which anti-Semitism, occult ties, and Nazi imagery can be explained either as entirely sincere or completely tongue-in-cheek",[]],["Ambiguity is, itself, a strategy; it allows participants to dissociate themselves with particularly unappetizing elements while still promoting the overall movement",["41"]],["Deeply entwined with social media and staples of internet culture, like memes.",[]],["Believes that \"political correctness\" threatens individual liberty.",[]],["On one hand, it describes an aggressive trolling culture present in /b/ and /pol/ that loathes establishment liberalism and conservatism, embraces irony and in-jokes, and uses extreme speech to provoke anger in others.",["38"]],["On the other, it denotes a loosely affiliated aggregation of blogs, forums, podcasts, and Twitter personalities united by a hatred of liberalism, feminism, and multiculturalism.",["39"]],["Deeply entwined with social media and staples of internet culture, like memes. Believes that \"political correctness\" threatens individual liberty.",[]]],"rt":[["white nationalism",[]],["white supremacy",[]]],"ex":[["Jared Taylor of the American Renaissance, Mike Cernovich of Danger and Play.Anons",[]],["Jared Taylor of the American Renaissance, Mike Cernovich of Danger and Play.",[]],["Jared Taylor of the American Renaissance, Mike Cernovich of Danger and Play",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Often anti-Islamic and/or ethnonationalist.",[]]],"ex":[["VDARE.",[]],["Example: VDARE.",[]]]},{"de":[["The overload of information enabled by the internet makes attention an extremely valuable resource.",["194"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Generally, conspiracy theories express anxieties about losing control or status in a particular milieu.",["77"]],["reframing facts and posing openended questions in ways that seeded doubts among readers and viewers",[]]],"ex":[["the Illuminati and secret Jewish factions were secretly plotting to take over the world",["76"]],["alternative accounts of specific events, such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks and the Sandy Hook Elementary School shootings",[]]]},{"ex":[["radio host Alex Jones, Infowars.",[]],["Example: radio host Alex Jones, Infowars.",[]],["radio host Alex Jones, Infowars",[]]]},{"de":[["suggests being a willful participant in one' s own undoing due to adopting a supposedly corrupted value system",[]],["intrinsically linked with white supremacist ideology and serves as a dog whistle to those on the far-right.",["153"]]],"sy":[["lemming",[]]],"rt":[["sheeple",[]]],"sb":[["cuckservative",["154"]]]},{"de":[["The racial subtext of the term is important.",[]]],"sp":[["cuck",[]]]},{"de":[["Members of the Frankfurt School, which included social theorists Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Jürgen Habermas, were concerned with the failure of Marxist revolution in Western Europe and the rise of Nazism. Their works examined and critiqued the culture of advanced industrial capitalism, and are still widely read.",["125"]]],"ex":[["According to adherents, the Frankfurt School is responsible for, among other things, widespread acceptance of homosexuality; rock music; modern art; 1960s student activism; the Civil Rights Movement; feminism; environmentalism; and so forth.",["125"]]]},{"rt":[["trolling",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["often leveraged narratives that appeared ideologically driven, but were constructed by people with no ideological agenda.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["propaganda rooted in an ideologically-driven worldview",[]]],"sy":[["hyper-partisan news outlets",[]]]},{"de":[["strategically created as propaganda by alt-right users to spread elements of their ideology to normies",[]],["designed to be shared from individual to individual on social media, taking advantage of the fact that propaganda spread through interpersonal ties is more successful than that generated by a top-down apparatus.",["151"]],["The constant creation of image macros allows anons to be agile and iterative, trying many messages and strategies, pursuing those that stick and abandoning unsuccessful tries.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["in modern internet parlance, a meme is a visual trope that proliferates across internet spaces as it is replicated and altered by anonymous users.",[]]],"sy":[["meme",[]]]},{"de":[["Believes that government is a threat to personal freedom.",[]]],"ex":[["Ron Paul, the Freedom Caucus, the Tea Party.",[]],["Example: Ron Paul, the Freedom Caucus, the Tea Party.",[]]]},{"sy":[["laugh out loud",[]]],"rt":[["LOLs",[]]]},{"sb":[["pick-up artists (PUAs)",[]],["anti-feminists",[]],["incels",[]],["paleomasculinists",[]],["androphiles (same-sex attracted men who don't identify as homosexual)",[]],["paleomasculinists (who believe male domination is natural)",[]]]},{"de":[["(We might more accurately call this \"propaganda.\")",[]],["On one hand, people circulate content to push their worldview, often using the mainstream media to increase its audience. (We might more accurately call this \"propaganda.\") On the other, there are people who strategically spread so-called \"fake news\" to make money; trolls who create chaos for fun; politicians with a vested interest in propagating certain frames; and groups who use the media in an attempt to affect public opinion.",[]]],"sy":[["propaganda",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["white supremacists",[]]],"ex":[["Andrew Anglin of The Daily Stormer, The Right Stuff blog, Fash the Nation podcast.",[]],["Example: Andrew Anglin of The Daily Stormer, The Right Stuff blog, Fash the Nation podcast.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Example: community that shares experiences and pseudo-scientific techniques that they believe can increase romantic and sexual success with women.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["To MRAs, being red-pilled means eschewing liberal ideology and recognizing that men, not women, are the oppressed class.",[]],["To the alt-right, it means revealing the lies behind multiculturalism and globalism and accepting the truth of ethnonationalism.",[]],["To conspiracy theorists, it may mean realizing the influence of Bohemian Grove, or the Illuminati, or the Skull and Bones, on society.",[]],["To white supremacists, it means waking up to the widespread control of Jewish elites and the destruction of the white race.",[]],["To MRAs, being red-pilled means eschewing liberal ideology and recognizing that men, not women, are the oppressed class. To the alt-right, it means revealing the lies behind multiculturalism and globalism and accepting the truth of ethnonationalism. To conspiracy theorists, it may mean realizing the influence of Bohemian Grove, or the Illuminati, or the Skull and Bones, on society. To white supremacists, it means waking up to the widespread control of Jewish elites and the destruction of the white race.",[]]],"sy":[["red pill",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Increasingly, bots are used for political reasons: to inflate the numbers of followers a politician has; to spread propaganda; to subtly influence political discourse; and to aggregate and broadcast content.",["157"]],["often to attack dissidents or manipulate news frames around an issue.",["159"]]],"rt":[["computational propaganda",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Peter Thiel, Bitcoin user communities.",[]],["Example: Peter Thiel, Bitcoin user communities.",[]]]},{"de":[["Trolling can include \"mischievous activities where the intent is not necessarily to cause distress\" 10 or it can seek to \"ruin the reputation of individuals and organizations and reveal embarrassing or personal information.\" 11 In practice, however, trolling has grown to serve as an umbrella term which encompasses a wide variety of asocial internet behaviors.",["10","11"]]]},{"de":[["Trolling can refer to relatively innocuous pranks, but it can also take the form of more serious behaviors.",[]],["In practice, however, trolling has grown to serve as an umbrella term which encompasses a wide variety of asocial internet behaviors.",[]]],"rt":[["Troll",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Often believe that immigration and multiculturalism threaten white culture and traditionally-white states.",[]]],"sy":[["ethnonationalism",[]]],"sb":[["White supremacists",[]]]},{"sp":[["White nationalists",[]]]},{"rt":[["balance theory",[]]]},{"rt":[["status theory",[]]],"sb":[["weak balance",[]],["structural balance",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["status theory",[]]]},{"de":[["the local condition that motivated status theory in the previous section, it required that for any edge (u, v), and any third node w, it should be possible to assign distinct numerical \"status values\" to u, v, and w in such a way that the positive edges among them (if any) go from nodes of lower status to nodes of higher status, and the negative edges among them (if any) go from nodes of higher status to nodes of lower status.",[]]],"rt":[["balance theory",[]]]},{"de":[["if w forms a triad with the edge (u, v), then structural balance theory posits that (u, v) should have the sign that causes the triangle on u, v, w to have an odd number of positive signs, regardless of edge direction",[]]],"rt":[["balance theory",[]]]},{"de":[["An alternate theory, which is implicit in the work of Guha et al. [8] and developed further in our recent research [15], is a theory of status. In this theory, a positive edge (x, y) means that x regards y as having higher status than herself, while a negative edge (x, y) means that x regards y as having lower status than herself.",["8","15"]]]},{"de":[["compare the proportions of notable men and women of different reference datasets that are covered by Wikipedia",[]]],"sp":[["gender inequalities",[]]],"ex":[["one might hypothesize that notable men are more likely to be covered by Wikipedia.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["explore gender-specific lexical inequalities",[]],["articles about women tend to emphasize the fact that they are about a women (i.e., they contain words like \"woman\", \"female\" or \"lady\"), while articles about men don't contain words like \"man\", \"masculine\" or \"gentleman\".",[]]],"sp":[["gender inequalities",[]]],"ex":[["articles about women are potentially more likely to mention their family (husband or kids) than articles about men.",[]],["the fact that articles about women disproportionately focus on marriage and divorce compared to articles about men",[]]]},{"de":[["The lower salience of male-related words in articles about men can be related to the concept of male as the null gender (Fox, Johnson, and Rosser 2006)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["analyze the patterns of gender assortativity based on the probability that an article about a person of one gender links to an article about a person of the other gender",[]]],"sp":[["gender inequalities",[]]],"ex":[["one might hypothesise that articles about women have more links to men than vice versa.",[]]]},{"de":[["which articles get featured on the startpage of Wikipedia",[]]],"sp":[["gender inequalities",[]]],"ex":[["one can hypothesize that articles about men might have better chances to be selected.",[]]]},{"sp":[["information diversity",[]],["dimensions of information diversity",[]]]},{"de":[["filters we choose on the Internet, or the filters that are imposed upon us will weaken the democratic process. This is because it will allow citizens to join into groups that share their own views and values, and cut themselves off from any information that might challenge their beliefs.",["Sunstein, 2002","Pariser, 2011"]]]},{},{"sy":[["ontzuiling",[]]],"rt":[["Pillarization",[]]]},{"rt":[["informal tweets",[]]]},{"sp":[["information diversity",[]],["dimensions of information diversity",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["a theory of media diversity",[]]],"rt":[["media diversity",[]]],"sp":[["media diversity",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["endorsement retweets",[]]]},{"sp":[["Openness/Minority Diversity",[]]]},{"sp":[["Openness/Minority Diversity",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["Facebook",[]]]},{"sy":[["verzuiling",[]]],"rt":[["Depillarization",[]]]},{"de":[["have emerged as a popular means of information sharing.",[]]]},{"de":[["on ascale of 0 to 1",[]],["This gives us a user's direct input entropy.",[]]],"sp":[["information diversity",[]],["dimensions of information diversity",[]],["dimensions of diversity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["coordination is a complex, non-binary concept",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Deepfakes allow crafting arbitrary texts that resemble a target person's writing style or audio and video samples where a target person's face and voice could be made to do or say anything.",[]]]},{"de":[["With this terminology, borrowed from the military sphere",[]]]},{"de":[["we defined superspreaders as the top 1% of users that shared more retweets.",[]]],"rt":[["superproducers",[]]]},{"de":[["the coherence of a set of beliefs does not necessitate that the beliefs are true",[]],["Coherence is seen as a necessary, but insufficient condition for truth.",[]],["Coherence is used to organize data through the creation and modification of theories, and in reasoning about specific hypotheses.",[]],["Internal consistency and consistency with other beliefs are examples of coherence criteria",[]]],"sy":[["coherence theory of truth",[]]],"rt":[["rationalism",[]],["correspondence",[]]],"sb":[["Internal consistency",[]],["consistency with other beliefs",[]],["Intrapersonal coherence",[]],["Interpersonal coherence",[]]],"ex":[["I can say that the probability of heads is .90 and the probability of tails is .10. These two are consistent with each other, but not with the facts",["p. 119"]]]},{"ex":[["do judgments follow the laws of probability?",[]],["Do decisions violate transitivity?",[]],["Are probability judgments consistent with Bayes's Theorem?",[]],["Do judges make conjunction probability errors?",[]]]},{"de":[["The coherence theory of truth states that \"a set of two or more beliefs are said to cohere if and only if (1) each member of the set is consistent with any subset of the others and (2) each is implied . . . by all of the others taken as premises or, according to some coherence theories, each is implied by each of the others individually\"",[]],["internal consistency and logical standards are the heart of the coherence theory of truth.",[]]],"rt":[["correspondence",[]]],"sb":[["intrapersonal coherence",[]],["interpersonal coherence",[]]],"sp":[["philosophical theories of truth",[]]]},{"de":[["This leads us to the view that truth consists in some form of correspondence between belief and fact",["Velasquez, 2005, p. 446"]]],"rt":[["coherence",[]],["correspondence",[]]],"sp":[["philosophical theories of truth",[]]]},{"de":[["This interpersonal coherence is what gives the coherence theory of truth normative standing.",[]],["Specifically, assessing judgments and decisions of a subject against the normatively held beliefs of others, such as Bayes's Theorem, is an assessment of interpersonal coherence.",[]]],"rt":[["intrapersonal coherence",[]]],"sp":[["coherence theory of truth",[]],["coherence",[]]]},{"de":[["Within the field of JDM, the assessment of transitivity is an assessment of intrapersonal coherence.",[]],["Assessing judgments and decisions for transitivity or consistency are good example of intrapersonal coherence.",[]]],"rt":[["interpersonal coherence",[]]],"sp":[["coherence theory of truth",[]],["coherence",[]]]},{"de":[["some have argued that it is evolutionarily advantageous for our species to have an overconfidence bias in certain domains",["Haselton & Nettle, 2006"]]],"ex":[["men are more likely to achieve their goals by overestimating the number of females interested in them sexually",["Haselton and Buss (2000)"]]]},{"de":[["that a belief is true just in case it has practical utility in life (or belongs to a system of beliefs that has practical utility)",["Kirkham, 1992, p. 92"]],["Pragmatism is the most recent of the three main theories of truth and attempts to deal with some of the limitations in the correspondence and coherence views.",[]]],"rt":[["philosophical theory of truth",[]],["correspondence",[]],["coherence",[]],["functionalism",[]]],"sp":[["philosophical theory of truth",[]]]},{"sp":[["a particular form of offensive language",["Warner and Hirschberg, 2012"]],["offensive language",["Warner and Hirschberg, 2012"]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech detection",[]]]},{"de":[["It is an overall measurement;",[]]]},{"de":[["giving early alerts of fake news can prevent further spreading of malicious content on social media",[]]]},{"de":[["Therefore, the credibility of tweets determines the news credibility altogether.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Compared with traditional news reports, tweets on social media like microblogs have several unique features: 1) content features (text contents, hash tag topics, external URL links), 2) social features (forward times, comment times), and 3) user features (user profiles, social relations).",[]]]},{"de":[["The original set of tweets representing news is complex, containing both positive arguments supporting the news and the negative ones questioning or refuting it. These two different sentiments towards news are defined as viewpoints in this paper.",[]]],"rt":[["topic",["Jin et al. 2014"]],["sub-event",["Jin et al. 2014"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["disinformation has an additional intention to harm",[]]]},{},{"de":[["appealing to emotions rather than sticking to the facts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["disinformation has an additional intention to harm",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the stance-taking process is affected not only by personal opinions, but also by other external factors such as cultural norms, roles in the institution of the family, etc.",[]],["Stance is often expressed in social media such as Twitter, Facebook, Reddit, etc.",[]],["stance has also been used for detecting misconceptions and for profiling media sources as part of a fact-checking pipeline.",[]],["stance can be used for mis-and disinformation detection in different ways: (i) directly, as in the examples in Figures 3a and 3b, or (ii) as multiple viewpoints, which are later aggregated into a final decision, as in Figure 3c, 3d and 3e.",[]]]},{"de":[["Occasionally, the category label of Neutral is also added to the set of stance categories (Mohammad et al., 2016), and the target may or may not be explicitly mentioned in the text",["Mohammad et al., 2016"]],["stance detection is the core task within factchecking",[]],["determine the position of the text towards the rumour as a category label from the set {Support, Deny, Query, Comment}",[]]],"rt":[["biased language detection",[]],["emotion recognition",[]],["perspective identification",[]],["sarcasm detection",[]],["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"ex":[["Public Healthcare",[]],["Germanwings",[]],["'Prince to play in Toronto'",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Talking about implications of the deal: → [CI_ESRX] Cigna-Express Scripts deal unlikely to benefit consumers",[]],["Stating merger as fact and commenting on something related to the deal: → [CVS_AET] #biotechnology Looking at the CVSAetna Deal One Academic Sees Major Disruptive Potential",[]],["Talking about changes in one or both of the companies involved: → [CVS_AET] Great article about the impact of Epic within the CVS and Aetna Merge <URL>",[]]]},{"ex":[["Explicitly voicing doubts about the merger: → [ANTM_CI] business: JUST IN: Cigna terminates merger agreement with Anthem",[]],["Questioning that the companies want to move forward: → [CI_ESRX] Why would $ESRX want a deal with $CI?",[]],["Talking about potential roadblocks for the merger: → [CI_ESRX] Why DOJ must block the Cigna-Express Scripts merger <URL>",[]]]},{"ex":[["Stating that the deal is likely to happen: → [CVS_AET] CVS near deal to buy Aetna (Via Boston Herald) <URL>",[]],["Stating that the deal has been cleared: → [CVS_AET] #Breaking DOJ clears #CVS $69Billion deal for #Aetna.",[]]]},{"rt":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"ex":[["Talking about something unrelated to the companies involved in the merger: → [DIS_FOXA] I'm watching the Disney version of Robin Hood someone tell me how I have a crush on a cartoon fox",[]],["Talking about the companies involved in the merger, however not about the merger: → [CVS_AET] CVS and Aetna's combined revenue in 2016 was larger than every U.S. company's other than Wal Mart <URL>",[]],["Talking about a different merger: → [CVS_AET] What are the odds and which one do you think it will be? Cigna or Humana? Aetna acquisition rumor",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["text summarization",[]],["summarization",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["As followers of the Hallidayan School, they see grammatical forms as resources for encoding interpretations of experience and forms of social (inter) action.",[]]]},{"de":[["This notion extends the meaning of literacy, source with new materials on moving images, colours, web and web-based images, as well as anticipates the future of visual communication.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We emphasize here that both our definition of news and fake news are extremely broad.",[]],["our definition of fake news includes highly biased and hyperpartisan news sites such as Breitbart.com [i.e., corresponding to the \"red\" and \"orange\" categories defined in (8)] and outright fraudulent sites (i.e., the \"black\" category).",[]],["fake news is defined at the publisher or URL (Uniform Resource Locator) level.",[]],["is frequently asserted to be pervasive online with serious consequences for democracy.",[]]],"sb":[["highly biased and hyperpartisan news sites",[]],["outright fraudulent sites",[]]],"ex":[["Breitbart.com",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["credibility is different from factuality (our focus here) as the former is a subjective perception about whether a statement is credible, rather than verifying it as true or false as a matter of fact",[]]],"rt":[["factuality",[]]]},{"de":[["credibility is different from factuality (our focus here) as the former is a subjective perception about whether a statement is credible, rather than verifying it as true or false as a matter of fact",[]]],"rt":[["credibility",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We reweight the instances in the dataset to flatten the correlation of claim n-grams with respect to the labels.",[]],["Specifically, for 'give-away' phrases of a particular label, we increase the importance of claims with different labels containing those phrases.",[]],["We assign an additional (positive) balancing weight α (i) to each training example {x (i) , y (i) }, determined by the words in the claim.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These automated scripts generate content through these platforms and then interact with people.",[]],["Bots are versatile, cheap to produce, and ever evolving.",[]],["Bots are the primary applications used in carrying out distributed denial-ofservice and virus attacks, email harvesting, and content theft.",[]],["some bots may be relatively dormant, waiting to be activated and tweeting only occasionally.",[]],["we expect the actual number of bots to be higher-many bots, after all, would not disclose their activities.",[]],["all bots share the property of being able to deploy messages and replicate themselves.",[]]],"rt":[["political bots",[]],["social bots",[]],["botnets",[]]],"sb":[["political bots",[]],["social bots",[]],["self-disclosed bots",[]]]},{"de":[["Political bots tend to be developed and deployed in sensitive political moments when public opinion is polarized.",[]]],"rt":[["social bots",[]]],"sp":[["Bots",[]],["Social bots",[]]]},{"de":[["Social bots are particularly prevalent on Twitter, but they are found on many different social media platforms that increasingly form part of the system of political communication in many countries.",["6"]]],"rt":[["political bots",[]]],"sb":[["political bots",[]]],"sp":[["Bots",[]]]},{"de":[["From a computational perspective, narratives may relate to topic mining, text summarization, machine translation [33], and graph visualization.",[]],["Narrative summaries can be constructed from an ordered chain of individual events with causality relationships amongst events, appeared within a specific topic [18].",["18"]]],"sy":[["story",[]]],"rt":[["narrative representation",["22"]],["coherence and structure of narratives",["22"]],["the strategies, aim, and functionality of storytelling",["22"]]],"sb":[["breaking news",["25"]],["long stories of past events",["25"]]]},{},{"de":[["The user activity fluctuations for timestamped data may contain activity bursts that are illustrative of significant events.",[]]],"ex":[["the generation and propagation of textual content within an online platform can illustrate the narrative activity relative to the events over time, where a burst represents a significant narrative activity.",[]]]},{"de":[["politically dangerous AV manipulation in the form of cheap fakes already exists. Society is already struggling to mitigate the harm of \"traditional\" techniques: changes in speed, cutting apart or together, circulating in new, vulnerable contexts.",[]]],"rt":[["deepfakes",[]],["cheap fakes",[]]],"sb":[["virtual performances",[]],["face swapping",[]],["lip-synching",[]],["voice synthesis",[]]]},{"de":[["Still other techniques rely on far simpler methods, like mislabeling footage or using lookalike stand-ins.",[]],["AV manipulation in the form of cheap fakes already exists. Society is already struggling to mitigate the harm of \"traditional\" techniques: changes in speed, cutting apart or together, circulating in new, vulnerable contexts.",[]],["But as these techniques become more accessible, the risk of harm to private figures will increase, especially those who are politically, socially, or economically vulnerable.",[]],["not generated with sophisticated artificial intelligence",[]]],"rt":[["AV manipulation",[]],["deepfakes",[]]],"sb":[["photoshopping",[]],["lookalikes",[]],["recontextualization",[]],["speeding and slowing moving images",[]]],"sp":[["AV manipulation",[]]],"ex":[["mislabeling footage",[]],["using lookalike stand-ins",[]],["Recalling how the video of Rodney King's beating was slowed in court to attempt to sow doubt in jurors' minds, we can see that the speed of a video has a large effect on its interpretation.",[]]]},{"de":[["Deepfakes which rely on experimental machine learning represent one end of a spectrum of audiovisual AV manipulation.",[]],["The deepfake process is both the most computationally-reliant and also the least publicly accessible means of creating deceptive media.",[]],["The deepfake process is both the most computationally reliant and also the least publicly accessible means of manipulating media.",[]],["technically advanced modes of AV manipulation include virtual performances, face swapping, and lip-synching or voice synthesis.",[]],["The range of these newly widespread, technically advanced modes of AV manipulation include virtual performances, face swapping, and lip-synching or voice synthesis.",[]]],"rt":[["cheap fakes",[]]],"sb":[["virtual performances",[]],["face swapping",[]],["lip-synching or voice synthesis",[]],["lip-synching",[]],["voice synthesis",[]]],"sp":[["AV manipulation",[]]],"ex":[["synthesizing various performances of Obama in prototypes produced by the University of Washington, 16 Stanford, 17 and at the State University of New York at Albany.",["16","17","18"]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The authors suggest that if a photo is originally shared publicly, it becomes a private image when it has been edited to depict the person in the image in a sexualized way.",[]]],"sy":[["sexualized photoshopping",[]]],"rt":[["sexualized photoshopping",[]],["Image-based sexual violence",[]]],"ex":[["a 17-year-old Australian woman, Noelle Martin, found her face photoshopped onto pornographic images circulating on the internet, which caused her anguish over diminished job prospects.",["50"]]]},{"de":[["This strategy is a type of in-camera editing that requires no technical skill, simply the desire and ability to find a lookalike for the target.",[]],["using similar-looking actors to depict them in sexualized or pornographic footage.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["There has always been a politics of evidence around audiovisual media",[]]]},{"rt":[["cheap fake",[]]],"ex":[["a falsified BBC report began circulating on WhatsApp, presenting a false story of nuclear escalation between NATO and Russia.",["56"]]]},{"de":[["laws like Section 230 of Title 47 of the 1996 Communications Decency Act",[]]]},{"rt":[["image-based sexual abuse",[]]],"sp":[["Photoshopping",[]]]},{},{"de":[["buried in the terms of service that users habitually click through",[]]]},{"de":[["hate speech is any kind of communication which is offensive, underestimating and humiliating an individual or group of people.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Once people process information that appears vaguely credible to them, it becomes difficult to retract it.",[]],["people build mental models of the world and want their models to be complete. They are willing to accept false information if it allows them to build complete models. When that false information is later debunked, it creates a gap in their understanding of the world. Since people dislike gaps in their understanding and prefer their mental models to be complete, they continue to rely on information they know is false.",["65","66"]],["attempts to correct misinformation often end up reinforcing it through repetition [67,68]. From this perspective, repeating misinformation when attempting to correct it makes it feel more familiar and fluent. By inadvertently increasing the ease with which misinformation is processed, correction attempts also increase the likelihood of it being accepted as true.",["67","68"]],["A popular explanation of the continued influence effect assumes that people build mental models of the world and want their models to be complete. They are willing to accept false information if it allows them to build complete models. When that false information is later debunked, it creates a gap in their understanding of the world. Since people dislike gaps in their understanding and prefer their mental models to be complete, they continue to rely on information they know is false.",["65","66","65,66"]],["Another explanation of the continued influence effect argues that attempts to correct misinformation often end up reinforcing it through repetition [67,68].",["67","68"]]]},{"de":[["well-crafted corrections delivered by trusted sources can positively impact beliefs, attitudes, and intentions toward behavior favored by science",["26","27","28","29","30","31","32","33","34","35","36"]]]},{"de":[["is a serious problem that can cause individual and social harm by promoting erroneous beliefs about health and illness, leading to detrimental behavior",["9","10"]],["a serious problem that can cause individual and social harm by promoting erroneous beliefs about health and illness, leading to detrimental behavior",["9,10"]]]},{"de":[["the belief that there is an objectively correct answer to how people ought to behave in this situation",[]],["extended exposure to false claims and debunking attempts appears to weaken the belief that there is a nonsubjective, correct answer to how people ought to behave in this situation, which in turn leads to less positive reactions toward masking as the prescribed behavior.",[]]]},{"de":[["inoculate individuals against misinformation before it is even encountered",[]],["witnessing a thorough refutation of a false claim early in the debate may inoculate people against later assertions of the false claim.",[]],["has been shown to decrease later reliance on misinformation.",[]],["it is possible to inoculate individuals against misinformation before it is even encountered",["41","42","43"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The intersections of the response and the references are the claims either supported (Entailment) or refuted (Contradiction) by the references. The remaining parts in the response are claims not verifiable by the references (Neutral).",[]]],"rt":[["Entailment",[]],["Contradiction",[]],["Neutral",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Event Detection (ED) (Chen et al., 2015) is the task to extract structure information of events from unstructured texts.",["Chen et al., 2015"]]],"rt":[["fake news detection",[]]]},{"de":[["we enrich the event ontology with event-event relations, such as temporal, causal and hierarchical correlation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["epidemiologic imaginary",[]]]},{"de":[["cultural frames constitute our pre-scientific belief systems.",[]],["they contribute to the social production of disasters by functioning as 'blinders' that prevent social actors from becoming aware of their own risk production.",[]],["culture impairs our accurate grasp of disasters by placing 'cognitive limits on people and institutions so that they are blind to worst cases'",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["the apocalypse",[]],["the theodicy",[]],["the sublime",[]],["the risk calculus",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["disaster myths",[]]]},{"sy":[["disaster fictions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["disaster is at the centre of contemporary society, since the emergency regime isolates, stigmatizes and pathologizes certain parts of the population and the environment that are seen as the bearers of danger.",[]],["they function as cognitive .frames, epistemological technologies, embedded in specific social practices and legitimating specific forms of social control.",[]],["the emergency regime approach, fmally, views disaster on the level of social practice, as a configuration that manages bodies and populations, and is therefore halfway between the individual and the world.",[]]]},{"de":[["disaster is at the centre of contemporary society, since the emergency regime isolates, stigmatizes and pathologizes certain parts of the population and the environment that are seen as the bearers of danger.",[]],["they function as cognitive .frames, epistemological technologies, embedded in specific social practices and legitimating specific forms of social control.",[]]],"sp":[["cultural history",[]]]},{"de":[["the epidemic is neither a brute scientific fact, nor a mere cultural figure, but rather a cognitive frame, a cultural 'lens' that configures our awareness of the social world.",[]]],"rt":[["tipping point",[]]]},{"de":[["Such outbreak narratives not only represent specific infections, they also produce the way we experience infections in the first place: Outbreak narratives ... have consequences. As they disseminate information, they affect survival rates and contagion routes. They promote or mitigate the stigmatizing of individuals, groups, populations, locales (regional and global), behaviors, and lifestyles, and they change economies. They also influence how both scientists and the lay public understand the nature and consequence of infection, how they imagine the threat, and why they react so fearfully to some disease outbreaks and not others at least as dangerous and pressing.",[]],["the consequences of the outbreak narratives are productive; they reframe and reconfigure social life by creating and disseminating new models of public life, based on the principles of public health.",[]],["Such outbreak narratives not only represent specific infections, they also produce the way we experience infections in the first place: Outbreak narratives ... have consequences.",[]],["As they disseminate information, they affect survival rates and contagion routes.",[]],["They promote or mitigate the stigmatizing of individuals, groups, populations, locales (regional and global), behaviors, and lifestyles, and they change economies.",[]],["They also influence how both scientists and the lay public understand the nature and consequence of infection, how they imagine the threat, and why they react so fearfully to some disease outbreaks and not others at least as dangerous and pressing.",[]]]},{"sy":[["state of exception",[]]]},{"de":[["the state of exception approach mobilizes a powerful critical potential by extending the analytical gaze beyond the immediacy of the disaster, and onto the underlying structures of social and political life.",[]],["it not only highlights differential conditions of vulnerability in the lead-up to disaster, but instead focuses on the production of social inequality at large.",[]],["the relation between culture and disaster can be conceptualized as an exposure -an uncovering of the dominant political structure through works of art.",[]],["Arguing on a legal scale, Agamben defmes the exception as a case that cannot be grasped within the regular legal order and thus necessitates an extraordinary response.",["Agamben 1998: 20"]]],"sy":[["state of emergency",["Agamben 1998: 20"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the trauma approach views the function of aesthetic practices as a commemoration of disaster.",[]],["The trawna approach understands cultural practices as a means to inscribe trawnatic events within individual or collective memory in order to fight against forgetting, and aid the therapeutic process of coping with the destructive mental and material effects of disaster.",[]]],"sy":[["trauma approach",[]]],"rt":[["interpretative model",[]]]},{"de":[["The zooming-out movement of the vulnerability approach makes it possible to 'denaturalize' disasters, and tease out their underlying political economy",["Klinenberg 1999"]],["This methodological --framework extends the analytic gaze beyond the immediacy of the disaster onto the everyday workings of society, exploring the social, cultural, political and ecological conditions that play a role in the production of disaster (or exacerbate its severity).",[]]],"ex":[["New Orlean~, for instance, was a highly vulnerable city, due to its bad levees, its location beneath sea level, the eradication of the coastal vegetation outside the city, its poor transportation system, but also as a consequence of its impoverished black population and racially segregated urban structure",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Social cognition therefore encompasses modeling the contents of another's mind (''theory of mind'') once a mind has been perceived.",[]]],"sy":[["theory of mind",[]]],"rt":[["social perception",[]]]},{"rt":[["social cognition",[]]]},{"sy":[["theory of mind",[]]]},{"de":[["We frame this as \"difference\" rather than \"bias\" because we do not assume that all attributes should be equally distributed across gender.",[]],["The goal of proposing the GEP vector/score is to quantify the gender presentation differences when we compare the text-to-image models.",[]]],"sb":[["Neutral",[]],["Explicit",[]]]},{"de":[["Political leaders/movements use discourse to persuade the public of the necessity and appropriateness of a course of action.",["69"]],["Discourse also allows political leaders/movements to establish a dominant narrative of an issue, setting the parameters of the discussion thereafter.",["70"]]]},{"rt":[["ontological security",["96"]]]},{"de":[["It is about one's need 'to experience oneself as a whole continuous person in time'.",["14"]],["Ontological security derives from individuals' reliance on normality and predictability.",["15"]],["Routine situations, therefore, constitute the core of ontological security.",["17"]],["perceptions of ontological insecurity",[]],["Ontologically secure individuals have the confidence that they have \"in the continuity of their self-identity and in the constancy of the surrounding social and material environment\".",["16"]],["Ontological security derives from individuals' reliance on normality and predictability. 15",["15"]],["Ontologically secure individuals have the confidence that they have \"in the continuity of their self-identity and in the constancy of the surrounding social and material environment\". 16",["16"]]],"rt":[["ontological insecurity",[]]]},{"de":[["Populism has a chameleonic character.",["8"]],["It takes a variety of forms, echoing different socio-cultural and cultural contexts.",["9"]]]},{"de":[["The act of securitization dramatizes an issue as vital and removes it from the sphere of mundane public debate.",["28"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the taste for expressive partisan cheerleading (c)",[]],["allow them to support their party",[]]]},{"rt":[["partisan responding",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["cheerleading",[]]],"rt":[["expressive partisan utility",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["reporting things as they are",[]]]},{"de":[["denoting both theory and practice",[]],["the interventionist, the developmental, and the educational",[]],["the practice of purposeful journalism",[]],["journalism that focused on grassroots development issues including critical appraisal of policy",[]],["This study uses 'DJ' and considers it an inclusive term, denoting both theory and practice.",[]]],"sy":[["developmental journalism",[]],["DJ",[]]],"rt":[["public journalism",[]],["peace journalism",[]],["public service broadcasting",[]],["appreciative-cum-solutions journalism",[]],["social responsibility theory of the press",[]],["interventionist",[]],["developmental function",[]],["educational function",[]]],"sb":[["educating the audience",[]],["supporting national development",[]],["advocating for social change",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Development Journalism (DJ)",[]]]},{"sy":[["development(al) reporting",[]],["development journalism",[]],["DJ",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Development Journalism (DJ)",[]]]},{"de":[["the latter indicating a fact-based journalism practice",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Development Journalism (DJ)",[]]]},{"de":[["Freelance journalists and journalists working for alternative media, ethnic media, and alternative online sites were included in this definition.",[]]],"sb":[["Freelance journalists",[]],["journalists working for alternative media",[]],["ethnic media",[]],["alternative online sites",[]]]},{"de":[["resembles a development reporter",["Hanitzsch 2011"]]],"rt":[["development reporter",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["concerns of deception",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Upon exposure to messages, recipients reconsider the reasons for their current attitudes and behavior. They do not refute or challenge the arguments that are presented in the message",[]]],"sp":[["Empowerment Strategies",[]]],"ex":[["a person in favor of the right to abortion can resist a pro-life message by actively thinking about arguments that support the right to abortion rather than countering the arguments in the pro-life message.",[]],["For example, a person in favor of the right to abortion can resist a pro-life message by actively thinking about arguments that support the right to abortion rather than countering the arguments in the pro-life message.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Avoidance is perhaps the most straightforward means of protecting oneself from the impact of persuasive messages.",[]],["Avoidance behavior has primarily been studied in the context of marketing communications, where researchers have studied the factors that cause individuals to switch channels (zapping), fast forward commercials in recorded programs (zipping), switch off their television, or leave the room to avoid commercial messages (Brodin, 2007).",[]],["Avoidance strategies are particularly adopted when people anticipate an unwanted persuasion attempt, whereas the other strategies are used to cope with the actual experience of the persuasion attempt, at which point it is too late to adopt avoidance strategies.",[]],["avoidance strategies are proposed to be related to all the identified resistance motives (e.g., freedom threats, reluctance to change, and concerns of deception) because these strategies are assumed to be used upon the anticipated experience of resistance.",[]]],"rt":[["contesting",[]],["biased processing",[]],["empowerment strategies",[]]],"sb":[["physical avoidance",[]],["mechanical avoidance",[]],["cognitive avoidance",[]],["selective exposure",[]]],"sp":[["resistance strategies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hence, when trying to maintain the status quo, people are prone to distorting incoming information such that inconsistent information is dismissed or devalued, and consist information is valued as more important.",[]],["the motives for resistance (i.e., threat to freedom, reluctance to change, and concerns of deception) predict the type of strategy (i.e., avoidance strategies, contesting strategies, biased processing strategies, or empowerment strategies) that people use to resist persuasion.",[]]],"sb":[["weighting attributes",[]],["reducing impact",[]],["optimism bias",[]]],"sp":[["resistance strategies",[]]],"ex":[["weighting information",[]],["reducing impact",[]]]},{"de":[["This phenomenon explains why persuasive attempts not only may be ineffective but also may lead to the opposite of the desired results, such as an increase in unhealthy behavior or a decrease in sales",[]]]},{"sp":[["avoidance strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory regards this behavior as a strategy for decreasing the dissonance that people experience due to inconsistencies.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the motives for resistance (i.e., threat to freedom, reluctance to change, and concerns of deception) predict the type of strategy (i.e., avoidance strategies, contesting strategies, biased processing strategies, or empowerment strategies) that people use to resist persuasion.",[]]],"sb":[["contesting the message",[]],["contesting the source",[]],["contest the persuasive strategy",[]],["counter argue",[]],["source derogation",[]]],"sp":[["resistance strategies",[]]],"ex":[["counter arguing",[]]]},{"rt":[["source derogation",[]]]},{"sp":[["contesting strategies",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["reluctance to change",[]]]},{"de":[["Related to source derogation is the idea of defensive stereotyping.",[]]],"rt":[["source derogation",[]]]},{"ex":[["brand placement",[]],["entertainment-education",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the motives for resistance (i.e., threat to freedom, reluctance to change, and concerns of deception) predict the type of strategy (i.e., avoidance strategies, contesting strategies, biased processing strategies, or empowerment strategies) that people use to resist persuasion.",[]],["often induced by reluctance to change or threats to freedom",[]]],"sy":[["defensive processing",[]]],"rt":[["attitude bolstering",[]],["social validation",[]]],"sb":[["attitude bolstering",[]],["social validation",[]],["self-assertion",[]],["assertions of confidence",[]]],"sp":[["resistance strategies",[]]],"ex":[["attitude bolstering is more likely to occur when persuasive messages are targeting on attitudes that are more central to the self.",[]],["social validation is most effective when people feel uncertain about the situation or their attitudes",["Cialdini, 2001"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Motivated resistance acknowledges that people are armed with resistance strategies that may impede even well designed campaigns.",[]]]},{"de":[["message recipients have the tendency to believe that negative things are less likely to happen to them than to others (Weinstein, 1987;Sharot et al., 2011;Shepperd et al., 2013).",[]],["As a result they tend to downplay the risks or exaggerate the perception of their own ability to control the situation (Chambers and Windschitl, 2004).",[]],["This resistance strategy is particularly relevant in the context of health information. It is suggested that message recipients have the tendency to believe that negative things are less likely to happen to them than to others (Weinstein, 1987;Sharot et al., 2011;Shepperd et al., 2013). As a result they tend to downplay the risks or exaggerate the perception of their own ability to control the situation (Chambers and Windschitl, 2004).",["Weinstein, 1987","Sharot et al., 2011","Shepperd et al., 2013","Chambers and Windschitl, 2004"]]],"sp":[["Biased Processing Strategies",[]]],"ex":[["they construe all kinds of reasons why these threats do not apply to them personally and why they are less at risk than others. They might, for example, respond with \"While smoking may cause lung cancer, I do not think this risk is very high for me because it does not run in my family. \"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Persuasion knowledge has been found to develop over time, with age and exposure to marketing messages (Wright et al., 2005), although several studies have indicated that even young children possess elementary knowledge of the persuasive tactics used by marketers, which may be accompanied by a corrective (negative) response to persuasion attempts (Buijzen et al., 2010).",[]],["the activation of persuasion knowledge about the strategy that is applied.",[]]]},{"de":[["The Persuasion Knowledge Model (Friestad and Wright, 1994) proposes that people develop theories and beliefs about how persuasion agents try to influence them.",[]]]},{"sp":[["avoidance strategies",[]],["avoidance behaviors",[]]]},{"de":[["Hence, reactance is regarded as the motivational state of a person whose freedom is threatened.",[]]]},{"de":[["actively avoiding a \"spillover\" or \"halo\" effect, and isolating judgments of the \"focal\" attribute from one's other judgments.",[]]],"sp":[["Biased Processing Strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["A reluctance to change may be caused by an unwillingness to change, but also by a desire to stay the same.",[]]]},{"sy":[["selective avoidance",[]]],"rt":[["avoidance",[]]],"sp":[["avoidance strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["Self-affirmation can be achieved by focusing on other valued aspects of the self, which are unrelated to the message threat (Sherman and Cohen, 2002).",["Sherman and Cohen, 2002"]]]},{"de":[["People who apply this strategy remind themselves that nothing can change their attitudes or behavior because they are confident about them.",[]],["people may resist persuasion by asserting the self. People who apply this strategy remind themselves that nothing can change their attitudes or behavior because they are confident about them.",[]]],"sp":[["Empowerment Strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["In a persuasive context, one may be skeptical of the literal truth of message claims, the motives of the sender, the value of the information, the appropriateness of the message for a specific audience (e.g., children) or specific products (e.g., alcohol; Obermiller and Spangenberg, 1998).",["1998"]]]},{"de":[["people who are presented with a persuasive message that is incongruent with their existing attitude think of others who share their existing beliefs.",[]]],"sp":[["Empowerment Strategies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This behavior has been referred to as source derogation",[]]],"rt":[["defensive stereotyping",[]]],"sp":[["contesting strategies",[]]]},{"rt":[["state reactance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["more weight is attached to information that is consistent with one's attitudes and less weight is attached to inconsistent information.",[]]],"sp":[["Biased Processing Strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["Different political opinions should in a well-functioning democracy be reflected in media content in a fair and reasonable way.",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["news diversity",[]],["intra medium diversity",[]],["inter media diversity",[]]],"rt":[["internal media diversity (or intra medium diversity)",[]],["external media diversity (or inter media diversity)",[]]],"sb":[["internal media diversity",[]],["external media diversity",[]]]},{"de":[["However, as noted above, the character of the existing newspaper competition in a market can vary from ruinous competition to effective competition.",[]],["the character of the existing newspaper competition in a market can vary from ruinous competition to effective competition.",[]]],"sb":[["ruinous competition",[]],["effective competition",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["CF recommendation is the earliest proposed and the most widely used method in recommender systems. Its basic idea is group intelligence.",[]],["It finds relevance between items or users by analyzing users' behaviors, then accordingly recommends to users.",[]]],"sy":[["CF",[]]],"sb":[["User-Based Collaborative Filtering",[]],["Item-Based Collaborative Filtering",[]],["User-Based CF",[]],["Item-Based CF",[]]]},{"sp":[["social groups",[]]]},{"ex":[["rating and like or dislike option",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["popularity effect",[]]]},{"ex":[["page browsing behavior",[]]]},{"sy":[["Information Filtering Bubbles",[]]]},{"sy":[["Information Cocoons",[]]]},{"de":[["While users' friends in Twitter are mostly people they do not know in reality. The friend relationships are usually established just because they are interested in each other's expressions of one's opinion or thoughts, and the friendships are generally one-way.",[]]],"rt":[["social graph",[]]],"sp":[["social network structure",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["personalized recommendation technology",[]]]},{"sp":[["personalized recommendation technology",[]]]},{"de":[["This is determined by the nature of news, which is intended to inform users of the latest and most popular information in the community.",[]]],"rt":[["hot news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The advantage of this method is that it does not require interactions between users and items but still can make recommendations for new users or new items. That is to say, it is able to solve the cold-start problem. It is because that this method uses users' social network information to analyze their interest preferences, and then selectively recommend their friends' favorite items to them, which is somewhat similar to user-based CF method, except that the data sources are different.",[]]],"rt":[["user-based CF method",[]]]},{"de":[["Users' friends in Facebook are generally people he knows in real life, and establishing a friend relationship needs confirmations by both of the two sides.",[]]],"rt":[["interest graph",[]]],"sp":[["social network structure",[]]]},{"rt":[["weak relationship",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["strong relationship",[]]]},{},{"de":[["gathering eyeballs or access to the public's mind and selling it to advertisers",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformatzya",[]]],"ex":[["Russian disinformatzya tactics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["made possible by the emergence of social media",[]],["These movements were presented as a radically new type of political mobilization, capable of uniting different political agendas",[]]]},{"sy":[["counterhegemonic public sphere",[]]]},{"de":[["aiming to challenge the views disseminated by the mainstream media.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["On that basis, how can they opine on anything more than surveying what was published and publicly available?",[]]],"rt":[["knowledge",[]]]},{"de":[["when women make up a minority of a group (less than 15 percent) they are more likely to be perceived as tokens and will have fewer opportunities to influence the organization",["Guy 2011","Kanter 1977","Torchia, Calabrò, and Huse 2011"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the relationship between participation in editorial processes and publication rates is an important indicator of women's opportunity to publish",["Eigenberg and Baro 1992, 299"]],["potential bias in the system",["Stoye 2017"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["compliance with official advice",[]],["compliance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the actors' interpretations, expectations and media use co-determine the communicative construction of reality and the consequences of information presented in media.",[]]]},{"de":[["Dissent can itself become a central norm in network societies and therefore directly constitutive for legitimacy at a meta level. This is what we outline here as communicative legitimacy.",[]],["both sides of communication-the ''loved'' side of consensus, control and consistency as well as the ''unloved'' side of conflict or dissent, uncontrol and inconsistency-are fundamental for the constitution of legitimacy.",[]],["An organization that is able to appreciate dissent is likely to react to the dissent by diversifying its own reality and become polyphonic, and might be perceived as being legitimate even by those same critical stakeholders and observers who question its behaviors.",[]]],"rt":[["dissent",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Audiences increasingly receive pre-selected information from their social network sites, general search engines and user reviews.",[]]]},{"de":[["corporations are accused of greenwashing and being hypocritical, building on the idea that they loosen or decouple their rhetoric from the real societal change",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["plurality of voices and narrations represented in new and traditional media",[]]],"rt":[["monophonic voice",[]],["homophonic voice",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["becomes both individual and collective at the same time",[]]]},{"de":[["it is also often used to refer to interaction between people using computers, especially through the internet",["3"]],["interaction between people using computers, especially through the internet",["3"]]]},{"de":[["anonymity also triggers disinhibition, or unrestrained behaviour. We can on the one hand see that there is probably a connection with growing bravery to express ideas. We are more open, more sociable and capable of expressing what we think. We are less stiff and more inclined to joke and dare to be unique. On the other hand, however, feeling protected by anonymity, we are prone to breaking the norms, telling lies and being aggressive and vulgar when we deal with others [15].",[]],["Disinhibition in the context of relative anonymity and physical safety can hurt our self-confidence and favour intimacy that may open the gate for anger and hatred and thus make us aggressive and violent [18].",["18"]]]},{"de":[["This constitutes the \"ethos\", our style of life and actions visible for the others [27].",["27"]],["employ positive humane values and principles.",[]]]},{"rt":[["humane communication",[]]]},{"de":[["where it contributes to closeness, reciprocity and understanding between people, where it helps individuals manifest their feelings, intentions, where people look for mutual understanding",["14"]]]},{"de":[["our culture employs instrumental rationality that favours knowing, expertise and professionalism, which prevent internal instability and increase immunity against romantic enthusiasm.",[]]]},{"de":[["we believe, in the axiological and ethical point of view, that life in cyberspace should also mean moral-value based \"good life\", which means appropriate values, behaviour and conduct, doing good-in other words, employ positive humane values and principles.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["helper-strategy",[]]]},{"de":[["Following the helper-strategy, the translator uses more analogues or descriptions rather than transliterations (in the case of realia); he also tends to make the syntax of the translated text more comfortable for the reader; he may even withdraw some units or formulations from the text if they seem to him unintelligible or too specific.",[]]],"rt":[["enlightener-strategy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It includes linguistic information (style, lexicon and grammar), cultural (social-historical) information, and subject area information.",[]]],"sb":[["Objective information",[]],["Subjective information",[]]]},{"rt":[["linguistic information",[]],["ecumenic information",[]]],"sb":[["linguistic information",[]],["ecumenic information",[]]],"sp":[["literary information",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["literary information",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["social phenomenon",[]]],"rt":[["echo-chambers",["13","29"]]]},{"sy":[["invisible participants",[]]]},{"de":[["It includes the mentioned accounts (P N @ ) and linked website domains (P N DM ) in the tweets the user likes.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this form of stance detection, a given text entails a stance towards a premise (target).",[]],["Studying stance needs to cover the intersection dimensions of stance taking process, which are mainly influenced by linguistic forms and social interactions frames",["37"]]],"sy":[["viewpoint",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In the digital era, Facebook and Google have simply been more effective at implementing the advertising model, providing a wider reach to advertisers at greatly reduced costs.",[]]]},{"de":[["the implementation of such gatekeeping -often driven by the desire for profit rather than quality -has sometimes been disastrous, but the alternative of legions of human editors is almost certainly impossible nor even necessarily desirable: without appropriate training and professionalisation, people are even more susceptible to bias.",[]]]},{"de":[["Algorithmic journalism can only deal with information that is made available (and then only if it has been structured in a machine-readable format, rather than countless letters, notes, and recordings), which remains a fundamental problem for software when it comes to finding stories.",[]],["where it is good -as in writing millions of articles to deadlines that no group of professionals could ever match -algorithmic journalism is very good. Yet, such journalism is highly dependent on structured information that is not always presented in this format in the chaotic and messy environments in which journalists must frequently work.",[]]]},{"de":[["algorithmic transparency as an essential moral question for organisations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["in those areas where algorithms are not capable of generating content, what we more often see is augmented journalism.",[]],["not the use of augmented reality (AR)",[]]],"rt":[["augmented reality journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["the successes are clearest when dealing with story generation in limited frameworks",[]]],"sy":[["algorithmic journalism",[]],["computational journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["has been a stock element of the publishing industry.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["often in place to regulate debate",[]]]},{"de":[["essentially becoming a clarion call for Trump and his followers to attack any story that does not satisfy their own agenda",[]],["Trump would attempt to rebrand fake news in order to pursue his own agenda.",[]],["raising of public awareness with regard to fake news",[]]],"sy":[["outright lies",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"rt":[["highly partisan \"alt\"-journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["how companies such as Facebook and Google were more effectively reflecting user's interests and reinforcing their prejudices, demonstrating its origins in attempts to collaboratively filter the flood of information that was starting to emerge in the digital domain as early as the late 1980s.",[]],["Eli Pariser discussed how companies such as Facebook and Google were more effectively reflecting user's interests and reinforcing their prejudices, demonstrating its origins in attempts to collaboratively filter the flood of information that was starting to emerge in the digital domain as early as the late 1980s.",["74"]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]],["confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["filter bubbles, in which only stories backing up particular perspectives tended to be shared",["109"]]]},{"de":[["the distribution of information has radically changed, whereby social media and search engine algorithms become the new gatekeepers for the dissemination of stories.",[]],["the communications network of the United States of America proved itself incredibly easy to infiltrate",[]]],"rt":[["human gatekeeping",[]]],"sb":[["individual decisions about the newsworthiness of a story",[]],["organisational levels (is this story consonant with our business or organisational mission?)",[]],["social institutional levels (such as whether it will be profitable in a market-oriented publication)",[]],["social system levels (the wider social and cultural values that shape our relations with each other)",[]],["networked gatekeepers",[]],["automated, algorithmic gatekeepers",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a period when areas such as journalism were frequently dominated by a number of colourful and powerful personalities",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Initially, Facebook had concentrated on allowing users to comment on each other's' profiles or walls, but as it began to concentrate on providing a steady stream of new stories, it categorised these as a newsfeed",[]]]},{"de":[["For a great many professional journalists, objectivity has been held up as an essential tenet of journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["undermining",[]]]},{"rt":[["symbiosis",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["syntax",[]],["semantics",[]],["metalanguage",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["restructuring the public sphere in the early years of the twenty-first century",[]],["relations between digital media, the public sphere, and citizen journalists",[]],["if the form of the public sphere celebrated by Habermas was liberal, that encountered online today is more frequently described by critics as a neoliberal space.",[]],["the public sphere was always subject to interference by powerful organisations, typically governments in the earlier stages then commercial entities later.",[]]],"rt":[["digital media",[]],["citizen journalists",[]],["liberal",[]],["neoliberal space",[]]],"sb":[["liberal",[]],["neoliberal space",[]]],"ex":[["town halls",["9"]],["the use of art in public places",["9"]]]},{"de":[["journals in Soviet Russia",[]]],"rt":[["Alternative publications",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["technological determinism",[]]]},{"de":[["a demand for a truncated news cycle that greatly reduced the amount of time devoted to checking and verifying stories",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["a user believes the election fraud would probably share similar news with a supportive stance, and the news asserting election is stolen would attract users with similar beliefs",["1"]]]},{"de":[["a user is more likely to spread a piece of fake news when it confirms his/her existing beliefs/preferences",[]]]},{"rt":[["exogenous context",[]]]},{"rt":[["endogenous preference",[]]]},{"rt":[["news propagation graph",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["news propagation graph on social media",[]]],"rt":[["exogenous social context",[]]]},{"de":[["availability is assessed by asking respondents to list what considerations come to mind when they think of the issue.",[]]],"rt":[["frame strength",[]]],"sp":[["dimension of strength",[]]],"ex":[["free speech",[]],["the hate group rally",[]],["individuals are able to connect a given consideration (e.g., free speech) to the issue at hand (e.g., the hate group rally).",[]]]},{"rt":[["Motivated reasoning",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["the partisan divide is stark as the parties are far apart",[]],["most members of each party are on the same side as the rest of their party",[]]]},{},{"de":[["competing sides in policy debates tend to restrict their attention to very few frames on each side",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["if a speaker describes a hate group rally in terms of free speech, then the audience will subsequently base its opinions about the rally on free speech considerations and support the right to rally. In contrast, if the speaker uses a public safety frame, the audience will base its opinions on public safety considerations and oppose the rally",["Nelson, Clawson, and Oxley 1997"]]]},{"de":[["If it lacks clarity, however, they turn to secondary information, in this case party endorsements.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They therefore view new information as bolstering their prior opinion, and this added evidence boosts the importance of that opinion to them (e.g., via increased confidence in the opinion).",[]],["polarization seems to spark motivated reasoning, and people clearly evaluate frames differently in the presence of polarization.",[]]],"sy":[["motivated skepticism",[]],["partisan perceptional screen",[]]],"rt":[["partisan motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["we presented party cues and frames as potentially competing information to illuminate what information people use.",[]],["detailed information is important when studying relative partisan cue effects (Bullock 2011).",["Bullock 2011"]]]},{"de":[["This theory also suggests that partisans will more likely be moved by their own party's frame, regardless of its strength.",[]],["when individuals engage in strong partisan motivated reasoning, they develop increased confidence in their opinions. This means they are less likely to consider alternative positions and more likely to take action based on their opinion (e.g., attempt to persuade others; Visser et al. 2006)",[]],["whereby a salient partisan identity colors argument evaluation",[]],["partisan motived reasoning, as is made clear by Chong and Druckman (2010), Druckman and Leeper (2012a), and Druckman et al. (2012), can lead to dogmatic adherence to a prior opinion to the point of extreme inflexibility and intolerance.",[]]],"rt":[["Motivated reasoning",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news has become a significant concern due to its harmful impact on individual attitudes and the community's behavior.",[]],["It is created to: drive sales by glorifying specific products and disseminating negative views of competitors' products, gain political benefits such as directing elections, make financial gains, maintain life quality, and so on",["1","2"]],["It is created to: drive sales by glorifying specific products and disseminating negative views of competitors' products, gain political benefits such as directing elections, make financial gains, maintain life quality, and so on [1,2].",["1,2"]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The intention behind the proliferation of fake news may be manipulation of public views for financial or political benefit, or simply fun.",[]],["Relevant work on this topic concluded that fake news spread quicker, penetrate further, and have a deeper impact than true news",["7"]]],"rt":[["satire",[]],["misinformation",[]],["rumor",[]],["hoax",[]],["disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["opinion spam",[]]],"ex":[["false and unsubstantiated news from doubtful sources attracts more audiences than credible information",["6"]]]},{},{"sp":[["semantic",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The automated nature of bots makes it easy to achieve scalability when spreading misinformation [36,37], amplifying popularity [9,34,45], or polarizing online discussion [39].",["36","37","9","34","45","39"]]]},{},{"de":[["the latter would seem to include some ethical engagement and mutuality with the people involved in the events.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an ethical witnessing that enables a sense of mutuality and engagement beyond spectatorship",[]],["enables a sense of mutuality and engagement beyond spectatorship.",[]]]},{"rt":[["m-government",[]]]},{"de":[["mobile testimony is seen in terms of performances and speech acts between different parties, including mute witnesses, the survivor witness and the witness(es) to the survivor (s)",[]],["mobile witnessing can involve engagement beyond mere spectatorship, establishing new ways of recording events in the 'war on terror'",[]],["The mobilities and mobilizations that are part of mobile witnessing can engage citizens beyond mere spectatorship.",[]],["Mobile witnessing has trajectories across and between conventional binaries such as the self and the other, the individual and the group, the private and the public, the citizen and the professional journalist, the living body and the machine.",[]],["Mobile witnessing also seems to have the possibility to traverse the ordinary and the extraordinary, speech and speechlessness, disrupting the paradox identified in much of the literature on atrocity of witnesses having the responsibility to bear witness and yet being caught within the difficulty of expressing the unspeakable.",[]]],"rt":[["citizen journalism",[]],["ethical witnessing",[]]]},{"de":[["mobile technologies rather than representing a break with earlier technologies are in fact a personalized extension of the network society described by Manuel Castells in the 1990s.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["it is thus a strange but intelligible sentence to say: the witness (speech-act) of the witness (person) was witnessed (by an audience). A witness can also be the performance itself.",["Peters, 2001, p. 709"]],["the witness (speech-act) of the witness (person) was witnessed (by an audience). A witness can also be the performance itself.",["Peters, 2001, p. 709"]],["There are, then, two 'faces' to witnessing, 'the passive one of seeing and the active one of saying'.",["Peters, 2001, p. 709"]]],"rt":[["spectatorship",[]],["active witnessing",[]]],"sb":[["the passive one of seeing",[]],["the active one of saying",[]]]},{"de":[["where growing differences in opinion are secondary to a process of partisanship strengthening as a social identity, which then channels and politicizes more and more social identities in plural societies",[]],["The affective polarization literature sees polarization as driven by deeply rooted mechanisms of group affiliation in human psychology, as individuals instinctively think of themselves as representing collective categories [13,52].",["13","52"]]],"sy":[["social",[]],["pernicious",[]],["social polarization",["11"]]],"rt":[["social polarization",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["motivated reasoning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the echo chamber hypothesis, which sees polarization as taking place within the space of opinions",[]],["sees polarization as taking place within the space of opinions",[]]]},{"de":[["The echo chamber suggests that polarization is in part driven by new media technology that allows us to avoid the discomfort of exposing ourselves to opposing ideas or opinions by choosing what people and information we wish to interact with.",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{"de":[["polarization is in part driven by new media technology that allows us to avoid the discomfort of exposing ourselves to opposing ideas or opinions by choosing what people and information we wish to interact with.",[]]]},{"de":[["self-segregate to avoid the discomfort of having our views challenged",[]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"rt":[["solid regime",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["organic solidarity",[]]]},{"de":[["The central finding of the minimal group paradigm [52,53,79] is that when individuals come together to interact under the label of a similarity, this similarity will tend to turn into a social identity.",["52","53","79"]]]},{"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["The polarization that affects many democracies today is thus seen as resulting from strengthening political identities that come to dominate pluralistic social life, to channel and absorb other cleavages, while effacing countervailing identities [1]",["1"]],["The outcome is a sense of fundamental difference and a mutual questioning, or even denial, of the other's legitimacy-more akin to an ethnic separation than to a difference in opinion [18]",["18"]]]},{"rt":[["affective polarization",[]]]},{"rt":[["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]],"sp":[["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]]},{"de":[["According to ELM, people are persuaded through two different routes: central and peripheral (Petty and Cacioppo 1986).",[]]],"rt":[["central route of persuasion",[]],["peripheral route of persuasion",[]]],"sb":[["central route of persuasion",[]],["peripheral route of persuasion",[]]]},{"sb":[["satire",[]]]},{"sy":[["peripheral route of persuasion",[]]]},{"de":[["The peripheral route takes very little energy and cognition.",[]],["This method could be called a heuristic method as it does not ensure to be optimal or even sufficient in achieving its objective of finding correct or truthful information. The peripheral route takes very little energy and cognition.",[]]],"sy":[["heuristic method",[]]],"rt":[["heuristic method",[]],["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]],"sp":[["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Satire news is explicitly produced for entertainment.",[]]]},{"sy":[["satire",[]]]},{"de":[["Satire news is explicitly produced for entertainment.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Les médias la reprennent largement en montrant, récits et images à l'appui, que le problème ne concerne plus seulement les marges de la société mais l'affecte dans son ensemble : chacun est susceptible de passer de l'autre « côté » du social.",[]]],"rt":[["lien social",[]]]},{"de":[["les analyses de Wittgenstein nous ont appris à ne pas prendre le mot pour la chose et la proposition pour la réalité qu'elle prétend simplement nommer",[]]],"rt":[["critique du langage",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["La souffrance n'est certes pas une maladie mentale, mais plutôt un symptôme psychique",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["observable par les sciences sociales qui s'efforceront même de la mettre en chiffres. Elle s'inscrit dans une polarité morale qu'elle oriente vers sa composante compassionnelle plutôt que répressive.",[]],["qu'ils relèvent de la misère ou de la délinquance, qu'ils se manifestent par un épuisement ou par des violences",[]],["on puisse souffrir par le social",[]]],"sy":[["mal-être",["19"]],["malaise",["19"]]],"rt":[["grande misère",[]],["petite misère",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a split will be defined if the calculated Jaccard similarity coefficient is less than 30%.",[]]]},{"de":[["Individuals and groups faced with such information seek to interpret it in terms of their existing belief systems and categories.",[]],["Objects thus obtain their significance in relation to prevalent social representations.",[]],["Individuals and groups faced with such information seek to interpret it in terms of their existing belief systems and categories. Objects thus obtain their significance in relation to prevalent social representations.",[]]],"ex":[["how AIDS was initially understood in terms of venereal diseases like syphilis or as a mark of divine punishment before a specific representation distinguishing it from other sexually transmitted diseases developed",["Marková & Wilkie, 1987"]]]},{},{"de":[["the hazard template shifted from a framework that held the pill as medically safe (although a possible hazard) to one where the pill is medically risky.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These are generated through the \"whole package of activity (communication, exchange, argumentation) in which individuals and groups engage to make meaningful changes in their physical and social environments\" (Breakwell, 2001, p.342).",["Breakwell, 2001, p.342"]],["one of the most important functions of social representations is to make the unfamiliar familiar.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Under this metric, a perfect model is equally likely to pick the stereotypical sentence as it is to pick the antistereotypical sentence.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["often have vastly different interpretations of facts or even entirely different sets of acknowledged facts",["Otala et al. 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["The idea is to identify misleading social media content by harnessing the wisdom of crowds",["Woolley et al. 2010"]]],"rt":[["collective intelligence",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Sentiment analysis has specifically been proposed as a key enabling technology in eRulemaking",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This metric is designed for reliable application across differing label distributions that satisfies the vast majority of these properties.",["39"]],["Hun is designed for reliable application across differing label distributions that satisfies the vast majority of these properties.",[]]]},{"sy":[["flashback",[]],["flashforward",[]]],"sb":[["analepsis",[]],["prolepsis",[]]]},{"sy":[["ontological narratives",["Somers, 1994"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["story",[]],["narrating",[]]]},{"rt":[["diegesis",[]],["mimesis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This occurs when we see events explicitly refracted through the eyes, mind, and feelings of a particular agent or character.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["time-of-what-is-told",[]]]},{"rt":[["story",[]],["discourse",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["1001 Nights as a classic example",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["time-of-telling",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["deep stories",["Hochschild, 2018"]]],"ex":[["the so-called \"Great Replacement\" narrative, the worldview held by some white Americans or Europeans that non-white immigrants are arriving to take their jobs and political power (Feola, 2020)",["Feola, 2020"]]]},{"rt":[["external narrators (EN)",[]],["character-bound narrators (CN)",[]],["first-and third-person narratives",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["New York City in Truman Capote's Breakfast at Tiffany's",[]],["Hogwarts Academy in Rowland's Harry Potter",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Facebook status updates",["Page, 2010"]]]},{"rt":[["discourse",[]],["narrating",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Sólo existe la historia en las palabras que la explican; toma formas variadas, según los instrumentos que la transmiten, según la amplitud de los círculos que se forman para escuchar el informe, pero, fundamentalmente, no va jamás más allá de las expectativas o de los deseos del grupo que la produce.",[]],["no es otra cosa que esta memoria colectiva",[]],["Sólo existe la historia en las palabras que la explican",[]],["historia, fundada sobre indicios observables, es una cosa muy distinta de esos mismos indicios, es de hecho un discurso original, una recreación a partir de los indicios",[]]],"rt":[["memoria colectiva",[]]]},{"de":[["la memoria colectiva humana puede prolongarse a través de los siglos: conocemos, evocamos, situamos respecto de nosotros mismos hechos de los que nada más que la tradición ha podido rendirnos cuenta",[]]]},{"de":[["Es el texto que, incesantemente, un grupo cuenta una y otra vez.",[]],["no va jamás más allá de las expectativas o de los deseos del grupo que la produce.",[]]]},{"rt":[["memoria colectiva",[]]]},{"de":[["se ha encontrado constantemente situada entre el retorno a la memoria sagrada y la abolición de la memoria",[]]],"rt":[["memoria sagrada",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The appeal to fear benefits from the fact that emotions are the backbone of propaganda. Thus, fear belongs amongst the most common emotions exploited by propagandists. We can identify several basic fears frequently present in propaganda: the fear of rejection, powerlessness, and, most significantly, the fear of death",["Shabo 2008"]],["the manipulative technique of appeal to fear was used frequently.",[]]],"sp":[["manipulative techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["we can consider the presence of the author's opinion to be manipulative.",[]]]},{"de":[["Propagandists often oversimplify complex problems by pointing out a single cause or a single enemy who can be blamed for it (even if not responsible at all). For everything from unemployment to natural disasters, blaming the enemy can help the propagandist achieve his or her agenda",["Shabo 2008"]]]},{},{"de":[["It usually employs similar tools to labelling -though, in a more straightforward way. The aim is to picture the opponent as an enemy not just with a different point of view but also as not even human.",[]],["It usually employs similar tools to labelling -though, in a more straightforward way.",[]],["The aim is to picture the opponent as an enemy not just with a different point of view but also as not even human.",[]]],"rt":[["labelling",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation is still meant as information; true or false, it is information.",[]],["Second, disinformation is misleading information, which means it creates false beliefs.",[]],["And thirdly, disinformation is intentionally misleading, intentionally providing manipulated content, and therefore intentionally creating false beliefs.",[]]]},{"de":[["They usually take the form of misleading or completely false information presented as verified.",[]]]},{"de":[["manipulative techniques related to calling the enemy responsible for problems, responsible for the feeling of fear and uncertainty.",[]],["Labelling can take many different forms depending on the circumstances, but they all, rather than making a legitimate argument, attack the opposition on a personal level. It often appeals to the audience's preconceptions and prejudices",["Domatob 1985;Shabo 2008","Domatob 1985","Shabo 2008"]]],"sy":[["name -calling",[]]]},{"de":[["Labelling can take many different forms depending on the circumstances, but they all, rather than making a legitimate argument, attack the opposition on a personal level.",[]],["It often appeals to the audience's preconceptions and prejudices (Domatob 1985;Shabo 2008).",["Domatob 1985","Shabo 2008"]]],"sy":[["name -calling",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Instead of leaflets with pictures and movies, it is written text or, more precisely, words and stories (narratives) that are used for these purposes. Attempts to convey emotions and a biased view of the world rely more on manipulative techniques such as blaming, fabrication, labelling, and relativization.",[]]]},{"de":[["The line between objectively recognizable facts and the presentation of one's opinion has been blurred.",[]],["It's usually used to calm down emotions when (from the propa-gandist's point of view) something terribly wrong is happening.",[]],["It explicitly contains criticism of the opponent and/or trivialization of the problem.",[]],["Data shows that the importance of the topic and Russian activities in both countries were relativized in order to persuade readers that nothing serious was happening there. In the case of Syria, the relativization of Russian activity was done by putting it in obvious and false counterbalance to US activities somewhere else and at a different time.",[]],["It's usually used to calm down emotions when (from the propa-gandist's point of view) something terribly wrong is happening. It explicitly contains criticism of the opponent and/or trivialization of the problem.",[]]],"sp":[["post -truth era",[]],["manipulative techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["Visual information is easier to remember than textual. Individuals exhibit greater recall of visual information. Visual information may therefore be more effective because visual aspects enhance the sensatory experience and encourage decision -making.",[]]]},{"sy":[["fact verification",[]],["fact-checking",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["affirmative action strategies might be understood as strategies for reversal of discrimination.",[]],["differs from the other two in having a deliberate compensatory component",[]]],"rt":[["strategies for reversal of discrimination",[]]]},{"rt":[["implicit attitudes",[]]],"sb":[["self-esteem",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["If a stigmatizing attribute is unavailable to a decision maker, it would seem that it could not possibly influence judgment.",[]],["In principle, blinding appears to qualify as a foolproof method of avoiding unintended discrimination. If a stigmatizing attribute is unavailable to a decision maker, it would seem that it could not possibly influence judgment.",[]]]},{"rt":[["similarity-attraction effect",[]]]},{"de":[["Research on the role of attention in weakening the effects of implicit cognition (reviewed above) supports consciousness raising as a strategy for avoiding unintended discrimination.",[]],["That is, when a decision maker is aware of the source and nature of a bias in judgment, that bias may effectively be anticipated and avoided.",[]],["Consciousness raising may also have some value in attenuating implicit bias when the source of implicit bias is not properly identified, as suggested by findings that attentional effort reduces effects of weak cues.",[]],["Research on the role of attention in weakening the effects of implicit cognition (reviewed above) supports consciousness raising as a strategy for avoiding unintended discrimination. That is, when a decision maker is aware of the source and nature of a bias in judgment, that bias may effectively be anticipated and avoided.",[]]]},{"de":[["Displaced self-esteem (which has not previously been identified as a distinct class of findings) is a relative of well-known reciprocity and ingratiation effects that involve reciprocal exchange of gifts, favors, or praise (Jones, 1964;Regan, 1971; see Cialdini, 1993, for an overview of reciprocity effects).",["Jones, 1964","Regan, 1971","Cialdini, 1993"]]],"rt":[["reciprocity",[]],["ingratiation",[]],["reciprocal exchange phenomena",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["social comparison theory",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["stereotype",[]]]},{"sp":[["Implicit Self-Esteem",[]]]},{"de":[["The attitude toward B is implicit, in present terms, when the subject does not identify the attitude toward B as the source of the evaluation of A.",[]],["The attitude toward B is said to operate implicitly when the subject does not notice that B is influencing the judgment of A.",[]],["the range of potential halo effect cues is quite broad.",[]],["the direct measure of evaluation of A implicitly expresses the attitude toward B. The attitude toward B is implicit, in present terms, when the subject does not identify the attitude toward B as the source of the evaluation of A.",[]]],"ex":[["attractive males and females are judged to be kinder, more interesting, more sociable, happier, stronger, of better character, and more likely to hold prestigious jobs.",[]],["essays attributed to a female student were judged by male students to be of higher quality when the stimulus materials included a photo that showed the author to be physically attractive",[]],["defendant attractiveness was associated with judges levying smaller fines and lower bail levels in actual misdemeanor cases",[]],["Dion, Berscheid, and Walster (1972) reported that attractive males and females are judged to be kinder, more interesting, more sociable, happier, stronger, of better character, and more likely to hold prestigious jobs.",["1972"]],["Landy and Sigall (1974) found that essays attributed to a female student were judged by male students to be of higher quality when the stimulus materials included a photo that showed the author to be physically attractive, rather than unattractive.",["1974"]],["Downs and Lyons (1991) reported that defendant attractiveness was associated with judges levying smaller fines and lower bail levels in actual misdemeanor cases",["1991"]],["evaluation of a product was positively influenced by first encountering it in an attractively gift-wrapped package rather than in a plain package.",[]],["black color of sports uniforms is associated with both selfperceptions and observers' perceptions of aggressiveness.",[]],["In much halo effect research, physical attractiveness plays the role of the objectively irrelevant attribute that influences evaluative judgment on various other dimensions.",[]]]},{"de":[["The tendency to reject a communication that does not support one's own views is shown especially strongly in the form of",[]]]},{"de":[["The present analysis of implicit attitudes extends work on automatic activation to explain how the attitude activated by one object can be (mis)attributed to another.",[]],["the debt of this definition both to Doob's (1947) analysis of attitude as an implicit response and to subsequent mediationist stimulus-response theories will be obvious.",[]]]},{"rt":[["attitude",[]]],"sp":[["implicit social cognition",[]]]},{"de":[["In this template, C is the label for a construct (such as attitude), and R names the category of responses (such as objectevaluative judgments) assumed to be influenced by that construct.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this template, C is the label for a construct (such as attitude), and R names the category of responses (such as objectevaluative judgments) assumed to be influenced by that construct.",[]],["implicit cognition designates a theory-defined category of effects.",[]]]},{"de":[["it is assumed that the judgment of any previously unevaluated attribute (A) of the object is influenced by the (usually positive) attitude associated with self (Attribute B).",[]]],"sb":[["Experimental implicit self-esteem effects",[]],["Naturally mediated implicit self-esteem effects",[]],["second-order implicit self-esteem effects",[]]],"sp":[["implicit social cognition",[]]]},{"sy":[["initial letter effect",[]]]},{"de":[["implicit social cognition, although strongly rooted in existing constructs, offers a theoretical reorganization of phenomena that have previously been described in other ways and, in some cases, not previously identified as having an unconscious component.",[]]],"sb":[["implicit attitudes",[]],["implicit self-esteem",[]],["implicit stereotypes",[]]]},{"rt":[["stereotype",[]],["stereotypes",[]]],"sp":[["implicit social cognition",[]]]},{"sy":[["minimal group effect",[]]]},{"de":[["indirect measures, which neither inform the subject of what is being assessed nor request self-report concerning it.",[]],["The usual justification for indirect measures in social psychological research is the empirical one of minimizing reactivity of research situations to avoid demand characteristics (Orne, 1962) and sources of self-presentational artifacts such as evaluation apprehension (Rosenberg, 1969).",["Orne, 1962","Rosenberg, 1969"]],["Experiments that demonstrate implicit attitudes rely on indirect measures to detect their operation.",[]]],"rt":[["direct measures",[]]],"ex":[["weight, race, or gender",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["However, several recent findings now indicate that the mere exposure effect is an implicit attitude effect.",[]],["mere exposure effects are strongest when conditions reduce subjects' memory for the effect-producing exposures.",[]],["Under these circumstances, it appears that increased perceptual fluency of a repeatedly presented stimulus (that is, increased ease of its identification on re-exposure) is misattributed to liking, yielding a positive evaluation of the stimulus.",[]],["increased perceptual fluency of a repeatedly presented stimulus (that is, increased ease of its identification on re-exposure) is misattributed to liking, yielding a positive evaluation of the stimulus.",[]]],"sp":[["implicit attitude effect",[]]]},{"sp":[["Implicit Self-Esteem",[]]]},{"de":[["the research subject mistakenly attributes ease of perception on reexposure to a stimulus (perceptual fluency) to some characteristic of the stimulus other than an unremembered recent encounter.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["priming and context function as designations for operationally defined categories of effects",[]]]},{"sy":[["projective tests",[]]],"ex":[["inkblots",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Implicit Self-Esteem",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["egocentricity",[]],["beneffectance",[]],["cognitive conservatism",[]]]},{"de":[["The interpretation of similarity-attraction findings as implicit self-esteem effects depends on the assumption that increasing numbers of opinions shared with the stranger constitute increasing strength of the link of the stranger to self.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["downward comparison",[]]]},{"de":[["a stereotype may encompass beliefs with widely diverging evaluative implications.",[]],["Stereotypes guide judgment and action to the extent that a person acts toward another as if the other possesses traits included in the stereotype.",[]]],"rt":[["Implicit stereotypes",[]],["attitude",[]]],"sb":[["ethnic stereotype",["Brigham, 1971, p. 13"]]],"ex":[["the stereotype of members of a certain group (e.g., cheerleaders) may simultaneously include the traits of being physically attractive (positive) and unintelligent (negative).",[]]]},{"sy":[["implicit attitude effect",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Not all adult content is inherently offensive; its offensiveness often depends on context and cultural norms.",[]],["In the Chinese context, adult content is conveyed implicitly due to strict regulations. This has led to the widespread use of subversive phrases in offensive language",["Zidani (2018)"]]],"ex":[["terms like \"萝卜\"(carrot) are used to reference male genitals",[]],["\"奶子\"(milk) is employed to refer to female breasts",[]]]},{"de":[["This would allow the model to better understand the intended meaning of the comment and distinguish between offensive and non-offensive uses of certain words or phrases.",[]]]},{"de":[["dark humor can cross into offensiveness when it turns cruel or targets marginalized or vulnerable groups, including those with disabilities, specific genders, races, sexualities, religions, or cultural identities",["Kumari et al. (2023)"]]],"ex":[["\"headless Louis XVI\"",[]],["\"farming equipment\" (which refers to slavery in the 17th century)",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech is usually done based on characteristics such as race, color, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, nationality, or religion.",[]],["Waseem et al. established a list of rules to identify hate speech, including negative statements or stereotypes about minority groups, disparaging or racial terms, and support for entities that encourage hate speech.",[]]],"rt":[["discrimination",[]],["prejudice",[]]],"ex":[["the use of racial and homophobic slurs",[]]]},{"de":[["The success of such models depends on the availability and quality of the knowledge they are built upon, which can sometimes be incomplete or biased in itself, leading to limitations in performance.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The use of offensive language can have a harmful impact on the targeted individuals or groups, contributing to discrimination, prejudice, and hate speech.",[]]],"rt":[["discrimination",[]],["prejudice",[]],["hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]],["sarcasm",[]],["adult content",[]],["cyberbullying",[]]]},{"de":[["presents a controversial aspect of offensive language, largely due to its varying interpretations.",[]],["While previous research hasn't explicitly included sarcasm as a type of offensive language, several studies link sarcasm to negative sentiments like anger or jealousy",["Riloff et al. (2013)","Abu Farha and Magdy (2020)"]],["Sarcasm, on the other hand, is more pervasive than dark humor in a Chinese context.",[]],["we categorize sarcasm that fits this description as offensive language, given its intent to cause harm.",[]],["Sarcasm presents a controversial aspect of offensive language, largely due to its varying interpretations.",[]]],"rt":[["negative sentiments like anger or jealousy",["Riloff et al. (2013)","Abu Farha and Magdy (2020)"]]],"sp":[["Offensive language",[]]],"ex":[["comments in Tieba often allude to the overweighted female as \"健达奇趣蛋\"(kinder egg)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The opinion of agent a i at step t is a function of a i 's perspective at step t. We define a universal elicitation function O to determine an agent's opinion: OPIN i t = O(PERSP i t )",[]]]},{"de":[["Formally, PERSP i t = p 1 , p 2 , . . . , p k with p j ∈ POSTS ≤t for j = 1 . . . k.",[]]]},{"de":[["The conversation's timeline contains all posts that actually have been contributed to the debate (POSTS), including their submission date and author.",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["Typical examples include exaggerated statements, such as \"You won't believe . . . \", \". . . will change your life\", or \". . . will blow your mind\", as well as unnecessary omissions of informative details as in \"This actor fell . . . \", \"This city started . . . \", \"This fact about . . . \".",[]],["exaggerated statements, such as \"You won't believe . . . \", \". . . will change your life\", or \". . . will blow your mind\", as well as unnecessary omissions of informative details as in \"This actor fell . . . \", \"This city started . . . \", \"This fact about . . . \".",[]],["\"You won't believe . . . \"",[]],["\". . . will change your life\"",[]],["\". . . will blow your mind\"",[]],["\"This actor fell . . . \"",[]],["\"This city started . . . \"",[]],["\"This fact about . . . \"",[]]]},{"de":[["The question is whether this baiting is perceived as immoderate or deceptive by the reader-a subjective notion.",[]]]},{"de":[["distinguishing whether a topic of discussion is controversial",[]]]},{"de":[["two sides which do not agree with each other",[]]]},{"de":[["Intuitively, a controversy measure aims to capture how sell separated the two partitions are.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The topic is used as a filter to get all tweets which contain at least one of the hashtags in the topic.",[]]],"rt":[["In the literature, a topic is often defined by a single hashtag.",[]]]},{"de":[["Russia's Internet Research Agency attempted to interfere with the 2016 U.S. election by running fake accounts on Twitter-often referred to as \"Russian trolls\".",[]],["the model-flagged accounts do not score highly on the wellknown Botometer scale (Davis et al. 2016), indicating that they are not simply automated software agents.",["Davis et al. 2016"]],["manage their online identities in various complex ways",[]]],"ex":[["some pretend to be an American mother or a middle-aged white man via profile pictures and descriptions, but their tweet rates are abnormally high, and their tweets revolve solely around political topics.",[]]]},{"de":[["Scholars of agenda-setting have sought to",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["social constructivist approaches",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Anxiety is a normal emotion. From an evolutionary viewpoint, it is adaptive since it promotes survival by inciting persons to steer clear of perilous places.",[]]],"sy":[["anxiété",[]],["Angst",[]]],"rt":[["fear",[]],["worry",[]]]},{"sy":[["peur",[]],["Furcht",[]]]},{"sy":[["souci",[]],["Sorge",[]]]},{"sp":[["communicative ecology",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["communicative ecology",[]]],"ex":[["friendship groups",[]],["more formal community organizations",[]],["companies or legal entities",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["hypochondria",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["correction",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",["Lazer et al. 2018"]]]},{"rt":[["platform-driven correction",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Virality is a latent parameter proportional to the total number of users at a given point in time that are exposed to misinformation.",[]],["It represents the extent to which an event, at a given point in time, is visible in timelines across Twitter.",[]],["Virality decays as an exponential function via δ and λ.",[]]],"sy":[["virality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["encouraging users to consider accuracy has been shown to improve discernment of false information",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["disrupting viral spread may have cascading effects on narrative consolidation and future engagement.",[]]]},{"de":[["We also assume that virality decays over time as the network saturates and new topics arise.",[]]],"rt":[["network saturation",[]]]},{"rt":[["sentiment",[]],["connotation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["sentiment analysis",[]]],"rt":[["opinion inference",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Each LU of a polysemous word belongs to a different semantic frame",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a tweet is deemed to be querying if it matches one of a number of manually curated, regular expressions.",[]]]},{"de":[["Irrespective of the underlying story being ultimately proven true or false, or remaining unsubstantiated, a rumour circulates while it is yet to be verified.",[]],["the amount of rumor in circulation will vary with the importance of the subject to the individuals involved times the ambiguity of the evidence pertaining to the topic at issue",["Allport and Postman, 1947"]],["The identification of rumours within a timeline is ultimately meant to warn users that the information has not been confirmed, and so it may turn out to be false.",[]]],"rt":[["rumour tracking",[]],["rumour detection",[]],["non-rumour",[]]]},{"rt":[["stance classification",[]],["veracity classification",[]]]},{"de":[["This can be operationalised by flagging those tweets that are identified as rumours, warning users to think twice before spreading the information.",[]]],"rt":[["rumour",[]],["non-rumour",[]],["rumour tracking",[]]]},{"rt":[["rumour detection",[]]],"sp":[["rumour detection",[]]]},{"de":[["they have to attract a substantial interest to be deemed rumours",[]]]},{"de":[["The approach has been to train a classifier from a labelled set of tweets to categorise the stance observed in new tweets discussing rumours",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Cyberbullying",[]],["trolling",[]]]},{"sy":[["Abusive talk",[]],["abusive language",[]],["abusive language / speech",[]]],"sp":[["Toxic",["Pavlopoulos et al. (2021b)"]]],"ex":[["Cyberbullying",[]],["trolling",[]]]},{"rt":[["trolling",[]],["Abusive talk / Abusiveness",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Uncivil Talk",[]],["uncivil language",[]],["uncivil speech",[]],["uncivil language / speech",[]]]},{"sy":[["Offensiveness",[]]]},{"sy":[["Offensive talk",[]],["offensive language",[]],["offensive speech",[]],["offensive language / speech",[]]]},{"sy":[["Toxicity",[]]]},{"sy":[["Toxic talk",[]],["toxic language",[]],["toxic speech",[]],["toxic language / speech",[]]],"sb":[["Abusive",["Pavlopoulos et al. (2021b)"]]]},{"rt":[["Cyberbullying",[]]]},{"sy":[["Incivility",[]]],"sb":[["Attacks on arguments or perspective",[]],["lying and aspersion",[]],["personal attack",[]],["profanity or vulgarity",[]],["(Shouting)",[]]]},{"rt":[["orders of discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["For me, this encompasses pragmatics and answers the question of what the language is doing to/with the people in the situation, rather than how it is helping recipients to create a mental image of the world it describes.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["linguistic analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["Textual meaning is the cotextual effect of how the structures produced by the underlying linguistic systems work. This level of description answers the question of what the text is doing in creating an ideational 'world'.",[]],["it is possible to describe fairly consistently what is going on textually which is dependent on, but different from, what is going on linguistically and informs, but does not determine, what is going on interpersonally -or interpretatively.",[]],["the reader/hearer of a piece of language has no choice but to temporarily suspend their own viewpoints and assumptions and to enter the world of the text. They may or may not recognise the ideation (and ideology) consciously and they may or may not agree or contest the version of the world that the text contains, but for the purposes of processing language, they have to accept the world construction as it is given in the text.",[]],["Textual meaning is the cotextual effect of how the structures produced by the underlying linguistic systems work.",[]],["This level of description answers the question of what the text is doing in creating an ideational 'world'.",[]]],"sy":[["ideational metafunction",[]]],"rt":[["linguistically",[]],["interpersonally",[]],["interpretatively",[]],["linguistic meaning",[]],["interpersonal meaning",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["picture message",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Golliwog rag dolls were popular in the early to mid 20 th century, and are characterized by having black skin, frizzy hair, a large red mouth, and white-rimmed eyes; given their close resemblance to minstrel figures, they are now widely considered to be deeply racist (see Pilgrim, 2012).",["8"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Negative targeting",[]]]},{"sp":[["Negative targeting",[]]]},{"sp":[["Negative targeting",[]]]},{"sp":[["Negative targeting",[]]]},{"sp":[["Negative targeting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["practices of covert discrimination that are circulated through the networks of association and interactive communication acts that the platform hosts",[]],["Covert discrimination was found in repeated co-occurring textual associations of immigrants with danger and crime, as well as in popular images that denigrate Muslims and in popular links to anti-immigration websites.",[]]],"sy":[["covert practices",[]],["covert discriminatory practices",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Negative targeting",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Overt hate speech was found in direct threats against immigrants and in derogative associations and insults to foreign people, which were identified after a close reading of the political parties' posts and their user comments.",[]]],"ex":[["comments calling to violent action against immigrants",[]]]},{"de":[["this type of functionality would be largely determined by doxic forms",[]]]},{"sy":[["interest in disinterest",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["ethics are field strategies in journalism in the same way that they are in other fields",[]]]},{"de":[["media ethics exist primarily to reproduce gatekeeping and hierarchical structures in the journalistic field",[]]]},{"de":[["discussions of journalistic ethics rely to an extent on an assumed norm of instrumentalism",[]]]},{"de":[["Media ethics as a symbolic economy are not entirely arbitrary but rather a particular case of the ethical symbolic worlds possible in the context of the generative structures of the journalistic field and its positioning within political and cultural metafields",[]],["Journalistic ethics are in this sense not a resource or guide, but a constitutive element of professional identity and discourse.",[]],["This will act as a key determinant of journalistic cultures of practices -meaning not only overtly professional actions but also practices of reflection, distinction, subjectification and so on",[]]],"sy":[["media ethics",[]]],"rt":[["deontological ethical framework",[]],["media morality",[]]]},{"rt":[["nose for a story",[]],["gut instinct",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["journalistic ethics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["within the field taking up the position of truth-speaker is not reducible to the fact of writing accurately but instead consists in a recognition by peers and audience of truthfulness",[]]],"rt":[["meta-ethic",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["what Foucault terms rationalisation",[]]]},{"de":[["underlying symbolic economy",[]]],"sb":[["economy of esotericisation",[]],["economy of ambivalence towards power",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["sortition",[]],["deliberative minipublics",[]]],"sp":[["deliberative minipublics",["11"]]]},{},{"de":[["for example, the geometric mean of probabilities, of which higher values correspond to greater fairness",[]]]},{"ex":[["'young women'",[]],["'conservatives with a university degree'",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["a 40-person panel contain between 19 and 21 women",[]]]},{"rt":[["citizens' assemblies",[]]]},{"sy":[["statistical parity",[]]]},{"sy":[["Equalized odds",[]]]},{"sy":[["Equal opportunity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["often bears the purpose of insulting individuals or groups, and can include hate speech, derogatory and offensive language",["27"]]],"ex":[["'All you perverts (other than me) who posted today, needs to leave the O Board. Dfasdfdasfadfs' is an example of abusive language",[]]]},{"de":[["has the purpose to harass, threaten or intimidate typically individuals rather than groups",[]]],"rt":[["cyberbullying",[]]],"ex":[["'Our class prom night just got ruined because u showed up. Who invited u anyway?' is an example of bullying",[]]]},{"ex":[["what they tell you is their intention is not their intention. https://t.co/8cmfoOZwxz",[]],["@XXX Doing nothing does require an inordinate amount of skill",[]]]},{"de":[["hate speech 1) targets individual or groups on the basis of their characteristics; 2) demonstrates a clear intention to incite harm, or to promote hatred; 3) may or may not use offensive or profane words.",[]],["1) targets individual or groups on the basis of their characteristics; 2) demonstrates a clear intention to incite harm, or to promote hatred; 3) may or may not use offensive or profane words.",[]]],"rt":[["offensive",[]],["profane",[]],["abusive languages",[]],["cyberbullying",[]]],"ex":[["'Assimilate? No they all need to go back to their own countries. #BanMuslims Sorry if someone disagrees too bad.'",[]]]},{"de":[["Interpretation of such tweets almost certainly requires complicated reasoning and cultural and social background knowledge.",[]]],"ex":[["subtle metaphors such as 'expecting gender equality is the same as genocide'",[]],["stereotypical views such as in '... these same girls ... didn't cook that well and aren't very nice'",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["high frequency of profane words in a user's post history",["8","41"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["one would assume that the presence of the phrase 'white trash' or pattern ' * trash' is more likely to be a strong indicator of hate speech than not, such as in 'White bus drivers are all white trash...'",[]],["... I'm a piece of white trash I say it proudly",[]]]},{"de":[["typically characterised by the use of swearing or curse words",[]]],"ex":[["'i spend my money how i want bitch its my business' is an example of offensive or profane language",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["malicious framing responses",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the rumor detection task aims to determine whether the source post is a rumor or not.",[]]],"rt":[["rumor veracity classification",[]]]},{"rt":[["rumor detection",[]]],"sb":[["non-rumor",[]],["truerumor",[]],["false-rumor",[]],["unverified rumor",[]]]},{"de":[["Abuse is a paradigmatic practice in which online users hide and reveal themselves at the same time.",[]]]},{"sy":[["thin concept",[]],["less congested term",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["economy of self-publicity",[]]]},{"de":[["With extreme speech we emphasize practice-that is, what people do that is related to media (Couldry, 2010)-to avoid predetermining the effects of online volatile speech as vilifying, polarizing, or lethal.",["Couldry, 2010"]],["extreme speech recognizes the inherent ambiguity of speech contexts.",[]],["extreme speech signals a spectrum of practices, which push the boundaries of acceptable norms of public culture toward what the mainstream considers a breach within historically constituted normative orders.",[]],["First, extreme speech recognizes the inherent ambiguity of speech contexts.",[]],["This ambiguity comes from a tension between the rationale of public interest that defines the contours of speech governance and the interests of publicity that constitute practical politics (Mazzarella & Kaur, 2009).",[]],["Second, extreme speech signals a spectrum of practices, which push the boundaries of acceptable norms of public culture toward what the mainstream considers a breach within historically constituted normative orders.",[]]],"rt":[["online vitriol",[]],["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["has helped them to thrust their voice into the public domain hitherto dominated by the state and organized commercial media",[]]],"rt":[["insult",[]],["comedy",[]],["shame",[]],["abuse",[]],["gaali-fed framing",[]],["gaali culture",[]]]},{"de":[["widely used regulatory term",[]],["Hate speech discourse predefines the effects of hate speech as negative and damaging, and its regulatory rationale is thus of control and containment.",[]],["The regulatory scenario reveals the strategies and contestations around a reified category called hate speech",[]],["became a byword for the many social and political antagonisms in the country",[]],["The first is to dehumanize members who belong to another group, and the second is to reinforce the boundaries of the in-group against the out-group by attacking the members from the other group.",[]],["Waldron (2012) argues that this kind of speech has two key characteristics: The first is to dehumanize members who belong to another group, and the second is to reinforce the boundaries of the in-group against the out-group by attacking the members from the other group.",["Waldron (2012)"]]],"rt":[["trolling",[]],["bullying",[]],["extreme speech",[]]],"sb":[["dangerous speech",[]],["fear speech",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["audit culture",[]],["ranking culture",[]]]},{},{"de":[["tradition of communication has historically been used as a \"means to insult somebody in a socially acceptable manner,\" as a technique for \"defending the sphere of privacy against excessive intrusion,\" and as a \"medium to criticize authority\"",[]]],"sy":[["wax and gold",[]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["heckler's veto",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a performance-based measure consisting of brief math-like puzzles that assess the ability to withhold a tempting intuitive (but incorrect) Type 1 response and engage in reflective Type 2 processing to generate a correct response.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["beliefs about good thinking",[]]]},{"sy":[["unusual experiences",[]]],"sp":[["Schizotypy",[]]]},{"sy":[["intuitive",[]],["automatic",[]]],"rt":[["heuristics",[]],["gut feelings",[]]]},{"rt":[["Type 2 processing",[]]]},{"sy":[["reflective",[]],["rational",[]]],"rt":[["Type 1 response",[]]]},{"sy":[["Type 2 processing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Explicit sub-populations",[]]]},{"de":[["a high baseline accuracy tends to reach a high benefit ratio that may even be larger than 1 (the rich get richer), and a sufficiently low baseline accuracy may return a negative benefit ratio (the poor get poorer).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the use of dirty words to offend others may be viewed as impoliteness-based manifestation of power in verbal interactions",[]]]},{"sp":[["functions of expletives",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["shared experience",[]]]},{"rt":[["impoliteness metadiscourse",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["second order politeness",[]]]},{"de":[["tantamount to \"the antinormative hostile communication of emotions\", which embraces \"profanity, insults, and other offensive or hurtful statements\" (Johnson et al. 2008: 419, cf. Shea 1994).",["Johnson et al. 2008: 419","Shea 1994"]]],"rt":[["impoliteness",[]]]},{"de":[["it is deployed, among other goals, to assert one's power, viz. to appear superior, for instance via insults and putdowns.",["Beebe (1995)"]]],"sy":[["perceived instrumental rudeness",[]]],"rt":[["power imbalance",[]],["first order politeness",[]],["second order politeness",[]]],"sb":[["positive impoliteness",[]],["negative impoliteness",[]]]},{"rt":[["netiquette norms",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["rudeness",[]]]},{"de":[["They wish to feel the thrill of doing the forbidden […] This is not a breaking of the taboo, but an observance of the taboo in a manner contrary to the normal.",["Read 1977"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["positive impoliteness",[]]],"sp":[["impoliteness",[]]]},{"de":[["nonpropositional swearing, which is related to catharsis, cannot be judged on its (im)politeness, as long as the hearer knows that the speaker's use of a four-letter word is unintentional.",[]],["which seems to mirror cathartic swearing.",[]]],"rt":[["propositional swearing",[]]]},{"rt":[["negative impoliteness",[]]],"sp":[["impoliteness",[]]]},{"rt":[["nonpropositional swearing",[]]]},{"de":[["can coincide with abuse, which will normally be deemed as impolite",[]],["they may act as politeness forms if they do not overtly attack anybody, being meant to add colour to comments",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["impoliteness",[]]]},{"de":[["which must be informed by the first order approach",[]]]},{},{"de":[["to become vulgar, words need to pertain to tabooed spheres, must necessarily carry the potential for being used as cathartic vehicles and/or terms of abuse, as well as display literal and non-literal senses.",["Singleton (2009)"]]],"sy":[["dirty words",[]],["vulgar words",[]],["taboo words/language",[]],["expletives",[]],["swearing",[]],["cursing",[]],["cussing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["dirty words",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This diasporic public sphere is \"fragmented\" (Bernal, 2005) as it incorporates various online platforms, created by exile opposition actors to serve distinctive purposes, including the online diasporic news websites and advocacy networks established by journalists, the Facebook pages and digital transnational networks created by political and human right activists, as well as the online private diasporic communities where ordinary refugees reported discussing and debating politics and national concerns.",[]]],"ex":[["online diasporic news websites and advocacy networks established by journalists",[]],["the Facebook pages and digital transnational networks created by political and human right activists",[]],["online private diasporic communities where ordinary refugees reported discussing and debating politics and national concerns",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These digitally-empowered interactive collaborations propose new forms of hybridity that blur boundaries between the normative role distinctions of the diasporic opposition groups introducing novel interchanging and complementary political logics, norms, and practices.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["technologies by some governments to surveil and target activists",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a critical juncture is more likely to consist of an accumulation of related events leading to a rapid social, political and institutional change.",[]],["junctures are regarded as 'critical' because they set in motion path-dependent processesin other words selfreinforcing trajectoriesthat become difficult to reverse as they eventually consolidate into one specific dominant institutional setup.",[]],["in a critical juncture, the contingent context in which choices are debated and made can also be seen as the result of institutional, cultural, and political trajectories which are reliant on antecedent conditions.",[]],["Rather than emerging as a discrete event, therefore, a critical juncture is more likely to consist of an accumulation of related events leading to a rapid social, political and institutional change.",[]]]},{"de":[["Critical Discourse Studies orientation",[]]],"rt":[["Critical Discourse Studies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["However, conspiracy theories are plagued by inconsistencies and fallacies [85] that could induce a state of cognitive dissonance-belief in contradictory ideas [29].",["85","29"]],["dissonance can result from various individual or social factors.",[]],["dissonance can result from involuntary or voluntary exposure to information that directly contradicts previously held beliefs.",[]],["the simple act of having to choose between two contradictory ideas can also intensify the experience of dissonance.",[]],["dissonance can also result from the conflict between individually held and socially accepted beliefs.",[]],["being in the state of dissonance, where beliefs are challenged or contradicted, may lead people to change their behaviors or attitudes",["28","66","74"]],["More importantly, however, researchers state that cognitive dissonance can lead to attitude and behavior changes rejecting previously held beliefs [29].",["29"]],["Researchers posit that experiencing cognitive dissonance induces the state of psychological discomfort",["28"]],["According to the theory of cognitive dissonance proposed by Festinger, dissonance can result from various individual or social factors. For example, dissonance can result from involuntary or voluntary exposure to information that directly contradicts previously held beliefs. Further, the simple act of having to choose between two contradictory ideas can also intensify the experience of dissonance. Moreover, dissonance can also result from the conflict between individually held and socially accepted beliefs.",[]],["cognitive dissonance can lead to attitude and behavior changes rejecting previously held beliefs [29]",["29"]]],"rt":[["dissonance reduction strategies",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["doubt expressed by a QAnon follower questioning Q's legitimacy can be construed as dissonance with QAnon.",[]],["Dissonance can induce various behavioral changes, such as strengthening commitment [29], recruiting others [28] or even reversing one's belief [29,51].",["29","28","51"]],["Dissonance causes psychological discomfort",[]],["It is not dissonance when the speaker confronts individual users without reference to the social imaginaries or argues for the relative/speculative nature of the social imaginaries, without denying its usefulness or truth.",[]]],"rt":[["disbelief in conspiracies",["48"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Dissonance self-disclosures also have higher integrative complexity (IC) score indicating the presence of multiple argumentative perspectives.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Specifically the type of semiotics based on paranoid thinking commonly associated with conspiracists [39] is destined to render the communication unintelligible to the outsiders [25].",["39","25"]]]},{"de":[["Understanding the social imaginaries of conspiracists can reveal the components of their collective existence, such as, their knowledge construction practices, their expectations from reality, their legends and characterization of the outside word",["14"]],["symbolic communication of social imaginaries can facilitate secretive, in-group communication [47], amplify the core conspiratorial ideas and beliefs towards them [43], they can also be used to express dissonance or disbelief in conspiracies [48]",["47","43","48"]],["Social imaginaries are typically shared by a group of people and instill the sense of legitimacy to their cause and existence as a group",["79"]],["a broad understanding of how people collectively imagine their social existence.",[]]],"ex":[["a social imaginary of a conspiracy theorist can consist of irrational interpretation of reality, such as, \"there is a global lobby trying to enslave common people\" or \"conspiracists being ridiculed by ignorant mass are further proof of the subversion by elites\" [46] or QAnon's purported worldview that \"America is run by a cabal of pedophiles and Satan-worshippers who run a global child sex-trafficking operation and QAnon are force of good stopping them\" [57].",["46","57"]]]},{},{"de":[["Offensive Language Identification (OLI) aims to control and minimize inappropriate content on social media using natural language processing.",[]]]},{"de":[["The emotion is focused on a specific thing, an object, an incident, or an individual.",[]],["Although some tasks are concerned with detecting the existence of emotion in text, others are concerned with finding the polarities of the text, which is classified as positive, negative, or neutral.",[]],["The approach of extracting emotion and polarization from text is known as Sentiment Analysis (SA).",[]],["The goal of SA is to identify the emotive direction of user evaluations automatically.",[]],["SA is a text mining technique that automatically analyzes text for the author's sentiment using NLP techniques",["4"]]]},{},{"de":[["Agenda-setting can powerfully sway the focus of public opinion",["McCombs, 2002"]],["agenda-setting (selecting what topics to cover)",[]],["agenda-setting-selecting what topics to cover",["Entman, 2007","Ghanem and McCombs, 2001"]],["agenda-setting broadly refers to what topics a text covers",[]],["Agenda-setting and framing can have a significant influence on public opinion by attending to particular issues at the exclusion of others",["McCombs, 2002","Boydstun et al., 2013"]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Frames can occur as stock phrases, i.e. \"death tax\" vs. \"estate tax\", but they can also occur as broader associations or sub-topics",["Tsur et al., 2015","McCombs, 2002"]],["framing (deciding how topics are covered)",[]],["framing-how aspects of those topics are highlighted to promote particular interpretations",["Entman, 2007","Ghanem and McCombs, 2001"]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]],["sentiment",[]],["stance",[]]],"ex":[["abortion can be framed in terms of the life of a child or a woman's freedom of choice",["Tankard Jr, 2001"]]]},{"rt":[["spreading confusion",["Paul and Matthews, 2016"]]]},{},{"rt":[["News media",[]],["Social media",[]],["individuals",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["concept of framing is used to investigate how media and audiences co-construct news events",[]],["holds similarities to concepts of the explanatory theme and discourse analysis",["O'Neill et al. 2015"]]],"rt":[["explanatory theme",[]],["discourse analysis",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["how users piggyback on the main story in order to direct attention to a particular interest",[]]],"ex":[["the user @****S tweets 'three problems beyond the Chalara debate but there is one solution: [business name]. http://bit.******hg'. The URL is connected to a story which suggests that a solution to affected ash trees is to turn them into bio-sterilised charcoal. It seems that this user's tweet does not arise from a primary concern with dieback but rather that dieback provided a platform to flag up and link to the business they represent.",[]]]},{"de":[["Conceptualising risk in this manner shifts the emphasis away from a static view of risk to one where it is always being mediated and in a process of 'becoming' (Busby 2016).",["Busby 2016"]],["shifts the emphasis away from a static view of risk to one where it is always being mediated and in a process of 'becoming'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The framework suggests that 'events pertaining to hazards interact with psychological, social, institutional, and cultural processes in ways that can heighten or attenuate public perceptions of risk and shape risk behaviour'",["Renn 1991, 287"]]]},{"de":[["events pertaining to hazards interact with psychological, social, institutional, and cultural processes in ways that can heighten or attenuate public perceptions of risk and shape risk behaviour",["Renn 1991","Renn 1991, 287"]],["The framework suggests that 'events pertaining to hazards interact with psychological, social, institutional, and cultural processes in ways that can heighten or attenuate public perceptions of risk and shape risk behaviour' (Renn 1991, 287).",["Renn 1991, 287"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Social media",[]]]},{"rt":[["summarization",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["motivations",[]]]},{"de":[["analogous to the biological process",["2013","Jain et al. (2013)"]]]},{},{"de":[["Thus, it mainly serves as a heuristic tool to classify the news sharing process.",[]]]},{"de":[["the word sharing is generally not particularly helpful for scientific analyses of social media activities since \" [i]t means many different things to many different people\" (p. 1).",["Lampinen (2015)","p. 1"]],["It is assumed that news sharing is able to democratize the news flow and to facilitate thematic discussions about (political) issues.",[]]],"rt":[["social media",[]],["participatory behavior",[]],["online news use",[]]],"sp":[["participatory behavior",[]]]},{"de":[["one of the central issues in news sharing research that needs to be addressed.",[]]]},{"de":[["Other self-serving motives like entertainment or escapism were studied as well",[]]],"sp":[["motivations",[]]],"ex":[["entertainment",[]],["escapism",[]]]},{"rt":[["Web 2.0",[]]]},{"de":[["This is also reflected in the need to interact with others through sharing news",[]]],"sp":[["motivations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Since people tend to follow similar activities as their peers, social influence is believed to play a critical role in recognizing, adapting, and sharing (news) content.",[]],["Hence, theories of social influence are often used to address the influence of constructs like tie strength or homophily on news sharing behavior.",[]]]},{"de":[["As an audience-centered approach, it focuses on the perceived gratifications that influence people's news sharing intention in social media and thus sheds light on motives and inhibitors to share news.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Understanding intersectional stereotypes can pose a significant challenge, particularly for non-experts, due to their complexity and overlap with more general group-based stereotypes.",[]]],"ex":[["bias against African American women",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The current body of research concerning the propagation of stereotypes by large language models (LLMs) predominantly focuses on single-group stereotypes",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["algorithm-agnostic",[]]]},{"de":[["Data poisoning attacks pose severe threats to the trustworthiness of recommender systems and could manipulate Internet opinions.",[]]],"sy":[["shilling attacks",["18"]]]},{"de":[["compromise a recommender system at training",[]],["Data poisoning attacks inject fake users to a recommender system and thereby modify the recommendation lists.",[]]],"sy":[["shilling attacks",["18","27","28","46"]]],"sb":[["algorithm-agnostic",[]],["algorithm-specific",[]]]},{},{"de":[["profile pollution attacks rely on CSRF, which makes it hard to perform the attacks at a large scale",[]],["profile pollution attacks can not be applied to item-to-item recommender systems because the attackers are not able to pollute the profile of an item",["46"]]]},{},{"de":[["a much broader, encompassing, but also more complex and multi-layered concept",[]],["opening up possibilities for experimentation and innovation",[]],["situated in the grey zone between alternative and mainstream, in-between civil society, the market, and the state",[]],["the alternativeness of media can equally lie in alternative modes of production, organization, and distribution, or innovative media styles and genres.",[]]],"rt":[["subaltern media",[]],["radical media",[]]],"ex":[["DIY fanzines and later e-zines",[]],["photocopy machines",[]],["pirate radio",[]],["DIY fanzines",[]],["e-zines",[]]]},{"de":[["It is targeted at a group of people and not a single person.",[]],["May contain some of the hallmarks of dangerous speech, such as statements that compares a group of people with vermin or insects (metaphorical), suggest that the audience faces a serious threat or violence from another group and suggests that some people from another group are spoiling the purity or integrity of the authors' group.",[]],["Dangerous speech often encourages the audience to condone or commit violent acts on the targeted group.",[]],["Dangerous speech often encourages the audience to condone or commit violent acts on the targeted group. The six calls to action common in dangerous speech are, calls to: discriminate, loot, riot, beat, forcefully evict, and kill.",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["calls to action",[]]],"ex":[["calls to: discriminate, loot, riot, beat, forcefully evict, and kill.",[]],["The Palestinians would be crushed like grasshoppers ... heads smashed against the boulders and walls.",["3"]]]},{"de":[["constituent words cannot be applied directly to derive the meaning of phrases or sentences",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a kind of speech that demonstrates a clear intention to be hurtful, to incite harm, or to promote hatred.",[]],["Different from other forms of rants or flames, hate speech uses offensive and threatening language that targets certain groups of people based on their religion, ethnicity, nationality, color or gender.",[]]],"rt":[["flames",[]],["virulent messages",[]],["rants",[]],["dangerous speech",[]]],"sb":[["related to nationality, ethnicity, religion, gender, social orientation, disability and class.",[]]]},{"rt":[["negative polarity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["attention shifts",[]]],"ex":[["Some examples of agenda setting campaigns are the repeated comments about the importance of child vaccination, highlighting the need for equal pay in the 2015 State of the Union Presidential Address, or, more broadly, repeatedly addressing the need for affordable healthcare.",[]],["repeated comments about the importance of child vaccination, highlighting the need for equal pay in the 2015 State of the Union Presidential Address, or, more broadly, repeatedly addressing the need for affordable healthcare",[]]]},{"de":[["Politicians can use different contextual frames when referring to a specific topic, giving the public very different views on the topic at hand (Goffman, 1974;Gamson, 1989;Entman, 1993;Chong and Druckman, 2007).",[]],["Politicians can use different contextual frames when referring to a specific topic, giving the public very different views on the topic at hand",[]]],"ex":[["A notable example is the divisive partisan rhetoric used by U.S. politicians when referring to the legality of abortion. Democratic and Republican positions, framed as 'pro choice' and 'pro life', respectively, spin the abortion discourse as an issue of values of individual freedom (pro-choice) or validating the sanctity of life (pro-life).",[]],["Similarly, Republicans refer to the inheritance tax by the overwhelmingly negative coinage 'death tax', while Democrats use 'estate tax'.",[]],["The Affordable Care Act (ACA) and the debate over raising the minimum wage can be framed as an issue of social justice or in the context of the economic burden it incurs on tax payers and by potential job loss.",[]],["the divisive partisan rhetoric used by U.S. politicians when referring to the legality of abortion. Democratic and Republican positions, framed as 'pro choice' and 'pro life', respectively, spin the abortion discourse as an issue of values of individual freedom (pro-choice) or validating the sanctity of life (pro-life)",[]],["Republicans refer to the inheritance tax by the overwhelmingly negative coinage 'death tax', while Democrats use 'estate tax'",[]],["The Affordable Care Act (ACA) and the debate over raising the minimum wage can be framed as an issue of social justice or in the context of the economic burden it incurs on tax payers and by potential job loss",[]]]},{"rt":[["talking points",[]],["agenda setting campaigns",[]]]},{},{"de":[["framing, attention shifts and agenda setting, commonly known as 'spin'",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]],["attention shifts",[]],["agenda setting",[]]]},{"ex":[["For example, environmental issues are traditionally associated with specific parties and not others (e.g. in U.S. politics, environmental issues are mostly associated with the Democratic party (Dunlap et al., 2001)).",[]],["environmental issues are traditionally associated with specific parties and not others (e.g. in U.S. politics, environmental issues are mostly associated with the Democratic party (Dunlap et al., 2001))",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Incomplete understanding, partial or biased interpretation, hearsay, rumor-mongering and inadequate communication are the main ways that give rise to health-related misinformation",["29"]]],"ex":[["myth",[]],["rumors",[]],["pseudoscience",[]],["altered facts",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["duplicate opinionsfoot_6",[]]],"rt":[["opinion spam",[]]],"sp":[["opinion spam",[]]],"ex":[["1. I have stayed at many hotels traveling for both business and pleasure and I can honestly stay that The James is tops. The service at the hotel is first class. The rooms are modern and very comfortable. The location is perfect within walking distance to all of the great sights and restaurants. Highly recommend to both business travellers and couples. 2. My husband and I stayed at the James Chicago Hotel for our anniversary. This place is fantastic! We knew as soon as we arrived we made the right choice! The rooms are BEAUTIFUL and the staff very attentive and wonderful!! The area of the hotel is great, since I love to shop I couldn't ask for more!! We will definatly be back to Chicago and we will for sure be back to the James Chicago.",[]]]},{"rt":[["opinion spam",[]]],"sp":[["opinion spam",[]]]},{"de":[["While these opinions are likely to be deceptive, they are unlikely to be representative of deceptive opinion spam in general.",[]]],"rt":[["deceptive opinion spam",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["deceptive opinion spam",[]],["disruptive opinion spam",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["More specifically, a frame F is subset of a set of arguments A, F ⊆ A.",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]],"sb":[["topic-specific",[]],["generic",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The count of topics in which a frame occurs indicates whether a frame is generic or topic-specific.",[]],["each respresenting one frame",[]]],"sb":[["topic-specific",[]],["generic",[]]]},{"de":[["This phenomenon is called framing and has been introduced in social science (Entman, 1993).",[]],["Knowing the frame of an argument helps users to choose arguments that better address the audience's cultural background.",[]],["Entman (1993) was the first to introduce a formal definition of framing as a way to select and make specific aspects of a topic salient.",["1993"]]]},{"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["fake news publishers often use text and image that fabricate or misrepresent facts to cater to readers' psychology which can attract and mislead readers for rapid dissemination.",[]],["Fake news could come under various modes of data like texts, pictures and videos. It is a collection of multimedia which means it is hard to detect fake news from single-modal data.",[]],["As an intentional and verifiable fake news article, fake news content usually contains textual and visual information",[]],["Fake news could come under various modes of data like texts, pictures and videos. It is a collection of multimedia",[]],["Fake news could come under various modes of data like texts, pictures and videos.",[]]],"rt":[["rumor detection",[]],["spam detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news could come under various modes of data like texts, pictures and videos.",[]]]},{"de":[["in sentiment analysis, systems determine whether a piece of text is positive, negative, or neutral.",[]]],"rt":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["It can be viewed as a subtask of opinion mining and it stands next to the sentiment analysis.",[]],["The significant difference is that in sentiment analysis, systems determine whether a piece of text is positive, negative, or neutral. However, in stance detection, systems are to determine author's favorability towards a given target and the target even may not be explicitly mentioned in the text.",[]],["the target even may not be explicitly mentioned in the text",[]],["the text may express positive opinion about an entity contained in the text, but one can also infer that the author is against the defined target (an entity or a topic)",[]]],"rt":[["opinion mining",[]],["sentiment analysis",[]]],"sp":[["opinion mining",[]]]},{"de":[["Asking people to evaluate the accuracy of a headline or showing people a video about the importance of sharing only accurate content.",[]]],"sp":[["nudges",[]]],"ex":[["Asking people to evaluate the accuracy of a headline or showing people a video about the importance of sharing only accurate content.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Debunking and rebuttals",[]]]},{"de":[["Debunking involves offering corrective information to address a specific misconception.",[]],["Rebuttals, particularly in the context of science denialism, consist of presenting accurate facts related to a topic that has been inaccurately addressed (topic rebuttal) or exposing the rhetorical tactics often used to reject established scientific findings (technique rebuttal).",[]]],"sb":[["Debunking",[]],["Rebuttals",[]]],"sp":[["refutation strategies",[]]]},{"ex":[["Facebook adds the labels \"False (Independent fact-checkers say this information has no basis in fact)\" or \"Partly false (Independent fact-checkers say this information has some factual inaccuracies)\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["nudges",[]]],"ex":[["Asking people to pause and think before sharing content on social media. This could be as simple as a short prompt-for example, 'Want to read this before sharing?'",[]]]},{"de":[["Outcome variables include accuracy ratings and people's ability to discern true and false headlines, as well as measures of sharing intention and sharing discernment (that is, the difference in sharing true versus false headlines).",[]]],"ex":[["accuracy prompts, online media-literacy tips, friction, labels and inoculation",[]]]},{"rt":[["Individual-focused interventions",[]]]},{"de":[["Inoculation is also a refutation strategy because it can be used to pre-emptively refute false information",[]]],"sp":[["refutation strategy",[]],["boosts and educational interventions",[]],["refutation strategies",[]]],"ex":[["Teaching people about the strategy of using 'fake experts' (presenting unqualified people as credible) to increase their recognition of and resilience to this strategy.",[]]]},{"rt":[["verification strategies",[]]],"sp":[["Verification strategies",[]],["Lateral reading",[]]],"ex":[["image searching or tracing the original context of the information",[]]]},{"sb":[["Lateral reading",[]],["Verification strategies",[]]],"sp":[["boosts and educational interventions",[]]]},{"ex":[["Facebook offers tips to spot false news, including \"be sceptical of headlines\", \"look closely at the URL\" and \"investigate the source\".",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The main measure of the effectiveness of corrections in this paradigm is whether the intervention eliminates or attenuates the continued influence of the misinformation-that is, whether people still make inferences as if that information were true despite remembering the correction.",[]]],"rt":[["refutation strategies",[]],["debunking",["59"]],["rebuttals of science denialism",["60"]],["inoculation",[]],["warning and fact-checking labels",[]]],"ex":[["real-world claims that can be fact-checked (for example, urban myths, scientific claims and politicians' statements) or fictional reports containing information that is deemed to be false.",[]]]},{"de":[["Nudging interventions primarily target behaviour, such as sharing behaviour on social media.",[]]],"sb":[["accuracy prompts",["39"]],["friction",["14","40"]],["social norms",[]]]},{"sp":[["refutation strategies",[]]]},{"sb":[["topic rebuttal",[]],["technique rebuttal",[]]],"sp":[["Debunking and rebuttals",[]]]},{"de":[["Refutation strategies aim to reduce false beliefs by providing factual information alongside an explanation of why a piece of misinformation is false or misleading",[]]],"sb":[["Debunking and rebuttals",["24"]],["informational labels",[]],["source-credibility labels",[]],["warning and fact-checking labels",[]],["Inoculation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Emphasizing that most people of a given group disapprove of sharing or using false information (descriptive norm) and/or that such actions are generally considered wrong, inappropriate or harmful (inductive norm).",[]]],"sp":[["nudges",[]]]},{"ex":[["NewsGuard labels indicate the trustworthiness of news and information websites with a reliability rating from 0 to 100, on the basis of nine journalistic criteria that assess basic practices of reliability and transparency.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Rebuttals",[]]]},{"sp":[["Rebuttals",[]]]},{"sb":[["Lateral reading",[]],["image searching",[]],["tracing the original context of the information",[]]]},{"sb":[["Warning labels",[]],["Fact-checking labels",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook adds the labels \"False (Independent fact-checkers say this information has no basis in fact)\" or \"Partly false (Independent fact-checkers say this information has some factual inaccuracies)\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["O público mostrou uma percepção positiva sobre o fact-checking e, quando exposto randomicamente a ele, aprovou ainda mais o formato, tendo acesso a um conteúdo que aumenta o conhecimento sobre as questões em debate.",[]],["Os métodos de checagem não mudam muito entre as agências, mas todas explicam como chegaram à conclusão sobre a veracidade das informações publicadas, destacando as fontes originais de informação com links e referências.",[]],["Outro ponto importante para assegurar a qualidade é a busca pela diversidade de personalidades checadas e uma política clara de erros.",[]],["As agências não checam opiniões e previsões, além de tópicos de pouca relevância para o debate público, como vícios de linguagem, questões de foro íntimo e afins.",[]],["os métodos de checagem são públicos.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["International Fact-checking Network -IFCN",[]]]},{"de":[["É importante delimitar essa fronteira para evitar associações às fake news de erros não intencionais, teorias da conspiração e sátiras, por exemplo.",[]]],"sy":[["notícias falsas",[]]],"ex":[["Wikileaks confirma que Clinton vendeu armas para o Estado Islâmico",[]],["Papa Francisco choca o mundo e apoia Donald Trump",[]]]},{},{"de":[["não é mais apenas a substituição da verdade pela mentira, mas a paulatina destruição na crença em qualquer sentido que nos oriente pelo mundo.",[]]]},{"de":[["processo provocado principalmente pelo volume inédito de informações produzidas pelas novas tecnologias de informação e comunicação (TICs)",[]],["fatos objetivos são menos relevantes que emoções e crenças pessoais",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Typically the person is represented as an avatar (an animated 3D representation of the participant) with a first-person view in the virtual environment and enters a virtually recreated scenario of the news story",["4"]],["In immersive journalism, the participant feels being there at the scene of the news story, and participant's body is part of the news story, either as him/herself, as a visitor at the location, or as a character of the news story",["4"]],["Typically the person is represented as an avatar (an animated 3D representation of the participant) with a first-person view in the virtual environment and enters a virtually recreated scenario of the news story [4].",["4"]]],"ex":[["de la Pena et al. [4] report creating an immersive journalism experience as a firstperson experience of a stress position in Virtual Reality.",["4"]]]},{"sp":[["Presence",[]]]},{"sp":[["Presence",[]]]},{"de":[["Subjective refers to the realistic feeling of the place, whereas objective is an observable behavioral phenomenon of behaving similarly as in a real environment and situation.",[]],["Presence is both a subjective and objective description of the degree of being there. Subjective refers to the realistic feeling of the place, whereas objective is an observable behavioral phenomenon of behaving similarly as in a real environment and situation",["21"]],["Presence is both a subjective and objective description of the degree of being there. Subjective refers to the realistic feeling of the place, whereas objective is an observable behavioral phenomenon of behaving similarly as in a real environment and situation.",[]]],"sb":[["place illusion",["21"]],["plausibility",["21"]],["place illusion, the sensation of being and operating at a remote or virtual place",["21"]],["plausibility (feeling that what is happening is really happening)",["21"]]]},{},{"de":[["religion and culture is in-separable",[]]]},{"sb":[["Honest in intention (Shidq Al-qalbi)",[]],["Honest in saying (Shidq Al-Hadith)",[]],["Honest in deed (Shidq Al-'amal)",[]],["Honest in agreement (Shidq Al-Wa'd)",[]],["Honest in reality (Shidq Al-Haal)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The difference between traditional bullying and cyberbullying is that its effects have a greater impact because the Internet is accessed by a particularly large number of people, so it is more public than traditional bullying.",[]]],"rt":[["traditional bullying",[]]]},{"de":[["Notwithstanding the importance of its criminalization, cyber harassment seems less severe to cyber stalking in terms of frequency, aggressiveness, obsess of perpetrators since the last one (: cyber stalking) contains repetition of stalker's behaviour and the creation of continuous threat or unsafety to the victim in any way.",[]]],"rt":[["cyber harassment",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Cyber violence against women and girls (CVAWG) is indisputably both a new and the greater new dimension of gender-based violence.",["32"]]],"ex":[["impersonation and identity theft",[]],["doxing",[]],["flaming",[]],["trolling",[]],["body shaming",[]]]},{"ex":[["violations of privacy",[]],["stalking",[]],["harassment",[]],["gender-based hate speech",[]],["personal content sharing with-out consent",[]],["image-based sexual abuse",[]],["hacking",[]],["identity theft",[]],["direct violence",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is rooted in gender inequality and reflects harmful norms and practices.",["22"]],["Today, GBV includes all the forms of violence that are harmful to an individual based on their gender, gender identity or gender expression.",[]],["GBV intersects the boundaries of gender, age, ability, socioeconomic class and sexual identity as well as those denoted by culture, religion and ethnicity.",[]]],"sy":[["Violence Against Women (VAW)",[]],["VAW",[]]],"sb":[["violence against women",[]],["domestic violence",[]]]},{"de":[["In general, hate crime include any behaviour that depicts opposition to any form of someone's particularity, from opposition to a different race and other biological characteristics to the different manifestations of a person's cultural and sexual identity; in other words as the ideology or practice aimed at selectively discriminating against a group of people, members of society, on the basis of a set of common characteristics, which the members of the group bear and which, objectively, do not affect the ability of the members of the group to participate in the fundamental functions of society.",["62"]]],"sy":[["racist crime",["61"]]]},{},{"ex":[["deep fakes",[]]]},{"de":[["Most frequently recurring types of conduct are the dissemination, the publishing online non-authorised intimate archives, the online grooming or even voyeurism/creepshots. Common motivations include sexualising the victim, inflicting harm on the victim or negatively affecting the life of the victim.",[]],["Most frequently recurring types of conduct are the dissemination, the publishing online non-authorised intimate archives, the online grooming or even voyeurism/creepshots.",[]]],"sy":[["non-consensual pornography",[]]],"ex":[["dissemination, the publishing online non-authorised intimate archives, the online grooming or even voyeurism/creepshots",["42"]],["the dissemination, the publishing online non-authorised intimate archives, the online grooming or even voyeurism/creepshots",[]]]},{"de":[["Regardless of the origin and distribution history of an assaulting image, sharing of the image constitutes a type of gendered sexual violence that has specific mediated impacts on victims' lives and consequently requires specific coping methods and interventions.",["49"]]]},{"de":[["It can also involve posting and sharing, through ICT means, violent content that consists of portraying women and girls as sexual objects or targets of violence.",["65"]],["the distinguishing criterion between gender-based online hate speech and other forms of violence is mainly the use of ICT to send demeaning, unwanted, cruel remarks, citing the victim's gender and spreading hateful language targeted at women and girls.",["60","66"]]]},{"rt":[["morphing",[]]],"ex":[["deep fakes",[]]]},{"de":[["The disclosure of information, which falls under the category of sensitive personal data, entails increased risks for the individual, affects the sphere of the privacy of his private life and thus more strongly infringes on his privacy, i.e., the privacy of his private life.",[]]],"rt":[["privacy",[]],["private life",[]]],"sp":[["personal data",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["bias attribute word",["Liang et al. ( 2020)","Liang et al., 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["For data-driven NLP models, social bias is an intrinsic problem mainly caused by the unbalanced data of text corpora (Bolukbasi et al., 2016).",["Bolukbasi et al., 2016"]],["Social bias has recently been recognized as an important issue in natural language processing (NLP) systems.",[]]],"sb":[["bias in the embedding spaces",[]],["bias in downstream tasks",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Without access to media, people cannot meaningfully participate in daily life.",[]],["Access considers both platform-how am I receiving this information-and content-what kind of content am I receiving from this platform.",[]],["Access to media ensures that citizens are able to find enough information, ideally from diverse viewpoints, to help them understand issues and participate from an informed position.",[]],["Access considers both platform-how am I receiving this information-and content-what kind of content am I receiving from this platform. Access to media ensures that citizens are able to find enough information, ideally from diverse viewpoints, to help them understand issues and participate from an informed position.",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]],["digital and media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Giddens sees agency as dependent on structures-social norms, laws, institutions-where structures are reformed on the basis of the actions of individuals.",[]],["Hannah Arendt understands agency as the relationship between individuals and the public spaces they inhabit.",[]],["Agency refers not to the intentions people have in doing things, but their capability of doing those things in the first place.",["12"]],["agency must be enacted as relational to others in public spaces.",[]],["Arendt's notion of agency is tied directly to the individualized freedoms that people must feel to act in public.",[]],["Agency here implies an understanding of the systems and structures that guide people's ability to act in the world.",[]],["In the context of civic media literacies, agency exists when voice is applied to evoke caring ethics, to imagine better alternatives, to enact critical consciousness, to persist in pursuit of social change, and to embrace the emancipation of the powerless from struggle.",[]]],"sy":[["human agency",[]]],"rt":[["structuration theory",[]],["Self-efficacy beliefs",[]]],"sb":[["car ing",[]],["imagination",[]],["persistence",[]],["emancipation",[]]],"ex":[["the personal (e.g., what are the choices that I make, and how do I impact the world?)",[]],["the proximal (e.g., how will my choices impact these circumstances which are beyond my control?)",[]],["the collective (e.g., what interdependencies exist that necessitate this type of action taking and engagement?)",[]]]},{"rt":[["agency",[]]]},{"sp":[["digital and media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["individual attention",["46"]]],"rt":[["caring for",[]],["caring with",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["in which people have become proficient at articulating concern, but lack the capacity to act.",[]],["a direct result of a civic culture that has normalized spectacle, and become less trustworthy of media institutions",[]],["one major implication of these new norms is what I call the civic agency gap: the emerging disconnect between the articulation of concern and the ability to find and initiate pathways to action taking in civic life.",[]],["This gap has been exacerbated by networks that prioritize and validate sharing concern, without paying heed to how concern translates into taking action in the world.",[]]],"rt":[["spectacle",[]],["distrust",[]]]},{"de":[["It depends on the extent to which citizens learn to use media to step out of their routines and comfort zones, experiment, fail, innovate, interact, argue, and learn.",[]]]},{"de":[["[to] provide [young people] with a means of asking core questions, envi sioning themselves as civic agents who have the capacity to change the world; they encourage young people to play a role in some of the core political debates of our time.",["69"]]],"sy":[["cognitive roadmaps",[]],["moral compasses",[]]]},{"rt":[["civic media literacies",[]]],"sb":[["caring",[]],["critical consciousness",[]],["imagination",[]],["persistence",[]],["emancipation",[]]]},{"de":[["We contend that the value of the umbrella term is its ability to disentangle media practice from its outcomes.",[]],["Its power lies in the potential to identify civic communities that form around the production or use of media technologies, without making claims about the technologies themselves or their formal and aesthetic composition.",[]]],"rt":[["political communication",[]],["civic technology",[]],["community media",[]],["educational media",[]],["citizen journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["Civic media literacies expand our concept of media literacy from skills and competencies to civic values. They prioritize the design and implementation of media literacy initiatives that focus on the development of agentive action taking where people feel a sense of individual and collective engagement with the world, and use media to act on their disposition.",[]],["The cases prioritize civic values first, and employ media literacy practices to support their goals.",[]],["Civic media literacies, in this regard, can be transformative.",[]],["re-imagine the work of media literacy to embrace \"being in the world with others toward a common good.\"",[]],["Civic Media Literacies (values orientated)",[]],["They envision media literacy pedagogies and practices that prioritize caring ethics, inspire critical consciousness, cultivate imagination, develop persistent engagement, and create conditions for emancipatory forms of communication activism, where people are able to work together to respond to social problems that prevent progress from taking place.",[]],["media literacies must put civic processes at the forefront of their design, or they serve to create media savvy citizens, skilled in deconstruction and creation, but absent their application to problem solving and public work.",[]],["the focus of civic media literacies to be about common good and activating media inquiry and creation that embraces human-based approaches to solving civic problems.",[]],["They are, for all intents and purposes, the same, and they should be articulated as such.",[]],["The goal of civic media literacies is not to reduce participation to an outcome, but rather to understand participation as a process by which voice, activated through constructs that support agency, is applied in the real world.",[]],["skills and competencies are vital to media literacy, and a necessary component of the value-driven, agentive approaches to media interventions",[]],["an approach to civic media literacies that builds from the conceptual and provides a pathway for practitioners to consider the wider civic aims of their work.",[]]],"rt":[["emancipatory communication practices",[]],["voice",[]],["agency",[]],["participation",[]],["civics education",[]],["media literacy",[]],["humanistic storytelling",[]],["community participation",[]],["monitoring online dialog",[]],["navigating social networks",[]],["caring",[]],["critical consciousness",[]],["imagination",[]],["persistence",[]],["emancipation",[]]],"sb":[["caring",[]],["critical consciousness",[]],["imagination",[]],["persistence",[]],["emancipation",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Common good, of course, is a subjective term",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Pedagogy in support of critical consciousness, to Freire, means \"learning to perceive social, political and economic contradictions and to take action against the oppressive elements of reality.\"",["51"]],["Critical consciousness emerges in this example from the process within which participants explore their personal situations and resources to emerge at critical points of transformation.",[]]],"sy":[["conscientização",[]]]},{"de":[["In this context, critical distance has perpetuated the idea that, through our media literate sensibilities, we can separate our personal lived experiences, backgrounds, and ideologies in favor of objective analyses of media texts.",[]]],"rt":[["proper distance",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Stemming largely from a media effects approach to media pedagogy, 81 deficit-focused approaches prioritize the ways in which media impact audiences, and point out these effects so that audiences can build critical skills in defense of such practices.",["81"]]]},{"de":[["details the emergence of digital echo chambers that were created through the spread of information to like-minded communities online.",[]]]},{"de":[["They offer a potential for exploration and discovery, empathy and caring.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Far from being considered only as neutral tools, communication tech nologies has become a site of struggle in its own right.",["85"]],["Emancipatory communication practice also focuses on social justice as a specific end goal, which media literacy education has often shied away from in its attempt to remain withdrawn from political ideologies and choosing sides.",[]],["This approach focuses on forms of communication that are experimental and focused on designing alternative realities beyond technological and media infrastructures that bound communication and information exchanges today.",[]]]},{"rt":[["civic media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["finding truth in public messages",[]],["what Evg eny Morozov calls digital capitalism that \"makes it extremely profitable-look at Google and Facebook-to produce and circulate false but click-worthy narra tives.",["21"]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]],["bias",[]],["manipulation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["pizzagate",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In this articulation, informed citizens are rational, detached, and able to make democratic choices.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this articulation, informed citizens are rational, detached, and able to make democratic choices.",[]]]},{"de":[["enabling participation, seeking to contain and control the emerging power of these new knowledge cultures",[]]]},{"de":[["meaningful inefficiencies 10 that are necessary for civic engagement to be inclusive, dynamic, and relational.",["10"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Media literacy builds an understanding of the role of media in society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy.",["14"]],["reframe our approaches to teaching and learning about media as we enter into new media realities that further push us away from traditional systems and structures and toward ever embedded, abundant, and pervasive digital ecosystems.",[]],["But that process needs not be designed through a set of discrete skills, but through an articulation of civic values based on caring, critical consciousness, imagination, persistence, and emancipation.",[]],["media literacy empowers people to be critical thinkers and makers, effective communicators and active citizens",["59"]],["Common media literacy interventions like deconstructing advertisements or learning about sources and credibility should not be considered ends in and of themselves.",[]],["media literacy empowers people to be critical thinkers and makers, effective communicators and active citizens.",["59"]]],"sb":[["Civic media literacies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the world of spectacle, celebrity encompasses every major social domain from entertainment to politics to sports to business.",["45"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Memes in particular have grown as a central facet of popular culture and expression.",[]]],"ex":[["Bert is Evil",[]],["I can has cheezburger?",[]],["LOLcats",[]]]},{"rt":[["imagined communities",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Media literacy education was understood as a 'cognitive defense' against the most overt and disturbing forms of sensationalism and propaganda pouring out of the rapidly growing culture industries.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["meme",[]]]},{"sp":[["digital and media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["media literacies today and going forward must emphasize how we embrace our views in dialog with others, where we accept differences, learn from dissonance, and embrace plural ideas.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["social normalization that occurs as the television medium provides a set of images to capture a civic imaginary.",[]],["Being isolated-and precisely for that reason-this sector is the locus of illusion and false consciousness; the unity it imposes is merely the official language of generalized separation.",["13"]],["it is that sector where all attention, all consciousness, converges.",[]]],"rt":[["distrust",[]],["mediated texts",[]],["division is presented as unity, and unity as division.",["14"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Voice is socially grounded: It requires shared resources and the acknowledge of others.",["26"]],["Voice is a form of reflexive agency: It requires a responsibility and consistent reflection through narratives we engage in with others.",["26"]],["Voice requires a material form which may be individual, collective or distributed: It is necessary that voice is a narrative, placed in the world with others, and not a form of narrating.",["26"]],["Voice is undermined by rationalities that take no account of voice and by practices that exclude voice or undermine forms for its expression: When voice is denied value, it is denied a place in the world.",[]],["what it means to have a voice online, and ways in which voice does or does not lead to active participation in civic life",[]],["Voice is an embodied process: It is inherently tied to our bodies, our lived histo ries, and our social and cultural identities.",[]],["Voice is deeply tied to our identity, self-awareness, background, formative experiences, and personal motivations to engage with issues.",[]]],"rt":[["instrumental engagement",[]],["relationality",[]],["negotiation",[]],["anonymity",[]],["asymmetrical dialog",[]],["agency",[]],["participation",[]],["reflexive agency",[]]],"sb":[["voice as a process",[]],["voice as a value",[]]],"ex":[["Sometimes people express their voice by doing things like die-in's in city streets. One can be completely quiet, marching in a silent protest, and still be expressing voice.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["prototypically disruptive behaviour included meaningless, irrelevant, or repetitive posts aimed at attention-seeking or response-generating",[]]],"sb":[["spam trolling",[]]],"sp":[["Trolling",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, H either does not recognize impoliteness, or he misinterprets the utterance as, for instance, mock impoliteness, non-malicious impoliteness, or failed politeness (Bousfield 2008: 73).",["Bousfield 2008: 73","73"]]]},{"de":[["Cultural variation in the meanings of, for instance, interruption, silence, and directness can lead to an interpretation of impoliteness where none was intended.",[]],["Bousfield (2008: 73) further distinguishes between failed politeness where H correctly recognizes that S did not intend to be impolite (but is still offended anyway), and instances where H incorrectly interprets malicious S-intent.",["Bousfield (2008: 73)"]]]},{"sy":[["instrumental rudeness",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["trolling",[]]]},{"de":[["Nonmalicious impoliteness is a by-product of S undertaking the task at hand, requirements of her role, or similar (Goffman 1967: 14;Culpeper et al. 2003Culpeper et al. : 1549;;Culpeper 2005: 36Ϫ37).",["Goffman 1967: 14","Culpeper et al. 2003Culpeper et al. : 1549","Culpeper 2005: 36Ϫ37","Culpeper et al. 2003","14","1549"]],["a by-product of S undertaking the task at hand, requirements of her role, or similar",["Goffman 1967: 14","Culpeper et al. 2003"]]]},{"de":[["using highly ritualized insults, usually rhyming and meant to be clearly untrue",[]],["the form may contain features which a lay-person might consider to be inherently impolite, the function is actually to enhance and reinforce closeness, affect, group cohesion, and so forth",[]],["which, in Anglo-American culture, can take the form of \"sounding\" or \"playing the dozens\", or in other words, using highly ritualized insults, usually rhyming and meant to be clearly untrue.",[]],["In other words, whilst the form may contain features which a lay-person might consider to be inherently impolite, the function is actually to enhance and reinforce closeness, affect, group cohesion, and so forth between speaker/producer/writer (hereon S or, purely for alliterative convenience, she) and hearer/recipient/reader (hereon H or, again for alliterative convenience, he) (Haugh 2008).",["Haugh 2008"]],["using highly ritualized insults, usually rhyming and meant to be clearly untrue. In other words, whilst the form may contain features which a lay-person might consider to be inherently impolite, the function is actually to enhance and reinforce closeness, affect, group cohesion, and so forth between speaker/producer/writer (hereon S or, purely for alliterative convenience, she) and hearer/recipient/reader (hereon H or, again for alliterative convenience, he)",["Haugh 2008"]]]},{"de":[["Goffman (1967: 14) suggests that S \"may appear to have acted innocently; [her] offence seems to be unintended and unwitting … In our society one calls such threats to face faux pas, gaffes, boners or bricks\".",["Goffman (1967: 14)"]]],"sy":[["faux pas",[]],["gaffes",[]],["boners",[]],["bricks",[]]]},{"rt":[["spam trolling",[]]]},{"de":[["Whilst both spam and spam trolling are typically unsolicited, impersonal, and irrelevant, spam is usually driven by commercial gain and, one presumes, is not intended to annoy recipients, whereas spam trolling is driven by the intent to provoke aggravated responses.",[]]],"rt":[["spam",[]]],"sp":[["trolling",[]]]},{"de":[["To differentiate from thwarted/frustrated impoliteness, which is essentially identical except that H does not take offence, this paper refers to this as successful (malicious) impoliteness (Bousfield in press).",["Bousfield in press"]]]},{"de":[["In this case, although S's malicious intent is correctly reconstructed by H, the impoliteness is frustrated, or thwarted, because H is simply not offended and either takes no action (i. e., frustrates the attempt), or counters with, for instance, sarcasm, contempt, amusement, or suchlike (i. e., thwarts the attempt).",[]]]},{"de":[["attempt to pass herself off as a legitimate member and after developing her false identity, she will set about disrupting the group whilst trying to remain under cover",[]]],"sy":[["troll",[]]],"rt":[["deception",[]],["aggression",[]],["disruption",[]],["success",[]],["trolling",[]]]},{"de":[["trolling is manifestly made up of four interrelated characteristics: aggression, deception, disruption, and success.",[]],["The troll attempts to pass as a legitimate participant, sharing the group's common interests and concerns",["Donath 1999: 45"]],["after developing their false identity and becoming accepted within a group, the troll sets about disrupting proceedings while trying to maintain his or her cover",["Dahlberg 2001"]],["knowingly playing the group",[]],["causing aggravation without necessarily attacking a specific individual.",[]],["\"trolling\" has become a catch-all term for any number of negatively marked online behaviours.",[]]],"sy":[["ludicrous rants, inane threadjackings, personal insults, and abusive language",["Naraine (2007: 146)"]]],"rt":[["deception",[]],["aggression",[]],["disruption",[]],["success",[]],["baiting",[]],["spam trolling",[]],["mock impoliteness",[]],["malicious impoliteness",[]],["flame",[]]],"sb":[["mock troll",[]],["spam trolling",[]]]},{"de":[["Yet, this space has become a breeding ground of social injustice through epistemic injustice: new forms of discrimination based on who can get access and who can't.",[]]],"rt":[["social injustice",[]]]},{},{"de":[["media accessibility, i.e. audio description, subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing and audio subtitling",[]],["MA has been gradually growing into a vast and lively community of deeply-committed scholars, whose work has been advancing the critical role of accessibility in our society.",[]],["the universal account of MA allows for the inclusion of other groups and access services, favours the convergence of the different conceptions of MA and MA services developed in other fields, and encourages the design of solutions that are more inclusive (Jankowska, 2017, forthcoming;Romero-Fresco, forthcoming).",["Jankowska, 2017","Romero-Fresco"]]],"sy":[["MA",[]]],"sp":[["accessibility studies",[]]],"ex":[["audio description",[]],["subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing",[]],["audio subtitling",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["literacies that can support students' capacity to reflect on and critique media content, distribution and consumption",[]]]},{"de":[["we acknowledge an ongoing debate by journalists and academics who have claimed that the term should no longer be used because it has been so misused for political gain that it no longer has credible meaning.",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["historically focused on developing citizens' critical capacities to engage meaningfully with media and popular culture",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["ALTI+ can effectively detect them by identifying sentences with minimal source contribution",[]],["detached hallucinations occur more frequently in low-resource languages. This reveals that models tend to rely less on the source context when translating to or from low-resource languages.",[]]],"rt":[["oscillatory hallucinations",[]]],"sp":[["hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["hallucinations can be sticky and difficult to reverse when using models that share the same training data and architecture",[]],["the emergence of toxicity in hallucinations",[]],["hallucinations: highly pathological translations that can severely damage user trust and pose serious safety concerns (Perez et al., 2022;Kumar et al., 2022).",["Perez et al., 2022","Kumar et al., 2022"]]],"sy":[["natural hallucinations",[]]],"rt":[["oscillatory hallucinations",[]]],"sb":[["hallucinations under perturbation",[]],["natural hallucinations",["Lee et al., 2018","Raunak et al., 2021","Guerreiro et al., 2022b"]],["oscillatory hallucinations",[]],["detached hallucinations",[]]],"ex":[["off-target translations",[]],["overgeneration",[]],["failed attempts to translate",[]]]},{"sp":[["hallucinations",[]],["natural hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["natural hallucinations are rare and challenging to study.",[]],["low-quality translations for unperturbed sources",[]]],"sy":[["hallucinations",[]]],"sb":[["oscillatory hallucinations",[]]],"sp":[["hallucinations in machine translation",[]]]},{"de":[["nearly all hallucinations into English for mid-and highresource language pairs are oscillatory.",[]],["ChatGPT produces very few, if any, oscillations",[]]],"sy":[["oscillatory character hallucinations",[]]],"rt":[["detached hallucinations",[]]],"sp":[["hallucinations",[]],["natural hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["This theory has been developed on the basis of Mori's personal observation in the 1970s and has been subject of some empirical research in the last decade.",[]],["the uncanny valley phenomenon may also arise from a perceived mismatch between situational expectations resulting from a given virtual scenario and character appearance.",[]],["humanoids that are more realistic than cartoon characters, but do not fully achieve human-likeness, may cause an \"eerie feeling\" and fall into the \"uncanny valley\"",[]],["This dichotomy between realistic characters on one side and rather cute characters on the other, could also explain the plausibility of the \"uncanny valley\" concept",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Hashtags are often used to signal political identities, beliefs, campaigns, or alignment (54).",["54"]]]},{},{"de":[["Specifically, we consider a source as low-credibility if it fulfills any one of the following criteria: (1) labeled as low-credibility by Shao et al. (33); (2) labeled as \"Black,\" \"Red,\" or \"Satire\" by Grinberg et al. (49); (3) labeled as \"fake news\" or \"hyperpartisan\" by Pennycook et al. (62); or (4) labeled as \"extreme left,\" \"extreme right,\" or \"fake news\" by Bovet et al. (63).",["33","49","62","63"]]],"ex":[["labeled as \"Black,\" \"Red,\" or \"Satire\" by Grinberg et al. (49)",["49"]],["labeled as \"fake news\" or \"hyperpartisan\" by Pennycook et al. (62)",["62"]],["labeled as \"extreme left,\" \"extreme right,\" or \"fake news\" by Bovet et al. (63)",["63"]]]},{"sy":[["home timeline",[]]]},{},{"de":[["negative/positive scores indicate left/right alignment.",[]]],"rt":[["political bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The basic assumption is that accuracy-motivated readers carefully scrutinize information (systematic processing) or, in situations in which their general motivation is lower, use the best available heuristic.",[]],["The induction of an accuracy motivation, with the goal to arrive at logical and well-founded conclusions",[]],["The motivational states were induced via specific instructions about each participant's goal in the upcoming discussion that emphasized the importance of displaying accurate logic and reasoning (accuracy motivation), justifying one's own opinion (defense motivation), or making a positive impression and demonstrating agreeableness in social situations (impression motivation).",[]],["open-minded information processing",[]],["the goal to arrive at logical and well-founded conclusions",[]]],"rt":[["systematic processing",[]],["heuristic processing",[]]]},{"de":[["Impression-motivated individuals strive for positive relationships and tend to follow others' opinions-and if these opinions are not known, they use the available bandwagon cues that convey information about the views of the general audience and allow for a better assessment of socially accepted or popular opinions",["Metzger et al., 2010","Chaiken et al., 1996"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The HSM predicts that defense-motivated readers process information selectively and privilege cues and arguments that reinforce their prior attitude.",[]],["defense-motivated readers process information selectively and privilege cues and arguments that reinforce their prior attitude.",[]],["The motivational states were induced via specific instructions about each participant's goal in the upcoming discussion that emphasized the importance of displaying accurate logic and reasoning (accuracy motivation), justifying one's own opinion (defense motivation), or making a positive impression and demonstrating agreeableness in social situations (impression motivation).",[]],["directional goals of defending one's views",[]],["defensive inattention to counterattitudinal content",["Chaiken et al., 1996"]]],"rt":[["defensive inattention to counterattitudinal content",["Chaiken et al., 1996"]]],"sb":[["defensive inattention",[]],["defensive counterarguing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The latter process, however, is only likely to occur if the content seems easy to refute",["Lowin, 1969"]]],"sp":[["defense motivation",[]]]},{"sp":[["defense motivation",[]]]},{"de":[["The use of this heuristic may sometimes replace one's own evaluation of information and thereby reduce cognitive effort, which may work well when recommendations are given by a sufficiently large number of trustworthy peers but may also be susceptible to problems of crowd behavior",["Metzger et al., 2010"]]],"sy":[["bandwagon heuristic",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["which would decrease the likelihood of selection",["Gunther, Edgerly, Akin, & Broesch, 2012"]],["Research on the hostile media effect (Vallone, Ross, & Lepper, 1985) showed that partisans perceive balanced articles as biased against their point of view",["Vallone, Ross, & Lepper, 1985"]]]},{"de":[["The motivational states were induced via specific instructions about each participant's goal in the upcoming discussion that emphasized the importance of displaying accurate logic and reasoning (accuracy motivation), justifying one's own opinion (defense motivation), or making a positive impression and demonstrating agreeableness in social situations (impression motivation).",[]],["creating a positive relationship with others in social situations",[]],["when people have the goal of appearing likeable and developing a positive relationship with others",[]]]},{},{"de":[["could help to reduce these aversive states",[]]]},{"de":[["would prevent further dissonance",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Two-sided messages may be more difficult to process because readers have to deal with conflicting arguments",["Hale, Mongeau, & Thomas, 1991"]]],"sy":[["balanced articles",[]],["balanced forms of presentation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["morality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["harm-based ethics are not sufficient to describe moral beliefs in all societies and areas of the world",[]]]},{"rt":[["Instrumental Harm",["Kahane et al., 2018"]]],"sp":[["utilitarianism",["Kahane et al., 2018"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Impartial Beneficence",["Kahane et al., 2018"]]],"sp":[["utilitarianism",["Kahane et al., 2018"]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Trolley Problem",[]],["Footbridge Dilemma",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["ethics",[]]]},{"sy":[["ethics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["works on fairness, safety, prosocial behavior, and utility of machine learning systems in fact address parts of broader theories in normative ethics",[]]],"sb":[["justice",[]],["deontological ethics",[]],["virtue ethics",[]],["utilitarianism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["That is, the morality of an action is understood in terms of its consequence.",[]]]},{"sp":[["normative ethics",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Content-based methods focus on analyzing the semantic gaps between the initially presented information (e.g., title and video thumbnail) and that expressed by the whole video, while others exploited creator profiles and audience feedback",["71"]]]},{"de":[["The generated representation can be utilized for classification tasks directly or input into a deep network (e.g., the convolutional neural network) for deeper fusion and classification",["33"]]],"sp":[["feature fusion",[]]]},{"de":[["which is crucial for personal and public safety.",[]]]},{"de":[["Typical editing actions include screen cropping, frame splicing, wave cutting, tempo changing, etc., which could be done using editing software [8].",["8"]]]},{"de":[["not all video faking is malicious (e.g., for movie production).",[]],["A fake video can be certainly used to create a misinformation video, but not all video faking is malicious",[]],["A fake video can be certainly used to create a misinformation video, but not all video faking is malicious (e.g., for movie production).",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation video",[]]],"ex":[["for movie production",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Detecting videobased harmful content often relies on capturing indicative features in multiple modalities, such as linguistic features of audio transcription, video sentiment, and flagged harmful objects",["6"]]]},{},{"de":[["Note that a video post may include not only the video itself. On text-dominated social platforms like Facebook and Twitter, there could be a text paragraph attached; and on video-dominated platforms mentioned before, a title or a short text description is generally included.",[]],["the concept of misinformation video is closely related but different from fake video because the former is characterized by the intention of spreading false or misleading information while the latter typically refers to the video that has been manipulated or produced by Photoshop-like tools and generative AI techniques.",[]],["the concept of misinformation video is closely related but different from fake video because the former is characterized by the intention of spreading false or misleading information",[]]],"rt":[["fake video",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["signal-level clues",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["News",[]],["Opinion",[]]]},{"de":[["Oftentimes, credibility is targeted at just the message and/or the source, while some extend it to consider context, such as the channel or medium where the message is published [36,42].",["36","42"]],["scholars from information science to cognitive psychology can range in their definition of credibility as a purely objective assessment or a subjective judgment by the information receiver, adding complexity to the primary dimensions [20,22,57].",["20","22","57"]],["Compared to other works, credibility has been defined by Flanagin and Metzger as made up of two primary dimensions: trustworthiness and expertise [20].",["20"]],["Furthermore, scholars from information science to cognitive psychology can range in their definition of credibility as a purely objective assessment or a subjective judgment by the information receiver, adding complexity to the primary dimensions [20,22,57].",["20","22","57"]]]},{"de":[["used by scientists",[]]]},{"de":[["neutral, nonpartisan tone/lack of attacks or injected opinion",[]]],"rt":[["\"both sides\" coverage",[]]],"ex":[["A neutral discussion about the fight between left and right wing partisan on US President (lack of) role in the hurricane Florence disaster.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["issue ownership",[]]]},{"sp":[["issue ownership",[]]]},{"de":[["which can be regarded as the main ideological offer presented by radical right parties.",["45"]]]},{"ex":[["conservative parties trying to emphasize issues related to law and order or defense, while left-wing parties prefer issues such as social justice, welfare and education.",[]]]},{"de":[["they contribute to the evolution and politicization of new political issues",[]]]},{"rt":[["issue competition",[]]],"sb":[["Competence represents a party's perceived problem-solving capacity",["26"]],["the associative dimension includes the feeling of intuitively linking a party to an issue.",["26"]],["competence",[]],["associative dimension",[]]]},{},{"de":[["its consolidation on the political agenda",[]]],"rt":[["issue competition",[]]]},{"de":[["parties' position taking will mainly determine competition over positional issues",[]],["characterized by a set of alternatives on which voters have different preferences",[]]],"rt":[["valence issues",[]]]},{"de":[["issue ownership and salience constitute the key components of competition over valence issues.",[]],["those that are generally seen as positive or negative, and parties compete over competence in them",[]]],"rt":[["positional issues",[]]],"ex":[["the environment surely constitutes an issue with a high valence component.",[]]]},{"de":[["understood herein as a distinctly disciplinary sphere of social life, a class pantomime through which the establishment of social hierarchies and processes of social abjection (qua punishment for sexual and social transgression) are acted out figuratively",["Little et al, 1973"]],["celebrity has become an important means of identifying class distinctions precisely because older forms of class distinction no longer operate effectively.",[]]]},{"de":[["The role of female celebrity chav hinges on excessive corporeality and the continual exposure of a lack of cultural capital, of style and taste, and she performs this role enthusiastically.",[]]],"rt":[["celebrity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["processes of interpretation `do the work of association` (2005: 965, see also Bromley 2000)",["2005: 965","Bromley 2000"]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["gendering",[]],["racialization",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Unimodal FND",[]]],"rt":[["multimodal fake news detection",[]]]},{"de":[["These results indicate that adding \"friction\" (i.e., pausing to think) before sharing can improve the quality of information shared on social media.",[]]]},{"de":[["They purposely withhold the information required to understand what the content of the article is, and often exaggerate the article to create misleading expectations for the reader.",[]]],"ex":[["\"The Hot New Phone Everybody Is Talking About\"",[]],["\"Youll Never Believe Who Tripped and Fell on the Red Carpet\"",[]],["-\"The Hot New Phone Everybody Is Talking About\" -\"Youll Never Believe Who Tripped and Fell on the Red Carpet\"",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["opinion leaders",[]]]},{"de":[["News does appear in one's feed, mixed in with other updates, and the consumption is indeed incidental as opposed to planned, since the intention when one uses SNSs is not primarily news acquisition.",[]],["Thus, there is a grey zone in SNS news consumption between incidental and more deliberate ways of obtaining news, compared to its acquisition through traditional news cycle.",[]]],"sy":[["incidental news consumption",[]]]},{"de":[["The news-gathering can be regarded as a by-product of other activities, something occurring with the habitual use of a certain medium, channel or content (Valeriani and Vaccari 2016).",["Valeriani and Vaccari 2016","2016"]],["Articles appear in the content flow without particularly deliberate actions on the side of the user.",[]],["The news-gathering can be regarded as a by-product of other activities, something occurring with the habitual use of a certain medium, channel or content",["Valeriani and Vaccari 2016"]]]},{},{"de":[["used primarily for entertainment and to use up time, it can be a starting point for more in-depth news consumption",[]]]},{"de":[["It was demonstrated that opinion leaders exerted personal influence over the opinions and attitudes of close others",[]],["Opinion leaders and their interpersonal networks are equally essential in the flow of communication in SNSs (Karlsen 2015).",["Karlsen 2015"]],["The opinion leaders are perceived to have significance in that they pay attention to and flag news items the interviewees otherwise would have missed. They also seem to play an important role regarding the interviewees need for interpretation.",[]],["perceived as essential or even crucial in passing on news",[]],["vehicles and mediators of salient content",[]],["perceived to have in-depth knowledge of certain topics, for instance sports, feminism and politics",[]],["respected on the basis of this expertise in specific subject areas",[]],["opinion leaders exerted personal influence over the opinions and attitudes of close others",[]],["respondents seem highly aware of the opinion leaders' role as vehicles and mediators of salient content.",[]]],"rt":[["twostep flow",[]]]},{"de":[["The difference between social media and other media is that the content is often produced by the users themselves",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The process of celebritisation is widely seen as transformative but with markedly varying political significance; at one end of the spectrum of opinion, it would be described as a form of enfranchisement and empowerment, but at the other end as a mode of exploitation or objectification",[]],["at one end of the spectrum of opinion, it would be described as a form of enfranchisement and empowerment, but at the other end as a mode of exploitation or objectification.",[]]],"ex":[["celebritisation can produce something close to abjection (think of Britney Spears or Jade Goody at various points in their public careers)",[]]]},{"de":[["those who have been subject to the representational regime of celebrity are reprocessed and reinvented by it.",[]]]},{"de":[["the focus of analysis is upon the details of their representation through the media",[]]],"rt":[["cultural formation",[]],["celebrity culture",[]]],"sb":[["celebritycommodity",[]]]},{"de":[["it is the textual richness and the sheer excessiveness of celebrity culture that attracts consumers and analysts alike",[]],["how the rise of celebrity culture interacts with (and indeed exemplifies) a significant change in the cultural function of the media.",[]]],"rt":[["celebrity",[]]]},{"de":[["proved its capacity to attract attention and to drive consumption",[]]]},{"de":[["discuss what something called celebrity studies might do",[]]]},{"de":[["such programmes in China are so focused upon national political and ideological objectives",[]]]},{"de":[["At the most pragmatic level, for the individual concerned, their celebrity is a commercial property which is fundamental to their career and must be maintained and strategised if they are to continue to benefit from it",[]]]},{},{"de":[["4chan is an anonymous community",[]],["4chan is ephemeral, i.e., there is a limited number of active threads and all threads are permanently deleted after a week.",[]]],"rt":[["boards",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["has become a hot-button issue as malicious actors are intensifying their efforts to push their subversive agenda",[]],["has become a hot-button issue as malicious actors are intensifying their efforts to push their subversive agenda.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["tweets",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Without anchoring to any particular period or group, these items aim to capture collective nostalgia, which can be different periods for the respondents.",[]]],"rt":[["nostalgia",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["First, 'there is the view of history as decline and loss, being a departure from some golden age of \"homefulness\"'.",[]],["Second is the problem that there exists 'a sense of the loss of wholeness and moral certainty'. At this point, 'history is seen to be a collapse of values which had once provided the unity of social relations and personal experience'.",[]],["The third is related to 'the loss of individual autonomy and the collapse of genuine social relationships'.",[]],["Last but not least, nostalgia is 'the sense of a loss of simplicity, spontaneity, and authenticity'",["Stauth and Turner 1988, 30-32"]],["Second is the problem that there exists 'a sense of the loss of wholeness and moral certainty'.",[]],["At this point, 'history is seen to be a collapse of values which had once provided the unity of social relations and personal experience'.",[]],["It promotes an 'us vs. them' dichotomy in which the 'us' aims to protect its moral coherence and ethical certainty.",[]],["nostalgia has a significantly positive effect on populist attitudes",[]],["collective nostalgia triggers populist attitudes in terms of generating a 'pure people vs. corrupt elites' intergroup cleavage",[]],["nostalgia generates an 'us' vs. 'them' duality in different societies in several different ways",[]],["Nostalgia offers a return to a lost paradise free of disruptions and corruption.",[]],["According to Stauth and Turner (1988, 47), nostalgia is yearning for 'some golden age of heroic virtue, moral coherence and ethical certainty, a period in which there was no gap between virtue and action, between words and things, or between function and being'.",["Stauth and Turner (1988, 47)"]]],"sy":[["the way we remember our past",[]]],"rt":[["social identity",["Psaltis et al. 2017"]],["populist attitudes",[]],["populism",[]],["intergroup cleavage",[]]],"sb":[["national nostalgia",[]],["collective nostalgia",[]]]},{"de":[["Ottoman nostalgia reflects resentment towards the Republican elites, as it serves as a tool for revealing, transforming and mobilizing the desires, ambitions and anger of the Islamist masses",["Tokdoğan 2019"]]]},{"de":[["More broadly, populism establishes an us vs. them identity by valorizing the people and its values while denigrating the elites.",[]],["According to populists, the people's will is the cornerstone of politics; there is no higher authority.",[]],["Populism creates a duality in society based on a Manichean understanding of good vs. evil.",[]],["According to Mudde (2017), populism differs from other ideologies because it is grounded in the Manichean duality on morality.",["Mudde (2017)"]],["According to populists, while the people are pure and authentic, elites are immoral and villain.",[]]]},{"de":[["While constituting the boundaries of us vs. them, populists create an in-group vs. out-group identity.",[]],["They aim to build the present and future retrospectively.",[]]],"rt":[["in-group vs. out-group identity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The hypercorrection effect is a highly replicable phenomenon that has been independently observed in experiments conducted by several different research groups",["Butler, Karpicke, & Roediger, 2008","Butterfield & Metcalfe, 2006","Fazio & Marsh, 2009, 2010","Kulhavy, Yekovich, & Dyer, 1976"]],["The hypercorrection effect is a highly replicable phenomenon that has been independently observed in experiments conducted by several different research groups (Butler, Karpicke, & Roediger, 2008;Butterfield & Metcalfe, 2006;Fazio & Marsh, 2009, 2010;Kulhavy, Yekovich, & Dyer, 1976).",["Butler, Karpicke, & Roediger, 2008","Butterfield & Metcalfe, 2006","Fazio & Marsh, 2009, 2010","Kulhavy, Yekovich, & Dyer, 1976"]]],"rt":[["proactive interference",[]]]}] |