MBDef 1.0.0: Explorer data for exactly the released rows, map and topics made on them
714cbfe verified | [{"sy":[["fake grassroots",[]]]},{"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"rt":[["Parody",[]]]},{"rt":[["active measures",[]]],"sp":[["activnye meropriyatiya",["30"]]]},{"de":[["Both terms refer to information that is inaccurate, incorrect, or misleading.",[]]],"sy":[["misleading information",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["problematic information",[]]],"ex":[["in September 2014, false reports of an explosion and toxic fume hazard at Columbian Chemicals, a chemical manufacturing plant in St. Mary Parish, Louisiana, spread online via scores of fake Twitter accounts, spoofed versions of local news websites, YouTube videos, and text messages to local residents. No explosion had, in fact, taken place.",[]],["false reports of an explosion and toxic fume hazard at Columbian Chemicals, a chemical manufacturing plant in St. Mary Parish, Louisiana, spread online via scores of fake Twitter accounts, spoofed versions of local news websites, YouTube videos, and text messages to local residents.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["Often, hoaxes are a means of challenging authority, custom, or the status quo.",[]],["the purpose of a hoax can be as simple as self-interest (as with, for example, hoaxes that aim to generate profit or publicity for the hoaxer).",[]],["Hoaxes depend, at least initially, on some people taking them at face value. Often, hoaxes are a means of challenging authority, custom, or the status quo.",[]]],"ex":[["Google' s yearly April Fool' s Day press releases, for example, have included the announcement of a data center on Mars nicknamed \"Ziggy Stardust,\" and a Google Assistant called Google Gnome that could mow users' lawns.",["45"]],["The New York Sun' s 1935 moon hoax",[]],["Google' s yearly April Fool' s Day press releases",[]]]},{"de":[["deliberate, systematic information campaigns, usually conducted through mass media forms -the press, broadcast media, digital media, public events and exhibitions, and so on.",[]],["With many information campaigns, there is no question that they are deliberate attempts to persuade.",[]]],"rt":[["advertising",[]],["public relations",[]],["public diplomacy",[]],["public affairs",[]],["information operations",[]],["propaganda",[]],["public diplomacy (or public affairs)",[]]]},{"de":[["unidentified actors' deliberate and systematic attempts to steer public opinion using inauthentic accounts and inaccurate information",[]],["unidentified actors' deliberate and systematic attempts to steer public opinion using inauthentic accounts and inaccurate information.",[]]]},{"de":[["Both terms refer to information that is inaccurate, incorrect, or misleading.",[]],["This includes information reported in error, as when the Chicago Daily Tribune, relying on its political analysts and early poll returns, famously misreported in its early edition that Dewey had defeated Truman in the 1948 U.S. presidential election.",[]],["As with disinformation being labeled misformation because journalists cannot establish with total certainty an actor' s deceptive intent, the ambiguity inherent in irony can be instrumentalized.",[]]],"sy":[["misleading information",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["problematic information",[]]],"ex":[["the Chicago Daily Tribune, relying on its political analysts and early poll returns, famously misreported in its early edition that Dewey had defeated Truman in the 1948 U.S. presidential election.",[]],["shortly after a bombing attack at an Ariana Grande concert in Manchester, England, the Daily Express tweeted that a gunman was outside a local hospital, information which turned out to be inaccurate.",["1"]]]},{},{"rt":[["parody",[]]],"sp":[["Satire",[]]]},{},{"de":[["One of the challenges of describing problematic information is that many of these familiar terms do not have mutually exclusive definitions. Rather, their meanings overlap, and word choice can be a matter of perspective.",[]]]},{"de":[["misleading and manipulative communications",["24"]],["selective presentations of information, persuasive framings, and use of emotional appeals",[]],["the term propaganda need not be reserved for the actions of government agencies and political parties.",[]],["Propaganda can be designed to cultivate attitudes and/or provoke action.",[]]],"rt":[["advertising",[]],["public relations",[]],["public diplomacy",[]],["persuasion",[]]],"sb":[["White propaganda",[]],["Gray propaganda",[]],["black propaganda",[]],["agitprop",[]]],"ex":[["mobilization of public opinion in support of the 1991 Gulf War",[]],["the marketing of prescription drugs",[]],["the manufacturing of doubt around climate change",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["publicity",[]]],"rt":[["advertising",[]]],"sp":[["marketing",[]]]},{"de":[["People who create satires and parodies typically do not expect their works to be taken at face value. Rather, they assume that the audience will be in on the joke.",[]]],"sb":[["Parody",[]]]},{"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["Even when used in reference to official state communications, xuanchuan does not carry negative connotations of deception or manipulation, but rather refers more broadly to the process of spreading information.",[]]],"rt":[["dezinformatsiya",[]],["active measures",[]]]},{"rt":[["media literacy",["Buckingham, 2003, p. 4"]]]},{"de":[["Media literacy is defined by a vast circle of policymakers and academics as the ability to access, analyse, and evaluate media in multiple forms and communicate competently within these forms",["EC, 2011a"]]],"rt":[["media education",["Buckingham, 2003, p. 4"]]]},{},{"de":[["Harmful bullying behavior can include posting rumors, threats, pejorative labels, and sexual remarks.",[]],["victims may experience lower self-esteem, increased suicidal ideation, and a variety of negative emotional responses",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["presenting two alternatives as the only possibilities",["Torok, 2015"]]],"sp":[["logical fallacies",[]]]},{"de":[["At the EU level, a more precise term is preferred, disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Note that this definition is orthogonal to that of disinformation: Propagandist news can be both true and false, and it can be both harmful and harmless",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Propaganda messages are conveyed via specific rhetorical and psychological techniques",[]]],"sb":[["logical fallacies",[]],["labeling",[]],["doubt",[]],["flag waving",[]],["slogans",[]],["cherrypicking",[]],["omission",[]],["Appeal to Fear",[]]]},{"de":[["specific logical fallacies related to propaganda",[]],["presenting irrelevant data",["Weston, 2018, p. 78","Teninbaum, 2009"]]],"sp":[["logical fallacies",[]]]},{"de":[["misrepresenting someone's opinion",["Walton, 1996"]]],"sp":[["logical fallacies",[]]]},{"rt":[["frame analysis",[]]]},{"rt":[["prognostic framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Russia should immediately join the Kyoto protocol, without further speculation on its possible political and economic benefits or costs. Within the duty frame, it is emphasised that national activities alone are not enough for fighting climate change but rather cooperation between all countries is needed.",[]],["The moral claims of the duty frame concern mainly the actions of Russia, which is accused of delaying the ratification.",[]],["conforms to liberal-democratic views on Russian politics that were dominant in the late 1980s and early 1990s.",[]],["Initially, the frame was adopted primarily by environmentalists who genuinely think Russia should take more responsibility in global climate policy and environmental policy in general. But after the Russian ratification of the Kyoto protocol, the frame was used by politicians more as a rhetorical tool to explain why Russia ratified the protocol.",[]],["Russia and the US are the 'bad guys'b e c a u s e t h e y d e l a y t h eimplementation of global climatepolicy.",[]]],"rt":[["national interest frame",[]],["mission frame",[]]],"ex":[["Global soldier (metaphor of theKyoto Protocol); Bush, US( e x a m p l e s o f u n d e s i r a b l ebehaviour)",[]],["'In the end the whole planet will lose.'Mikhail Gorbachev, Viktor Danilov-Daniljan, environmentalists",[]]]},{"rt":[["content analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["Policy positions rest on diverse frames, that is, diverse underlying structures of belief, perception and appreciation.",["Laws and Rein (2003, p. 174)"]],["diverse underlying structures of belief, perception and appreciation",[]]]},{"de":[["implies that Russia has a special mission in the world",[]],["The idea of Russia as a Great Power, which implies that Russia has a special mission in the world",[]],["The roots of the Great Power ideology stem from the sixteenth century myth of the 'third Rome'.",[]]],"sy":[["Great Powervelikaya derzhava",[]],["velikaya derzhava",[]]],"rt":[["Great Ecological Power",[]]]},{"de":[["the mission and national interest frames reflect Russia's recent return to the geopolitically biased, national-patriotic ideology of Great Power (see Hedenskog et al. 2005) and reveal a tendency to look for the basis of the Russian greatness in its reserves of natural resources.",["Hedenskog et al. 2005"]],["The frames contain different standpoints regarding what makes or should make Russia 'great' in this respect: its environmental supremacy, economic status or the way it fills it duties for its own citizens and for the rest of the world.",[]]],"rt":[["national interest frame",[]],["duty frame",[]]]},{"de":[["the global climate policy is discussed in a rather negative light. The basic assumption is that climate policy is discriminatory against Russia because it does not take into consideration Russia's need to develop and grow economically. It is assumed that Russia's commitment to global climate policy would harm the development of domestic environmental technology, because joint investment projects as a flexibility mechanism set in the Kyoto Protocol would import technologies from other countries to Russia.",[]],["The prognosis of the national interest frame draws on the notion that, as the protocol lacks scientific validity, Russia should join global climate policy only if it meets the national interests of the Great Power and carries significant political and/or economic benefits.",[]],["In contrast to the 'mission' frame, the national interest frame depicts the European Union as an enemy.",[]],["The EU discriminates Russia with theprotocol",[]]],"rt":[["mission frame",[]],["duty frame",[]]],"ex":[["Within the frame, the Kyoto protocol is referred to as Auschwitz, Gulag, Gosplan, national socialism, Marxism, undeclared war, ghetto, boa, Trojan horse, and the holy cow of the EU",[]],["Auschwitz, Gulag, Marxism, war,g h e t t o , b o a , T r o j a n h o r s e(metaphors of the Kyoto Protocol)",[]],["'The Kyoto Protocol does not meetthe Russian national interests andhas a discriminatory nature.'Andrei Illarionov, Jurii Izrael, someother politicians",[]]]},{"rt":[["Diagnostic framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["HS is thus, by definition, target-oriented",[]]],"sy":[["HS",[]],["abusive behavior",[]],["abusive language",[]]],"rt":[["misogyny",[]],["sexism",[]],["racism",[]],["xenophobia",[]],["homophobia",[]],["Islamophobia",[]]],"ex":[["Women who are feminist are the ugly bitches who cant find a man for themselves",["1(1)"]],["Islam is 1000 years of contributing nothing to mankind but murder and hatred",["2"]],["Illegals are dumping their kids heres o they can get welfare, aid and U.S School Ripping off U.S Taxpayers #SendThemBack ! Stop Allowing illegals to Abuse the Taxpayer #Immigration",["3"]],["Seattle Mayoral Election this year. A choice between a bunch of women, non-whites, and faggots/fag lovers.",["4"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["These kinds of lexicons are usually lists of words to which a positive or negative or/and an emotion-related label (or score) is associated.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In this paper, we use SenticNet 5 that includes over 100,000 natural language concepts.",[]]]},{"de":[["understanding, measuring and monitoring the sentiment of users towards certain topics or events, expressed in mere texts or through visual and vocal modalities",["107"]]],"rt":[["personality",["80","86"]],["irony detection",["35","120"]],["author profiling",["100"]]]},{"de":[["emerging task",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["black people and white people are possible targets when the topical focus is racism",["117"]],["women are the targets when the topical focus is misogyny or sexism",["78"]],["black people",[]],["white people",[]],["women",[]],["immigrants",[]],["ethnic minorities",[]],["religious communities",[]],["Jewish communities",[]]]},{"ex":[["scholars sampled data for multiple targets, that is racism and sexism for, respectively, religious/ethnic minorities HS and sexual/gender (male and female) HS",["132"]],["sampling for the misogyny topic, targeting women",["23","38","39"]],["the target are groups discriminated against on the grounds of ethnicity (e.g., immigrants [5], ethnic minorities [125, 133], religious communities [128], Jewish communities [145], etc.).",["5","125","133","128","145"]]]},{"ex":[["misogyny, sexism, racism, xenophobia and homophobia or Islamophobia",[]],["misogyny",[]],["sexism",[]],["racism",[]],["xenophobia",[]],["homophobia",[]],["Islamophobia",[]]]},{"de":[["These neural subsystems are activated by different types of information (e.g., the \"surveillance\" system is activated through threatening treatments; the \"disposition\" system by information consistent with an individual's beliefs) and in turn generate discrete emotions (e.g., fear, fascination, or anger).",[]]],"sb":[["disposition",[]],["surveillance",[]],["aversion",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["posits that emotional responses are elicited through an individual's assessment (appraisal) of an event or stimulus, considering factors such as relevance, implications, and coping potential",["Lazarus, 1991"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["protest images",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we assumed that the image observation duration increases a person's participatory intentions particularly in cases in which the image perception engenders mainly negative emotions in that person.",[]]]},{"de":[["political interest is a motivational precondition for reception, information processing, learning, and opinion formation",["Delli Carpini, 2004"]],["In the context of political participation, political interest is a central prerequisite for mobilization",["Gil de Zúñiga et al., 2012","Holt et al., 2013"]]]},{"rt":[["visual rhetoric",[]]]},{"de":[["a campaigning strategy expected to elicit positive emotional reactions from the user base, ultimately aiming to maximizing motivation and mobilization",[]]]},{"sb":[["protest actions",[]],["protest issues",[]],["images of social grievances",[]]]},{"de":[["As such concept determines the information chunks to be perceived and how these will be processed and stored in the mind",["Bucher and Schumacher, 2006"]]]},{"rt":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Stance detection aims to automatically determine the perspective (or stance) of a document to a claim as agree, disagree, discuss, or unrelated.",[]]]},{"de":[["When pictures and words are both presented visually (i.e., as animation and on-screen text), the visual channel can become overloaded.",[]]]},{"ex":[["a multimedia instructional message in a book could include printed text and illustrations",[]],["a multimedia instructional message on a computer could include narration and animation",[]],["words and pictures intended to explain how lightning storms develop, how car braking systems work, and how bicycle tire pumps work",[]],["words and pictures intended to explain how lightning storms develop, how car braking systems work, and how bicycle tire pumps work.",[]]]},{"de":[["Multimedia messages can be described in terms of the delivery media (e.g., amplified speaker and computer screen), presentation mode (e.g., words and pictures), or sensory modalities (e.g., auditory and visual).",[]]]},{"de":[["The latter process is useful for understanding how the past weighs on the present (Liu and Hilton, 2005) asalready sharedcollective memories of past events are used for making sense of current events.",["Liu and Hilton, 2005","(Liu and Hilton, 2005)"]]],"rt":[["social representations",[]]]},{"de":[["the past is continually re-made, reconstructed as a function of present interests",["1932: p. 309"]],["representations of history influence the interpretation of current situations: past to present",[]],["present situations influence the choice and interpretation of particular memories, which in turn are used to make sense of present situations and to tailor people's attitudes and behaviors",[]]],"rt":[["social representations",[]]],"ex":[["The past is not simply 'received' by the present. The present is 'haunted' by the past and the past is modeled, invented, reinvented, and reconstructed by the present.",["Assmann (1997: p. 9)"]]]},{"de":[["Collective memories are instrumental in defining, maintaining, and mobilizing social identities.",[]],["they are involved in intergroup relations, particularly in intergroup conflict and reconciliation processes.",[]],["Collective memories influence the present, but they are also influenced by present psychological states and needs.",[]],["They are shaped by, and transmitted through, narratives.",[]],["Collective memory approaches anchored in cognitive psychology or social cognition already pay due attention to interactional factors.",[]],["collective memories are kept alive if they meet the needs and motivations of group members.",[]],["Rather than providing an accurate account of the past, their main function is to provide a usable past (Wertsch, 2002)",[]],["According to psychologists, collective memories are kept alive if they meet the needs and motivations of group members.",[]]],"rt":[["conversations",[]]],"sb":[["the strong and the distributed versions",[]]]},{"sp":[["distributed version",[]],["distributed accounts of collective memory",[]]]},{"de":[["Flashbulb memories and collective memories share many characteristics and are probably two ways of studying the same phenomenon (Paez et al., 2009).",["Paez et al., 2009"]]],"rt":[["collective memories",[]]],"ex":[["many people remember how was the weather, where they were, or what tune was playing on the radio when they heard about the 9/11 attacks.",[]]]},{"sy":[["retrospective illusion",[]]]},{"sp":[["distributed version",[]],["distributed accounts of collective memory",[]]]},{"de":[["human thought is organized by storytelling, but this cognitive mechanism is validated and maintained socially.",[]]],"rt":[["collective memories",[]]]},{"de":[["The objectification process is useful to account for the fact that the past is continually reconstructed as a function of present stakes",["Clémence, 2002"]],["The objectification process is useful to account for the fact that the past is continually reconstructed as a function of present stakes (Clémence, 2002). Hence, contemporary attitudes, norms, and values are projected onto past events and historical characters in a process of objectification.",["(Clémence, 2002)"]]],"rt":[["social representations",[]]]},{"sy":[["hindsight bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["because group members draw a 'moral' from their interpretation of a past event.",[]]]},{"sp":[["collective memory",[]],["interpretations of collective memory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The content includes video, image, audio, and text among other sources.",[]]],"sb":[["entire face synthesis",["Juefei-Xu et al. 2021"]],["attribute manipulation",["Juefei-Xu et al. 2021"]],["identity swap",["Juefei-Xu et al. 2021"]],["expression swap (i.e., reenactment)",["Juefei-Xu et al. 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["or to obtain a profit",[]]],"ex":[["post-truth",[]],["populism",[]],["satire",[]],["clickbaits",[]],["cloaking",[]],["ad farms",[]],["identity theft",[]],["post-truth, populism, and satire",[]],["clickbaits, cloaking, ad farms, and identity theft",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["spoofing, man-in-themiddle",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["social engineering attacks",[]]]},{"sp":[["social engineering attacks",[]]]},{"sb":[["spear phishing attacks",[]]],"sp":[["social engineering attacks",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The greatest threats to cybersecurity at the moment are social engineering assaults.",[]]],"sb":[["Carding",[]],["Phising",[]],["Pharming",[]]]},{"de":[["manipulations are performed by social media networks before uploading any content",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["phising",[]]]},{"sp":[["Phising",[]]]},{"de":[["The response may not necessarily be incorrect, but it falls short of providing a useful answer to the user question (Tamkin et al., 2022).",["Tamkin et al., 2022"]],["Such responses, though not incorrect, do not fulfill the user's information needs.",[]],["The response may not necessarily be incorrect, but it falls short of providing a useful answer to the user question",["Tamkin et al., 2022"]]]},{"de":[["These biases may originate from training data, which frequently encompasses historical texts, literature, social media content, and other sources. Such sources may inherently mirror societal biases, gender bias, stereotypes, or discriminatory beliefs (Navigli et al., 2023).",["Navigli et al., 2023"]],["These biases may originate from training data, which frequently encompasses historical texts, literature, social media content, and other sources. Such sources may inherently mirror societal biases, gender bias, stereotypes, or discriminatory beliefs",["Navigli et al., 2023"]]],"ex":[["the LLM portrays the teacher as a woman, which is a gender bias.",[]]]},{"de":[["These biases may originate from training data, which frequently encompasses historical texts, literature, social media content, and other sources. Such sources may inherently mirror societal biases, gender bias, stereotypes, or discriminatory beliefs",["Navigli et al., 2023"]]]},{"de":[["This type of hallucination arises when LLMs lose track of the context or fail to maintain consistency throughout the conversation, potentially due to their limitations in maintaining long-term memory (Liu et al., 2023d) or identifying relevant context (Shi et al., 2023a).",["Liu et al., 2023d","Shi et al., 2023a"]],["Cui et al. (2021) and Liu et al. (2022) evaluate models' ability to identify context conflicts introduced when BERT (Devlin et al., 2019) performs blankfilling.",[]]],"sp":[["hallucination within the context of LLMs",[]],["hallucination",[]],["hallucination in LLMs",[]]],"ex":[["The second example in Table 1 demonstrates how a user request to introduce the NBA Commissioner leads to a context-conflicting hallucination. Specifically, the LLM initially introduces Silver (the current NBA commissioner), but later refers to Stern (the former NBA commissioner), demonstrating a lack of consistency in the generation.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This type of hallucination occurs when LLMs generate information or text that contradicts established world knowledge.",[]],["we treat all unverifiable content as fact-conflicting hallucinations.",[]],["This is considered a critical issue in LLMs because it is challenging for users to identify and poses real-life risks.",[]],["diverse metrics to identify fact-conflicting hallucination.",[]]],"sp":[["hallucination within the context of LLMs",[]],["hallucination",[]],["hallucination in LLMs",[]]],"ex":[["in this case, the user asks the LLM about the mother of Afonos II. The LLM gave a wrong answer (Queen Urraca of Castile instead of Dulce Berenguer of Barcelone), which can easily mislead less knowledgeable users.",[]]]},{"ex":[["stating \"London is the capital of France\".",[]],["An example would be stating \"London is the capital of France\".",[]]]},{"de":[["The term hallucination has already been widely adopted in the NLP community before the emergence of LLM",[]],["We argue that the definition appears to have considerably expanded due to the versatility of LLMs.",[]],["hallucination is also present in human-generated corpora (can be reflected as outdated (Liska et al., 2022;Luu et al., 2022), biased (Chang et al., 2019;Garrido-Muñoz et al., 2021), or fabricated (Penedo et al., 2023) expression).",[]]],"rt":[["natural language generation (NLG)",[]]],"sb":[["Input-conflicting hallucination",[]],["Context-conflicting hallucination",[]],["Fact-conflicting hallucination",[]],["input-conflicting hallucinations",[]]]},{"sy":[["hallucination",[]]],"sb":[["Input-conflicting hallucination",[]],["Context-conflicting hallucination",[]],["Fact-conflicting hallucination",[]]]},{},{"de":[["hallucination is one of the most significant issues among them.",[]]],"sb":[["Input-conflicting hallucination",[]],["Context-conflicting hallucination",[]],["Fact-conflicting hallucination",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This type of hallucination arises when the content generated by LLMs deviates from users' input.",[]],["The contradiction between LLM response and task instructions typically reflects a misunderstanding of user intents.",[]],["the hallucination is in line with the conventional definition in specific NLG tasks, such as machine translation (Lee et al., 2019) and summarization (Maynez et al., 2020;Pu et al., 2023).",[]]],"sp":[["hallucination within the context of LLMs",[]],["hallucination",[]],["hallucination in LLMs",[]]],"ex":[["the first example in Table 1 appears to highlight a contradiction between the generated content and task input: when users request the LLM to generate a summary, the LLM incorrectly replaces the person's name in its response (Hill→Lucas), even though the general form can indeed be perceived as a suitable summary.",[]],["after uploading several key paragraphs about Steve Jobs, we asked LLaMA 3.1 70B which temple Jobs' mentor returned to in Japan. The model responded with \"Eihei-ji in Japan,\" even though this detail was never mentioned in the source material-a clear case of input-conflicting hallucination.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["which can result in hallucination",[]]]},{"de":[["due to imperfections in the reward model, RLHF may lead to overoptimization of LLMs, potentially leading to a state of under-informativeness (Gao et al., 2022).",["Gao et al., 2022"]],["due to imperfections in the reward model, RLHF may lead to overoptimization of LLMs, potentially leading to a state of under-informativeness",["Gao et al., 2022"]]],"ex":[["the LLM declines to respond to the user query.",[]]]},{"de":[["These sources may also use sensational language to generate interest, clickthroughs, and shares.",[]]],"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]],"ex":[["9/11 conspiracies, chem-trails, lizard people in the sewer systems, birther rumors, flat earth 'theory,' fluoride as mind control, vaccines as mind control etc.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["low-credibility sources",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["involve associating sets of concepts",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["To this date, the most broadly recognized measure of implicit biases is the IAT.",[]],["The tests must be performed as quickly as possible.",[]],["The relative speed of association of black faces with positively-valenced words (and white faces and negatively-valenced words) is used as an indication of the level of anti-black bias",["9"]]],"rt":[["SC-IAT (Single Category Implicit Association Test)",[]],["GNAT (Go/No-go Association Task",[]],["BIAT (Brief Implicit Association Test)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The term implicit bias is typically used to refer to both implicit stereotypes and implicit prejudices and aims to capture what is most troubling for professionals: the possibility of biased judgement and of the resulting biased behaviour.",[]],["heterogeneous phenomenon",["56"]],["We thus stipulate that an implicit association (prejudice or stereotype) counts as implicit bias for our purposes only when it is likely to have a negative impact on an already disadvantaged group",[]]],"rt":[["implicit stereotype",[]],["implicit prejudice",[]],["implicit stereotypes",[]],["implicit prejudices",[]]],"sb":[["implicit stereotypes",[]],["implicit prejudices",[]]]},{"de":[["many behaviours that lead to micro-discriminations and inequalities are linked to specific and fine-grained stereotypes.",[]]],"rt":[["implicit stereotype",[]],["implicit bias",[]],["implicit stereotypes",[]]],"sp":[["implicit bias",[]]],"ex":[["pleasant/ white",[]]]},{"rt":[["implicit prejudice",[]],["implicit bias",[]]],"sp":[["implicit bias",[]]],"ex":[["mentally agile/white",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["ingroup",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the problem with alternative facts is clearly that they are not facts in the first place unless they are empirically substantiated.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a new form of obstruction to his journalistic work",[]]],"sy":[["love bombing",[]]],"rt":[["obstructions",[]]],"sp":[["obstructions",[]]]},{"de":[["this epistemic crisis is highlighted by the reluctance of populist actors and their supporters to participate even in discussions about shared facts that should form the basis of politics.",[]],["this epistemic crisis is highlighted by the reluctance of populist actors and their supporters to participate even in discussions about shared facts that should form the basis of politics",[]]],"rt":[["post-truth politics",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["Verrohung",[]]]},{"de":[["a new form of obstruction to his journalistic work",[]]],"sy":[["communication bombing",[]]],"sp":[["Obstructions",[]]]},{"de":[["Another form of verbal abuse or intimidation is what one respondent has referred to as marking or branding (Markierung in the German original).",[]]],"sy":[["Markierung",[]]],"rt":[["verbal abuse",[]],["intimidation",[]]],"sp":[["verbal abuse or intimidation",[]]]},{"sb":[["ushers, or 'Ordner'",[]],["love bombing",[]]]},{"de":[["populism's binary distinction between corrupt elites and the pure people (and, by extension, between elite lies and popular truths)",["Waisbord, 2018, p. 18"]]]},{"de":[["These aspects also need to be seen in the wider context of the development of the public sphere in post-truth politics (in the digital age).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is not simply the case that facts (and truth) no longer matter (sufficiently) in political discourse, but rather that the trustworthiness of those who establish and/or convey the facts has become increasingly contentious (see also Harsin, in this volume).",["see also Harsin, in this volume"]],["More fundamentally, post-truth politics hinges on an epistemic problem in the sense of a fundamental lack of understanding of how facts are established (through the provision of evidence and falsifiable propositions), including the misunderstanding that facts-once established-are permanent and do not change in light of new evidence/observations.",[]],["And on a related note, truth itself has become increasingly contentious and contested, as different actors claim to know the facts and speak the truth and accuse other actors of lying and/or withholding the truth.",[]],["the concept is used to denote a whole range of phenomena that, while certainly interlinked, are and should be kept distinct from one another (e.g., Chambers, 2020)",["Chambers, 2020"]],["Post-truth politics, then, is essentially a form or style of politics that breaks with the idea that we need to relate to established facts in political discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["epistemic crisis of democracy",["Dahlgren, 2018; see also Chambers, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["the potential emergence of post-truth populism as a new political paradigm",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["mainstream media",[]]]},{"sp":[["Obstructions",[]]]},{"de":[["participants often fail to notice mismatches between what they prefer and what they actually get",[]],["separate the decisions of participants and the outcomes they are presented with",[]]],"ex":[["aesthetic, gustatory and olfactory choices",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["conversion types",[]]]},{"sy":[["action scripts",[]]]},{"sy":[["action scripts",[]]]},{"de":[["the preponderance of research evidence and scholarly opinion favors the active perspective.",[]]]},{"sp":[["conversion motifs",[]]]},{"sy":[["brainwashing",[]]],"sp":[["conversion motifs",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Conversion research is drawn largely from the disciplines of sociology and psychology of religion",[]]]},{"de":[["Negation of intimacy (distancing) in hate: Repulsion and disgust. Creating emotional and cognitive distance between the actor and the target-as dehumanizing images and beliefs tend to do-can erode psychological barriers to violence. Propaganda typically depicts the targets as incapable of receiving, giving, or sustaining feelings of closeness, warmth, caring, communication, compassion, and respect.",[]],["Passion in hate: Anger/fear (in response to threat). Propaganda may depict the targeted individuals as an imminent threat to approved society, and one that should be feared because of this threat.",[]]],"sb":[["Negation of intimacy (distancing) in hate",[]],["Passion in hate",[]],["Decision-commitment in hate",[]]]},{"sp":[["conversion motifs",[]]]},{"de":[["In the context of liberal democracies this could be applied to any ideology that advocates racial or religious supremacy and/or opposes the core principles of democracy and universal human rights.",["11"]],["The term can also be used to describe the methods through which political actors attempt to realise their aims, that is, by using means that 'show disregard for the life, liberty, and human rights of others.'",["11"]],["In the context of liberal democracies this could be applied to any ideology that advocates racial or religious supremacy and/or opposes the core principles of democracy and universal human rights. The term can also be used to describe the methods through which political actors attempt to realise their aims, that is, by using means that 'show disregard for the life, liberty, and human rights of others.'",["11"]]]},{"sp":[["conversion types",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Framing Theory",[]]]},{"de":[["a recursive process in which the movement's idea entrepreneurs attempt to frame messages in ways that will best resonate with the interests, attitudes, and beliefs of its potential constituency.",[]]],"rt":[["frame alignment",[]],["prognostic framing",[]]],"sp":[["Social Movement Theory",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This group-serving attributional style is often referred to within social psychology as the \"in-group/out-group bias.\"",[]],["People tend to identify and classify ingroup member behaviors more positively, and to make more positive attributions about them. Others outside the group (including other groups) are identified as having more negative traits and behaviors.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["conversion types",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the \"old\" or \"classic\" conversion paradigm",[]]]},{"sp":[["conversion types",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["radicalism",[]]],"sb":[["violent radicalisation",[]]]},{"sp":[["conversion motifs",[]]]},{"rt":[["Social Movement Theory",[]]]},{"de":[["Social psychology is a sub-discipline of psychology concerned primarily with relationships, influences, and transactions among people, and particularly group behavior.",[]]],"sp":[["psychology",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["radicalization",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["rumors",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["either just for entertainment or maliciously as well",[]]],"sy":[["rumors",[]]]},{"de":[["either just for entertainment or maliciously as well",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This model is based on different types of epidemic classes and has two layers of control mechanism to control the rumor in the social network.",[]]]},{"de":[["Form appeals to the conventions in texts, illustrations, layout, graphical elements or design genres, as well as those visual schemes that separate different thematic divisions.",[]],["Form is everything a newspaper does to present the look of the news",["Barnhurst and Nerone 2001: 3"]],["'Form is everything a newspaper does to present the look of the news' (Barnhurst and Nerone 2001: 3).",["Barnhurst and Nerone 2001: 3"]]],"rt":[["Conventions of style",[]]]},{"de":[["It refers to practices and routines that display the journalist identity -what news is and how the journalist should act towards it",["Broersma 2007: xiii"]],["It refers to practices and routines that display the journalist identity -what news is and how the journalist should act towards it (Broersma 2007: xiii).",["Broersma 2007: xiii"]]],"rt":[["Conventions of form",[]],["Stylistic routines (Tereszkiewicz 2012)",["Tereszkiewicz 2012"]]],"sb":[["Stylistic routines (Tereszkiewicz 2012) offer an ideological framework determining what is valuable, what should be included or excluded and what to expect from the story.",["Tereszkiewicz 2012"]]]},{"de":[["discourse is also a sociological concept.",[]],["Discourse is a socio-historical entity whose efficacy is purely symbolic.",[]],["it is, in the words of Chalaby, a 'discourse-phenomenon' (1996b: 697).",["1996b: 697"]],["Language is the means by which the discourse manifests itself.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["form and style refer to broader cultural discourses and widely accepted news conventions and discursive norms",["Broersma 2010: 20"]],["the performative power of a text not only lies in its content but chiefly in its form and style -this is, in the expression of professional routines and conventions that justify, and mask, the subjective interpretations and news selection of the individual journalist.",["2010: 20"]],["form and style, as key components of journalism discourse, are essential to journalism performativity: they are crucial aspects in the respectability and reliability of newspapers.",[]]]},{"de":[["The inverted pyramid contributed to the affirmation of journalism with its own professional standards and discursive practices. It balanced popular appeal with professional authority.",[]]]},{"de":[["journalism as an art of storytelling",[]],["journalism acts as a kind of social mediator: it functions as an intermediary between the public and the policy-making elites.",[]],["journalism derives its performative power from the forms and style employed through which it imposes and legitimizes valid representations of the social world.",[]],["Journalism entails a performative discourse because it is not a simple description or report of reality. It is a special way to regard events and personalities and it is reinforced by the performative nature of language.",[]],["discourse that restages or performs social reality",[]],["not just a textual representation of events: it is primarily a performative exercise of symbolic power",[]]],"rt":[["journalism discourse",[]],["news discourse",[]],["discursive production",[]],["performative nature of language",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, journalism as a social field has evolved historically, reflecting several tensional appropriations or rejections of the Anglo-American discursive pattern.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We do not reduce journalism discourse to news discourse (Van Dijk 1988) since it is just a possible manifestation of journalism discourse.",["Van Dijk 1988"]],["Gradually, the journalism discourse became a distinctive class of texts, developing its own discursive norms and values and particular discursive strategies and practices",["1998: 32-54"]],["journalism discourse is not just a textual representation of events: it is primarily a performative exercise of symbolic power.",[]],["journalism discourse from a wide perspective comprising not just texts but special classes of text, a set of texts with discursive properties including specific norms and values.",[]],["It is a discursive procedure to ensure journalism is a discourse of its own, with its pretensions to be regarded as legitimate.",[]],["the journalism discourse became a distinctive class of texts, developing its own discursive norms and values and particular discursive strategies and practices",["1998: 32-54"]]],"rt":[["news discourse",["Van Dijk 1988"]],["social discourses",[]],["public relations",[]]],"sb":[["news discourse",[]]],"sp":[["discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["they are crucial aspects in the respectability and reliability of newspapers.",[]]],"rt":[["discursive conventions of form and style",[]]]},{"de":[["functions pragmatically as an action upon the world",[]],["role journalism plays as 'meaning-broker in modern society'",[]],["Journalism's performativity may be better seen through two different layers: as a pragmatic activity, and as an enactment of its discourse.",[]]],"sb":[["pragmatic activity",[]],["an enactment of its discourse",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["journalism discourse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["journalism discourse reduced the emphasis on the particular and personal opinion in favor of a more objective, impartial and detached approach.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the most characteristic feature of academic digital discourse is interpersonality.",[]],["in the heat of an argument, critical views are expressed with vigour and strength and as such create face-threatening acts.",[]]],"rt":[["digital discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["failures to fulfil the maxims (i.e. violating, flouting, opting out, clashing, etc.) as providing conversational cues informing participants that irrational and illogical statements are better understood within a conventional framework.",[]]],"rt":[["conversational cues",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["textual rhetoric",[]],["Cooperative (CP)",[]],["Politeness principle (PP)",[]]]},{"de":[["these responses are noninformative at the level of what is said but highly informative at the level of what is implicated.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Cooperative (CP)",[]],["Politeness principle (PP)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["unlike propaganda and manipulation, which have acquired negative connotations",["Dontcheva-Navratilova (2012: 81)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["softened, solidified, or hedged statements, e.g., \"perhaps\" ,\"I believe\", \"surely\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["deception in the context of information and communication technology",[]]],"rt":[["deliberate misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Fake, fabricated, falsified, disingenuous, or misleading news reports",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["guidelines of source-checking and factchecking cultivated in professional journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Then, if the news report rating falls beyond an established threshold of veracity, an alert calls users to fact-check potentially deceptive content.",[]]],"rt":[["deception detection",[]],["rhetorical structure",[]],["truthdeception vector space model",[]]]},{},{"de":[["RST relations (e.g., purpose, elaboration, non-volitional result) describe how connected text segments cohere within a hierarchical tree structure, which is an RST quantified representation of a coded text",["27","28"]]],"rt":[["nucleus",[]],["satellite",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["relate to the manipulative strategies of suppression and selective presentation. By shifting attention away from themes that are not congruent with their own beliefs and ideological aims, political actors can continue to pursue their own agenda.",[]]]},{"sy":[["enunciative markers",["Ducrot, 1984"]]],"sp":[["Pragmatic markers (PrMs)",[]]]},{"de":[["Fairclough (1995) argues that conversationalisation is a type of marketization of ideologies and has a specific (hidden) consensus-building effect",["Fairclough, 1995: 51"]],["One such manipulative intent is the conversationalisation of mediatised political discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["conversationalisation of mediatised political discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["From a cognitive pragmatic perspective voicing and ventriloquizing can both be described as echoic uses.",[]],["The relevance of echoic utterances lies in the speaker's attitude towards the represented thought, which can be one of association or dissociation.",[]]],"sb":[["voicing",[]],["ventriloquizing",[]]]},{"sy":[["Connectives",[]]],"ex":[["English I think and French Je crois que as means of positioning practices that mark points of references",["Angermuller, 2014: 141"]],["English I think and French Je crois que",[]]]},{"de":[["In addition to marking the source and the reliability of information and knowledge (Ifantidou, 2001: 3), they may also indicate how knowledge or information was acquired, for example, through personal experience, inference, or report (Nuckolls, 1993: 235).",["Ifantidou, 2001: 3","Nuckolls, 1993: 235"]]],"sp":[["interpersonal markers",[]],["pragmatic markers",[]]]},{"de":[["The different terms mark different aspects of GEs' formal properties and functions: GEs usually appear at the end of lists, and thus indicate additional members of a list, and/or imply the fact that there is a set or category which is exemplified by the items preceding them.",[]],["GEs usually appear at the end of lists, and thus indicate additional members of a list, and/or imply the fact that there is a set or category which is exemplified by the items preceding them.",[]]],"sy":[["\"set marking tags\"",["Stubbe and Holmes, 1995"]],["\"vague category identifiers\"",["Channel, 1994"]],["\"list completers\"",["Lerner, 1994"]],["\"discourse extenders\"",["Norrby and Winter, 2002"]],["set marking tags",[]],["vague category identifiers",[]],["list completers",[]],["discourse extenders",[]]],"sp":[["interpersonal markers",[]],["Pragmatic markers",[]],["pragmatic markers",[]]],"ex":[["and stuff (like that), and the like, and whatnot, and so on, et cetera",[]],["and stuff (like that)",[]],["and the like",[]],["and whatnot",[]],["and so on",[]],["et cetera",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In cognitive pragmatics, a distinction can be made between informative and manipulative communication on the basis of the intentions assigned to the speaker and the ability of the hearer to recognize such intentions",["cf. Németh, 2014: 475"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["institutional talk",[]],["political discourse",[]],["media discourse",[]],["mediatised discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["often considered a \"growth industry\" (Fraser, 1999: 931) and, at the same time, a \"testing ground\" (Bordería-Pons, 2008: 1354) for theories of discourse and pragmatics.",["Fraser, 1999: 931","Bordería-Pons, 2008: 1354"]]],"sb":[["textual markers",[]],["interpersonal markers",[]]],"ex":[["of course, surely, I think, well and so on",[]]]},{"sp":[["interpersonal markers",[]]]},{"sy":[["discourse markers",["Schiffrin, 1987"]],["connectives",["Celle and Huart, 2007"]],["connectors",["Celle and Huart, 2007"]],["mots du discours",["Ducrot, 1984"]]],"sp":[["Pragmatic markers (PrMs)",[]]]},{"rt":[["echoic uses",[]]],"sp":[["echoic uses",[]]]},{"rt":[["echoic uses",[]]],"sp":[["echoic uses",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["RST",["12"]]]},{},{"sy":[["viewpoints",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["#dadt stands for \"Don't Ask Don't Tell\"",[]],["#jlot for \"Jewish Libertarians on Twitter.\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The translation and scaling constants serve to bound the measure between -1 for a tag only used by the left, and +1 for a tag only used by the right.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["PR's influence is mainly as an agenda-setter",[]]]},{"rt":[["third party spokespeople",[]],["front groups",[]]]},{"de":[["facilitates cut and paste 'churnalism'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The use of such 'front groups', then, lets corporations influence public debate (in the media, but also in policy circles) by proxy, and behind a carefully-constructed veil of expert or grassroots concern.",[]]],"rt":[["third party spokespeople",[]],["astroturf organisations",[]]]},{"de":[["package and translate news about highly complex science in an easily reproducible form",["Nelkin 1995"]],["These 'information subsidies' (Gandy 1982) are highly valued by journalists working under difficult institutional and economic constraints because they package and translate news about highly complex science in an easily reproducible form (Nelkin 1995).",["Gandy 1982"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["sources are not neutral purveyors of information; they have agendas, and try to construct and circulate their own (favourable) discourses about news events, as well as aiming to keep unfavourable stories out of the news.",[]]],"rt":[["official, elite social actors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["part of a shift away from democratic, dialogic, and public-centred models of science communication",[]]],"sy":[["PUS Inc.",["Bauer and Gregory 2007"]]],"sp":[["science communication",[]]]},{"rt":[["astroturf organisations",[]],["front groups",[]]]},{"de":[["learning by doing",["Tyler et al. 1979"]]],"rt":[["passive inoculation",[]]],"sp":[["inoculation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["threat",[]]]},{},{"de":[["can contain outright false messaging, which is easier to spot or fact-check but also uses techniques of manipulation to contort information, make it appear true, and much more difficult to identify",["Roozenbeek and van der Linden 2019a"]]],"sy":[["information presented by fictitious or fake sources",["Pennycook et al. 2021"]]]},{"de":[["players are not directly told why the misinformation is misleading",[]]],"rt":[["active inoculation",[]]],"sp":[["inoculation",[]]]},{"sy":[["refutational preemption",[]]],"rt":[["threat",[]]]},{"sy":[["psychological inoculations",[]]]},{"sp":[["inoculation",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["prebunking",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["inoculation",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["forewarning",[]]],"rt":[["forewarning",[]]]},{"de":[["Skin tone does not reflect whether someone is recognised as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander person.",["1, p. 7"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["deficit framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["dispreferred",["35"]],["can be used 'where Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander is used repeatedly within a shorter document'",["35"]]]},{},{"de":[["While Negativity has been called 'the basic news value'",["46","p. 156"]]],"rt":[["bad news",[]]]},{"de":[["can 'background the identity and/or role of social actors; it can lend impersonal authority or force to an action or quality of a social actor; and it can add positive or negative connotations to an action or utterance of a social actor.'",["31, p. 47"]]],"sb":[["spatialization",[]]],"sp":[["impersonalization",[]]]},{"de":[["seems to be associated with police reports, in relation to crime or missing people.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["good news",[]]],"ex":[["stories about medical breakthroughs",["14"]],["successful programs",["9"]],["stories that foreground the positive role of Aboriginal health workers",["16"]]]},{"rt":[["POS/NEG collocation",["29"]]]},{},{"sp":[["objectivation",[]]]},{"rt":[["Positivity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["veracity detection",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["not stupid rather than smart",[]],["not smart rather than stupid",[]]]},{"ex":[["e.g., \"men are . . . \"",[]],["\"the Dutch are direct\"",[]],["\"cheetahs run fast\"",["Leslie, 2008"]],["\"a cheetah runs fast\"",["Rhodes et al., 2012, Study 2"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["One linguistic device that has been associated with stereotype communication is negation usage.",[]]],"ex":[["not smart",[]],["not stupid",[]]]},{"ex":[["not stupid to refer to competent behavior",[]]]},{"ex":[["not stupid to refer to competent behavior",[]],["not smart",[]]]},{"de":[["Thus, entitativity refers to perceptions of \"groupness\" of a specific category and of \"similarity\" between its members (Moskowitz, 2005).",["Moskowitz, 2005"]]]},{"de":[["To test how these linguistic variations affect impression formation, we then measured perceived entitativity and stereotype content about the group, and perceived essentialism with respect to the described competent and incompetent behaviors.",[]]]},{"de":[["Such formulations imply that the described behavior has low essentialism.",[]],["This implies that the behavior has high essentialism.",[]],["This thus reflects the degree to which stereotype content is perceived as a fundamental and unchangeable feature of group members, as opposed to transient and adaptable over time.",[]],["To test how these linguistic variations affect impression formation, we then measured perceived entitativity and stereotype content about the group, and perceived essentialism with respect to the described competent and incompetent behaviors.",[]]],"sp":[["Stereotypes",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["perceived category entitativity",[]],["stereotype content",[]],["perceived essentialism of described behavior and characteristics",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["e.g., \"young men\"",[]],["e.g., \"this man is\"",[]],["\"this cheetah runs fast\"",[]]]},{"de":[["According to Fiske et al. (2007), competence and warmth are the two most fundamental dimensions constituting stereotype content.",["Fiske et al., 2007"]],["Stereotype content was measured through two variables: perceived competence and warmth.",[]]],"rt":[["perceived competence",[]],["Perceived warmth",[]],["According to Fiske et al. (2007), competence and warmth are the two most fundamental dimensions constituting stereotype content.",["Fiske et al., 2007"]]],"sb":[["perceived competence",[]],["Perceived warmth",[]]],"sp":[["Stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["because associated traits and features are (to a varying extent) expected to apply to all members of the social category and to be stable across situations and over time.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Moral Foundation Theory",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Moral Foundation Theory",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Moral Foundation Theory",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Moral Foundation Theory",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Moral Foundation Theory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is an agenda because it measures the priorities of each senator, as articulated in press releases.",[]],["Importantly, it is an expressed agenda because the attention dedicated to issues in communication are the issues that senators express as their priorities, not necessarily those issues that receive the most attention from senators while in Washington or from their staff.",[]],["it measures the priorities of each senator, as articulated in press releases",[]],["the attention dedicated to issues in communication are the issues that senators express as their priorities, not necessarily those issues that receive the most attention from senators while in Washington or from their staff",[]],["Substantively, this assumption implies that senators are resource constrained when allocating attention to issues and cannot distract from an issue any more than not issuing a press release on the issue.",[]],["measure the priorities authors express relative to the topics",[]],["Conditional on p i , each press release's topic is a draw from a Multinomial(1, p i )",[]],["It is an agenda because it measures the priorities of each senator, as articulated in press releases. Importantly, it is an expressed agenda because the attention dedicated to issues in communication are the issues that senators express as their priorities, not necessarily those issues that receive the most attention from senators while in Washington or from their staff.",[]]],"rt":[["expressed agenda model",[]]]},{"de":[["capable of retrieving a theoretically relevant set of topics",[]],["ideal whenever scholars are interested in comparing the priorities that authors articulate in text",[]],["can also be applied to study other forms of Congressional communication, like the attention allocated to issues in Senate floor speeches (Quinn et al. forthcoming) or the issues raised during Senate committee hearings.",[]],["Conditional upon this draw, we assume that each document is then drawn from a vMF distribution, with center m j and inverse dispersion parameter j j .",[]],["Note, that all senators select from the same set of topics to ensure that their priorities are comparable.",[]],["This version of the expressed agenda model, along with various extensions, is available in the free R software package expAgenda, which is forthcoming.",[]]],"rt":[["expressed agenda",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["white supremacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["disagreement in content coding",["Krippendorff (2011)"]]]},{"de":[["These outlets frequently present opinion and commentary essays as news.",[]]],"sy":[["hyper-partisan reporting",[]]]},{"de":[["They counterfeit fonts, branding and stylistic content strategies. Commentary and junk content is stylistically disguised as news, with references to news agencies, and credible sources, and headlines written in a news tone, with bylines, date, time and location stamps.",[]]]},{"de":[["have polarized public life.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In order to determine this a ratio is calculated between the actual ties between two groups, compared to the expected ties between the groups if all the accounts in the map were evenly distributed. The natural log of these ratios is then taken, along with a zero correction to create a balanced index and to ensure that all values are displayed in a positive form.",[]],["This ratio reveals whether two nodes have about the proportion of links they should have given its size.",[]],["A greater heterophily index indicates a denser pattern of connections between the two groups.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This content includes various forms of extremist, sensationalist, conspiratorial, masked commentary, fake news and other forms of junk news.",[]],["This content includes various forms of propaganda and ideologically extreme, hyper-partisan, or conspiratorial news and information.",[]],["For a source to be labelled as junk news at least three of the following five characteristics must apply:",[]],["Professionalism: These outlets do not employ the standards and best practices of professional journalism. They refrain from providing clear information about real authors, editors, publishers and owners. They lack transparency, accountability, and do not publish corrections on debunked information.",[]],["Style: These outlets use emotionally driven language with emotive expressions, hyperbole, ad hominem attacks, misleading headlines, excessive capitalization, unsafe generalizations and fallacies, moving images, graphic pictures and mobilizing memes.",[]],["Credibility: These outlets rely on false information and conspiracy theories, which they often employ strategically. They report without consulting multiple sources and do not employ fact-checking methods. Their sources are often untrustworthy and their standards of news production lack credibility.",[]],["Bias: Reporting in these outlets is highly biased and ideologically skewed, which is otherwise described as hyper-partisan reporting.",[]],["Counterfeit: These outlets mimic professional news media. They counterfeit fonts, branding and stylistic content strategies. Commentary and junk content is stylistically disguised as news, with references to news agencies, and credible sources, and headlines written in a news tone, with bylines, date, time and location stamps.",[]],["For a source to be labeled as junk news it must fall in at least three of the following five domains:",[]],["Bias: Reporting in these outlets is highly biased and ideologically skewed, which is otherwise described as hyper-partisan reporting. These outlets frequently present opinion and commentary essays as news.",[]]],"rt":[["Professionalism",[]],["Style",[]],["Credibility",[]],["Bias",[]],["Counterfeit",[]]]},{},{"de":[["constitute an important approach to closing content gaps.",[]]]},{"de":[["women tend to read relatively more biographies of women than men do, whereas men tend to read relatively more biographies of men than women do",[]],["We further observe self-focus bias, such that women tend to read relatively more biographies of women than men do, whereas men tend to read relatively more biographies of men than women do.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Audit studies are well-suited to assess biases, even when those are implicit rather than overt, since they emulate a real course of action rather than explicitly inquire about practices.",[]]],"rt":[["audit analysis",[]]],"ex":[["the resume correspondence study first conducted by Bertrand and Mullainathan [3]",["3"]]]},{"ex":[["For instance, in the seminal case of Griggs v. Duke Power, the Supreme Court held that a power company's requirement of a high school diploma for a promotion constituted disparate impact, because the requirement disproportionately excluded Black employees, and the company failed to show that a high school diploma was relevant to the job in question.",[]]]},{"de":[["In effect, disparate treatment is often interpreted as corresponding to common, intuitive understandings of discrimination in which an individual receives a certain cost or benefit because of their race/gender.",[]]],"sp":[["discriminatory conduct",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["applying an imperceptible non-random perturbation to a test image, it is possible to arbitrarily change the network's prediction (see figure 5). These perturbations are found by optimizing the input to maximize the prediction error.",[]],["The adversarial examples represent low-probability (high-dimensional) \"pockets\" in the manifold, which are hard to efficiently find by simply randomly sampling the input around a given example.",[]]]},{"rt":[["appreciation",[]]]},{"rt":[["testimonial injustice",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic injustice",[]]]},{"sp":[["epistemic injustice",[]]]},{"rt":[["recognition",[]],["love",[]],["respect",[]]],"sp":[["recognition",[]],["modes of recognition",[]]]},{"de":[["It is, Honneth claims, 'conceptually and genetically prior' to the need for respect and esteem (1995, p. 107): it provides the model on which our ideas of respect and esteem are based, and it is also the form of recognition we must experience before we can experience respect or esteem.",["1995, p. 107"]]],"rt":[["recognition",[]],["respect",[]],["esteem",[]]],"sp":[["recognition",[]],["modes of recognition",[]]]},{"de":[["the concept of misrecognition is a relatively taken-for-granted inversion of recognition.",[]],["a mode of epistemic injustice which limits the ability of the misrecognised to have their knowledge claims heard",[]],["a relatively taken-for-granted inversion of recognition",[]],["this deficient attitude only exists because people are fallible: they make mistakes when deciding how to take and treat others.",[]],["normative failures of recognition fall into one of three broad categories: total ignorance of relevant reasons to recognize, systematic bias in the application of a principle, or simply a situation-specific blunder.",[]]],"rt":[["lack of solidarity",[]],["recognition",[]]],"sp":[["recognition",[]]]},{},{"de":[["three characteristics that persons possess: they are social beings, who possess rationality, and are capable of autonomous action.",[]],["More specifically, he focuses on three characteristics that persons possess: they are social beings, who possess rationality, and are capable of autonomous action.",[]]]},{"de":[["the struggle for recognition can find only one satisfactory solution, and that is a regime of reciprocal recognition among equals ' (1994, p. 50).",["1994, p. 50"]],["intersubjective recognition may be achieved in relations of love",[]]],"rt":[["misrecognition",[]]],"sb":[["love",[]],["respect",[]],["esteem",[]],["concern, respect and esteem",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["recognition",[]],["love",[]],["esteem",[]]],"sp":[["recognition",[]],["modes of recognition",[]]]},{"sy":[["a progress of sentiments",[]]]},{"sb":[["moral struggles for recognition as persons",[]]]},{"rt":[["cognitional injustice",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic injustice",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["Some examples of popular tags are #gop, #obama, and #desen, marking discussion about the Republican party, President Obama, and the Delaware race for U.S. Senate, respectively.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["To study the diffusion of information on Twitter it is necessary to identify a specific topic as it propagates through the social substrate.",[]]],"sb":[["Hashtags",[]],["Mentions",[]],["URLs",[]],["Phrases",[]]]},{"de":[["politically-motivated individuals and organizations that use multiple centrally-controlled accounts to create the appearance of widespread support for a candidate or opinion.",[]]],"sy":[["astroturf",[]]],"rt":[["spam",[]]]},{"de":[["political astroturf is not exactly the same as spam. While the primary objective of a spammer is often to persuade users to click a link, someone interested in promoting an astroturf message wants to establish a false sense of group consensus about a particular idea.",[]]],"rt":[["spam",[]]]},{"de":[["e.g., if a number of the accounts tweeting about the meme appeared to be robots or sock puppets, the accounts appeared to follow only other propagators of the meme (clique behavior), or the users engaged in repeated reply/retweet exclusively with other users who had tweeted the meme.",[]],["We adopt the term truthy to discriminate falselypropagated information from organic grassroots memes.",[]]],"rt":[["organic grassroots memes",[]]]},{"de":[["they are nonetheless clear examples of coordinated attempts to deceive Twitter users.",[]]],"rt":[["pathological diffusion graphs",[]]]},{"de":[["A model with ∆ larger than zero leaks more information about gender than we would expect even from simply accomplishing the task defined by the dataset. This represents a type of amplification on the reliance on protected attributes to accomplish the prediction task.",[]],["bias amplification (∆) can be computed by taking the difference between adjusted dataset leakage (λ D (F1)) and model leakage (λ M (F1)).",[]],["A model amplifies bias if model leakage exceeds dataset leakage.",[]]],"rt":[["model leakage",[]],["dataset leakage",[]],["adjusted dataset leakage (λ D (F1))",[]],["model leakage (λ M (F1))",[]]]},{"de":[["This assumes that the attribute can be clearly identified in a sentence, which may be the case for some attributes, e.g., age (a young person, a child) or gender (a woman, a man), but not for others, e.g., skin tone.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The contribution of each word to the bias score is shown in gray-scale (bold for the word with the highest contribution).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["For a sample (I, y, a) in D with a ground-truth annotation y, a classifier f predicts the attribute a ∈ A from either y or ŷ = M (I).",[]]],"rt":[["bias amplification",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The reasoning is that if a classifier can distinguish between subgroups in the captions, the captions contain bias.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["this duality still overlooks a crucial third pillar of media literacy: contextualised facts.",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["resilience",[]]]},{"de":[["The first step to engaging an audience is empathy, i.e. putting yourself in the shoes of the viewer, asking \"Why would anyone be interested in this? Would I be interested in this? What's the point?\" and challenging yourself until you have come up with a compelling answer to those questions.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a first-hand understanding of those struggles, disappointments, and creative solutions",[]],["media literacy might become the link that repairs those broken relationships between citizens and systems, because it provides us with the tools needed to place informed (rather than blind) trust on credible channels of communication.",[]]]},{"de":[["Being media literate includes a first-hand understanding of those struggles, disappointments, and creative solutions.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The rumour stance classification task intends to assist in this verification process by determining the type of support expressed in different tweets discussing the same rumour",[]]]},{"de":[["we assume we have a set D of rumours R i , each of which is composed of a collection of rumourous conversational threads. For simplicity here we refer to a rumour as the aggregate of its Twitter conversational threads, which is ultimately a collection of tweets. Each rumour has a variably sized set of tweets t i discussing it so that R i = {t 1 , ..., t |R i | }; the task consists in determining the stance of each of the tweets t j pertaining to a new, unseen rumour R i as one of Y = {supporting, denying, querying, commenting}.",[]]]},{"rt":[["stigmatised other",[]]],"sp":[["otherness",[]]]},{"de":[["It is through this process of mediated elevation that 'stigmatised others' become 'absolute others'.",[]]],"rt":[["otherness",[]],["deviance",[]]],"sp":[["otherness",[]]],"ex":[["Paedophilic murders, suicide bombings, acts of terrorism, children killing children, cannibalistic orgies, Internet-driven sex crimes",[]],["Paedophilic murders, suicide bombings, acts of terrorism, children killing children, cannibalistic orgies, Internet-driven sex crimes may all be included here.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["can be overused to the extent that we risk reducing this period of late modernity to some universal, endlessly cyclical state of 'panickyness'.",["Sparks (1992: 65)"]]]},{"de":[["mediated constructions of otherness exists on a continuum separated by two polar extremes ('stigmatised others' to 'absolute others'), which themselves are not fixed but expand and contract with levels of tolerance and concern.",[]],["psychically held notions",[]]],"rt":[["alienation",[]],["demonisation",[]]],"sb":[["stigmatised others",[]],["absolute others",[]]]},{"de":[["a sense of inferiority or shame at our own insignificance",[]],["sadistic impulses to humiliate others",[]],["guilt over our own role in the creation of the crime problem",[]],["sublimated into jealousy and admiration for the criminal's exploits",[]],["guilt regarding our own sexual desires",[]]],"rt":[["public attitudes to crime and punishment",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["splitting and projection",[]]]},{"sy":[["scapegoating",[]]]},{"rt":[["absolute other",[]]],"sp":[["otherness",[]]]},{"de":[["an ever-present source of concern for conservative commentators, and a constant blip on the moral radar of the popular press.",[]]],"rt":[["otherness",[]],["deviance",[]]],"sp":[["otherness",[]]],"ex":[["The travelling community, recent immigrants to the UK, single mothers and welfare 'cheats'",[]],["The travelling community, recent immigrants to the UK, single mothers and welfare 'cheats' are all examples of the 'stigmatised others' routinely chastised in press discourse.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Flaming tendencies are noted to be highest when users intentionally use abusive, incendiary and hostile message against another user or faction.",[]],["Direct flames are characterized as \"incendiary messages\"",["27"]],["and \"inflammatory remarks\"",["28"]],["Direct flaming can also be described as messages, which constitute vicious attacks such as name calling, swearing, insulting on another communicating faction. It is also characterized by the use of rude behavior (may be sexually oriented), offensive, aggressive or hostile langua",[]],["Flaming tendencies are noted to be highest when users intentionally use abusive, incendiary and hostile message -dominant on ferent forms of computer mediated communication such.",[]]],"rt":[["Indirect Flaming",[]]],"sp":[["flames",[]],["Flaming",[]]],"ex":[["Previous research descriptions of flames that can be used to represent direct flaming as \"rude or insulting\" messages",["29"]],["attacks",[]],["nasty and often profane diatribe",["30"]],["commentary",["27"]],["vitriolic online exchanges and poison pen letters",["31"]],["a student fl teacher by e-mail",[]],["Customers using incendiary language against company officials due to products or services they are not satisfied with",[]]]},{"de":[["Direct flaming can also be described as messages, which constitute vicious attacks such as name calling, swearing, insulting on another communicating faction.",[]]],"ex":[["a student flaming a mail",[]],["Customers using incendiary language against company officials due to products or services they are not satisfied with.",[]]]},{"de":[["Though the term has been adopted from CMC, it has been debatable that the defining flaming only as an online phenomenon is assuming it as technological determinism from a few points of view, confusing the behavior with its theorized causes",["7","13","15"]],["The term \"flaming\" is mainly used in electronic contexts and rarely in non-electronic ones, example the classroom",["18"]],["Flaming is used deliberately by the flame sender as a means of diverting the other factions from the original discussion, by sending flames so that they can use it for their own benefit in an attempt to agitate and make the other factions change from present topic of discussion or to remain on a certain topic or point which is preferred by the flame sender.",[]],["This anonymity associated with computer mediation allows the users to be more expressive and less concerned about the results of their actions",["24"]],["The term 'Flaming' has also been equated with 'disinhibited' behavior, which is in fact a theorized cause of the action (flaming), rather than the behavior itself",["13"]]],"rt":[["straightforward flames",[]],["Satirical Flames",[]]],"sb":[["Direct and Intentional Flaming",[]],["Indirect Flaming",[]]],"ex":[["sarcasm, references and figures of speech",["10","11"]],["several distinguished individuals have terminated or abandoned maintaining their weblogs (Online diaries that is open for net users to read and comment on), due to excessive negative or hateful feedback they received on their weblogs",["20"]],["Comments and reader messages to online newspaper and magazine articles have also been strongly criticized for been unnecessarily rude and unparliamentary",["21"]]]},{"de":[["Indirect flaming is generally opted for publicizing disagreement or hostility but posted in a language, which can only be understood by the factions involved.",[]],["Readers of the conversation generally can only note the state of disagreement or recognize the comments as flames but would seldom be able to track references or to whom the flame is intended towards.",[]],["The users also tend to use sophisticated language in a polite way but can definitely be called as flames when the true meanings of such messages are characterization can also be used for any hostility intended to third parties in a bilateral conversation, with the intention of initiating aggression against the third party.",[]],["This term can be used in two different respects: One, the use of indirect references and non-hostile language but still conveying the meaning and intentions.",[]],["Even though there is little or no abusive language the messages can still be compared to be as incendiary messages having similar effects as that of direct flaming.",[]],["Secondly, the use of messages or language that initiates a third party to get involved against the flame recipient.",[]],["Indirect flames apply the social knowledge of languages and its prevalent usage to convey meanings and intentions",["32"]],["This term can be used in two different respects: One, the use of indirect references and non-hostile language but still conveying the meaning and intentions. Even though there is little or no abusive language the messages can still be compared to be as incendiary messages having similar effects as that of direct flaming. Secondly, the use of messages or language that initiates a third party to get involved against the flame recipient.",[]]],"sp":[["Flaming",[]]],"ex":[["Anonymous user 1: \"I hate you… you're not funny…\"",[]],["Anonymous user 2's Reply: \"I love the fact that you need attention so bad that you had to email me that. That makes me feel happy :) Enjoy your depression.\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This includes usage of witty language, irony and poetic freedom to convey insults, scorns or even malice.",[]],["Satirical flames are more prominent on sites, which link the user to his/her real identity, such as social networking sites, company mailing lists, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["Direct or Indirect flaming",[]],["Flaming",[]]],"ex":[["\"you are an awesome guy, Dedicated and passionate, I would love to stand by… Your side, your greatness incarnate. Alas! My words would be true, intention too!! If this were an opposite world where good meant bad and bad good\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Since straight flames are more lucid in meaning and the intentions are clear, such messages have higher probability of drawing counter flames by users.",[]]],"sy":[["straight flames",[]]],"rt":[["direct flaming",[]],["indirect flaming",[]],["Flaming",[]]],"ex":[["\"Bill, you suck. Euroclean could turn you into an excellent vacuum cleaner. You are an unethical, characterless loser\"",[]]]},{"de":[["texts that differs minimally from the one describing the image",[]]]},{"de":[["the skewed distribution may cause a model to simply go with the default choice and ignore contextual information that would suggest an unusual analysis.",[]],["Most of the discussion in the field has been about stereotypes relating to various demographic attributes (Bolukbasi et al., 2016), but in this work, we use the term \"stereotype\" in the more general sense mentioned above.",[]],["representations of language are affected by several kinds of stereotypes",[]]],"ex":[["if some object is often associated with some visual property (e.g. a color or shape), this property may be predicted by the model even in cases where it is not present.",[]]]},{"sy":[["obfuscation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["transformations of policing practices as they are increasingly recorded, structured, managed, and directed by apps and platforms.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["WeChat",[]],["Facebook Messenger",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["reactive coradicalisation",["4"]]]},{},{"de":[["All definitions, nevertheless, recognise the notion as a highly individualised and largely unpredictable process.",[]],["No two countries define 'radicalisation' in the same way.",[]],["For some, violence is the main concern.",[]],["For others, an ideology that may or may not lead to violence is the primary focus.",[]]]},{"sy":[["cumulative extremism",["5"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The majority of journalists aim \"to serve society by informing the public, scrutinising the way power is exercised, stimulating democratic debate, and in those ways aiding political, economic, social, and cultural development\"",["UNESCO, 2007, p. 7"]]]},{"de":[["journalism education usually covers practical skills and contextual knowledge.",[]],["journalism education must be craft-based with an emphasis on acquiring skills through practice; journalism education must be a mix of skill acquisition and traditional liberal education; and journalism education must include a critical engagement about the place of the journalist in society.",[]],["the journalism education provides ready materials from Western scholars, and are too idealistic to be applied in our culture, politics, economy, environment, and etc.",[]]],"rt":[["occupational ideology",[]],["individualism",[]],["professional objectivity",[]],["independence from the state",[]]]},{"de":[["journalism education is seen to have operated not just to reproduce technical skills but also to replicate a particular occupational ideology, based on notions of individualism, professional objectivity and independence from the state",[]]]},{"rt":[["state-based agenda",["Loo (2013)"]]]},{"sp":[["Biases based on the source of harm",[]]]},{"de":[["In the rest of the paper, we use 'bias' to refer to unintended bias in toxic speech detection.",[]]]},{"rt":[["lexical bias",[]]]},{"de":[["This sample is usually labeled for toxicity, and the keywords or user names in these samples are used to extract more samples.",[]]]},{"rt":[["undesirable associations",["37"]]]},{"rt":[["gender subspace",[]],["gender sub-space",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["GMBAUC",[]]]},{},{"de":[["negative phrases that are used to refer to the individuals of the particular group",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["lexical biases may or may not be identity specific and can be generally spurred from the presence/absence of words in both toxic and non-toxic labels.",[]],["this concentrated attention towards a few geographies creates a knowledge gap and can lead to lexical bias",[]],["There should be a balance of sensitive words and phrases like explicit abuse, identity terms (especially that of minority groups), and topic words across the labels to not fabricate any spurious lexical correlations with the labels. These correlations can disrate the model's ability to capture the context of such terms.",[]],["the lexical bias could be introduced due to spurious data collection and annotation biases.",[]],["Lexical bias can be evaluated at both dataset (source of harm) and modeling level (downstream harm).",[]]],"rt":[["sampling bias",[]],["annotation bias",[]]],"sp":[["taxonomy of bias",[]],["Biases based on the source of harm",[]]],"ex":[["conflation of identity disclosures (e.g., 'I am gay') with identity attacks (e.g., 'I hate all gays')",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["pB",[]]]},{"de":[["Sampling bias occurs at the first step of data collection.",[]],["The workaround employed to obtain a more significant percentage of toxic comments against vulnerable communities eventually manifests as bias against the very community it intends to protect.",[]]],"rt":[["annotation bias",[]],["lexical bias",[]]],"sp":[["Biases based on the source of harm",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the term toxic speech will be used as an umbrella term to refer to any form of content, including but not limited to hate speech, cyberbully, abusive speech, misogyny, sexism, offense, and obscenity.",[]],["rude, disrespectful or unreasonable language that is likely to make someone leave a discussion",["24"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]],["cyberbully",[]],["abusive speech",[]],["misogyny",[]],["sexism",[]],["offense",[]],["obscenity",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]],["cyberbully",[]],["abusive speech",[]],["misogyny",[]],["sexism",[]],["offense",[]],["obscenity",[]]]},{"de":[["In relation to toxic speech, there is always a group (or an individual from the group) at the receiving end of all the negativity and hate.",[]]],"sy":[["subgroups",[]],["identity groups",[]]]},{"de":[["the media's dishonesty and inaccurate reporting is goal-directed and deliberate",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["communicative untruthfulness",[]]]},{"de":[["In an era of post-truth relativism, 'fake news' is increasingly politicized",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["communicative untruthfulness",[]]]},{"de":[["populism typically focuses on conflict and the people's feelings and experiences whilst circumventing or attacking empirical evidence and expert analyses.",[]],["This core idea can be enriched with host ideologiessuch as nativism and anti-immigration sentiments on the right-wing and economic inclusion or anti-capitalism on the left-wing.",[]]],"rt":[["nativism",[]],["anti-immigration sentiments",[]],["economic inclusion",[]],["anti-capitalism",[]]]},{"de":[["giving a voice to the people, and emphasizing their interpretations of and connections to issues, is actually a focal part of quality journalism.",[]],["may present information that is not based on empirical evidence and/or expert opinion, but rather on the feelings and experiences of the people. Here, it should be emphasized that such forms of evidence-free communication are not necessarily wrong or inaccurate.",[]]],"rt":[["populist misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["In the direct Twitter communication of both Trump and Wilders, expert opinion is oftentimes neglected and discredited, whereas the ordinary people are regarded as the most reliable source of honest and accurate information.",[]],["Hence, hard claims, as well as causal connections that resonate with a populist anti-elitist divide and threats to the ordinary people, are made without any references to evidence, statistics, numbers, or expert opinion.",[]],["Extending this line of argumentation, this article has proposed a two-fold relationship between populism and mis-and disinformation: (1) the attribution of misand disinformation to the (media) elites; and (2) populist disinformation as a communication style that avoids empirical evidence and expert analysis, whilst placing common sense and the ordinary people at the center stage of reality.",[]]],"rt":[["scapegoating the media as part of a populist communication strategy",[]],["populism",[]],["mis-and disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["mis-and disinformation should not be conflated with the absence of factual information and/or verified empirical evidence. Hence, we argue that the circumvention of empirical evidence and expert knowledge may give rise to the reliance of a type of argumentation that relies on experiences and opinions instead of verified information.",[]]],"rt":[["populist communication",[]]]},{"de":[["The people's opinions and experiences are less susceptible to verification and scrutiny than information presented as empirical evidence.",[]]]},{"sy":[["discounted",[]]]},{},{"de":[["contrastive explanations address a particular event or case and are thus simpler to generate than complete or global explanations of model functionality",[]]]},{"rt":[["counterfactual causality",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["recipient's context",["Slugoski et al. (1993)"]]]},{"de":[["The preference for contrastive explanations is not due merely to the cognitive complexity of non-contrastive explanations, for example the number of links in a causal chain. Rather, the reviewed empirical evidence indicates that humans psychologically prefer contrastive explanations",["Miller, 2017, p.18","Rehder, 2003"]],["Human explanations are contrastive",[]],["Human explanations are selective",[]],["Human explanations are social",[]]],"rt":[["scientific explanations",["Miller, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["a discursive act, relying upon explanations to transfer knowledge and support claims made by each party.",[]],["Justification is also often a discursive act, relying upon explanations to transfer knowledge and support claims made by each party.",["Fox et al., 2007"]]],"rt":[["explanation",[]],["argumentation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Emoji enhances the writing when it appears with a text.",[]],["emoji are very useful to enrich and enhance its text.",[]],["These are the graphical successors to the emotions that show similar things through some characteristics.",[]]],"rt":[["pictographic",[]],["ideographic",[]],["emoticons",[]]],"ex":[["adding a kissy or winking face can disambiguate whether a statement is flirtatiously teasing or just plain mean",[]]]},{"de":[["These emoticons carry expressions, which are understandable and take very little in writing and interpretation of sentiments",["Dresner, 2010"]],["Emoticons are the graphical representation of facial expressions",["Dunlap, 2015"]],["The word emoticon is the combination of two words, \"emotions and icon\".",[]],["These emoticons carry expressions, which are understandable and take very little in writing and interpretation of sentiments (Dresner, 2010).",["Dresner, 2010"]]],"sy":[["images",[]]],"rt":[["photos",[]],["charts",[]],["drawings",[]],["pictographic",[]],["ideographic",[]],["emojis",[]],["non-verbal cues",[]]],"sb":[["emojis",[]]]},{"sp":[["Trait-level empathy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The authors considered two psychological trait variables: empathy and animism (the tendency to attribute living or human qualities to nonliving entities).",[]]],"rt":[["empathy",[]]]},{"de":[["is indexed by summing responses to questions on 'Perspective Taking' and 'Online Simulation' subscales.",[]]],"rt":[["Perspective Taking",[]],["Online Simulation",[]]],"sp":[["Trait-level empathy",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals who are better able to distinguish human-generated from AI-generated texts are accordingly less inclined to share AI information.",[]]]},{"de":[["the rate of AI misattribution",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["accountability vertical",[]],["accountability social ou societal",[]],["accountability horizontal",[]]],"sb":[["Accountability vertical ou eleitoral",[]],["accountability social ou societal",[]]]},{"sy":[["societal",[]]],"rt":[["accountability horizontal",[]]],"sp":[["accountability política",[]]]},{"sy":[["eleitoral",[]]],"sp":[["accountability política",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a troubling phenomenon observed previously in the study of vaccines",["30","31"]]]},{"de":[["factual corrections improved accuracy",[]],["factual corrections improved belief accuracy",[]],["effects of factual corrections",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation degraded factually accurate beliefs",[]],["false beliefs about COVID-19",[]],["false claims",[]]],"ex":[["The Gates Foundation is going to make huge profits from COVID-19 vaccines.",[]],["mRNA vaccines like Moderna permanently alter DNA, according to Moderna executives.",[]]]},{"de":[["These designations illustrate that Canadian law dealing with Aboriginal peoples draws upon First Nations law in giving meaning to the content of Aboriginal rights",[]],["They are \"independent legal interests\", inherent orders of legislationnot delegated nor a result of colonial proclamations.",[]]],"sy":[["pre-existing",[]],["customary",[]],["sui generis",[]],["unextinguished",[]],["beneficial",[]]],"rt":[["First Nations law",[]],["First Nations legal relationships",[]]]},{},{"de":[["First Nations laws are an essential source of appropriate analogies.",[]],["First Nations law originates in the political, economic, spiritual and social values expressed through the teachings and behaviour of knowledgeable and respected individuals and elders.",[]],["First Nations laws can be received by analogy into the Common law to bridge the gap between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal laws.",[]],["traditional laws",[]]],"rt":[["Aboriginal rights",[]],["Common law",[]],["Canadian Common law",[]],["European legal systems",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Where a clan or group has continued to acknowledge the laws and (so far as practicable) to observe the customs based on the traditions of that clan or group, whereby their traditional connection with the land has been substantially maintained, the traditional community title of that clan or group can be said to remain in existence",["Mabo, ibid. at 65"]]],"sb":[["traditional community title",["Mabo, ibid. at 65"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["characterized by the high level of homogeneity inside them",[]],["different contents generate different echo chambers, characterized by the high level of homogeneity inside them.",[]]]},{"de":[["The main difference between the two is content verifiability.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["distinctiveness",[]]]},{"de":[["Homophily is a cornerstone of opinion dynamics models: individuals exert social influence on each other proportional to their ideological similarity.",[]]],"rt":[["social influence",[]]]},{"de":[["The JSD quantifies pluralistic ignorance and is used to study how agents' falsifications affects the diversity of opinions within society.",[]]]},{"de":[["Pluralistic ignorance makes people unaware of others' true beliefs; a lack of accurate information can, though the mechanisms of social influence, feedback to change people's true opinions.",[]],["The perceived moderate norm pulls centrists towards extremism, causing the slow drift before t = 500 in the opinion trajectories, but also pulls extremists towards centrism, causing the occasional conversion of an extremists agent.",[]],["pluralistic ignorance precedes dramatic and sometimes nonlinear changes in societal opinion dynamics.",[]],["when social context encourages belief falsification, tensions between what is heard and what is felt build until they are suddenly released.",[]]],"rt":[["conformity",[]],["distinctiveness",[]]],"ex":[["after years government oppression, levels of popular dissent in authoritarian societies may become suddenly obvious, leading to political turmoil and violent tipping points",["41","42"]]]},{"de":[["social influence is the only active psychological force",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["fake news flags",[]]],"sb":[["forwarding restriction",[]]],"sp":[["platform intervention",[]]],"ex":[["algorithms to identify bots and malicious accounts",["Sharma et al., 2019"]],["network monitoring which leverages a set of nodes to filter the information they receive and block what they identify as fake news",["Amoruso et al., 2020","Kimura et al., 2009","Zhang et al., 2016"]]]},{"rt":[["content-level interventions",[]]],"sp":[["platform interventions",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news detection approaches",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["it is shown that it cannot overcome the role of confirmation bias and users continue to believe what they want to believe",["Moravec et al., 2019"]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news detection methods",[]]]},{"rt":[["account-level interventions",[]]],"sp":[["platform interventions",[]]],"ex":[["fake news flags",[]],["highlighting the source of the article",[]],["source rating",[]]]},{"de":[["information correction often fails to stop fake news and fake news continues to influence people's thinking even after correction",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["manipulated videos or photos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Different types of fake news and trends in combating them",[]],["Various methods of combating fake news on social media (all methods are detection)",[]]],"ex":[["System Audits to monitor computer use activities.",[]],["Transaction log reports",[]],["Virus scanning",[]],["Fact-checking (Manual, Crowdsourced, Automated)",[]],["Algorithmic Solutions (Machine learning, and other approaches)",[]],["Expert Fact-check",[]],["Machine Leaning (ML)",[]],["Deep Learning (DL)",[]],["Natural Language Processing (NLP)",[]],["Crowdsource",[]],["Graph-based",[]],["Recommender Systems (RS)",[]]]},{"de":[["Importantly, deterrents dissuade people from action through the threat of force and not the actual use of force.",[]],["Since deterrence is about demotivating people, we first need to understand the motives behind creating fake news.",[]],["Deterrents are passive countermeasures to discourage individuals from engaging in illicit behavior or committing a crime.",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation and disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Fact-checking",[]]]},{"sb":[["\"Expertbased fact-checking\" uses credible fact-checkers to manually assess the accuracy of the news.",[]],["Expert-based (Manual)",[]],["Crowdsource-based (Manual)",[]],["computational (automated) fact-checking",[]],["Expertbased fact-checking",[]],["Crowdsource based Fact-checking",[]],["Expert-based fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["the term \"fake news\" covers a wide range of (with or without intention) false or inaccurate information such as deceptive stories, rumors, satires, and conspiracy theories.",[]],["This is, however, a narrow definition of fake news that emphasizes both the authenticity and intention of the information.",[]],["People like to receive and share the news they like without considering if they are true or fake.",[]]],"sy":[["false news",[]],["false information",[]],["false or inaccurate information",[]],["rumors",[]],["misleading news",[]],["conspiracies",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["rumors",[]],["misleading news",[]],["conspiracies",[]],["satire",[]],["parody",[]],["fabrication",[]],["manipulation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["advertising",[]]],"sb":[["deceptive stories",[]],["rumors",[]],["satires",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["serious fabrications (tabloids and yellow journalism)",["Bondielli & Marcelloni, 2019","Rubin et al., 2015","Rubin et al. (2015)"]],["large-scale hoaxes (deliberate falsification causing harm)",["Rubin et al. (2015)"]],["humorous fakes (satire and parody)",["Rubin et al. (2015)"]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["hoax",[]],["serious fabrication",[]],["propaganda",[]],["parody",[]],["satire",[]],["Conspiracy Theory",[]],["Clickbait",[]],["fabrication",[]],["manipulation",[]],["advertising",[]]],"ex":[["political motives to influence public opinion, to advance a preferred candidate and political party, or to damage opponents, especially during election periods (Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017)",["Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017"]],["economic/financial motives to generate revenue and monetary profit. A common example is using clickbait headlines that entice/attract users to click through and subsequently generate revenue through increasing page traffic.",[]],["ideological motives to promote ideological views. For example, the ISIS terrorist group uses social media platforms to promote their opinions through spreading propaganda (Zannettou et al., 2019).",["Zannettou et al., 2019"]],["other individual motives, these include malicious intents (to hurt others in various ways), influence (to get power or to manipulate public opinion), sowing discord (confusion), and fun (Zannettou et al., 2019).",["Zannettou et al., 2019"]]]},{"sb":[["component-based",[]],["data mining-based",[]],["implementation-based",[]]]},{"sb":[["content-based",[]],["feedback-based",[]],["intervention-based",[]]]},{"de":[["is referred to as a mitigation strategy",[]]]},{"de":[["creation, publication, propagation",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]],["rumors",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news detection methods",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Inoculation involves two elements: (a) forewarning, a warning of a forthcoming threat designed to motivate resistance and defend one's attitudes, and (b) a pre-emptive refutation (or prebunking) of the persuasive arguments.",[]]],"rt":[["prebunking",[]]],"sb":[["active inoculation",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Inoculation involves two elements: (a) forewarning, a warning of a forthcoming threat designed to motivate resistance and defend one's attitudes, and (b) a pre-emptive refutation (or prebunking) of the persuasive arguments.",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news detection methods",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation and disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["flagging fake news reduces the impact of fake news by triggering users' critical thinking",[]]],"ex":[["flagging fake news",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["prebunking",[]]]},{"sy":[["pre-emptive refutation",[]]],"rt":[["inoculation",[]]]},{"de":[["Applied to fake news, preventive actions are active countermeasures to prevent individuals from creating or spreading fake news on social media.",[]]],"sy":[["preventive countermeasures",[]]],"rt":[["pre-emptive inoculation",[]],["immediate measures (e.g., fact-checking)",[]],["long-term measures (e.g., education and media literacy)",[]]],"ex":[["blocking fake accounts or blocking fake content",[]],["blocking fake accounts or blocking fake content are examples of preventive countermeasures",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sy":[["mitigation",[]]]},{"sy":[["remedy",[]],["mitigation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The truthfulness (facticity) of satire depends on which definition we adopt.",[]]],"ex":[["Mock news programs, which typically use humor or exaggeration to present audiences with news updates",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["News content based models",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["hierarchical propagation network",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It contains rich information of user opinions towards news pieces.",[]]],"rt":[["macro-level propagation network",[]]],"sp":[["hierarchical propagation network",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["News content based models",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These include both characteristics of the post itself-e.g., timing, word count, or if the URL domain is a news website-and how material in a given post relates to other material in that period-e.g., if the URL domain is in the top 25 political domains shared by trolls in the training data-what we term \"meta content.\"",[]]],"sb":[["meta content",[]]]},{"rt":[["political astroturfing",[]]]},{"de":[["is an important complement to primary content",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["Fake News",[]]],"rt":[["Misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["The intention behind publishing fabricated content is usually to mislead people for political, social, or economic benefits.",[]]],"ex":[["a news report that uses auxiliary images or videos that are either completely fake or belong to irrelevant events",[]],["a news report that uses auxiliary images or videos that are either completely fake or belong to irrelevant events.",[]]]},{"de":[["False connections are designed to catch the audience's attention with clickbait headlines or provocative images",["57","62"]],["False connections are designed to catch the audience's attention with clickbait headlines or provocative images [57,62].",["57","62","57,62"]]]},{"de":[["Since audiences trust established agencies, they are less likely to doubt the validity of the content and consequently pay less attention to subtle clues. Imposter content may damage the reputation of agencies and undermine audience trust.",[]],["Since audiences trust established agencies, they are less likely to doubt the validity of the content and consequently pay less attention to subtle clues.",[]]],"ex":[["a website that mimics the domain features of global news outlets, such as CNN 3 and BBC 4",["1","2"]]]},{},{"ex":[["Deepfake videos are well-known examples of this category.",["4","72","93"]]]},{"de":[["regardless of spreaders' intention",[]]],"sy":[["Fake News",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["Disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Another goal of this direction is to study and develop strategies for fusing features of different modalities and creating information-rich multi-modal features.",[]]]},{"de":[["In multi-modal misinformation, not all modalities are necessarily false, but sometimes the connections between the modalities are manipulated to deceive the audience's perception.",[]]],"rt":[["Junk Science",["5"]],["Propaganda",["6"]],["Conspiracy Theories",["7"]],["Hate Speech",[]],["Rumors",[]],["Bias",[]]],"sb":[["Satire or Parody",[]],["Fabricated Content",[]],["Imposter Content",[]],["Manipulated Content",[]],["False Connection",[]]]},{"de":[["Refers to biased information that is often generated to promote a political point of view.",[]]]},{"ex":[["an image within a satirical news article that contains absurd or ridiculous content or is manipulated to create humorous critique",["25","56"]]]},{"de":[["The combination of textual content and article images is one of the widely used sets of features for multi-modal fake news detection. The intuition behind this cue is that some fake news spreaders use tempting images, such as exaggerated, dramatic, or sarcastic graphics, which are far from the textual content to attract users' attention. Since it is difficult to find both pertinent and pristine images to match these fictions, fake news generators sometimes use manipulated images to support non-factual scenarios.",[]]]},{"ex":[["privacy intrusive default settings, misleading wording, giving users an illusion of control, making it hard to find privacy-friendly choices, and take-itor-leave-it choices.",[]],["privacy intrusive default settings",[]],["misleading wording",[]],["giving users an illusion of control",[]],["making it hard to find privacy-friendly choices",[]],["take-itor-leave-it choices",[]]]},{"sp":[["Data citizenship",[]]]},{"sp":[["data citizenship",[]]],"ex":[["understanding data q collection and data economy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Meaning, that platforms should develop computational 'obstacles' to make processes of sharing more meaningful and slower",[]]]},{},{"de":[["media literacy training mainly focuses on individual responsibility rather than questioning the role of the community, state, institutions or technology companies",[]]],"ex":[["media literacy describes being able to access media and to critically understand, produce, and negotiate meanings in a culture of images, words and sounds",["2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["Professor Zick explains that new technologies contribute to the phenomenon of \"absent presence\"",["62"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["With counter-speech, intermediaries can demonstrate by example what it means to treat others with respect and dignity.",[]]]},{"de":[["Online hate can thus denigrate group members' basic standing in society and deprive them of their \"civic dignity.\"",[]],["In this way, cyber hate can inflict serious psychological injury, including fear, stress, feelings of inferiority, and depression.",[]]],"sy":[["Online hate",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In short, a commitment to digital citizenship aims to secure robust and responsible participation in online life.",[]],["advance norms of digital citizenship themselves",[]],["foster digital citizenship without suppressing valuable expression",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such self-governance helps us behave according to our better natures.",["242"]],["the sites do not merely expect norms to emerge in a vacuum, but instead contain code designed to help foster social governance",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["an intermediary's voluntary efforts to define and proscribe hate speech should expressly turn on the harms to be targeted and prevented.",[]],["unlike mere insults, speech \"that may cause violence\" includes that which advocates violence against protected class members or states that such violence is \"acceptable [or] ... deserved. . . perhaps by characterizing them as guilty of a heinous crime, perversion, or illness, such that violence may seem allowable or inconsequential.",[]]],"sy":[["cyber hate",[]],["digital hate",[]]],"rt":[["intentional incitement to imminent violence",[]]],"ex":[["slurs, insults, and epithets that shut down reasoned discourse, rather than facilitate it",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["mediating institutions",[]]],"sb":[["communication conduits",[]],["content hosts",[]],["search/application providers",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["personal or communal value",["241"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["social-network sites",["78 GEO. WASH. L. REv. 822, 824 n.12 (2010)"]],["video-sharing sites",["78 GEO. WASH. L. REv. 822, 824 n.12 (2010)"]],["photo-sharing sites",["78 GEO. WASH. L. REv. 822, 824 n.12 (2010)"]]],"ex":[["social-network sites",[]],["video-sharing sites",[]],["photo-sharing sites",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["and in this manner supports the existing racial division of power",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the structures of power and hegemony that were set up in the colonial era remain in place",[]],["These systems and power structures in place did not end when the direct colonial rule by Europeans was dismantled. Rather, they remain in forms that Quijano terms the coloniality of power",["Quijano, 2000"]],["The expropriation of the labour and resources of racialised subjects, the development of institutions of governance from which racialised subjects are either excluded or limited to only certain roles, and the dismissal of any forms of knowledge except those associated with the techno-scientific rationality produced by Europeans are some of the main aspects of coloniality of power.",[]],["While countries that were former colonies achieved national independence, Quijano argued that they were and still are under the control of Western countries. This is because the structures of power and hegemony that were set up in the colonial era remain in place.",[]]],"rt":[["control of economy",[]],["control of authority",[]],["control of gender and sexuality",[]],["control of subjectivity and knowledge",[]],["decolonial theory",[]]]},{"de":[["The parameters within which content moderation operates are set by the reality of the content volume generated by users, the business and operational needs of platforms, and the regulatory and policy approaches of states and international bodies",["Gillespie, 2018"]],["Content moderation is therefore an essential and structural feature of platforms.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The definition of what constitutes hate speech therefore remains surprisingly unchanged since the mid-1900s",["Siapera et al., 2017"]]],"rt":[["protected characteristics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Race is therefore an outcome of colonial domination that has become pervasive in every aspect of global capitalist power.",[]],["Race is therefore not a biological category",[]]]},{"de":[["racism is not an attitude or behaviour carried by individuals; rather they are both outcomes of the specific social organisation that emerged in early modernity along with European expansionism.",[]],["This is supported by a specific division of labour, in which racialised subjects' labour is undervalued and by a dismissal of the knowledge and experiences of racialised subjects.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It obscures the true source of advocacy and misrepresents the level of support for particular propositions with the aim of inducing an audience to give the campaign's communications unwarranted weight",[]],["It obscures the true source of advocacy and misrepresents the level of support for particular propositions with the aim of inducing an audience to give the campaign's communications unwarranted weight.",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["Russian trolls infamously posed both as conservative Americans and as Black Lives Matter activists during the 2016 election to heighten conflict among actual American voters.",["189"]],["Campaigns originating in countries such as Russia, Egypt, and the United Arab Emirates have utilized various social media platforms to divide citizens abroad or cultivate support for authoritarian governments.",["188"]]]},{},{"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"rt":[["propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["Covert political gaslighting can manipulate audiences both as to content and as to confidence.",[]],["If contradictory information becomes public, for whatever reason, then we can describe it as a proven case of covert political gaslighting rather than a purported or suspected case.",[]],["it cannot be falsified at the time it is communicated, and might never be falsified at all",[]],["because it is covert in the relevant sense, it possesses greater potential to manipulate",[]],["It may also be more likely to persuade some members of the public as a result",[]],["its covert nature automatically increases its persuasive power-in varying degrees, depending on the surrounding circumstances-because it is immune to direct falsification and subject at best to various forms of suspicion.",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["political gaslighting",[]]],"ex":[["a speaker sheds crocodile tears",[]],["express faux outrage-for example, at an ostensible slight from their political opponents",[]]]},{"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the idea that propaganda must be false",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The term \"gaslighting\" has only recently found its way into the political domain-controversially at that-and it has never been systematically theorized in the political context.",[]],["Gaslighting is commonly understood to operate through the speaker's use of false statements, including his denial of true assertions",["143","142"]],["Gaslighting is commonly understood to operate through the speaker's use of false statements, including his denial of true assertions by 142.",["142"]],["\"The term 'gaslighting' refers to when someone manipulates you into questioning and second-guessing your reality.\"",[]]],"rt":[["political gaslighting",[]],["interpersonal gaslighting",[]]],"sb":[["political gaslighting",["145"]]]},{"sp":[["platform manipulation",[]]]},{"de":[["a more pronounced pattern of information on discrete subjects will be necessary to qualify as indiscriminate political gaslighting",[]],["It reflects a core case of manipulation as to content, inserting false propositions (or casting doubt on true ones) with at least the significant propensity to interfere with the audience's ability to process true information rationally. Political gaslighting may also manipulate an audience as to confidence as well, especially when the false information advanced inaccurately conveys information about a source of yet further information (such as the appropriate level of confidence one should take in objective news reporting).",[]]],"sp":[["political gaslighting",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["At least with lying, one purports to provide evidence.",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["the lie itself may simply operate as a false premise in one's internal deliberative process.",[]],["Lying too is a betrayal of the rational will.",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["the word \"manipulation\" has multiple meanings, but it carries a negative connotation in the sense explained in this Section.",[]]],"rt":[["deception",[]],["complex motivation",[]]],"sb":[["manipulation as to content",[]],["manipulation as to confidence",[]]]},{"de":[["Often manipulation as to confidence arises when the communication purports to be, or is misunderstood to be, something it is not",[]]],"sp":[["manipulation",[]]],"ex":[["when someone interprets fiction to be nonfiction",[]],["reads advocacy materials originating from one source while believing them to be from another",[]]]},{"de":[["It leads to false beliefs, or to conclusions that do not follow.",[]]],"sp":[["manipulation",[]]]},{"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"sp":[["political gaslighting",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["inauthentic engagements",[]]]},{"de":[["the Article also develops the first systematic account of political gaslighting",[]],["willingness to disseminate demonstrably false information on a consistent and repeated basis",[]],["some political commentators have adapted the term \"gaslighting.\"",["141"]],["brazen dishonesty by a political figure-dishonesty that is manifest and therefore causes dissonance and destabilization in the audience-is very much an assertion of power over truth",[]],["A political gaslighter might rely explicitly on, or collectively endorse, demonstrably incorrect propositions and logical contradictions.",[]],["In those cases, his political gaslighting is overt-that is, it can be demonstrated beyond question that the statements are erroneous in such a way that the speaker should at minimum know they are false.",[]],["require them to be engaged in the trafficking of misinformation recklessly if not knowingly, and with the suggestion that the information is or could well be true",[]],["the inherent lack of nuance that characterizes pervasive, indiscriminate political gaslighting may not limit its persuasive power as much as it would in the case of more isolated, thematic political gaslighting.",[]],["one consequence of overt, indiscriminate political gaslighting is to shake the confidence of the public in the government itself",[]],["reflects a core case of manipulation as to content, inserting false propositions (or casting doubt on true ones) with at least the significant propensity to interfere with the audience's ability to process true information rationally.",[]],["manipulate an audience as to confidence as well, especially when the false information advanced inaccurately conveys information about a source of yet further information (such as the appropriate level of confidence one should take in objective news reporting).",[]],["It reflects a core case of manipulation as to content, inserting false propositions (or casting doubt on true ones) with at least the significant propensity to interfere with the audience's ability to process true information rationally.",[]],["Political gaslighting may also manipulate an audience as to confidence as well, especially when the false information advanced inaccurately conveys information about a source of yet further information (such as the appropriate level of confidence one should take in objective news reporting).",[]],["At other times, political gaslighting may be covert, namely when a speaker makes statements that cannot be conclusively proven false, but which the audience has a reasonable basis to doubt.",[]]],"rt":[["gaslighting",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["Overt political gaslighting",[]],["thematic political gaslighting",[]],["indiscriminate political gaslighting",[]],["covert political gaslighting",[]],["isolated, thematic political gaslighting",[]],["overt-that is, it can be demonstrated beyond question that the statements are erroneous in such a way that the speaker should at minimum know they are false.",[]],["covert, namely when a speaker makes statements that cannot be conclusively proven false, but which the audience has a reasonable basis to doubt.",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]],["Gaslighting",["145"]]],"ex":[["A direct, demonstrable lie about a specific point may be enough to qualify as thematic political gaslighting, whereas a more pronounced pattern of information on discrete subjects will be necessary to qualify as indiscriminate political gaslighting.",[]]]},{"de":[["This is a broad definition primarily encompassing different forms of media that advance the interests of foreign entities or harm specific U.S. interests.",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["threaten to function inherently as propaganda-at least when they have sufficient persuasive power or persuasive effect",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["Most of these searches are rare, but in the cases where people do search for these terms, search engines tend to return results that may not give the user what they want because of limited data and/or limited lessons learned through previous searches.",[]]],"sb":[["Data voids that are actively weaponized by adversarial actors immediately following a breaking news event, usually involving names of locations or suspects in violent attacks (e.g., \"Sutherland Springs\" or \"Parkland.\")",[]],["Data voids that are actively weaponized by adversarial actors around problematic search terms, usually with racial, gendered, or other discriminatory intent (e.g., \"black on white crime\" or \"The Greatest Story Never Told\" or \"white genocide statistics.\")",[]],["Data voids that passively reflect bias or prejudice in society but are not actively being weaponized or exploited by a particular group (e.g., \"CEO.\")",[]],["Data voids that are actively weaponized by adversarial actors immediately following a breaking news event, usually involving names of locations or suspects in violent attacks",[]],["Data voids that are actively weaponized by adversarial actors around problematic search terms, usually with racial, gendered, or other discriminatory intent",[]],["Data voids that passively reflect bias or prejudice in society but are not actively being weaponized or exploited by a particular group",[]]],"ex":[["a term like \"basketball,\" which promises a seemingly infinite number of results, and one with zero results. In that long tail, there are plenty of search queries that can drop people into a data void rife with problematic results.",[]],["Harrold-Oklaunion",[]],["\"black on white crimes\"",[]],["\"Sutherland Springs\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Gibson first used affordance to refer to a specific kind of relationship between an animal and the environment.",[]],["the affordances of the environment are what it offers the animal, what it provides or furnishes, either for good or will",["2015: 119"]],["I mean by it something that refers to both the environment and the animal in a way that no existing term does",["2015: 119"]],["affordances do not cause behavior but constrain and control it",["1982: 411"]],["For Gibson affordances are invariant, meaning that they do 'not change as the need of the observer changes. The observer may or may not perceive or attend to the affordance, according to his needs, but the affordance, being invariant, is always there to be perceived'",["2015: 130"]],["For Gibson affordances are invariant, meaning that they do 'not change as the need of the observer changes.",[]],["As Gibson put it, 'affordances do not cause behavior but constrain and control it' (1982: 411).",["1982: 411"]],["Work in this area often uses an affordance approach to focus attention not on any particular technology, but on the new dynamics or types of communicative practices and social interactions that various features afford.",[]]],"sy":[["features of technology",["Graves, 2007"]]],"rt":[["technology affordances",[]],["social affordances",[]],["communicative affordances",[]],["affordances and constraints",[]]],"ex":[["different layouts afford different behaviors for different animals […] Knee-high for a child is not the same as knee-high for an adult, so the affordance is relative to the size of the individual",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Features are 'communicational actors' in the sense that they 'produce meanings and meaningfulness'",["Langlois, 2014: 52"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["affordances",[]]]},{"de":[["emerge between users' perceptions, attitudes, and expectations; between the materiality and functionality of technologies; and between the intentions and perceptions of designers",["2015: 5"]],["users' perceptions, beliefs, and expectations of what the technology does or what the platform suggests it is for 'shape how they approach them and what actions they think are suggested'",["2015: 5"]]],"sp":[["Affordance",[]]]},{"de":[["the ways in which users imagine and expect certain algorithmic affordances, affect how they approach these platforms",[]]]},{"rt":[["High-level affordances",[]]],"ex":[["Twitter's 140-character limit",[]],["the ability to share a link using a tweet button",[]]],"sp":[["Affordance",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Platform surfaces are relative because they, in many cases, are personalized for each end-user and because platforms create and present multiple interfaces (as discussed in the previous section) that enable and constrain users' action possibilities.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Social media platforms are characterized by the combination of their infrastructural model as programmable and extendable infrastructures, and their economic model of connecting end-users to advertisers",["Helmond, 2015"]]]},{"de":[["advertisers, developers, and researchers are platform users in their own right too.",[]]],"sy":[["human end-user",[]]]},{"sp":[["affordances",[]]]},{"sb":[["heavy fabrication",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["satires",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a means to increase the amount of readership or to create psychological warfare.",[]],["There are many studies about fake news, and there is no agreed definition of this term.",[]],["Conroy (2015) treats fake news as deceptive news, including heavy fabrication, hoaxes, and satires in his work.",["Conroy (2015)"]]],"sy":[["false news",[]],["rumor",[]],["misinformation",[]],["maliciously false news",[]],["deceptive news",["Conroy (2015)"]]],"rt":[["false news",[]],["rumor",[]],["misinformation",[]],["maliciously false news",[]]]},{"rt":[["hoaxes",[]],["deliberate misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Balmas (2014) stated that fake news refers to satire news as they contain false content.",["Balmas (2014)"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["relational features",[]],["structural features",[]],["social features",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The idea behind this task is that the aggregation of distinct stances expressed by users in social media can be used to assist in deciding if a report is actually true or false [13].",["13"]]],"rt":[["stance classification",[]]],"sb":[["support",[]],["deny",[]],["query",[]],["comment",[]],["supporting",[]],["denying",[]],["querying",[]],["commenting",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Sequential classifiers will use the predictions on preceding tweets to determine the possible label for each tweet.",[]]]},{"rt":[["rumour stance classification",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This representation disparity forms our definition of unfairness",[]]],"sy":[["unfairness",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["we move closer to theorizing how stories about events inform broader imaginaries of everyday political life (Taylor, 2002), and thus how mediated stories about 'extraordinary' crime events can symbolically condition how we visualize -and imaginatively locate ourselves within -'ordinary' power relations.",["Taylor, 2002"]]]},{},{"de":[["reproduction of 'criminality' -not only as a constructed category of subject but, more fundamentally, as an arbitrary yet historically resilient justificatory logic",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Distant After images are thus also Distant Before images, as nothing in the visual modality distinguishes these two types from one another.",[]]]},{"de":[["not clearly marked as either 'before' or 'after' a criminal moment, these images function narratively as both.",[]]],"sy":[["Distant Before images",[]]]},{"de":[["The scenes they capture are 'elsewhere' in time whilst remaining 'precisely there' in space, relying on captions and headlines to clarify their location vis-à-vis the rupture of crime.",[]]],"sy":[["Distant Before images",[]]]},{},{"de":[["as 'no event lives for longer than an instant without copies'",["p. 26"]],["no event lives for longer than an instant without copies",["Wagner-Pacifici (2017)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["As symbolic event forms, these images do not testify to any single event at any particular juncture of space and time. Rather, the Extreme Distance image congeals events together visually to mediate them as phenomena, connected in time and space, and co-implicated in meaning.",[]],["The Extreme Distance vantage point collates events from across the chronology of lived time so that they can appear and amass side-by-side in visual simultaneity.",[]],["The Extreme Distance image takes up discrete crime events and mediates them as parts of an as-yet-incomplete whole; it offers a way of looking at crime that facilitates the identification (and imaginative continuation) of patterns.",[]]],"sp":[["symbolic event forms",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We can call this way of looking forensic",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the spatial-temporal location of the captured frame via-à-vis the rupture of the narrated crime event is asymmetrical -spatially immediate, and yet temporally 'afterwards'",[]],["the spatial-temporal location of the captured frame via-à-vis the rupture of the narrated crime event is asymmetrical -spatially immediate, and yet temporally 'afterwards' .",[]]]},{"de":[["the viewer is called on to look towards what cannot be seen, not by adjusting the gaze but by imaginatively constructing the next moment in a trajectory of movement frozen by photography.",[]]],"rt":[["anticipatory",[]]],"ex":[["a punch about to land, a window about to shatter, a fight about to break out",[]]]},{},{"de":[["holding fixed the 'who' and 'what' of crime events while endlessly shifting and destabilizing the 'where' and 'when'",[]],["helps clarify how and why hypermediated crime events and phenomena resist discrete and/or desecuritized interpretations of their political significance, and thus broadens existing accounts of how news images criminalize",[]],["instrumental in helping mediated crime events resist desecuritized interpretations of their significance, and therefore in culturally animating practices of crime control",[]],["fosters a 'fantasy of manageability' (De Goede, 2008: 168) as it relates to the 'who' and 'what' of social threat",["De Goede, 2008: 168"]],["nurtures a hypervigilance towards the unknown, especially as it relates to the 'where' and 'when' of possible future crime, which are mediated as limitless, fluctuating and ever-uncertain",[]],["Kaleidoscopic visions are ultimately patterned visions that emerge through a visual interplay between singularity/fixity and infinity/movement: the moment of criminal rupture set against the restlessness of the mediated event, the stillness of the photograph against the inevitable motion of social life.",[]]],"rt":[["prevalence-based approach",[]]],"sb":[["the anticipatory",[]],["the embodied",[]],["the forensic",[]],["the vigilant",[]],["the pre-emptive",[]]]},{"de":[["conceptualizes mediated criminalization as symbolic articulation (Hall, 1997)",[]],["This approach conceptualizes mediated criminalization as symbolic articulation (Hall, 1997)",["Hall, 1997"]]]},{"de":[["tends towards abstraction -it is a visual idea in its very becoming",[]]]},{"de":[["We can describe the way of looking it invites as pre-emptive",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["vigilant visuality",[]]]},{"de":[["characteristic of a post-9/11 security imaginary in which the local and the everyday are imaginatively reconfigured through practices of mediated communication (including journalism) as the 'homefront' of larger geopolitical power struggles.",["Louise Amoore (2009)"]]],"rt":[["profiling",[]]]},{},{"de":[["compositional contrast between spaciousness and crowdedness",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It concentrates on the form of bias that emerges when news frames, which traditionally reflect stereotypical masculine narratives, are applied to issues that concern women",["(Gidengil and Everitt, 1999)","Gidengil and Everitt, 1999","1999"]],["Gendered mediation, however, is not about the simple use of feminine stereotypes in the coverage of women's affairs but about the nuanced representation of women in public arenas that are conceptualised as being gender-sensitive.",[]],["Gendered mediation manifests in the imagery of language used to report issues where one gender is considered the norm and the other an exception.",[]],["The text search identified two dominant frames: implicit and explicit gendered mediation.",[]],["The notion of gendered mediation is premised on the argument that conventional news frames treat the male as the normative and favour a masculine narrative of events and issues",["Sreberny-Mohammadi and Ross, 1996"]]],"rt":[["conventional news frames",[]],["masculinist interpretations of conflict",[]],["masculine narrative",[]],["gender differences",[]]],"sb":[["implicit",[]],["explicit",[]]]},{},{"de":[["autonomy and agency are widely considered desirable qualities in HCI",[]],["decision making on the part of both players [...] Avoid the perception that one player is just an \"executor\" of the game or another player's orders",["62, p. 5"]]],"sy":[["autonomy",[]]],"rt":[["sense-of-agency",[]],["autonomy",[]]],"sb":[["low-level sense-of-agency",[]]],"ex":[["focusing on the moment-to-moment experience of self-causation",["67","112"]]]},{"de":[["individual autonomy as the basis of rational agency",[]],["Feeling in control of one's actions is integral to autonomy",[]],["autonomy and agency are widely considered desirable qualities in HCI",[]],["the experience of autonomy and agency can be altered without affecting the user's causal involvement or material control over outcomes",["44"]]],"sy":[["agency",[]],["independence",["64, p. 13"]]],"rt":[["agency",[]],["interdependence",[]]]},{"rt":[["identity",[]]],"sp":[["Causal aspects of agency and autonomy",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["execution",[]]],"sp":[["Self-Causality and Identity",[]],["Causal aspects of agency and autonomy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Experience and Materiality",[]]]},{"rt":[["causality",[]]],"sp":[["Causal aspects of agency and autonomy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Independence or Interdependence",[]]]},{"rt":[["agency",[]],["autonomy",[]]],"sp":[["Independence or Interdependence",[]]]},{"de":[["concerns the alignment of outcomes with users' values and goals",[]]]},{"rt":[["self-congruence",[]]],"sp":[["Self-Causality and Identity",[]]]},{"de":[["low-level sense-of-agency",[]],["the in-the-moment perception of control",[]],["the post hoc, explicit attribution of an action to the self or other",[]],["the sense-of-agency in quite minimal interactions could be manipulated, by manipulating sense-of-ownership [89], haptic feedback [152], or the timing of events [89,90]",["89","152","90"]],["users can exhibit sense-of-agency with respect to situations where they have no causal influence",["36","89","90"]],["sense-of-agency over sensorimotor actions could predict training outcomes even where users had no causal role in the outcome",["90"]]],"rt":[["agency",[]],["feelings of agency",[]],["judgments of agency",[]],["autonomy",[]]],"sb":[["feelings of agency",[]],["judgments of agency",[]]],"sp":[["agency",[]]],"ex":[["the sense-of-agency when triggering an event",["178"]]]},{"sy":[["continued influence effect",[]]]},{"de":[["a headline not related to the actual article is more likely to be clickbait",[]]],"ex":[["headline vs. article body",[]]]},{"de":[["stance detection of headlines with regard to their corresponding article bodies",[]]]},{"sy":[["face transfer",[]],["puppeteering",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["one may generate controversial text for a speech supposedly given by a political leader, create a 'deep fake' video (see point 3) of the leader standing in the UN General Assembly delivering the speech (trained on the large amount of footage from such speeches), and then reinforce the impersonation through the mass generation of news articles allegedly reporting on the speech.",[]]]},{"de":[["The act could be physical or nonphysical. This includes many kinds of behavior that do not seem to fit the commonly understood meaning of violence. Hurling insults and spreading harmful rumors fit the definition.",[]]],"rt":[["physical aggression",[]]],"sb":[["violent behavior",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Behaviors observed by the child viewer that might seem unusual at first start to seem more normative after the behaviors are viewed many times. Emotions experienced automatically by child viewers in response to a particular scene decline in intensity after many exposures.",[]],["The child can then think about and plan proactive aggressive acts without experiencing negative affect. Consequently, proactive aggression becomes more likely.",[]],["Such habituation may effectively remove the punishing nature of consequences of media aggression.",[]],["Empirically, viewers who show less negative emotional reactions to viewing violence are more likely to behave aggressively than those who show more negative reactions",["71","80"]],["repeated exposures to emotionally activating media or video games can lead to habituation of certain natural emotional reactions",[]]],"sy":[["habituation of certain natural emotional reactions",[]]]},{"de":[["a subsequent stimulus that arouses an emotion (e.g., a provocation arousing anger) may be perceived as more severe than it is because some of the emotional response stimulated by the media presentation is misattributed as due to the provocation transfer",["25,102"]]]},{"de":[["Viewers are more likely to identify with and be influenced by an aggressive character portrayed as similar to themselves (e.g., in age, gender, and race; 11, 12).",["11","12"]],["the perpetrator's overall attractiveness, power, and charisma may be more important than any of these personal attributes by themselves.",[]]],"ex":[["in the early 1970s, African American children imitated the behavior of White male actors more than African American actors",["82"]]]},{},{"de":[["This definition of media violence does not include off-screen poisonings that might be implied, but rather it refers to visually portrayed physically aggressive acts by one person against another.",[]],["This definition has evolved as theories about the effects of media violence have evolved and represents an attempt to describe the kind of violent media presentation that is most likely to teach the viewer to be more violent.",[]]],"ex":[["Dirty Harry, The Godfather, Mad Max, Cliffhanger, True Lies, Pulp Fiction, Kill Bill, etc.",[]],["Movies and programs depicting violence of this type were common 20 years ago, and they are common now: Dirty Harry, The Godfather, Mad Max, Cliffhanger, True Lies, Pulp Fiction, Kill Bill, etc.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The social scripts acquired though observation of family, peers, community, and mass media become more complex, abstracted, and automatic in their invocation (54,55). During this period, children's social cognitive schemas about the world around them are also elaborated.",["54,55"]]],"sb":[["imitation",[]]]},{"de":[["suggests that children who identify fairly strongly with an aggressive character or perceive a violent scene as realistic are especially likely to have aggressive ideas primed by the observed violence, to imitate the character, or to acquire a variety of aggressive scripts and schemas.",[]]]},{"de":[["The external stimulus can be inherently linked to a cognition, e.g., the sight of a gun is inherently linked to the concept of aggression (21), or the external stimulus can be something inherently neutral like a particular ethnic group (e.g., African Americans) that has become linked in the past to certain beliefs or behaviors (e.g., welfare) (97).",["21","97"]],["The primed concepts make behaviors linked to them more likely. When media violence primes aggressive concepts, aggression is more likely.",[]],["The external stimulus can be inherently linked to a cognition, e.g., the sight of a gun is inherently linked to the concept of aggression (21), or the external stimulus can be something inherently neutral like a particular ethnic group (e.g., African Americans) that has become linked in the past to certain beliefs or behaviors (e.g., welfare) (97). The primed concepts make behaviors linked to them more likely.",["21","97"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["physical aggression",[]]],"sp":[["aggressive behavior",[]]]},{"ex":[["sarcasm detection",["Agrawal et al., 2020","Tang et al., 2022"]],["fake news detection",["Liao et al., 2021a","Ma et al., 2022"]],["relation extraction",["Li et al., 2021b","Huang et al., 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["Membership in the nascent Taiwan nation is increasingly defined by community engagement and a shared set of liberal values rather than a single state-defined culture, race, or even ideology.",[]]]},{"de":[["internalized views that the status quo is simply better than the past",[]]]},{"de":[["actively construct a set of cultural traditions, symbols, and ideological formulations for thinking, feeling, and acting out the unity of the nation.",[]],["These party-state-directed projects actively construct a set of cultural traditions, symbols, and ideological formulations for thinking, feeling, and acting out the unity of the nation.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a common challenge facing both China and Taiwan, and has deep roots in Chinese civilization and its modern political history",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["this multiculturalism was viewed as both regrettable and temporary, with different groups and identities expected to fuse together in a single national melting pot as the countries developed.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["A shared Zhonghua culture and identity is once again emphasized over minority identities and cultures.",[]],["the Han are the main racial group (主体民族) of the Zhonghua race-nation in contemporary China",[]]],"sy":[["Zhonghua minzu",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a faithful interpretation-a causal chain of decisions-is aligned with human expectations if it is adequately constrained by the social behavior attributed to it by human observers.",[]]],"sp":[["faithful interpretation",[]]]},{"rt":[["social attribution",["Miller, 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["contrastive explanations",[]]]},{"sb":[["human-aligned",[]]]},{"sp":[["Interpretation",[]]]},{"de":[["In our context, reasoning steps in the causal chain are actions that can be attributed with intent.",[]]]},{"sp":[["faithful",[]]]},{"ex":[["she drank the water because she was thirsty.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["persuasiveness",[]]]},{"de":[["It is inspired by human-provided explanations as post-hoc stories generated to plausibly justify our actions (Rudin, 2019).",["Rudin, 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["causal attribution",["Miller, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["This means that the users observing the explanation naturally expects the explanation to convey information in a particular wayfoot_4 which is different from the true mechanism of the explanation.",["foot_4"]],["The 'unintuitive' information encoded in h x is not limited to h itself, and can be anything which is useful to predict y and which the user will be unlikely to easily comprehend.",[]],["Trojan explanations are not merely possible, but just as reasonable to the model as any other option unless countered explicitly.",[]]],"ex":[["Highlight signal: The label is encoded in the mask h alone, requiring no information from the original text it is purported to focus on.",[]],["Arbitrary token mapping: The label is encoded via some mapping from highlighted tokens to labels which is considered arbitrary to the user: e.g., commas for one class, and periods for another; the quantity of capital letters; distance between dashes, and so on.",[]],["The default class: In a classification case, a class can be predicted by precluding the ability to predict all other classes and selecting it by default. As a result, the selector may decide that the absence of class features in itself defines one of the classes.",[]],["The default class: In a classification case, a class can be predicted by precluding the ability to predict all other classes and selecting it by default.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Highlight signal: The label is encoded in the mask h alone, requiring no information from the original text it is purported to focus on.",[]],["Arbitrary token mapping: The label is encoded via some mapping from highlighted tokens to labels which is considered arbitrary to the user: e.g., commas for one class, and periods for another; the quantity of capital letters; distance between dashes, and so on.",[]],["The default class: In a classification case, a class can be predicted by precluding the ability to predict all other classes and selecting it by default. As a result, the selector may decide that the absence of class features in itself defines one of the classes.",[]]]},{"de":[["Existing approaches for improving extractive rationale plausibility typically involve supervising LM-based extractors (Bhat et al., 2021) or SPPs (Jain et al., 2020;Paranjape et al., 2020;DeYoung et al., 2019) with gold rationales.",["Bhat et al., 2021","Jain et al., 2020","Paranjape et al., 2020","DeYoung et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["gold rationales",[]],["Faithfulness",["Jacovi and Goldberg, 2020"]],["explainability objectives",[]]]},{"ex":[["in this case the six raters",[]]]},{},{"de":[["disinformation often layers true information with false -an accurate fact set in misleading context, a real photograph purposely mislabelled.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The way issues are framed can change the evolution of policy as well as public opinion",["Dardis et al., 2008","Iyengar, 1991"]],["The way issues are framed can change the evolution of policy as well as public opinion (Dardis et al., 2008;Iyengar, 1991).",["(Dardis et al., 2008;Iyengar, 1991)"]]],"rt":[["subjectivity detection",["Lin et al., 2011"]],["detection of biased language",["Recasens et al., 2013"]],["stance detection",["Mohammad et al., 2016","Augenstein et al., 2016","Ferreira and Vlachos, 2016"]]],"sb":[["Economic",[]],["Political",[]],["Legality, Jurisprudence and Constitutionality",[]],["Policy prescription and evaluation",[]],["Crime and Punishment",[]]],"ex":[["contrast the statement Illegal workers depress wages with This country is abusing and terrorizing undocumented immigrant workers. The first statement puts focus on the economic consequences of immigration, whereas the second one evokes a morality frame by pointing out the inhumane conditions under which immigrants may have to work.",[]],["Illegal workers depress wages",[]],["This country is abusing and terrorizing undocumented immigrant workers",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The constructed networks can be homogeneous, heterogeneous, or hierarchical.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["rumor verification",["Zubiaga et al., 2016","Kochkina et al., 2018"]]]},{"de":[["so that one can take appropriate actions earlier",[]],["This is a very challenging task, since at its early stage a rumor has little propagation information and very few user responses.",[]],["The algorithm has to primarily rely on the content and external knowledge, such as KB.",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["supporting",[]],["denying",[]],["querying",[]],["commenting",[]]]},{"de":[["The term 'client' or 'customer' is typically used when the economic nature of a transaction is emphasised. A good or service is produced and sold to a customer, who then is a client.",[]],["In this sense, we also include as clients those who use news agency services without paying a full price or indeed receive those service free of charge.",[]]],"sy":[["customer",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["subsidising content with low consumption value but high information value is justified if certain preconditions are met.",[]]],"rt":[["private good",[]],["semi-private good",[]]]},{},{"de":[["public news agencies only ever reach their audiences indirectly.",[]],["Most public news agencies have their origins in the period since Communism collapsed in CEE, after a long period characterised by state ownership and party control of news agencies.",[]]],"rt":[["public-service broadcasting",[]]]},{"de":[["it is often defined as",["vi"]],["it is often defined as 'neither commercial nor state-owned, free from political interference and pressure from commercial forces.'",[]],["an organisation that tries to disentangle itself both from the state and from the market in order to situate itself as an intermediary.",[]]],"rt":[["public news agency",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["governmentowned/controlled agencies",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["determine whether a tweet is in favor, against, or neither to a given target entity (person, organization, etc.)",[]]],"sb":[["Agree",[]],["disagree",[]],["discuss",[]],["unrelated",[]]]},{"rt":[["influence operations",[]]]},{"de":[["These campaigns can take place in both online and offline environments and typically involve the dissemination of information, disinformation, propaganda, or other persuasive tactics to achieve specific objectives.",[]],["Influence campaigns can employ a variety of methods, including social media manipulation, spreading fake news or false narratives, conducting psychological operations, using targeted advertising, and leveraging networks of individuals or bots to amplify messages.",[]],["These campaigns often aim to exploit vulnerabilities in the information ecosystem and exploit cognitive biases in order to achieve their goals.",[]],["These objectives can range from promoting a particular ideology, supporting a political candidate, destabilizing a rival nation, or undermining trust in institutions.",[]]],"ex":[["promoting a particular ideology",[]],["supporting a political candidate",[]],["destabilizing a rival nation",[]],["undermining trust in institutions",[]]]},{"de":[["These operations can have various objectives, including: -Political Manipulation: Some information operations aim to influence political events, such as elections or policy decisions, by spreading misinformation or promoting particular candidates or ideologies. -Social Division: Others may seek to sow discord and amplify existing social or political divisions by disseminating inflammatory content or exploiting sensitive issues. -Brand or Reputation Management: Some businesses or organizations may use Twitter information operations to manage their online reputation by spreading positive narratives or suppressing negative ones. -Malicious Activities: In some cases, these operations can involve cyberattacks, identity theft, or the dissemination of harmful malware through links shared on Twitter. -Amplification of Propaganda: State-sponsored actors or non-state actors may use Twitter to amplify propaganda, particularly in the context of geopolitical conflicts.",[]],["-Political Manipulation: Some information operations aim to influence political events, such as elections or policy decisions, by spreading misinformation or promoting particular candidates or ideologies.",[]],["-Social Division: Others may seek to sow discord and amplify existing social or political divisions by disseminating inflammatory content or exploiting sensitive issues.",[]],["-Brand or Reputation Management: Some businesses or organizations may use Twitter information operations to manage their online reputation by spreading positive narratives or suppressing negative ones.",[]],["-Malicious Activities: In some cases, these operations can involve cyberattacks, identity theft, or the dissemination of harmful malware through links shared on Twitter.",[]],["-Amplification of Propaganda: State-sponsored actors or non-state actors may use Twitter to amplify propaganda, particularly in the context of geopolitical conflicts.",[]]],"sy":[["abbreviation commonly used to indicate information operations",[]]]},{"sy":[["InfoOps",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It consists of previous information about the knowledge, beliefs, ideology and scale of values that the reader or listener must be acquainted with in order to understand the meaning",[]]],"sp":[["presupposition",[]]]},{"de":[["the presuppositions of a sentence determine the class of contexts in which the sentence could be felicitously uttered.",["From the Gricean perspective"]]],"sb":[["Semantic Presuppositions",[]],["pragmatic presupposition",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["presupposition",[]]]},{"de":[["they appear in the context of a particular inherited social and political past.",[]],["In other words, they appear in the context of a particular inherited social and political past.",[]]]},{"de":[["transcends time and space",[]],["Collective memory can be a source of such an account, for example, when narratives of political militancy in Latin America counter the official version of national history propagated by the dominant oligarchy or military dictatorships",["Jelin, 2003","van Alphen & Asensio, 2012"]],["can resist and contribute alternative versions to \"official\" history",[]],["centered in a generally nationalist perspective",[]]],"sb":[["national memory in narrative form",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They are valued positively and considered outside their social and historical context, as quasi-mythical characters.",[]]]},{"de":[["is very useful for thinking about how we commonly understand the past.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["narrative",[]]],"rt":[["collective memory",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the master narrative predominated overall, suggesting that some aspects of collective memory are difficult to change",[]],["His account was learned, as was Analía's, because he cannot arrive at such an account on the basis of his individual experience: Something mediates his access to the distant past.",[]],["the master narrative has influenced education and started to frame how the past is represented.",[]],["the master narrative is converted into family memory",[]],["This means that there are other possible ways of representing the past, related to other collective memories or to different written histories.",[]]],"ex":[["the master narrative of the origin of the Argentine nation",[]]]},{"de":[["Whereas specific narratives may change frequently, these underlying master narratives rarely change, and they manifest once and again in subsequent revisions of history contents.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["National history was written to construct and legitimize this new identity, often rewriting significant parts of the past in national terms",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["patriotic rituals",[]]],"ex":[["In Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay, at least four historical and patriotic commemorations take place in school every year.",[]]]},{"de":[["the nation or the national historical protagonist is embodied",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["CLT",[]]],"sb":[["The extraneous load has been investigated more often (Mutlu-Bayraktar et al., 2019), and in the broader concept of human-computer interaction (HCI), refers to the environmental stimuli to which the human brain reacts.",["Mutlu-Bayraktar et al., 2019"]],["Intrinsic cognitive load, on the other hand, is the load resulting from processing this information and is affected by the individuals' psychological state of mind as well as their prior knowledge (Sweller, 2011).",["Sweller, 2011"]],["Germane load is a subconscious load that results from the working memory transferring information to long-term memory into so-called schemas.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["affordances",[]]]},{"de":[["Because entertainment can thus be characterised as mindless escapism, anxiety relief and emotional release (Lee and Ma, 2012), we propose the following hypothesis.",["Lee and Ma, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["In the context of social media use, exploration refers to individuals' desire to go through the information, glance at novel topics and engage with new content.",["Kashdan et al., 2004"]],["As such, it is linked to curiosity and courage, but also a more precise need to dig into available information",["Kashdan et al., 2004"]],["Exploration may also be understood via CLT (Sweller, 2011) in that reduced cognitive load leads to increased exploration, as the primal neurofunctional SEEKING system activates",["Sweller, 2011","Panksepp, 2013"]],["exploration refers to individuals' desire to go through the information, glance at novel topics and engage with new content.",[]]],"rt":[["novelty-seeking",[]],["curiosity",[]],["courage",[]]]},{"rt":[["extraneous load",[]],["intrinsic cognitive load",[]]],"sp":[["Cognitive load",[]],["cognitive load theory",[]]]},{"de":[["Social media has been characterised as a hedonic information system",[]]]},{"sp":[["affordances",[]]]},{"de":[["One of them is information overload and information entropy, which have risen from previous work using CLT to understand misinformation sharing",["e.g. Farooq et al., 2020","Laato et al., 2020a"]]],"rt":[["information overload",[]]]},{"de":[["Guarding against information overload, people free cognitive capacity for better-conceptualising information and making sense of it, which can reduce fake news sharing",["Laato et al., 2020a","Sweller, 2011"]],["Information overload is also highly relevant for SMF (Lee et al., 2016).",["Lee et al., 2016"]]],"rt":[["information entropy",[]],["social media fatigue",[]]]},{"rt":[["extraneous load",[]],["germane load",[]]],"sp":[["Cognitive load",[]],["cognitive load theory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Religion can serve, at all these levels, an individual, a social group, a broader community -and the community might be a religious community or a profane community using religion as an organising, constitutive or power structure -or a nation.",[]]],"rt":[["religion online",[]]],"sb":[["religion online",[]]]},{"de":[["The complexity of religiosity has consequences to the concepts of information, knowledge and truth, and their verifiability, thus, it may be understood through the CLT (Sweller, 2011)",["Sweller, 2011"]]]},{"de":[["Prior literature found information overload, communication overload, and social overload to be the key factors leading to SMF",["Whelan et al., 2020b"]]],"rt":[["information and communication overload",[]],["cognitive overload",[]]]},{"de":[["persistent impulses to back away from social media due to information and communication overload",["Bright et al., 2015"]],["a subjective and self-evaluated feeling of tiredness from social media usage",["Lee et al., 2016"]],["These two factors are also included in the definition of SMF by Bright et al. (2015).",["Bright et al., 2015"]]],"sy":[["SMF",[]]]},{"de":[["bi-polarization can emerge even when individuals do not seek to increase opinion differences to disliked members of the population.",[]],["bi-polarization of continuous opinions",[]]],"sy":[["bipolarization",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The minimal value, zero, is obtained for perfect opinion consensus. In between these two extremes, the bi-polarization measure increases in the extent to which the opinion distribution is bimodal, with equally large modes at opposite extreme ends of the opinion spectrum.",[]],["In between these two extremes, the bi-polarization measure increases in the extent to which the opinion distribution is bimodal, with equally large modes at opposite extreme ends of the opinion spectrum.",[]]],"sy":[["bi-polarization measure",[]]]},{},{"de":[["actors interact mainly with others whose arguments will intensify existing tendencies for or against the issue at stake",[]],["similarity on demographic variables motivates interaction and social influence",[]],["selection of interaction partners is shaped by strong homophily",[]],["tendency to interact with likeminded others",[]]]},{"de":[["In this example, the probability of influence in such a dyad was set to 0.01, where influence occurred just like in the classic social-influence models.",[]]]},{"de":[["That is, the members of the subgroups have coordinated on the opposite poles of the opinion scale and the pairwise similarity (sim i,j,t ) between agents of different subgroups is zero.",[]],["In this situation, the probability is zero that agents interact who belong to different subgroups (see equation 3). Argument exchange between the subgroups is thus precluded.",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals' striving to amplify differences to disliked others",[]],["Intuitively, the idea is that agreement with a negatively evaluated other creates psychological dissonance that can be resolved by changing the own opinion such that disagreement results (negative influence).",[]],["Models combining positive and negative influence. These models assume that individuals are influenced positively by interaction partners with similar opinions, and that influence turns negative when individuals with dissimilar opinions interact.",[]]],"sy":[["distancing",[]]],"rt":[["positive influence",[]]]},{"de":[["nominal scales assume that sets of actors hold either perfectly similar or perfectly dissimilar opinions on a given issue.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This implies that opinions will not be affected by argument exchange.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["homophily",[]]]},{"de":[["As the prototypetheory (Dworty, 1991) suggests, all other thematic roles could be rated to one of the main categories.",[]]],"sy":[["actor",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["automatic thoughts",[]]]},{"ex":[["to call, to say or to hear",[]]]},{"de":[["When neuroscientists talk about 'control,' they often refer to a system with at least four components. First, it would contain the controlled physical system itself; we should call it the controlled compartment. Second, every control system should have some sensors that measure the behavior of the controlled part(s). The other two parts of the control system, namely, the actuators and the algorithms, could be called the controllers of the system.",[]],["In linguistic studies, more precisely, in generative grammar (Chomsky, 1956;Landau, 2013), control is conceived as a predicate that assigns a thematic role to the controller",[]],["The term 'control' has also been defined as 'interpersonal power' that regularizes hierarchical relations.",[]],["In linguistic studies, more precisely, in generative grammar (Chomsky, 1956;Landau, 2013)",[]]],"rt":[["automatization",[]],["agent, patient, theme, experiencer, beneficiary, instrument, place, aim, and source",[]],["dominating",[]],["recipient",[]],["nondemanding",[]]],"sb":[["dominating",[]],["recipient",[]],["nondemanding",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["to give, to defend or to use",[]]]},{"de":[["the frequent use of definite verbs shows a great level of confidence and positivity.",[]]],"sb":[["epistemic verbs",[]],["action verbs",[]]],"ex":[["'to know' or 'to understand'",[]],["'to do' or 'to make'",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Emotional verbs are expressions like 'to feel', 'to care', 'to love', and so on",[]]],"ex":[["'to feel', 'to care', 'to love'",[]]]},{"ex":[["'to know' or 'to believe'",[]]]},{"sb":[["acclaims",[]],["attacks",[]],["defenses",[]]]},{},{"de":[["related to objective control",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive complexity",["Tetlock and Tyler, 1996"]]]},{"ex":[["persuade, encourage, recommend, appeal, force, plead, order, urge, dissuade",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Momentous happenings attract peak media coverage (indeed this is something of a tautology).",[]]],"rt":[["news icons",[]]]},{},{"de":[["acting to provide context for new events, serving as foci for demands for policy change and helping to shape the ways in which we make sense of the world.",[]],["guiding public discussion not only about the past, but of the present and the future.",[]],["The concept of media templates developed from analysis of this empirical data will, I believe, be relevant to examining source/media/audience relations over a broad range of issues.",[]],["Media templates are used to explain current events, as a point of comparison and, often, as proof of an on-going problem.",[]],["Templates are used to highlight patterns in particular issues or social problems.",[]],["Media templates have a single primary meaning rather than being the focus for debate.",[]],["they are defined by their lack of innovation, their status as received wisdom and by their closure.",[]],["In the process of transforming a key event into a media template, details may be blurred, dissenting accounts forgotten and facts (both from past and current events) may be misrepresented or disregarded.",[]],["Secondary reporting will often oversimplify or at least present the event 'pared down to its essence'.",[]],["The meanings attached to template events are, in part, created by the interaction between such episodes and subsequent cases to which they are linked.",[]],["Media templates are a crucial site of media power, acting to provide context for new events, serving as foci for demands for policy change and helping to shape the ways in which we make sense of the world.",[]],["Routinely used to highlight one perspective with great clarity, templates serve as rhetorical shorthand helping journalists and audiences to make sense of fresh news stories.",[]],["They are instrumental in shaping narratives around particular social problems, guiding public discussion not only about the past, but of the present and the future.",[]],["Media templates are, I argue, a crucial site of media power, acting to provide context for new events, serving as foci for demands for policy change and helping to shape the ways in which we make sense of the world.",[]],["The paradigmatic examples and associations which surround any particular issue can come to seem natural and inevitable.",[]],["When a template is referenced in discussion of subsequent discrete events its relevance may be challenged (e.g. this case is/is not like Cleveland) but the template itself is rarely explicitly questioned.",[]],["Secondary reporting will often oversimplify or at least present the event 'pared down to its essence'. This minimises the opportunities for alternative interpretations from audiences only exposed to secondary accounts.",[]]],"rt":[["news icons",["1995","Bennett and Lawrence, 1995"]],["framing",[]],["key events",[]],["ideological framework",[]],["inferential frames",[]],["legacy of media coverage (and re-coverage)",[]],["key event",[]]],"sp":[["key event",[]],["key events",[]]],"ex":[["'Watergate'",[]],["'Vietnam'",[]],["'the Wall Street crash'",[]],["'The Moors murderers'",[]],["'Jasmine Beckford'",[]],["'Jamie Bulger'",[]],["'the Cleveland scandal'",[]],["Cleveland",[]],["the template document automatically summoned up each time one starts a new text file on a computer",[]],["the pastry-cutting shapes used to cut out gingerbread figures",[]],["the template allowing a worker to stamp out identical metal pieces in a shipyard",[]]]},{},{"de":[["References to Cleveland fixed an image in many people's minds which placed social workers firmly in the dock, drawing on and contributing to spirals of negative publicity surrounding social workers.",[]]],"ex":[["the phrase 'another Cleveland' provokes a set of powerful prepackaged associations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["prowadzi do stawiania pytań badawczych, konstruowania hipotez i poszukiwania dowodów potwierdzających własne przekonania i założenia, przy jednoczesnym pomijaniu faktów sprzecznych z przyjętym stanowiskiem",["Guiney i in., 2020"]],["Błąd konfirmacji nie jest intencjonalny i wynika z natury rozumowania",[]]],"sy":[["efekt potwierdzenia",[]],["strategia konfirmacji",[]]]},{"sb":[["błąd konfirmacji",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Przyjmuje jedynie korzystne wyniki, odrzucając dane niepotwierdzające wywodu (tzw. wywód naiwny)",["Arias, 2020"]],["Jej zwolennicy odbierają krytykę jako personalny atak na siebie",["Arias, 2020"]],["Odwołuje się do pojęć niemających naukowego uzasadnienia bądź łączy je z definicjami naukowymi",["Arias, 2020"]],["Bibliografia oparta na źródłach internetowych, opracowaniach powstających w ramach pseudonaukowych kongresów, monografiach czy czasopismach tych samych pseudonaukowych kręgów lub na wynikach tendencyjnych eksperymentów",["Arias, 2020"]],["Nie rozwija teorii, a proponowane w jej ramach koncepcje nie są oparte na dotychczasowej wiedzy",["Arias, 2020"]],["Nie ulega naciskom politycznym czy też opiniom różnych \"autorytetów\"",["Arias, 2020"]],["Broni pojęć, które nie ewoluują",["Arias, 2020"]]],"sy":[["fake science",[]],["junk science",[]]]},{"de":[["To encourage climate action.",[]],["In this manner, agitation has the potential to aid democratic debate about extreme climate futures and foster public engagement.",[]]],"sb":[["warning",[]],["pessimism",[]],["millenarianism",[]]],"sp":[["modes of viewing the worst-case scenarios of climate change",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["see catastrophe as imminent and inevitable",[]]],"rt":[["climate risk realism",[]]]},{"de":[["who see catastrophe as imminent and inevitable",[]]],"sy":[["climate doomism",[]]]},{"de":[["Climate fiction has surged in the past two decades and become a stand-alone genre",[]],["Fiction creatively imagines apocalyptic worlds to comment on existing social relations",[]],["Climate fiction is particularly adept at addressing the weakest point of foresight exercises: considering climate risk in a broader context.",[]],["Climate fiction, especially in its reflexive form, takes a step back, offering a critical lens on the apocalyptic narratives deployed by climate activists.",[]],["fictional accounts of catastrophic futures question the depoliticizing effects of some activist rhetoric on the crisis.",[]]],"rt":[["speculative memory",[]]],"sp":[["speculative memory",[]]]},{"rt":[["climate doomism",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["post-apocalyptic environmentalists",["Cassegård & Thörn, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["In comparing the current world against an imaginary future ravaged by climate change, reader's cognitive assumptions and cultural expectations are reshaped",[]],["Estrangement easily slips into escapism from present pressures, rather than a prompt to reflect on them.",[]],["concerned with questioning assumptions, but it is attuned to the assumptions of the environmental movement itself",[]]]},{"ex":[["the Delphi technique, scenario construction, role-playing, war-gaming, and horizon scans",[]]]},{"sp":[["agitation",[]]]},{"sy":[["eco-miserabilists",[]],["post-apocalyptic environmentalists",[]]],"sp":[["agitation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["agitation",[]]]},{"de":[["The prompt gives a sketch of the structure of the story.",[]]],"sy":[["premise",[]],["sketch",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This evaluation involves quantifying the affective valence dimension of words, which have been rated by individuals",["Toney-Wails and Caliskan, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["What the field of historical fiction affords is drawing out marginalized and minoritized histories that have otherwise been forgotten or suppressed",["White, 2005"]],["ML engages in creating fictions, without awareness. For instance, in the creation of data (Gitelman, 2013) and in the amplification of dominant discourses (Zhao et al., 2017). The predominant function of these fictions has been to imagine a single past that reflect hegemonic trends in our contemporary.",["Gitelman, 2013","Zhao et al., 2017"]],["can address the difficult question of creating models that embody worlds more closely related to our own and provide NLP practitioners with methods that surface the real, rather than the factual.",[]],["What the field of historical fiction affords is drawing out marginalized and minoritized histories that have otherwise been forgotten or suppressed (White, 2005).",["White, 2005"]]],"rt":[["traditional history",[]],["potential histories",[]]]},{"de":[["They are an important example of language change and are mostly used by individuals belonging to already marginalized groups, e.g., non-binary individuals",["Lauscher et al., 2022"]],["They are an important example of language change and are mostly used by individuals belonging to already marginalized groups, e.g., non-binary individuals (e.g., see the overview by Lauscher et al., 2022).",["Lauscher et al., 2022"]]]},{"de":[["Imagining histories in opposition to hegemony can provide space for viewing our contemporary conditions through the lens of values in our past that have been neglected.",[]]]},{"rt":[["historical fiction",[]]]},{"sy":[["fairness by blindness",[]]],"sp":[["fairness",[]]]},{"de":[["factors such as the gender or the race of the individual, or any other factor which we deem to be irrelevant to the decision",[]],["binary-race (non-hispanic Whites vs. non-hispanic Blacks), binary-gender (Male vs. Female)foot_1 and binaryage (18-34 vs. 35+)",[]],["factors such as the gender or the race of the individual, or any other factor which we deem to be irrelevant to the decision.",[]]],"sb":[["binary-race",[]],["binary-gender",[]],["binaryage",[]]]},{"de":[["Standing back and asking 'what's really going on?' prioritises the critical examination of influential claims, the careful checking of claims against rigorous evidence, and the impartial identification of mistakes, qualifications or biases.",[]]]},{"de":[["In relation to the new technologies, too often the debate has become polarised between those who ask, what is technology doing to society and how does it impact on people's lives, and those who ask, instead, why has technology been shaped in a particular way and to serve which interests?",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["The classical example demonstrating the obstacle of causal vocabulary is Simpson's paradox",[]]]},{"de":[["This bias can significantly impact the performance and fairness of these models.",[]],["Annotators may hold certain assumptions or stereotypes about the language or task they are working on, which can influence their labeling decisions.",[]],["Furthermore, annotators can be influenced by the data they are annotating, especially if the data itself contains biases, as mentioned in the previous section.",[]],["Assumptions and stereotypes of annotators, alignment with biases in training data, inconsistencies and disagreements among annotators",[]]],"sy":[["label bias",[]]],"ex":[["they might have preconceived notions about the sentiment of a particular text or the gender associated with certain occupations.",[]]]},{"de":[["Compares the relation degree between genders and occupations based on attention scores to identify bias-contributing modules.",[]]]},{"de":[["In machine learning, bias can be caused by faulty assumptions in the algorithm or systemic prediction errors caused by the characteristics of the training data",["8","9"]]],"sb":[["Denigration involves the usage of racial, ethnic, or religious slurs, which can often be observed as a prevalent method of cyberbullying.",[]],["Stereotyping, on the other hand, refers to individuals' cognitive representation of a particular social group.",[]],["Under-representation pertains to the absence of identifiable group members from representative bodies and well-being indicators in proportion to their population's size.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These biases, often referred to as semantic biases, can arise from various sources and have significant implications for the fairness and accuracy of NLP systems.",[]],["One common source of bias is the lack of representativeness in the input data.",[]],["Another factor contributing to bias in input representations is the pre-processing of data.",[]],["Preprocessing steps, such as text normalization, tokenization, or stemming, can inadvertently introduce biases.",[]],["Lack of diversity in input data, loss of cultural nuances and biases introduced during pre-processing steps, biases in word embeddings and contextual representations",[]]],"sy":[["semantic biases",[]]],"ex":[["certain linguistic variations or expressions commonly used by specific demographic groups may be overlooked or normalized, resulting in a loss of cultural nuances and potential bias in the representations.",[]]]},{"de":[["One contributing factor to bias overamplification in language models is the choice of loss objective used during training.",[]],["Often, these objectives prioritize improving the model's prediction accuracy, which can incentivize the model to exploit spurious correlations or irregularities in the training data.",[]]]},{"de":[["The prevalent sources of training data for NLP models often come from well-known news outlets, which tend to represent a limited demographic profile.",[]],["Consequently, NLP models trained on such data inherit and perpetuate the demographic bias in the training samples,",[]],["Limited demographic representation, skewed patterns, and associations, temporal bias from outdated sources",[]]],"rt":[["annotations",[]],["input representations",[]],["models",[]]],"ex":[["For example, a model trained on news articles that predominantly feature male politicians may associate leadership roles with masculinity, leading to biased predictions in gender-related tasks.",[]]]},{"de":[["This type of bias manifests as derogatory language aimed at demeaning specific groups.",[]]],"rt":[["Stereotyping",[]],["Under-representation",[]]]},{"de":[["The metric measures the degree to which a model's predictions are equal across different demographic groups, such as males and females.",[]],["In the context of gender bias, the metric can be used to assess whether the model is making equally accurate predictions for male and female inputs.",[]],["The Equalized Odds metric is calculated by comparing the True Positive Rates (TPRs) and False Positive Rates (FPRs) across different demographic groups for a given prediction task.",[]],["A lower Equalized Odds score indicates a lower level of gender bias in the model's predictions, as it suggests that the model is making equally accurate predictions for males and females.",[]],["Specifically, compares true positive rates and false positive rates for males and females.",[]],["The metric measures the degree to which a model's predictions are equal across different demographic groups, such as males and females. In the context of gender bias, the metric can be used to assess whether the model is making equally accurate predictions for male and female inputs.",[]]]},{"de":[["can perpetuate harmful stereotypes and biases, leading to unfair treatment and discrimination.",[]],["can also limit opportunities for marginalized groups, particularly in areas such as employment, education, and healthcare.",[]],["can negatively impact the accuracy and fairness of natural language processing (NLP) applications, affecting the user experience and reliability of these systems.",[]]],"ex":[["the word \"nurse\" may be more closely associated with the female gender than the male gender in a word embedding model.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Bias overamplification, reliance on discriminatory features, choice of loss objectives favoring accuracy over fairness",[]]],"ex":[["Bias overamplification, reliance on discriminatory features, choice of loss objectives favoring accuracy over fairness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In NLP tasks, stereotyping can manifest through word embeddings and large-scale language models, where certain biases are learned and perpetuated in the resulting representations.",[]]],"rt":[["Denigration",[]],["Under-representation",[]]]},{"de":[["This type of bias highlights the disparities in visibility and inclusivity within various domains.",[]]],"rt":[["Denigration",[]],["Stereotyping",[]]]},{"de":[["which is a Fallacy of Credibility on Level 1",[]]],"sp":[["ad hominem fallacy",[]],["Fallacies of Credibility",[]],["Fallacy of Credibility",[]],["ad hominem",[]]],"ex":[["\"John says the earth is round, but he's a convicted criminal, so he must be wrong.\"",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fallacies of Credibility",[]]],"ex":[["Millions of people believe in astrology, so it must be true.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fallacies of Emotion",[]]],"ex":[["The victim's family has been torn apart by this act of terror. Put yourselves in their terrible situation, you will see that he is guilty.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fallacies of Credibility",[]]],"ex":[["A famous actor says this health supplement works, so it must be effective.",[]]]},{"sp":[["appeal to emotion",[]],["Fallacies of Emotion",[]]],"ex":[["If you don't support this politician, our country will be in ruins, so you must support them.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fallacies of Credibility",[]]],"ex":[["Herbs are natural, so they are better than synthetic medicines.",[]]]},{"rt":[["strawman",[]],["appeal to worse problem",[]]],"sp":[["Fallacies of Emotion",[]]],"ex":[["He's really struggling, so he should get the job despite lacking qualifications.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fallacies of Emotion",[]]],"ex":[["P = pride in the military's strength and state of preparedness",[]],["Smoking a cigarette will make you look cool, you should try it!",[]]]},{"de":[["E 1 claims P . E 2 makes P look ridiculous, by misrepresenting P (P '). Therefore, ¬P .",[]],["informally defined as \"an argument that portrays the opponent's position as absurd or ridiculous with the intention of discrediting it.\"",[]]],"sp":[["Fallacies of Emotion",[]]],"ex":[["the post argues against the possibility of working in finance with a law degree by exaggerating the position and thus portraying it as ridicule.",[]],["This is law school arrogance at its finest. Why not a brain surgeon?",[]],["There's a proposal to reduce carbon emissions by 50% in the next decade. What's next? Are we all going to stop breathing to reduce CO2?",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fallacies of Credibility",[]]],"ex":[["We've always had a meat dish at Thanksgiving, so we should not change it.",[]]]},{"sy":[["relative privation",[]]],"sp":[["Fallacies of Emotion",[]],["Fallacies of Logic",[]]],"ex":[["Why worry about littering when there are bigger problems like global warming?",[]]]},{"de":[["Premises or conclusions can be implicit in an argument.",[]]]},{"de":[["The argument is thus fallacious mainly because it fails to acknowledge other factors that play a role in re-election.",[]],["This is because we can contend that having won the last election gives the candidate an edge over other candidates in terms of visibility, and thus makes it more likely that he wins this year's election as well.",[]]],"sy":[["false causality",[]]],"rt":[["false causality",[]]],"sp":[["Fallacies of Logic",[]]],"ex":[["In the last New Hampshire primary election, my favorite candidate won. Therefore, he will also win the next primary election.",[]],["There is an economic crisis in the country, the one to blame is the president.",[]]]},{"sy":[["begging the question",[]]],"sp":[["Fallacies of Logic",[]]],"ex":[["The best smartphone is the iPhone because Apple creates the best products.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fallacies of Logic",[]]],"ex":[["The government admitted that many cases of credible UFOs (Unidentified flying objects) have been reported. Therefore, that means that Aliens have already visited Earth.",[]]]},{"sb":[["appeal to tradition",[]],["ad populum",[]],["guilt by association",[]]],"sp":[["Aristotle's categories",[]]]},{"de":[["The fallaciousness of an argument is thus largely independent of the truth values of its components.",[]]],"sp":[["argument",[]]]},{"de":[["In this paper, we propose a taxonomy that unifies and consolidates all types of fallacies used in current work on fallacy detection.",[]],["Our categorization of fallacies into logic, emotion, and credibility is based on the primary aspect of the fallacy that leads to an invalid or weak argument.",[]],["Hence, false assertions are not, per se, fallacies.",[]],["A fallacy is an erroneous or invalid way of reasoning.",[]]],"rt":[["false dilemma fallacy",[]],["ad hominem fallacies",[]],["appeal to emotion",[]],["textual entailment",[]]],"sb":[["false dilemma fallacy",[]],["ad hominem fallacies",[]],["appeal to emotion",[]]],"sp":[["argument",[]]],"ex":[["the argument \"You must either support my presidential candidacy or be against America!\"",[]]]},{"de":[["related to hasty generalization but does not fit its description",[]]],"rt":[["hasty generalization",[]]],"sp":[["Fallacies of Logic",[]]],"ex":[["The team is great, so every player on the team must be great.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fallacies of Logic",[]]],"ex":[["We should not invest in Space Exploration. It's like saying that a person in debt should pay for fancy vacations.",[]]]},{"sy":[["causal oversimplification",[]]],"sp":[["Fallacies of Logic",[]]],"ex":[["After the rooster crows, the sun rises; therefore, the rooster causes the sunrise.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Fallacies of Logic",[]]],"ex":[["You're either with us, or against us.",[]]]},{"de":[["it wrongly assumes no other alternatives.",[]]],"ex":[["You must either support my presidential candidacy or be against America!",[]]]},{"sp":[["ad hominem fallacy",[]],["Fallacies of Credibility",[]],["ad hominem",[]]],"ex":[["Alice believes in climate change, just like the discredited scientist Bob, so her belief must be false.",[]]]},{"rt":[["fallacy of division",[]]],"sp":[["Fallacies of Logic",[]]],"ex":[["I met two aggressive dogs, so all dogs must be aggressive.",[]],["I lost my phone in the living room, so it will always be in the living room when it is lost.",[]]]},{"sb":[["equivocation",[]],["False Analogy",[]],["false causality",[]],["Hasty Generalization",[]],["Slippery Slope",[]],["Straw Man",[]]],"sp":[["Aristotle's categories",[]]]},{"de":[["Level 1 groups fallacies into Aristotle's categories: 'Pathos' (appeals to emotion)",[]]],"sb":[["Appeal to Anger",[]],["Appeal to Fear",[]],["Appeal to Pity",[]]],"sp":[["Aristotle's categories",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fallacies of Logic",[]]],"ex":[["If we allow kids to play video games, they will see fights, guns, and violence, and then they'll become violent adults.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Fallacies of Logic",[]]],"ex":[["He says we need better internet security, but I think his panic about hackers is overblown.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Fallacies of Credibility",[]]],"ex":[["Laura advocates for healthy eating but was seen eating a burger, so her advice on diet is invalid.",[]]]},{"de":[["otherwise, following Copi et al. (2018); Britannica (2023), the argument is a fallacy",[]]],"rt":[["fallacy",[]]],"sp":[["argument",[]]]},{},{"de":[["ineffective due to the existence of redundant encodings, ways of predicting protected attributes from other features",[]],["this idea of \"fairness through unawareness\" is ineffective due to the existence of redundant encodings, ways of predicting protected attributes from other features [PRT08].",["PRT08"]]]},{"de":[["it does not evaluate the features in X nor the functional form of the predictor Y (X) nor how it was derived.",[]],["In particular, it does not evaluate the features in X nor the functional form of the predictor Y (X) nor how it was derived.",[]]]},{"de":[["This shift compensates for the fact that, due to uncertainty, the score is in a sense more biased then the target label (roughly, R * is more correlated with A then Y is correlated with A).",[]]]},{"de":[["While race blindness achieves high profit, the fairness guarantee is quite weak. As with max profit, small groups may be classified poorly and so treated poorly, and the company has little incentive to improve the accuracy.",[]],["Furthermore, when race is redundantly encoded, race blindness degenerates into max profit.",[]]]},{"rt":[["central route",[]]]},{"de":[["It focuses on whether the article's arguments were perceived as logical.",[]]],"rt":[["central route",[]]]},{"sp":[["Intention",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Using this route, a person carefully and thoughtfully considers the true merits in support or contradiction of an opinion the message presented, focusing on argument clarity [22].",["22"]]],"rt":[["peripheral route",[]],["argument quality",[]],["argument clarity",[]]],"sp":[["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]],["ELM",[]]]},{"de":[["Motivation and cognitive factors are both responsible for confirmation bias and mediate the effects of one another",["25"]],["Previous studies have shown that having high prior beliefs on ideological issues also leads to confirmation bias [37].",["37"]]]},{"de":[["Based on the personal relevance of a message to the user, ELM defines two routes taken by the persuasive message to induce attitude change in an individual [22].",["22"]]],"sb":[["central route",["22"]],["peripheral route",["22"]]]},{},{"de":[["Fake news has been used to refer to misinformed and disinformed news articles, hoaxes, rumors, parodies, incorrect editorials, incorrect facts, etc.",[]]],"ex":[["Key purposes for spreading fake news include but are not limited to satire or parody/humor [8], financial gain from promoting fake 'sponsored' news stories supporting products [9], bloggers looking for large audience to gain views and advertising revenue [10], and election manipulation [11].",["8","9","10","11"]],["misinformed and disinformed news articles, hoaxes, rumors, parodies, incorrect editorials, incorrect facts, etc.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Behavioral intention",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["When personal relevance to the message is low, individuals take the alternative peripheral route.",[]]],"rt":[["source likeability",["21"]]],"sp":[["ELM",[]],["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Personal relevance in the context of fake news refers to",[]]]},{"de":[["Active users on social media have been classified as 'Produsers'individuals",[]],["Active users on social media have been classified as 'Produsers'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We refer to source likeability as how likeable, professional, and reliable the site hosting the information is.",[]],["a likeable source increases the viewer's attention towards the ad and generates positive feelings towards brands, leading to increased purchasing intention and likelihood",["35","47"]]],"rt":[["source attractiveness",["36"]]]},{"sb":[["Very coherent: The sentences when taken as a whole all have a clearly identifiable plot",[]],["Somewhat coherent: Many of the sentences work together for a common plot with common characters. One or two unrelated sentences.",[]],["Mildly coherent: Around half of the sentences work together. The plot is not entirely clear though.",[]],["Not very coherent: Only a few sentences seem to be from the same story; the others are random.",[]],["Not at all coherent: There is absolutely no identifiable plot. Each sentence feels completely disconnected from every other sentence.",[]]]},{"de":[["The opposite of this might be something that's obvious, stereotypical/unoriginal, and/or boring.",[]]],"sb":[["Very interesting: The story has themes, characters, and dialog that make you want to keep reading it and you might even want to show it to a friend",[]],["Somewhat interesting: The story has themes, characters, dialog, and/or a writing style that pique your interest",[]],["Mildly interesting: There are moments of interest but the story is not too notable.",[]],["Not very interesting: You finish the story but can't remember anything unique about it. Adequate, but not a fun read",[]],["Not at all interesting: You do not even want to finish reading the story. It is boring and/or unoriginal.",[]]]},{"de":[["the media have been always bias on issues of its interest, therefore bias in giving information to the society.",[]],["It can be scrutinized that the media is actually doing it when they are making one news as more important than the other.",[]]]},{"de":[["Ethics in organisation is also an important element to make sure that the organisation smooth operation of the media.",[]],["ethics actually help reporters frame new issues.",[]],["ethics code helps guiding the information transmitting process between journalists and the society.",["Medvedeva (2009)"]],["It is the guidelines towards achieving the media's objective in transmitting information to the society.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is also a cultural process that mirrors the decision on what is considered more important than the others, influenced by news space, work routine and assumptions made by reporters and editors",["Blood & Holland, 2004"]],["It is a macro mechanism that has connections with internal and external factors",[]],["Reporters and editors frame the news to ease reader's understanding, at the same time focusing the assumption to angle set by media agenda.",[]],["Media will propose issues that should get society's attention and trying to influence the society's interpretation using emphasis, exception or explaination in the story line",["Informant 2"]],["the framing technique only focus on the message construction and frame unique for certain news.",["2011"]],["It is also a cultural process that mirrors the decision on what is considered more important than the others, influenced by news space, work routine and assumptions made by reporters and editors (Blood & Holland, 2004).",["Blood & Holland, 2004","2004"]],["According to the informant, framing is: Setting the type of message that will be published and it has become tradition that the framed media will be given priority in the media (Informant 1).",[]],["Framing is seen as replacement to agenda setting which is not capable of telling what to think through a more systematic and in-depth news especially when it comes to the process of choosing and highlighting of certain news. Media will propose issues that should get society's attention and trying to influence the society's interpretation using emphasis, exception or explaination in the story line (Informant 2).",[]]],"rt":[["agenda setting",[]]],"ex":[["framing done by the reporters would affect the reader's feelings, opinion or thinking.",[]]]},{"de":[["The process of generating strategic news is done by journalists and editors of a media organization by conducting the franchise process first to enable them to reach the target audience.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The term journalist not only focuses on the individual who goes out to find the news, but the author, editor, reporters, broadcasters and news readers are also journalists.",[]]],"rt":[["author, editor, reporters, broadcasters and news readers",[]]]},{"de":[["Ethics originated from the word 'ethos' which means tradition, attitude, way of thinking and morale of individual.",[]]]},{"de":[["The term journalist not only focuses on the individual who goes out to find the news, but the author, editor, reporters, broadcasters and news readers are also journalists.",[]],["Journalists can be described as educators who are often references or examples to all levels of society.",[]],["journalists are regarded as community change agencies that will alter the dimensions of each individual's thinking through reading.",[]],["Wikipedia (2008) says journalists are a career in the mass media industry that includes newspapers, magazines, television, radio and the internet.",["2008"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Strategic news is the result of the interconnections between media agenda, ethics and journalism, editor responsibility and news framing, and manipulation by the media to advocate the success of the government's mission and vision.",[]],["In strategic news, the party incharge will not reveal the real motive, but they will cover-up their news with other agenda to achieve their mission",[]],["Strategic news was found to be the result of the interconnections between media agenda, ethics and journalism, editor's responsibility and news framing, manipulated by the media to advocate the success of the government's mission and vision.",[]],["In strategic news, the party incharge will not reveal the real motive, but they will cover-up their news with other agenda to achieve their mission (Informant 1).",[]]],"rt":[["media agenda",[]],["ethics",[]],["journalism",[]],["editor's responsibility",[]],["news framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["within the first few sentences of an article to inform the readers of the main event.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Bias in machine learning has many sources, including biased training data and feature learning that could result in discrimination in algorithmic decision-making [137].",["137"]]]},{},{"de":[["In the context of XAI, explanations help users to create a mental model of how the AI works.",[]],["Studying users' mental models of XAI systems can help verify explanation effectiveness in describing an algorithm's decision-making process.",[]],["Researchers in HCI study users' mental models to determine their understanding of intelligent systems in various applications.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Machine learning explanations can disclose to end-users what user data is being used in algorithmic decision-making.",[]]],"ex":[["personalized advertisements using users' online advertisement",[]],["personalized news feed in social media",["58","170"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Desired Properties",[]]]},{},{"de":[["User knowledge, technical competence, familiarity, confidence, beliefs, faith, emotions, and personal attachments are common terms used to analyze and investigate trust",["94","136"]]],"rt":[["swift trust",[]],["default trust",[]],["suspicious trust",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Contrastive Explanations",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Essentially this is comparing the true positive rate across different groups.",[]]]},{"rt":[["individual fairness",[]]]},{"rt":[["group fairness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Preprocessing tries to debias and increase the quality of training set.",[]]],"sb":[["remove those fairness sensitive features from training data",[]],["replace these fairness sensitive features with alternative values",[]],["data-agnostic pre-processing transformation techniques",[]]],"sp":[["Mitigation methods",["43"]]],"ex":[["For instance, surname and ZIP code can be deleted to reduce the discrimination of DNNs towards certain race.",[]],["Take the sentence 'The conversation with Malik was heartbreaking' for example, we can replace 'Malik' with 'IDENTITY' to reduce the possibility that DNN model shows discrimination based on races.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Discrimination via Input",[]],["Discrimination via Representation",[]]],"sp":[["DNN unfairness",[]]]},{"de":[["this category is about quality of services harm that usually happen in general applications",[]],["usually due to the underrepresentation problem, where data may be less informative or less reliably collected for certain parts of the population.",[]],["The detection of prediction quality disparity is typically performed in a two-step manner: splitting data into subgroups according to sensitive attributes, and calculating the accuracy for each demographic groups.",[]],["DNN systems have shown lower quality for some groups of people as opposed to other groups.",[]]],"sp":[["DNN unfairness",[]]],"ex":[["the language identification systems perform significantly worse when processing text produced by people belonging to certain races",["10","11"]],["health care applications including ICU mortality and psychiatric 30day readmission model prediction accuracy is significantly different across gender and insurance types",["12"]],["facial recognition systems are analyzed in terms of their prediction quality [4]. Human face images are classified into four categories: darker skin males, darker skin females, lighter skin males, and lighter skin females. Three gender classification systems are evaluated for the four groups, and substantial accuracy disparities are observed.",["4"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["human-generated misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["has been proven to have a significantly negative impact on both society and individuals",["8","22","51","52"]]]},{"de":[["These are the most difficult cases.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Critical thinkers see the future as open and malleable, not as closed and fixed. They are aware of the diversity of values, behaviours, social structures, and artistic forms in the world.",[]]]},{"de":[["Using a computer requires diverse and complex previous knowledge. It also introduces the individual and humanity to new contexts, which demands mental, intellectual, profound and complex changes.",[]],["Digital literacy as media literacy aims to develop both critical understanding of and active participation in the media.",[]],["Digital and media literacy is about developing people's critical and creative abilities.",[]],["a way of thinking but it can also be understood as complementary to the concept of media education",[]],["In essence, digital literacy is a complicated process that consists of acquiring a new tekne, ability of art or craft.",[]],["In a broad sense the concept of digital literacy is a way of thinking but it can also be understood as complementary to the concept of media education and even synonymous with media literacy.",[]]],"sy":[["media literacy",[]]],"rt":[["media education",[]],["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["When considering other elements that help to define the field of media literacy conceptually and thematically, one must remember that it is the result of a process of learning (and teaching) in any given context, but particularly in formal, informal, social, family and media settings.",[]],["This multi-contextual process leads to the acquisition of specific abilities and competences, in addition to attitudes and values.",[]]]},{"de":[["Digital literacy as media literacy aims to develop both critical understanding of and active participation in the media.",[]],["media literacy is a necessary part of active citizenship and is key to the full development of freedom of expression and the right to information.",[]],["The process from literacy to media literacy includes abilities: to communicate by means of different media, be they verbal, visual, oral, auditive, digital, iconographic or any combination of these",[]],["Media literacy is a concept whose broad definition and range of applications lead to diverse approaches, creating some intriguing conflicts and tensions.",[]]],"sy":[["Digital literacy",[]]],"rt":[["reading and writing literacy",[]],["audiovisual literacy (often referred to as image or visual literacy)",[]],["digital or information literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]],["information literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["A participatory culture is also one in which members believe their contributions matter, and feel some degree of social connection with one another (at the least they care what other people think about what they have created).",[]]],"rt":[["affiliations (memberships in online communities)",[]],["expressions (producing new creative forms)",[]],["collaborative problem-solving (working together in teams)",[]],["circulations (shaping the flow of media, the participation gap (the unequal access to the opportunities), the transparency problem (the challenges young people face in learning to see clearly the ways that media shape perceptions of the world), and the ethics challenge.",[]]],"sb":[["affiliations (memberships in online communities)",[]],["expressions (producing new creative forms)",[]],["collaborative problem-solving (working together in teams)",[]],["circulations (shaping the flow of media, the participation gap (the unequal access to the opportunities), the transparency problem (the challenges young people face in learning to see clearly the ways that media shape perceptions of the world), and the ethics challenge.",[]]]},{"de":[["The terms were subsequently adopted to refer to editorial decisions that define newspapers' journalism standards, setting quality press (broadsheets) apart from popular press (tabloids).",[]]],"sy":[["quality press",[]]]},{"de":[["Social media editors perform reverse-gatekeeping by pushing stories that are gaining momentum across the highly interactive audiences of social networking sites.",[]]]},{"de":[["The terms were subsequently adopted to refer to editorial decisions that define newspapers' journalism standards, setting quality press (broadsheets) apart from popular press (tabloids).",[]]],"sy":[["popular press",[]]]},{"rt":[["tabloidization",[]]]},{"rt":[["tabloid media",[]]]},{"de":[["aim at a pulverized audience with varying media sophistication and often incompatible lifestyles and political orientation",[]]],"ex":[["BuzzFeed, Upworthy, Viralnova, and Mashable",[]]]},{"de":[["Historical accuracy is of significant importance when evaluating authority [13]. That is, has the information conveyed by a particular source been accurate in the past.",["13"]],["Credentials which signify specialized knowledge, another means of establishing authority, also commonly engender trust on the part of a testimony recipient",["43"]],["interlocutors that are perceived as being free of bias, may be perceived as authorities and establish themselves as trustworthy testifiers",["13"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This theory of knowledge is concerned with discerning the validity of information acquired through others",["41"]]],"rt":[["testimony",[]]]},{"de":[["The term fake news is now commonly applied to phony news stories maliciously spread by outlets that mimic legitimate news sources.",[]],["therefore includes both misinformation and disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Ideally, such corroborating evidence should be sought from sources that obtained the information independently in order to minimize the possibility that all sources are distributing inaccurate information derived from the same origin",["13"]]],"rt":[["triangulation",["61"]]]},{},{"sy":[["lurkers",[]]]},{"de":[["related to perceptions of believability, accuracy, trustworthiness, bias, and completeness",["15"]],["media credibility is \"an audience response to media content\" [26:147]",["26:147"]]]},{},{"rt":[["independent corroboration",[]]]},{"de":[["Instead of how people know each other (their social ties), this is a user's perception of the diversity of beliefs in their network.",[]]]},{"de":[["An individual's network may be composed of people introduced to that person over a long period of time and in a wide variety of social contexts. At the core, social tie variety is about how people met, and if they met through several different life periods, there is an increased likelihood for diversity. As that variety increases, the diversity of backgrounds represented in the network increases [12], which also means a higher likelihood of exposure to fake news.",["12"]]]},{"de":[["communication among members of a social network can be viewed as one of many \"social operations of the mind,\" and thus is a form of natural, rather than formal, testimony",[]],["we conceptualize testimony in the SNS context as the conveyance of information through written or audio/visual communication.",[]]],"rt":[["epistemology of testimony",[]]],"sb":[["natural, rather than formal, testimony",[]]]},{"de":[["in the presence of trust, an actor may forgo behaviors in which they might otherwise engage.",[]]],"ex":[["relaxation of controls as a common trust-related behavior",["42"]]]},{},{"de":[["Consistent with the view that interpersonal trust consists of trusting beliefs and trusting intentions",["42","43"]]]},{"sy":[["emotion differentiation",[]]]},{"sb":[["incremental theorists",[]],["entity theorists",["2007"]]]},{},{"de":[["By emphasizing the potential consequences, this counter-narrative encourages individuals to reconsider their stance and make more informed choices.",[]]],"sp":[["counter-narrative",[]],["counternarrative",[]]]},{"de":[["This type of counter-narrative aims to stimulate critical thinking and encourage reconsideration of the original statement by prompting reflection on its clarification, validity, fairness, or logical consistency.",[]]],"sp":[["counter-narrative",[]]]},{"de":[["an effective means of combating online hate without compromising freedom of speech",["Mathew et al. 2019","Yadav 2018"]]],"sy":[["counternarrative",[]]],"sb":[["Denouncing counter-narratives",[]],["Fact-based counter-narrative",[]],["Warning of consequences",[]],["Contradiction and Hypocrisy",[]],["Humor and sarcasm counter-narratives",[]],["Positive Response are statements that involve presenting an optimistic, constructive, or supportive viewpoint in response to a negative or hostile statement.",[]],["Counter questions are thought-provoking questions that challenge or probe its underlying assumptions, biases, or implications.",[]],["Denouncing counter-narratives are statements that involve openly and emphatically condemning a negative or harmful statement, idea, or action.",[]],["Fact-based counter-narrative provides factual evidence to correct or refute any misperceptions and prevent the spread of misinformation.",[]],["Warning of consequences are counter-narratives that inform the user of the potential negative outcomes or repercussions associated with a particular statement, action, or viewpoint.",[]],["Contradiction and Hypocrisy are types of counternarratives that point out any inconsistencies or hypocrisy in the hate-filled statement.",[]],["Humor and sarcasm counter-narratives use witty satirical statements to mock or ridicule hate speech.",[]]]},{"de":[["This type of counternarrative tries to reject and disapprove of the original content by expressing strong opposition by highlighting its negative effects or ethical concerns.",[]]],"sp":[["counter-narrative",[]],["counternarrative",[]]]},{"de":[["This approach aims to challenge the accuracy, credibility, or validity of the original content by providing factual data and reliable sources.",[]]],"sp":[["counter-narrative",[]]]},{},{"de":[["any references that insult religion or religious beliefs and malicious acts intended to outrage religious sentiments are also considered as hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["By using sarcasm and comedic techniques, this counter-narrative aims to create a contrasting perspective that exposes the weaknesses of the hate speech while engaging the audience in a thought-provoking and often entertaining manner.",[]]],"sp":[["counter-narrative",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This type of counter-narrative aims to promote understanding, empathy, or positive change by offering an alternative perspective that encourages harmony, cooperation, or a more inclusive outlook.",[]]],"sp":[["counter-narrative",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This category also includes statements that belittle a religion, its institutions, teachings, and other related aspects.",[]]]},{"sp":[["counter-narrative",[]]]},{"de":[["While aspect-level sentiment classification is a finegrained classification method (Schouten & Frasincar, 2015), most sentiment methods identify sentiment polarity based on whole sentences or the entirety of a textual document but ignore other important aspectsmuch like omitted variable bias in statistical hypothesis-testing approaches.",[]]]},{"rt":[["followers",[]]]},{"rt":[["followers",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["champions",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This theory touches on other developments related to different kinds of informedness that have emerged within the broader literature over time and entered the IS literature in the past decade.",[]]],"ex":[["used to construct four propositions on how evidence about social informedness can be seen in champion-centric, follower-participating communications",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["An example of such self-media is shown in Figure 2.",[]]],"rt":[["user generated contents",[]]]},{"rt":[["evidence extraction for given claims",[]],["re-liability evaluation of media sources",["Baly et al., 2018a"]],["stance detection of documents with respect to claims",["Mohtarami et al., 2018","Xu et al., 2018","Baly et al., 2018b"]],["fact checking of claims",["Mihaylova et al., 2018"]]],"sb":[["re-liability evaluation of media sources",["Baly et al., 2018a"]],["stance detection of documents with respect to claims",["Mohtarami et al., 2018","Xu et al., 2018","Baly et al., 2018b"]]]},{},{"ex":[["labels such as agree, disagree and discuss",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Veracity inference has been mostly approached as text classification problem and mainly tackled by developing linguistic, stylistic, and semantic features (Rashkin et al., 2017;Mihaylova et al., 2018;Nakov et al., 2017), as well as using information from external sources (Mihaylova et al., 2018;Karadzhov et al., 2017).",["Rashkin et al., 2017","Mihaylova et al., 2018","Nakov et al., 2017","Karadzhov et al., 2017"]]]},{"ex":[["abortion and execute",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The literal reference to the Prague Spring of 1968 evokes associations with popular Western values such as freedom and autonomy. The frame put the events in Syria into a democratic light (Baresch et al., 2012).",["Baresch et al., 2012"]]],"rt":[["War on Terror frame",[]],["Pact with the Devil frame",[]]]},{"sp":[["news values",[]]],"ex":[["David versus Goliath frame",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["emergency phase",[]]]},{"rt":[["definition/conflict phase",[]]]},{"de":[["The aim of frame-building research, then, is to investigate how journalistic routines (as news values) and the interaction with external actors (as sources) lead to the construction of culturally rooted frames.",[]],["Journalists do not start with a blank sheet at the beginning of a new news story. They reflect about new events within familiar frames, from the inductive frame analysis referred to as 'spring', 'war', and 'missing children'.",[]],["these familiar frames were activated to define the situation, to indicate what the problem is, and to allocate roles to the main actors in the story, as the victim, hero, or villain.",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]],["frame-sending",[]],["frame-setting",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["frame-building",[]]],"sp":[["frame-building",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["frame-building",[]]],"sp":[["frame-building",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The way in which a certain subject is framed in a news text is not an isolated incident. Various news stories from diverse media contribute to the dynamic process of framing.",[]],["From this respect, framing should not be considered as the choice of a static entity but as a dynamic process driven by the journalistic dealings with sources and news values.",[]]],"rt":[["frame-building",[]],["frame-sending",[]],["frame-setting",[]]],"sb":[["frame-sending",[]],["frame-setting",[]]],"ex":[["framing it as 'David versus Goliath'",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the emotionality involved in such stories can serve as well as a tool to call attention to larger social problems (Wahl-Jorgensen, 2013).",["2013"]]]},{"de":[["Following the media hype around the 'missing children' stories after the arrest of child murderer Marc Dutroux in 1996 (Van Gorp, 2005;Vasterman, 2005), this is a familiar narrative for Belgian journalists to define the event: Flemish parents see their children suddenly leave home.",["Van Gorp, 2005","Vasterman, 2005"]]],"rt":[["War on Terror frame",[]]]},{"de":[["news values are equally added to the news story in retrospect, in line with the applied frame, which implies that the newsworthiness of the story may be increased by the way it is told.",[]],["news values external to the event, such as the competition between various media and the importance of an 'exclusive' story",[]]],"rt":[["Conflict",[]],["human interest",[]]],"ex":[["conflict",[]],["human interest",[]],["elite people",[]]]},{"de":[["The Pact with the Devil frame provides an apparently logical explanation for this: evil has taken possession of them.",[]],["The Pact with the Devil frame suggests that, by removing Belkacem as the cause, the problem will be solved",[]]],"rt":[["Missing Children",[]],["War on Terror",[]],["Arab Spring",[]]]},{"rt":[["news value research",[]]]},{"de":[["According to this frame, the young men are given the role of perpetrator. The governments now take on a corrective role. Their task consists of judging the young men's behavior, impeding their departure, and anticipating a potential return.",[]]],"rt":[["Arab Spring frame",[]],["Pact with the Devil frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["For international law, hate speech has an extra element that differentiates it from other offensive behavior: the promotion of violent actions against its targets. However, the NLP community does not usually require this ''call-to-action'' when identifying hate speech.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hate speech has attired attention in recent years, with literature from legal and social sciences domains studying its definition and classification",["22"]],["The automatic detection of this kind of speech is usually addressed as a classification task, and it is related to a family of other tasks such as detecting cyberbullying, offensive language, abusive language, toxic language, among others.",[]],["Hate speech could manifest explicitly as direct insults, slurs, celebrations of crimes, incitements to take action against an individual or group, or implicitly in more subtle ways and veiled expressions such as in ironic content.",[]],["it is necessary to make an explicit or implicit appeal to at least one feature protected by law.",[]],["an insult or aggression is not enough to constitute hate speech; it is necessary to make an explicit or implicit appeal to at least one feature protected by law.",[]]],"rt":[["cyberbullying",[]],["offensive language",[]],["abusive language",[]],["toxic language",[]],["color, race, national or social origin, language, gender identity, and sexual orientation",[]]],"sb":[["misogyny",[]],["racism",[]],["homophobia",[]],["transphobia",[]],["hatred due to physical appearance (e.g., overweight)",[]],["hatred towards people with disabilities",[]],["political hate speech",[]],["hate speech against criminals, prisoners, offenders and other people in conflict with the law",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In some cases, it is not so clear whether a word is referring to an event or not. Consider these harder cases to be events.",[]]],"sb":[["nominal events",[]],["stative events",[]],["generic events",[]]],"ex":[["earthquake, meeting, jumping, talking",[]],["earthquake",[]],["meeting",[]],["jumping",[]],["talking",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["single-modality",[]],["multi-modality rumor detection methods",[]],["Single-modality rumor detection methods",[]],["multi-modality",[]]]},{"sb":[["propagation pattern analysis",[]],["response user analysis",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["assertion",[]]]},{"de":[["Triggers can be physical or can be certain images or keywords.",[]]],"sb":[["internal anchors",["Dilts & DeLozier, 2000"]]],"sp":[["Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["anchoring",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Observations suggested that dissociation was achieved by highlighting the ills of Western society and culture.",[]]]},{"sy":[["black and white thinking",[]]]},{"sp":[["Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["While they aim to change the cognitive belief structures that an individual has, they utilise a strong affective dimension. Propaganda tools were found to also invoke an emotional response including a sense of outrage or anger at perceived injustices.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["animosity towards people with different political views",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["filter bubble",[]]]},{},{"de":[["they can drive users to adopt more extreme positions and reduce the chance for building the common ground and legitimacy of political compromises",["Pariser 2011","Sunstein 2018"]]]},{"rt":[["echo chamber",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["White House",[]],["GOP War Room",[]],["Hoover Institution",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Our definition thus includes both benign and malicious bots.",[]]],"sb":[["Broadcast bot",[]],["Consumption bot",[]],["Spam bot",[]]]},{"de":[["Such bot is often managed by an organization or a group of people (e.g., bloggers).",[]]],"sp":[["benign bots",[]],["bot",[]]]},{"de":[["broadcast bots are the most popular and post the most diverse URLs and hashtags, but they are the least reciprocal and rarely mention others.",[]],["Among the top features for broadcast bots, certain sources that are popularly used for blogging (such as WordPress and Twitterfeed) or brand management (such as HootSuite) are found to be highly indicative.",[]],["It is also shown that the entropy-based features for the url entity correlate strongly with broadcast bots.",[]],["certain critical timings of the url postings are highly indicative of broadcast bots.",[]]]},{"sy":[["content polluters",[]]],"sp":[["bot",[]]]},{"de":[["spammers may exploit bots to attract regular accounts as their followers, enabling them to hijack search engine results or trending topics, disseminate unsolicited messages, and entice users to visit malicious sites",[]],["unlike broadcast and consumption bots, spam bots are active all days/hours, and they exhibit very random timings.",[]],["the timing diversities of the url, mention, tweet and hashtag activities are found to be the key signatures of spam bots.",[]],["the temporal patterns of spam bots are highly irregular.",[]],["suggest that spam bots have highly diverse timings (i.e., high entropy)",[]]],"sy":[["content polluters",[]]],"sp":[["malicious bots",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Non-offensive is divided into anti-bias and other non-offensive language.",[]],["a common form of expression in Anti-Bias contents is acknowledgment followed by denial",[]]],"rt":[["non-offensive language",[]]],"sp":[["Non-offensive",[]]],"ex":[["\"Women are often discriminated against in the workplace, but I don't think it's right.\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The category of Offensive is subdivided into (1) Attack Individuals and (2) Attack Groups according to what is targeted/attacked in the content",[]]],"sp":[["Offensive",[]],["Offensive language",[]]]},{"de":[["The category of Offensive is subdivided into (1) Attack Individuals and (2) Attack Groups according to what is targeted/attacked in the content",[]]],"sp":[["Offensive",[]],["Offensive language",[]]]},{"sp":[["Offensive language",[]],["Offensive",[]]]},{"sb":[["anti-bias",[]],["other non-offensive language",[]],["Other Non-Offensive",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The category of Offensive is subdivided into (1) Attack Individuals and (2) Attack Groups according to what is targeted/attacked in the content",[]],["It includes implicit or direct offensive content that is rude, disrespectful, insulting, threatening, profane, as well as any other toxic content that makes others uncomfortable or provokes further intense offensive feedback.",[]]],"sb":[["Attack Individuals",[]],["Attack Groups",[]],["attacking individual",[]],["attacking group",[]],["Attacking groups",[]]]},{"de":[["It includes veiled or direct offensive content expressing rudeness, disrespect, insults, threats and profanity based on aspects such as race, religion, sex, or sexual orientation",["Zampieri et al., 2019","Cambrigdge dictionary","Davidson et al., 2017"]],["It includes implicit or direct offensive content that is rude, disrespectful, insulting, threatening, profane, as well as any other toxic content that makes others uncomfortable or provokes further intense offensive feedback.",["Zampieri et al., 2019","Cambrigdge dictionary","Davidson et al., 2017"]],["It includes veiled or direct offensive content expressing rudeness, disrespect, insults, threats and profanity based on aspects such as race, religion, sex, or sexual orientation (Zampieri et al., 2019;Cambrigdge dictionary;Davidson et al., 2017).",["Zampieri et al., 2019","Cambrigdge dictionary","Davidson et al., 2017"]]],"sy":[["toxic language",["Jahan and Oussalah, 2021"]],["hate speech",["Jahan and Oussalah, 2021"]]],"rt":[["toxic language",[]],["hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["Attack Individuals",[]],["Attack Groups",[]],["Attacking groups",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Non-Offensive",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["First, we calculate the average percentage of tokens in the generated text that are Hallucinated, meaning that they do not appear in the input corpus.",[]]]},{"de":[["Style adherence to the true output",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Critical geopolitics seeks to unpack the rigid territorial assumptions of traditional geopolitical thinking.",[]]],"rt":[["popular geopolitics",["Ó Tuathail and Agnew 1992: 190"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["New Russia",[]]]},{"sy":[["Russian world",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["system-level confounders",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Reservations assigns quotas for marginalised communities at the national and state levels.",[]],["Originally designed for Dalits and Adivasis, reservations have expanded to include other backward castes, women, persons with disabilities, and religious minorities.",[]]],"rt":[["technique for algorithmic fairness",[]]],"sp":[["affirmative action",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Our definition of tech journalism has been about covering the business of tech [...] It is different from the US, where there is a more combative relationship. We don't ask tough questions of the state or tech companies.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Trump is not a US citizen",[]],["Boris Johnson had an extramarital affair",[]]]},{"de":[["The term 'fake news' is ill-defined.",[]],["the incoherence of the category of \"fake news\" and the wide variation of interests underlying calls for its regulation",[]],["The problem of fake news is not in fact a single problem.",[]],["The term 'fake news' is ill-defined. Policymakers should be aware that the term has been used to serve the purposes of various political actors.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["Alleged foreign interference in domestic elections through fake news",[]],["Ad-driven invention",[]],["Parody and satire",[]],["Bad journalism",[]],["News that is ideologically opposed",[]],["News that challenges orthodox authority",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The Chinese approach is to make operators of social networks responsible for removing a widely defined category of content considered to be 'rumours' and jail terms of up to 3 years for those responsible.",[]]],"sy":[["rumours",[]],["online rumours",[]]],"sb":[["undermining morality",[]],["the socialist system",[]],["the authenticity of information",[]]]},{"de":[["This is seen most clearly in the area of business news.",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["business news is subject to 'pro-cyclical' group think which tends to exacerbate market corrections when they do come, as was the case during the financial crisis.",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["opinions",[]]],"ex":[["Trump is effective",[]],["Boris Johnson is an idiot",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The basic premise of this approach is that only empirically verifiable statements are capable of being true.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["mock news",[]]]},{"de":[["This article posits the dislocation of news journalism, as involving parallel processes of power redistribution from the news media to platform companies.",[]]]},{"de":[["More specifically, dislocation of news journalism includes a displacement of power for news producers having less control over publishing contexts when news stories are detached from the context in which they were originally embedded by the news organization",[]],["dislocation of news journalism mainly involves a process of dislocation from news media organizations towards platform companies",[]],["this conceptualization also covers processes in which news organizations work towards reducing their dependence and developing the significance of their proprietary platforms again",[]],["Dislocation refers to a fundamental transformation and disruption of an established order.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Mock is a concept connoting artifice, mimicry, imitation, as well as being fake and bad",[]],["Metaphorically, mock news is like a chameleon, successful in camouflaging and blending into their context through skin coloration that imitates their surroundings.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["deception of truth claims",[]]],"sb":[["deep fakes",[]]],"ex":[["So-called \"deep fakes\" have emerged quite explicitly doing this by technically manipulating voices and faces, giving the impression that a specific person says something they did not.",[]]]},{"rt":[["articulation of truth claims",[]],["how news is produced, validated and justified by journalists",[]],["how news is received and validated by audiences",[]],["journalism culture",["Hanitzsch, 2007"]],["epistemology",["Hanitzsch, 2007"]]]},{},{"de":[["is increasingly integrated into the news as a form of authoritative knowledge, worth listening to and trusting in.",[]]]},{"de":[["Instead they operate with a business model in which they provide a digital platform on which individuals and institutions can communicate and publish information (e.g., Gillespie, 2018).",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]]},{"ex":[["news",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation or fake information related to health",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]],["fake information",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["gain momentum from the desire to find a solution to a particular disease or illness by patients or their relatives, who inadvertently contribute to spreading misleading information.",[]],["related to health",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["fake information",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]]},{"de":[["Both situations have negative consequences for public health and personal health.",[]],["It does not offer a contribution in order to contrast but rather presents the message as evidence or trust information, or the source of the information offered is not scientific.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["with the same objective of making people believe that the medical community is divided",[]]]},{"de":[["use the hashtag #VaccinateUS and spread pro-and anti-vaccination messages, often with the apparent aim of encouraging people to believe that the medical community is divided",[]]],"ex":[["use the hashtag #VaccinateUS",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["immigration or taxation",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["text augmentation",[]],["text-feature alignment",[]],["text-to-text alignment",[]]]},{"de":[["hallucinations in the medical domain can be characterized as multi-tasking, multi-faceted, and hierarchical, making them uniquely challenging and complex to address.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the critical consumption skills include those needed for an individual to be able to question the credibility of media messages through critiquing the content and the context.",[]],["An individual's ability to analyze and evaluate the media messages through his/her own lens is another skill included in the critical consumption skillset",["Chen et al., 2011, p. 86"]],["the critical consumption skills include those needed for an individual to be able to question the credibility of media messages through critiquing the content and the context. An individual's ability to analyze and evaluate the media messages through his/her own lens is another skill included in the critical consumption skillset",["Chen et al., 2011, p. 86"]]],"sp":[["new media literacy",[]]],"ex":[["An individual's ability to analyze and evaluate the media messages through his/her own lens",["Chen et al., 2011, p. 86"]]]},{"ex":[["composing a textual message on new media platforms or on social media with a critical standpoint conveying his/her own opinions and ideologies",["Chen et al., 2011, p. 86","Lin et al., 2013, p.164","Chen et al., 2011, p. 86;Lin et al., 2013, p.164"]]]},{"sp":[["new media literacy",[]]],"ex":[["composing a textual message on new media platforms or on social media with a critical standpoint conveying his/her own opinions and ideologies",["Chen et al., 2011, p. 86;Lin et al., 2013, p.164"]]]},{"sp":[["new media literacy",[]]],"ex":[["individuals' use of computers to access information, search using search engines, and understand others' opinions located in various platforms",["Lin et al., 2013, p. 164","Lin et al., 2013, p.164"]]]},{},{"de":[["media literacy comprises a set of multi-faceted skills that highlight the skills used by individuals to not only consume but also critically analyze what they have viewed, heard or read on the media platforms.",[]],["other key media literacy skills today include the production of self-generated content along with access, comprehension and critiquing skills.",[]],["Media literacy traditionally aims to help individuals become better-informed users through proper consumption of media messages, which underscores a critical evaluation of media content by individuals",["Scheibe, 2009"]],["has undergone dramatic changes historically to reflect the characteristics of the tools used to consume or produce such messages.",[]]]},{"de":[["new media subsumes an information processing ecosystem in which digital messages are not only created but also accessed anytime, anywhere via any digital device",["Chen, Wu & Wang, 2011"]]]},{"de":[["the new media literacy framework highlights the interaction of individuals with others not only through consumption but also through production and distribution, which further allows the active participation in and co-production of media messages",["Koc & Barut, 2016"]],["the new framework incorporates both the consumption skills which are regarded as sets of skills to access and use media messages with the help of various technical skills, and production skills with the advent and widespread use of Web 2.0 tools.",["Chen et al., 2011"]],["Lin et al. (2013) have revisited the framework and redrawn the boundaries of functional prosuming and consuming along with critical prosuming and consuming skills to compose the new media literacy skills",["Lin et al., 2013, p. 165-166"]]],"rt":[["functional prosuming",[]],["critical prosuming",[]]],"sb":[["functional consumption (FC)",["Lin et al., 2013, p.163"]],["critical consumption (CC)",["Lin et al., 2013, p.163"]],["functional prosuming (FP)",["Lin et al., 2013, p.163"]],["critical prosuming (CP)",["Lin et al., 2013, p.163"]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["Bolivarian missions",[]],["comunas (communes)",[]],["colectivos (collectives)",[]]],"sp":[["pseudo participatory organizations",[]]],"ex":[["Bolivarian missions",[]],["comunas (communes)",[]],["colectivos (collectives)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Waisbord's notion that populism is a style of political communication that sets out to persuade in particular ways.",[]],["Some employ mainly forms of media politics, but others also focus on forms of direct (e.g., grassroots, community engagement) political communication, through which populists connect, construct, and reconstruct their publics.",[]]]},{"de":[["the populist communication style is much more than a mere top-down appeal because, as we have seen so far, it embodies more complex identity affiliations and emotional interplay between populist actors and their publics.",[]],["Populist leaders use abrasive, belligerent, direct, and simple language to connect with disenchanted publics and to present themselves as those with a solution to existing and continuing problems.",[]],["Farage's style is characterized, and criticized, for its controlling tendencies: For example, MEP Patrick O'Flynn claimed that Farage was \"making UKIP look like an 'absolutist monarchy' or a personality cult\"",[]],["Farage and, indeed, Chávez are leaders capable of mobilizing emotions and so lead through connecting with their audiences' grievances.",[]],["the specific style of rhetoric used by the populists involves adversarial, emotional, patriotic, and abrasive speech through which they connect with the discontented often via grassroots, community-oriented, communicative practices and spaces.",[]],["The populist style, mainly associated with antiestablishment, nationalistic appeals and religious and cultural intolerance, appears to be defining the political agenda of this century; it simultaneously builds bonds among the similar or likeminded (the people) and demonizes the Other (the center-ground elite).",[]]],"sy":[["populist style of communication",[]]],"rt":[["identity",[]],["rhetoric",[]],["political communication",[]]],"sp":[["political communication",[]]],"ex":[["to use and reinvent cultural symbols to construct collective identity",[]],["to lead by communication through brutally antagonizing the elite and connecting with their publics (the disenfranchised or discontented with middle-ground politics) by skillfully using abrasive but also colloquial, relatable, patriotic rhetoric",[]],["repetition of this routine in pubs, community meetings, and other settings",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Bolivarian missions",[]],["comunas (communes)",[]],["colectivos (collectives)",[]]]},{"rt":[["political style",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["naïve theories",[]]]},{"sp":[["naïve theories",[]]]},{"de":[["they often make inferences to fill in these gaps",[]]],"sb":[["naive theory of exclusivity",[]],["naive theory of popularity",[]],["the naive theory of exclusivity",[]],["the naive theory of popularity",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["cyberbullying",[]]],"sp":[["abusive content",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["abusive content",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This category also includes some statements that have been incorrectly annotated as a GOOD answer.",[]],["It also includes the very timesensitive statements described before, such as \"It is Friday tomorrow?\".",[]],["The BAD and the POTENTIALLY USEFUL answers from CQA-QL-2016 also fall in this category.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such competing influence diffusion could range from two competing companies engaging in two marketing campaigns trying to grab people's attentions, or two political candidates of the opposing parties trying to influence their voters, to government authorities trying to inject truth information to fight with rumors spreading in the public, and so on.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["one entity tries to block the influence propagation of its competing entity as much as possible by strategically selecting a number of seed nodes that could initiate its own influence propagation.",[]]]},{},{}] |