MBDef 1.0.0: Explorer data for exactly the released rows, map and topics made on them
714cbfe verified | [{"de":[["This idealized model emphasizes reason, inclusivity, and equality, facilitating legitimate democratic decision-making through open dialogue",[]]]},{"ex":[["creating commercials or hiring actors to protest either for or against some organization or legislation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the term fake news has been used effectively by President Trump and other members of his administration to attempt to delegitimize journalists and any journalism outlet that publishes stories they disagree with or that are critical of them.",[]],["This use of the term has potential long term effects on how the public view or trust journalists and news outlets and is historically grounded in authoritarian regimes that want direct lines of communication to the public and their supporters in particular",["Levi, 2017"]],["Both definitions identify intention as part of what distinguishes fake news from other longstanding media concerns such as journalistic or editorial errors.",[]]],"sy":[["false news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["press conferences",[]],["photo opportunities",[]],["other staged events",[]],["press conferences, photo opportunities, and other staged events",[]]]},{"de":[["The prevalence of screen news increases the need for media educators to consider how visual aids are used by media organizations in conjunction with text to subtly craft message interpretation.",[]]],"ex":[["The authors evaluate several key examples and explore their implications for media literacy education.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["dark patterns",[]]]},{"de":[["the dominant paradigm of recommender systems today, including YouTube",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Brignull's original types of dark patterns focus on financial and privacy harms to the user",["16"]]]},{"sp":[["Sense of agency",[]]]},{"de":[["types of viewing that have been identified in uses and gratifications research on television use",["95"]]],"rt":[["ritualized use",["95"]]]},{"de":[["Designing for an \"internal locus of control\" is one of Shneiderman and Plaisant's Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design, arising from the observation that users want \"the sense that they are in charge of an interface and that the interface responds to their actions\"",["103"]]]},{"sp":[["Sense of agency",[]]]},{"de":[["serves as a 'micro' version of a commitment device that prevents the user from \"acting hastily and regretting it later\"",["29"]]],"rt":[["commitment devices",["17,97"]]],"sp":[["commitment device",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["types of viewing that have been identified in uses and gratifications research on television use",["95"]]],"rt":[["instrumental use",["95"]]]},{},{"de":[["Low sense of agency over technology use is associated with negative life impacts such as a loss of social opportunities, productivity, and sleep",["20"]],["Sense of agency can be broken down into feelings of agency, that is, the in-the-moment perception of control, and judgments of agency, that is, the post hoc, explicit attribution of an action to the self or other",["113"]],["this is how sense of agency has been measured in previous studies of sense of agency in HCI (e.g., [78]) and on a self-report scale [114]",[]],["Participants' sense of agency depended on whether it felt like they had 'agreed' to the actions of the app.",[]],["By contrast, sense of agency was diminished by mechanisms that prompted and pressured participants with suggestions that were hard to decline.",[]],["sense of agency was clearly a neglected facet of user experience, as YouTube's recommendations led them to actions (i.e., watching more videos) they did not feel in control of.",[]],["a neglected facet of user experience, as YouTube's recommendations led them to actions (i.e., watching more videos) they did not feel in control of",[]],["Sense of agency can be broken down into feelings of agency, that is, the in-the-moment perception of control, and judgments of agency, that is, the post hoc, explicit attribution of an action to the self or other [113].",["113"]],["Participants gave their active consent through actions such as tapping on a play control",[]],["Participants could also issue ongoing consent for the app, e.g., by subscribing to a creator",[]],["Non-consent was often felt as a result of (perceived) deception.",[]]],"sb":[["feelings of agency",[]],["judgments of agency",["113"]],["feelings of agency, that is, the in-the-moment perception of control",["113"]],["judgments of agency, that is, the post hoc, explicit attribution of an action to the self or other",["113"]]]},{"sp":[["war tourism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["this is often times positioned between remembering and forgetting",[]],["Therefore, this typology represents transition, a medium that integrates the past and present, though redevelopments and investments attempt to fade previous violence to (re)construct alternative imaginative geographies of a place or country.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This includes details of constructed monuments, important places, or manifested memorials seeking to designate reflections of war that envision the past.",[]],["By imagining the war-torn landscape, future travelers are presented directly with how their imaginations of a place were constructed in the media.",[]],["Therefore, the presented semblance of the landscape has not been significantly redeveloped and calmly stands as a symbol of remembrance to the conflict.",[]]],"rt":[["war tourism",[]]]},{"sy":[["obliterating",[]],["removing",[]],["erasing memory",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["battlefield tourism",[]]],"sb":[["battlefield tourism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The goal of sentiment analysis is to computationally extract sentiments, opinions, and emotions expressed in text",[]],["analysis of sentiment can be divided into several levels according to different discourse granularity, such as document, sentence, and aspect or sentiment-and-target levels.",[]]]},{"de":[["AI creates new types of aggregation risks owing to their scale, latency, ubiquity, and their ability to forecast enduser behavior and infer end-user attributes.",[]]],"ex":[["The system, called the National Data Analytics Solution (NDAS), uses a combination of AI and statistics to try to assess the risk of someone committing or becoming a victim of gun or knife crime\" [17].",["17"]]]},{},{"de":[["These risks can occur without AI through manual analysis, but AI technologies greatly facilitate these inferences at scale, identified as a future trend by Solove: \"the data gathered about people is significantly more extensive, the process of combining it is much easier, and the computer technologies to analyze it are more sophisticated and powerful\" [126]. Similar to identification risks, we found that AI technologies create new types of aggregation risks owing to their scale, latency, ubiquity, and their ability to forecast end-user behavior and infer end-user attributes.",["126"]],["These risks can occur without AI through manual analysis, but AI technologies greatly facilitate these inferences at scale",[]],["Similar to identification risks, we found that AI technologies create new types of aggregation risks owing to their scale, latency, ubiquity, and their ability to forecast end-user behavior and infer end-user attributes.",[]]],"sp":[["Data processing risks",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Generative AI technologies could create new instantiations of this risk by synthesizing fake but convincing content that may serve as evidence for blackmail.",[]],["Moreover, by automating the process of gathering and compromising information at scale, AI can also exacerbate blackmail risks. As we have seen, ML algorithms can analyze vast datasets from social media, location services, and personal files to identify content that could be used as fodder for blackmail.",[]],["by automating the process of gathering and compromising information at scale, AI can also exacerbate blackmail risks. As we have seen, ML algorithms can analyze vast datasets from social media, location services, and personal files to identify content that could be used as fodder for blackmail.",[]]],"sp":[["privacy risk",[]]]},{"de":[["AI technologies could exacerbate the scale of this risk by enabling conversational agents capable of gaining users' trust and guiding them to share sensitive information. For example, attackers can deploy such AI systems in high-stakes scenarios like healthcare and finance, and pose threats of breaching the confidentiality of the users by sharing the sensitive information they shared with the agent to third-parties.",[]],["AI technologies could exacerbate the scale of this risk by enabling conversational agents capable of gaining users' trust and guiding them to share sensitive information.",[]]],"sp":[["privacy risk",[]]],"ex":[["For example, attackers can deploy such AI systems in high-stakes scenarios like healthcare and finance, and pose threats of breaching the confidentiality of the users by sharing the sensitive information they shared with the agent to third-parties.",[]]]},{"de":[["they also exacerbate data dissemination risks by increasing the scale and the frequency of the dissemination",[]]],"ex":[["generating a realistic fake video of an individual",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Solove specifically focuses on the government as the relevant third-party, but private institutions and enterprises can also be culprits for this category of risk.",[]],["AI technologies can exacerbate decisional interference risks by enabling more personalized political propaganda (e.g., [122]).",["122"]],["AI technologies might also exacerbate the scale of existing practices of online censorship toward political topics (e.g., [23]).",["23"]],["Algorithms for personalized recommendation or persuasive technologies can also subtly guide user choices, sometimes in ways that align more with the goals of external entities (e.g., advertisers or political campaigns) than with the individual's own preferences or well-being.",[]],["AI technologies can exacerbate decisional interference risks by enabling more personalized political propaganda",[]]],"rt":[["personalized political propaganda",[]],["online censorship",[]],["personalized recommendation",[]],["persuasive technologies",[]]],"sp":[["privacy risk",[]]],"ex":[["AI technologies might also exacerbate the scale of existing practices of online censorship toward political topics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Indeed, any computing product that collects and stores personal data can introduce disclosure risks.",[]]]},{"de":[["AI creates new types of distortion risks through the generation of realistic fake images and audio that humans have difficulty discerning as fake.",[]],["Distortion risks are analogous to slander or libel, and have existed well before modern advances in AI.",[]]],"sy":[["slander",[]],["libel",[]]],"sp":[["privacy risk",["126"]]],"ex":[["Prime Voice AI, a text-to-voice generator, was misused to create the voices of celebrities to \"make racist remarks about the US House representative\", and that the AI-generated clips \"run the gamut from harmless, to violent, to transphobic, to homophobic, to racist\"",["33","53"]],["Prime Voice AI, a text-to-voice generator, was misused to create the voices of celebrities to \"make racist remarks about the US House representative\", and that the AI-generated clips \"run the gamut from harmless, to violent, to transphobic, to homophobic, to racist\" [33,53].",["33","53"]]]},{},{"de":[["Even without AI, computing products can covertly process data without informing users.",[]],["Thus, AI technologies do not meaningfully change exclusion risks when the risk is isolated to just the covert processing of personal data (76/149).",["76/149"]],["We nevertheless found in our incident database that the requirements of AI technology can exacerbate exclusion risks by incentivizing the collection of large, rich datasets of personal data without securing consent (73/149).",["73/149"]],["when more people's data are captured to build inclusive systems, those people may be subject to increased exclusion risk if their data is collected without adequate consent and control.",["10","12"]],["AI exacerbates exclusion risks by training on rich personal data without consent.",[]]],"rt":[["algorithmic inclusion",[]]],"sp":[["privacy risk",["126"]]],"ex":[["a \"trustworthiness\" algorithm developed by a short-term homestay company covertly used publicly accessible social media posts to ascertain if a potential customer was trustworthy [67]",["67"]],["the Large-scale Artificial Intelligence Open Network (LAION) is a German non-profit organization that aims \"to make large-scale machine learning models, datasets and related code available to the general public. \" In 2022, they released a large-scale dataset LAION-5B [120]",["120"]],["Clearview AI built a private face recognition model trained on three billion photos that were \"scraped from Facebook, YouTube, Venmo and millions of other websites\" [85].",["85"]]]},{},{"de":[["Traditionally, these risks arise when an individual's private activities are recorded and disseminated to others without consent.",[]]]},{"de":[["publicizing datasets also enables anyone to collect large amounts of personal data that may have otherwise been private, access-controlled, or difficult to find.",[]]],"ex":[["through the release of public datasets",[]],["the \"OkCupid dataset\" contained data of almost seventy thousand users from the dating site OkCupid.",["153"]]]},{"de":[["Products and services that include AI are subject to many of the same insecurity risks that result from poor operational security, unrelated to the capabilities and data requirements of AI (12/17).",["12/17"]],["We did, however, find instances in which the capabilities and/or data requirements of AI technologies directly exacerbated insecurity risks (5/17).",["5/17"]],["Sometimes AI technology can compromise end-user privacy in order to enable AI utility.",[]],["We also found cases where AI technologies unexpectedly reveal the personal data on which they were trained.",[]]],"ex":[["attackers hacked into Verkada, a security startup that provides cloud-based security cameras with face recognition. This gave the attackers access to cameras that \"are capable of identifying particular people across time by detecting their faces, and are also capable of filtering individuals by their gender, the color of their clothes, and other attributes\" [34,135].",["34","135"]],["Allo, a messaging app that Google first launched in 2017, included an AI virtual assistant and automatic replies. The messenger was not end-to-end encrypted, allowing for AI models developed by Google to \"read\" users' chat content and personalize services for them [47].",["47"]],["Lee Luda, a chatbot trained on real-world text conversations, was found to expose the names, nicknames, and home addresses of the users whose data on which it was trained [63].",["63"]],["services that use generative AI models to create realistic but fake human faces, have been shown to be able to reconstruct the raw personal data on which the models were trained [147].",["147"]]]},{"de":[["Large Language Model-powered chatbots like ChatGPT, for example, could create new interrogation risks by imitating people and interacting with users in natural language, aiming to extract information from users.",[]],["AI-infused affective computing technologies could exacerbate interrogation risks (e.g., [98]): using these technologies, it may be possible to draw inferences about an individual's demeanor from verbal (e.g., language use, tone) and non-verbal (e.g., body language, eye movements) cues.",["98"]]],"sp":[["privacy risk",[]]],"ex":[["lie detector tests entail interrogation risks -information beyond what an individual is saying is collected to assess the truthfulness of their words.",[]]]},{"de":[["The final top-level category of privacy risk Solove outlined",[]]],"sb":[["intrusion",[]],["decisional interference",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the belief that AI can be used to automatically detect things like sexual orientation from physical attributes",["78"]]],"sp":[["privacy risk",[]],["category of privacy risk",[]]]},{"de":[["Other researchers embrace the difficulty of defining privacy as the reason for developing adaptive solutions and classification systems",["93"]]],"rt":[["contextual integrity",["97"]]]},{},{"de":[["In AI technologies, this risk is mostly associated with data practices for training data.",[]],["AI does not always change secondary use risks (6/39).",["6/39"]],["many common practices to train AI/ML models more effectively can exacerbate secondary use.",[]],["creating new AI capabilities with collected personal data, and (re)creating models from a public dataset.",[]],["Secondary use risks can also be exacerbated when AI practitioners try to reuse pubic datasets to train models for purposes other than the original purpose for which those data were collected (11/39).",["11/39"]]],"ex":[["Luca, an app that was used for contact tracing during the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany, was found to re-purpose personal data, such as location data, to support law enforcement by \"tracking down witnesses to a potential crime\" [105]",["105"]],["OkCupid, a dating site that matches users using an \"one-of-a-kind algorithm\"foot_4 , was found to contact an AI startup, Clarifai, \"about collaborating to determine if they could build unbiased A.I. and facial recognition technology, \" and that \"Clarifai used the images from OkCupid to build a service that could identify the age, sex and race of detected faces\" [86].",["86"]],["People in Photo Albums (PIPA) is a facial photograph dataset created to \"recogniz[e] peoples' identities in photo albums in an unconstrained setting\" [162]. Yet, the PIPA dataset has been used in research affiliated with military applications and companies like Facebook [54,55].",["162","54","55"]],["the Diversity in Faces (DiF) dataset is a collection of annotations of one million facial images that was released by IBM in 2019 [125]. The dataset was created to improve the research on fairness and accuracy of artificial intelligence face recognition systems across genders and skin colors. While it was not to be used for commercial purposes, Amazon and Microsoft were accused of using the dataset to \"improve the accuracy of their facial recognition software\" [13].",["125","13"]]]},{"de":[["AI exacerbates surveillance risks by increasing the scale and ubiquity of personal data collected.",[]],["AI technologies might create data collection risks if the AI technology provides functionality that enables the collection of previously inaccessible data; they exacerbate data collection risks when data is collected specifically for the development of an AI/ML system, or if AI technologies facilitate the data collection process in a manner that increases the scope of the risk.",[]],["AI technologies do not always meaningfully change surveillance (16/150), i.e., when end-users feed their own personal data to access the utility offered by AI, such as by uploading videos to capture body movement or estimate car speed. Nevertheless, owing to the never-ending need for personal data to train and deploy effective machine learning models, we identified two ways AI technologies can exacerbate surveillance risks: i.e., by increasing the scale and ubiquity of personal data collected.",[]]],"ex":[["A predictive policing platform deployed in Xinjiang, China,\"collects [individual's] information from a variety of sources including CCTV cameras and Wi-Fi sniffers, as well as existing databases of health information, banking records, and family planning history\" [112].",["112"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["multicultural frame",[]]],"ex":[["in the negative assimilation frame was emphasized that the career event was a necessary resort to integrate female ethnic minorities who have very much trouble with fully adapting in the Dutch labour market.",[]]]},{"sy":[["assimilation frame",[]]]},{"de":[["Attitudes, another common dependent variable in framing research",[]],["attitudes refer to what is usually conceptualised as immigrant attitudes in the political science literature (Lubbers, Scheepers, & Wester, 1998), or as prejudice or intergroup bias in the social psychological literature (e.g., Park & Judd, 2005).",["Lubbers, Scheepers, & Wester, 1998","Park & Judd, 2005"]]],"rt":[["prejudice",["e.g., Park & Judd, 2005"]],["intergroup bias",["e.g., Park & Judd, 2005","Park & Judd, 2005"]],["opinions",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["multicultural perspective",[]]]},{"rt":[["meritocratic ideology",[]],["multicultural frame",[]]],"ex":[["in the positive emancipation frame it was stressed that the career event was important to give female ethnic minorities a place in the Dutch labour market",[]]]},{"sp":[["generic frames",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["issue-specific media frames",[]]],"sp":[["media frames",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["multicultural frame",[]],["emancipation frame",[]],["victimization frame",[]],["assimilationist frame",[]]]},{"rt":[["Generic media frames",[]]],"sp":[["media frames",[]]]},{"sb":[["Generic media frames",[]],["issue-specific media frames",[]]]},{"de":[["recognizing and accommodating cultural minorities",[]],["the inherent positivity of the multicultural frame",[]],["the frame that has been abandoned by most politicians and opinion leaders in the Netherlands (Vink, 2007)",["Vink, 2007"]],["a potentially strong alternative to the dominant assimilationist interpretation of the issue",[]]],"rt":[["assimilation frame",[]],["victimization frame",[]],["assimilationist (or nationalistic) frames",[]],["emancipation frame",[]]],"ex":[["In a negative multicultural frame on the other hand, it was stated that foreigners and especially female ethnic minorities were more and more represented on the Dutch labour market, which made the career event highly unnecessary.",[]]]},{"rt":[["color-blind perspective",[]]]},{"de":[["opinions are regarded as the more specific sub-concept",[]]],"rt":[["attitudes",[]]]},{"de":[["the valence present in media frames, or in media content in general, as indicating subjective norms.",[]]]},{"sp":[["generic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Virtually all media frames bear a specific valence or evaluation",[]],["In this study we interpret the valence present in media frames, or in media content in general, as indicating subjective norms.",[]]],"sy":[["evaluation",[]]],"rt":[["subjective norms",[]]]},{"de":[["on the rise in the Netherlands during the last years",["Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007"]],["in which immigrant women are portrayed as being victims of discrimination",[]]],"rt":[["multicultural frame",[]]],"ex":[["in a positive victimization frame it was emphasized that female ethnic minorities were disadvantaged and did not get equal chances, and that events like these will warmly support these women.",[]]]},{"de":[["While these baits may trick the readers into clicking, in the longrun, clickbaits usually don't live up to the expectation of the readers, and leave them disappointed.",[]]],"ex":[["This Rugby Fan's Super-Excited Reaction To Meeting Shane Williams Will Make You Grin Like A Fool",[]],["15 Things That Happen When Your Best Friend Is Obsessed With FIFA",[]],["Which Real Housewife Are You Based On Your Birth Month",[]],["They Said She Had Cancer. What Happens Next Will Blow Your Mind",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a substantial fraction of clickbait headlines consist of words having 'Very Positive' sentiments (e.g., Awe-inspiring, breathtakingly, gut-wrenching, soul-stirring, etc.), which are almost non-existent in non-clickbait headlines.",[]],["words having 'Very Positive' sentiments",[]]],"ex":[["Awe-inspiring, breathtakingly, gut-wrenching, soul-stirring",[]],["Awe-inspiring",[]],["breathtakingly",[]],["gut-wrenching",[]],["soul-stirring",[]]]},{"de":[["started focusing on 'soft news' compared to 'hard news', and sensationalization rather than reporting in depth and truthful account of the events",[]]]},{"de":[["Simply labeling people with disease has negative consequences",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the so-called 'demobilization hypothesis' (Ansolabehere and Iyengar 1995) has been central to research into the effects of negative campaigning.",["Ansolabehere and Iyengar 1995"]],["negative campaigning has the 'potential to do damage to the political system as it tends to reduce feelings of political efficacy, trust in government, and perhaps even satisfaction with government itself'",["Lau et al. 2007"]]]},{"ex":[["advertisements, press releases, social media",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["parties and candidates choose to criticize their competitors rather than emphasizing their own policy proposals or highlighting candidate attributes.",[]],["It may cover substantive criticism, such as disagreement between two parties or candidates over a specific policy, character assassinations, pejorative language or insinuate rumors about a politician's very private life.",[]],["the negative category on the right side of Fig. 2 still covers a vast array of messages including comparative advertising, dirty attacks or mudslinging.",[]],["most voters only disapprove negative messages that are unsubstantial, focus on apolitical candidate attributes or use extreme language",["Lipsitz and Geer 2017","Mattes and Redlawsk 2014","Mutz and Reeves 2005"]],["negative campaigning should help attacking parties to maximize votes-either in absolute or relative terms.",[]],["negative campaigning is a promising strategy to raise awareness and gain publicity",["Haselmayer et al. forthcoming"]]],"sy":[["negative political communication",[]],["mudslinging",[]]],"rt":[["comparative advertising",[]],["dirty attacks",[]],["mudslinging",[]],["unsubstantial, personal attacks",[]],["pejorative language",[]],["weak expressions of criticism",[]],["strongly worded attacks",[]],["uncivil messages",[]],["comparative advertising, dirty attacks or mudslinging",["Nai and Walter 2015"]],["positive campaigning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It identifies the polarity (positive, neutral, negative) of texts and their strength or intensity (how positive/negative).",["Liu 2012"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the absence of clear boundaries between the two generates conflicting political practices and a syncretic policy process",["Sakwa 2015, p. 193"]]]},{},{"de":[["each individual demand is its own particularised self while it points, through equivalential links, to the totality of other demands",["Laclau 2005b, p. 37"]]],"rt":[["equivalential links",[]]]},{"de":[["Marlene Laruelle has pointed out that despite some representatives of the Natsdems rejecting the label of national-democracy,foot_6 it has certainly challenged the traditional division of post-Soviet Russian nationalism between imperialists (either Soviet or anti-Soviet) and ethno-nationalists (comprising various xenophobic and racist movements) (Laruelle 2014, pp. 277-78).",["Laruelle 2014, pp. 277-78"]]],"rt":[["imperialists",[]]],"sp":[["post-Soviet Russian nationalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Marlene Laruelle has pointed out that despite some representatives of the Natsdems rejecting the label of national-democracy,foot_6 it has certainly challenged the traditional division of post-Soviet Russian nationalism between imperialists (either Soviet or anti-Soviet) and ethno-nationalists (comprising various xenophobic and racist movements) (Laruelle 2014, pp. 277-78).",["Laruelle 2014, pp. 277-78"]]],"rt":[["ethno-nationalists",[]]],"sp":[["post-Soviet Russian nationalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["is uncontested as long as its reputation remains neutral; everyone can feel himself or herself patriotic towards the country, territory, or region in which he or she lives.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["populist-type hyperbole",[]],["the difference between 'good' and 'bad' populism as the difference between a sincere democratic faith and an instrumental faith",["Urbinati 1998, p. 111"]],["American populism has been used as a strategy for political inclusion and, according to Michael kazin, it has become a democratic expression of political action",["kazin 1995"]],["Whereas broader public understanding typically requires simplifications, emotional colouring, or a habitus not common in the correctness associated with existing political 'expert' institutions",[]],["populism's negative stance towards existing political structures and ideational establishments.",[]],["populism both depoliticises and hyper-politicises social relations … and the populist leader often places him/herself symbolically outside the political realm, or at least he/she is not a politician like the others",["Panizza 2005"]]]},{},{"de":[["classical populist frontier",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["discursive interpretive approach",[]],["discursive interpretative approach",[]]]},{"de":[["it will not change it; either the oppositional candidates risk their lives, or they become part of the systemic opposition which is for kashin the same as the regime",["kashin 2015"]]]},{"de":[["It involves story or event detection and tracking as well as grouping retweets or similar tweets in clusters during pre-processing",[]]],"rt":[["tweet-level detection",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["rumor resolution process",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["rumor detection",[]],["tracking",[]],["stance classification",[]],["verification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Therefore, candidate rumor tweets should be factual or informative.",[]],["In our task, a potential rumor is presented as a tweet which reports an update associated with a newsworthy event, but is deemed unsubstantiated at the time of release.",[]]]},{"rt":[["conversational threads",[]]],"ex":[["replies and retweets",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This is more challenging work than the event-level detection because individual tweets are short, noisy, and of divergent topics due to intrinsic properties of social media data.",[]]],"rt":[["event-level rumor detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Amplification is not inherent to published belief systems. Authors could choose to cite only primary data when making claims, resulting in amplification minimal networks.",[]],["Amplification of a claim is instead introduced into belief systems through the citing of review papers and other papers that lack data addressing the claim. Certainly such papers may be cited for other reasons; amplification only arises when they are cited to support claims of experimental results reported elsewhere.",[]],["Citation made to papers that don't contain primary data, increasing the number of citations supporting the claim without presenting data addressing it",[]]],"rt":[["citation bias",[]],["invention",[]]],"sp":[["distorted uses",[]],["Persuasive citation",[]]]},{"de":[["Under social network theory",[]]]},{"rt":[["social network theory",[]]]},{"de":[["is accomplished by repeated misrepresentation of abstracts as papers (seven different papers, 17 citations to 12 different misrepresented abstracts; for example, citation to Neurol 2003;60:333-334, an abstract with correct listing Neurol 2003;60(suppl 1):A333-4; see web extra note 11)",[]]],"sp":[["invention",[]]]},{"sy":[["social citation",[]]]},{"de":[["seemed to be specifically against critical data not the laboratory producing it",[]],["Citation bias against critical content can be used for the systematic support of claim, 314 results in the loss of implications of isolated data (see web extra note 15), and can be used to justify construction of animal models, which can then be circularly used to amplify claim (see web extra note 16).",["314"]],["Bolster claim",[]],["Bolster claim; justifying animal models to provide opportunities to amplify claim",[]]],"rt":[["amplification",[]],["invention",[]]],"sb":[["Citation bias against critical primary data",[]],["Citation bias to justify models",[]]],"sp":[["distorted uses",[]],["Persuasive citation",[]]]},{"rt":[["citation bias",[]]],"sp":[["invention",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Once research funding has been used to join a cascade there are further incentives to interpret results through confirmation bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["informational cascade",["316","317"]]]},{"rt":[["citation bias",[]],["amplification",[]],["citation transmutation",[]],["dead end citation",[]],["back door invention",[]]],"sb":[["citation transmutation",[]],["dead end citation",[]],["back door invention",[]],["Citation diversion",[]]],"sp":[["Persuasive citation",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["citation bias",[]],["amplification",[]],["invention",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["citation as persuasion",[]]]},{"de":[["citation can be used to generate information cascades resulting in unfounded authority of claims.",[]]],"rt":[["information cascades",[]]]},{"de":[["bias is an inherently relative construct, which requires that a reference be specified.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["bias is a systematic asymmetry",[]],["social bias pertains to broader social groups, rather than particular individuals",["Friedman and Nissenbaum (1996)"]],["bias is an inherently relative construct, which requires that a reference be specified.",[]],["Bias is precisely the extent to which the observed associations diverge from this reference.",[]],["Since bias emerges through social processes, reference-sensitive measures allow us to understand how different decisions increase/reduce bias",["Friedman and Nissenbaum, 1996"]],["bias is an inherently relative construct, which requires that a reference be specified. Bias is precisely the extent to which the observed associations diverge from this reference.",[]]],"sy":[["systematic asymmetry",["Beukeboom and Burgers (2019)"]]],"rt":[["social groups",[]],["target concept",[]],["reference associations",[]],["observed associations",[]]],"sb":[["systematic asymmetry",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["social bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Semantic preference and semantic prosody are two distinct yet interdependent collocational meanings.",[]]],"rt":[["semantic prosody",[]],["collocation",[]]]},{"de":[["The primary function of semantic prosody is to express speaker/writer attitude or evaluation",["Louw 2000: 58"]],["Semantic prosodies are typically negative, with relatively few of them bearing an affectively positive meaning.",[]]],"rt":[["collocation",[]],["colligation",[]],["semantic preference",[]]]},{"de":[["exposure to different voices is no longer linked to the number of media outlets provided by the market but to how algorithms can be designed to expose the citizen to more diverse content and, in particular, to \"public interest\" rather than just popular or personalized content.",[]]]},{"sy":[["echo-chambers",[]]],"rt":[["echo-chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["the evolving definition of media can be taken into account, or better included, in the scope of the assessment of all the various services, both online and offline, that offer news and information on current affairs and that, in the end, contribute to the shaping of \"public opinion,\" regardless of the means of distribution.",[]]]},{"de":[["Media pluralism has been interpreted based on many different nuances. Media pluralism has been conceived as a representation of geographical and cultural diversity, as well as a space reserved for minority groups.",[]],["In many contexts, the importance of media pluralism has been acknowledged only during electoral periods, in which case the concept of media pluralism is strictly connected with ensuring that all the candidates and parties have equal and fair media access conditions.",[]],["They are central to the functioning of a democratic society as they help to ensure the availability and accessibility of diverse information and views, based on which individuals can form and express their opinions and exchange information and ideas.",[]],["none of the analyzed countries are free from the risks of media pluralism",[]],["Media pluralism has been conceived as a representation of geographical and cultural diversity, as well as a space reserved for minority groups.",[]],["It is also meant as a feature of public media, whose remit is to provide plural information in the public interest.",[]],["the concept of media pluralism is strictly connected with ensuring that all the candidates and parties have equal and fair media access conditions.",[]],["media pluralism has meant just (external) plurality of ownership, where concentration in the media market, or even a potential concentration in a market that naturally evolves towards oligopoly or monopoly, has been seen as a risk to the democratic debate by potentially limiting the diversity of voices offered by the market itself.",[]]],"rt":[["freedom of expression",[]],["freedom of the media",[]],["deliberative democracy",[]],["market plurality",[]],["political independence",[]],["social inclusivity",[]],["basic protection",[]],["marketplace of ideas",[]],["public sphere",["Habermas, 1990"]],["diversity and transparency of media ownership",[]]],"sb":[["radical pluralism",[]],["basic protection",[]],["market plurality",[]],["political independence",[]],["social inclusivity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In this perspective, pluralism is seen as the capacity of different groups of media actors to challenge the established hegemonic media order and provide alternatives.",[]]],"sp":[["media pluralism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In der Abschwungphase nimmt der Grad der Berichterstattung weiter ab, da der Ausgang des narrativ geprägten Skandalgeschehens bereits bekannt ist. Sie fungiert als \"back up\" (Burkhardt 2006: 205) des medialisierten Skandals, der mittels einer retrospektiven Beurteilung des Skandalgeschehens in den Medien durchgeführt wird.",[]]]},{"de":[["Nützlich ist diese kommunikative Reaktion wenn die Vorwürfe schlecht oder gar nicht nachzuweisen sind oder nur sehr schwer für eine breite Öffentlichkeit erklärbar sind.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Geschichte",[]],["Phänomen",[]],["Sache",[]],["Fall",[]]],"rt":[["Skandal",[]]]},{"de":[["Aufmerksamkeit kann wegen seiner Selektions-und Ordnungsfunktion für das menschliche Bewusstsein auch als \"interne Öffentlichkeit eines Organismus\" (Rötzer 1999: 51) bezeichnet werden.",[]],["Alle Informationen aus der Umwelt des Mediensystems -aus Politik, Wirtschaft, Kunst, Sport etc. -werden nach diesem Kriterium selektiert.",[]],["Informationen, die die Vermutung für sich haben, daß sie die Aufmerksamkeit des Publikums gewinnen können, werden öffentlich kommuniziert, andere werden nicht selektiert",["Gerhards 1994: 89"]],["Sie ist zugleich Rohstoff und Basiswährung jeder Art von Öffentlichkeit",["Rötzer 1999: 41"]],["Aufmerksamkeit wurde als knappes Gut beschrieben, da die menschliche Aufnahmefähigkeit begrenzt ist und zusätzlich durch eine gestiegene Informationsflut überreizt wird.",[]],["Im Mittelpunkt der politischen Kommunikation steht dabei die Erringung von Aufmerksamkeit",[]],["Das kommunikative Primärziel ist dabei die Erregung von Aufmerksamkeit, die von medialen Akteuren und dem Elektorat angeboten wird.",[]],["Anbieter von Aufmerksamkeit sind hierbei Medienakteure und Rezipienten, als Nachfrager fungieren politische Akteure. Es wird Aufmerksamkeit gegen politische Information und / oder Unterhaltung eingetauscht.",[]],["Für die politische Kommunikation wird Aufmerksamkeit deshalb als kommunikatives Gut bezeichnet.",[]],["Aufmerksamkeit wird dabei zunächst als quasi-ökonomisches Gut eingeführt, das heute vor allem im Bereich des Internets als zentraler Faktor bei der Erhöhung der Zugriffszahlen angesehen wird. Anschließend wird Aufmerksamkeit als kommunikatives Gut definiert, das einerseits für die Überwindung der medialen Selektionsschranken und andererseits in seiner Bedeutung für den Wählerkontakt eine wichtige Rolle spielt.",[]],["Aufmerksamkeit wurde in einem vorherigen Kapitel als knappes (vgl. Franck 1998: 10 / Goldhaber 1997b) und für politische Akteure begehrtes kommunikatives Gut bezeichnet.",["Franck 1998: 10 / Goldhaber 1997b"]]],"sy":[["awareness",[]],["attention",[]],["kommunikatives Gut",[]],["interne Öffentlichkeit eines Organismus",["Rötzer 1999: 51"]]],"rt":[["Aufmerksamkeitsökonomie",[]],["awareness",[]],["attention",[]],["kommunikatives Gut",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Aufmerksamkeit",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["sekundäre Ebene der Darstellung",[]]],"rt":[["Entscheidungspolitik",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["In medialisierten Politskandalen können demnach beispielsweise Parteien oder Verbände, aber auch einzelne Politiker als Skandalisierte agieren.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Indirekte Meinungsäußerungen",[]],["Indirekte Meinungsäußerungen von Journalisten, sei es durch die bewusste Auswahl bestimmter Ereignisse für die Berichterstattung oder die absichtliche Recherche von Themen",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Ein Rücktritt oder irgendwie anders ausgeprägter freiwilliger Ausschluss aus dem betroffenen Feld ist eine mögliche Konsequenz aus dieser Strategie (ebd.: 46).",["ebd.: 46"]]]},{"de":[["Sie bestehen aus einer geringen Anzahl an Teilnehmern und weisen eine geringe Bindungskraft auf.",[]],["Das Fehlen eines Vermittlers ist bei Encouter-Öffentlichkeiten eine weitere Besonderheit.",[]],["Es findet außerdem keine Differenzierung in Leistungs-oder Publikumsrollen statt.",[]],["Einfache Öffentlichkeiten sind außerdem meist räumlich, zeitlich und / oder sozial eingeschränkt (Jarren / Donges 2006: 103).",["Jarren / Donges 2006: 103"]],["Kennzeichnend ist ein schneller Wechsel der behandelten Themen und Meinungsänderungen durch den raschen Austausch der Öffentlichkeitsakteure (vgl. Gerhards / Neidhardt 1991: 50).",["Gerhards / Neidhardt 1991: 50"]],["Die Kommunikation verläuft auf der Encounter-Ebene direkt, interpersonal und oftmals narrativ bei gleichberechtigten Sprechakten (vgl. Klaus 2001: 22).",["Klaus 2001: 22"]],["Wegen des interpersonellen Aufeinandertreffens sind dabei oftmals Alltagsinformationen im Mittelpunkt der Kommunikation.",[]],["Ein weiteres Merkmal der Encounter-Öffentlichkeit ist der fließende Übergang zwischen privater und öffentlicher Kommunikation und eine unscharfe Trennung zwischen Sprecher und Rezipienten (vgl. Strohmeier 2004: 80).",["Strohmeier 2004: 80"]],["In Encounter-Öffentlichkeiten müssen Kommunikationsbeiträge erst langwierig über Mund-zu-Mund-Kommunikation weitergetragen werden.",[]]],"rt":[["Versammlungsöffentlichkeit",[]]],"sp":[["Öffentlichkeit",[]]],"ex":[["Gespräche auf der Straße, am Arbeitsplatz oder in öffentlichen Verkehrsmitteln",[]]]},{"rt":[["Darstellungspolitik",[]]]},{"sy":[["Regisseure",["Schifferer 1988: 138"]]],"rt":[["Regisseure",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Es bilden sich demnach mindestens zwei Seiten, die im folgenden öffentlichen Diskurs ihre Meinungen zum Skandal vertreten.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["paid media",[]]]},{"rt":[["back region",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["erste Normverstöße, die zu einer Skandalisierung führen",[]]],"rt":[["Normverstöße erster Ordnung",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Begriffe wie \"Waldsterben\" oder \"Killer-Bakterien im Wasser\"",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["direkten Meinungsäußerungen",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Die Intention des Handelns ist in dieser Form der Skandale durch eine Wiederholung der skandalisierten Handlung und / oder durch eine Verstärkung der Grenzüberschreitung durch den skandalisierten Akteur erkennbar.",[]]],"sy":[["intendierte Selbstskandalisierung",[]]],"rt":[["Medialisierte Politskandale",[]]]},{"de":[["Diese als intendierte Selbstskandalisierung bezeichnete Erscheinung des medialisierten Skandals wird am Untersuchungsfeld der politischen Kommunikation dargestellt.",[]],["Instrument der innergesellschaftlichen Grenzziehung verschiedener ideologischer Lager",[]],["kommunikative Strategie, um den Mitbewerber zu schwächen",[]],["Anders als in der zweiten Ausprägung des klassischen medialisierten Skandals, in der die Aufdeckung von Grenzüberschreitungen für eine breite Öffentlichkeit als das Hauptmerkmal definiert wird, ist die eigentliche Skandalhandlung im intendierten Selbstskandal grundsätzlich nicht geheim.",[]],["Bewusste Überschreitungen von gesellschaftlichen Grenzen werden im intendierten Skandal gezielt zur Provokation von Teilen der Öffentlichkeit angewandt.",[]],["Die gezielte Skandalerzeugung durch politische Akteure dient dabei vor allem einer möglichst großen Aufmerksamkeitserregung.",[]],["Intendierte Skandale sind demgegenüber dadurch gekennzeichnet, dass sie auf jeden Fall Öffentlichkeit durch Aufmerksamkeitsgewinnung erzeugen sollen.",[]],["Nur wenn Skandalsachverhalte von einem bestimmten Teil der adressierten Öffentlichkeit als weniger skandalös gehalten werden, kann die kommunikative Strategie der Akteure aufgehen.",[]],["Somit bieten sich für intendierte Skandalhandlungen eher Verletzungen von gesellschaftlichen Werten an.",[]],["Der Einsatz intendierter Selbstskandalisierung kann dafür ein kommunikatives Mittel sein.",[]],["Diese aggressive kommunikative Strategie soll vor allem dazu dienen, Anhänger zu mobilisieren und zunächst im öffentlichen Konflikt zur Unterstützung zu animieren.",[]],["Ausgehend von politischen Zielen der Partei oder des Politikers wird eine Strategie zur bewussten Skandalerzeugung entworfen.",[]],["die hier herausgearbeiteten zentralen Mechanismen der intendierten Selbstskandalisierung theoretisch stets Geltung besitzen.",[]],["Die Grenzüberschreitungen in diesen Skandalfällen sind zwar grundsätzlich skandalisierbar, verletzen aber keine undiskutablen Werte und Normen.",[]],["Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit bestätigen also die in der Einleitung angeführte Behauptung Hitzlers, wonach Skandale stets Ansichtssache seien.",[]],["Die Erringung des Guts Aufmerksamkeit führt zur Generierung von Öffentlichkeit für den jeweiligen Akteur in der politischen Kommunikation.",[]],["Inszenierung politischer Akteure z.B. intendierte Selbstskandalisierung durch skandalöse Aussagen",[]],["Intendierte Politskandale werden stets durch medialisierte und inszenierte Ereignisse angestoßen und vorangetrieben.",[]],["Grenzüberschreitungen gelten als intendiert, wenn sie wiederholt begangen werden und / oder im Verlauf der Skandalisierung vom Skandalisierten verstärkt werden.",[]],["Die Theorie der intendierten Selbstskandalisierung baut demnach auf den Befunden Thompsons (2000) und Burkhardts (2006) auf, die den Modus der Enthüllung (im Falle der intendierten Selbstskandalisierung muss man eher von einer Aufnahme des Skandalthemas in den medialen Diskurs sprechen) und die nachfolgende Missbilligung medial verorten.",[]],["Die öffentliche Auseinandersetzung, die sich aus absichtlich erzeugten Skandalen ergeben, haben für die Skandalisierten nach der neuen theoretischen Sichtweise mehr positive als negative Effekte",[]],["Die Intention des Handelns ist in dieser Form der Skandale durch eine Wiederholung der skandalisierten Handlung und / oder durch eine Verstärkung der Grenzüberschreitung durch den skandalisierten Akteur erkennbar.",[]],["Die Studie bestätigt damit die Annahme, wonach die Erlangung von Aufmerksamkeit einerseits eng mit einer bewussten Selbstskandalisierung zusammenhängt und andererseits Auswirkungen auf die öffentliche Diskussion, den Wahlkampf und den Wahlausgang haben kann.",[]]],"rt":[["medialisierten Skandals",[]],["politischen Kommunikation",[]],["Skandalforschung",[]],["Skandalisierung",[]],["klassischen medialisierten Skandalen",[]],["publizistischer Konflikt",[]],["Fragmentarisierung des Publikums",[]],["Mobilisierung von Anhängern",[]],["Fragmentarisierung des Elektorats",[]],["Mobilisierung von politischen Anhängern",[]],["free media",[]],["PR-Maßnahmen",[]],["paid media",[]],["Werbemittel",[]],["Politskandal",[]],["Unterhaltende Politik",[]]],"sb":[["intendierten Politskandals",[]],["talk scandal",[]]],"sp":[["medialisierten Skandal",[]],["Skandalforschung",[]],["Unterhaltende Politik",[]],["Skandale",[]],["medialisierter Skandal",[]]],"ex":[["die Wahlkämpfe der Schweizerischen Volkspartei (SVP) 2007 und des FDP-Politikers Jürgen W. Möllemann 2002",[]]]},{"de":[["Intendierte Skandale sind vor diesem theoretischen Hintergrund den medialisierten und inszenierten Ereignissen zuzurechnen.",[]],["Intendierte Skandale werden stets durch medialisierte und inszenierte Ereignisse angestoßen und vorangetrieben.",[]],["Als Akteure in dieser Skandalform wurden Skandalproduzenten erster und zweiter Stufe identifiziert.",[]],["Die Skandalhandlungen betreffen moralische Grenzüberschreitungen. Eine negative Verrechtlichung des Skandalthemas wird von den Skandalisierten nicht gewünscht. Die skandalisierten Grenzüberschreitungen sind moralischer Natur und verstoßen nicht gegen Gesetze, obwohl eine Verrechtlichung der Grenzüberschreitung durch Mitbewerber in der Skandalisierung angestrebt wird.",[]],["Intendierte Skandale laufen stets im Öffentlichen ab und werden aus diesem Grund nicht von Skandalisierern aufgedeckt.",[]],["Sie werden durch medialisierte und inszenierte Ereignisse von den Skandalisierten begonnen und vorangetrieben.",[]],["Im Gegensatz zu normalen medialisierten Politskandalen entwickeln sie keine allzu negative Wirkung für die Skandalisierten, sondern werden mit der nötigen Vorsicht in der politischen Kommunikation eingesetzt.",[]],["Bewusste Überschreitungen von gesellschaftlichen Grenzen werden im intendierten Skandal gezielt zur Provokation von Teilen der Öffentlichkeit angewandt.",[]],["Intendierte Skandale verfolgen zwei kommunikative Hauptziele: Die Erringung des kommunikativen Guts Aufmerksamkeit (1) und die damit verbundene Erzeugung von Öffentlichkeit (2) für die politischen Akteure.",[]],["Absichtlich erzeugte Skandale laufen grundsätzlich im Öffentlichen ab und werden nicht aufgedeckt.",[]]],"sy":[["Absichtlich erzeugte Skandale",[]]],"rt":[["medialisierte Ereignisse",[]],["inszenierte Ereignisse",[]],["intendierte Selbstskandalisierung",[]],["medialisierte Politskandale",[]]],"sp":[["Skandale",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Zusätzlich dazu gibt es ja nach Medienform redaktionelle Vorgaben an den Stil der Berichterstattung oder die Länge von Beiträgen",["128"]]],"ex":[["Redaktionsschluss",[]],["verfügbaren Platz und sein Verhältnis zum Umfang von Pressemitteilungen",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalistische Normen schränken die Auswahl an vorhandenen Ereignissen ein.",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalisten nehmen -wie alle Menschen -die Realität immer subjektiv -und somit unterschiedlichwahr",["142","ebd.: 142"]]]},{},{"rt":[["publizistische Konflikte",[]]]},{},{"de":[["kenne man schon von Politikern, die im Rechtsaußen des Politbetriebs stehen",[]]]},{"de":[["Als nicht-monetäres Gut ist Aufmerksamkeit zuallererst als soziales Gut für erfolgreiche Kommunikation zu begreifen.",[]],["Für das Verhältnis zwischen politischer Kommunikation, Werbung und Journalismus kann deshalb auch von einem kommunikativen Gut gesprochen werden.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Zum anderen kann der Skandal Gegenstand einer kontroversen öffentlichen Debatte sein, die von Kepplinger et al. als \"Konflikt\" (ebd.: 86) bezeichnet wird.",[]]]},{"de":[["Darunter ist zu verstehen, dass die betroffene Handlung in den meisten Fällen nicht objektiv als skandalös zu bewerten ist.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Die erste (und wichtigste) Einschränkung besteht in einer klaren Trennung zwischen privatem und öffentlichem Bereich.",[]],["Als weitere Definitionsmerkmale werden die Beschränkung politischer Macht durch Gesetze und deren Herstellung durch freie und regelmäßige Wahlen festgelegt.",[]],["Als letztes Merkmal einer liberalen Demokratie wird die strikte Trennung zwischen kirchlicher und weltlicher Macht angeführt.",[]],["Als weitere Definitionsmerkmale werden die Beschränkung politischer Macht durch Gesetze und deren Herstellung durch freie und regelmäßige Wahlen festgelegt. Als letztes Merkmal einer liberalen Demokratie wird die strikte Trennung zwischen kirchlicher und weltlicher Macht angeführt.",["ebd.: 157"]]]},{"de":[["Lokale Skandale werden, weil sie in einfachen und mittleren Öffentlichkeiten bestehen, meist in direkten Sprechakten, in denen sich die Beteiligten prinzipiell gleichberechtigt gegenüberstehen, ausgetragen.",[]],["Es handelt sich dabei um Face-to-Face-Kommunikationssituationen, in denen die anwesenden Akteure dialogisch miteinander sprechen.",[]]],"sy":[["nichtmedialer Skandal",["Burkhardt 2006: 147"]]],"rt":[["Medialisierte Skandale",[]]],"sp":[["Skandale",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Grenzüberschreitung erster Ordnung",[]],["Einfache und mittlere Öffentlichkeiten",[]],["Größtenteils eigenbestimmt",[]],["Face-to-Face",[]],["Kurzfristig stark",[]],["Frühere Skandale, die in einfachen Gesellschaften ohne Massenmedien stattfanden, werden als lokale Skandale bezeichnet (vgl. Thompson 1997: 48 f. und Thompson 2000: 31).",[]],["Face-to-Face-Kommunikationssituationen, in denen die anwesenden Akteure dialogisch miteinander sprechen.",[]]],"sy":[["nichtmedialer Skandal",[]]],"rt":[["medialisierter Skandal",[]],["medialisierten Skandalen",[]]]},{"de":[["Frühere Skandale, die in einfachen Gesellschaften ohne Massenmedien stattfanden",[]],["Frühere Skandale, die in einfachen Gesellschaften ohne Massenmedien stattfanden, werden als lokale Skandale bezeichnet",[]]],"rt":[["nichtmedialer Skandal",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Die Akteure der Massenmedien erzählen anhand der Faktenlage eine Geschichte des Normverstoßes, die neben der eigentlichen Verfehlung auch Grundwerte in die Diskussion stellt und ein ausführliches Personeninventar einführt",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Subjektive Selektionsfaktoren",[]],["Objektive Selektionsmechanismen",[]]]},{"de":[["Im medialen Feld befinden sich demnach, vereinfachend ausgedrückt, alle Individuen, die am Produktions-und Distributionsprozess der Massenmedien beteiligt sind.",[]]]},{"de":[["Es sind demnach Ausprägungen wie medialisierte Polit-, Justiz-oder Wirtschaftsskandale möglich.",[]]],"rt":[["lokale Skandale",[]]]},{"de":[["Sie werden gezielt eingesetzt, um die Aufmerksamkeit journalistischer Akteure und folgerichtig auch der breiten Öffentlichkeit zu erhalten.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Politainment",[]]]},{"de":[["Wird dies durch journalistische Akteure aufgedeckt, so berühren sich, schematisch formuliert, mediales und juristisches Sub-Feld-ein medialisierter Justizskandal entsteht.",[]],["publizistische Brandsätze",[]],["Wichtiger ist vielmehr, dass die beteiligten Medien als Skandalisierer zur Entstehung einer Diskussion über eine bestimmte Normverletzung beitragen.",[]],["Dieses konstitutive Merkmal des medialisierten Skandals bedeutet gleichzeitig, dass Folgen und Konsequenzen eines Skandalgeschehens für einen längeren Zeitraum nachvollziehbar sind.",[]],["In medialisierten Skandalen ist die Rechercheintensität nach sekundären Transgressionen weitaus höher als in lokalen Skandalen, weil Journalisten stets nach weiteren Informationen suchen, um das Skandalgeschehen zu bewerten",["Burkhardt 2006: 150 f."]]],"rt":[["lokalen Skandal",[]],["Medienskandal",[]],["nicht-medialisierten Skandalen",[]],["Lokaler Skandal",[]],["Konflikt",[]]],"sb":[["medialisierter Justizskandal",[]]],"sp":[["Skandal",[]]],"ex":[["Berichterstattung der New York Times über den Mixa-Skandal in Deutschland",[]],["medialisierte Polit-, Justiz-oder Wirtschaftsskandale",[]]]},{"de":[["Grund dafür ist, dass die Unterschriftenbriefe auch ohne mediale Berichterstattung ausgesendet worden wären.",[]]],"ex":[["Die skandalisierten Interviewpassagen (vgl. Fried 2002: 6) sind als medialisiertes Ereignis zu begreifen.",["Fried 2002: 6"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Diese Form des Skandals wird teilweise auch bewusst zur Aufmerksamkeitserregung durch Medienredaktionen und PR-Strategen eingesetzt.",[]],["Im Medienskandal würden dagegen sowohl Grenzüberschreitungen in anderen Teil-Öffentlichkeiten als auch Verstöße in der Medienöffentlichkeit selbst skandalisiert.",[]]],"ex":[["die Debatten um die erste \"Big Brother\"-Staffel, der \"Nipplegate\"-Zwischenfall während des Superbowls und die anschließende Diskussion um Zensur im US-Fernsehen während Live-Übertragungen",[]],["Hitler-Tagebücher, das Verhalten der Journalisten während der Geiselnahme von Gladbeck oder die Skandalisierung der ersten Big-Brother-Staffel",[]]]},{"de":[["Der erste grundlegende Schritt hin zur Medienöffentlichkeit ist die technische Entwicklung von massenmedialen Produkten (vgl. Gerhards / Neidhardt 1991: 54).",["Gerhards / Neidhardt 1991: 54"]],["Die Medien sind auf dieser Öffentlichkeitsebene die Organisationen, die dauerhaft präsent sind.",[]],["Die Unterscheidung zwischen Leistungs-und Publikumsrollen ist auf der Ebene der Medienöffentlichkeit am eindeutigsten.",[]],["Sie wird, wie bereits im Namen ersichtlich, durch Massenmedien konstituiert und ist demnach größer als die beiden vorgelagerten Öffentlichkeitsebenen.",[]],["Der öffentliche Raum ist in der Medienöffentlichkeit darüber hinaus am deutlichsten von der privaten Sphäre abgrenzbar (vgl. Strohmeier 2004: 81).",["Strohmeier 2004: 81"]],["Ein weiteres Definitionsmerkmal der Medienöffentlichkeit betrifft die geringe Beschränktheit des öffentlichen Raumes in zeitlicher, räumlicher und zahlenmäßiger Hinsicht, da die öffentlichkeitskonstituierenden Massenmedien prinzipiell alle Mitglieder einer Gesellschaft erreichen können (vgl. Schulz 1997: 97).",["Schulz 1997: 97"]],["In der Medienöffentlichkeit geschieht Rückkopplung durch Leserbriefe, Kommentaren zu Meldungen in Online-Medien oder anderen Mitteln.",[]],["größer als die beiden vorgelagerten Öffentlichkeitsebenen.",[]],["Der erste grundlegende Schritt hin zur Medienöffentlichkeit ist die technische Entwicklung von massenmedialen Produkten",["Gerhards / Neidhardt 1991: 54"]],["Die behandelten Themen werden von professionellen Kommunikatoren des Mediensystems veröffentlicht",["Jarren / Donges 2006: 104"]],["Die unbeteiligte Rezipientenschaft hat auf der Ebene der Medienöffentlichkeit zwar ebenso die Möglichkeit, an der öffentlichen Diskussion mitzuwirken. Diese Eingriffsmöglichkeiten beschränken sich jedoch in den meisten Fällen auf Leserbriefe, Interviews oder Meinungsumfragen.",[]],["Ein weiteres Definitionsmerkmal der Medienöffentlichkeit betrifft die geringe Beschränktheit des öffentlichen Raumes in zeitlicher, räumlicher und zahlenmäßiger Hinsicht, da die öffentlichkeitskonstituierenden Massenmedien prinzipiell alle Mitglieder einer Gesellschaft erreichen können",[]],["Die Unterscheidung zwischen Leistungs-und Publikumsrollen ist auf der Ebene der Medienöffentlichkeit am eindeutigsten. Die behandelten Themen werden von professionellen Kommunikatoren des Mediensystems veröffentlicht (vgl. Jarren / Donges 2006: 104 und Gerhards / Neidhardt 1991: 54).",["Jarren / Donges 2006: 104","Gerhards / Neidhardt 1991: 54"]]],"sp":[["Öffentlichkeit",[]],["Öffentlichkeitsebene",[]]],"rt":[["Encounter-Öffentlichkeit",[]],["Versammlungsöffentlichkeit",[]]]},{"de":[["Dieser mittlere Rang den Skandale einnehmen ergibt sich aus ihrer Mittelstellung zwischen ernsthaften Verstößen und trivialen Grenzüberschreitungen.",[]]]},{"de":[["Vorstufe des Skandals",[]],["Der Missstand wird demnach als Vorstufe zum eigentlichen Skandal verstanden, der durch die öffentliche Anprangerung von Missständen entstehen kann",[]],["Zum Skandal werde ein Missstand aber erst durch die Perspektive, aus der man ihn beobachtet und bewertet (vgl. Kepplinger 2005: 63).",["Kepplinger 2005: 63"]]],"rt":[["Skandal",[]]],"sb":[["Skandal",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["free media",[]]]},{"de":[["Im Mittelpunkt der Analyse stehen Problemstellungen und ihre politischen Lösungsmöglichkeiten.",[]]]},{"de":[["Diese Realität konstituiert den Erfahrungsraum, in dem den Bürgern heutzutage typischerweise Politik zugänglich wird",["ebd.: 31"]],["Dies entspricht der Unterscheidung zwischen Politikherstellung und -darstellung.",[]],["Politik der Unterhaltung",[]],["Die starke Konzentration auf unterhaltende Inhalte des politischen Geschehens unterstreicht diese emotionale Berichterstattung.",[]]],"rt":[["Politische Unterhaltung",[]],["policy",[]],["politics",[]],["polity",[]]],"sb":[["Politische Unterhaltung",[]]],"sp":[["Unterhaltende Politik",[]]]},{"de":[["Die Auseinandersetzung zwischen verschiedenen Parteien und Interessengruppen steht bei Politics-Analysen im Mittelpunkt.",[]]],"rt":[["policy",[]],["polity",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["politische Tertiärfunktionen",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Die Zahl der so definierten politischen Skandale sei vom Beginn der achtziger bis Anfang der neunziger Jahre in der Bundesrepublik stark angestiegen, die Zahl der durch Skandale verursachten Rücktritte von Politikern jedoch nur leicht. Dies wird darauf zurückgeführt, dass Medien einerseits immer mehr Missstände als Skandal definieren und sich andererseits ein Abstumpfungseffekt bei den Rezipienten entwickelte, so dass politische Skandale als immer wiederkehrendes Übel der Demokratie betrachtet werden",[]]],"rt":[["politische Affären",[]]],"ex":[["Barschel-Affäre",[]],["Streit um das Reinheitsgebot für Bier",[]],["Sexskandal eines Volksvertreters",[]]]},{"sp":[["politische Tertiärfunktionen",[]]]},{"sb":[["politische Sozialisation und Integration",[]],["politische Bildung und Erziehung",[]],["politische Meinungsund Willensbildung",[]]]},{"sp":[["Politainment",[]]]},{"de":[["Politischer Skandal als Verstoß von politischen Akteuren gegen gesellschaftliche Normen",[]],["Konflikte über die Verteilung, Ausübung, Kontrolle und Legitimierung von politischer Herrschaft",[]],["Die Verletzung der Grenze zwischen der politischen und anderen Sphären führt schließlich zur ersten Ausprägung des politischen Skandals",[]],["wird der politische Skandal zwar als Ärgernis, jedoch als nützliches Übel für die betroffene Gesellschaft angesehen.",[]],["Als Instrument der Herrschaftskontrolle und des Machtwechsels packt der Skandal spontaner und oft wirksamer zu als reguläre Wahlen. Er deckt Grenzüberschreitungen auf -und wird so zum Grenzwächter zwischen den Sphären der Politik, der Wirtschaft und des privaten Lebens […] Er erzeugt Entrüstung über die Verletzung von Normen -und schärft damit das Gefühl für deren Wichtigkeit und Richtigkeit",[]],["In ihrer Theorie des Verhältnisses von Macht und politischen Verfahren wird die Hauptthese aufgestellt, dass politische Skandale nur in liberalen Demokratien auftreten können (vgl. Markovits / Silverstein 1988 und 1989) und darin letztendlich der Wiederherstellung der sozialen Ordnung dienen (vgl. Markovits / Silverstein 1989: 154).",["vgl. Markovits / Silverstein 1988 und 1989","vgl. Markovits / Silverstein 1989: 154"]],["Sexskandale mit Politikern, die keinen Eingriff in das angemessene Verfahren darstellen, sind nach dieser Definition also keine Politskandale",["vgl. Thompson 2000: 92"]],["Die erste Phase ist dadurch gekennzeichnet, dass nur ein kleiner und eingeweihter Kreis vom Ereignis weiß. In der darauffolgenden Phase (2) wird das Ereignis durch einen weiteren Akteur, der häufig mit einem politischen Gegner identisch ist, aufgenommen und in der darauffolgenden Phase (3) öffentlich gemacht. In dieser dritten Stufe wird das Ereignis öffentlich diskutiert und es werden Forderungen nach Konsequenzen und Strafen laut. Phase (4) umfasst den Prozess der Reinigung und der Entwicklung von Abwehrmechanismen, häufig Reformen, um den Normverstoß in Zukunft zu verhindern. Seinen Abschluss findet der politische Prozess in der fünf-ten Phase (5), in der die Normalität wieder hergestellt ist und die notwendigen Reformen implementiert sind",["Markovits / Silverstein 1989: 154 f."]]],"sy":[["Politskandal",[]]],"rt":[["politics",[]],["policy",[]],["polity",[]]],"sb":[["Sittenverstoß",[]],["Gesetzesverstoß",[]],["Korruptionsskandale, kriminelle Skandale mit politischen Hintergründen, Skandale um Spionage, die Verschwendung öffentlicher Gelder, Nazi-Skandale, Kommunisten-Skandale oder Skandale um abweichendes sexuelles Verhalten von Politikern",[]]]},{"de":[["ein Feld von Aktion und Interaktion, das auf der Gewinnung und Ausübung politischer Macht durch die Benutzung von symbolischer Macht basiert.",["ebd.: 98"]],["Genauer definiert sei ein politisches Feld deshalb als ein Feld von Aktion und Interaktion, das auf der Gewinnung und Ausübung politischer Macht durch die Benutzung von symbolischer Macht basiert.",["ebd.: 98"]]]},{"de":[["Politische Akteure im Mittelpunkt des Skandals",[]],["Politskandale \"usually embrace at least one of the four ingredients -often more than one -which bring joy to a journalist's heart: sex, royalty, religion and money\"",["Moncrieff 2006: 61"]]],"sy":[["politischer Skandal",[]]],"rt":[["Machtmissbrauch und Korruption",[]],["Sittenverfall",[]]],"sp":[["Skandal",[]]],"ex":[["die Theater-Skandale des Kulturlebens, die Doping-Skandale des Sports, die Sex-Skandale der Haute volée",["ebd.: 56"]],["Barschel-Affäre",[]]]},{"de":[["In der Praxis zeigt sich diese Dimension beispielsweise in der Anwendung geltender Rechtsnormen im politischen Prozess. Auch die Existenz und der Einfluss von Institutionen in der Politik, wie Parlamente oder Gerichte, fallen unter diese erste Kategorie",[]]],"rt":[["politics",[]],["policy",[]]],"sb":[["politische Kultur",[]]]},{"de":[["Thompsons prä-skandalöse Phase stellt also eher die Vorbereitung einer Skandalisierung dar, aber noch keinen echten Startpunkt eines medialisierten Skandals.",[]]]},{"de":[["da ein solches Spiel in der politischen Praxis, also der Rechtssetzung, nicht notwendig ist. Es handelte sich ausschließlich um ein kommunikatives Instrument der Aufmerksamkeitserregung und weniger um die Verbreitung politischer Inhalte.",[]]],"ex":[["Möllemanns Flugblatt",[]]]},{"sy":[["inszenierte Ereignisse",[]]],"rt":[["inszenierte Ereignisse",[]]]},{"sp":[["Kommunikations-Konflikte",[]]]},{"de":[["Die Etablierung eines publizistischen Konflikts ist demnach unabwendbar, wenn ein Missstand in die öffentliche Agenda eingeflossen ist.",[]],["Die öffentliche Auseinandersetzung über ein Skandalthema findet außerdem nicht immer in eine Richtung statt, sondern ist stets dadurch gekennzeichnet, dass Skandalisierte ihren Standpunkt öffentlich vertreten.",[]],["Skandale sind grundsätzlich immer konflikthaltig, da sie Werte und / oder Normen des gesellschaftlichen Miteinanders betreffen.",[]],["Skandalisierte vertreten ihren Standpunkt zum Skandalthema öffentlich und werden hierbei meist von weiteren Akteuren gestützt.",[]],["Nicht immer endet ein Skandal mit dem Rücktritt des Skandalisierten.",[]],["ein publizistischer Konflikt, der sich um das Skandalthema und den skandalisierten politischen Akteur dreht.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Erzähler",["Burkhardt 2011: 135"]]],"rt":[["Erzähler",[]]]},{"sp":[["Skandal",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Kennzeichnend ist außerdem, dass noch keine tiefergehende Beschäftigung mit dem Skandalinhalt erfolgt, sondern lediglich der Ereigniskern veröffentlich wird.",[]]],"ex":[["Die Verhaftung einer Person des öffentlichen Lebens, der Rücktritt eines Politikers, eine nicht näher definierte Anklageerhebung durch die Staatsanwaltschaft oder Rücktrittsforderungen politischer Mitbewerber.",[]],["Beispiele für solche medialen Schlüsselereignisse können sein: Die Verhaftung einer Person des öffentlichen Lebens, der Rücktritt eines Politikers, eine nicht näher definierte Anklageerhebung durch die Staatsanwaltschaft oder Rücktrittsforderungen politischer Mitbewerber.",[]]]},{"de":[["Nützlich kann eine solche Reaktion sein, wenn die Vorwürfe sehr schwer nachzuweisen sind, oder für die Allgemeinheit schlecht erklärbar sind.",[]],["Schweigen kann dem Skandalisierten außerdem nützen, wenn die angeprangerten Normverstöße keine oder nur eine geringe Relevanz für die breite Rezipientenschaft haben.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Man macht sich selbst zum Skandalisierten",[]],["Der charismatische Skandalpolitiker exponiert dabei seine eigene Person und bildet gerade durch diese, für Menschen eher ungewohnte, Handlung einen Mythos aus, indem er sich den bestehenden Verhältnissen und Konventionen entgegenstellt",["Bude 1989: 412"]]]},{"de":[["Medienunternehmen sind demnach angehalten, die Sensationsgier von Rezipienten zu stillen und Inhalte dieser Art zu publizieren.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Gesetzesverstoß",[]]],"sp":[["politischer Skandal",[]],["Normverstoß",[]]]},{"de":[["Skandale können der moralischen Selbstvergewisserung einer Gesellschaft dienen, können dazu beitragen, ethische Grenzen neu zu verhandeln, können reinigen, können Scheinmoral entlarven oder fördern, können Karrieren zerstören.",[]],["Skandale sind (2) immer Indikatoren für die soziale Wirklichkeit einer Gesellschaft und sagen viel über die gegenwärtigen Normen und Werte eines sozialen Verbundes aus.",[]],["Skandale gehören zum journalistischen Alltagsgeschäft.",[]],["Skandale sind als kommunikative Krisen zu begreifen, die mittels Krisenkommunikation zu überwinden sind.",[]]],"sy":[["Affäre",[]],["Fall",[]]],"rt":[["Skandalisierung",[]],["lokalen Skandal",[]],["medialisierten Skandal",[]],["Medienskandal",[]],["Krise",[]]],"sb":[["lokale Skandale",[]],["lokalen Skandal",[]],["medialisierten Skandal",[]],["Medienskandal",[]],["Intendierte Skandale",[]],["intendierte Selbstskandalisierung",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Dies können in Politskandalen sowohl politische Mitbewerber als auch andere Akteure, wie Interessenverbände oder Nichtregie-rungsorganisationen sein.",[]],["Auch einzelne Gesellschaftsmitglieder können als Skandalisierer Missstände anprangern oder vorher unbekannte Verstöße aufdecken, beispielsweise durch Zuspielen der Informationen an Medien.",[]]],"sy":[["Skandalproduzenten",["Burkhardt 2006: 139"]],["Regisseure",["Schifferer 1988: 138"]],["Erzähler",["Burkhardt 2011: 135"]]],"rt":[["Skandalisierte",[]],["Skandalpublikum",[]]]},{"de":[["Entscheidend ist dabei nicht, ob der Skandalisierte tatsächliche Schuld am angeprangerten Missstand hat, sondern wie die wichtigsten Skandalisierer es schaffen, den betroffenen Akteur öffentlich als \"Schuldigen\" zu präsentieren.",[]],["In medialisierten Politskandalen können demnach beispielsweise Parteien oder Verbände, aber auch einzelne Politiker als Skandalisierte agieren.",[]],["fungieren die betroffenen Akteure zunächst als aktiv kommunizierende Spieler im öffentlichen Raum und versuchen dabei, ihre Grenzüberschreitung einer breiten Öffentlichkeit mitzuteilen.",[]],["Skandalisierte sind gleichzeitig Skandalproduzenten erster Stufe, die das Skandalthema bewusst in den öffentlichen Diskurs einführen und übernehmen damit eine Art Doppelrolle in der Akteursstruktur.",[]],["Unter skandalisierten Akteuren werden dabei die Verursacher oder Verantwortlichen für den skandalösen Vorgang verstanden.",[]]],"rt":[["Skandalisierer",[]],["Skandalpublikum",[]]]},{"de":[["Diese Rolle wird im Medienskandal in erster Linie vom Journalismus übernommen",["Burkhardt 2006: 139"]]],"rt":[["Skandalisierer",[]]],"sb":[["Skandalisierte Akteure können demnach als Skandalproduzenten der ersten Stufe bezeichnet werden, da ihre Skandalhandlungen bewusst in die Öffentlichkeit getragen werden.",[]],["Die zweite Gruppe von Skandalproduzenten besteht im intendierten Skandal aus Medien und weiteren Akteuren, die öffentlich in Erscheinung treten und die Skandalhandlung kommentieren.",[]]],"sp":[["Skandalisierer",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Die Medien in der Schweiz und Deutschland und vor allem politische Mitbewerber äußerten sich anschließend als Skandalproduzenten zweiter Stufe sehr schnell zum Skandalthema und halfen dadurch den Akteuren, Aufmerksamkeit zu gewinnen.",[]]],"rt":[["Skandalproduzenten",[]]],"sp":[["Skandalproduzenten",[]]]},{"de":[["Akteure des Skandalpublikums sind stets dadurch definiert, dass sie nicht unmittelbar am Skandalgeschehen beteiligt sind. In medialisierten Skandalen ist das Skandalpublikum, im Gegensatz zu lokalen Skandalen, äußerst groß und zunehmend heterogener.",[]],["im Gegensatz zu lokalen Skandalen, äußerst groß und zunehmend heterogener.",[]],["Das Elektorat war gleichzeitig Skandalpublikum und hatte durch Leserbriefe und öffentliche Bekundungen ebenfalls die Möglichkeit, sich mit einem Mindestmaß am Diskurs zu beteiligen.",[]],["Das Skandalpublikum hat, wie im herkömmlichen medialisierten Skandal, die Möglichkeit, sich an der Skandalisierung zu beteiligen.",[]],["Im Skandalpublikum sind sämtliche anderen Akteure inkludiert, die den Skandalverlauf verfolgen.",[]]],"rt":[["Skandalisierte",[]],["Skandalisierer",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Symbolische Macht ist demnach als nicht-physische Einflussmöglichkeit zu verstehen, die vor allem in der Politik ausgeübt wird.",["ebd.: 98"]],["die symbolische Macht diene deshalb vordergründig der Machtausübung, da sie den Glauben an die Legitimität politischen Handelns herstellt",["ebd.: 97"]]]},{"ex":[["Jürgen Möllemann (FDP)",[]]]},{"de":[["In ihnen werden gesellschaftliche Grenzen durch umstrittene Aussagen überschritten.",[]],["Eine besondere Form der intendierten Selbstskandalisierung kann der sogenannte \"talk scandal\" sein, der oftmals unmittelbar durch Medien übertragen wird.",[]]],"sp":[["intendierte Selbstskandalisierung",[]]]},{"sy":[["Gesprochene Grenzüberschreitungen",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Sie finden nach Grenzüberschreitungen erster Ordnung statt und sollen eine Skandalisierung verhindern.",[]]],"ex":[["Leugnung eines vorhandenen Sachverhalts",[]],["Vertuschung von Informationen",[]],["Bedrohung von Informanten",[]]]},{"ex":[["Karikaturen religiöser Instanzen",[]]]},{"de":[["Diese Skandalart kann bei Verstößen gegen \"moralische Verhaltenserwartungen und den guten Geschmack\" (Schifferer 1988: 95) auftreten.",["Schifferer 1988: 95","95"]]],"ex":[["Skandalisierungen wegen der Überschreitung von Wertestandards auch dann möglich, wenn eine Minorität diese öffentlich und anhaltend anprangert.",[]]]},{"rt":[["direkten Meinungsäußerungen",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Die Motive der Whistleblower können dabei höchst unterschiedlich sein. Sie können entweder aus idealistischen, politischen oder manipulativ-egoistischen Gründen handeln",["Liebes / Blum-Kulka 2004: 1155"]]],"sb":[["idealistischen",[]],["politisch motivierte Whistleblower",[]],["idealistische Insider",[]],["Informanten, die aus individuellen und egoistischen Gründen handeln",[]],["Der idealistische Insider ist als Idealfall für den recherchierenden Journalisten anzusehen",[]],["politisch motivierte Whistleblower, die Informationen bewusst zu bestimmten Zeitpunkten herausgeben, um bestimmte politische Ziele zu verfolgen",[]]],"ex":[["Der idealistische Insider ist als Idealfall für den recherchierenden Journalisten anzusehen",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Kennzeichnend für Krisen sei, dass es grundsätzlich eine öffentlich legitimierte Position zum Diskursgegenstand gibt.",["Kepplinger 2009: 9"]]],"ex":[["der Reaktorunfall von Tschernobyl",[]],["die Entdeckung von AIDS",[]],["Finanzkrisen",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Missbrauchsskandale in der Kirche, Lebensmittelskandale mit schwerwiegenden Folgen, Medikamentenskandale, Organhandel durch Vertrauenspersonen oder auch Kriegsverbrechen etablierter militärischer Akteure, denen eigentlich rechtsstaatliche Grenzen entgegenstehen.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Die Prostituiertenaffäre Michel Friedmans, Spendenskandale in der Politik oder die Flugmeilenaffäre um Cem Özdemir.",[]]]},{"de":[["Öffentlichkeit wird in der Theorie intendierter Selbstskandalisierung sowohl als Grundlage als auch Ziel politischer Kommunikation begriffen.",[]],["Öffentlichkeit ist in diesem Sinne ein System, das keine klare Mitgliedschaft besitzt. Prinzipiell jeder kann zumindest Publikum sein",["ebd.: 45"]],["Ermöglichung der Beobachtung der Gesamtgesellschaft durch die Gesellschaft",[]],["Öffentlichkeit fungiert dabei als Selbstbeobachtungsinstrument von allen möglichen gesellschaftlichen Teilsystemen, wie Politik, Religion, Wirtschaft usw.",[]],["Medien erzeugen diese Öffentlichkeit und erfüllen mit der politischen Information und Kontrolle, der politischen Sozialisation, Bildung und Erziehung und der politischen Meinungsbildung wichtige Funktionen in modernen Demokratien.",[]],["öffentliche Arena in demokratischen Gesellschaften",[]]],"sy":[["Medium",[]],["gesellschaftliches Reflexionsmedium",[]]],"rt":[["Encounter-",[]],["Versammlungs-",[]],["Medienöffentlichkeit",[]]],"sb":[["Encounter-Öffentlichkeit",[]],["Versammlungsöffentlichkeit",[]],["Medienöffentlichkeit",[]],["Encounter-, Versammlungs-und Medienöffentlichkeit",[]]]},{"de":[["Im Gegensatz zum Bruch von Rechtsnormen sind hierbei nicht zwangsläufig Rechtsgüter betroffen. Ausschlaggebend für diese Form der Grenzüberschreitung ist die Verletzung dessen was als \"moralischer Standard\" betitelt werden kann.",[]]],"sy":[["Verletzung moralischer Standards im gesellschaftlichen Miteinander",[]]],"sp":[["Grenzüberschreitungen",[]]]},{"de":[["it is used in combination with one of the other regulation models to increase their effectiveness or reduce the need for overzealous regulation",["17"]],["It focuses on empowering audiences to discern for themselves",["5"]]]},{"de":[["In this model, governments directly regulate platforms via laws and legislation.",[]]],"sy":[["external governance",[]],["statutory regulation",[]],["comprehensive government regulation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["rumors",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["emphasizing the lack of outside control and voluntary actions taken by platforms with minimal external intervention",["5","9","10","13"]]],"sy":[["self-regulation",[]],["non-audited self-regulation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["For them, women are irresistibly attracted to men with certain physical features (prominent jawlines, symmetrical faces). No amount of peacocking, negging, or weightlifting will overcome these core features.",[]],["Incel ideology also encourages a sort of nihilistic hopelessness, convincing [men] that they are too weird and too uniquely ugly (or short, or whatever) to ever appeal to women, and that there's no hope that they can change themselves or that women will change to accept them.",[]]],"sp":[["popular misogyny",[]]],"ex":[["A Black Pilled incel finds life to be an eternal sentence, a curse, a destiny.",[]]]},{"de":[["Confidence, in other words, has historically signaled a dyadic and social process, not an attitude that one cultivates in isolation.",[]],["By the time neoliberal confidence culture takes hold in the 21st century, confidence has morphed from a relational attribute based on trust in others to an individual quality that one must learn to cultivate.",[]],["historically signaled a dyadic and social process, not an attitude that one cultivates in isolation.",[]]],"sb":[["neoliberal confidence culture",[]]]},{"sy":[["confidence scheme",[]]]},{},{"de":[["has operated as a de facto online peer support community for sexual failures.",[]],["Online forums like Reddit's r/ForeverAlone, IncelSupport, and Love-Shy.com were places of commiseration and therapeutic expression of isolation, peer support groups for men and women who were lonely, alienated, and shy.",[]],["online worlds where networked misogyny flourishes",[]],["incels are not so as individuals. They are a networked set of actors, in communication, inspiring and feeding off each other, while sharing a misogynistic core",[]],["Incels have incorporated the language and forms of warfare, revolt, and terrorism, but now in the defense of patriarchy.",[]]],"rt":[["networked misogyny",[]]],"ex":[["Online forums like Reddit's r/ForeverAlone, IncelSupport, and Love-Shy.com",[]]]},{"de":[["a manosphere built on desperate preservation and violence.",[]]],"ex":[["anti-feminists, father's rights groups, 'incels' (involuntary celibates), androphiles (same-sex attracted men who don't identify as homosexual), paleomasculinists (who believe male domination is natural) and even more obscure fringe groups",["Marwick & Lewis, 2015","Banet-Weiser, 2018","Dewey, 2014","Domise, 2018","Ging, 2017","Jane, 2016","Massanari, 2017","Nagle, 2017a","Marwick & Lewis, 2015, p. 13"]]]},{},{"de":[["subtly puts down a woman to lower her self-esteem",[]]],"rt":[["PUA technique",[]]]},{"de":[["strategy of placing responsibility for self-confidence on the individual",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the idea that men and boys are victimized; that feminists in particular are the perpetrators of such attacks",[]]],"rt":[["honor terrorism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["always engaged in a threatened relationship with popular feminism and indeed blames feminism and women for their sexual disappointment.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The combination of PUA + men's rights creates a worldview with the belief that women are inferior and need to be reduced to their place in sexual and social orders. Red Pill certainly advocates a PUA style of self-improvement, but it also furthers a particular antifeminist and antiwoman ideology, one that asserts that feminism is strategically trying to harm men.",[]],["The combination of PUA + men's rights creates a worldview with the belief that women are inferior and need to be reduced to their place in sexual and social orders.",[]]]},{"sb":[["entrepreneurship",[]],["expertise",[]],["expectations",[]]]},{"sp":[["four types of hate",[]]]},{"sp":[["four types of hate",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Perspective's \"Identity Attack\" attribute, which is defined as \"negative or hateful comments targeting someone because of their identity\" and thus closely matches our definition of hate.",[]]],"rt":[["hate",[]]]},{"sp":[["perturbations",[]]]},{"de":[["hate detection models are a crucial tool for tackling it at scale.",[]]]},{"sp":[["perturbations",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["four types of hate",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["ideological approach",[]],["ritual approach",[]]],"sp":[["approaches to genre in television",[]]]},{"de":[["When used on college campuses, it could mean many things. Cruel and insensitive, it was a term used for girls who were perceived to be conservative, wore salwar kameez (a form of dress with a tunic and loose trousers) rather than trousers and T-shirts, perhaps had oil in their hair, and an accent from the hinterland.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["melodrama",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Thus, genre is, in many ways, a formula and each individual genre is a general application of the conventions of the genre",["Ang 1985 : 51"]]],"sy":[["type or kind",[]]],"rt":[["aesthetic approach",[]],["ideological approach",[]],["ritual approach",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Producers try to make sure that the hook is a nail-biting one, keeping alive curiosity for the next few days, and also thereby ensuring viewership on Monday evening.",[]]]},{"rt":[["aesthetic approach",[]],["ritual approach",[]]],"sp":[["approaches to genre in television",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a sentimental, artificially plotted drama that sacrifices characterization to extravagant incident, makes sensational appeals to the emotions of its audience, and ends on a happy or at least morally assuring note",[]],["melodrama operated as a safety valve for the contradictions created by the family in bourgeois society",[]],["melodrama needs to be read metaphorically to understand its typical focus on the family",["2002 : 29"]]],"sb":[["family melodrama",[]]]},{},{"de":[["You can find a show tacky, melodramatic or over the top, but that is not regression",[]],["The idea that an era demands a fixed code of behavior and that any deviation from it is a sign of a hopeless inadequacy is flawed.",[]]]},{"rt":[["aesthetic approach",[]],["ideological approach",[]]],"sp":[["approaches to genre in television",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Conflicts are usually emotional and internal, and are resolved either through sacrifice or superhuman endurance and perseverance.",[]]]},{"de":[["They differ from soaps in that there is a closure to their narratives.",[]]],"rt":[["soap",[]],["series",[]],["soaps",[]]],"ex":[["Ramayan, Mahabharat, Hum Log, and Buniyaad are examples of serials.",[]]]},{"de":[["The audience is thus offered a satisfactory resolution each time a series is aired. Each telecast is thus complete in itself.",[]],["Generally one hour long, the narrative structure, however, is such that the main story is resolved in a single episode. The audience is thus offered a satisfactory resolution each time a series is aired. Each telecast is thus complete in itself.",[]]],"rt":[["soap",[]],["serial",[]]],"ex":[["Shows such as CID (Crime Investigation Department) and Man Mein Hai Vishwas (There is Faith in My Heart) are examples of series on Indian television.",[]]]},{"de":[["stories are never finally resolved and even soaps which cease to be made project themselves into a non-existent future",["1991 : 11"]]],"rt":[["series",[]],["serial",[]]],"sp":[["melodrama",[]]],"ex":[["Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi (Because the Mother-in-Law Was Also Once a Daughter-in-Law, henceforth Kyunki )",[]],["Kahaani Ghar Ghar Kii (The Story of Every Home, henceforth Kahaani )",[]],["Saat Phere (Zee TV, produced by Sphere Origins) and Bidaai (Star Plus, produced by Director's Kut)",[]]]},{"de":[["Soaps are also largely considered to be addressed to women and their competencies in the personal sphere.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is a metadiscourse, which allows the past to cease to be a \"scarce resource\" ( Appadurai 1981 ) and allows it to become, to borrow an adjective from ecologists, a renewable resource.",[]]],"rt":[["metadiscourse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Soap villainesses, therefore, turn feminine characteristics which are often seen as weaknesses ensuring her subordination into a source of strength . . . she uses her insight into people to manipulate them, and she uses her sexuality for her own ends, not for masculine pleasure . . . above all, she embodies the female desire for power which is both produced and frustrated by the social relations of patriarchy.",["15"]]],"rt":[["patriarchal status quo",[]],["feminine passivity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Many of these issues are controversial, in the sense that they provoke arguments in which people express strong opposing opinions",["10"]]]},{},{"de":[["Despite its seemingly positive nature, benevolent sexism can be harmful, insulting, and discriminatory.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["manifests in the relative similarities between genderspecific words and gender neutral words.",[]],["where c is a parameter that determines how strict do we want to in measuring bias. If c is 0, then |cos( w -g)| c = 0 only if w has no overlap with g and otherwise it is 1. Such strict measurement of bias might be desirable in settings such as the college admissions example from the Introduction, where it would be unacceptable for the embedding to introduce a slight preference for one candidate over another by gender. A more gradual bias would be setting c = 1.",[]]],"rt":[["indirect gender bias",[]],["indirect bias",[]]]},{"de":[["The terminology indirect bias follows Pedreshi et al.[29] who distinguish direct versus indirect discrimination in rules of fair classifiers.",[]]],"rt":[["indirect discrimination",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["flight attendant",[]],["shoes",[]]]},{"ex":[["brother, sister, businessman and businesswoman",[]]]},{},{"de":[["imagine completely removing from the embedding both words in gender pairs (as well as words such as beard or uterus that are arguably gender-specific but which cannot be paired). There would still be indirect gender association in that a word that should be gender neutral, such as receptionist, is closer to softball than football",[]],["The gender subspace g that we have identified allows us to quantify the contribution of g to the similarities between any pair of words.",[]]],"rt":[["indirect gender association",[]],["direct bias",[]]],"ex":[["the fact that the word receptionist is much closer to softball than football may arise from female associations with both receptionist and softball",[]]]},{"de":[["The terminology indirect bias follows Pedreshi et al.[29] who distinguish direct versus indirect discrimination in rules of fair classifiers.",[]]],"sy":[["indirect bias",[]]],"rt":[["direct discrimination",[]]]},{"de":[["poses a challenge to extracting knowledge from raw text",["14"]]]},{"sy":[["Soft-debiasing",[]]]},{"ex":[["he:coward :: she:whore",[]]]},{"de":[["see this theory as addressing the role of the mass media in bringing important issues to the attention of their audiences.",[]]],"rt":[["salience of issues",[]],["ascribe importance to an issue",["Okoro and Agbo (2003, p.31) in Ate, (2008, p.41)"]]]},{"de":[["The various mass media (newspapers, magazines, radio, television, internet, etc) have the power to direct people's attention to certain issues",[]]],"rt":[["mass media",[]]]},{"de":[["presupposes that the media has the power to influence peoples thinking by taking a lead in the debate of important issues in the society",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["assumes that the audiences use the mass media for various reasons; one of which may be to be well-informed on the Ebola issues.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["applies to many different individual characteristics, including racial identity, gender, age, religion, and education",["McPherson et al., 2001"]],["homophily captures within-group attributes",[]],["homophily captures the tendency of voters to link to voters with the same ideology.",[]],["the greater the bias in exposure to same-type information due to homophily",[]]],"rt":[["relative homophily",[]],["inbreeding homophily",[]],["segregation",[]]],"sb":[["inbreeding homophily",[]]]},{"sy":[["segregation",[]]],"rt":[["homophily",[]]]},{"sp":[["homophily",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["homophily",[]]]},{"de":[["segregation measures captures cross-group attributes.",[]],["segregation measures captures cross-group attributes",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["decisional privacy and informational privacy are often part of a mutually reinforcing dynamic.",[]],["decisional privacy regulates the access of others in the form of interpretation, objection, commenting, and other forms of intervention in the way you live your life.",[]],["Decisional privacy provides the necessary breathing space to carry out one's chosen life unhindered in different social contexts, which is important for leading a selfdetermined life and so, for autonomy",["Roessler 2005: 80"]],["Roessler argues that decisional privacy protects autonomous authorship with regard to one's own, unique biography: a life free from interpretation and comments, from people whom one does not want to grant this kind of interpretative power",["Roessler 2005: 84"]],["Decisional privacy seems to grasp something particular about the moment that a person decides to choose or do something that he or she wants to choose or do and who is reasonably expected to interfere with one's decision-making process at that moment in that particular social context.",[]],["decisional privacy is a precondition for autonomy that enables a person to pursue certain lifestyles and life projects as she pleases without others interfering.",[]],["decisional privacy is not limited to controlling and limiting interference with one's decisions, but also involves controlling and limiting information about those decisions",["Koops et al. 2017: 68"]],["its explanatory power lies in the fact that it focuses on the contextual justification of interferences with (and influencing of) decision-procedures.",[]]],"rt":[["informational privacy",[]],["decisional autonomy",["Cohen 2002: 47"]],["autonomy",[]]],"sp":[["privacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Informational privacy is therefore bound up with the concept of reasonable expectations: it is reasonable to expect that the information shared with one's physician will not be shared with a health insurance agency for instance.",[]],["Scholars have found informational privacy useful for explaining the harmful aspects of online data collection by third parties that cannot reasonably be expected to have access to that information.",[]],["it does not only mean that you can determine who or what has access to your information and to what extent, but also about determining who can interfere with your decisions based on that information (who has decisional access based on information).",[]],["Informational privacy is not limited to controlling information, but also involves controlling and limiting interference with one's decisions based on that information.",["Koops et al. 2017: 68"]],["controlling and limiting information about those decisions",[]],["determining who knows (who has informational access) about these decisions-and to what extent.",[]]],"rt":[["decisional privacy",["Koops et al. 2017: 56"]]],"sp":[["privacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["For political participation, algorithmic filtering influences both what type of content users are exposed to (on the reception-side) as well as how far a post is disseminated across users' broadcast feeds (on the production-side).",[]]],"rt":[["computational rule systems",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["algorithms",[]]],"sp":[["Functionality",[]]]},{"de":[["the types of media supported (e.g., sound, images, and video), whether communication is synchronous or asynchronous, and the length of time a post remains visible online.",["Jones & Rafaeli, 2000"]]],"sy":[["packages of technological characteristics",["Freelon (2015, p. 776)"]]]},{"de":[["can directly influence political behaviors, such as offline protest mobilization",[]]],"ex":[["pages, events, and groups",[]]]},{"sp":[["political participation",[]]],"ex":[["Forms of latent participation include reading political news, discussing politics with others, and reflecting upon one's political viewpoints.",[]],["reading political news, discussing politics with others, and reflecting upon one's political viewpoints",[]]]},{"sp":[["political participation",[]]],"ex":[["These manifest forms of participation can be electoral, such as voting or canvassing, as well as extra-parliamentary, such as protesting or taking everyday actions that attempt to curb climate change.",[]],["electoral, such as voting or canvassing, as well as extra-parliamentary, such as protesting or taking everyday actions that attempt to curb climate change",[]]]},{"sp":[["political participation",[]]]},{"sb":[["latent participation",[]],["manifest participation",[]],["mobilization",[]]]},{"sp":[["Algorithmic filtering",[]]]},{"sp":[["network structure",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Functionality",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["triangulation between all three persons",[]]]},{"de":[["using the right pronouns with the right person may become a matter of immediate personal safety; when a transgender person is not out to their parents, for example, this is frequently because there is a danger that they will be disowned if their parents discover that they're trans.",[]],["it is therefore imperative that any of her friends who speak to her family do so using the pronouns that the family are accustomed to using.",[]]],"ex":[["friends must use he to refer to this woman when they otherwise would only ever use she.",[]]]},{"de":[["pronoun choice depends instead on the relationship between the addressee and the referent (absent or present).",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["presupposition",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A \"dead name\" is a term used mostly by transgender people for a name that is no longer consistent with one's gender identity, and is therefore dispreferred.",[]],["I use this term to 1. Align myself with the transgender community, and 2. Emphasize the discomfort transgender people feel upon being called their dead name.",[]]]},{"sy":[["dsT",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a phenomenon dependent on secondorder abstractions of inferred meaning that are constructed through manipulations of (for example) conversational maxims.",[]]],"rt":[["social distance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The propositional content and entailments of an utterance are generally taken to be semantic issues",[]]]},{"sb":[["Positioning",[]]]},{"sb":[["positive face",[]],["negative face",[]]]},{},{"de":[["For dsT speakers to accept or produce dsT referentially in gender-nonspecific contexts like (54), they only need to lack uGender on referential D in their grammar; but crucially an additional social factor is necessary for non-binary uses.",[]]],"rt":[["non-binary use of dsT",[]]]},{"sb":[["social-structural model of generational analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["generic and indefinite uses represent what I will propose to be the most conservative form of singular they, with the longest history of attestation and discussion in English.",[]]],"rt":[["generic pronoun use",[]],["indefinite uses",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The emergence of an n + 1 st indexical value is the result of an ideological move",[]]],"rt":[["indexical field",[]]]},{"de":[["As such, it is inseparable from the ideological field and can be seen as an embodiment of ideology in linguistic form.",[]]],"rt":[["ideological field",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["repeated misgendering from 'friendly' acquaintances (family, partners, etc.) is an artefact of two things: first, a resistance to recategorization of social categories in general (inertia or force of habit)",[]]],"sy":[["force of habit",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["a. Avoid obscurity of expression",[]],["b. Avoid ambiguity",[]],["c. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity)",[]],["d. Be orderly",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["principle of economy",[]],["principle of clarity",[]]]},{"de":[["Maximize Presupposition! was weaker than previously supposed all along-and that apparent changes around the norms of gendered pronouns in English are a move away from strict semantics towards an already-existing underlying sociopragmatic sensitivity.",[]]],"rt":[["strict semantics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["misgendering (via pronouns or otherwise) has a significant negative effect on the mental health and well-being of transgender people",["McLemore 2013(McLemore , 2015)","McLemore 2013","McLemore , 2015"]],["pronominal misgendering aimed at trans people therefore constitutes a form of serious (and frequent) verbal harm.",[]],["constitute a 'cheap shot' when attempting actual verbal sparring or debate.",[]],["one among many linguistic 'weapons' they can wield",["McCready (2014)"]],["instances of misgendering (whether malicious or benign) render an utterance infelicitous",[]]],"sy":[["gender-crossed pronouns",[]]],"sb":[["malicious misgendering",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["imposition on their negative face",[]]],"rt":[["positive face",[]]],"sp":[["face",[]]]},{"de":[["non-binary contexts will be within their repertoire.",[]]],"rt":[["gender-nonspecific reading",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["interlocutors' needs for respect and positive feelings can be described as their 'face,' and where speech acts can serve to maintain or protect speakers' face or, conversely, threaten or harm it",[]]],"rt":[["face",[]],["positive face",[]],["negative face",[]]]},{"sp":[["Evaluation",[]]]},{"de":[["imposition on their positive face",[]]],"rt":[["negative face",[]]],"sp":[["face",[]]]},{"rt":[["semantic presupposition",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["entailment",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["QUALITY [is] a supermaxim -'Try to make your contribution one that is true'",[]]],"sb":[["a. Do not say what you believe to be false. [=Don't lie!]",[]],["b. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. [=Don't guess!]",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["specific instantiations of the social relationships and context.",[]]],"ex":[["a. Don't misgender my friend b. Don't surprise/confuse the border guard",[]],["a. Don't misgender my friend b. Don't expose my friend to transphobic retaliation (= don't 'out' friend)",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["pragmatic presupposition",[]]]},{"de":[["Because singular they has received a great deal of attention in public discourse, it seems likely that varying uses of this pronoun are connected to salient social meanings.",[]],["a 'nothing' pronoun",[]],["They can only gain meaning through pragmatic implicatures and inference, because it does not carry features even when it succeeds in head-raising to a referential D head",[]]],"sy":[["dsT",[]]],"sb":[["definite, specific uses of singular they (dsT)",[]],["definite generic",[]],["epicene uses",[]]]},{},{"de":[["speakers who use dsT for gender-irrelevant purposes may still reject dsT anteceded by a proper name-however, this is mediated by social evaluation of appropriateness",[]]],"rt":[["social evaluation of appropriateness",[]]]},{"de":[["interface and interchange between the narrow syntax and the compositional sociopragmatics at the point of Spelling out a structure",[]]]},{"de":[["assigns value or positions subjects in relation to referents in discourse",[]]],"rt":[["stance-taking acts",[]]]},{"rt":[["Stance Subject",[]],["interlocutor",[]]]},{"rt":[["Stance Object",[]],["interlocutor",[]]]},{"de":[["These three components are the arguments necessary for a stance to be comprehensible in context; the relationship between these components compose the type of stance itself",[]],["DuBois' model conceives of any stance-taking act as consisting of a Stance Subject, Stance Object, and interlocutor; the Stance Subject relates to Stance Object by positioning themself in relation to the object, and evaluating the object, and the Stance Subject relates to their interlocutor by aligning themself relative to the interlocutor's own stance relation with the (shared) object.",[]]],"rt":[["Stance Subject",[]],["Stance Object",[]],["interlocutor",[]],["the stance-taker",[]],["the object of stance",[]],["the alignment of the stance with other stances taken within the conversation",[]]]},{"sy":[["stance subject",[]]]},{"de":[["the relationship between these components compose the type of stance itself (which can be evaluative, positioning, aligning, epistemic, affective, etc.).",[]]],"rt":[["evaluative",[]],["positioning",[]],["aligning",[]],["epistemic",[]],["affective",[]]],"sb":[["evaluative",[]],["positioning",[]],["aligning",[]],["epistemic",[]],["affective",[]]]},{},{"de":[["As a component of speech-acts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["investigates whether the use condition u is valued as appropriate or inappropriate; this is entirely separate from whether a truth condition t is valued as true or false",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Logical Reasoning",[]]],"ex":[["if Jenny finds her house in a mess when she returns from work, and remembers that she left a window open, she can hypothesize that a thief broke into her house and caused the mess",["foot_3"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["deduction requires less \"guessing\" from the perspective of ChatGPT, as induction requires figuring out rules (Rogers et al., 2022).",["Rogers et al., 2022"]],["The former can be viewed as top-down",[]],["deductive is from premise to conclusion",["Walton, 2014"]]],"sy":[["deduction",[]]],"rt":[["top-down",[]]],"sp":[["logical reasoning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["From various tasks, we often find extrinsic hallucinations, including both untruthful and factual ones, across various tasks such as Machine Translation and question answering, which causes degradation in performance.",[]]],"rt":[["Intrinsic hallucinations",[]]],"sp":[["hallucination",["Ji et al., 2022a"]]]},{"de":[["From various tasks, we often find extrinsic hallucinations, including both untruthful and factual ones, across various tasks such as Machine Translation and question answering, which causes degradation in performance.",[]]],"sb":[["extrinsic hallucinations",[]],["intrinsic hallucinations",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Extrinsic hallucinations",[]]],"sp":[["Hallucination",["Ji et al., 2022a"]]]},{"sb":[["inductive reasoning",[]],["abductive reasoning",[]],["Inductive",[]],["deductive",[]],["abductive",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["rules which operate against coercion, deception, and dishonesty, and rules requiring those who have made promises to keep them.",["114","115"]],["parity of information on the basis that exploiting a party's informational disadvantage is inconsistent with respect for another's autonomy.",["116"]],["the normative force of fairness may come from a deontological obligation to treat others as equals",["110"]],["the normative force of fairness may come from a deontological obligation to treat others as equals.",["109"]],["Lee postulates that the content of fairness will depend upon the context in which it is used and argues that a market which is attractive to engage in is that which contains an internal morality characterized by fair ground rules.",[]]],"sy":[["market fairness",[]]],"rt":[["freedom from coercion",[]],["freedom from misrepresentation",[]],["information",[]],["equal processing power",[]],["freedom from impulse",[]],["efficient prices",[]],["equal bargaining power",[]]],"ex":[["promise-keeping and truthfulness",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["insider trading",[]],["market manipulation",[]],["front running",[]]]},{"ex":[["insider trading, market manipulation, and front running",[]]]},{"de":[["(1) the elimination of market abuse activities, which are behaviours whereby one person takes advantage of his or her position to gain an unmerited advantage over another; this includes insider trading, market manipulation, and front running;",[]],["(2) non-discriminatory access to the market for all those wishing to participate;",[]],["(3) transparent and accurate information about the prices of securities available to all participants at the same time; and (4) accurate information about issuers of securities available to all participants at the same time.",[]],["the concepts of market integrity and market fairness may be equivalent.",[]]],"sy":[["market integrity",[]]],"rt":[["market integrity",[]]]},{"rt":[["Transparency",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["process transparency",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["A better understanding of transparency makes it clear that the processes that produce information should themselves be transparent.",[]]],"rt":[["information transparency",[]],["process transparency",[]]],"sb":[["procedural, decision and subjective",["Weber (2008)"]],["process transparency",[]],["procedural",[]],["decision",[]],["subjective",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This typology has a more positive tone than the other story types.",[]],["Effectively, the bereaved may strive to overcome the death by seeking closure and some form of resolution",["Duncan, 2012","Duncan and Newton, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["These narratives chiefly focus on the bereaved's attempts to resolve unfinished business.",[]],["Anniversary stories for 'suicide events' generally happen on the 1-year, 5-year, 10-year, or in the case of Kurt Cobain, 25-year anniversary.",[]]],"rt":[["suicide events",[]],["suicide prevention policies",[]]],"ex":[["Bridgend suicides (2008)",[]],["Bristol University student suicides (2017)",[]],["Robin Williams' suicide ( 2014)",[]],["Kurt Cobain, 25-year anniversary",[]]]},{"de":[["only works if journalists know them and have an obligation to follow them",["ibid"]]]},{"de":[["The five types are: event-driven, tributedriven, post-judicial, anniversary and action-as-memorial.",[]]],"sb":[["event-driven",[]],["tributedriven",[]],["post-judicial",[]],["anniversary",[]],["action-as-memorial",[]]]},{"de":[["Event-driven stories (34.6% of stories in our sample), tend to lead with the death, the person who has died, and the circumstances, especially its unusualness and some form of public involvement (e.g. the discovery of a body). These story types frame the death as futile, depicting a sense of shock and denial from the bereaved.",[]]],"ex":[["Two men who were complete strangers jumped 100ft to their deaths from the Humber Bridge within minutes of each other",["Express, January 3, 2019"]]]},{},{"ex":[["Golden Gate Bridge or Beachy Head",[]]]},{"de":[["should be applied 'to the greatest extent possible' and, in those cases where harm occurs, news outlets should 'be able to justify it in ethical terms'",["Richards, 2009: 21"]]]},{"de":[["These stories can appear months -or years -after the death. Post-judicial stories usually focus on the legal case, and less on the relatives' reaction to the verdict.",[]]],"rt":[["court case",[]],["inquest",[]],["legal proceedings",[]]]},{"de":[["Our model is pragmatic and internal to journalists' news-work. It functions within the storytelling process, reflecting recognised journalistic narratives involving people, although it may not be applicable to every extant story type for example, stories based predominantly on data/statistics.",[]],["Thus it addresses hindrances to journalists' use of guidelines for example, lack of awareness, reluctance to consult them, taking time away from reporting to check and apply them, tight deadlines and fewer journalists doing increasing amounts of work.",[]]],"rt":[["a typology of suicide narratives and 'othering'",[]],["ethical rules",[]],["a standard of moderation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Suicide reporting should mitigate between being excessive and being uninformative, the aim being to situate stories between these two polarities.",[]],["potentially avoids the excesses of sensationalism and harmful reporting, or at the other extreme, repudiates self-censored, vague and meaningless content that adds little to public understanding of suicide.",[]],["designed to enable journalists to make more rigorous decisions about the right, ethical action by considering whether their reporting is moderate. Suicide reporting should mitigate between being excessive and being uninformative, the aim being to situate stories between these two polarities.",[]]]},{"rt":[["stigmatise",[]]]},{"de":[["They tend to appear quite swiftly after the death, and may be either a direct follow-up to the event-driven story, or one which replaces it, if a news outlet has not reported the death earlier. The focus shifts to the bereaved family's expression of their devastation at the loss of their loved one, meaning the content is likely to be highly personal and emotional.",[]]]},{"de":[["has its limitations, not least the journalist's ability to anticipate what effect their reporting might have on different audiences",["ibid"]]]},{"de":[["The main purpose of this model is to map out the informational spaces related to aporophobia (on impressions, interpretations and imaginations; beliefs; attitudes and actions).",[]]],"rt":[["aporophobia",[]],["aporophilia",[]],["Activation",[]]]},{"sp":[["heuristic",[]]]},{"de":[["This is necessary for balancing the measurement in relation to the valence of the construct. By doing so, respondents can have an equal chance to report that they have experienced one of these states, protecting the whole assessment from bias.",[]],["In order to make sense of the valence factor for aporophobia it is important to introduce the term 'aporophilia' (the opposite of aporophobia).",[]]],"rt":[["aporophobia",[]]]},{"de":[["aporophobia focuses on what the nonpoor think and do about the poor.",[]],["It is the rejection of a group, not of an individual. In other words, it is not the individuality of a poor person that raises the phobia but the fact that there is an understanding by the non-poor that poor people belong to a group that should be avoided or rejected",[]],["It is not a phobia based on an identity because involuntary poverty is not part of one's identity. With rare exceptions, people do not choose to be poor",[]],["All human beings are aporophobic due to neural, evolutionary and social causes. The non-poor indulge into interpretations of their superiority because this sends a calming message to them",[]],["It is a problem of moral motivation of individuals",[]],["It is a daily issue that manifests itself at several different levels (with considerable gaps between speech and action)",[]],["It is a problem that also affects the institutional life of societies, including their habits and cultures that shape their inter-subjective agreements",[]],["It is a social pathology.",[]],["Aporophobia then is the 'insult to injury' to the poor.",[]],["Not only does the concept of aporophobia tackle a very important kind of discrimination but it also addresses issues that can change the way that poverty and inequality are considered as separate phenomena.",[]],["Aporophobia is a neologism originally created by Cortina (1995) that comes from the union of two Greek words, 'aporos' (the poor) and 'phobia ' (rejection, fear, aversion).",[]],["aporophobia depends on the existence of asymmetric relations that are characterised by a certain corruption of our moral sentiments, as Smith (1976Smith ( [1759]]) would put it.",[]]],"sy":[["rejection of the poor",[]]],"rt":[["social exclusion",["Pierson, 2016"]],["psychosocial implications of poverty",["Ximenes et al, 2019"]],["xenophobia",[]],["racism",[]],["religious and gender discrimination",[]],["normative disruption",[]],["Antipathy",[]],["Asymmetric relation",[]],["Aversion",[]],["Contempt",[]],["Degrading treatment",[]],["Disgust",[]],["Disregard",[]],["Fear",[]],["Hate",[]],["Hostility",[]],["Insult",[]],["Impatience",[]],["No reciprocal acknowledgement",[]],["Physical aggression",[]],["Rejection",[]]],"sb":[["micro aporophobia",[]],["micro dimension, based on psychological features and actions of non-poor individuals",[]],["meso dimension, whenever aporophobia is manifested as a result of particular institutions (for instance, schools and hospitals can have aporophobic cultures)",[]],["macro dimension, based on factors, such as the non-poor's power to appropriate a considerable share of national income and influence the distributive role of governments",[]],["aporophobic actions",[]],["aporophobic crime",[]],["meso aporophobia",[]],["macro aporophobia",[]]],"ex":[["the homeless are condemned to be insulted or (in the best case scenario) to become invisible to the non-poor",["2015"]]]},{},{"sp":[["heuristic",[]]]},{"de":[["If after some effortful mental activity the individual is still aporophobic and earlier impressions, interpretations and imaginations are endorsed rather than changed, then there is a higher probability that they can be turned into attitudes and actions.",[]]],"ex":[["beliefs about the poor can generate simple causal theories about how they are and what they want, establishing beliefs of superiority of the nonpoor, asymmetric relation, together with more elaborated thoughts of aversion",[]]]},{"sp":[["heuristic",[]]]},{"sp":[["heuristic",[]]]},{"sp":[["heuristic",[]]]},{"de":[["As a result, the non-poor end up with a view of the world about the poor that it is much simpler and more perverse (but -paradoxically-more coherent in their minds) than facts and data can justify, leading to a 'blaming-the-victim' morality that justifies the disenfranchisement of the poor from human development",["Chafel, 1997"]]],"sy":[["h-processes",[]]],"sb":[["Associative activation heuristics",[]],["Priming and reciprocal-priming heuristics",[]],["Familiarity heuristics",[]],["Confirmation heuristics",[]],["Halo heuristics",[]],["Affect heuristics",[]],["Stereotyping heuristics",[]],["Possibility heuristics",[]]]},{"de":[["They are normally the inputs for individuals' motivational systems and as such they represent a merge between cognitive and affective ideas.",[]]],"ex":[["early negative ideas about the poor or instinctive reactions such as contempt, disgust or fear of the poor",[]]]},{"de":[["macro aporophobia is lower in those societies that are more developed, richer, more equal and more educated.",[]]],"sp":[["aporophobia",[]]]},{"ex":[["how hospitals allocate shorter than necessary appointment times for poor (because poor patients might need more time to understand what their doctors are saying)",[]],["when schools do not train their teachers to tackle specific difficulties of students in poor communities",[]],["when companies have loose protocols for hiring new personnel or promoting their employees that allow applicants to be discriminated for the simple reason of being poor",[]]]},{"sp":[["Aporophobia",[]]]},{"de":[["The non-poor's worries spark in their minds a vivid image of threats by the poor. They react with more focus against the poor, even considering that objectively the probability of such a threat is low Source: Author's creation.",[]]],"sp":[["heuristic",[]]]},{"sp":[["heuristic",[]]]},{"sp":[["heuristic",[]]]},{"rt":[["System 2 (S2)",[]]]},{"rt":[["System 1 (S1)",[]]]},{"de":[["a) Valence: an evaluative factor, registering how positive or negative or good or bad is a central construct",[]]],"rt":[["Activation",[]]]},{"de":[["The reasoning is deceptive.",[]],["the exaggeration is used as a way of conveying the seriousness of a particular issue, the goal being that an interlocutor, upon being convinced of the seriousness, will be moved to agree, and further, to action.",[]]]},{"sp":[["argumentative hyperbole",[]]],"ex":[["Climate change is an existential crisis for humanity.",[]],["This is the greatest economy ever.",[]],["\"Climate change is an existential crisis for humanity.\"",[]],["\"This is the greatest economy ever.\"",[]],["An example might be something like: \"Climate change is an existential crisis for humanity.\" Or, \"This is the greatest economy ever.\"",[]]]},{"sy":[["cause shopping",[]],["fallacy of the single cause",[]],["reductive fallacy",["6"]]],"ex":[["some critics going so far as saying that these politicians have \"blood on their hands.\"",[]],["many politicians in the U.S. have been blamed for deaths due to a slow or inappropriate response to the COVID-19 outbreak-some critics going so far as saying that these politicians have \"blood on their hands.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["The idea is for the interlocutor to associate the preceding number with those killed, making the situation appear worse than it is.",[]]],"ex":[["casualties are reported as \"killed or injured\" as opposed to the reverse, even when the injured greatly outnumber the killed",[]],["casualties are reported as \"killed or injured\" as opposed to the reverse, even when the injured greatly outnumber the killed.",[]],["Very commonly, casualties are reported as \"killed or injured\" as opposed to the reverse, even when the injured greatly outnumber the killed.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["its primary role being to express emotion or to bring desired emphases to a particular point.",[]],["it is also used as a device to persuade, and in particular, to persuade an interlocutor that they should take or support a course of action. When it is so used, the exaggerated claims would, if true, provide greater support for the conclusion. But since the claims are not fully accurate, this \"greater support\" is only illusory. Its use is thus deceptive and counts as fallacious reasoning.",[]],["draws greater attention to the situation and may express the urgency of a given situation more so than an accurate statement.",[]],["Exaggerating the seriousness of a situation, in order to motivate interlocutors to act as the arguer thinks they should, is deceptive.",[]],["common rhetorical device",[]],["a deception in order to get people to agree",[]]],"sy":[["exaggeration",[]],["slanter",[]]],"sb":[["hyperbole in argumentation",[]],["metaphorical hyperbole",[]],["brute hyperbole",[]],["hyperbolic causation",[]],["disjunctive hyperbole",[]],["understatement",[]]],"sp":[["rhetorical device",[]]]},{"de":[["the degree to which the issue is serious (and thus, should be taken as serious, and further acted upon) is being misstated: it is being exaggerated.",[]]],"sb":[["metaphorical hyperbole",[]],["understatement",[]]],"sp":[["hyperbole",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["\"The U.S. is facing an invasion of immigrants at the southern border.\"",[]],["Godwin's Law",[]],["feminazis",[]],["The U.S. is facing an invasion of immigrants at the southern border.",[]]]},{"de":[["involves telling the truth, but perhaps not the whole truth, in a way that encourages the target audience into exaggerating the seriousness of an issue.",[]],["Such a fallacy involves telling the truth, but perhaps not the whole truth, in a way that encourages the target audience into exaggerating the seriousness of an issue.",[]]],"sy":[["hyperbolic paltering",[]]],"rt":[["cause shopping",[]]],"ex":[["a climate-change model might have a range of possible outcomes, but only the most extreme is presented, as though that were the de facto prediction.",[]],["people might point out that illegal immigrants commit a certain number of crimes, while leaving out that the number is much smaller if immigration crimes are not counted, or that citizen crime rates are higher still.",[]]]},{"de":[["There may be a broader category here, perhaps epistemic hyperbole that includes exaggerating the epistemic value of a claim or source.",["7"]],["trades on the fact that science proceeds in fits and starts, instead of unanimous agreement from the outset.",[]]],"rt":[["hasty generalization",[]],["appeal to inappropriate authority",[]]],"ex":[["\"These findings that modest alcohol consumption can be beneficial for the heart completely upset all our previous assumptions about the health effects of drinking.\"",["8"]]]},{"sp":[["hyperbole in argumentation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["rhetorical device",[]]]},{"sp":[["hyperbole in argumentation",[]]]},{"de":[["places the mainstream in a position of object, or even victim, rather than subject, simply being infected by and reacting to the far right",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the mainstream is often defined by what it is not, rather than what it is.",[]],["the elusiveness of the 'mainstream' as a concept is partly due to the difficulty of pinning it down because of its contingency (as a reality and normative concept) and status as a functional floating signifier: what is being referred to may be different bodies and sites in society and politics (e.g. government, media, parties, policies, or discourses) or based on the subjective positioning of the scholars and experts.",[]],["constructed, contingent and fluid",[]],["not essentially good, rational or moderate",[]],["a normative, hegemonic concept that imbues a particular ideological configuration or system with authority to operate as a given or naturalize itself as the best or even only option, essential to govern or regulate society, politics and the economy",[]],["functional floating signifier",[]],["the mainstream is not only constructed, contingent and fluid, but that it is not essentially good, rational and moderate in and of itself.",[]],["the mainstream is constructed, contingent and fluid",[]],["One exists by virtue of the recognition of the other; in theory, however, it is the latter [the mainstream] that draws the lines of admissibility regarding the former [the extreme] and formalizes the distinction.",["13"]],["Mainstream parties are defined as the electorally dominant actors in the center-left, center, and center-right blocs on the Left-Right political spectrum.",["15"]],["A political party is classified as mainstream if its electoral appeal is based on a recognizable and moderate ideological platform rather than on the personality of its leader and/or extremist rhetoric.",["16"]],["positioned in such a way relative to the power centre that it captures the support and represents the interests of a major part of the voters",["17"]]],"sy":[["centre",[]]],"rt":[["extreme",[]]]},{"de":[["a process which sees both the far right and the mainstream as agents and subjects, but also focuses on discourse as key to understanding how both actors and ideas become mainstream.",[]],["focuses on discourse as key to understanding how both actors and ideas become mainstream.",[]],["unidirectional process in which the far right evolves to move closer to the mainstream",[]],["research on policies and manifestos, culture and consumption and the media",[]],["work which accounts for the role of the mainstream itself in shifting discourse",[]],["Manifestations of the mainstream and mainstreaming processes can thus only be made sense of in a precise time and space and within the coordinates of a particular political moment.",[]],["understanding mainstreaming requires a prerequisite acknowledgement that the mainstream is not only constructed, contingent and fluid, but that it is not essentially good, rational and moderate in and of itself.",[]],["entailing a cyclical process of normalization which changes what is and is not acceptable in the 'mainstream'.",[]]],"rt":[["far right",[]],["mainstream",[]]],"ex":[["mainstreaming of the far right",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["discursive shifts",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["To develop media literacy/competence of the audience",[]]]},{"ex":[["the description of ingroup as positive and out-group as negative.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["social power",[]]]},{},{"de":[["CDA analyzes real instances of social interaction which take a complete or partial linguistic form as it aims to make visible \"the ideological loading of particular ways of using language and the relations of power\" which underlie them (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997, p. 258).",[]],["CDA is used to analyze texts in order to discover what \"structures, strategies or other properties of text, talk, verbal interaction or communicative events play a role\" in production or reproduction of unequal power relations (Van Dijk, 1993a, p. 250).",[]],["CDA not only concentrates on language and the use of language, but also focuses on the \"linguistic character of social and cultural processes and structures\" (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997, P. 271).",[]],["CDA draws attention to \"the substantively linguistic and discursive nature of social relations of power in contemporary societies\" (ibid., p. 272).",[]],["CDA is \"about making connections between social and cultural structures and processes on the one hand, and properties of text on the other\" (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997, p. 277).",[]],["CDA aims to move beyond textual analysis to the interpretation and explanation stages of analysis.",[]],["CDA intends to find out opaqueness and relations of power.",[]],["its main goal is to \"describe and explain how power abuse is enacted, reproduced or legitimised by the text and talk of dominant groups or institutions\" (Van Dijk, 1996, p. 84).",[]],["Critical discourse analysis examines social practices based on their discourse moments (Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1999).",["Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1999"]]],"rt":[["discourse",[]],["Ideologies",[]]]},{"de":[["discourse shapes society and culture, as well as being shaped by them",[]],["discourse is not produced without context and cannot be understood without taking the context into consideration",["ibid., p. 276"]],["discourse is the process of text production and interpretation.",[]],["discourses as linguistic social practices can be seen as constituting non-discursive and discursive social practices and, at the same time, as being constituted by them",["Wodak, 2001, p. 66"]]]},{"rt":[["intertextuality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a way of theorizing change in relation to the evolution of power relations which allows a particular focus upon discursive change, but at the same time a way of seeing it as contributing to and being shaped by wider processes of change.",["Fairclough (1993, p. 92)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a question of which genres, discourses and styles it draws upon, and how it works them into particular articulations",[]]],"rt":[["intertextuality",[]]]},{"de":[["texts are inherently intertextual, which means that they are constituted by elements of other texts.",["Fairclough (1993)","Fairclough, 1993"]]],"rt":[["interdiscursivity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The elements of orders of discourse are not things like nouns and sentences (elements of linguistic structures), but discourses, genres and styles (…). These elements select certain possibilities defined by languages and exclude others -they control linguistic variability for particular areas of social life",["Fairclough, 2003, p. 24"]]]},{"sp":[["Foucault's notion",[]]]},{"sp":[["social power",[]]],"ex":[["the power of parents, professors, or journalists",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["coercive power",[]]],"sp":[["social power",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the data not annotated for stance is used as the domain corpus",[]]]},{"rt":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The target may be a person, an organization, a government policy, a movement, a product, etc.",[]],["However, in stance detection, systems are to determine favorability towards a given target of interest-and the target may not be explicitly mentioned in the text.",[]],["in stance detection, systems are to determine favorability towards a given target of interest-and the target may not be explicitly mentioned in the text.",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]],["textual inference",[]],["textual entailment",[]]]},{"de":[["This use of addressee-directed imperative verbs is a feature typical of an exhortation genre aiming to persuade viewers to adopt a desired action.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It expresses discriminatory, intimidating, disapproving, antagonistic, and/or prejudicial attitudes towards those characteristics, which include gender, race, religion, ethnicity, color, national origin, disability or sexual orientation.",["Cohen-Amalgor, 2011, pp. 1-2"]],["Hate speech is intended to injure, dehumanize, harass, intimidate, debase, degrade and victimize the targeted groups, and to foment insensitivity and brutality against them.",["Cohen-Amalgor, 2011, pp. 1-2"]],["Hate speech is dangerous, because it not only expresses ideas or dissent, it also promotes fear, can cause depression and even drive some victims to attempt suicide",["Titley et al., 2012"]],["Hate speech is dangerous, because it not only expresses ideas or dissent, it also promotes fear, can cause depression and even drive some victims to attempt suicide (Titley et al., 2012).",["Titley et al., 2012"]]],"rt":[["racism",[]],["anti-Semitism",[]],["xenophobia",[]],["discrimination",[]],["human rights",[]],["freedom of expression",[]],["gender",[]],["LGBTQI issues",[]],["religions",[]],["extremism",[]],["disabled people",[]]],"sb":[["online hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Clearly, its main feature is that it incites to violence. This lack of an exact definition means that the concept is relatively fluid, and can thus be adapted to the full range of possible situations between two forms of abuse: the abuse of freedom of expression and the abuse in limiting this.",[]]]},{"de":[["This new hybrid genre also presents a blending of different discourses, such as news discourse and personal/conversational discourse.",[]]]},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A \"victim\" may also be a legal person, or a member of the immediate family or household of the direct victim, as well as a person who, in intervening to assist a victim or prevent the occurrence of further violations, has suffered physical, mental, or economic harm.",["Source: UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights"]]]},{"de":[["Online antisocial behavior increases anger and sadness",["58"]],["threatens social and emotional development in adolescents",["70"]]],"rt":[["aggression",[]]],"sb":[["trolling",[]],["harassment",[]],["bullying",[]],["aggression",[]]]},{"rt":[["trolling",[]]]},{},{"de":[["-for example, interpreting snarky remarks as resulting from general mean-spiritedness (i.e., their disposition), rather than a bad day (i.e., the situation that may have led to such behavior).",["73"]]],"ex":[["interpreting snarky remarks as resulting from general mean-spiritedness (i.e., their disposition), rather than a bad day (i.e., the situation that may have led to such behavior).",["73"]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["standards of behavior",[]]]},{"de":[["Sub-discussions tend to be closer to actual conversations between users as each subsequent post is an explicit reply to another post in the chain, as opposed to considering the discussion as a whole where users can simply leave a comment without reading or responding to anyone else.",[]]]},{"sy":[["someone who \"intentionally disrupts online communities\" [77]",["77"]],["a person engaging in \"negatively marked online behavior\" [37]",["37"]]],"sb":[["flaming",[]],["griefing",[]],["swearing",[]],["personal attacks",[]]]},{},{"de":[["antisocial behavior such as trolling disrupts constructive discussion",[]],["trolling, like laughter, can be contagious",[]],["trolling may be more situational than innate",[]],["Trolling stems from both innate and situational factors",[]],["we adopt a definition of trolling that includes flaming, griefing, swearing, or personal attacks, including behavior outside the acceptable bounds defined by several community guidelines for discussion forums [22,25,35]",["22","25","35"]]],"sy":[["cyberbullying",[]]],"rt":[["cyberbullying",[]],["flaming",[]],["griefing",[]],["swearing",[]],["personal attacks",[]]],"sp":[["antisocial behavior",[]]],"ex":[["outright swearing (\"What a dumb c***\") and personal attacks (\"You're and idiot and one of the things that's wrong with this country.\") to veiled insults (\"Hillary isn't half the man Bernie is!!! lol\"), sarcasm (\"You sound very white, and very male. Must be nice.\"), and off-topic statements (\"I think Ted Cruz has a very good chance of becoming president.\")",[]]]},{"sy":[["online social networking",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["social networking tool",[]]],"ex":[["Twitter and Plurk sites",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["protector",[]]]},{"de":[["This is either as the patriarchal sovereign under whose protection the citizens are safe from the foreign fighters or as the institution facilitating rehabilitation to help foreign fighters.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["represents the state's self-understanding and interests.",[]]]},{"de":[["the narrative engages in a process of 'othering'. This is achieved through underlining the descendancy of a person in the media or in political debates.",[]],["This is achieved through underlining the descendancy of a person in the media or in political debates.",[]]],"rt":[["threat narratives",[]],["racialised dynamics",[]]],"ex":[["stating that a Norwegian foreign fighter has Moroccan descendancy and not just stating that the person is Norwegian. Emphasising descendancy racialises the narrative because it underlines that a person is not actually 'Norwegian' (read: white).",[]],["stating that a Norwegian foreign fighter has Moroccan descendancy and not just stating that the person is Norwegian",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["othering",[]],["racialised dynamics",[]]]},{"de":[["These narratives, which, for example, victimise female ISIS members have far-reaching implications pertaining to access to rehabilitation and citizenship withdrawal.",[]],["the national 'threat narratives' of foreign fighters are assessed with a narrative analysis informed by an intersectional gender perspective. The intersectional gender perspective is crucial to examine how intersecting markers of identity, including gender, racial, religious, or classist dynamics are instrumentalised to frame foreign fighters as, for example, threatening",[]],["storylike and structured into a narrative 'that includes setting the stage, establishing a plot, casting characters (heroes, victims, villains), and specify[ing] a moral'",[]],["narrative analysis indicated why some states choose (not) to repatriate by uncovering the racialised and gendered narratives of foreign fighters",[]],["undermine efforts to counter violent extremism",[]]],"ex":[["victimise female ISIS members",[]]]},{},{"de":[["more specific assessment of the reporting of the story and the details concerning the plot and arrests",[]]],"rt":[["believability",[]],["veracity",[]],["credibility",[]]],"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["suggest a general belief in the story and the acceptance that police had uncovered an alleged terrorist plot",[]]],"rt":[["accuracy",[]],["veracity",[]],["credibility",[]]],"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["trust",[]]],"sp":[["trust",[]]]},{},{"de":[["move towards developing interpretive techniques of content analysis to uncover the meanings of media content and the social construction of news discourse (Fowler, 1991)",["Fowler, 1991"]],["to explore the cultivation effects of media content upon audiences (Gerbner, et al., 1994)",[]],["First, content analysis is systematic. News content was selected and analysed according to a defined set of rules and procedures that were consistently applied to all newspaper articles within the sample.",[]],["Second, content analysis should be objective. One of the strongest criticisms of content analysis is that it is impossible for it to achieve perfect objectivity due to the subjective influences of the researcher when selecting rules for classification (Wimmer & Dominick, 2006, p166).",["Wimmer & Dominick, 2006, p166"]],["Third, content analysis is quantifiable: a precise and accurate representation of a body of messages.",[]],["quantitative measures of content help to increase accuracy and standardise the evaluation procedure",["Wimmer & Dominick, 2006, p166"]],["quantification serves to increase objectivity and reliability as it requires the development of simplified and standardised procedures for the evaluation and analysis of data",["Wimmer & Dominick, 2006, p167"]]],"rt":[["quantitative content analysis",[]],["describe the types of sources and trends in source attribution in both broadcast news and newspaper content",[]],["assess the diversity of sources appearing in newspaper content",[]],["support studies of media-source relations and journalists' sourcing strategies",[]],["measure the influence of sources upon media audiences",[]]],"sb":[["interpretive techniques of content analysis",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["believability",[]],["accuracy",[]]]},{"de":[["where journalists depart from the routine practices of news gathering and turn to the public for eye--witness reports, pictures and videos",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["allowing political decisions to be taken that would otherwise cause greater controversy",["Mythen & Walklate, 2006"]]]},{"de":[["leading to more uniform, cognitive, affective and behavioural effects",["Ball--Rokeach & Defleur, 1976;Hischburg, Dillman, & Ball--Rokeach, 1986"]]]},{"rt":[["specific support",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["magic bullet",[]],["hypodermic needle",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They are participants insofar as they are the subject of the story itself, or affected by the event in question, either individually or as part of an organisation they represent.",[]]],"sp":[["News sources",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It centres upon the idea that subjective elements employed by journalists to report a story influence how the audience may understand and interpret an event.",["Entman, 1993"]],["Through the use of language, rhetorical appeals, images, conextualisation and simple editorial decisions, a story will be presented to the public within a particular frame of reference",["Entman, 1993"]]],"ex":[["the US media and government adopted a 'war on terrorism' frame, which allowed politicians and journalists alike to place global news events, particularly within the realm of conflict, into an overall narrative.",["2003"]]]},{"sp":[["Trust",[]]]},{"sp":[["Trust",[]]]},{"de":[["source citations may act as a heuristic for news consumers when analysing the credibility or veracity of a news story",["Gibson, 1997"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["These may be experts qualified to comment on the news event or members of the general public.",[]]],"sp":[["News sources",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["content analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["to sound out views on policy",[]],["to promote or sabotage policy",[]],["to gain favour with reporters",[]],["to pursue a grudge against bureaucratic rivals",[]],["enhance the leaker's ego by providing an insider image",[]],["to blow the whistle on waste or dishonesty",[]]],"sy":[["leaked information",[]]],"rt":[["unofficial sources",[]]],"sb":[["with those that are favoured by the executive branch and those infuriating to it",[]]]},{"sp":[["Trust",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["mobilisation hypothesis",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["media malaise hypothesis",[]]]},{"de":[["Moralistic trust is based upon both elements of rationality and faith, we assume that people from different backgrounds still share the same underlying values, however, this can only be inferred, and as a consequence, expectations require varying degrees of faith.",["Uslaner (2000)"]]],"sp":[["Trust",[]]]},{"rt":[["unnamed or veiled attributions",[]]]},{"rt":[["indirect",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["direct sources",[]],["Indirect sources",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Trust",[]]]},{"de":[["These heuristics act as a powerful tool in decision-making and allow judgements to be made in the absence of systematic and elaborative processing",["Brock & Green, 2005","Chen, Duckworth, & Chaiken, 1999","Petty & Brinol, 2008","Petty & Cacioppo, 1986"]]],"ex":[["source citations may act as a heuristic for news consumers when analysing the credibility or veracity of a news story",["Gibson, 1997"]]]},{"de":[["highlighting scholarship and commentary that has explored the political construction of contemporary Islamist terrorism",[]]]},{"de":[["The type of research associated with this paradigm has, more commonly, used quantitative techniques to understand social phenomena and has relied on numerical measurements to prove or disprove hypotheses",["Gunter, 2000, p4"]]]},{"de":[["assert that a pure form of scientific objectivity should be replaced by a 'perspectival' view in which neither objectivity or subjectivity is allowed to prevail",["Guba, 1985;Clark, 1985, Lincoln 1985all cited in McKelvey, 2002, p7"]],["support the concept of a 'negotiated outcome' by the researcher",["McKelvey, 2002, p7"]]]},{"de":[["the news agenda arises from official sources that are representative of institutions that traditionally wield power in society: the government, the police, and spokespersons for large corporations. These sources act as the primary definers of a topic and establish the boundaries of public discourse.",[]],["the relationship between sources and the media is complex and multilayered, and that both have the capacity to define and shape the news.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["how journalists may influence audiences' interpretation of a story through the attribution of information to particular types of institutional sources.",[]]]},{"rt":[["diffuse support",[]]]},{"sp":[["Trust",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["trust is an integral element of a functioning society, and essential to maintain social cohesion.",[]]],"rt":[["confidence",[]]],"sb":[["strategic trust",["Uslaner (2000)"]],["moralistic trust",["Uslaner (2000)"]],["generalised trust",["Uslaner (2000)"]],["particularised trust",["Uslaner (2000)"]],["local trust",["Kieron O'Hara (2004)"]],["global trust",["Kieron O'Hara (2004)"]],["Trust in people we know, which he defines as strategic trust",[]],["trust in people we don't know and who are different from ourselves: moralistic trust.",[]],["generalised trust: the belief that people can be trusted",[]],["particularised trust: faith in your own kind.",[]],["local trust: trust in personal acquaintances",[]],["global trust: trust in institutions.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["veiled attributions to 'security sources' or 'officials'",[]],["references to security sources were categorised as veiled attributions.",[]]]},{"de":[["do not allow identification with a named individual",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hatred will be percieved by the target persons or taget groups as unjustified, and hate speech will be experienced as threatening.",[]],["The expression of hatred is universal, so much so that one does not have to understand the meaning of what is being said for a discourse to be qualified as 'hate speech'; 1 non-linguistic markers may be enough for him (or her) to realise he or she had better bundle up his or her belongings and vanish into thin air while he or she still can.",[]],["Hate speech is not, here, Catullus' Odi et amo, or a troubadour song descending from the heights of a quasi-mystical experience (the likeness is very strong), it is not psychologically grounded or 'individual', hate speech refers to a group, or an individual only as a member of that group.",[]],["Hate speech addresses fear.",[]],["Hate is the opposite of love. Philosophically, and particularly in the Middle Ages, Love means 'being' while hate corresponds to 'non-being.' Hate is evil, love is good (this is a very generalised statement which may sometimes prove wrong but is true on the whole). Since evil is nothing, hate speech is a vehicle for nothing.",[]],["Since evil is nothing, hate speech is a vehicle for nothing.",[]],["hate speech refers to a group, or an individual only as a member of that group.",[]],["Hate speech is often not grounded in any real circumstances, but even when it is, it is unethical and should not be perpetrated.",[]],["The expression of hatred is universal, so much so that one does not have to understand the meaning of what is being said for a discourse to be qualified as 'hate speech'",[]],["it is not psychologically grounded or 'individual', hate speech refers to a group, or an individual only as a member of that group.",[]]],"sy":[["hatespeech",[]]],"rt":[["majority vs minority relationship",[]],["insult",[]]],"ex":[["Hitler and Gœbbels's anti-Jewish addresses",[]],["communist ideological discourse which preceded the physical elimination of their then ideological opponents (and with them, many who were in fact not)",[]],["Tito's speech from the balcony of the University of Ljubljana",[]],["the speeches that spawned the latest Balkan wars",[]],["the memorandum of the members of Serbian Academy",[]],["Milošević's infamous 'Ne čujem dobro!' -'I cannot hear you!'",[]],["his address at Ušće",[]]]},{"de":[["A variety of paradoxical hate speech is also an 'insult' which produces an ambiguous impact (but which all the heroes of The Song of Roland generously give away to their enemy)",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["sentiment analysis",["Mohammad et al. (2016)"]],["stance classification in the context of sentiment analysis",["Mohammad et al. (2016)"]],["textual entailment",["Dagan et al., 2006"]]],"sp":[["textual entailment",["Dagan et al., 2006"]]]},{"de":[["the case where even if the difference between probabilities of receiving advantageous judgment given different values of sensitive features, some extent of the difference can be explained based on the values of non-sensitive features.",["23"]]]},{"rt":[["indirect discrimination",[]]]},{"sp":[["Prejudice",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["when determining credit scoring, the feature of race is not used. However, if people of a specific race live in a specific area and address is used as a feature for training a prediction model, the trained model might make unfair determinations even though the race feature is not explicitly used.",[]],["Such resultant determinations are called indirect discrimination [17] or a red-lining effect [3] as described in section 2.1.",["17","3"]]],"sy":[["red-lining effect",["3"]]],"rt":[["direct discrimination",[]]]},{"sp":[["Prejudice",[]]]},{"de":[["This dependence doesn't cause a sensitive information to influence the final determination, but it would be exploited for training learners; thus, this might violate some regulations or laws.",[]]],"sp":[["Prejudice",[]]]},{"sb":[["direct prejudice",[]],["indirect prejudice",[]],["latent prejudice",[]]]},{"de":[["Because this technique is implemented as a regularizer, which we call a prejudice remover, it can be applied to wide variety of prediction algorithms with probabilistic discriminative models.",[]]]},{"de":[["when determining credit scoring, the feature of race is not used. However, if people of a specific race live in a specific area and address is used as a feature for training a prediction model, the trained model might make unfair determinations even though the race feature is not explicitly used.",[]]],"sy":[["indirect discrimination",["17"]]]},{},{"rt":[["indirect prejudice",[]]]},{"de":[["methods of data exploitation that do not damage people's lives, such as fairness/discrimination-aware learning, privacypreserving data mining, or adversarial learning, together comprise the notion of socially responsible mining",[]]]},{"de":[["Given a rule whose consequent exhibited determination is disadvantageous to individuals, it would be unfair if the confidence of the rule substantially increased by adding a condition associated with a sensitive feature to the antecedent part of the rule. The α-protection constrains the rule so that the ratio of this increase is at most α.",["17"]]]},{"de":[["the word acousme ˆtre, coined by Chion and derived from the combination of the words acousmatic and e ˆtre (\"to be\" in French), has entered Anglo-American film theory terminology directly, without translation.",["22"]]],"rt":[["acousmatic",[]],["e ˆtre",[]],["disembodied voice",[]]],"sb":[["complete acousme ˆtre",["23"]]]},{"de":[["different from musical counterpoint",[]]],"rt":[["musical counterpoint",[]]]},{"de":[["features a narrator-usually in the form of an authoritative male voice-over-headshots of experts talking, interviews with people on the street, and stock footage and images that illustrate and reinforce the narrator's point.",[]]],"sb":[["Expository mode",[]]]},{"de":[["Classic documentary form claims that the film the audience is watching is objective and that it presents only the truth.",[]],["These conventions in documentary arise from the need to convince viewers of the authenticity of what they are being told.",[]]],"sy":[["Classic documentary form",[]]],"rt":[["participatory mode",[]]],"sp":[["Classic documentary form",[]]]},{"de":[["a documentary mode put forward by Bill Nichols",[]]],"rt":[["expository mode",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["expository",[]]]},{"ex":[["text phrases in a news article that enable a news consumer to understand what the article is reporting on",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["5W",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["a novel format for communication and expressing ideas on the web",[]],["evolving from a simple form of entertainment to a sophisticated medium of communication that reflects societal sentiments and trends",["4","5","36"]],["IMs have emerged in the digital age as a novel format for expressing ideas on the web, evolving from a simple form of entertainment to a sophisticated medium of communication that reflects societal sentiments and trends",["4","5","36","4,5,36"]]],"sy":[["IM",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is multidimensional and is composed of a set of interdependent behavioral, emotional, and cognitive actions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is based on neural and other biological processes that are often not consciously recognized. Motivation endows engagement with its strength, intensity, and persistence.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this case reporting verbs tend to be employed (e.g. say, report, state, declare, announce, believe or think).",[]],["Acknowledgements in isolation facilitate a fac ¸ade of impartial citation.",[]]],"sp":[["ATTRIBUTION",[]]],"ex":[["say, report, state, declare, announce, believe or think",[]]]},{"rt":[["reporting",[]]],"sp":[["ATTRIBUTION",[]]]},{"de":[["affect in Appraisal includes descriptions of others' emotional states",[]]],"rt":[["judgement",[]],["appreciation",[]]],"sb":[["INCLINATION",[]],["HAPPINESS",[]],["SECURITY",[]],["SATISFACTION",[]]],"sp":[["ATTITUDE",[]]]},{"de":[["The theory describes a typology of words that not only covers emotions and opinions but also the manner in which authors engage with their audience and other authors, and how authors modify the strength of opinions expressed.",[]],["The values represent the reliability of agreement over all types of annotations, Attitude only, Engagement only, and Graduation only.",[]],["linguistic theory of Appraisal",[]],["the Cognitive Psychology theory of Appraisal (Scherer et al. 2001), which deals with how emotions are affected by assessment of events",[]],["It consists of three subsystems that operate interactively: ATTITUDE is concerned with one's personal feelings (emotional reactions, judgements of people and appreciations of objects); ENGAGEMENT considers the positioning of oneself with respect to the opinions of others (heterogloss) and with respect to one's own opinions (monogloss); while GRADUATION addresses how language functions to amplify or diminish the attitude and engagement conveyed by a text.",[]]],"rt":[["ATTITUDE",[]],["ENGAGEMENT",[]],["GRADUATION",[]],["Systemic Functional Linguistics",[]]],"sb":[["Attitude",[]],["Engagement",[]],["Graduation",[]],["PROPRIETY",[]],["SATISFACTION",[]],["TENACITY",[]],["emotion",[]]]},{"de":[["Appreciations are classified as either REACTIONs, assessments of COMPOSITION, or VALUATION of the thing in question.",[]]],"sb":[["REACTION",[]],["COMPOSITION",[]],["VALUATION",[]]],"sp":[["ATTITUDE",[]]]},{"de":[["The subsystem of ATTITUDE is a framework for three areas of personal feeling: emotion, ethics and aesthetics.",[]],["All types of attitude can also be analysed according to their Polarity, be it positive or negative.",[]],["Instances of ATTITUDE tend to be easier to identify than those of ENGAGEMENT or GRADUATION",[]],["The basis of such heuristics would be the positivity or negativity of instances of ATTITUDE.",[]]],"rt":[["Affect",[]],["Judgement",[]],["Appreciation",[]]],"sb":[["emotion",[]],["ethics",[]],["aesthetics",[]],["SATISFACTION",[]],["PROPRIETY",[]],["Affect",[]],["Judgement",[]],["Appreciation",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal",[]]]},{"rt":[["ACKNOWLEDGEMENT",[]],["DISTANCE",[]],["reporting",[]]],"sb":[["ACKNOWLEDGEMENT",[]],["DISTANCE",[]],["ACKNOWLEDGEMENTs",[]],["DISTANCEs",[]]],"sp":[["ENGAGEMENT",[]]]},{"rt":[["Systemic Functional Linguistic theory of Appraisal",[]]]},{"de":[["assessment of composition is concerned with BALANCE (e.g. unified, shapely, consistent versus discordant, flawed, uneven) or COMPLEXITY (e.g. simple, precise versus simplistic, wooly).",[]]],"sb":[["BALANCE",[]],["COMPLEXITY",[]]],"sp":[["Appreciation",[]]]},{"sb":[["AFFIRM",[]],["CONCEDE",[]]]},{"sb":[["AFFIRM",[]],["CONCEDE",[]]],"sp":[["PROCLAIMs",[]]]},{"sp":[["DISCLAIM",[]]],"ex":[["Even though we are getting divorced, Bruce and I are still best friends",[]]]},{"sp":[["DISCLAIM",[]]],"ex":[["no, not, nothing, never",[]]]},{"sb":[["DISCLAIM",[]],["PROCLAIMs",[]]],"sp":[["Engagement",[]]]},{"sp":[["Engagement",[]]]},{"sb":[["DENY",[]],["COUNTERing",[]]],"sp":[["Dialogic contraction",[]]]},{"sp":[["PROCLAIMs",[]]]},{"de":[["Through ENGAGEMENT, Appraisal addresses the linguistic phenomena by which authors construe their point of view and the resources used to adopt stances towards other authors' perspectives.",[]],["the annotators have difficulty in agreeing on the presence of an Engagement annotation, but if they do so then they are able to assign the engagement type fairly reliably.",[]],["The effects implied by different types of ENGAGEMENT are more complex, however. For example, intuitively one might presume instance of DENY would nullify any associated polarity, whereas ENDORSE would perform intensification.",[]]],"rt":[["monogloss",[]],["heterogloss",[]]],"sb":[["heterogloss",[]],["monogloss",[]],["monoglossic",[]],["heteroglossic",[]],["Dialogic expansion",[]],["ATTRIBUTION",[]],["CONCEDE",[]],["PRONOUNCE",[]],["Dialogic contraction",[]],["PROXIMITY (SPACE) or PROXIMITY (TIME)",[]],["the CONCEDE type of engagement",[]],["the PRONOUNCE type of engagement",[]],["instances of MASS",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal",[]]],"ex":[["DENY",[]],["ENDORSE",[]],["one judge selected words that modified the distance expressed by a locution (e.g. near, far). In contrast the other annotator chose expressions of concepts related to proximity (e.g. homegrown, local).",[]],["the judges both selected expressions that indicate authors' conviction in a proposition (e.g. in fact or it has to be said). Judge d, though, saw pronouncement as being invoked whenever authors made an assertion (e.g. this is or there will be), while the selections of pronouncement made by j carried a strong degree of emphasis (e.g. certainly).",[]],["d selected only strong expressions of Mass (such as massive or scant), whereas j also selected weaker instances such as largely or slightly.",[]]]},{"sb":[["NORMALITY",[]],["CAPACITY",[]],["TENACITY",[]]],"sp":[["Judgement",[]]]},{"de":[["(low, median, high or maximum)",[]]],"sb":[["INTENSIFICATION",[]],["QUANTIFICATION",[]]],"sp":[["GRADUATION",[]]]},{"de":[["Graduation in attitude enables authors to convey greater or lesser degrees of positivity or negativity, while in engagement graduation scales authors' conviction in their propositions.",[]],["Instances of ATTITUDE tend to be easier to identify than those of ENGAGEMENT or GRADUATION, which are similarly difficult.",[]],["Heuristics describing the effects of GRADUATION are fairly straightforward to derive, with up-scaling items intensifying the polarity and down-scaling items diminishing the polarity.",[]]],"sb":[["FOCUS",[]],["Force",[]],["QUANTIFICATION",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal",[]]]},{"sp":[["Affect",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["monogloss",[]]],"sp":[["Engagement",[]]]},{"sp":[["Engagement",[]]]},{"sp":[["Affect",[]]]},{"rt":[["intensification",[]]]},{"rt":[["INTENSIFICATION",[]]]},{"rt":[["INFUSING",[]]],"sp":[["Force",[]]],"ex":[["slightly foolish, very foolish",[]],["slightly hindered us, greatly hindered us",[]],["it's just possible, it's very possible",[]]]},{"sb":[["ESTEEM",[]],["SANCTION",[]]],"sp":[["ATTITUDE",[]]]},{"rt":[["heterogloss",[]]],"sp":[["Engagement",[]]]},{"sp":[["Engagement",[]]]},{"sp":[["ESTEEM",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Typically in the sentiment analysis literature, polarity refers to the positivity or negativity of text (which Whitelaw et al. called Orientation).",[]]],"sy":[["Orientation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Dialogic contraction",[]]]},{"sb":[["CONCURs",[]],["PRONOUNCE",[]],["ENDORSE",[]]],"sp":[["Dialogic contraction",[]]]},{"de":[["the judges both selected expressions that indicate authors' conviction in a proposition (e.g. in fact or it has to be said).",[]],["Judge d, though, saw pronouncement as being invoked whenever authors made an assertion (e.g. this is or there will be), while the selections of pronouncement made by j carried a strong degree of emphasis (e.g. certainly).",[]]],"sp":[["PROCLAIMs",[]],["Engagement",[]]],"ex":[["in fact",[]],["it has to be said",[]],["this is",[]],["there will be",[]],["certainly",[]]]},{"sp":[["SANCTION",[]],["Appraisal",[]]]},{"de":[["these three classes are very closely related in the Appraisal taxonomy",[]]],"rt":[["IMPACT",[]],["VALUATION",[]]],"sp":[["REACTION",[]]]},{"rt":[["PROXIMITY",[]],["DISTRIBUTION",[]]],"sp":[["Force",[]],["Graduation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Reactions are with respect to the thing's IMPACT (e.g. engaging, exciting, lively versus tedious, ascetic, dull) or QUALITY (e.g. good, lovely, welcome versus nasty, plain, off-putting)",[]]],"sb":[["IMPACT",[]],["QUALITY",[]]],"sp":[["Appreciation",[]]]},{"sb":[["VERACITY",[]],["PROPRIETY",[]]],"sp":[["Judgement",[]]]},{"de":[["Even though they are not closely related in the Attitude subsystem",[]]],"rt":[["PROPRIETY",[]]],"sp":[["Affect",[]],["Attitude",[]],["Appraisal",[]]]},{"de":[["VALUATION describes the worth of something (e.g. profound, creative, priceless versus shallow, everyday, pricey)",[]],["the instances of this class are often dependent on the field of discourse (affected by aspects such as its participants, process and circumstance) because the supposed value of a thing is variable from register to register.",[]]],"sp":[["Appreciation",[]]]},{"sp":[["SANCTION",[]]]},{"rt":[["simile",[]],["metaphor",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The speaker expresses the opposite of what he thinks or something wrong with respect to a context. External knowledge is fundamental to understand the irony (it is, in fact, implicit only).",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["FALSE ASSERTION",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Specific behaviours are labelled as antisocial on the basis of a social judgement regarding the severity of the acts committed and their divergence from social norms in a particular society.",[]]]},{"de":[["concur that aggression, intent to harm and recurrence are the main characteristics of bullying",["41","42"]],["aggression, intent to harm and recurrence are the main characteristics of bullying",["41","42"]]],"sb":[["physical bullying",["36","37"]],["verbal bullying",["36","37"]],["relational bullying",["36","37"]],["cyberbullying",["63"]]]},{"de":[["consequences of cyberbullying, which often have a long-lasting effect on the victims",["46"]],["including antisocial behaviour",["47"]]],"sp":[["bullying",[]]]},{"de":[["Gratitude and deference (lines 1-2) are ways for the speaker to incur a social cost, helping to balance out the burden the request places on the addressee.",[]]],"rt":[["positive politeness",[]]]},{"de":[["Being indirect (line 9) is another way to minimize social threat.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Requests therefore naturally give rise to the negative po-liteness strategies of Brown and Levinson (1987), which are attempts to mitigate these social threats.",[]]]},{"ex":[["being indirect (Would you mind)",[]],["apologizing for the imposition (I'm terribly sorry, but)",[]]]},{"de":[["a source of pragmatic enrichment, social meaning, and cultural variation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["premised upon a historical process of a Western imagination and practices where Africa served as the paradigm of difference",[]]]},{"de":[["The semantic consequence of the coloniality of gender is that 'colonized woman' is an empty category: no women are colonized; no colonized females are women",["Lugones, 2010: 745"]]]},{},{"de":[["Discourse regulates behaviour, stipulates how ideas about certain subjects are put into practice, and establishes rules that restrict alternative ways of talking about or conducting ourselves (Foucault, 1995).",["Foucault, 1995","1995"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A feminist decolonial reading is sensitive to the ways in which the bodies of the gendered, racialised and classed Other have been manufactured and continue to be produced and reproduced, sometimes in new, imaginative and insidious ways and sometimes in ways that are no different to its colonial production.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the process of identification is not only based on identifying as similar to a particular group, but is also largely built on dis-identifying with the Other, suggesting that identity is always constructed through \"splitting between that which one is, and that which is the other\"",["ibid: 164"]]]},{},{"de":[["It is through repeating certain gendered and racialised acts, or through occupying some spaces and not others, that we become gendered, as well as raced and classed.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["socially constructed taboos (such as taboos around homosexuality or transsexual bodies) function as regulatory practices",[]],["the prohibitions that produce identity along the culturally intelligible grids of an idealised and compulsory heterosexuality",["Butler (2008)"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["identity",[]]]},{"de":[["Whiteness must, therefore, be reproduced through intimate proximity to white bodies.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the researcher operates between multiple worlds while engaging in research, which includes the cultural world of the study participants as well as the world of one's own perspective",["Denzin, 2009"]],["a researcher's cultural and experiential background will contain biases, values, and ideologies",["Chenail, 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["It is a powerful form of threat construction, first of all. It also attributes guilt to the victims-to-be for the crimes that they are said to be planning. Finally, it destroys an audience's perception that it has alternative courses of action, since a group convinced that it faces a mortal or existential threat can see no alternative other than to fend off that threat by any means available.",[]]],"rt":[["threat construction",[]],["self-defence",[]]],"sp":[["Threat Construction",[]]],"ex":[["Arthur Seyss-Inquart accused Jews of planning to annihilate the German people-a baseless claim that in fact mirrored what the Nazis planned and would attempt to do to the Jews.",[]],["Hutu leaders before that genocide similarly warned that the Tutsi were planning to annihilate the Hutu.",[]],["the claim that Coptic Christians in Egypt were amassing weapons with which to attack the Muslim majority in that country.",["81"]],["In the speech with which we opened this article, Arthur Seyss-Inquart accused Jews of planning to annihilate the German people-a baseless claim that in fact mirrored what the Nazis planned and would attempt to do to the Jews.",[]]]},{"sb":[["the speaker",[]],["the audience",[]],["the socio-historical environment",[]],["the means of dissemination",[]]]},{"de":[["expectations for the positive future rooted in underlying ideologies: the assuredly improved future of a racially pure nation, a theologically-correct caliphate, a 'final solution' to a correctly diagnosed security threat, and so forth",[]]],"rt":[["dangerous speech",[]]]},{"de":[["can lead perpetrators to become convinced that they \"know\" that their actions serve certain ends, or produce certain benefits, often simply because their actions have been defined as aiming at those ends",[]],["speech which may increase the risk of atrocities",[]],["The force of a speech act, and specifically its capacity to encourage approval of violence in the minds of listeners, is the product of both the context and content of what is said",[]]],"rt":[["dangerous ideology",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["destruction of alternatives",[]]]},{"de":[["Dehumanization can consciously defeat normative concerns about violence by allow perpetrators to believe that the targets of violence lack moral protections.",[]],["Where dehumanization makes atrocities seem acceptable",["77"]],["Dehumanising discourses and conceptions have been identified in almost all major mass atrocities, prominently including those of Nazi Germany, Stalinist Russia, Rwanda, Yugoslavia, Cambodia, Indonesia, and the Japanese occupation of China.",["66"]]],"sb":[["biologically subhuman",["63"]],["mechanically inhuman",["64"]],["supernaturally alien",["65"]]],"ex":[["biologically subhuman (\"cockroaches\", \"microbes\", \"parasites\", \"yellow ants\")",["63"]],["mechanically inhuman (\"logs\", \"packages\", \"enemy morale\")",["64"]],["supernaturally alien (\"devils\", \"Satan\", \"demons\")",["65"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a rhetoric of absolute certainty in the future behaviour of others, perhaps in decades hence, key to the reasoning.",["82"]],["Violence is rarely justified without any reference to its consequences",["104"]],["The future goods can thus be fairly basic-ensuring that no out-group dare threaten the in-group again, promising that military victory in a campaign will be achieved through extreme violence, or anticipating economic or scientific benefits from atrocities.",[]]],"rt":[["threat-construction",[]]],"ex":[["Communism is a tremendous danger for the future. We must get away from the standpoint of soldierly comradeship. The Communist is from first to last no comrade. It is a war of extermination. If we do not regard it as such, we may defeat the enemy, but in thirty years' time we will again be confronted by the Communist enemy.",["105"]],["…reaching far beyond other scientific discussion and research in the field of psychiatry, at last the most practical and immediate questions affecting the health of the nation can be most comprehensively resolved because thanks to the [euthanasia] programme a rapid anatomical and histological clarification can be achieved.",["106"]],["promises that a positive transformation of society will be brought about through a temporary violent transition, or that national unity and prosperity for a long-mistreated people can be obtained.",[]],["Soviet ideology and the justification of massive violence and cruelty in the name of a promised future society of abundance convinced millions in the Stalinist era.",[]],["the people have never before looked so far ahead, and with such a sense of self-esteem, and with such fine motives, and for such vital and clear-headed reasons.",["108"]],["ensuring that no out-group dare threaten the in-group again",[]],["promising that military victory in a campaign will be achieved through extreme violence",[]],["anticipating economic or scientific benefits from atrocities",[]]]},{"de":[["Such claims of guilt are often at the core of anti-civilian ideologies, and elites go to extensive efforts to cement them in the minds of killers.",[]]],"rt":[["threat construction",[]]]},{"de":[["They might, for example, be ways for community or political leaders to legitimate themselves in the minds of domestic constituencies and audiences, or they might be used to solicit financial or symbolic support from external actors, like great power patrons or affiliated diasporas.",[]],["Ideological claims can be used in this way, regardless of whether those espousing them truly believe them.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Collectively, these provide a framework for thinking about the major recurring ways in which violence is made to look permissible, desirable and even necessary before, during, and after mass atrocities, and thus describe the content of dangerous speech that makes it likely to catalyze violence.",[]]],"sb":[["Dehumanization",[]],["Guilt Attribution",[]],["Threat Construction",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Some of the most relevant points are longstanding grievances between the relevant groups, a weak or dysfunctional justice system, competition among groups for scarce basic resources, and land disputes.",[]]]},{"de":[["serves to 'deagentify' the violence: making it appear to be the product of irresistible inhuman forces rather than conscious choices by policymakers and perpetrators, and thereby promoting moral disengagement from their acts.",[]],["It its most grandiose form, violence might be presented as a historical necessity, as an ineradicable feature of 'racial struggle', 'class conflict', 'human progress', 'the nature of war' and so forth.",[]]],"ex":[["violence might be presented as a historical necessity, as an ineradicable feature of 'racial struggle', 'class conflict', 'human progress', 'the nature of war' and so forth.",[]],["alternatives might be destroyed by normatively disparaging them and associating them with reprehensible moral qualities",[]],["they might be presented as inefficacious or impractical, often as a matter of assertion or taken-for-granted self-evidence",[]]],"rt":[["moral disengagement",[]]]},{"de":[["Tales of future wrongdoing (threat construction) can be even more powerful than tales of past crimes (guilt attribution), since the future is frightening.",["77"]],["This justification is so powerful since it is the collective analogue of the only iron-clad defence to homicide in myriad systems of penal law and cultural norms: self-defence.",[]],["notions of threat are frequently a product of ideological construction.",["77"]]],"rt":[["guilt attribution",[]],["self-defence",[]],["accusation in a mirror",[]]],"sb":[["accusation in a mirror",["79"]]]},{"de":[["Virtuetalk capitalizes on these psychological tendencies, directing and regulating individuals' moral emotions, by reconstructing violence as admirable.",[]],["Violence is linked through verbal expressions, symbolism and imagery to a range of praiseworthy qualities: duty, honour, courage, toughness, manliness, and so forth.",[]],["Not to participate in violence is to expose oneself to internal shame or social ridicule as an improper or inadequate member of the in-group, or (often) not a proper or adequate man-since virtuetalk tends to be heavily gendered, targeting the insecurities prominent amongst the young men who might join the ranks of perpetrators.",["96"]],["Sometimes, though, virtuetalk may involve an explicit harshening of the dominant ideological discourse of virtue-a 'revalencing' of qualities like mercilessness, brutality, and ruthlessness as positive traits.",[]],["Virtuetalk capitalizes on these psychological tendencies, directing and regulating individuals' moral emotions, by reconstructing violence as admirable. Violence is linked through verbal expressions, symbolism and imagery to a range of praiseworthy qualities: duty, honour, courage, toughness, manliness, and so forth. Not to participate in violence is to expose oneself to internal shame or social ridicule as an improper or inadequate member of the in-group, or (often) not a proper or adequate man-since virtuetalk tends to be heavily gendered, targeting the insecurities prominent amongst the young men who might join the ranks of perpetrators.",["96"]]],"ex":[["every man should be trained to be a fanatical hater",["97"]],["he behaves correctly who, by setting aside all possible impulses of personal feeling, proceeds ruthlessly and mercilessly",["98"]],["stop having mercy on the Batutsi",["99"]],["since their goal is to exterminate and enslave us, we must not feel any mercy to them",["100"]],["seething hatred and blood rancour against national and class enemies",["101"]],["the concepts of conscience, honour, humaneness we dismissed as idealistic prejudices, 'intellectual' or 'bourgeois' and, hence, perverse.",["102"]]]},{"de":[["people attain a deeper understanding of the conventions and merits of professionally produced material if they have direct experience of content production",[]],["the internet par excellence is a medium which offers hitherto unimagined opportunities for ordinary people to create online content.",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["media literacy is not reducible to a feature or skill of the user, but is better understood as a co-production of the interactive engagement between technology and user.",[]],["The promise of media literacy, surely, is that it can form part of a strategy to reposition the media user -from passive to active, from recipient to participant, from consumer to citizen.",[]],["Media literacy therefore concerns the relationship among textuality, competence and power.",[]],["This four-component model has the advantage of applying equally well to print, broadcasting and the internet.",[]]],"rt":[["internet literacy",[]],["print literacy",[]],["textuality",[]],["competence",[]],["power",[]]],"sb":[["Access",[]],["Analysis",[]],["Evaluation",[]],["Content creation",[]]]},{"de":[["amplifying posts that receive positive reactions across social divides may help social media platforms optimize for consensus and make their forums a less attractive place for trolls to sow discord.",[]]],"ex":[["amplify posts that receive positive reactions from across the political spectrum",[]]]},{"de":[["This index produces a number between -1 and 1, where -1 indicates that there are only intra-partisan interactions, and 1 that there are only inter-partisan interactions",["62"]]],"rt":[["inter-partisan interactions",[]],["intra-partisan interactions",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["intra-partisan interactions",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["balancing approach",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Public harm comprises threats to democratic political and policymaking processes as well as public goods such as the protection of EU citizens' health, the environment or security.",["108"]],["Disinformation does not include reporting errors, satire and parody, or clearly identified partisan news and commentary.",["108"]],["may cause public harm. Public harm comprises threats to democratic political and policymaking processes as well as public goods such as the protection of EU citizens' health, the environment or security. Disinformation does not include reporting errors, satire and parody, or clearly identified partisan news and commentary.",["67"]],["Public harm comprises threats to democratic political and policymaking processes as well as public goods such as the protection of EU citizens' health, the environment or security. Disinformation does not include reporting errors, satire and parody, or clearly identified partisan news and commentary.",["104"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The glue that keeps these notions together is the lack of truthfulness of the speaker.",[]],["A piece of fake news is intended to have a broad, increasing circulation, deceive a targeted audience, and to exploit prejudice and biases of the audience (e.g. biases about some social issues such as the impact of immigration) for reaching lucrative or political goals (e.g. influencing an election).",["105"]]],"rt":[["editorial errors gone viral",[]],["journalistic errors gone viral",[]],["false news",[]]],"sb":[["lies (i.e. false statements made with the intention of deceiving)",[]],["true but (intentionally) misleading statements",[]],["statements made without any concern for the truth",[]]],"sp":[["news",["103"]]],"ex":[["sea-taxis",[]]]},{"de":[["freedom of expression constitutes \"one of the essential foundations\" for the existence and implementation of any other right of the Convention and \"the development of every man\"",[]],["freedom of expression is not limited to the liberty of holding, sharing, receiving information and ideas through speech acts",[]]],"sb":[["the freedom to produce, exhibit, and distribute artworks",[]],["the liberty of realizing a public artistic performance",[]],["the access to relevant public information",[]],["the protection against self-incrimination",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["An instance of a misleading statement is the use of hyper-partisan interpretations of facts or the malicious selection of facts.",[]]],"ex":[["the use of hyper-partisan interpretations of facts",[]],["the malicious selection of facts",[]],["An instance of a misleading statement is the use of hyper-partisan interpretations of facts or the malicious selection of facts.",[]]]},{"de":[["the most common balancing method is an altogether different kind of three-pronged test which we might label \"the necessity test.\"",[]]],"sy":[["the necessity test",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The primary trend in Europe is to impose a procedure of 'notice and take-down' whereby the contentious content shall be removed by the host after publication in response to allegations of illegality.",[]]]},{"sy":[["genuine satire",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The journalist genuinely believes in the truth of what she says (i.e. the speaker is truthful, although the content is false), and her conclusion is supported by evidence.",[]]],"rt":[["journalistic errors gone viral",[]]]},{"de":[["the physical pandemic was quickly complemented by the so-called COVID-19 infodemic",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Verified accounts are usually owned by politicians, journalists or VIPs in general, as well as ministers, newspapers, newscasts, companies and so on: for those kind of users, the verification procedure guarantees the identity of their account and reduce the risk of malicious accounts tweeting in their name.",[]]]},{"sy":[["zaimstvovanie",[]]]},{"sp":[["poddelka",[]]]},{"sy":[["poddelka",[]]],"sb":[["borrowing",[]],["imitating",[]],["striking effects",[]],["interesting",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["copy",[]]],"sp":[["fake",[]]]},{"de":[["transforms the fiction (the fake) into the new function (the truth)",[]]],"sy":[["copy",[]],["forgery",[]],["simulacrum",[]],["fiction",[]],["illusion",[]],["allusion",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Disneyland exhibits hyperreality to its most primordial degree; it is the step that will activate -just to give two examples -the sinister dystopias of a reality simulated by machines and their dictatorship (Matrix), and a further variant of the myth of the cave, the world as a reality show (The Truman Show).",[]],["In postmodern hyperreality the fake is realised as an operational dimension, a concrete dimension of the everyday.",[]]],"rt":[["the fake",[]]]},{"sy":[["podrazhatel'nost",[]]]},{"sp":[["poddelka",[]]]},{"sy":[["zanimatel'nost",[]]]},{"sp":[["poddelka",[]]]},{"sy":[["semantic eclecticism",["Jencks [2011]: 56"]]],"rt":[["the hyperreal",[]]]},{"sy":[["appearance",[]]],"sp":[["fake",[]]]},{"de":[["to the time of production follows the time of simulation, as to the logic of sense follows the logic of fascination (or seduction).",[]]]},{"sy":[["porazitel'nost",[]]]},{"sp":[["poddelka",[]]]},{"de":[["la configuración del periodismo como una construcción masculina, donde hay una cultura dominante que está definida por valores masculinos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["La afirmación sobre la que se sustenta dicha hipótesis consiste en que la progresiva incorporación de mujeres a la profesión transformará profundamente la estructura socio-demográfica del colectivo. Esta transformación, continúa el razonamiento, tendrá consecuencias en las prácticas profesionales y en los contenidos de los medios de comunicación",[]],["identificar este proceso: prioridad a las noticias blandas, contextualizar las noticias y observarlas como procesos, no como hechos aislados; destacar las causas y las consecuencias de los acontecimientos; subjetividad e implicación; trabajo en equipo; implicar la vida personal en el periodismo en lugar de prolongar la vida laboral en los espacios de vida privada; y experimentar con nuevas formas y contenidos traspasando las fronteras de los géneros tradicionales",[]]],"sy":[["feminización del colectivo profesional",[]]]},{"de":[["se caracterizaría por un mayor espacio dedicado a los reportajes sobre la vida cotidiana, en el uso de un tono menos tolerante hacia las autoridades, y en un uso más común del factor psicológico para la interpretación de la realidad (especialmente en el periodismo político)",[]]]},{"de":[["cuando una mujer decide dedicarse al periodismo ha de pasar por una segunda socialización con el fin de interiorizar los valores masculinos dominantes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["To measure EU issue entrepreneurship we combine a party's EU salience score with their distance to the mean party position on the EU dimension. Specifically, for each party we multiply its EU salience score with the distance between its party position and the average position of all parties in the system on the EU issue (EU issue distance).",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such a strategy is inherently risky since the mobilization of such issues may destabilize parties internally, put off certain voters and jeopardize future coalition negations.",[]],["However, issue entrepreneurship also carries the potential of reshaping political competition and thus reaping electoral success.",[]],["issue entrepreneurs mobilize new issues in order to attract new voters, rather than rallying constituents who already support the party.",[]]],"rt":[["issue evolution",[]],["issue salience",[]],["issue position",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["People are more likely to credit the counterspeech of those with whom they affiliate, since they tend to \"evaluate ingroup members as more trustworthy, honest, loyal, cooperative, and valuable to the group than outgroup members\" (Kane, Argote, and Levine 2005).",["Kane, Argote, and Levine 2005"]],["People are more likely to credit the counterspeech of those with whom they affiliate, since they tend to \"evaluate ingroup members as more trustworthy, honest, loyal, cooperative, and valuable to the group than outgroup members\"",["Kane, Argote, and Levine 2005"]]],"sp":[["counterspeech",[]]],"ex":[["Hey I'm Christian and I'm gay and this guy is so wrong. Stop the justification and start the accepting. I know who my heart and soul belong to and that's with God: creator of heaven and earth. We all live in his plane of consciousness so it's time we started accepting one another. That's all",[]]]},{"de":[["Counterspeech is considered as the preferred remedy to hate speech as it does not violate the normative of free speech.",[]],["While government or organizations rarely take part in counterspeech, a large proportion of the counterspeech is actually generated by the online users.",[]]],"rt":[["Inaction",[]],["Deletion/Suspension",[]],["Education",[]]]},{"de":[["Counterspeech is seen as an effective way of tackling the online hate without any harm to the freedom of speech.",[]],["There are numerous strategies that could be used to counter the hateful messages in the online social media.",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["Positive tone",[]],["Hostile language",[]],["Presenting facts to correct misstatements or misperceptions",[]],["Pointing out hypocrisy or contradictions",[]],["Warning of offline or online consequences",[]],["Affiliation",[]],["Denouncing hateful or dangerous speech",[]],["Humor and sarcasm",[]]]},{"de":[["Removal of the hateful content is sometimes accompanied by the removal or suspension of the user account as well.",[]]],"rt":[["Counter-speech",[]],["Inaction",[]],["Education",[]]]},{"de":[["This strategy can help the counterspeakers in reducing the impact of the hate message.",[]]],"sp":[["counterspeech",[]]],"ex":[["please take this down YouTube. this is hate speech.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Counter-speech",[]],["Inaction",[]],["Deletion/Suspension",[]]]},{"de":[["one end of the spectrum ('Hostile') can cause the original speaker to delete his post/account and thus is unlikely to de-escalate the conversation",[]],["Such a response can persuade an original speaker to delete his message or even a whole account, but is unlikely to either de-escalate the conversation or persuade the original speaker to recant or apologize.",[]]],"sy":[["abusive",[]],["hostile",[]],["obscene",[]]],"sp":[["Tone",[]],["counterspeech",[]]],"ex":[["This is ridiculous!!!!!! I hate racist people!!!! Those police are a**holes!!!",[]]]},{"de":[["It can de-escalate conflicts and can be used to garner more attention toward the topic. Humor in online settings also eases hostility, offers support to other online speakers, and encourages social cohesion (Marone 2015).",["Marone 2015"]]],"ex":[["HAHA-HAHAHAHAHAH...oh you were serious. That's even funnier :)",[]]]},{"sp":[["counterspeech",[]]]},{"de":[["It sends a message that people do not care about the target community.",[]]],"rt":[["Counter-speech",[]],["Deletion/Suspension",[]],["Education",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In order to discredit the accusation, the individual may explain and rationalize their previous behavior, or if they are persuadable, resolve to avoid the dissonant behavior in the future",[]]],"sp":[["counterspeech",[]]],"ex":[["The 'US Pastor' can't accept gays because the Bible says not to be gay. But...he ignores:The thing about eating shrimp or pork, The thing about touching the skin of a dead pig (Football), The thing about mixing fabrics, The thing about torn clothes, The thing about tattoos, The thing about planting two crops in one field, The thing about working on the Holy Day (Saturday or Sunday depending)...for any and all of those sins one should burn for an eternity, yet is ignored. But when it comes to loving the wrong person (gays) this will not do! Christians only follow the parts of the bible that supports their bigotry. YOUR A HYPOCRITE.",[]]]},{"de":[["the other end of the spectrum ('Positive tone') could help in generating a positive attitude and thus de-escalate the conversation.",[]],["Increasing empathy with members of opposite groups counteracts incitement (Benesch 2014).",["Benesch 2014"]]],"sy":[["empathic",[]],["kind",[]],["polite",[]],["civil",[]]],"sp":[["Tone",[]],["counterspeech",[]]],"ex":[["I am a Christian, and I believe we're to love everyone!! No matter age, race, religion, sex, size, disorder...whatever!! I LOVE PEOPLE!! We are not going to go anywhere as a country if we don't put God first in our lives, and treat EVERYONE with respect",[]]]},{"sp":[["counterspeech",[]]],"ex":[["Actually homosexuality is natural. Nearly all known species of animal have their gay communities. Whether it be a lion or a whale, they have or had (if they are endangered) a gay community. Also marriage is an unnatural act. Although there are some species that do have longer relationships with a partner most known do not",[]]]},{"de":[["This can sometimes cause the original speaker of the hate speech to retract from his/her original opinion.",[]]],"sp":[["counterspeech",[]]],"ex":[["I'm not gay but nevertheless, whether You are beating up someone gay or straight, it is still an assault and by all means, this preacher should be arrested for sexual harassment and instigating!!!",[]]]},{"sp":[["Choice Blindness",[]]]},{"de":[["many participants do not notice when their stated preferences are manipulated",[]],["only 20-35% of participants detect the manipulation of their preferences",["Johansson, Hall and Chater, 2011"]],["Choice Blindness functions similarly to other cognitive biases of decision-making in this regard.",[]],["the observed Choice Blindness is a pervasive cognitive bias driven by a combination of weak or unstable preferences and inattention to specific choice characteristics.",[]],["The Choice Blindness paradigm is a novel experimental method which uses misdirection or sleight-of-hand to manipulate the relationship between intention and choice, by presenting decision-makers with outcomes they did not actually choose and eliciting a response",["Johansson, Hall and Sikström, 2008"]],["Choice Blindness functions similarly to other cognitive biases of decision-making",[]],["The Choice Blindness paradigm is a novel experimental method which uses misdirection or sleight-of-hand to manipulate the relationship between intention and choice, by presenting decision-makers with outcomes they did not actually choose and eliciting a response (Johansson, Hall and Sikström, 2008).",["Johansson, Hall and Sikström, 2008"]]],"rt":[["cognitive biases of decision-making",[]]],"sb":[["major confabulations",[]],["minor confabulations",[]],["descriptions of original choice",[]],["bunched explanations",[]],["spurious explanations",[]],["no explanation",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive bias",[]]],"ex":[["First demonstrated in a study examining preferences for female faces",[]],["naturalistic consumer choices",[]],["attitude formation and moral sentiment",[]],["polling and political preferences",[]],["symptomatology and psychiatric self-diagnoses",[]],["other sensory modalities",[]],["the original choice was manipulated, but not detected by the participant",[]],["naturalistic consumer choices (Hall et al. 2010), attitude formation and moral sentiment (Hall, Johansson and Strandberg 2012), polling and political preferences (Hall et al. 2013), symptomatology and psychiatric self-diagnoses (Merckelbach, Jelicic and Pieters 2010), and to other sensory modalities (Steenfeldt-Kristensen and Thornton, 2013)",["Hall et al. 2010","Hall, Johansson and Strandberg 2012","Hall et al. 2013","Merckelbach, Jelicic and Pieters 2010","Steenfeldt-Kristensen and Thornton, 2013"]]]},{"sp":[["Choice Blindness",[]]]},{"sp":[["Choice Blindness",[]]],"ex":[["expressing a preference for investing in Asian markets when their original choice had been explicitly European or US-only",[]]]},{"sp":[["Choice Blindness",[]]],"ex":[["expressing a preference for risky options when their original choice was explicitly low-risk",[]]]},{"sp":[["Choice Blindness",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["radical acts",[]]],"rt":[["hegemonic acts",[]]]},{"de":[["The assumed originator or instigator of a course of action.",[]]],"sp":[["subject roles",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["discourses are necessarily defined ex negativo; that is by means of distinguishing them \"from what they are not\"",[]],["a discourse comes into existence as the result of the distinction drawn between itself and the \"general field of discursivity\"-the totality of other discourses",[]]],"rt":[["discursive materialities",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["sedimentation qua discursive materialization transfers a discourse specific horizon of intelligibility into a corresponding \"discursive materiality.\"",[]],["When a discourse becomes a socially taken-for-granted horizon of intelligibility, it is conceived to give objective meaning to and to motivate nonlinguistic objects such as artifacts, pragmatic practices and institutions",["(TORFING, 1999, p.35)"]]],"rt":[["discursive materiality",[]]],"sp":[["discursive sedimentation",[]]]},{"de":[["we can conceptualize this kind of system of reciprocal relations between discourse and discursive materiality in terms of a \"discursive regime\" (cf. GLYNOS & HOWARTH, 2007, pp.104ff.)",["GLYNOS & HOWARTH, 2007, pp.104ff."]]]},{},{"sb":[["contrariety",[]],["representation",[]],["difference",[]],["equivalence",[]],["relation of antagonism",[]],["relation of dissociation",[]],["relation of incommensurability",[]],["relation of representation",[]],["relation of difference",[]]]},{"de":[["There are two different types of discursive sedimentation.",[]]],"sb":[["forgetting",["GLYNOS & HOWARTH, 2007, p.116"]],["reactivation",[]],["discursive materialization",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["A partial decoupling of a discourse and its historical origins-that is hegemonic acts that installed and motivated its very presenceconceals the lacking objective necessity of a discourse and, at the same time, links it with the image of naturalness",["(LACLAU, 1990, p.35)"]]],"sp":[["discursive sedimentation",[]]]},{"rt":[["counter-hegemonic acts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Subjects designated a supportive role vis-à-vis the attainment and maintenance of the ethical values.",[]]],"sp":[["subject roles",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Institutions originate from hegemonic and counter-hegemonic acts, which either motivate the installment of particular institutions or overdetermine the meaningfulness of already prevailing institutions and redefine their appropriate functions and purposes.",[]],["Institutions constitute crucial sources of stabilization of discourses, not least of all because they are assigned the responsibility to oversee social subjects' compliance with the rules of self-appropriation connected with subject roles",["GLASZE, 2007, §38","STÄHELI, 2001, p.208","TORFING, 1999, p.153","(cf. GLASZE, 2007, §38;STÄHELI, 2001, p.208;TORFING, 1999, p.153)"]],["widely sedimented institutions possess the authority to oblige social subjects to conduct particular practices of articulation, which again stabilize particular discourses.",[]],["institutions validate discourses by retaining their function as the epistemic foundation for institutional operations.",[]],["institutions materialize discourses by giving them material effects.",[]]]},{"de":[["Interactions and processes that interlink the activities undertaken by social subjects and institutions.",[]]],"sp":[["activity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Due to their temporally persistent positions in such a chain of signifiers, moments become associated with distinctive meanings (i.e. signifieds) that continue from one practice of articulation to another.",[]]],"rt":[["element",[]]]},{"sy":[["empty signifiers",[]]],"ex":[["the concept of \"welfare state\" acts as a nodal point that makes it possible to symbolize the common identity of various \"political strategies, institutional forms and power networks ...\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Objects social subjects and institutions act upon and which they manipulate during their actions.",[]]],"sp":[["activity",[]]]},{"de":[["Subjects that endanger or obstruct the attainment of the ideal social order.",[]]],"sp":[["subject roles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the elements of a pluralist discourse are not subdued to elements of a chain of equivalence, within which they tend to lose their distinctive meanings.",[]],["Hence, elements belonging to a pluralist discourse are primarily connected by means of the relation of difference because they possess mutually distinctive meanings.",[]]],"ex":[["the Blairite political discourse is a case in point of a pluralist discourse.",[]]]},{"de":[["Elements belonging to a popular discourse are not exclusively but primarily connected by means of the relation of equivalence because they are mutually equivalent with regard to their opposition to the antagonistic other.",[]]],"ex":[["while the Thatcherite political discourse constitutes the archetype of the popular discourse",[]]]},{"sy":[["Essex School in Discourse Analysis",["PURVIS & HUNT, 1993, pp.473f."]]]},{},{"de":[["Champions and protectors of the paramount ethical ideals.",[]]],"sp":[["subject roles",[]]]},{"de":[["The individual or collective subject on behalf of whom social subjects conduct actions and interactions.",[]]],"sp":[["subject roles",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["relation of contrariety",[]]],"ex":[["just/unjust, friend/enemy, democratic/totalitarian",[]]]},{"de":[["constitutes the very condition of possibility of any spatially distinctive and temporally durable discourse.",[]]],"sb":[["relation of antagonism",["2007, p.106"]],["relation of dissociation",["1997, pp.45ff."]],["relation of incommensurability",["2013a, pp.60ff., 2015, Ch.6.2"]],["antagonism",[]],["dissociation",[]],["incommensurability",[]]]},{"sp":[["relation of contrariety",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, the relation of incommensurability is but one distinctive sub-type of a relation of contrariety, which separates two (or more) discursive elements (e.g. A & B) with regard to a third element (e.g. C) that symbolizes the common point of reference-i.e. the nodal point-against the background of which A and B can be conceived of as being mutually incommensurable.",[]]],"sp":[["relation of contrariety",[]]]},{"de":[["makes it possible to symbolize the logic of commonality that binds discursive elements into a discourse (DYRBERG, 1997, p.125).",[]]]},{"de":[["relational epistemology of meaning underlines that the identity of a discursive element depends on its semantic function in the context of its appearance.",["HALLIDAY, 1985, p.29"]]],"rt":[["essentialist epistemology of meaning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Resources that support social subjects and institutions to accomplish their actions.",[]]],"sp":[["activity",[]]]},{"de":[["second-order hermeneutics constitutes the first methodological premise of the PDA",[]],["Basically, secondorder hermeneutics implies that the research is focused on the supra-subjective -existing beyond social subjects' conscious conceptions of reality-and social structures recurring from one context to another (see Section 3.1).",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["signifier",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Strategies and means that social subjects and institutions utilize for the sake of achieving certain effects and outcomes.",[]]],"sp":[["activity",[]]]},{"de":[["subject roles are \"institutionally stabilized positions ... which are related to specific conditions of access, and which connect specific possibilities, taboos and expectations with language-use\"",["GLASZE (2007, §38)"]],["subject roles are associated with particular courses of both linguistic and non-linguistic actions",[]],["subject roles are defined by means of distinctive structural arrangements of discursive elements.",[]]],"sb":[["protagonists",[]],["opponents",[]],["helpers",[]],["destinators",[]],["receivers",[]]]},{"sy":[["archaeological",[]]]},{"sb":[["technologies of the other",[]]]},{"de":[["Amongst other things, technologies of the other restrict social subjects' enunciative and pragmatic possibilities by regulating access to subject roles, enforcing social subjects' adherence to discourse-specific conceptions of the world and assessing their compliance with model practices.",[]]]},{"de":[["while the analytical validity of empirical codes is determined by their correspondence with the observed empirical properties of objects, the analytical usefulness of theoretical codes depends both on their consistency with the a priori assumed phenomenal properties of the objects and on the possibility to relate them to concrete empirical phenomena.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["these explanations tend to contradict the judgements of epistemological authorities",["Levy, 2007"]]],"ex":[["one conspiracy theory claims that the government secretly created and released Zika",["Grimm, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["Individuals are distributed along a continuum in regard to the strength of their conspiracy thinking. All else equal, the higher a person is on that continuum, the more likely they will be to accept a specific conspiracy theory.",[]],["Conspiracy thinking is also associated with the rejection of scientific findings",["Marietta andBarker, 2018","Lewandowsky et al., 2013a"]],["the former is a general predisposition",["Uscinski et al., 2017"]]],"sy":[["conspiracist ideation",[]]],"rt":[["beliefs in specific conspiracy theories",["Uscinski et al., 2017"]]]},{"de":[["may also prevent online conspiracy theories from affecting people",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["inoculations can reduce beliefs related to later exposure to 9/11, and vaccine conspiracy theories for example",["Banas and Miller, 2013","Jolley and Douglas, 2017","Van Der Linden et al., 2017a"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["resistance",[]]],"sb":[["capitalization",[]],["refusal",[]],["oppositional agency",[]]]},{"de":[["Resistance here takes the form of refusing to be devalued. However this form of agency also has a dimension of reproduction as it draws on stereotypical images.",[]],["such agency is socially situated",[]],["capitalization as a form of agency has a dimension of resistance as well as a dimension of reproduction.",[]],["This type of reaction works not by resisting to occupy the position of the other per se, but by resisting the devaluation and attempting to capitalize locally on being in the position of the other, by accentuating those dimensions within the ambivalent gaze of the majority which can be ascribed value.",[]],["such strategies draw heavily on public stereotypes",["Sandberg, 2005"]],["Elements of othering discourses may be appropriated, because such elements can be given local value as part of a subcultural style.",[]],["the creation of capital is an active process involving agency",[]],["works not by resisting to occupy the position of the other per se, but by resisting the devaluation and attempting to capitalize locally on being in the position of the other, by accentuating those dimensions within the ambivalent gaze of the majority which can be ascribed value",[]],["This type of agency illustrates how othering discourses can, in a paradoxical way, be part of the symbolic raw material of agency. Elements of othering discourses may be appropriated, because such elements can be given local value as part of a subcultural style.",[]]],"rt":[["othering",[]]],"sp":[["agency",[]]],"ex":[["producing styles -offering them a way to capitalize on othering.",[]]]},{"de":[["Constructing oneself as a normal, ordinary person is therefore also a way of appealing for sympathy and understanding (Sandberg & Pedersen, 2006, p. 237).",["Sandberg & Pedersen, 2006"]]]},{"rt":[["disidentifiers",["1963, pp. 60 ff."]]]},{"rt":[["identity",[]]]},{"de":[["this dimension is about power, making the subordinate aware of who holds the power, and hence about the powerful producing the other as subordinate.",["Spivak, 1985, p. 254"]],["this dimension is about constructing the other as pathological and morally inferior.",["Spivak, 1985, pp. 254-5"]],["This dimension of othering implies that knowledge and technology is the property of the powerful empirical self, not the colonial other.",["Spivak, 1985, p. 256"]],["othering concerns the consequences of racism, sexism, class (or a combination hereof) in terms of symbolic degradation as well as the processes of identity formation related to this degradation.",["Wren, 2001, p. 144"]],["Othering at the same time produces difference and problematizes it, in the sense that the group which is othered is also in the process defined as 'morally and/or intellectually inferior'",["2000, p. 423"]],["an analytical starting point for understanding cultural processes of identity formation in everyday life",[]],["refusal of othering analysed above can be understood as a specific variant of a common tendency to refuse negative categorizations imposed by others.",[]],["Constructing oneself as a normal, ordinary person is therefore also a way of appealing for sympathy and understanding",[]],["othering is not a straightforward process of individuals or groups being interpellated to occupy specific subordinate subject positions.",[]],["the theory of identity formation inherent in the concept of othering assumes that subordinate people are offered, and at the same time relegated to, subject positions as others in discourse.",[]],["the analysis has shown that othering is not a straightforward process of individuals or groups being interpellated to occupy specific subordinate subject positions.",[]]],"rt":[["intersectionality",[]],["interlocking systems of oppression",[]],["racism(s)/sexism or class",["2001, p. 144"]],["racism",[]],["sexism",[]],["class",[]]]},{"ex":[["sometimes appropriated by the young men themselves in their slang",[]]]},{"de":[["Highly controversial",[]]]},{"de":[["Such strategies articulate distance from the category of the other explicitly or through irony.",[]],["strategies which can be interpreted as refusal towards occupying the position of the other are also present in my material. Such strategies articulate distance from the category of the other explicitly or through irony.",[]]],"rt":[["othering",[]]],"sp":[["agency",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["othering",[]]],"sp":[["cultural agency",[]]]},{},{"de":[["characterized by novel forms of epistemic injustice",[]],["This divide will affect the opportunities of individuals more profoundly than any previous technology, as it can continuously affect the perception of our immediate physical environment",["10"]]],"rt":[["epistemic injustice",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["RWW users, by comparison, may be accustomed to being in the presence of photorealistic virtual objects that are indistinguishable from physical objects. Insofar as this is the case, they will have to conduct further 'background checks' in order for their everyday beliefs about the physical world to be epistemically justified.",[]]],"rt":[["traditional external world skepticism",[]]]},{"de":[["Three contemporary forms of digital deception are fake news articles, fake images (i.e. doctored photographs), and deepfake videos.",[]]],"sb":[["fake news articles",[]],["fake images",[]],["deepfake videos",[]],["fake images (i.e. doctored photographs)",[]],["Fake news",[]],["deepfakes",[]]],"ex":[["fake news articles",[]],["fake images (i.e. doctored photographs)",[]],["deepfake videos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The problem of digital divergence is also largely a consequence of surveillance capitalism and the incentive structure underlying the attention economy.",[]]],"sy":[["informational universes",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",["Pariser, 2011","Watson, 2015","Pariser, 2011, Watson, 2015"]]],"sb":[["real-world filter bubbles",[]]]},{"rt":[["digital distraction",[]]]},{"sp":[["digital deception",[]]]},{},{"de":[["digital consumers are increasingly living in different informational universes or 'filter bubbles'",[]]],"sy":[["informational universes",[]]],"rt":[["digital divergence",[]]],"sb":[["real-world filter bubbles",[]]]},{"de":[["This is why the hallucination view of virtual objects is supported by virtual fictionalism",[]]],"rt":[["illusions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the illusion view of virtual objects is supported by virtual realism",[]]],"rt":[["Hallucinations",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["perceived opportunities for intellectual action",[]]],"sp":[["affordances",[]],["Affordance",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["surveillance capitalism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The real-world filter bubble concern poses the following variation of the content question",[]]],"rt":[["the content question",[]]]},{"sb":[["the existence question",[]],["the content question",[]]]},{"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]],"sb":[["Platform-specific bubbles",[]],["Personalization bubbles",[]]]},{"rt":[["online attention economy",[]]]},{"de":[["The concept of 'silencing' in feminist epistemology and philosophy of language is regarded as a kind of testimonial injustice",["Fricker, 2007"]]],"rt":[["silencing",[]]]},{"de":[["The content question, by contrast, presupposes the existence of other minds and proceeds to wonder whether the nature of other minds is radically different from our own.",[]]],"sp":[["the problem of other minds",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It gives scores for a given text between 1 and 9, indicating the amount of happiness.",[]]]},{"sb":[["manual construction",[]],["corpus-based methods",[]],["dictionary-based methods",[]]],"sp":[["sentiment classification approaches",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Sentiment analysis studies people's sentiments, opinions, attitudes, evaluations, appraisals and emotions towards services, products, individuals, organizations, issues, topics events and their attributes",["20"]]]},{"sb":[["document level: classifies an opinion document as expressing a positive or negative opinion or sentiment.",[]],["sentence-level: classifies sentiment expressed in each sentence.",[]],["aspect-level: classifies the sentiment with respect to the specific aspects of entities.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is based on an English lexical dictionary called WordNet [44] that ghaters adjectives, nouns, verbs etc. into synonym sets called synsets.",[]]],"rt":[["WordNet",["44"]],["synsets",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Attitude",[]]],"ex":[["I hate X",[]]]},{"de":[["we thought it was the most appropriate framework to capture how evaluative language is expressed in the data, what types of evaluation are present, and the pragmatic meaning of evaluation in the corpus.",[]]],"rt":[["Attitude",[]],["Graduation",[]]],"sb":[["Attitude",[]],["Graduation",[]],["Engagement",[]]]},{"de":[["capture how evaluative language is expressed in the data, what types of evaluation are present, and the pragmatic meaning of evaluation in the corpus",[]],["classification into different types of evaluation as stemming from personal feelings or evaluation of things and others",[]]],"rt":[["evaluative language",[]]],"sb":[["Attitude",[]],["Graduation",[]],["Engagement",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attitude",[]]]},{"rt":[["Judgement",[]],["Appreciation",[]]],"sb":[["Affect",[]],["Judgement",[]],["Appreciation",[]],["Affect (expressions of emotion by the speaker)",[]],["Judgement (evaluation of other people's abilities and ethics)",[]],["Appreciation (aesthetic evaluations of an object)",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal",[]]],"ex":[["X is a bad person",[]],["X is a bad idea",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["we used the following definition of constructiveness which was inspired by our survey answers",[]]]},{"rt":[["ERICs-Engaging, Respectful, and/or Informative Conversations",["Napoles et al. (2017)"]]]},{"rt":[["verbal abuse",[]],["offensive comments",[]],["hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["repeated messages or threat of public exposure",["Reynolds et al. 2011","Pieschl et al. 2015"]]]},{"de":[["an intensifying or downtoning effect",[]],["Focus is used with non-gradable expressions",[]]],"sp":[["Graduation",[]]]},{"de":[["Attitude can be intensified or downtoned through resources classified under Graduation.",[]]],"sb":[["Force",[]],["Focus",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attitude",[]]]},{"de":[["spelled this way in North American usage to distinguish it from lead, a strip of that metal used in early printing.",[]]]},{"sp":[["toxicity",[]]]},{"de":[["In this work, we are particularly interested in how to detect negation automatically, and how to interpret the effect it has on evaluative expressions.",[]],["Negation and speculation are similar in that they affect the interpretation of the material in their scope.",[]]],"rt":[["speculation",[]],["Keyword",[]],["Scope",[]],["Focus",[]]]},{"de":[["Opinion articles are generally subjective and evaluative, but their language tends to be more formal and argumentative.",[]]],"sb":[["editorials",[]],["columns",[]],["op-eds",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Unlike the keyword and the focus, scope spans over the largest possible syntactic unit.",[]]],"sb":[["xscope",[]]]},{"sp":[["toxicity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The definition for Very toxic included comments which use harsh, offensive or abusive language; comments which include personal attacks or insults; or which are derogatory or demeaning.",[]],["Toxic comments were sarcastic, containing ridicule or aggressive disagreement.",[]],["Mildly toxic comments were described as those which may be considered toxic only by some people, or which express anger and frustration.",[]],["we established four classes: Very toxic, Toxic, Mildly toxic and Not toxic",[]]],"rt":[["verbal abuse",[]],["offensive comments",[]],["hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["Very toxic",[]],["Toxic",[]],["Mildly toxic",[]],["Not toxic",[]]]},{"sp":[["toxicity",[]]]},{"de":[["Researchers who adopt a critical theory stance seek to uncover and challenge power imbalances and injustices in society",["Scotland, 2012"]],["Researchers who adopt a critical theory stance seek to uncover and challenge power imbalances and injustices in society (Scotland, 2012).",["Scotland, 2012"]],["Critical theory researchers aim at critiquing and transforming social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic and gender values (Yong et al., 2021).",["Yong et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["It emphasizes the roles and demands of men and women, rather than just on women as a distinct and homogeneous group",["Pant, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["it is also a crucial component in alleviating poverty, achieving greater food and nutrition security, and enabling good governance and sustainable development",["Okyere-Nyako et al., 2015"]],["It extends beyond boosting the engagement of women in all forms of media. To ensure that both men and women may influence, participate in, and benefit from development processes, it might be necessary to adjust objectives, plans, and tactics",["Pant, 2020"]],["thus, it is also a crucial component in alleviating poverty, achieving greater food and nutrition security, and enabling good governance and sustainable development.",["Okyere-Nyako et al. (2015)"]],["The concept of gender mainstreaming involves giving opportunities to both males and females",[]],["permitting females to generate news items is part of the gender mainstreaming strategy.",[]],["It extends beyond boosting the engagement of women in all forms of media. To ensure that both men and women may influence, participate in, and benefit from development processes, it might be necessary to adjust objectives, plans, and tactics (Pant, 2020).",["Pant, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["It extends beyond boosting the engagement of women in all forms of media. To ensure that both men and women may influence, participate in, and benefit from development processes, it might be necessary to adjust objectives, plans, and tactics",["Pant, 2020"]],["It extends beyond boosting the engagement of women in all forms of media.",[]],["To ensure that both men and women may influence, participate in, and benefit from development processes, it might be necessary to adjust objectives, plans, and tactics",["Pant, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["It refers to preconceived ideas, whereby males and females are arbitrarily assigned attributes and roles determined and limited by their sex.",["Brodolini et al. (2013)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["sources of bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["bias-sensitive tokens",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["on a 1 -5 scale",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational bias",[]]],"ex":[["an LM that assigns a higher likelihood to the final token in \"he worked as a [doctor]\" than \"she worked as a [doctor]\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational biases",[]]]},{"rt":[["local biases",[]]],"sp":[["representational biases",[]]]},{"de":[["global biases take a more holistic view that considers the semantics of the generated sentence, thereby measuring negative associations across entire phrases as well as their constituent verbs, adjectives, and other parts of speech.",[]]]},{"sp":[["representational biases",[]]]},{"de":[["To measure local biases across the vocabulary, we use a suitable f -divergence between the probability distributions predicted by the LM conditioned on both counterfactual contexts.",[]]],"rt":[["global biases",[]]],"sp":[["representational biases",[]]]},{"sp":[["sources of bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["sentiment",[]]]},{},{"de":[["differences in system performance for different social groups, text that misrepresents the distribution of different social groups in the population, or language that is denigrating to particular social groups",[]],["sentiment and regard measure representational biases in the semantics of entire phrases rather than individual words.",[]]],"sb":[["Global bias",[]],["Local bias",[]],["local biases",[]],["global biases",[]]]},{"rt":[["regard",[]]]},{},{"de":[["in order to avoid conceptual confusion in the usage of the term homophobia",[]]],"rt":[["homophobia",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["nationalism",[]],["race",[]]]},{},{"de":[["recognises that not all men benefit equally from patriarchy, and it acknowledges differences, inequalities, and hierarchies among masculinities",["Connell 2005"]],["entails control of men",["Donaldson 1993"]],["gains its meaning through processes embedded in the logic of contrast and the logic of contradiction",[]],["maintains the distinction between legitimate and illegitimate masculinities-higher versus lower, normal versus deviant, or hegemonic versus marginalised-and gives hegemonic masculinity flexibility and malleability that allows for change without losing its sense of continuity.",[]],["By linking hegemonic masculinity to the imagined community that is the nation, nationalism does not only succeed in creating a representation of itself in relation to the BOther,^but it also achieves the embodiment of the nation in its masculine subjects.",[]],["In periods of resistance or intense nation building, hegemonic masculinity is used in a highly idealised form as a metaphor for the political community as a whole",["Tosh 2004, p. 49","Väyrynen 2013"]]],"rt":[["marginalised masculinities",[]],["logic of contrast",[]],["logic of contradiction",[]],["homophobia as a technology of Othering",[]],["nationalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["homonationalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the recent phenomenon of homonationalism and the incorporation of some homosexual bodies within the nation",[]],["the proclaimed tolerance towards sexual minorities is incorporated in the national imaginary as a marker of alleged progressiveness, tolerance, and modernity, creating in this way a spatial and temporal boundary which places the 'homophobic others' on the historical path of progress towards Western-style 'civilisation' and 'modernity'",["Kahlina 2015"]],["In other words, it is the Other's use of homophobia as a technology of Othering that is used to position it as inferior. Homonationalism thus relies on the masculine Othering process of marginalisation to reaffirm the hegemonic position of a tolerant masculinity that (at least at a utilitarian level) values diversity vis-à-vis the homophobic pre-modern masculine nations.",[]],["In other words, it is the Other's use of homophobia as a technology of Othering that is used to position it as inferior.",[]]],"rt":[["heteronationalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["heteronormativity",[]],["homophobia",[]]]},{"rt":[["heteronormative",[]],["heteronormativity",[]]]},{"de":[["Thus, homophobia, at conceived in this piece, relates to claims of belonging (Boellstorff 2004) and is to be situated within the Bprocess of […] self-definition and legitimation^which Bhelps to explain how authorities [but also societies more generally] create a 'we' among the majority of citizens, at the cost of framing a minority as outsiders^(p. 20).",["Boellstorff 2004","p. 20"]],["In line with relational sociology, this definition of homophobia as a political tool emphasises the Bpolitics and process of collective identity and the invention or imagining of political traditions and practices that forge and enforce those identities^(p.20, emphasis in original).",["p.20"]],["Thus, homophobia here does not relate to the prejudices against homosexuality, but is rather a political phenomenon that organises the hierarchical relations of belonging.",[]],["It is a disciplining mechanism of masculinity that operates through the fear of being associated with homosexuality and/or an effeminate type of masculinity.",[]],["It is technology of Othering, both on the micro and macro level, that produces and maintains the distinction between the Self and the Other by projecting any undesired (effeminate) element of the Self onto the Other.",[]],["more than the irrational fear of gay men, more than the fear that we might be perceived as gay. […] Homophobia is the fear that other men will unmask us, emasculate us, reveal to us and the world that we do not measure up, that we are not real men.",[]],["should not just be conceptualised as an individual bias towards homosexuals",[]],["an act of self-production",["Nayak and Kehily 1996"]],["de-coupled from sexuality, i.e., it does not need to be exercised against homosexual bodies, nor does it need to be explicitly based on sexual language.",[]],["functions by denying the masculinity of the Other-through projecting despised non-masculine aspects onto the Other-in order to emphasise the masculinity of the Self.",[]]],"rt":[["political homophobia",[]],["technology of Othering",[]]],"sb":[["Rejection: a refusal to accommodate gender role change and harsh responses to gender transgression",["Plummer 2014, p. 134"]],["Reaction: a reactionary response to change accompanied by a retreat to more secure fundamental versions of masculinity",["Plummer 2014, p. 134"]],["Accommodation: gender role change is accommodated, which is more likely in social settings with flexible masculinities",["Plummer 2014, p. 134"]]]},{"de":[["does not need to be directed to homosexual bodies or use explicit homophobic language, but it ultimately relies on the fear of being associated with the non-masculine.",[]],["homophobia as a technology of Othering in this scenario is often explicitly linked to notions of homosexuality.",[]],["Here, nationalists other those bodies within the nation that resist the national project by using homophobic tropes to undermine political legitimacy.",[]],["It can also explicitly target homosexuals as a social group, who are depicted as a threat to the (biological) reproduction of nation",[]],["The Other is dehumanised or demasculinised through homophobia as a technology of Othering, or represented as a derided or feared masculine Other",[]],["sexual violence (whether against men or women) can also be conceptualised as a violent and embodied expression of masculine Technologies of Othering, aimed at producing and reinforcing the nation's (masculine) dominance over the enemy",[]],["The de-masculinisation and homosexualisation of Bosniaks in the media representation points to the usage of homophobia as a technology of Othering to exclude them from the Croatian nation",[]],["used to mark the difference between the progressive, homo-tolerant Self and the homophobic immigrant Other",[]],["The use of homophobia does not only create the emasculated Other but also constitute an act of self-production (Nayak and Kehily 1996).",["(Nayak and Kehily 1996)"]],["In other words, by performing or displaying homophobia-and thus rejecting what is non-masculine-men can consolidate their own hegemonic masculinity.",[]],["In short, it can be argued that homophobia is a masculine technology of Othering, 16 in which some men are reduced to an object/abject used for self-valorisation and that can be (violently) cast aside.",[]],["It is a practice that is de-coupled from sexuality, i.e., it does not need to be exercised against homosexual bodies, nor does it need to be explicitly based on sexual language.",[]],["Homophobia as a technology of Othering functions by denying the masculinity of the Other-through projecting despised non-masculine aspects onto the Other-in order to emphasise the masculinity of the Self.",[]]],"rt":[["hegemonic masculinity",[]],["Othering",[]]]},{},{"de":[["often relying on homophobia as a technology of Othering",[]]],"rt":[["hegemonic masculinity",[]]]},{"rt":[["hegemonic masculinity",[]]]},{"de":[["the (national) Other is defined along the lines of effeminate (i.e., subordinated), or defect/barbaric (i.e., marginalised) masculinities.",[]]],"rt":[["hegemonic masculinity",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["femininity",[]]]},{"de":[["The nation, he argues, is a community, which is Bregardless of the actual inequality and exploitation that may prevail in each, […] always conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The notion of competing masculinities then is used to emphasise the relational nature of the described processes and to capture how nations seek to position themselves at the top of their own hierarchical imagining by using different masculine technologies of Othering.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["consists of an array of practices, including political and cultural exclusion, cultural abuse, legal and street violence, and discrimination.",[]],["the repository of whatever is symbolically expelled from hegemonic masculinity",["Connell 2005, p. 78"]]],"sb":[["homosexual masculinity",["Connell 2005, p. 78","Connell 2005"]]],"sp":[["hegemonic masculinity",[]],["masculinities",["Connell 2005"]]],"ex":[["homosexual masculinity",["Connell 2005, p. 78"]]]},{"de":[["can also be used to organise and maintain the gendered hierarchy within and among nations.",[]]]},{"sy":[["national unity",[]]]},{"de":[["correctly answering a belief bias question requires overcoming an intuitive reaction to respond based on how believable the conclusion is.",[]],["belief bias items might measure the same construct as CRT items.",[]],["belief bias items appear useful in disentangling cognitive reflection and numeracy.",[]],["belief bias questions are relatively easy to write, and so validating belief bias items as CRT questions provides an algorithm for writing new questions.",[]],["unlike questions from the original CRT and CRT-2, there are only two possible answer choices, so it is impossible to separate wrong answers that are the result of accepting the intuitive lure, and those that result from faulty deliberate reasoning.",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive reflection",[]],["numeracy",[]]]},{"de":[["According to the cognitive reflection hypothesis, first the intuitive answer comes to mind and is either rejected or not depending on the level of cognitive reflection.",["Sinayev & Peters, 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["preference to select a marble from a small tray which contained fewer \"winning\" marbles but a higher relative likelihood of winning (due to the presence of few \"losing\" marbles), or a large tray, with more \"winning\" marbles but a lower relative chance of winning (due to the presence of many \"losing\" marbles).",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful thinking",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["composite trust",["44"]]]},{"sp":[["composite trust",["44"]]]},{"sb":[["communication trust, social trust, information trust, and cognitive trust",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Assessing content/user credibility helps people to determine whether the given content/user can be trusted for information.",[]],["Credibility beliefs stem from evaluating the attributes of an attitude object, resulting in perceptive knowledge that guides feelings and actions",["38"]]],"sy":[["trustworthiness",[]],["believability",["37"]]],"rt":[["trust",["24","29","30"]],["reliability",["24","29","30"]],["reputation",["24","29","30"]]],"sb":[["Single post credibility",[]],["Member credibility",[]],["Topic-level credibility",[]],["social credibility",[]]]},{"sp":[["trust",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["trust",[]]]},{"de":[["rely on the final judgment of a human subject",[]]],"sb":[["voting",[]],["cognitive",[]],["manual verification approaches",[]]]},{"de":[["The arguments given in later sections form a basis for the need for a hybrid Web credibility assessment model that leverages both computer-and human-based models to optimize its results.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["reliability",[]]]},{"sp":[["composite trust",["44"]]]},{"sp":[["trust",[]]]},{"sp":[["trust",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The less reliable a member is, the less likely it is that messages coming from this account are trustworthy",[]]],"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The transition from traditional, verified, and thus unchallenged media to unconventional, unverified, peer social media has created the fundamental problem of excess, useless, and misleading information, which is termed noise.",[]]]},{"sp":[["trust",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["trust",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["trust",[]]]},{"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{"sp":[["credibility",[]],["Twitter credibility",[]]]},{"de":[["Social networks can also be understood as open or partially open internet services that simplify communication and relationships between individual with similar mindsets, or connecting large number of such individuals into thematic groups [31].",["31"]],["Social networks can also be understood as open or partially open internet services that simplify communication and relationships between individual with similar mindsets, or connecting large number of such individuals into thematic groups",[]]],"sy":[["OSNs",[]]]},{"sp":[["composite trust",["44"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{},{"de":[["trust is defined through the notation T(i,j, α) (i.e., the entity i trusts j in situation α)",[]]],"sy":[["dependability",[]]],"sb":[["Phenomenon-based trust",["44"]],["Sentiment-based trust",["44"]],["Judgment-based trust",["44"]],["communication trust",["44"]],["information trust",["44"]],["cognitive trust",["44"]],["social trust",["44"]],["Calculative trust",["45"]],["Relational trust",["45"]],["emotional trust",["45"]],["Institutional trust",["45"]],["Dispositional trust",["45"]]]},{},{"sp":[["HUMAN-BASED CREDIBILITY ASSESSMENTS",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Bias is defined by the Oxford Dictionary as:",[]]]},{"ex":[["comparing treatment outcomes for similar conditions between general and specialised centres may find higher mortality rates at specialised centres yet patients referred to these centres are more likely to have high risk factors and more complex needs.",[]],["For example, comparing treatment outcomes for similar conditions between general and specialised centres may find higher mortality rates at specialised centres yet patients referred to these centres are more likely to have high risk factors and more complex needs.",[]]]},{"ex":[["In retrospective studies, for example when completing questionnaires about eating habits when data collection relies on recall, participants may not remember and report events accurately.",[]]]},{"ex":[["an evaluation of a weight loss programme may be affected by participant withdrawal; participants who become disillusioned because of not losing weight may drop out, which may bias the findings towards more favourable results.",[]],["For example, an evaluation of a weight loss programme may be affected by participant withdrawal; participants who become disillusioned because of not losing weight may drop out, which may bias the findings towards more favourable results.",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["participant bias",[]]],"ex":[["recruitment bias could occur if participants were invited to participate in a survey posted on the internet, which automatically excludes individuals without internet access.",[]],["For example recruitment bias could occur if participants were invited to participate in a survey posted on the internet, which automatically excludes individuals without internet access.",[]]]},{"de":[["directed hate speech is more personal, directed, informal, and angrier, and often explicitly attacks the target (via namecalling) with fewer analytic words and more words suggesting authority and influence.",["12"]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Generalized hate speech is dominated by religious hate and is characterized by lethal words, such as murder, exterminate, and kill, and quantity words, such as million and many.",["12"]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Facebook [10] defines hate speech as ''content targeting a person or group of people (including all subsets except those described as having carried out violent crimes or sexual offenses) on the basis of their aforementioned protected characteristic(s) or immigration status.''",["10"]],["Basile, et al. [6] advocated that user ''may not promote violence against or directly attack or threaten other people on the basis of race, ethnicity, national origin, caste, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity, religious affiliation, age, disability, or serious disease.''",["6"]],["The speech audiences' reactionary feeling to the sentiment of words, phrases, sentences, and speech is essential to determine if it belongs to hate speech.",[]],["the semantics of words in the Chinese language not only include the typical negative or positive opinion but also use a rich metaphor or homophone features as a description.",[]],["in our definition of hate speech, satire or humorous comments were not considered hate speech.",[]],["The definitions by Facebook [10], YouTube [11], and Basile, et al. [6] argued that hate speech consists of discriminatory content targeting a person or a group of people based on their attributes, such as age, race, ethnicity, national origin, caste, religious affiliation, disability, gender, sexual orientation and gender identity, serious disease, and expression.",[]]],"rt":[["free speech",[]]],"sb":[["attacks of malicious language toward people, based on their political standpoint",[]],["hate speech focusing on race, ethnicity, national origin, caste, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity, religious affiliation, age, disability, or serious disease",[]],["directed hate speech",[]],["generalized hate speech",[]],["political hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["The use of lexicons is an essential and vital approach in the natural language process (NLP) to determine the sentiment of speech.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["non-rumours (all other circulating information)",[]]]},{"de":[["a rumour classification system is expressed as a sequence of subtasks, namely rumour detection, rumour tracking, rumour stance classi- fication leading to rumour verification",[]]],"sy":[["rumour resolution",[]]]},{"de":[["determining whether a claim is worth verifying rather than the expression of an opinion",[]]],"sp":[["rumour resolution",[]]]},{"de":[["The rumour resolution process has been defined as a pipeline involving four sub-tasks (Zubiaga et al., 2018a) (see Figure 1): (1) rumour detection, determining whether a claim is worth verifying rather than the expression of an opinion; (2) rumour tracking, collecting sources and opinions on a rumour as it unfolds; (3) stance classification, determining the attitude of the sources or users towards the truthfulness of the rumour, and (4) rumour verification, as the ultimate step where the veracity value of the rumour is predicted.",[]]],"sb":[["rumour detection",[]],["rumour tracking",[]],["stance classification",[]],["rumour verification",[]]]},{"sp":[["rumour resolution",[]]]},{"de":[["the rumour verification task is more challenging as it requires analysis of the context, and further understanding of the rumours in order to determine if the underlying story is true, false, or remains unverified.",[]]],"sy":[["veracity classification",[]]],"rt":[["rumour detection",[]]],"sp":[["rumour resolution",[]]]},{"de":[["implies predictions per-tweet",[]]],"sp":[["rumour resolution",[]]]},{"sy":[["rumour verification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["ideas can be hateful and harmful, some of which may even amount to hate speech.",[]],["There is no universally accepted definition of hate speech.",["23"]],["hate speech lies 'in a complex nexus with freedom of expression and group rights, as well as concepts of dignity, liberty and equality.'",["24"]],["material that incites to violence and hatred directed against a group of persons or a member of such a group defined by reference to sex, race, colour, religion, descent or national or ethnic origin",[]]],"rt":[["racial hatred",[]],["xenophobia",[]],["anti-Semitism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["that which is a criminal offence under international law",["73"]],["that which is not a criminal offence but can result in restriction and civil suits",["73"]],["that which has no legal implications but still raises issues relating to respect and tolerance",["73"]]]},{},{"de":[["Social networks facilitate borderless communication, allow for, inter alia, political, ideological, cultural and artistic expression, permit an inflow of daily news, raise awareness on human rights violations and offer a quick and cheap solution to inviting people to your birthday party. At the same time, social networks constitute platforms through which hateful rhetoric is spread 4 and normalised and minority groups are systematically targeted, thereby affecting today's world on a micro (individual), meso (group) and macro (societal) level.",["4"]],["Such networks function within the digital space of the Internet and allow for quick dissemination of information, synchronous and asynchronous chat, the creation of groups of common interest and ideology.",[]],["social networks are used by individual users but also by organised and semi-organised groups to promote hateful rhetoric and target the victims of such rhetoric.",[]]],"sp":[["Internet",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Human and AI work together to identify trustworthy regions of AI before deployment, i.e., model decisions are reliable or trustworthy for examples within these regions. Once deployed, the AI model only affects decisions for instances in the trustworthy regions. For the rest, another set of actions can be taken such as manual review or employing a different model since the given AI's decisions on them cannot be trusted.",[]],["Our core contribution is to demonstrate that conditional delegation is a promising alternative paradigm that allows users to control when to trust or distrust AI.",[]],["our work focuses on identifying trustworthy regions in the input space.",[]],["conditional delegation can potentially alleviate AI bias as we give users the freedom to choose trustworthy regions based on their domain knowledge or notion of fairness.",[]],["Human and AI work together to identify trustworthy regions of AI before deployment, i.e., model decisions are reliable or trustworthy for examples within these regions. Once deployed, the AI model only affects decisions for instances in the trustworthy regions.",[]],["Humans and AI work together to identify trustworthy regions of AI. Then once deployed, the AI model only affects the instances that belong to the trustworthy regions.",[]]],"rt":[["human-AI collaboration",[]],["trustworthy regions",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["global explanations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["leads to biased adoption of presented words",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["supporting",[]],["opposing",[]]]},{"sp":[["PROPAGATION-BASED APPROACHES",[]]]},{"de":[["Under some assumptions of node consistency and network smoothness",[]]],"rt":[["semi-supervised graph learning task",["58","59","60"]]],"sp":[["PROPAGATION-BASED APPROACHES",[]]]},{"de":[["A traditional definition of rumor is derived from the social psychology [27]. That is, a rumor is an unconfirmed statement that widely spread and the truth value of which is unverified or deliberately false.",["27"]]]},{"de":[["General rumors may be gossips of celebrities or a campaign strategy to slander political opponents [4], which attract people to spread the story rather than finding out its veracity.",["4"]]],"rt":[["a rumor is an unconfirmed statement that widely spread and the truth value of which is unverified or deliberately false.",["27"]]]},{"ex":[["the ratio of verified users",[]],["the average followee count",[]]]},{"sb":[["sub-event layer",[]],["message layer",[]],["event layer",[]]]},{"sp":[["general textual features",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["false rumor",["15"]],["fake news",["6","18","20"]]]},{"de":[["methods for detecting verified rumors aim to detect false information at the early stage and thus prevent the hazard of rumors on social media.",[]]]},{"rt":[["supporting",["18"]]]},{},{"de":[["the paradigm of propagation-based rumor detection commonly has two main steps",["17","6","18"]]],"sb":[["user-message-event network",[]],["hierarchical content network",[]],["conflicting viewpoints network",[]],["credibility network",[]],["Credibility propagation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["rumor detection, rumor tracking, rumor stance classification, and rumor veracity classification",["24"]]]},{"sp":[["Hierarchical Content Network",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Subjective rumors can be used to understand users' behavior.",[]]]},{"rt":[["opposing",["18"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Visual features",[]]],"ex":[["visual clarity",[]],["diversity",[]],["coherence",[]]]},{"sp":[["Visual features",[]]]},{"rt":[["problem-solving journalism",[]],["solutions journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["the terms do express a difference of focus between a concrete product and a particular practice.",[]]],"sy":[["constructive journalism",[]]],"rt":[["constructive journalism",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["deliberative perspective",[]]],"rt":[["representative approach",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This model incorporates two sets of journalistic principles. The first refers to the purpose of journalism, and while some journalists, editors, owners and others associated with the practice of journalism will be passive in the sense that they do not concern themselves with what follows from their work, other journalists will attempt to prompt action in order to ensure that the problems they have uncovered are solved.",[]],["The second set of principles in the Compass refers to the perspective of journalism, and here, one can distinguish between a deliberative approach and a representative approach.",[]],["Whenever they are about to produce a news story, the compass is a reminder to journalists that they can steer towards different corners of the journalistic world.",[]]]},{"de":[["Frequency, threshold, unambiguity, meaningfulness, consonance, unexpectedness, continuity, composition, reference to elite nations, reference to elite people, reference to persons and reference to something negative",["1965: 70-71"]]],"ex":[["Frequency, threshold, unambiguity, meaningfulness, consonance, unexpectedness, continuity, composition, reference to elite nations, reference to elite people, reference to persons and reference to something negative",["1965: 70-71"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["constructive journalism",[]],["solutions journalism",[]],["public journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["flourished at the turn of this century",[]],["originally developed out of dissatisfaction with the tripartite relationship between the public, the press and politics",[]],["the best organized social movement in the history of the American Press",["1999: 118"]]],"sy":[["civic journalism",[]],["solutions journalism",[]],["citizens' journalism",[]]],"rt":[["action journalism",[]],["constructive journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["deliberative approach",[]]]},{"rt":[["action journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a severe fairness issue in image search",[]],["Such gender-biased search results are harmful to society as they change people's cognition and worsen gender stereotypes",["Kay et al., 2015"]],["exhibits large gender bias due to training on uncurated image-text pairs collected from the internet",[]],["unequal inclusiveness between males and females in image search results, even when the search terms are gender-neutral",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This approach builds on contrastive learning but extends with a fair sampling step.",[]]]},{"de":[["Post-processing algorithms enforce fairness constraints by applying a post hoc correction of a (pre-)trained classifier",[]]],"sp":[["fair machine learning solutions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This approach is compatible with pre-trained models and is light to implement without repeating training steps.",[]]]},{"de":[["Preprocessing algorithms typically re-weight and repair the training data which captures label bias or historical discrimination",[]]],"sp":[["fair machine learning solutions",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Tags are created by Twitter members (rather than constructed as preselected options authorized by the site), and may be of various kinds, ranging from tags which categorize the subject matter of the tweet…to idiosyncratic examples which function as expression punctuation",["Page, 2012, p. 184"]]],"rt":[["Trending Topics",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["all utterances and artifacts exist within a complex web of interconnected meanings and messages (Kristeva, 2002).",["Kristeva, 2002"]]]},{"de":[["all utterances are dialogic, their meaning and logic dependent upon what has previously been said and how they will be received by others",["Allen, 2006, p. 19"]],["no single voice can be objectively distinguished from others",[]]],"rt":[["heteroglossic meaning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Physical abuse such as slapping, beating, arm twisting, stabbing, strangling, burning, choking, kicking, threats with an object or weapon, and murder.",[]],["domestic violence is a pattern of behavior in a relationships by which the batterer attempts to control victim through a variety of policy . . . . These policies may include fear and intimidation any kind of abuse, destruction of property and pets, isolation and imprisonment, economic abuse, and rigid expectations of sex roles.",["Postmus, 2000(cited in Johnson, 2008)"]]],"ex":[["Physical abuse such as slapping, beating, arm twisting, stabbing, strangling, burning, choking, kicking, threats with an object or weapon, and murder. It also includes traditional practices harmful to women such as female genital mutilation in African society or honor killings as well as sexual abuse such as coerced sex through threats, intimidation or physical force, forcing unwanted sexual acts or forcing sex with others.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is applied to a entire range of society and institutions from traditional anthropological concerns such as family, marriage and kinship to the market, to religion and the state.",[]],["The concept \"gender\" helps us look at the ideological constructs as well as everyday practices that express, reproduce, and sustain unequal distribution of power, prestige and resources between boys and girls also between men and women in various spheres of our society.",[]],["It is applied to a entire range of society and institutions from traditional anthropological concerns such as family, marriage and kinship to the market, to religion and the state. The concept \"gender\" helps us look at the ideological constructs as well as everyday practices that express, reproduce, and sustain unequal distribution of power, prestige and resources between boys and girls also between men and women in various spheres of our society.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["patriarchy is household, social, ideological, political system in which man by force, direct pressure or through rituals, tradition, law, language, custom etiquette, education, and the division of labor, determine the rule of female is everywhere subsumed under the male",[]],["It is transforming male and female into man and women construct the hierarchy of gender relation.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is indicate the notions of society about what is good or bad.",[]],["Social norms are typically seen to emerge in environments characterized by multiple equilibriums, to keep the community in a preferred equilibrium",["Kandori, 1992"]]]},{},{"de":[["exercising control over the data they share, avoiding data-intensive services, or unsubscribing from certain news platforms",[]]]},{"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]],["personalised news recommendations",[]]]},{"de":[["the algorithm would feed them news similar to their previous reads",[]]]},{"de":[["News personalisation can benefit users if it is designed to support them in their search for information, but attempts to personalise the information offer need to be genuine.",[]]]},{"de":[["personal curation can mean both direct expression of preferences, as well as indirect forms of personal curation by controlling the use of their personal data and the extent of data-driven personalisation.",[]]],"rt":[["algorithmic curation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This type of categorisation makes users feel like their profiles do not completely represent them, that they cannot escape such a situation or that the use of such profiles could even be used to their disadvantage",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The higher the score on the polarization variable, the stronger the difference between in-group and outgroup liking",[]]],"sp":[["polarization",[]]]},{"sy":[["reactance",[]]],"rt":[["reactance",[]]]},{"de":[["its intended impact is potentially more systematic and disruptive than misinformation.",[]],["disinformation aims to increase polarization or cynicism by reaching specific audiences who are most susceptible to deceptive content",["Erlich & Garner, 2021"]],["With disinformation, political actors deliberately manipulate information to achieve political goals",["Bennett & Livingston, 2018","Freelon & Wells, 2020","Wardle, 2017"]],["disinformation is intentionally deceptive",["Hancock & Bailenson, 2021"]],["Different from misinformation, disinformation is intentionally deceptive",["Hancock & Bailenson, 2021"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"de":[["Factcheckers typically arrive at a verdict of the overall truthfulness of speeches, claims, and news articles: e.g., false, mostly false, mostly true, or true.",[]],["Fact-checks may be effective in refuting misinformation because they combine simple and short messages with factual information, eventually reaching an unequivocal conclusion about a statement's truthfulness",["Lewandowsky et al., 2012"]]],"rt":[["Satire",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["factually incorrect information without clear political agenda (i.e., misinformation)",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["false information",[]]]},{"sy":[["confirmation-biased processing of information",["Knobloch-Westerwick et al., 2017","Winter et al., 2016"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["backfire effect",["Miron & Brehm, 2006"]]],"rt":[["backfire effect",[]]]},{"sy":[["regular fact-checker",[]]],"rt":[["regular fact-checker",[]]]},{"de":[["genre that is less aligned with the traditional routines of journalism, such as striving for balance and facticity",["Baym, 2005","Borden & Tew, 2007","Ödmark, 2021"]],["satire's primary objective is to make a humorous appeal.",[]],["satire limits the motivation as well as the ability to counter-argue the correcting information from people's existing ideological pre-dispositions.",[]],["satire may confront people with the truth without appearing too confrontational (Paletz, 1990) and, therefore, could be more effective than regular factcheckers to also convince partisan citizens of \"the truth.\"",["Paletz, 1990"]]],"rt":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["As satire's humorous format potentially overcomes people's tendency to critically scrutinize and counter-argue messages",["Young, 2008"]]],"sy":[["humorous refutations",[]],["humorous appeals",[]],["satirist refutation",[]]],"rt":[["satirist refutation",[]]]},{"de":[["The aspect is often expressed as a modifier(e.g., boring, stupid, lazy, not funny, etc.) of the target in the focus of the author",[]],["It can also be a verbal group, as can't cook in ( 7)",[]],["The aspect is often expressed as a modifier(e.g., boring, stupid, lazy, not funny, etc.) of the target in the focus of the author,",[]],["we cannot reduce aspect identification to verbal group extraction: an aspect can readily be also a nominal group.",[]],["Candidate aspects are: (i) concepts, which are detected by Shvets and Wanner (2020)'s generic concept extraction algorithm and which precede or follow the target; (ii) adjectival or participle modifiers either preceding or following the target.",[]],["an aspect can readily be also a nominal group.",[]]],"rt":[["aspect-oriented sentiment analysis",["Schouten and Frasincar, 2016"]]],"ex":[["not funny",[]],["fucking stupid",[]],["can't cook",[]],["not funny is the aspect of female comedians",[]],["fucking stupid of (most) girls",[]],["boring, stupid, lazy, not funny, etc.",[]],["not funny is the aspect of female comedians (5)",[]],["fucking stupid of (most) girls (6)",[]],["can't cook in ( 7)",[]]]},{"sb":[["concepts, which are detected by Shvets and Wanner (2020)'s generic concept extraction algorithm and which precede or follow the target",[]],["adjectival or participle modifiers either preceding or following the target",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the identified targets are nominal entities",[]],["While in generic discourse, targets can be assumed to be classifying nominal groups (see above), in hate speech, we observe also adjectival and participle targets that need to be captured.",[]],["Very often, the target is an individual or a group of individuals, e.g., women, people of color, refugees, Muslims, Jews, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["specific political conviction",[]],["religion",[]],["an object related to an individual or a group of individuals",[]]],"sb":[["an individual",[]],["a group of individuals",[]],["a specific political conviction",[]],["a religion",[]],["an object related to an individual or a group of individuals",[]]],"ex":[["women, people of color, refugees, Muslims, Jews, etc.",[]],["feminist novels",[]],["a specific political conviction, a religion, an object related to an individual or a group of individuals, etc.",[]],["I'm not sexist, but nothing bores me more than feminist novels.",[]]]},{"de":[["targets in hate speech texts go far beyond named entities",[]],["overall, targets can be considered concepts",["Waldis et al., 2018"]]],"sb":[["adjectival and participle targets",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["context",[]]]},{"sy":[["sarcasm detection",[]]]},{"de":[["this context may be incorporated in a variety of ways -in general, using supplementary data or using supplementary information from the source platform of the data.",[]]],"sb":[["Author-specific context",[]],["Conversation context",[]],["Topical context",[]]]},{"de":[["use of contextual information i.e., information beyond the target text for sarcasm detection.",[]]]},{"de":[["This incorporates the discourse structure of a conversation.",[]]],"sp":[["context",[]]]},{"sp":[["sarcasm",[]]]},{"sp":[["sarcasm",[]]]},{"sp":[["sarcasm",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In other words, when one expresses sarcasm, a negation is intended, without putting a negation word like 'not'.",[]]]},{"sp":[["sarcasm",[]]]},{"de":[["These evidences are captured in terms of rules that rely on indicators of sarcasm.",[]]]},{"de":[["The figurative nature of sarcasm makes it an often-quoted challenge for sentiment analysis",["Liu 2010"]],["It has an implied negative sentiment, but a positive surface sentiment.",[]],["sarcasm arises when there is situational disparity between text and a contextual information.",["Wilson [2006]"]]],"rt":[["irony",[]],["humor",[]]],"sb":[["Propositional: Such sarcasm appears to be a non-sentiment proposition but has an implicit sentiment involved,",[]],["Embedded: This type of sarcasm has an embedded sentiment incongruity in the form of words and phrases themselves,",[]],["Like-prefixed: A likephrase provides an implied denial of the argument being made,",[]],["Illocutionary: This kind of sarcasm involves non-textual clues that indicate an attitude opposite to a sincere utterance.",[]]]},{"de":[["extracting patterns that are indicative of sarcasm, or carry implied sentiment.",[]]]},{"de":[["They state that a word may have a literal sense and a sarcastic sense. Their goal is to identify the sense of a word in order to detect sarcasm.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["context",[]]]},{"de":[["biases in assimilation can lead to attitude polarization.",[]],["previous differences of opinion between proponents and opponents widened as a result of exposure to the two studies",[]],["Supporters will report feeling safer after reading the description, will be more inclined to support the technology henceforth, and will conclude that the chances of a catastrophic accident are less than they previously thought, whereas opponents will report feeling less safe, will be less inclined to support the technology in the future, and will conclude that the chances of a future accident are greater than they thought.",[]]],"rt":[["biased assimilation",[]]]},{"de":[["Each side assimilated the evidence in keeping with its own biases",[]],["supporters focused on the fact that the safeguards worked, while opponents focused on the fact that the breakdown occurred in the first place",[]],["Supporters of a given technology will focus on the fact that the safeguards worked, while opponents will focus on the fact that the breakdown occurred in the first place.",[]],["supporters focused on the fact that the safeguards worked, while opponents focused on the fact that the breakdown occurred in the first place; and (b) after reading about the breakdown, supporters reported feeling that the chances of a catastrophic accident were less than previously assumed, whereas opponents reported feeling that the chances of an accident were greater than previously assumed.",[]]],"rt":[["attitude polarization",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["distributional bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This may distract and obscure the responsibilities of the developers of the LT and reduce accountability.",[]]]},{"de":[["This may distract and obscure the responsibilities of the developers of the LT and reduce accountability.",["Rubel et al., 2019"]]]},{"de":[["they may occur when LMs are used in applications that are used to make decisions that affect persons.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Types of Harm: Potential harms include increasing social inequalities from uneven distribution of risk and benefits, loss of high-quality and safe employment, and environmental harm.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["they can also overrepresent small biases present in the training data, a phenomenon referred to as 'bias amplification' (Wang and Russakovsky, 2021;Zhao et al., 2017)",["Wang and Russakovsky, 2021","Zhao et al., 2017"]]]},{"de":[["In response to a question, GPT-3 was found to frequently provide common, but false utterances, rather than providing the less common, correct utterance (Zhao et al., 2021).",["Zhao et al., 2021"]],["One pattern in these errors is that GPT-3 was found to erroneously predict more frequently occurring terms, also termed a 'common token bias'.",[]]],"ex":[["the 'model often predicts common entities such as \"America\" when the ground-truth answer is instead a rare entity in the training data', such as Keetmansoop, Namibia (Zhao et al., 2021).",["Zhao et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["threatening personal autonomy and potentially posing downstream AI safety risks (Kenton et al., 2021), for example in cases where humans overestimate the capabilities of LMs (Anthropomorphising systems can lead to overreliance or unsafe use).",["Kenton et al., 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["that exist online.",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Exclusionary norms can manifest in \"subtle patterns like referring to women doctors as if doctor itself entails not-woman, or referring to both genders excluding the possibility of non-binary gender identities\" (Bender et al., 2021), emphasis added.",["Bender et al., 2021"]],["exclusionary norms can place a disproportionate burden or \"psychological tax\" on those who do not fit or comply with these norms or who are trying to challenge or replace them.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["nudging",["Thaler & Sunstein 2009"]]]},{},{"de":[["LMs lack \"grounding\" of language to a non-linguistic context, which means that LMs predictions should not be expected to align with knowledge in other domains such as physical experience (Bender and Koller, 2020).",["Bender and Koller, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["Types of Harm: Potential harms include unsafe use due to users misjudging or mistakenly trusting the model, psychological vulnerabilities and privacy violations of the user, and social harm from perpetuating discriminatory associations via product design (e.g. making \"assistant\" tools by default \"female.\")",[]]]},{"de":[["informing a person about how to avoid taxes, exploit someone else, or cover up a crime may cause harm to that person or make it easier for them to cause harm",[]]]},{"de":[["Types of Harm: Potential harms include privacy violations and safety risks.",[]]]},{"sp":[["perpetuating harmful stereotypes",["Dinan et al., 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["Types of Harm: Potential harms include undermining public discourse, crimes such as fraud, personalised disinformation campaigns, and the weaponisation or production of malicious code.",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation is a known problem in relation to other existing language technologies (Allcott et al., 2019;Krittanawong et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2019b) and can accelerate a loss of citizen trust in mainstream media (Ognyanova et al., 2020).",["Allcott et al., 2019","Krittanawong et al., 2020","Wang et al., 2019b","Ognyanova et al., 2020"]],["Harms that arise from the language model providing false or misleading information",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Types of Harm: Potential harms include deception, material harm, or unethical actions by humans who take the LM prediction to be factually correct, as well as wider societal distrust in shared information.",[]],["The resulting harms range from misinforming, deceiving or manipulating a person, to causing material harm, to broader societal repercussions, such as a loss of shared trust between community members.",[]]]},{"de":[["the 'use of flaws in human judgment and choice to influence people's behavior'",["Hausman & Welch 2010"]],["More simply put, nudging refers to the 'use of flaws in human judgment and choice to influence people's behavior' Hausman & Welch 2010.",["Hausman & Welch 2010"]]],"rt":[["framing",["Thaler & Sunstein 2009"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["unacceptable",["Kocoń et al., 2021"]],["proposed definitions often include profanities, identity attacks, sleights, insults, threats, sexually explicit content, demeaning language, language that incites violence",["Fortuna and Nunes, 2018","Gorwa et al., 2020","PerspectiveAPI"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Although the Heilman double bind originated in the context of gender, we also extend the attribute lists 3 of competence and likability to the context of race.",["15","21"]]]},{},{"de":[["intersectional identities suffer from such bias as well, and more so than their constituent minority identities.",[]]],"ex":[["the intersection of being both African American and female",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["parity in impact",[]]]},{"sy":[["impact parity",[]]]},{"sy":[["treatment parity",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The preferred impact criterion represents a relaxation of impact parity.",[]],["preferred impact allows disparity in benefits received by different groups, which may be justified in scenarios where insisting on impact parity would only lead to a reduction in the beneficial outcomes received by one or more groups, without necessarily improving them for any other group.",[]],["a looser notion of fairness compared to impact parity",[]]],"rt":[["impact parity",[]],["preferred treatment",[]],["preference-based notions of fairness",[]]],"sp":[["preference-based notions of fairness",[]]]},{"de":[["The preferred treatment criterion represents a relaxation of treatment parity.",[]]],"rt":[["treatment parity",[]],["envy-freeness at the level of user groups",[]],["preferred treatment",[]],["preferred impact",[]],["preference-based notions of fairness",[]],["envy-freeness",[]]],"sp":[["preference-based notions of fairness",[]]]},{"sy":[["parity in treatment",[]]],"rt":[["impact parity",[]],["parity in treatment",[]]]},{"de":[["degree to which the word conveys activity/passivity",[]]]},{"de":[["degree to which the word conveys control/submissiveness",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["degree to which the word conveys positivity/negativity",[]]]},{"de":[["Consumption of fake news makes people more likely to adopt various political misperceptions (Guess et al., 2020) that can affect their subsequent behavior, including voting decisions (Weeks & Garrett, 2014).",["Guess et al., 2020","Weeks & Garrett, 2014"]],["The content of false news stories can influence our confidence in the media. Cynical coverage and tabloid-style focus on scandal can erode citizen trust in news organizations (Hopmann, Shehata, & Stromback, 2015;Ladd, 2012).",["Hopmann, Shehata, & Stromback, 2015","Ladd, 2012"]],["Those are characteristics typical of many fake news stories as their producers aim to increase audience engagement through sensational and divisive content.",[]],["Identifying fake news websites presents a challenge as academic consensus is yet to emerge around the best way to assess the accuracy and impartiality of online news producers.",[]]],"sy":[["fabricated content",[]],["fabricated news",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["Fake news outlets",[]],["fake news sources",[]],["fake news websites",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["advancing natural language understanding systems for political science, opinion research and other application areas.",[]],["benchmarks (Mohammad et al., 2016a) are composed of short pieces of text commenting on politicians or public issues and are manually annotated with their stance towards a target entity (e.g. Climate Change, or Trump).",["Mohammad et al., 2016a"]]]},{"rt":[["explorer approach",[]]]},{"rt":[["defender approach",[]]]},{"de":[["In short, iconicity refers to the clarity of the intended meaning through its form.",[]]]},{"de":[["the most common type for Internet meme is in the form of graphics with short phrases.",[]],["According to Shifman (2014), a successful meme can be considered as a representative of shared social norms, world views, and user preferences.",["Shifman (2014)"]]]},{"rt":[["borrowed interest appeals",[]]]},{"sy":[["social media promotion",[]]]},{"sy":[["activnye meropriyatiya",[]]]},{"rt":[["public relations",[]]],"sp":[["marketing",[]]]},{"sy":[["propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]}] |