MBDef 1.0.0: Explorer data for exactly the released rows, map and topics made on them
714cbfe verified | [{"de":[["The negative dominance rule reflects the negativity bias phenomenon well studied in social psychology, and matches the common sense that rumors are usually hard to fight with.",[]],["reflects the negativity bias phenomenon well studied in social psychology, and matches the common sense that rumors are usually hard to fight with.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Illusory Truth Effect (ITE)",[]]]},{"de":[["whereby earlier exposure to a statement makes it seem more truthful later",[]],["The ITE is typically explained as a fluency effect -initial exposure makes processing during the later truth rating phase more fluent, and fluency is taken as an indicator of truth [33].",["33"]],["The standard explanation of the ITE in humans is as a fluency effect [33] i.e. prior exposure to a statement makes it easier to process when encountered later, and fluency is taken as a cue to truthfulness.",["33"]]],"rt":[["fluency effect",[]]]},{"de":[["where meaning is understood as patterns of use",["37"]],["To understand the LLM we need to talk to it.",[]]],"sp":[["types of explanation",[]]]},{"de":[["part of the meaning of 'politician' is someone whose actions often have negative consequences; thus a predicted negative event, when said to be caused by politicians becomes more likely to occur, hence more concerning.",[]]],"sy":[["meaning-based explanation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["influence effects we see in the PFN study",[]]],"rt":[["anti-elitist framing",[]],["anti-immigrant framing",[]]],"sb":[["anti-elitist framing",[]],["anti-immigrant framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["populist framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The affective/cognitive balance applies to consumers and non-governmental stakeholders more than governments and was evident in Ansett and Rover where the Reputation and ethical behaviour in a crisis affective sympathy to both for historical reasons was out of alignment with the cognitive experience of the services of the airline and the carmaker's products.",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive element",[]]]},{"rt":[["affective",[]]]},{"de":[["The affective/cognitive balance applies to consumers and non-governmental stakeholders more than governments and was evident in Ansett and Rover where the Reputation and ethical behaviour in a crisis affective sympathy to both for historical reasons was out of alignment with the cognitive experience of the services of the airline and the carmaker's products.",[]]],"rt":[["affective element",[]]]},{},{"de":[["By observing others' behaviour in the past, one can fairly confidently predict their behaviour in the future without incurring further costs",[]]],"rt":[["predictability",[]]]},{"rt":[["reputation",[]]]},{"sy":[["corporate reputation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In the SI model, the nodes have three possible states: infected (i), susceptible (s) and non-susceptible (n).",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["ideological biases",[]]]},{"sy":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The rise of deliberate disinformation-nowadays often referred to as fake news-has sparked societal as well as academic debates.",[]],["deceptive information-nowadays often referred to as fake news",[]],["an ideological/partisan bias and the use of negative emotions provoking anger or fear",[]],["low levels of verifiability",[]],["the presence of a long sensationalist headline in which a lot of information is packed",[]],["the use of informal language or swear",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]],["deliberate disinformation",[]],["deceptive information",[]]],"ex":[["Intentional deception masqueraded as an entire news article (which often is referred to as fake news)",[]]]},{"de":[["Negative references toleft-leaning, progressive political actors orissues, positive references to (populist) rightleaning political actors or issues.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["the use of pronouns or the presence of swear",[]],["the use of pronouns",[]],["the presence of swear",[]]]},{"ex":[["tweets in which the content is not compatible with reality (low facticity)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["intentionally deceptive information thrives best on those topics that are most polarized in a given context.",[]],["intentionally deceptive information is a phenomenon with potentially far-reaching consequences for democratic stability",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The important thing is not sporting events themselves but the way in which they are used.",["1994: 13-15"]]]},{"de":[["This applies to modern top-level sports as well, despite the fact that people know that top-level sports are not the same thing as fitness sports or exercise and despite the negative phenomena sometimes associated with top-level sports.",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["social networking media",[]],["social networking services",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook",[]],["Twitter",[]],["Instagram",[]]]},{"rt":[["aspect category",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the extraction or identification of opinion holder and posting time is typically not the key focus of TSA, thus we use (t, s) to describe opinion for simplicity.",[]],["Note that, in the original definition [17], an opinion is described as a quadruple (t, s, ti, h) where h is the opinion holder, and ti is the opinion posting time.",["17"]]]},{},{"de":[["For TG-ABSA, the object of the analysis is the aspect of predefined targeted entity.",[]]],"sp":[["Targeted Sentiment Analysis (TSA)",[]],["targeted sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"sp":[["Targeted Sentiment Analysis (TSA)",[]],["targeted sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"sy":[["Target-dependent Sentiment Analysis",[]],["Entity-level Sentiment Analysis",[]]],"sp":[["Targeted Sentiment Analysis (TSA)",[]],["targeted sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"sy":[["aspect based sentiment analysis (ABSA)",[]],["Aspect-level Sentiment Analysis",["24"]],["Aspect Based Sentiment Analysis",["34"]],["Feature Based Sentiment Analysis",["7"]],["Topic Based Sentiment Analysis",["29"]]],"sb":[["Target-grounded Aspect-based Sentiment Analysis (TG-ABSA)",[]],["Targeted Non-Aspect-based Sentiment Analysis (TN-ABSA)",[]],["Targeted Aspect-based Sentiment Analysis (T-ABSA)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["political leanings",[]]]},{"de":[["The political leaning score ranges from -2.0 to 2.0, with [-2.0,-1.2] for Strongly Liberal (SL), (-1.2,-0.4] for Moderately Liberal (ML), (-0.4, 0.4) for Neutral (N), [0.4, 1.2) for Moderately Conservative (MC) and [1.2,2.0] for Strongly Conservative (SC)",[]]],"rt":[["bias categories",[]]],"sb":[["strongly liberal (SL)",[]],["moderately liberal (ML)",[]],["neutral (N)",[]],["moderately conservative (MC)",[]],["strongly conservative (SC)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["political leanings",[]]]},{"sp":[["political leanings",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The probability that subjects will be misled by the suggested information is greater if the source of the misleading information is attributed to a high-credibility source rather than to a low-credibility source.",[]]]},{"de":[["in the suggestibility paradigm, a misleading item and its original source will become less strongly associated in memory as time passes.",[]],["With the passage of time, however, the message and the source become less strongly associated in memory. The elaborated message, then, will have a relatively greater chance of being available than the nonelaborated source, so that, when the message is recalled, the source is less likely to be remembered",[]],["the cognitive processes underlying the sleeper effect appear to be similar to those underlying memory suggestibility",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["threats",[]],["warnings",[]]]},{"rt":[["animator",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They make the performed words appear close to the historical words, and in so doing, enliven those historical words, giving them an aura of objectivity and authority",["Matoesian 2001: 110"]],["It provides evidence",["Galatolo 2007: 212"]],["quotation is \"an opportunity to directly verify what the witnesses have previously said,\" so that when the direct reported speech comes after an evaluation, \"the witness has the possibility of objectifying that evaluation, making it seem factual.\"",["Galatolo's (2007: 13)"]],["speakers use direct reported speech to make their claims more robust.",["Clift and Holt (2007: 12)"]]],"sy":[["direct quotes",[]],["constructed dialogue",[]]],"sp":[["reported speech",[]]]},{"de":[["The word 'extortion' (in Spanish extorsión or, colloquially, renta) by definition presupposes an element of threat.",[]],["by definition presupposes an element of threat.",[]]],"sy":[["extorsión",[]],["renta",[]],["la renta",[]],["impuesto de guerra",[]],["protection racket",[]]],"rt":[["protection racket",[]]]},{"de":[["it is clear from the discourse in which the quote is embedded that the recipient of the threat is not a specific person, but some generalized, unspecified addressee.",[]]]},{"de":[["The fact that in our study generic threats were often quoted with the very same words by different people demonstrates to us that they are in fact being made regularly in this manner in these Central American countries.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["reported speech",[]]]},{"de":[["notion that has its origins in the work of Kristeva (1980) and Bakhtin (1981Bakhtin ( , 1986))",[]],["a notion that has its origins in the work of Kristeva (1980) and Bakhtin (1981Bakhtin ( , 1986))",[]]],"rt":[["heteroglossic potential",[]],["dialogic connectivity",[]]]},{"rt":[["animator",[]]]},{"de":[["The category includes, for example, the replaying of the words of another speaker, or the same speaker on a previous occasion, in spoken discourse.",[]],["it contributes to \"the authoritativeness of stance, perspective, or 'footing'\" (Silverstein 1993: 35).",["Silverstein 1993: 35"]],["the use of reported speech in both judicial and rhetorical speech fosters clear-cut boundaries between narrated and narrative events; the higher the placement of an utterance in the social hierarchy, the more sharply defined the boundary",["Briggs 1996: 26"]]],"sy":[["quotation",["Holt (2009: 190)"]],["citation",["Holt (2009: 190)"]]],"sb":[["Direct reported speech",[]],["indirect reported speech",[]]],"ex":[["the replaying of the words of another speaker, or the same speaker on a previous occasion, in spoken discourse.",["Holt (2009: 190)"]]]},{"de":[["Inherent in every threat is the intention to send fear",["Fraser 1998: 161","161"]],["Whether or not a message is a threat will depend upon several factors, such as the intent of the speaker, the understanding of the hearer, and the context of the utterance",["Storey 1995: 74"]],["a threat must appear to be sincere",["Solan and Tiersma 2005: 203"]],["threats are made for the speaker's benefit",["Shuy (1996: 98)"]],["threats are made to the hearer's detriment",["Shuy (1996: 98)"]],["in making a threat, the speaker controls the outcome",["Shuy (1996: 98)"]]],"rt":[["warning",[]],["language crimes",[]],["illocutionary force",[]]],"sb":[["direct threats",[]],["indirect threats",[]]],"sp":[["speech act",[]]]},{"rt":[["threat",[]]],"sp":[["speech act",[]]]},{"sp":[["News Criteria",[]]]},{"de":[["Doxa is the taken-for-granted of social practice, the seemingly natural, which we rarely make explicit and which we rarely question (Bourdieu, 1998, p. 57).",["(Bourdieu, 1998, p. 57)"]],["The general doxa of social practice can be described as ''the universe of the tacit presuppositions that we accept as the natives of a certain society'' (Bourdieu, 2005, p. 37).",["(Bourdieu, 2005, p. 37)"]],["Doxa is the taken-for-granted of social practice, the seemingly natural, which we rarely make explicit and which we rarely question",["Bourdieu, 1998","Bourdieu, 1998, p. 57"]],["The general doxa of social practice can be described as ''the universe of the tacit presuppositions that we accept as the natives of a certain society''",["Bourdieu, 2005","Bourdieu, 2005, p. 37"]]],"rt":[["Journalistic doxa",[]]],"sb":[["Journalistic doxa",[]]]},{"rt":[["orthodox/heterodox news values",[]],["Orthodox news values",[]],["Heterodox news values",[]]],"ex":[["exclusivity",[]],["the notion of ''newsworthiness''",[]],["newsworthiness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Enduring values are not timeless, and they may change somewhat over the years; moreover, they also help to shape opinions, and many times, opinions are only specifications of enduring values",[]]],"sb":[["Ethnocentrism",[]],["Altruistic Democracy",[]],["Responsible Capitalism",[]],["Small-town Pastoralism",[]],["Individualism and Moderatism",[]],["Social Order and National Leadership",[]]],"ex":[["Ethnocentrism, Altruistic Democracy, Responsible Capitalism, Small-town Pastoralism, Individualism and Moderatism, Social Order and National Leadership",["42ff","Gans, 1979, p. 42ff"]]]},{"de":[["the traditional hard (prestigious and well-paying) genres like foreign news, political journalism, economy and business journalism",[]]],"rt":[["soft news",[]]],"ex":[["foreign news, political journalism, economy and business journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["Doxic news values",[]],["Orthodox news values",[]]],"ex":[["''soft news''",[]]]},{"sp":[["News Criteria",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["editorial capitals",[]]],"sp":[["cultural capital",[]]],"ex":[["professional experience (years of work experience, kind of experience, etc.), ''formal'' organisational position (reporter or editor, general reporter or specialist reporter, etc.), news beat (political news or human-interest news, etc.), journalistic prizes, etc.",["Schultz, 2005"]]]},{"de":[["The journalistic doxa is a ''specific doxa, a system of presuppositions inherent in membership in a field'' (Bourdieu, 2005, p. 37).",["(Bourdieu, 2005, p. 37)","Bourdieu, 2005, p. 37"]],["Speaking of the journalistic doxa is naming a set of implicit, tacit presuppositions in the journalistic field, not least the practical schemes that editors and reporters take for granted (Bourdieu, 1998(Bourdieu, [1996]], p. 25).",["(Bourdieu, 1998(Bourdieu, [1996]], p. 25)"]],["Doxa is a particular point of view, the point of view of the dominant, which presents and imposes itself as a universal point of view",["(Bourdieu, 1998, p. 57)"]],["Speaking of the journalistic doxa is naming a set of implicit, tacit presuppositions in the journalistic field, not least the practical schemes that editors and reporters take for granted",["(Bourdieu, 1998(Bourdieu, [1996]], p. 25)"]]],"rt":[["Doxa",[]],["Journalistic Judgement",[]]],"sp":[["Doxa",[]]]},{"de":[["the journalistic field is part of the field of power, not least because the constant cultural production of social discourse not only implies production of categories for ''vision'' of the social world, but at the same time, categories also of ''division''",["Bourdieu, 2005, p. 37"]],["the journalistic field is part of the field of power, not least because the constant cultural production of social discourse not only implies production of categories for ''vision'' of the social world, but at the same time, categories also of ''division'' (Bourdieu, 2005, p. 37), or more simply put: to give a name, is also to place within a hierarchical, symbolic space.",["Bourdieu, 2005, p. 37"]]],"sp":[["field of cultural production",[]],["field of power",[]]]},{"de":[["But the game can be played from different positions, and different dispositions point to different forms of mastering the game.",[]],["we can understand as a practical mastering of the news game involving a strong, bodily sense of newsworthiness.",[]]],"rt":[["Journalistic capital",[]],["Journalistic doxa",[]]],"sb":[["''editorial habitus''",[]],["''reporter habitus''",[]],["''intern habitus''",[]],["''foreign correspondent habitus''",[]],["''investigative reporter habitus''",[]],["''magazine habitus''",[]],["''newspaper habitus''",[]],["''television habitus''",[]]]},{"rt":[["Journalistic Doxa",[]]]},{"de":[["The criteria, which have been developed over the years in a dialectical relationship between media, sources, public and audience, express the editorial sense of what catches the interest of the audience and 'sells the story', and what makes a story more relevant than another",[]]],"sy":[["Orthodox News Values",[]]],"sb":[["Timeliness",[]],["Relevance",[]],["Identification",[]],["Conflict",[]],["Sensation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["news habitus implies a fast decision-making processes",[]]],"sy":[["professional journalistic habitus",[]]],"sp":[["professional habitus",[]]]},{"de":[["How is the story positioned in relation to other stories in circulation that day? How is the journalist proposing or writing the story positioned in relation to other journalists? How is the media positioned in relation to other media?",[]]]},{"de":[["The criteria, which have been developed over the years in a dialectical relationship between media, sources, public and audience, express the editorial sense of what catches the interest of the audience and 'sells the story', and what makes a story more relevant than another",[]]],"sy":[["News Criteria",[]],["heterodox news values",[]]],"rt":[["Doxic news values",[]],["Heterodox news values",[]],["doxic values",[]]],"sb":[["Timeliness",[]],["Relevance",[]],["Identification",[]],["Conflict",[]],["Sensation",[]]],"ex":[["''hard news''",[]],["Timeliness",[]],["Relevance",[]],["Identification",[]],["Conflict",[]],["Sensation",[]]]},{"rt":[["doxic news values",[]]],"ex":[["timeliness, relevance, identification, conflict and sensation",[]]]},{"de":[["the press review as a daily update of the positions in a symbolic news field",[]],["The ''press review'' is a professional necessity: it suggests what subjects to treat because ''the others'' are talking about them, it may give them ideas for stories or at least allow them to situate themselves and to define a perspective that will distinguish them from their competitors.",["(Champagne, 1999(Champagne, [1993]], p. 47)","Champagne, 1999(Champagne, [1993]], p. 47"]]]},{},{"sp":[["News Criteria",[]]]},{"sp":[["News Criteria",[]]],"ex":[["man-bite-dog",[]],["''man-bite-dog''",[]]]},{"rt":[["hard news",[]]],"ex":[["human interest, family and lifestyle",[]]]},{"rt":[["hard news story",[]]]},{"sp":[["News Criteria",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Advocacy advertising can be used to target consumer groups, government agencies, special groups or market competitors.",[]]],"sy":[["social issues marketing",[]],["social issues advertising",[]]],"rt":[["social issue marketing",[]]]},{"de":[["Advocacy journalism is practised by a wide range of mainstream media publishers and broadcasters and alternative media outlets.",[]],["Since the 1970s, advocacy journalism has emerged whereby journalists identify with a particular view yet remain independent.",[]],["It is generally in opposition to so-called objective journalism.",[]],["advocacy journalism has emerged whereby journalists identify with a particular view yet remain independent.",[]]],"rt":[["objective journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In most cases it appears the person may have been influenced by either the suicide of someone else or the depiction of suicide, factual or fictional.",[]],["This phenomenon is usually due to the power of suggestion and normalisation presented in these media representations [authors' emphasis].",["p. 1"]]],"sy":[["suicide contagion",[]]]},{"sp":[["advocacy journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This phenomenon is usually due to the power of suggestion and normalisation presented in these media representations [authors' emphasis].",["p. 1"]]],"sy":[["copycat suicide",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["where unbiased language is devoid of such influence.",[]]],"rt":[["linguistic bias",[]]],"sb":[["linguistic bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["narrow adjectives",[]]],"ex":[["talented",[]]]},{"de":[["rendering broad adjectives more abstract than narrow adjectives.",[]]],"rt":[["narrow adjectives",[]]],"ex":[["talented",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["To have -and share -such stable expectancies about people and social categories is often highly functional (Moskowitz, 2005). Yet, it may promote prejudice and discrimination when individuals are described and pre-judged on (negative) stereotypic-, rather than available individuating information.",["Moskowitz, 2005"]]]},{},{"de":[["Linguistic biases result from, and facilitate the transmission of essentialist beliefs about social categories.",[]],["linguistic biases may result from implicit cognitive processes, or from interpersonal goals to portray a target in a particular way.",[]],["people's linguistic choices automatically reflect existing social knowledge.",[]]],"rt":[["bias",[]],["implicit cognitive processes",[]],["interpersonal goals",[]],["Linguistic Expectancy Bias (LEB)",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"de":[["The words that people choose when describing the behavior of individuals belonging to different social categories unintentionally reflect existing associations and expectancies.",[]]]},{"de":[["Given that expected behavior is considered to be more stable, diagnostic and typical than unexpected behavior it is more appropriately described with abstract terms.",[]]],"rt":[["linguistic intergroup bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["rendering broad adjectives more abstract than narrow adjectives.",[]]],"rt":[["broad adjectives",[]]],"ex":[["musical",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This leads to fractionation of the information landscape and consequent persistence of misinformation in large sections of the society for a long period of time.",[]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]],["fractionation of the information landscape",[]]]},{"rt":[["adoption of information",[]]]},{"de":[["While all the three are informative in nature, only disinformation is deliberatively deceptive information.",[]],["the product of a carefully planned and technically sophisticated deceit process.",["4"]],["when the intention is to deceive the recipient, it is disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["information",[]]],"ex":[["doctored photographs, fake videos etc.",["4"]],["Disinformation is often the product of a carefully planned and technically sophisticated deceit process.",[]],["Disinformation may not come directly from the source that intends to deceive.",[]],["Disinformation is often written or verbal communication to include doctored photographs, fake videos etc.",[]],["Disinformation could be distributed very widely or targeted at specific people or organizations.",[]],["The intended targets are often a person or a group of people.",[]]]},{"de":[["The three concepts are related to truth, and to arrive at a universal acceptance of a single truth is almost impossible.",[]]]},{"de":[["The acceptance of misinformation or misleading information by the people depends on their prior beliefs and opinions",["5"]],["any type of false information spreading in social networks.",[]],["Honest mistake in the spread of inaccurate information is misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["diffusion of information",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information",[]]]},{"de":[["Further, this would also remove personal chats, opinions and initial misinformation not considered credible.",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Hence, the SFL model proposes that human language has evolved to make three generalized kinds of meanings; they are: Experiential meanings (clause as representation), Interpersonal meanings (clause as exchange), and Textual meanings (clause as message) (Eggins 2004, p.58-59).",["Eggins 2004, p.58-59"]]],"sb":[["Transitivity",[]]]},{"de":[["One of its main grammatical systems is Mood and Modality",[]],["Hence, the SFL model proposes that human language has evolved to make three generalized kinds of meanings; they are: Experiential meanings (clause as representation), Interpersonal meanings (clause as exchange), and Textual meanings (clause as message) (Eggins 2004, p.58-59).",["Eggins 2004, p.58-59"]]],"sb":[["Mood and Modality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["One of the main textual systems is Theme and Rheme",[]],["Hence, the SFL model proposes that human language has evolved to make three generalized kinds of meanings; they are: Experiential meanings (clause as representation), Interpersonal meanings (clause as exchange), and Textual meanings (clause as message) (Eggins 2004, p.58-59).",["Eggins 2004, p.58-59"]]],"sb":[["Theme and Rheme",[]]]},{"de":[["attacks in which the victim has the opportunity to receive and decode every message in the channel, be they deceptive or real messages, must be classed as Active Degradation attacks not unlike jamming of radiofrequency communications channels.",[]]],"sp":[["Deception by Saturation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The attacker hides information which would be unhelpful or deleterious in driving the victim of the deception to a specific misperception of reality",["Kopp, 2006"]],["Pertinent examples in the political domain would include instances of adverse policy outcomes, adverse studies or reports on policy outcomes, present or future, being suppressed or not disclosed to the public.",[]],["In the marketing of commercial products for consumers, or industrial clients, concealment is characteristically implemented by not disclosing known problems or limitations in products, or adverse side effects the products may produce when used.",[]],["This technique has become widely adopted across the computer industry, in this author's prior experience as a Chief Engineer, and is not unique to IBM practice of that period.",[]]],"rt":[["Passive Degradation",[]],["Degradation or Destruction",[]]],"sp":[["Passive Degradation",[]],["Degradation attack",[]],["passive Degradation attack",[]],["Degradation or Destruction",[]]],"ex":[["Avoidance of any discussion of material risks arising in the Joint Strike Fighter program, despite these attracting a large volume of press globally",["FADT, 2003"]],["Avoidance of any detailed discussion of the capabilities of the competing F-22 fighter, despite this information being widely available in the public domain",["FADT, 2003"]],["Avoidance of any discussion of the adverse consequences of early retirement of the F-111 aircraft, despite these being extensively documented in the public domain",["FADT, 2003"]],["Avoidance of any discussion of the capabilities of competing foreign aircraft being acquired across the region and presenting a challenge to the Joint Strike Fighter, thus concealing its weaknesses",["FADT, 2003"]]]},{"de":[["Thus the most common deception techniques employed are Deception by Omission, Deception by Saturation and Deception by Spin",["Kopp, 2006"]],["Deception by Saturation remains widely used in marketing of commercial and political products, primarily as much of the victim population is unable or unwilling to invest the effort required to filter redundant or information free messages from real messages.",[]],["Both of these examples are characterized by often very long discussions of the issue in question, using verbose language and often unnecessary technical jargon, introduced in the knowledge that the target audience will need to expend time in referencing the language and understanding the terms used, thus effecting a soft kill Denial by Destruction attack.",[]]],"sy":[["Deception by Saturation strategy",[]]],"rt":[["Denial by Destruction attack",[]]],"sb":[["Active Degradation attack",[]],["soft kill Denial by Destruction attack",[]]],"sp":[["Degradation or Destruction",[]],["Denial",[]]],"ex":[["Superficial but lengthy descriptions of the desirable attributes of the Joint Strike Fighter, none of which introduce any new information content",["FADT, 2003;2004"]],["Superficial but lengthy descriptions of the undesirable attributes, limitations or failings of the F-111, devoid of actual substantiation",["FADT, 2003;2004"]]]},{"de":[["Thus the most common deception techniques employed are Deception by Omission, Deception by Saturation and Deception by Spin",["Kopp, 2006"]],["The victim's mechanism for critically assessing the unpalatable fact is thus subverted.",[]],["The attacker presents 'following circumstances' which may in themselves not be untruthful, but achieve a deceptive aim by altering the victim's interpretation of the message to the advantage of the attacker.",[]],["Spin attacks, like deception by omission attacks, rely on the victim having little or no a priori knowledge or understanding, and the victim not being prepared to critically analyse a statement by the attacker.",[]]],"sy":[["spin attack",[]]],"rt":[["Deception By Omission",[]],["Corruption strategy",[]]],"sb":[["Indirect Deception by Spin",[]],["Indirect Deception by Spin attack",[]]],"sp":[["Subversion attack",[]],["Denial",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Deception by Spin",[]]]},{"sp":[["Deception by Spin",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the attacker's agenda is wholly hidden",[]]],"sy":[["spin technique",[]]],"sb":[["Indirect Deception by Spin attack",[]]]},{"de":[["In solidarity with the BLM movement, many major sports leagues chose to follow Kaepernick's protest, with professional athletes kneeling at the start of sporting events.",[]]],"rt":[["BLM movement",[]],["racial discrimination",[]],["racial inequality",[]],["police brutality",[]]]},{"sy":[["alternative right",[]]]},{"de":[["a characteristic that both elicits and depends upon fears of the racial other",[]]]},{"de":[["This indifference is linked to an inability to know and not a simple lack of willingness to learn",["Salecl 2020, 5","Salecl (2020, 5)"]]]},{"ex":[["a conspiracy to overthrow a government",[]]]},{"de":[["non-falsifiable theory arguing that the white race is under an imminent threat",["Cotter 1999, 126"]],["the lack of supporting evidence [that] is quickly turned around as evidence of the far reaching power of the conspirators",["Cotter 1999, 126"]]]},{"rt":[["conspiracy",[]]]},{"de":[["the conspiracy is more commonly used as an alt-right criticism of progressive political movements, directed by \"the Left\".",[]],["Today, the conspiracy is more commonly used as an alt-right criticism of progressive political movements, directed by \"the Left\".",[]]],"sy":[["Cultural Marxist conspiracy",[]]]},{"de":[["used to draw attention to the apparent \"feminising\" of Western/white societies by encouraging and expanding liberal values associated with sexual equality, transgender rights and feminism",["Zhang and Davis 2022"]]],"sy":[["globohomo",[]]]},{"de":[["Since then, the term has taken on more pejorative associations, with many criticising its transference to the U.K. as reflecting an ongoing \"cultural war\" on British values, beliefs and practices.",[]]]},{"sy":[["equal odds",["17"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This type of gatekeeping bias in the earlier stages of news story generation would be vitally important, were it to exist, because the topics focused on in the news influence what is on the political agenda and how people evaluate political information",["17","18"]],["gatekeeping bias in the earlier stages of news story generation",[]]],"rt":[["ideological bias",[]]],"sp":[["ideological bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["gatekeeping bias",[]]],"sp":[["ideological bias",[]]]},{"sy":[["slacktivism",["Morozov, 2009"]]]},{"de":[["This form of accidental news consumption is likewise shaped by one's social networks-family members, friends, or coworkers-who may not share one's ideological or political orientations.",[]]]},{"sp":[["public sphere",[]]]},{"de":[["Apart from an expanded and consolidated communication ecosystem, comprising hyper-partisan outlets and social media channels, it now also incorporates some of the mainstream news media outlets, including major legacy news brands with wellestablished broadcast, print or online channels. Such mainstream channels have been co-opted into the illiberal public sphere using different techniques, including legislative changes enabling government capture of media regulatory authorities or public service media, as well as media ownership changes that consign previously independent media into the hands of oligarchs and other owners allied with illiberal political actors (Bajomi-Lázár, 2017;Šteťka, 2012). The process of colonization of the liberal public sphere is also carried out via discursive practices that normalize illiberal attitudes while simultaneously undermining liberal values, such as the adoption of a more xenophobic and exclusionary rhetoric by mainstream political actors (cf. Korstenbroek, 2022), or attacks on independent journalists, often combined with misogynistic or racist slurs, or accusations of bias and 'fake news' (e.g. Jamil Marques, 2023).",[]]],"sp":[["illiberal public sphere",[]]]},{"de":[["not just in the usual sense ascribed to the term, which involves one end of the political spectrum, typically the right-wing, becoming more extreme than the other",["Benkler et al., 2018","Hacker & Pierson, 2015"]]],"rt":[["asymmetric systemic polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["all-encompassing",[]],["fully controlled by the government",[]]],"rt":[["illiberal public sphere",[]],["contentious public sphere",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["media repertoires",[]]]},{"de":[["This new communicative space-a 'sphere of private people come together as a public' (Habermas, 1989, p. 27)-facilitated the formation of public opinion.",[]],["Propelled by progressive liberal ideas, such as individual political rights and equality of participation regardless of social status, the bourgeois public sphere has played a vital role in the historical struggle against absolutism.",[]]],"rt":[["public sphere",[]]]},{"de":[["their content is characterized by a tabloid style of writing that appealing to emotions and often contains 'demagogically manipulative' or outright false information, including conspiracy theories",["Czech Elves, 2023"]],["potential vehicles of disinformation and, therefore, as another communication channel that can be co-opted into the illiberal public sphere, depending on political context",[]]],"rt":[["direct-email chains",[]],["political chain emails",[]]]},{"de":[["often combine elements of correct and false content",["Engelhofer & Lecheler, 2019"]],["they are notoriously difficult to verify as true or false",["Kapantai et al., 2021(Kapantai et al., , p. 1325)"]],["making them both appealing and pervasive.",[]]],"sy":[["conspiracy narratives",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["conspiracy story alleging that Soros has been orchestrating the inflow of migrants from Muslim and African countries into Europe in order to undermine 'the European way of life'-and, more explicitly, 'Islamise' and 'de-Christianise' Europe",["Langer, 2021"]],["one that alleged the 2019 anti-government protests that took place in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary to have been funded by Soros",["Syrovátka & Pinkas, 2020"]],["disinformation circulating around the COVID-19 pandemic, asserting that he had been the mastermind behind the pandemic, alongside with Bill Gates",["Mejzrová, 2021, December 9"]],["Soros-related conspiracy theory",[]],["anti-Soros conspiracy theories",[]],["conspiracy theories concerning him",[]],["conspiracy theory about the crash being deliberately caused",[]],["conspiracy theories about President Obama during the 2012 presidential election campaign",["Frum, 2012, August 8"]],["conspiracy theories about Zeman's challenger Jiří Drahoš, including allegations that he was a former collaborator of the Czechoslovak secret police before 1989, a promoter of unrestricted immigration, or even a paedophile.",[]]]},{"rt":[["authoritarian public sphere",[]]]},{},{"de":[["establishment of what Yasha Mounk (2018) aptly called 'democracy without rights'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In a context where the illiberal public sphere is at the incipient stage, digital media are more likely to support the proliferation of illiberal attitudes, while countries where the illiberal sphere is more advanced are more likely to see digital media act as channels of liberal resistance.",[]]]},{"de":[["this is a broader definition of disinformation than the one by Humprecht et al. (2020), cited in the introduction to this chapter, they share a core focus on the intentionality of harm that is sought by those who produce or disseminate such information.",[]],["While this is a broader definition of disinformation than the one by Humprecht et al. (2020), cited in the introduction to this chapter, they share a core focus on the intentionality of harm that is sought by those who produce or disseminate such information.",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["online propaganda",[]],["inauthentic communication",[]]],"ex":[["disinformation circulating around the COVID-19 pandemic",[]]]},{"de":[["Alongside their impact on polarization, concerns have been voiced about these platforms' role as channels of misinformation and 'fake news', including strategically targeted disinformation campaigns, often linked to Russia, aimed at influencing the electoral process, as well as sowing distrust of democratic institutions.",[]]]},{"de":[["primarily composed of alternative, fringe media, mostly situated online but without notable audience reach",[]],["mainstream media assume the central role in the disinformation news ecosystem, both as amplifiers, as well as producers of propaganda and false narratives, including conspiracy theories",[]],["As the illiberal public sphere progresses towards the advanced stage, the channels of disinformation diversify, and incorporate some of the mainstream outlets, especially public service media, if captured by the illiberal government",[]],["Finally, when the illiberal public sphere reaches the hegemonic stage, as observed in Hungary and Serbia, mainstream media assume the central role in the disinformation news ecosystem, both as amplifiers, as well as producers of propaganda and false narratives, including conspiracy theories.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["algorithm-driven 'filter bubbles' (Pariser, 2011) or 'echo chambers' (Sunstein, 2017) within which people are selectively exposed to views that conform to their existing political attitudes and beliefs while avoiding information that would challenge them",["Sunstein, 2017"]]],"sy":[["filter bubbles",["Pariser, 2011"]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",["Pariser, 2011"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["algorithm-driven 'filter bubbles' (Pariser, 2011) or 'echo chambers' (Sunstein, 2017) within which people are selectively exposed to views that conform to their existing political attitudes and beliefs while avoiding information that would challenge them",["Pariser, 2011"]]],"sy":[["echo chambers",["Sunstein, 2017"]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",["Sunstein, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["A pastoral letter read in Polish parishes in December 2013 stated that 'gender ideology' originated from Marxism and was being imposed by foreign bodies without knowledge or consent from parents, threatening family values and leading to depravity",["Sroczynski, 2016, p. 89"]],["A pastoral letter read in Polish parishes in December 2013 stated that 'gender ideology' originated from Marxism and was being imposed by foreign bodies without knowledge or consent from parents, threatening family values and leading to depravity (Sroczynski, 2016, p. 89).",["Sroczynski, 2016, p. 89"]]],"rt":[["LGBTQ ideology",[]]],"ex":[["a prominent bishop, Tadeusz Pieronek, stating that this ideology was 'worse than Communism and Nazism put together'",["Graff, 2014, p. 432"]]]},{"rt":[["trust in individual news brands",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["mainstream news websites",[]]]},{"de":[["The liberal communication landscape has been limited to a handful of independent outlets, mostly existing online and struggling for survival. Social media and foreign-owned radio stations (such as Radio Free Europe), as well as foreign-owned cable and satellite channels, might also play an important part in sustaining the remaining liberal media ecosystem. Public service media have been nationalized and transformed into channels of government propaganda and most other mainstream news outlets have fallen under the control of the illiberal government or its business allies.",[]]],"sp":[["illiberal public sphere",[]]]},{"de":[["this hollowing out of the centre typically involves the state capture of public service channels and their transformation into key vehicles of illiberal narratives and values",[]],["A key tipping point in the deepening spiral of polarization is the hollowing out of the political and media centre-that is, the disappearance of ideologically and politically neutral media outlets-which typically occurs when the illiberal public sphere reaches the ascendant stage.",[]]]},{"de":[["the country has so far experienced only an illiberal 'swerve' (p.166), rather than a more decisive illiberal 'turn'.",[]]],"rt":[["illiberal 'turn'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The government often plays a central role within this sphere, for example by capturing public service media or by adopting illiberal media and cultural policies, but it is far from the only actor. Right-wing populist and ethno-nationalist politicians, parties and social movements, corporate and religious figures and organizations, news media (often controlled by oligarchs or government's cronies) pursuing illiberal agendas or disinformation, conspiracy news websites, social media channels, and other 'alternative' outlets spreading illiberal narratives are all key building blocks of the illiberal public sphere.",[]],["a well-established illiberal public sphere, which resonates with widespread illiberal attitudes among the citizenry",[]],["the illiberal public sphere is explicitly set against the liberal public sphere, seeking to displace its liberal opponent.",[]],["The concept of the illiberal public sphere also helps us to adequately capture the dual nature of illiberalism in the communicative realm, enabling us to show how illiberal media and communication practices work in tandem with mediated illiberal attitudes and narratives to undermine liberal democracy.",[]],["we propose that the illiberal public sphere also changes its scope and character over time, depending on its level of success in setting itself against the dominant liberal public sphere.",[]],["the illiberal public sphere allows us to conceptualize the processes by which a liberal public sphere gradually morphs into an authoritarian one.",[]],["the illiberal public sphere has grown in size and influence to the extent that it is on par with its liberal counterpart and competes with it for dominance.",[]],["the illiberal public sphere has become dominant, having colonized most mainstream news media channels, and forced the liberal public sphere into retreat.",[]],["the illiberal public sphere is neither all-encompassing, nor fully controlled by the government.",[]],["the illiberal public sphere is set to undermine liberal democratic rule, potentially paving the way to authoritarianism.",[]],["dominant political and cultural narratives are produced and disseminated by channels that adhere to illiberalism and independent journalists are subject to intimidation, hostility, and other forms of pressure",[]],["the transition to the ascendant phase started about five years later than in Hungary-namely, in October 2015, following the victory of the right-wing populist Law and Justice party in the parliamentary elections that were preceded by the victory of the Law and Justice candidate, Andrzej Duda, in the May 2015 presidential election. This double victory allowed the party led by the ultra-conservative politician Jarosław Kaczynśki to be in government for the second time (after the 2005-2007 coalition tenure), opening the doors for the acceleration of the illiberal turn and the ascendance of the illiberal public sphere.",[]],["transition of the illiberal public sphere from the incipient to the ascendant stage",[]],["the illiberal public sphere is at a hegemonic stage, with captured PSM",[]],["the illiberal public sphere appears as a semi-autonomous force, capable-to an extent-of reproducing illiberal attitudes irrespective of government behaviour and of the stance adopted by PSM",[]],["When the illiberal public sphere is at an incipient stage, independent PSM are still able to instil more liberal attitudes",[]],["As the illiberal public sphere gains in strength, PSM become co-opted by the governing elites and turn into important channels for promoting illiberal views",[]],["once the illiberal public sphere is fully entrenched and supported by widespread illiberal attitudes among the electorate, it has the capacity to operate as a powerful actor in its own right. At this stage, the illiberal public sphere is able to sustain itself to some extent independently of elite support and of PSM coverage",[]],["once the illiberal public sphere is fully entrenched and supported by widespread illiberal attitudes among the electorate, it has the capacity to operate as a powerful actor in its own right.",[]],["At this stage, the illiberal public sphere is able to sustain itself to some extent independently of elite support and of PSM coverage",[]],["the illiberal public sphere plays a more prominent role in shaping citizens' participation in public life.",[]],["hegemonic illiberal public sphere where mainstream communication channels have been monopolized by illiberal elites",[]],["the more advanced the illiberal public sphere, the higher the proportion of mainstream media that take an active and regular part in the spreading of false information",[]],["independent media and balanced coverage have virtually disappeared from the mainstream",[]],["generating a communicative environment prone to sowing distrust and division, and hence preventing the establishment of societal consensus necessary for effective health crisis management",[]],["the progressive mainstreaming and eventually normalization of illiberal attitudes",[]],["outlets sympathetic to the illiberal cause inevitably attract a larger audience share, making it easier for illiberal actors to promote illiberal narratives and values.",[]],["liberal views to become increasingly marginalized and potentially ostracized in the mainstream news discourse, while illiberal opinions settle in as the norm, which arguably eases their public acceptance.",[]],["marking a juncture after which the sphere can sustain itself even without explicit support from illiberal leaders.",[]],["characterized-among other trends-by the capture of public service and other mainstream news media channels by illiberal actors",[]],["A staged, processual model of the illiberal public sphere",[]],["underpinned by extensive government control over mainstream media",[]],["Following the previously outlined processual nature of illiberalism, we propose that the illiberal public sphere also changes its scope and character over time, depending on its level of success in setting itself against the dominant liberal public sphere.",[]],["the data presented reveal distinct patterns of dissemination and consumption of false information across the four examined countries that can be linked to different stages of the illiberal public sphere.",[]],["In the incipient stage, the disinformation news ecosystem is primarily composed of alternative, fringe media, mostly situated online but without notable audience reach.",[]],["As the illiberal public sphere progresses towards the advanced stage, the channels of disinformation diversify, and incorporate some of the mainstream outlets, especially public service media, if captured by the illiberal government, as we have observed in case of Poland.",[]],["Finally, when the illiberal public sphere reaches the hegemonic stage, as observed in Hungary and Serbia, mainstream media assume the central role in the disinformation news ecosystem, both as amplifiers, as well as producers of propaganda and false narratives, including conspiracy theories.",[]],["a context where the illiberal public sphere has advanced to such a degree that independent media and balanced coverage have virtually disappeared from the mainstream",[]],["the advance of the illiberal public sphere is concomitant with not just important shifts in news routines-exemplified in selective exposure to ideologically and politically homogeneous sources-but also with fundamental changes in the normative assumptions and criteria that guide citizens' engagement with public life.",[]],["The three stages of the illiberal public sphere and their key characteristics are summarized in Table 2.1.",[]],["we introduced an analytical framework centred around the concept of the illiberal public sphere, defined as a communicative space comprising both traditional and new media that promote and amplify illiberal actors, views, and attitudes.",[]]],"rt":[["liberal public sphere",[]],["populist or illiberal leaders and parties",[]],["authoritarian public sphere",[]]],"sb":[["incipient",[]],["ascendant",[]],["hegemonic",[]],["ascendant stage",[]],["hegemonic stage",[]],["incipient stage",[]],["fully fledged ascendant stage",[]],["advanced stage",[]]],"sp":[["public sphere",[]]]},{"de":[["It does not reject the fundamental principles of liberalism such as freedom … but it does not make this ideology the central element of state organization and instead includes a different, special, national, approach.",[]]]},{"de":[["driven by a disenchantment with political participation and representative democracy",[]],["disdain for cultural liberalism and a tendency to undermine key democratic institutions",[]],["illiberalism remains poorly defined and explicit attempts at its conceptualization are rare.",[]],["illiberalism is paradoxically both opposed to and dependent on liberalism: it contributes to the erosion of liberal democratic institutions and undermines liberal values and attitudes but does so by relying on the very institutions and values it seeks to challenge.",[]],["illiberalism is clearly an ideological or symbolic phenomenon. It comprises specific ideological convictions, narratives, values and attitudes that are defined by their opposition to liberal alternatives",[]],["These comprise various practices and institutional arrangements that undermine liberal democracy and aid the proliferation and consolidation of illiberal attitudes, such as new policy and regulatory measures designed to undermine professionalism and independence and increase government control over key institutions, including civil services, the police, judiciary, and media",[]],["illiberalism is never static. It persistently challenges the liberal democratic status quo and seeks to implement fundamental legislative, institutional, and ultimately social and cultural changes, which are predicated on the proliferation and acceptance of illiberal ideals.",[]],["all manifestations of illiberalism share a hostility to liberalism, and pursue a vision of society that is governed by majority rule and underpinned by ethno-nationalist ideas and traditional cultural hierarchies.",[]],["the multifaceted and malleable nature of illiberalism, which can adopt different forms depending on socio-political contexts, as well as changes over time.",[]],["the wide array of uses and meanings of the terms 'illiberalism' and 'illiberal', which have been stretched to encompass a plethora of phenomena that are seen as hostile to liberal democracy.",[]],["illiberalism is an 'emerging concept' in social sciences and is often used 'as a fuzzy and inconsistent classification, an intuitive way to describe ideologies and practices that diverge from liberalism […] without being entirely identifiable with authoritarianism or dictatorship'",["Laruelle (2022)"]],["illiberalism is best seen as a composite 'repertoire' of ideological narratives, values, attitudes, and governance practices that target a wide range of political, economic, and cultural issues-from immigration, LGBTQ+ rights and abortion to economic (neo)liberalism and the geopolitical dominance of 'the West'.",[]],["The concept of illiberalism has the capacity to capture both the ideological and institutional dimensions of contemporary challenges faced by democratic societies and their media, and is better attuned to the dynamic, changing character of societies affected by these challenges.",[]]],"rt":[["populist communication",[]],["democratic backsliding",[]],["media capture",[]],["media freedom",[]],["hate speech",[]],["incivility",[]],["populism",[]],["liberal scripts",[]],["metanarratives",["Laruelle, 2022, pp. 312-313"]],["different types of political regimes, ranging from dictatorship and despotism to totalitarianism and illiberal democracy",[]],["a variety of political practices, such as discriminatory procedures in the justice system or regulatory interventions that limit public debate or restrict democratic participation",[]],["diverse ideological convictions and attitudes, from right-wing nationalism and 'new conservativism' to hostility to LGBTQ+ rights",[]],["authoritarian public sphere",[]],["contentious public sphere",[]]],"ex":[["different types of political regimes, ranging from dictatorship and despotism to totalitarianism and illiberal democracy",[]],["a variety of political practices, such as discriminatory procedures in the justice system or regulatory interventions that limit public debate or restrict democratic participation",[]],["diverse ideological convictions and attitudes, from right-wing nationalism and 'new conservativism' to hostility to LGBTQ+ rights",[]]]},{"de":[["PSM maintaining independence",[]],["In a context where the illiberal public sphere is at the incipient stage, digital media are more likely to support the proliferation of illiberal attitudes",[]]],"sp":[["illiberal public sphere",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["turning the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic into a 'media event'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["better reflects the nature of today's high-choice media environment where people's news media diets are likely to be composed of a variety of sources comprising different media types, rather than a singular medium type (i.e. television, newspapers, online platforms) or even a single channel",[]],["the repertoires are indicative of the relative political/ideological homogeneity or heterogeneity of people's news media diets.",[]],["they show how resistant or open people are to information and opinions from across the political and ideological spectrum.",[]]],"sb":[["closed liberal anti-government repertoire",[]],["open liberal anti-government repertoire",[]],["open conservative pro-government repertoire",[]],["balanced media repertoire",[]]]},{"de":[["place trust in media not because they offer impartial or accurate coverage of public affairs, but because they provide an account of reality they personally agree with or, in extreme cases, because their account of reality is aligned with the one promoted by those in power",[]],["media trust is not always unambiguously positive, contrary to what much writing in the field assumes. Rather, its normative benefits vary with context.",[]],["In an environment where the media are relatively independent, professional, and able to provide trustworthy information, high levels of media trust are a welcome sign and an indicator of a well-functioning civic culture and democratic environment.",[]],["In contrast, where mainstream media are unable to function independently and act largely as amplifiers of official narratives, high levels of media trust may indicate the exact opposite-namely, that the media no longer serve democratic ends, but are rather seen as trustworthy sources of official, government-sanctioned views.",[]],["people's trust in media is no longer principally guided by established professional journalistic standards and values such as independence, impartiality, or objectivity.",[]],["citizens to place trust in media not because they offer impartial or accurate coverage of public affairs, but because they provide an account of a reality they personally agree with or-in the extreme case-because their account of reality is aligned with the one promoted by those in power.",[]],["media trust-contrary to the gist of much writing on the topic among media and communication researchers-is not always unambiguously positive, but rather that its normative implications vary with context",[]]],"rt":[["media credibility",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["online propaganda",[]],["inauthentic communication",[]]]},{"de":[["explore and compare audiences' news media diets-or repertoires-which we assess in relation to their political and ideological orientation and diversity",[]]],"sy":[["audiences' news media diets",[]]]},{"sp":[["media repertoires",[]]]},{"sp":[["media repertoires",[]]]},{"de":[["believing the message while disbelieving the messenger",["Szostek, 2018, p. 81"]],["means that propaganda and misinformation can remain influential even in contexts where citizens recognize the bias of mainstream news channels and deliberately seek exposure to alternative sources of information.",["Vihalemm & Juzefovicš, 2021","Alyukov, 2023"]]],"sy":[["believing the message while disbelieving the messenger",["Szostek, 2018"]],["paradox of 'believing the message while disbelieving the messenger'",["Szostek, 2018, p. 81","Szostek, 2018","2018","p. 81"]]]},{"rt":[["media polarization",[]],["elite polarization",[]],["mass polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["the increasingly illiberal communication environment, marked by the increasing polarization of media outlets along the liberal vs. illiberal axis",[]]]},{"de":[["populism covers a much wider ideological terrain and encompasses discourses, strategies and styles of communication that are not inherently illiberal",[]],["driven by a disenchantment with political participation and representative democracy",[]],["when illiberal actors use populist strategies, they do so to spread illiberal attitudes among the general population or to encourage the adoption of illiberal policies.",[]],["Described as 'promiscuous' (Oliver & Rahn, 2016, p. 190), as a 'thin' ideology (Stanley, 2008, p. 95), and as an 'empty shell' (Jagers & Walgrave, 2007, p. 4)",["Oliver & Rahn, 2016, p. 190","Stanley, 2008, p. 95","Jagers & Walgrave, 2007, p. 4"]],["populism can be observed in a wide variety of ideologies and movements, from far-right parties in Europe to leftwing movements in Latin America, all of which use recognizably populist appeals to the people to justify their actions or fuel anti-elite sentiments in a bid to win the popular vote, but are not necessarily opposed to liberalism.",[]],["Approaches that define populism as a type of discourse, frame, logic, or style of communication (e.g. Aslanidis, 2016;de Vreese et al., 2018;Laclau, 2005;Moffitt, 2020;Wodak, 2015) are particularly well suited to capture this ideological heterogeneity of populism, as they help foreground the shared discursive or stylistic features of populism that can be adapted to suit a variety of political ideologies, only some of which deserve to be labelled illiberal.",["Aslanidis, 2016","de Vreese et al., 2018","Laclau, 2005","Moffitt, 2020","Wodak, 2015"]],["A key trait of populism is anti-elitism, which typically extends to hostility to intellectual elites and hence hostility to expert knowledge.",[]]],"rt":[["illiberalism",[]],["anti-elitism",[]]],"ex":[["political leaders use appeals to the people to promote homophobia or hostility towards immigration or to legitimize the curtailing of minority rights or media freedom.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Some fell prey to 'pseudo' expertstypically people with some background in natural sciences but not specifically virology or epidemiology, who shared misinformation.",[]]]},{"de":[["critical for the preservation of a politically neutral 'centre' of the national news media system, as well as for the cultivation of values indispensable for the persistence of liberal democracy",[]],["which our study has identified as critical for the preservation of a politically neutral 'centre' of the national news media system, as well as for the cultivation of values indispensable for the persistence of liberal democracy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["'loweffort' or 'thin' form of participation",["Knoll et al., 2020","Tufekci, 2014"]]]},{"de":[["The first constitutive process is what can be described as 'the spiral of polarization'-that is, the mutually reinforcing processes of polarization at systemic and attitudinal levels.",[]]]},{"sy":[["state broadcaster",[]]]},{"rt":[["right-wing conservative populism",[]]]},{"rt":[["counter-public sphere",[]]]},{"rt":[["counterpublics",[]]]},{"de":[["incentivizes Russia to exploit existing societal divides",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["models perform unequally for different sub-groups.",[]]],"sy":[["prediction fairness",[]]],"rt":[["representational fairness",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the ability of an attacker to recover the protected attribute from a model's final hidden representations.",[]],["none of the baselines reduce leakage substantially",[]],["The reason that Adv can reduce Leakage is that the architecture of Adv is the closest one to the leakage estimation framework, which also employs attackers to extract protected attributes and unlearns attackers in training",[]],["The ineffectiveness of INLP, Gate, FairBatch, and EO GLB in reducing Leakage is due to different reasons",[]],["no benefit to Leakage",[]],["Con dp and Con eo substantially reduce Leakage, where most baselines fail",[]]]},{"de":[["A related, but different problem occurs if representational fairness is violated which means that learned representations encode potentially sensitive author information (such as demographic information), which can be recovered by an adversarial attacker.",[]],["representations h should be independent of protected attributes a, i.e., minimise mutual information between h and a.",[]],["the relationship between representational fairness and empirical fairness is not as simple as suggested in previous work",[]],["INLP and Adv, which focus on representational fairness, result in empirical fairness improvements and marginal gain in Leakage",[]],["representational fairness cannot be directly linked to prediction fairness",[]],["Representational fairness is achieved by learning a space which simultaneously separates instances according to their labels, while mixing instances with different protected attributes (like gender or race), either globally (Section 3.2) or per class (Section 3.3).",[]],["representational fairness is violated which means that learned representations encode potentially sensitive author information (such as demographic information), which can be recovered by an adversarial attacker.",[]]],"rt":[["empirical (performance) fairness",[]],["Leakage",[]],["empirical fairness",[]],["prediction fairness",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["tool: psychometric experiments",[]],["socio-cultural factors determined the different risk perceptions of states",["Daase, Feske and Peters (2002: 267-276)"]],["It may be determinate, dissonant or probabilistic.",[]]],"rt":[["scientific risk concepts",["2007: 13"]],["risk assessment",[]]]},{"sp":[["vulnerability",[]]]},{"de":[["security is what actors make of it",["Wendt 1992"]]],"rt":[["national security",[]],["human security",[]]],"sb":[["national security has the state as the major referent",[]],["human security has human beings and humankind as the referent",[]]]},{},{"de":[["used in many definitions in the hazard research community to distinguish the social and societal factors from the manifold physical, economic, political and human aspects",["Adger 1999","Cutter/Boruff/Shirley 2003","Downing/Patwardhan 2005","Warner 2007"]]],"sb":[["demographic",[]],["taxonomic",[]],["situational",[]],["contextual or proactive approach",[]]],"sp":[["vulnerability",[]]]},{"rt":[["structural violence",[]]]},{"sy":[["menace",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["risk",[]]]},{"sp":[["intensifiers",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["regular scalar intensifiers",[]]]},{"rt":[["intensifiers",[]],["downtoners",[]],["negation",[]],["irrealis markers",[]]],"ex":[["negation (e.g., not good)",[]],["intensification (e.g., very good)",[]]]},{"de":[["address the problem of descriptive noise",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["intensifiers",[]],["valence shifters",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Amplifiers",[]],["downtoners",[]]],"sp":[["valence shifters",[]]]},{"de":[["markers that indicate that the words appearing in a sentence might not be reliable for the purposes of sentiment analysis",[]],["We refer to these using the linguistic term irrealis, usually applied in non-factual contexts.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["word senses",[]],["argument structure",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["valence shifters",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["semantic orientation",[]]]},{"ex":[["excellent",[]],["abysmal",[]]]},{"de":[["It usually captures an evaluative factor (positive or negative) and potency or strength (degree to which the word, phrase, sentence, or document in question is positive or negative) towards a subject topic, person, or idea (Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum 1957).",["Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum 1957"]]],"rt":[["prior polarity",[]]],"sp":[["sentiment analysis",["Pang and Lee 2008"]],["subjectivity",["Lyons 1981;Langacker 1985"]],["opinion mining",["Pang and Lee 2008"]],["analysis of stance",["Biber and Finegan 1988;Conrad and Biber 2000"]],["appraisal",["Martin and White 2005"]],["point of view",["Wiebe 1994;Scheibman 2002"]],["evidentiality",["Chafe and Nichols 1986"]]]},{},{"rt":[["subjectivity",[]],["opinion mining",[]],["analysis of stance",[]],["appraisal",[]],["point of view",[]],["evidentiality",[]],["subjectivity (Lyons 1981;Langacker 1985)",[]],["opinion mining (Pang and Lee 2008)",[]],["analysis of stance (Biber and Finegan 1988;Conrad and Biber 2000)",[]],["appraisal (Martin and White 2005)",[]],["point of view (Wiebe 1994;Scheibman 2002)",[]],["evidentiality (Chafe and Nichols 1986)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The obvious approach to negation is simply to reverse the polarity of the lexical item next to a negator, changing good (+3) into not good (-3).",[]]]},{"sb":[["intensifiers",[]],["downtoners",[]],["negation",[]]]},{"de":[["They exist in various forms such as facial expressions, common objects, animals, places, and types of weather.",[]]],"ex":[["facial expressions, common objects, animals, places, and types of weather",[]]]},{"de":[["identifying the exact type of hate speech",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech detection was annotated using two labels HS (hate speech example) and NOT HS (not hate speech example).",[]],["a tweet may contain impolite language and is considered offensive but not \"hate-speech\".",[]],["impolite language",[]]],"sb":[["fine-grained hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["offensive language",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The task of offensive language detection was annotated using two labels OFF (offensive example) and NOT OFF (not offensive example).",[]]],"sb":[["Hate speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["impolite language",[]],["hate speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["affective states",[]],["subjective information",[]],["polarity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["political and economic",[]]],"rt":[["soft news",[]]]},{"de":[["citizens have more means than ever before at their disposal to retrieve information (Beam et al., 2016;Bode, 2016), they also have multiple opportunities to opt-out (Bennett and Iyengar, 2008).",["2016","2008"]],["where the possibilities to consume news are almost limitless",[]]]},{"de":[["bring a mix of hard and soft news, resulting in an audience that becomes informed on all topics in proportion to their visibility in the news stream.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people with a stream of messages that hinders learning",[]]]},{"de":[["bringing the news with more attention to entertainment and human-interest",[]]],"rt":[["hard news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["where citizens usually encounter a wider range of substantial news stories",[]],["all types of traditional media (both online and offline)",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["exposing such limits and contingency of the truth-claim of mainstream photojournalism can take through achieving an 'alienation effect' on audiences leading to discussions of the relationship of the producers to the means of production",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["necessary for engaging with the media's involvement in conflict reporting today",[]]]},{},{"de":[["made possible through the photojournalistic equivalent of the \"work of the break\" (Lynch and Galtung, 2010: 195) lays bare the \"newsgathering process\" as Tester (2004: 197) called for to enhance the moral message in news.",["2010: 195","2004: 197"]]],"rt":[["work of the break",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it is not the photograph's referentiality-its ability to present the world as is-that endures in journalism's turn to the visual.",[]]]},{"rt":[["self-reflexive journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["identifying how photojournalists can display the role they play during a conflict or crisis leading to critical deliberation among the public",["Cottle, 2006"]],["Such self-reflexivity in journalistic texts has of course time and again been talked about and called for within PJ (Lynch and McGoldrick, 2005: xvi-xx;Lynch, 2008: 10-14;Hackett, 2011: 42).",[]]]},{"de":[["recognising the semiotic nature (Fourie, 2012: 1-2) of photojournalistic work per se",[]]]},{"de":[["it is the photograph's symbolic or connotative force-its ability to contextualize the discrete details of a setting in a broader frame-that facilitates the durability and memorability of a news image",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["negative valence",[]]],"ex":[["'way to go'",[]]]},{"de":[["a proxy for how actively the average newspaper read in county c covers congressional district d",[]],["It is a proxy for how actively the average newspaper read in county c covers congressional district d, since each newspaper's incentive to cover district d is increasing in ReaderShare md .",[]]],"rt":[["readership",[]],["Exposure",[]]]},{"rt":[["television markets",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["congruence",[]],["Exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["the power that detailed knowledge of the user gives the intermediary in that relationship and the opportunity for \"digital market manipulation\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Arguably, this is a route towards creating alternative, but publicly-mandated filter bubbles.",[]],["due prominence rules would increase the influence of a search engine or social network over individual information exposure by reducing the ability of individual gated users to interact with and influence the choices that are ultimately presented to them.",[]]],"rt":[["editorial or due prominence requirements",[]]]},{"de":[["editorial control means in the legal sense",[]],["the Audiovisual Media Services Directive gives an indication of what editorial control means in the legal sense",[]]],"sb":[["Direct editorial influences",[]],["Indirect editorial influences",[]]]},{"sp":[["personalisation strategies",[]]]},{"sy":[["personal ecosystem of information",[]]]},{"rt":[["information intermediaries",[]],["gated",[]]],"sb":[["gatekeepers which control access to information",["Laidlaw, 2010"]],["gatekeepers which have a facilitating role through control of critical intermediary resources or services that are necessary to link users and content, to mediate between the different players in the information chain, to produce, transport and distribute content, etc.",["Laidlaw, 2010"]]]},{"de":[["subject to general and sector-specific competition law, most prominently in the area of communications regulation.",[]],["the overall objectives of communications law are less focused on fostering public debate or media diversity than preventing control over critical resources from distorting competition.",[]],["the ability to influence, on the basis of the accumulated knowledge of and interaction with users, their informational choices.",[]],["the influence of gatekeepers which control critical resources is of a more structural nature.",[]]],"rt":[["the gated",[]],["information intermediaries",[]],["media diversity",[]]],"sb":[["editor-like gatekeepers",[]],["structural gatekeepers",[]]],"sp":[["information intermediaries",[]]],"ex":[["editor who, by virtue of his position, authority and knowledge selects the type, format and order of content that is ultimately presented to the audience",[]],["internet service providers (ISPs) or operators of cable network channels or pay-TV platforms",[]]]},{"de":[["the influence of gatekeepers which control critical resources is of a more structural nature.",[]]]},{"sp":[["personalisation strategies",[]]]},{"sp":[["editorial control",[]]]},{"sy":[["path dependencies",[]]]},{"de":[["differentiation of content will occur for the dimensions that the public cares about.",[]],["Thus, if the public is heterogeneous in terms of, for example, taste in entertainment and not in terms of their interest in politics, maximum differentiation entails that media companies differentiate themselves according to entertainment but converge to a median or central political positioning.",[]]],"rt":[["minimum differentiation",[]]]},{"de":[["Media diversity as a public policy goal",[]],["The realisation of media diversity is considered a central goal of national and European media policies, and the necessary premise for the exercise of people's fundamental right to freedom of expression, which \"will be fully satisfied only if each person is given the possibility to form his or her opinion from diverse sources of information\" (Council of Europe, 1999).",[]],["traditional measurements of media diversity, which focus on the supply rather than the demand side of information markets",[]],["the realisation of media diversity in both cases is the organisation of and control over the gated.",[]],["At present, media diversity is still primarily conceptualised as diversity of supply and output (different speakers, different outputs) -at least in the public policy debate.",[]]],"rt":[["media pluralism",[]],["diversity of supply",[]],["diversity of exposure",[]],["exposure diversity",[]]]},{"de":[["Network effects play a role in platforms",[]]]},{"sy":[["lock-ins",[]]]},{"de":[["a facility for linking and connecting people.",[]],["Facebook also exercises control over the information (not) presented, e.g. in users' news feeds.",[]],["The recent Facebook experiment mentioned above made it very clear that the platform can take a rather active interest in even editing and modifying content on personal profiles.",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook",[]]]},{"rt":[["gatekeepers",[]]]},{"rt":[["gatekeepers",[]],["the gated",[]]]},{"de":[["A collocation is defined as a sequence of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance.",[]]]},{"de":[["Because of the nature of digital technology, abusive language can be generated anonymously and can spread to many victims in a short time, making it a serious societal concern",["Price, Dalgleish et al. 2010"]]],"rt":[["profanity",["Nockleby 2000"]],["hate speech",["Nockleby 2000"]]],"sb":[["group-directed abusive language",[]]]},{"de":[["Common approaches to categorization have been learning a separate classifier for each category and relying on feature engineering",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["(Guerin and Miyazaki 2006) provide a detailed characterisation of rumours, highlighting the following points about a rumour: (i) it is of personal consequence and interest to listeners, (ii) the truth behind it is difficult to verify, (iii) it gains attention with horror or scandal, and (iv) it has to be new or novel.",["Guerin and Miyazaki 2006"]],["a rumour has to generate significant interest within a community of users, which can be straightforwardly measured on Twitter by the number of times a tweet is retweeted.",[]],["A tweet might introduce questionable information even without being shared massively, but it will not become a rumour until it is spread and further discussed by many.",[]],["(i) it is of personal consequence and interest to listeners, (ii) the truth behind it is difficult to verify, (iii) it gains attention with horror or scandal, and (iv) it has to be new or novel.",["Guerin and Miyazaki 2006"]]],"rt":[["gossip",[]],["urban legends",[]]]},{},{"de":[["whereby reasoning leads to more accurate judgments",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["more reasoning leads to greater polarization rather than greater accuracy",["46-49"]]]},{},{"de":[["unlabeled inaccurate claims will be believed more because they lack a warning",[]],["People may infer that lack of warning implies that a claim has been verified",["10"]],["reducing the chance that unlabeled inaccurate claims will be believed more because they lack a warning",["10"]]]},{"de":[["even if the ratings of individual laypeople are noisy and ineffective, aggregating their responses can lead to highly accurate crowd judgments",[]]],"ex":[["the judgment of a diverse, independent group of laypeople has been found to outperform the judgment of a single expert across a variety of domains, including guessing tasks, medical diagnoses, and predictions of corporate earnings",["14","15","18","19"]]]},{},{"sp":[["basic emotions",[]]]},{"de":[["is likely to be useful in identifying emotions in text.",[]],["high-quality, moderate-sized, emotion lexicon for a very small cost",[]]]},{"de":[["practical NLP applications often require only two levels of semantic orientation-having particular semantic orientation or not (evaluative) or not (non-evaluative).",[]]],"sy":[["positive or negative",[]]]},{"de":[["practical NLP applications often require only two levels-evoking particular emotion (evocative) or not (non-evocative).",[]]]},{"de":[["practical NLP applications often require only two levels of semantic orientation-having particular semantic orientation or not (evaluative) or not (non-evaluative).",[]]]},{"de":[["practical NLP applications often require only two levels-evoking particular emotion (evocative) or not (non-evocative).",[]]]},{"de":[["The directionality of a document is determined by its deep argumentative structure, rather than a shallow analysis of its adjectives.",[]],["is the author in favor of, neutral, or opposed to the event or item discussed in the document?",["Hearst (1992)"]]]},{},{"de":[["The se-mantic orientation of a given phrase is calculated by comparing its similarity to a positive reference word (\"excellent\") with its similarity to a negative reference word (\"poor\").",[]]],"ex":[["\"subtle nuances\"",[]],["\"very cavalier\"",[]]]},{"rt":[["semantic orientation",[]]]},{"de":[["It is typically considered in this work to be a single unit vector, v B (explained in detail later).",[]],["However, these approaches can be generalized to a set of vectors defining a multidimensional subspace.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["We address the problem of predicting the veracity of a claim given all of its responding tweets and the interactions between these tweets.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Critical histories of mourning are not tidy, but it is this very complexity that can make history a compelling and lively subject for students.",[]]],"rt":[["mourning",[]]]},{"de":[["These visions of critical mourning suggest opening up the past as a means to inquire into the present and the future, to celebrate the achievements and survivals and to grieve the shortcomings and mistakes of history as a means to reflect on how we might move forward differently.",[]]],"rt":[["histories of mourning",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["ready-made rituals of mourning to cope with historical societal traumas",["Connerton, 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["Mourning can be melancholic (Crewe, 2017) or nostalgic (Stow, 2017), mourning the loss of a past hegemony or for 'the restoration of an imagined past' (Stow, 2017, p. 150, cited in Pool, 2019, p. 431).",["Crewe, 2017","Stow, 2017","Pool, 2019, p. 431","Pool, 2019"]],["loss is transformed into knowledge and critique",[]],["becomes the site where the subject-in-the-making is confronted with the polis-in-the-making",["Taxidou, 2004, p. 187"]]],"rt":[["critical mourning",[]]],"sb":[["melancholic",["Crewe, 2017"]],["nostalgic",["Stow, 2017"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the colonial 'non-encounter'",[]]],"rt":[["settler colonialism",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["non-encounter",[]]],"rt":[["non-encounter",[]]]},{"de":[["the unifying potential of 'unforgetting', or remembering what has previously been forgotten",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a response to 'times and places of stress where matters that are extremely difficult to bear [...] are introduced lightly and ironically.'",["Goffman (1961: 68)"]]]},{},{"de":[["The cause of laughter in every case is simply the sudden perception of the incongruity between a concept and the real objects which have been thought through it in some relation, and laughter itself is just the expression of this incongruity (Schopenhauer 1818:76).",["Schopenhauer 1818:76"]]]},{},{"rt":[["maxim of relation",["Grice 1975"]],["Grice's pragmatic maxims",[]]]},{"rt":[["maxim of manner",["Grice 1975"]],["Grice's pragmatic maxims",[]]]},{"de":[["The biologist hypothesised that, just as biological information is passed from one being to another through DNA, a range of socio-cultural attitudes including political and religious views may be transmitted through memes, which also have the potential, as the above quote argues, to affect consumers' minds without reference to their will (see also Way 2021, this issue).",["Way 2021"]],["persuasive multimodal genres with a specific political purpose in terms of influencing opinions and behaviour",[]]]},{"de":[["humorous response normally reserved for our peers or social inferiors",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["satire is both entertainment and political criticism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["satire is both entertainment and political criticism",[]],["political satire is apt to awaken the viewer's political affiliations, so that an attack on a politician's private morals may be interpreted in political terms, as an attack on their partyfoot_3 .",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["target-specific stance detection",[]],["cross-target stance detection",[]]]},{"sy":[["Stance Detection Task (SDT)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["media fragmentation",[]]]},{"de":[["whose purpose is to explicitly promote different political positions, to criticize elites, and to advocate for change",["Couldry and Curran 2003","Downing 2001","M€ uller and Schulz 2021","Waltz 2005"]],["different kinds of media sources may fulfil the functions of alternative media",[]]],"rt":[["non-traditional outlets",[]],["mainstream media",[]]],"sb":[["self-proclaimed alternative media",[]]]},{"de":[["this definition addresses two levels of alternativeness: first, on the side of the news outlets themselves, which proclaim to incorporate aspects of alternativeness, and second, a perceived alternativeness-most likely attributed by the user of these outlets to fulfil functions of alternativeness.",[]]],"rt":[["dominant mainstream media",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["mainstream media serve as a crucial antagonistic point of reference in the self-perception and -description for alternative news media",["Holt, Figenschou, and Frischlich (2019)"]],["perceiving oneself as user of alternative media is associated with a negative identification with mainstream media",["Rauch (2015)"]]]},{"de":[["more choice for media users to select their political information",[]],["multiplication of (news) media channels leads to a differentiation of news outlets along political lines and an increase in supply and demand for alternative views",["Ladd 2011"]],["Whether audiences seek out single news outlets or diverge across a larger number of outlets represents an important component of media fragmentation.",[]],["Three indicators of media fragmentation. NOTE: (1) Active news user market size refers to the proportion of the population above 14 years of age who uses news on a regular basis. (2) A non-PSB audience refers to the shares that other (private) TV stations, apart from the main PSB, have on the market. (3) Non-shared news refers to the proportion of news users who do not use the main news media outlet in their respective countries.",[]],["news media market size, shared news, and share of PSB",[]]],"sb":[["Active news user market size",[]],["non-PSB audience",[]],["Non-shared news",[]]]},{"de":[["Two indicators of media polarization. NOTE: (1) Political parallelism is a standardized measure taking the following categories into account: lacking separation of news and commentary, partisan influence, and policy advocacy, political orientation of journalists, media-party parallelism, political bias, and PSB dependency. (2) Audience polarization considers the average distance of the political orientations of the five most used news outlets per media type from the average political orientations in each country (weighted by audience shares).",[]],["political parallelism and audience polarization",[]]],"sb":[["Political parallelism",[]],["Audience polarization",[]]]},{"sp":[["media fragmentation",[]]]},{"sp":[["media fragmentation",[]]]},{"de":[["Political parallelism refers to the proportion of evaluative references in news reports, an outlet's partisan colouration of content, and an outlet's public perception of providing unbalanced reporting.",[]],["It also includes the extent to which the consumption of certain news outlets predicts users' votes for a particular party and the level of political advocacy by journalists.",[]]],"rt":[["media polarization",[]]]},{"sy":[["favour individuals to engage with content close to their own political convictions",[]]],"rt":[["alternative media",[]]]},{"sp":[["alternative media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Nir (2012) coined the term shared news to describe the structure of the news audience within a political information environment.",["Nir (2012)","2012"]]]},{},{"de":[["Another important dimension of factual claims",[]],["it is possible to define a claim's checkworthiness according to its context.",[]]],"ex":[["is the claimer an influential person or media?",[]],["Is the topic controversial?",[]]]},{"de":[["Even inside the field of factchecking, its exact definition depends on the domain (Alam et al., 2021b;Stammbach et al., 2023b) or task objective (Arslan et al., 2020;Konstantinovskiy et al., 2020;Gangi Reddy et al., 2022) and is somewhat arbitrary.",[]]],"rt":[["verifiability",[]],["check-worthiness",[]]]},{"ex":[["E2. \"I first want to thank my wife of 34 years, First Lady Rose Dunleavy.\" The name of the speaker's wife and their year of marriage are explicitly presented.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["filters out the claims with factual assertions that need checking",[]]],"sy":[["claim detection",[]]],"rt":[["verifiability",[]],["check-worthiness",[]],["argument mining",[]]]},{"de":[["We focus on verifiability to maximize the definition's objectivity and clearly delineate facts from opinions.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["While the underlying facts can be verified, the derived opinion remains subjective and is not universally verifiable.",[]]]},{"de":[["one important dimension of factual claims",[]]]},{"de":[["Generally, we observe that a statement is verifiable when it provides specific details for evidence search.",[]]]},{"sp":[["clickbait",[]]]},{"de":[["The links are typically versions of the headline or title of the linked web page.",[]],["undermining the credibility of media and contributing to the spread of rumours 20 and misinformation online",["5","6","7","8"]],["Publishers use strategies, such as building suspense, sensation or teasing, to invoke a 'curiosity gap' between the content and reader [25,28]. In the case of clickbait, the curiosity is eased through clicking on a headline to navigate to the linked article 6 .",["25","28"]],["The underlying purpose of clickbait is to encourage users to click the headline (or teaser message), thereby luring people to view the linked article (and generate revenue)",[]],["promote and encourage the spread of false and/or low quality information on the web",["5","6","7","8"]],["complex nature of clickbait and whether it can be objectively determined",[]],["determine the quality and relevance of the linked article",[]],["most annotators considered only the headline or teaser message rather than a deep analysis of the linked content",[]]],"rt":[["rumours",[]],["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["false and/or low quality information",[]],["headline",[]],["teaser message",[]]],"sb":[["Forward-reference headlines",[]],["forward-reference",[]],["formatting",[]],["teasing",[]],["Ambiguous",[]],["Exaggeration",[]],["Misleading",[]],["Inflammatory",[]],["Graphic",[]],["Wrong",[]]],"ex":[["'The Hot New Phone Everybody Is Talking About!'",[]],["'10 things Apple didn't tell you about the new iPhone'",[]],["'This guy went to hug an elephant. What happens next will blow your mind'",[]],["41.4% of articles produced by Government exhibit clickbaity features",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",["22"]],["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["clickbait",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["clickbait",[]]]},{"rt":[["clickbait",[]]],"sp":[["clickbait",[]]],"ex":[["'This is the best news story you will ever read'",[]]]},{"sp":[["clickbait",[]]]},{"sp":[["clickbait",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",["22"]]]},{"sp":[["clickbait",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["clickbait",[]]]},{"sp":[["clickbait",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["In varieties of English such as American English and British English, expressions such as 'saving time' and 'spending time' reflect conceptualisations of time as a commodity.",[]]]},{"sp":[["metacultural competence",[]]],"ex":[["communities of Chinese speakers in China and Hong Kong have used English words to encode their cultural conceptualisations.",[]]]},{"de":[["Categorisation is one of the basic human cognitive processes and plays an important role in our cognitive development from early childhood.",[]]],"sb":[["cultural prototype",[]]],"sp":[["cultural conceptualisations",[]]],"ex":[["not only do we learn that a certain kind of food is categorised as 'snack' , but we also learn what are the prototypical foods that usually come to mind when we think of the word 'snack'.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Conceptual metaphors",[]]],"ex":[["some conceptual metaphors that use the human body as the source domain, such as heart as the seat of emotion, reflected in expressions such as 'my heart goes out to him' , appear to have their origin in ethno-medical and other cultural traditions",["Sharifian et al. 2008","Yu 2009"]]]},{"de":[["cultural conceptualisations are not equally shared by members of a speech community, and thus not everyone in Hong Kong shares the conceptualisations discussed in this section equally.",[]],["places a stronger emphasis on the cultural construction of the conceptualisations that serve as the basis for particularly the semantic and pragmatic components of language.",[]],["cultural conceptualisations feed into the semantic and pragmatic levels of meaning, providing speakers with pools of meaning which are to some extent shared across the community of speakers.",[]]],"sy":[["cultural schema",[]],["cultural model",[]],["cultural category",[]],["cultural prototype",[]],["cultural metaphor",[]]],"sb":[["cultural schema",[]],["cultural category",[]],["cultural metaphor",[]],["cultural schemas",[]],["cultural categories",[]],["cultural metaphors",[]]]},{"sp":[["linguistics",[]]]},{"de":[["They enable us to interpret and communicate knowledge, which is often and inescapably culturally mediated, as well as cultural experiences.",[]]],"sy":[["cultural model",[]]],"sp":[["cultural conceptualisations",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["ICC",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["emotion frame",[]],["feeling framework",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["national emotions",[]]],"rt":[["action",[]]],"sp":[["nationalism framework",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["feeling",[]],["action",[]]],"sp":[["nationalism framework",[]]]},{"de":[["It acknowledges the transformative impact of online platforms in shaping and intensifying nationalist ideologies, leading to a persistent state of societal polarization and discord",["Cowan, 2021","Hyun et al., 2014"]]]},{"de":[["nationalism often emerges as a consequence of state-building processes",["Tilly, 1994"]],["This conception is constructed by the distinction between one nation and other nations.",[]],["The nation-state remains the dominant context for political presentation, as nationalism often emerges as a consequence of state-building processes (Tilly, 1994).",["Tilly, 1994"]]],"rt":[["racism",[]],["patriotism",[]],["populism",[]]],"sb":[["online nationalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["nationalistic feelings",[]],["doctrines",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["It acknowledges the transformative impact of online platforms in shaping and intensifying nationalist ideologies, leading to a persistent state of societal polarization and discord",["Cowan, 2021","Hyun et al., 2014"]]],"sp":[["nationalism",[]]]},{"de":[["patriotism is much more than simple loyalty to a country or obedience to its leaders",["Audi, 2009"]]],"rt":[["nationalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["racism was never an indispensable element of nationalism, especially during movements",[]],["Either as a form of discrimination or a way of looking at men and women, which presented a total picture of the world",[]]],"rt":[["nationalism",[]],["patriotism",[]],["populism",[]]]},{"de":[["It treats the entire body of text related to a topic as a fundamental unit of information, leveraging machine learning and other techniques to identify the emotions expressed by individuals",["Tago et al., 2022"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["repertoire",[]],["toolkit",[]]]},{"de":[["places that resent the state for historically poor public service provision",["Cremaschi et al. 2024","Nyholt 2024","Rickardsson 2021","Stroppe 2023"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["digital divide",[]]],"sp":[["digital divide",[]]]},{},{"de":[["exposure to potentially harmful online content, contact, conduct or contract risks",["Livingstone et al., 2018"]]]},{"sp":[["parental mediation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Exposure to consistent depictions of \"good guys\" and \"bad guys\", \"leaders\" and \"followers\" in illustrated storybooks, film, television, ritual, art, and iconography [18][19][20][21] may lead different individuals within a society to acquire similar face-trait mappings",["18","19","20","21"]],["Exposure to consistent depictions of \"good guys\" and \"bad guys\", \"leaders\" and \"followers\" in illustrated storybooks, film, television, ritual, art, and iconography [18][19][20][21] may lead different individuals within a society to acquire similar face-trait mappings-so-called consensus impressions.",["18","19","20","21"]]],"rt":[["face-trait mappings",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["learning models have more explanatory power than has thus far been appreciated.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These mappings allow excitation to spread automatically from perceptual descriptions of face shape to representations of particular trait profiles.",[]]],"rt":[["face space",[]],["trait space",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the clearest form of which is the use of the imperative or vocative.",[]],["the orientation towards the addressee",[]]],"sy":[["appellative function",[]]],"ex":[["the use of the imperative or vocative",[]]]},{"de":[["directly expresses the speaker's attitude towards what is communicated",[]]]},{"de":[["both of them refer to specific situational settings",[]]],"sy":[["register",[]]]},{"sy":[["the language of lawyers",[]]],"ex":[["the jargon of attorneys or possibly communication by law students as well.",[]]]},{"de":[["We could widen this description to not just the language of normative texts, i.e., texts that are considered a formal source of law and that reflect a legal rule (mainly, statutes or court decisions), but also generally to all acts issued by public authority (administrative decisions, internal guidelines etc.).",[]]],"sy":[["legal language",[]]]},{"de":[["he emphasizes the variety of legal language, being determined by law as well as by the prevailing language of the particular environment",["24, p. 3-4"]],["Legal language has a limited subject-matter and its own special grammatical rules, as it differs from ordinary language not only in lexicon but also in terms of morphology, syntax or semantics.",[]],["this way of communication is strategic and depends on the goal of the communication",[]],["the language of law is ritualistic, which provides speakers with a badge of membership in the community.",["1, pp. 241-244"]],["it can be motivated by the attempts of lawyers to be as objective as possible, and to create the impression that law is mysterious and complex",["1, pp. 241-244"]],["she further clarifies this by assigning legal language to language used in texts produced or used for legal purposes in legal settings",[]],["it is not a natural, national language, but represents a certain register of it.",[]],["as it is used in certain situations, but in addition/or as variable to regular language, it has some signs and rules which are different.",[]]],"sy":[["language of law",[]],["language of lawyers",[]]],"rt":[["register",[]]],"sb":[["various 'genres' of legal language",["1, p. 51"]]],"ex":[["every time a consumer buys a parking ticket, he should read the small print on the reverse side which is nothing if not legal language",["1, pp. 1-2"]]]},{"de":[["law is envisaged as a language. On the one hand, it is a realm of arguments and unique rhetoric, on the other it is a profession of words as signs that manage meaning",["30"]]],"rt":[["sign systems",[]],["communicative interactions",[]]]},{"de":[["Garner counters the idea that legalese ensures precision of legal texts, enjoys more respectability, or is generally preferable.",["42 p. 296"]]]},{"de":[["Garner can be certainly considered a proponent of the plain language movement, as he repeatedly expresses the belief that anything that can be simplified should be said in simpler words",["42"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In this way it contributes to the construction of communication and its meaning.",[]],["Style has both a differentiating and a classifying role-it allows us to distinguish a certain communication from another, and at the same time to classify it in a superior group of texts and to treat it accordingly.",[]],["The Prague School then differentiates styles according to the leading function of the communication act, i.e., the intention pursued by the author, the purpose or the aim served by the speech",["26","p. 28"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These identified textual features work as the local explanation that interprets the information the model primarily pays attention to when making the prediction decision for a particular textual input.",[]],["The good rationales valid for the explanation should lead to the same prediction results as the original textual inputs.",[]],["researchers also made extra efforts to extract coherent and consecutive rationales to use them as more readable and comprehensive explanations.",[]]],"rt":[["feature importance",[]]],"sb":[["sequential selector-predictor stacked model",[]],["adversarial-based model",[]]],"sp":[["Feature Importance",[]]]},{"de":[["Transparency can be achieved in several ways: through being able to simulate the model in your mind (for example, a linear regression with few weights), or having deep knowledge of the underlying algorithm used by the model (for example, proving some property of any solution an algorithm will produce).",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["direct action",[]]]},{"de":[["This category also includes protests that sought to deny rights or reject equal rights for a group (e.g., against minorities).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["anti-authoritarian and driven by left-wing economic ideas",[]],["The sort of economic populism that propelled movements like Occupy Wall Street, with its demand to shatter the economic inequality between the 1% and the 99%",[]]],"ex":[["The 2010-2011 revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt, the social protests throughout Europe, especially southern Europe, that they inspired, and the Occupy Wall Street and Occupy Hong Kong movements of 2011-2013",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["environmental justice",[]],["economic justice",[]]],"ex":[["finance activists asking for reparations for people who lost their savings due to banking crises",[]],["solidarity marches with victims wanting justice from the legal system in case of house evictions, rape and others",[]]]},{"ex":[["climate change",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Movements describe their targets in various ways, from very specific, such as individual corporations in the case of localized strikes, to more general, as, for example, in the case of a protest against the entire government or the whole of the financial sector.",[]]]},{"sy":[["People's Courts",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["protest episode",[]]]},{"ex":[["A typical example was the call for United States democracy to respond to Main Street instead of Wall Street after the 2008 financial crisis.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["methods of protest",[]]],"ex":[["French farmers vandalized the office of Macron's party lawmaker protesting the European Union-Canada trade deal",[]],["dumped several tons of manure and rotten vegetables in protest at falling food prices",[]],["when French farmers vandalized the office of Macron's party lawmaker protesting the European Union-Canada trade deal",[]],["when they dumped several tons of manure and rotten vegetables in protest at falling food prices",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["SITL",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["veil of ignorance",["40"]]]},{},{"de":[["In SITL, the AI system has broad impact, requiring various societal stakeholders to identify the fundamental rights that the AI must respect, the ethical values that should guide the AI's operation, the cost and benefit tradeoffs the AI can make between various stakeholder groups, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["HITL system",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["HG",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Affect is something deeply interior but that also has outward manifestations.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["… being 'about' social relations; emotional meaning systems will reflect those relations and will, through emotion's constitution of social behavior, structure them",["Lutz and White 1986: 420"]]]},{"de":[["The authors center emotion in their description and analysis of cultural behavior and are not afraid to privilege the role of feelings as central to understanding cultural meanings.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["investigate how people expose their feelings, evaluations, attitudes and emotions.",[]]],"rt":[["Stance Detection",[]]],"sb":[["Aspect based sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["Identifying the speaker's opinion towards a particular target is the main goal of SD.",[]],["Stance detection could not only provide useful information for improving the performance of SA but it could also help to better understand the way in which people communicate ideas in order to highlight their point of view towards a particular target entity.",[]]],"sy":[["SD",[]]],"rt":[["Sentiment Analysis (SA)",[]]]},{"sy":[["user coping skills",[]]],"sb":[["self-efficacy (SE)",[]],["optimism (Op)",[]]],"de":[["Affective coping skills (ACS) consist of self-efficacy (SE) and optimism (Op) measures.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The data explored in this study therefore relate to this anticipatory state of motivation and affectivity.",[]],["Although both affective and cognitive behaviors are internal or private, their structure, content, and conditions of operation are culturally prescribed and internalized by normal individuals.",[]]]},{"de":[["feelings of self-confidence counteract and reduce affective load in an information task.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Affective coping skills (ACS)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Affective coping skills (ACS)",[]]]},{"rt":[["opinion",[]]]},{"sy":[["uncertainty",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["normative social influence often results in public compliance involving simple changes in behaviors and opinions to fit with the perspectives of one's community, without changing one's internal attitudes or beliefs",["Allen 1965"]]],"rt":[["public compliance",[]],["informational social influence",[]]]},{"rt":[["attitude",[]]]},{"de":[["In the absence of public opposition, individuals who do not support or are undecided about a majority opinion may falsely assume that they are the only dissenters in their groups",["O 'Gorman 1975"]]],"rt":[["normative social influences",[]]],"ex":[["all witnesses fail to take action to rescue the victims; however, when the witnesses are uncertain about how to act, that is more an example of pluralistic ignorance than indifference.",[]]]},{"de":[["an example of the \"private acceptance\" concept in social psychology.",[]]],"rt":[["informational social influence",[]],["public compliance",[]]],"ex":[["the agent's opinion and attitude both move closer to public opinion",[]]]},{"de":[["When the influence of public opinion is significantly strong, there is also more potential for the agent to choose public compliance.",[]],["an example of the \"public compliance\" concept in social psychology.",[]]],"rt":[["normative social influence",[]],["private acceptance",[]]],"ex":[["a case where red ≤ O, indicating an extremely large public opinion magnitude and sufficient external reasons for an agent to change its opinion but not its attitude",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The public opinion spectrum is divided into three cases denoted by color: green (Case C), yellow (Case B), and red (Case A).",[]],["The first case indicates a situation where public opinion magnitude O < green, in which the magnitude is too small to make an agent conform to the majority view in terms of either attitude or opinion.",[]],["The second category indicates a case where green ≤ O < red, in which a medium public opinion magnitude is sufficient to make an agent change its opinion to follow that of the larger group.",[]],["The third (red) category indicates a case where red ≤ O, indicating an extremely large public opinion magnitude and sufficient external reasons for an agent to change its opinion but not its attitude",[]]]},{},{"de":[["platforms can achieve enormous scales, co-exist with infrastructures, and in some cases compete with or even supplant them.",[]],["filters our daily communicative acts through a profit-extracting sieve, deploying its intimate view of users' activities and relationships for the benefit of advertisers and others",[]],["platforms' essential characteristic is the programmability which permits users to go beyond the original designers' project",[]]],"rt":[["programmability",[]],["affordances and constraints",[]],["connection of heterogeneous actors",[]],["accessibility of data and logic through application programming interfaces (APIs)",[]]],"ex":[["If you can program it, it's a platform. If you can't, it's not",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Facebook",[]]]},{"de":[["Media advocacy is, however, often complemented with other activities, such as the direct lobbying of politicians, civil servants, etc.",[]],["This kind of advocacy includes preparing press releases and talking to journalist both off and on the record.",[]]]},{"de":[["how the development in communication media has transformed public life from face-to-face interaction to mediated quasi-interaction",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Think tanks claim some degree of autonomy.",[]],["a heterogeneous concept, because a variety of special interest groups, NGOs and grassroots all proclaim themselves as such.",[]],["mediating between government and public; identifying, articulating and evaluating current or emerging issues, problems, or proposals; transforming ideas and problems into policy issues; serving as an informed and independent voice in policy debates; and providing a constructive forum for exchange of ideas and information between key stakeholders in the policy formulation process",[]]],"sb":[["Advocacy think tanks",[]],["universities without students",[]],["partyaffiliated think tanks",[]],["the policy think tank",["Kelstrup (2014)"]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["mental disorder",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["By addressing the desperate plight of refugees, they are further positioned as passive victims of circumstances they are not responsible for",["Van Gorp 2005"]]]},{"de":[["does only appear in the latent factor structure of tabloid papers",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["and the predominance of only a limited number of frames.",[]]]},{"de":[["they are not only characteristics of a news discourse itself, but cognitive devices that help structure and process the discourse.",[]],["frames in the sense of abstract interpretational lenses",[]],["or rather remain on a highly issue-oriented, topical level.",[]]],"sy":[["interpretational lenses",[]]],"rt":[["latent attributes",[]],["topoi",["2001","Reisigl and Wodak 2001"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It focuses on refugees' access to and their effects on the labour market, including hopes and concerns regarding social integration, economic change, and employment (Quinsaat 2014).",["Quinsaat 2014"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It addresses controversial policy debates on reception quotas and maximum limits.",[]]]},{"de":[["In addition, the frame reflects the issue-specific debate on installing a boundary fence at the Austrian border, and is thus closely linked to concerns of national security, restrictive asylum policies, and attempts to regulate human movement",["Ibrahim 2005"]],["In addition, the frame reflects the issue-specific debate on installing a boundary fence at the Austrian border, and is thus closely linked to concerns of national security, restrictive asylum policies, and attempts to regulate human movement (Ibrahim 2005).",["Ibrahim 2005"]]]},{"de":[["Its main focus lies on the provision of temporary shelter, in particular on the placement of refugees in tent camps, containers, and military barracks.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["media representations drawing on the victimisation frame call attention to a humanitarian stance in asylum policy and to related legal and moral obligations",["Harrell-Bond 1999"]]],"rt":[["human interest frame",["Steimel 2010"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["approach system",[]]],"sb":[["proscriptive system",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["negative product avoidance",[]]]},{"sy":[["positive product approach",[]]]},{"rt":[["political neuroscience",[]]]},{"de":[["resentment of the wealthy fused with support for the redistribution of wealth",[]]],"ex":[["the Occupy Movement",[]]]},{"de":[["design features that evolved to maximize expected fitness when making decisions under uncertainty",["Tooby & Cosmides 1990"]],["are design features that evolved to maximize expected fitness when making decisions under uncertainty (Tooby & Cosmides 1990).",["Tooby & Cosmides 1990"]]]},{},{"rt":[["Cognitive abilities",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["liberals",[]]]},{"de":[["Most evidence suggests that Constraint, more than NE, is the principal nexus of individual differences in threat sensitivity, especially when perceived dangers are relatively clear-cut (Depue & Spoont 1986).",["Depue & Spoont 1986"]],["trait fear loads primarily on Constraint (Church & Burke 1994;Tellegen & Waller 2008).",["Church & Burke 1994","Tellegen & Waller 2008"]],["The second dimension is constraint and is best accounted for by conscientiousness and openness, not neuroticism.",[]],["reflects the activity of the Behavioral Inhibition System, a brain-based circuit that mediates sensitivity to signals of punishment and uncertainty",["Fowles 2002","Lykken 1995","Gray & McNaughton 1996"]]],"sy":[["threat bias",[]]],"rt":[["Disinhibition",["Tellegen & Waller 2008"]],["conscientiousness",[]],["openness",[]]]},{"de":[["negativity bias is a driver of the need for cognitive closure, thus giving negativity bias both a direct impact on political beliefs and an additional indirect impact through cognitive closure.",[]],["what we refer to in our article as the desire for cognitive closure",[]]],"sy":[["desire for constraint",[]],["coherence",[]],["closure",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["social conservatism",[]]]},{"rt":[["social/moral dimension",[]]],"sp":[["dimensions of ideology",[]]]},{"de":[["They are the tangible residue of all the genetic and experiential influences that have been retained and then incorporated for future guidance.",[]],["inertial psychological and physiological set-points that serve as baselines for behaviors and attitudes",[]]]},{"sy":[["compassion",[]],["trait compassion",[]]]},{"rt":[["elective affinity",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["conservatives",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Macro worries, which correlate most positively with universalism values and most negatively with power values, cause liberals more distress.",[]]],"rt":[["micro worries",[]]]},{"de":[["Micro worries, which correlate most positively with power values and most negatively with universalism values, cause conservatives more distress.",[]]],"rt":[["macro worries",[]]]},{"de":[["can explain both the cited research and a variety of other phenomena related to liberal-conservative differences.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["As Watson and Clark (1984) noted, individuals with elevated NE tend to dwell on the negative aspects of life and attend selectively to unpleasant stimuli.",["1984","Watson and Clark (1984)","Watson & Clark 1984"]],["trait anxiety loads primarily on NE",["Church & Burke 1994","Tellegen & Waller 2008"]]]},{"de":[["Essentially, this principle reflects the fact that humans generally tend to respond more strongly, to be more attentive, and to give more weight to negative elements of their environment.",[]],["response to negative stimuli (like political dispositions) can be operationalized narrowly or broadly.",[]],["differentially responsive and attentive to negative stimuli",[]],["conservatives are more responsive and attuned to negative stimuli",[]],["heightened orientation to negative stimuli",[]],["A negativity bias among conservatives offers a parsimonious account of the many social, political, and psychological differences between liberals and conservatives",[]],["The negativity bias hypothesis suggests that conservatives react to threats with greater negativity and motivated information processing than their liberal counterparts.",[]],["There is evidence that a negativity bias may underlie the development of a liberal or conservative worldview",[]],["liberals and conservatives do differ on a number of dimensions that can be parsimoniously described as a negativity bias",[]],["although a negativity bias may be an underlying cause in the development of political ideologies, it is not manifest in reactions to threatening groups, threatening information, or fundamental psychological and epistemic threats.",[]],["the consequence of the negativity bias is that the motivation to withdraw is stronger than the motivation to approach at high levels of evaluative activation",[]],["individual differences in the negativity bias predicted the spatial learning for negative stimuli",["Norris et al. 2011"]],["negativity bias is associated with a larger late positive potential",["Ito & Cacioppo 2000","Ito et al. 1998","Smith et al. 2006"]],["negativity bias leading to economic conservatism among those high in engagement and economic liberalism among those low in engagement",["Johnston 2011","Johnston et al. 2014"]],["the negativity bias guides human cognition as early as infancy and continues throughout childhood.",[]],["They conclude that the principal variable underlying the difference between liberal and conservative attitudes is negativity bias.",[]],["tendency to fixate on negative stimuli",[]],["Hibbing et al. propose that variations in political ideology, along the left-right (liberal-conservative) dimension reflect deepseated, stable, inter-individual differences in physiological and psychological affective responses to negative stimuli.",[]],["negative bias phenomena are not homogenous; rather negative bias seems to be domain-specific.",[]],["some of the support for such a bias may have come from the use of positive stimuli that are low in arousal (e.g., scenes of leisure activities) instead of stimuli that are high in arousal (e.g., erotica).",[]],["recent psychophysiological studies that have used positive and negative stimuli with the same mean arousal ratings, have found equally enhanced attention to positive as well as negative compared to neutral images",["Weinberg & Hajcak 2010"]],["political orientations are, at least in part, driven by deeply embedded individual-level variations in orientations to negative stimuli",[]],["At the center of our target article is the claim that political orientations are, at least in part, driven by deeply embedded individual-level variations in orientations to negative stimuli",[]]],"rt":[["positivity offset",[]],["threat bias",[]],["false negative",[]],["false positive",[]],["arousal",[]],["valence",[]]],"ex":[["loss aversion",["Kahneman & Tversky 1984"]],["quick recognition of angry versus happy faces in a crowd",["Hansen & Hansen 1988"]],["infants look longer at fearful than at happy faces",[]],["modify their own behavior more strongly in response to others' negative than others' positive expressions",[]],["Individuals high in negativity bias are organically drawn toward conservative sociocultural attitudes.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["liberal thought centers around the Nurturing Parent model of the family",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["boycotting",[]],["buycotting",[]]],"ex":[["boycotting",[]],["buycotting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Conservatives, or individuals on the political right, are more likely to oppose social change but to be relatively accepting of inequality.",[]],["Liberals (as the term is used in the United States), or those on the political left, are more likely to welcome social change but to be deeply bothered by inequality.",[]]]},{"rt":[["social ideology",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["From studies on this topic, we can conclude that older people are more attentive to and have a better memory for positive information than negative information",["Reed & Carstensen 2012","Carstensen 2006"]]]},{"de":[["The consequence of the positivity offset is that the motivation to approach is stronger than the motivation to withdraw at very low levels of evaluative activation (thereby motivating exploratory behavior)",[]],["individual differences in the positivity offset predicted the spatial learning for positive stimuli",["Norris et al. 2011"]]],"rt":[["negativity bias",[]]]},{"de":[["it is less plausible that such differences have an analogous influence on power motivation (i.e., the motivation to maintain or improve one's economic status).",[]],["the desire to improve one's own economic status",[]]],"rt":[["security motivation",[]]],"ex":[["the desire to improve one's own economic status",[]]]},{},{"de":[["prescriptive morality is less strict, more discretionary, and commendatory",["Janoff-Bulman et al. 2009"]]],"rt":[["prescriptive system",[]],["approach-based prescriptive moral regulation",["Janoff-Bulman 2009","Janoff-Bulman et al. 2008"]],["proscriptive morality",[]]]},{"de":[["prevention focus leads to protective strategies that are conservative in nature",[]]]},{},{"de":[["proscriptive morality is strict, mandatory, and condemnatory",["Janoff-Bulman et al. 2009"]]],"rt":[["proscriptive system",[]],["avoidance-based proscriptive moral regulation",["Janoff-Bulman 2009","Janoff-Bulman et al. 2008"]],["prescriptive morality",[]]]},{"rt":[["proscriptive morality",[]]],"sp":[["avoidance system",[]]]},{"rt":[["attitudes toward social change",[]]],"sp":[["factors underlying the liberal-conservative divide",[]]]},{"de":[["differences in negativity bias plausibly have a direct effect on security motivation (i.e., the motivation to reduce or deflect social threats)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["economic conservatism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["this group-based morality focuses on equality-oriented macrojustice concerns",[]]],"rt":[["Social Order",[]]]},{"de":[["included here are Haidt's binding foundations of loyalty, authority, and purity that are endorsed by conservatives",[]]],"rt":[["Social Justice",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["economic dimension",[]]],"sp":[["dimensions of ideology",[]]]},{"sy":[["socio-relational model",[]]]},{"de":[["Strict Father model of morality underlying conservative thought.",[]]]},{"de":[["probably emanating from differences in fearfulness",[]]],"sy":[["differential sensitivity to threat",[]],["constraint",[]]],"rt":[["negativity bias",[]]],"sb":[["social threats",[]],["non-social threats",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["trait anxiety loads primarily on NE",["Church & Burke 1994","Tellegen & Waller 2008"]]]},{"de":[["trait fear loads primarily on Constraint (Church & Burke 1994;Tellegen & Waller 2008).",["Church & Burke 1994","Tellegen & Waller 2008"]]]},{"rt":[["capacity cues",[]]],"ex":[["expressed vulnerability",[]],["fear and sadness",[]],["submissive",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Simultaneously, adaptive network approaches that focus on the interplay of opinion dynamics and network formation have been further developed [18,30,25,4].",["18","30","25","4"]]]},{"rt":[["social role theory",["31,42"]]]},{"ex":[["One example is Asian Americans, who are praised for their competence but perceived as lacking warmth, which prevents them from being prompted to high-status positions",["64"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This compensation effect highlights the strategic usage of stereotype dimensions without appearing blatantly biased.",[]],["Along the two fundamental dimensions of social perception, warmth and competence [37], people strategically choose which dimension to use when comparing two targets. People tend to judge their in-groups along the warmth dimension, indicating the other group as less friendly. They compensate for such negative stereotypes by emphasizing the competence of the other group [56].",["37","56"]],["People tend to judge their in-groups along the warmth dimension, indicating the other group as less friendly.",[]]],"rt":[["warmth and competence",["37"]]]},{"de":[["Methodologically, explicit bias can be elicited by asking people to express their opinions.",[]]]},{"de":[["The IAT measures the strength of associations between groups and evaluations via how quickly people react to pairs of concepts (Appendix E)",["44","45","73"]],["Participants are typically asked to sort words into categories that are on the left and right-hand side of the computer screen by pressing the \"e\" key if the word belongs to the category on the left and the \"i\" key if the word belongs to the category on the right",["48"]],["The behavioral task is to categorize stimuli as they appear on the screen.",[]]],"ex":[["in the racial attitude IAT, participants see attribute words, e.g., pleasant or unpleasant, on the left and right side of the screen, and a photo of either a black or a white face in the center of the screen. Participants are asked to categorize the photo in the center to either the positive or negative attributes by pressing corresponding keys.",[]]]},{"de":[["Psychological studies have found these harder-to-see biases can be potent sources of discrimination",["8","25","76"]],["implicit bias measures bypass deliberation and are likely to be free of influence from social desirability",["36","73"]],["Implicit biases can be particularly useful in predicting people's behaviors in relative, not absolute, decision contexts (e.g., comparing between two candidates rather than independently assessing each)",["28","59"]],["LLMs exhibit widespread implicit biases across our set of stimuli.",[]],["The strongest implicit bias in race appears when language models associate negative attributes with the words black or dark, guilty phrases and weapon objects with the word black.",[]],["indirect measurement does not imply or assess the conscious or unconscious state of either LLMs or human minds",["46","83"]],["implicit bias is unintentional, uncontrollable, and purely stimulus-driven",["38","9","46","68"]]]},{},{"de":[["play a critical role in diagnosing human discriminatory behaviors",["59"]]]},{"de":[["The only difference from WEAT is that the embeddings are obtained in sentence templates, making them contextualized.",[]]],"sy":[["Contextualized Embedding Association Test",[]],["CEAT",[]]],"rt":[["Word-level embedding bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Given a set of target groups (e.g., black) and two polar attribute sets (e.g., pleasant v. unpleasant), it calculates the distance difference in cosine similarity between the pairs.",[]]],"sy":[["Word Embedding Association Test",[]],["WEAT",[]]],"rt":[["Sentence-level embedding bias",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["engano",[]]],"sb":[["dissimulação",["Rietjens (2019)"]],["simulação",["Rietjens (2019)"]]]},{"de":[["associam a desinformação a fatores exógenos, como forças externas, estrangeiras, anti-democráticas ou anti-institucionais (Jamieson, 2018;Boyd-Barrett, 2019) que atacam estas instituições que se auto-legitimam como produtoras e disseminadoras de conhecimento, de informação de confiança e de verdade.",["Jamieson, 2018","Boyd-Barrett, 2019"]],["persistem em enquadrar a partir da intencionalidade ou legitimar as instituições epistêmicas como fonte de confiança",[]],["pensar a desinformação requer um esforço analítico que vai além de categorias estanques que tendem a simplificar a informação em torno de definições dicotômicas e maniqueístas acerca da verdade, de suas fontes de confiança ou da intencionalidade dos sujeitos.",[]]],"sy":[["desordem informacional",[]]],"rt":[["disputas sobre a produção de verdade",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["mal-information",[]],["ordem da desinformação",["Bennet, Livingston, 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["a desinformação tem sido utilizada como arma política numa guerra híbrida em que fake news, entre outras ações como lawfare e intervenção eleitoral externa entre outras, são utilizadas como métodos convencionais e não convencionais",[]],["o termo guerra híbrida aparece em 2005, podendo remontar aos atentados de 11 de setembro de 2001, e foi posteriormente usado para descrever a estratégia utilizada pelo Hezbollah na segunda guerra do Líbano de 2006.",[]]],"rt":[["lawfare",[]],["intervenção eleitoral externa",[]]],"ex":[["estratégia utilizada pelo Hezbollah na segunda guerra do Líbano de 2006",[]]]},{"de":[["Consolidadas em torno de métodos e formatos que garantem sua autoproteção e auto-preservação contínuas, estas instituições epistêmicas se autoinstituem como promotoras da verdade.",[]]],"ex":[["escolas, universidades, instituições de pesquisa científica e o jornalismo",[]],["No caso das ciências, o \"puro método\" impulsiona que todas as outras formas substantivas de \"conhecimentos\" estejam em princípio abertas a serem descartadas",["Giddens, 1991, p. 155"]],["No jornalismo, os formatos do modelo anglo-americano de objetividade, imparcialidade e neutralidade garantem que as políticas editoriais e posicionamentos políticos e ideológicos sejam transmitidos como um compromisso com a verdade",["Amado, Waisbord, 2015","Tavares, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["ações de letramento midiático e informacional",[]],["de acessar, analisar e efetivamente desenvolver habilidades de pensamento crítico e de aprendizagem sobre as mídias para a implementação da cidadania ativa",["Livingstone, 2002"]]],"sy":[["Alfabetização Midiática e Informacional (MIL)",[]]]},{"rt":[["desordem informacional",["Wardle, Derakhshan, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["desclassificando através de demarcações epistêmicas os conhecimentos/informações alternativas produzidas pelo \"outro\" como não-verdade?",[]]],"rt":[["conhecimentos alternativos",[]]]},{"de":[["ato vergonhoso para a comunidade científica, mas uma necessidade para manter a pureza da ciência",[]],["o fenômeno da retratação científica é um ato vergonhoso para a comunidade científica, mas uma necessidade para manter a pureza da ciência",[]]]},{"sp":[["deception",["Rietjens (2019)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["when the causal graph is t → z ← x → y and the dataset is collected only for instances with z i = 1, then within this dataset, the estimated statistical association P(y|t) can be non-zero although we know that there is no causal effect t → y",["18"]]],"sp":[["confounding bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These moral guidelines are often composed of implicit soft constraints.",[]]],"sy":[["moral guidelines",[]]],"rt":[["personal morality",[]],["social norms",[]],["professional morality",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["ada dua konsepsi dari framing yang saling berkaitan, yaitu konsepsi psikologi, dan konsepsi sosiologis. Konsep psikologis lebih menekankan pada bagaimana seseorang memproses informasi dalam dirinya, sedangkan konsepsi sosioligis lebih melihat padabagaimana konstruksi sosial atas realitas.",["Zhong Pan dan Gerald M. Kosicki (dalam Eriyanto, 2002:291)"]]]},{"sp":[["struktur retoris",[]]]},{"sp":[["struktur sintaksis",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["struktur sintaksis",[]]]},{"sp":[["struktur sintaksis",[]]]},{"sp":[["struktur retoris",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["SUGGEST",[]],["HOPE",[]],["RECOMMEND",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attitude",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The Appraisal framework provides a very rich description of different aspects of evaluation and subjective positioning.",[]]],"sb":[["Attitude",[]],["Graduation",[]],["Engagement",[]],["Affect",[]],["Judgment",[]],["Appreciation",[]]]},{"ex":[["very good, not terribly funny",[]]]},{"sy":[["claim",[]]],"sp":[["Argumentation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["causal relations",[]],["structural relations",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["argumentative relations",[]],["structural relations",[]]]},{"sy":[["conclusion",[]]]},{"de":[["Coherence has to do with semantic or pragmatic relations among units to produce the overall meaning of a discourse",["Hobbs 1979","Mann and Thompson 1988","Grosz et al. 1995","Hobbs 1979;Mann and Thompson 1988;Grosz et al. 1995"]]]},{"de":[["Linking across entities happens through grammatical and lexical connections such as anaphoric expressions and lexical relations (synonymy, meronymy, hyponymy) appearing across sentences.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["some nouns and verbs often have both neutral and non-neutral connotations",[]]],"rt":[["denotation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The violation of a maxim may result in the speaker conveying, in addition to the literal meaning of the utterance, an additional meaning that does not contribute to the truth-conditional content of the utterance, which leads to conversational implicature.",[]],["Implicatures are thus inferences that can defeat literal and compositional meaning.",[]]],"rt":[["Cooperative Principle",[]]]},{"de":[["The Cooperative Principle is expressed in four maxims that the communication participants are supposed to follow. The maxims ask the speaker to say what they believe to be the truth (Quality), to be as informative as possible (Quantity), to say the utterance at the appropriate point in the interaction (Relevance), and in the appropriate manner (Manner).",[]],["The Cooperative Principle is expressed in four maxims that the communication participants are supposed to follow.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Appraisal",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["connotation",[]]]},{"de":[["These attitudes play a motivational role and it is in concert with beliefs that they can move us to act",["Bratman 1990"]]],"sp":[["intent",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Discourse prosody is also related to the sentence proximity assumption of Wiebe's (1994), whereby subjective or objective sentences are assumed to cluster together",[]],["characterizing it as evaluative prosody",[]]],"rt":[["prosody",[]]],"ex":[["a review that starts out negatively, or that we see has a low number of stars associated with it, will lead us to interpret many of the meanings in the review as negative, even if negative opinion is not always explicitly stated.",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["heteroglossic",[]],["monoglossic",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["appraisal",[]],["stance",[]],["evaluative language",[]]],"rt":[["modality",[]]]},{"de":[["the interpretation of a given evaluation depends on linguistic and extralinguistic contextual factors.",[]],["A key element in this definition is that an evaluative expression is always associated with a polarized scale regarding social or moral norms (bad vs. good, love vs. hate, in favor of vs. against, prefer vs. dislike, better vs. worse, etc.).",[]],["Interactions with linguistic operators like negation, modality, and intensifiers; or syntactic constraints such as altering the order of constituents in a clause or sentence.",[]],["Discourse connectives, discourse structure, rhetorical relations, topicality.",[]],["Effects of various pragmatic phenomena such as common-sense knowledge, domain dependency, genre bias, cultural and social constraints, time constraints.",[]]],"sy":[["evaluative expressions",[]],["evaluation",[]],["polarized evaluation",[]]],"rt":[["opinion",[]],["sentiment",[]],["attitude",[]],["appraisal",[]],["affect",[]],["point of view",[]],["subjectivity",[]],["belief",[]],["desire",[]],["speculation",[]]]},{"de":[["Evidentiality expresses three basic types of meaning (Chafe 1986;Boye and Harder 2009):",["Chafe 1986","Boye and Harder 2009"]],["Reliability of knowledge, with adverbs such as maybe, probably, surely.",[]],["Mode of knowing: belief with constructions such as I think, I guess; induction with must, seem, evidently; and deduction with should, could, presumably.",[]],["Source of knowledge indicated by verbs indicating the source of input (see, hear, feel).",[]]],"rt":[["Engagement system",[]]],"sb":[["Reliability of knowledge",["Chafe 1986","Boye and Harder 2009"]],["Mode of knowing",["Chafe 1986","Boye and Harder 2009"]],["Source of knowledge",["Chafe 1986","Boye and Harder 2009"]]]},{"ex":[["The characters are great, which explicitly refers to the movie characters.",[]]]},{"de":[["Nonveridicality is an example of such aspects",[]]],"sb":[["nonveridicality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the latter, also known as fact-implied opinions (Liu 2012), are triggered by situations that describe a desirable or an undesirable activity or state.",[]]]},{"de":[["Complex evaluative language phenomena such as implicit evaluation, figurative language (irony, sarcasm), and intent detection.",[]],["Figurative language encompasses a variety of phenomena, including metaphor, oxymoron, idiomatic expressions, puns, irony, and sarcasm.",[]]],"rt":[["metaphor",[]],["oxymoron",[]],["idiomatic expressions",[]],["puns",[]],["irony",[]],["sarcasm",[]]],"sb":[["metaphor",[]],["oxymoron",[]],["idiomatic expressions",[]],["puns",[]],["irony",[]],["sarcasm",[]]],"ex":[["irony",[]],["sarcasm",[]],["Figurative language encompasses a variety of phenomena, including metaphor, oxymoron, idiomatic expressions, puns, irony, and sarcasm.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Graduation",[]]],"ex":[["In a true friend the meaning of friend, usually a non-gradable word, is sharpened.",[]],["a friend of sorts implies a softening of the meaning.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Graduation",[]]],"ex":[["somewhat interesting and a little bit sad",[]]]},{"rt":[["shallow discourse processing",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["Force",[]],["Focus",[]]],"sp":[["Appraisal",[]]],"ex":[["Examples of intensification and downtoning are somewhat interesting and a little bit sad.",[]],["In a true friend the meaning of friend, usually a non-gradable word, is sharpened.",[]],["On the other hand, a friend of sorts implies a softening of the meaning.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Engagement",[]]]},{"rt":[["bridging inference",[]]],"ex":[["as in the restaurant review in Example (3), where the pronoun it does not refer to the potential antecedent new vegan restaurant, but to an implicit aspect of a restaurant, its food.",[]]]},{"de":[["This could indicate a tendency to \"conceal\" negative opinions as seemingly objective statements, which can be related to social conventions (politeness, in particular).",[]],["the latter, also known as fact-implied opinions (Liu 2012), are triggered by situations that describe a desirable or an undesirable activity or state.",[]]],"sy":[["fact-implied opinions",[]]],"rt":[["opinion implicatures",[]]]},{"ex":[["a bright kid",[]],["a vicious kid",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["adjectives may intensify or downtone the noun they accompany (a definite success)",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["desires",[]],["preferences",[]],["intentions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an area which gives linguistic objects a predictive power such as predicting voter behavior and election results (Yano et al. 2013;Qiu et al. 2015), predicting deception (Fitzpatrick et al. 2015), or intention to buy (Ding et al. 2015).",["Yano et al. 2013","Qiu et al. 2015","Fitzpatrick et al. 2015","Ding et al. 2015"]]]},{"sy":[["intent analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["Intentions cannot conflict with each other and have to be consistent.",[]]],"sp":[["intent",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["evoked",[]]],"ex":[["a kid who reads a lot",[]],["a kid who tears the wings off butterflies",[]]]},{"de":[["Irony and sarcasm can be viewed as forms of metaphorical and figurative language, because they convey more than what is literally expressed.",[]],["In computational linguistics, irony is often used as an umbrella term that includes sarcasm",[]]],"rt":[["satire",[]],["parody",[]],["sarcasm",[]]],"ex":[["to express a negative opinion towards a cell phone, one can either use a literal form using a negative opinion word, as in This phone is a disaster, or a non-literal form by using a positive word, as in What an excellent phone!!",[]]]},{"sy":[["Nonveridicality",[]]],"rt":[["nonveridicality",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attitude",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["negation",[]]],"sp":[["Negation",[]]],"ex":[["This student is not bad.",[]],["It hasn't been my best day.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In cognitive linguistics, the all-encompassing view of metaphor states that it is fundamental to our conceptual system, and that metaphors in language are simply a reflection of our conceptual framework, whereby we conceptualize one domain by using language from a more familiar or basic one.",[]]],"rt":[["source",[]],["target",[]]],"ex":[["political and other debates often borrow the language of war and conflict to characterize their antagonistic nature (we win arguments; attack or shoot down the opponent's points; defend our point of view).",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Engagement",[]]]},{"de":[["It is grammatically expressed via a variety of forms: prefixes (un-, il-), suffixes (-less), content word negators such as not, and negative polarity items (NPIs) like any, anything, ever.",[]]],"sb":[["litotes",[]]]},{"de":[["(which also makes them nonveridical markers).",[]]],"rt":[["nonveridical markers",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Nonveridicality usually includes a host of phenomena that indicate that individual words and phrases may not be reliable for the purposes of sentiment analysis, also known as irrealis.",[]],["The class of nonveridical operators typically includes negation, modal verbs, intensional verbs (believe, think, want, suggest), imperatives, questions, protasis of conditionals, habituals, and the subjunctive, (in languages that have an expression of subjunctive)",["Trnavac and Taboada 2012"]],["Nonveridicality usually includes a host of phenomena that indicate that individual words and phrases may not be reliable for the purposes of sentiment analysis",[]],["Nonveridicality is wider, including all contexts that are not veridical-that is, which are not based on truth or existence (Giannakidou 1995;Zwarts 1995).",["Giannakidou 1995","Zwarts 1995"]]],"sy":[["irrealis",[]]],"rt":[["evidentiality",[]]],"sb":[["negation, modal verbs, intensional verbs (believe, think, want, suggest), imperatives, questions, protasis of conditionals, habituals, and the subjunctive",["Trnavac and Taboada 2012"]]],"sp":[["Extra-propositional aspects of meaning",[]]]},{"de":[["subjectivity in narratives following Banfield's (1982) theory, which characterized sentences of narration as objective (narrating events or describing the fictional world) or subjective (expressing the author's thoughts or perceptions).",[]]]},{"de":[["Opinions concern absolute judgments towards objects or persons (positive, negative, or neutral), and preferences concern relative judgments towards actions (preferring them or not over others).",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["source",[]]]},{"sy":[["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["Opinions concern absolute judgments towards objects or persons (positive, negative, or neutral)",[]]],"rt":[["preferences",[]]]},{"de":[["the polarity of such facts is inferred using common sense, world knowledge, or context",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["evaluative language",[]]]},{"de":[["preferences involve an ordering on behalf of an agent and thus are relational and comparative.",[]]],"rt":[["opinions",[]]],"sp":[["intent",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Bednarek (2006) also discusses this phenomenon in news discourse, characterizing it as evaluative prosody.",[]]],"rt":[["evaluative prosody",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This algorithm relied on the sentence proximity assumption where subjective vs. objective sentences were postulated to be more likely to appear together.",[]]],"rt":[["discourse prosody",[]]]},{"de":[["It extends FrameNet (Baker et al. 1998) to connect opinion source and target to semantic roles, and to add semantic features such as polarity, intensity, and affectedness (changes of state that leave an event participant in a changed state).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the expression and automatic extraction of opinion at three main levels of granularity (Liu 2012): the document, the sentence, and the aspect.",["Liu 2012"]]],"sy":[["opinion mining",[]]]},{"de":[["This process, based on the principle of compositionality (Dowty et al. 1981), captures how opinion expressions interact with each other and with specific linguistic operators such as intensifiers, negations, or modalities.",["Dowty et al. 1981"]]],"ex":[["the sentiment expressed in the sentence This restaurant is good but expensive is a combination of the prior sentiment orientation of the words good, but, and expensive.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["orientation",[]]]},{"sy":[["sentiment semantic category",[]]]},{"sy":[["rate",[]],["strength",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["full discourse parsing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["metaphor",[]]],"sp":[["irony",[]],["metaphor",[]]],"ex":[["As tough as a marshmallow cardigan",["Veale and Hao (2010)"]]]},{"de":[["Stance, in this sense, encompasses evidentiality (commitment towards the message) and affect (positive or negative evaluation).",[]],["sentiment analysis attempts to capture polarity in a piece of text, whereas stance detection aims at extracting the author's standpoint towards a target that may not be explicitly mentioned in the text.",[]],["combine the two expressions of opinion, often under one label, such as stance (Biber and Finegan 1989;Conrad and Biber 2000)",["Biber and Finegan 1989","Conrad and Biber 2000"]]],"sy":[["evaluative language",[]],["opinion",[]]],"rt":[["evidentiality",[]],["affect",[]],["sentiment analysis",[]]],"sb":[["Emphatic Expression of Affect",[]],["Expository Expression of Doubt",[]],["Faceless",[]]]},{"rt":[["argumentative relations",[]],["causal relations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["subjectivity in narratives following Banfield's (1982) theory, which characterized sentences of narration as objective (narrating events or describing the fictional world) or subjective (expressing the author's thoughts or perceptions).",[]],["The term subjectivity has different senses and has been adopted in computational linguistics to encompass automatic extraction of both sentiment and polarity",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["intent detection",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["extra-propositional aspects of meaning",[]],["intensification",[]],["downtoning",[]],["presuppositions",[]],["discourse",[]],["irony",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Unlike pipelines, which follow a fixed flow, agentic systems dynamically adapt execution through iterative revision and task specialization, making them well-suited for complex, multi-hop, or ambiguous claims.",[]]],"sb":[["Multi-Agent Collaboration",[]],["Debate-and Critique-Based Agents",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Verifiable claims are typically explicit, factual, minimally ambiguous, and faithful to the original input, while avoiding subjective opinions, rhetorical framing, or vague references.",[]]],"sb":[["Verifiable claims are typically explicit, factual, minimally ambiguous, and faithful to the original input, while avoiding subjective opinions, rhetorical framing, or vague references.",[]],["Verifiable claims",[]]]},{"de":[["The importance of claim detection lies in its role as the first step in the fact-checking pipeline, where, after accurately identifying claims, subsequent verification, evidence retrieval, and explanation tasks can be applied efficiently.",[]],["Moreover, with the growing volume of information across media platforms such as social media and online news portals, it has become essential to carefully select which statements to verify based on their potential societal impact and the possible harm they could cause if spread.",[]],["Keywords are grouped by task to cover generic topics and individual fact-checking tasks.",[]]],"sy":[["check-worthy claim detection",["22"]],["factual claim detection",["191"]],["propositional claim detection",["188"]]],"rt":[["check-worthy",[]],["verifiable claims",[]]],"sb":[["check-worthy claim detection",[]],["claim normalization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This step is usually performed since real-world inputs are rarely expressed as clean, standalone factual assertions.",[]]],"rt":[["claim normalization",[]],["claim decomposition",[]]],"sb":[["claim normalization",[]],["claim decomposition",[]]]},{"de":[["Normalization has been shown to improve semantic alignment between user claims and fact-check databases, especially for previously fact-checked claim retrieval and multilingual settings",["10","16","18","211"]],["At the same time, generative paradigms, such as claim normalization, explanation generation, question generation, or full fact-checking article generation, are gaining prominence, reflecting a shift toward outputs that are more informative and natural for human fact-checkers.",[]]],"sp":[["claim generation",[]],["Claim detection",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["providing harder negative examples and enabling more balanced training",["161","306","315"]]],"sp":[["Synthetic Data Generation",[]]]},{"de":[["These approaches encourage multi-perspective reasoning and expose hidden assumptions, but they increase inference cost and risk reinforcing errors when agents prematurely converge on flawed reasoning.",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["claim detection",[]],["identifying previously fact-checked claims",[]],["gathering evidence to verify or refute claims",[]],["directly assessing the veracity of statements",[]]]},{"de":[["Evidence retrieval is a central component of automated fact-checking pipelines, providing the factual grounding necessary for subsequent veracity assessment.",[]]],"sy":[["document retrieval",["43"]],["passage retrieval",["133"]],["evidence",["254"]],["rationale selection",["275"]],["document retrieval [43]",["43"]],["passage retrieval [133]",["133"]],["evidence [254]",["254"]],["rationale selection [275]",["275"]]],"ex":[["text passages",[]],["tables",[]],["scientific data",[]]]},{"de":[["These explanations serve to communicate the veracity of a claim, summarize evidence, or highlight reasoning steps, helping users and fact-checkers interpret model decisions",["231","301"]],["its primary purpose is to provide transparency, improve interpretability, and support human-AI collaboration rather than directly improve predictive performance",["27","313"]],["At the same time, generative paradigms, such as claim normalization, explanation generation, question generation, or full fact-checking article generation, are gaining prominence, reflecting a shift toward outputs that are more informative and natural for human fact-checkers.",[]],["Unlike chain-of-thought reasoning, which is typically used as an internal mechanism to improve model predictions and is not exposed to end users [201,276], explanation generation produces outputs intended to be user-facing.",["201","276"]],["They can be evaluated independently of the primary classification or regression task using human annotations or automatic metrics, making explanation generation a distinct methodological component",["204","265"]]],"rt":[["classification",[]],["regression",[]],["chain-of-thought reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["Fact verification and fake news detection are the most widely studied tasks in automated fact-checking using LLMs, serving as the foundation for veracity assessment",["182"]]],"sy":[["claim verification",["67"]],["misinformation detection",["258"]],["truth assessment",["180"]],["rumor detection",["149"]]],"rt":[["veracity assessment",[]]]},{"de":[["Fact verification focuses on evaluating the truthfulness of short, explicit claims, typically by comparing them against retrieved evidence from trusted sources [303]. On the other hand, fake news detection aims to assess the truthfulness of longer and more contextually rich texts, such as news articles, considering contextual, linguistic, and stylistic features that may indicate misinformation [32].",["303","32"]]],"sy":[["claim verification",["67"]],["misinformation detection",["258"]],["truth assessment",["180"]],["rumor detection",["149"]],["claim verification [67]",["67"]],["misinformation detection [258]",["258"]],["truth assessment [180]",["180"]],["rumor detection [149]",["149"]]]},{"sb":[["claim detection",[]],["evidence retrieval",[]],["verdict prediction",[]],["justification generation",[]]]},{"de":[["fact-checking prediction constitutes an end-to-end system that generate the verdict itself.",[]]]},{"de":[["factuality evaluation is applied post hoc to generated content to measure reliability",[]],["Factuality evaluation typically relies on multi-stage pipelines, including claim extraction, evidence retrieval, and claim-level verification, to ensure that each component of the generated content can be rigorously evaluated.",[]],["Unlike fact-checking prediction, where LLMs actively produce verdicts such as support, refute, or neutral for a claim, factuality evaluation examines the model's outputs to determine whether each statement is correct, verifiable, and grounded in evidence",["280"]]],"sy":[["Factuality evaluation",[]]],"rt":[["fact-checking prediction",[]]]},{"de":[["Fact verification and fake news detection are the most widely studied tasks in automated fact-checking using LLMs, serving as the foundation for veracity assessment",["182"]]],"sy":[["claim verification",["67"]],["misinformation detection",["258"]],["truth assessment",["180"]],["rumor detection",["149"]]],"rt":[["veracity assessment",[]]]},{"de":[["A recent extension of explanation generation is the generation of fact-checking articles",["225"]]]},{"sb":[["intrinsic",[]],["extrinsic",[]],["verification hallucination",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["thereby increasing robustness to reworded misinformation and reducing the impact of spurious lexical cues",["87","175"]]]},{"de":[["Their main advantages are modularity, interpretability, and controllability, which allow researchers to inspect intermediate outputs, isolate errors, and integrate domain knowledge or external tools systematically.",[]],["Overall, pipeline architectures are beneficial for transparency and error diagnosis, but tend to follow fixed execution flows.",[]]],"rt":[["claim decomposition",[]],["evidence retrieval",[]],["veracity prediction",[]]],"sb":[["Deterministic and Multi-Stage Pipelines",[]],["Knowledge Augmented Pipelines",[]],["Hybrid pipelines",[]],["Pipelines for Logical Reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["It plays a crucial role in fact-checking workflows, as misleading or false claims often reappear across different languages, platforms, and time periods. Therefore, the objective is to retrieve semantically similar claims or fact-checks to quickly locate prior verifications, rather than re-evaluating the same or slightly modified claims.",[]],["This task aims to reduce redundant work for fact-checkers by identifying whether a claim has already been verified, and to look for similar debunked claims [182].",["182"]]],"sy":[["fact-checked claims detection",["238"]],["fact-checking URL recommendation",["267"]],["verified claim retrieval",["31"]],["searching for fact-checked information",["268"]],["claim matching",["125"]],["fact-checked claims detection [238]",["238"]],["fact-checking URL recommendation [267]",["267"]],["verified claim retrieval [31]",["31"]],["searching for fact-checked information [268]",["268"]],["claim matching [125]",["125"]]]},{"de":[["At the same time, generative paradigms, such as claim normalization, explanation generation, question generation, or full fact-checking article generation, are gaining prominence, reflecting a shift toward outputs that are more informative and natural for human fact-checkers.",[]],["Making information needs explicit encourages systematic information gathering and can improve downstream retrieval quality.",[]]],"ex":[["wh-questions (e.g., Who is Bruce Lee? [309]) and binary questions (e.g., Did the murder rate in 2020 increase by 26% from 2019? [49])",["309","49"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["improved precision in downstream tasks.",[]]],"sp":[["structured prediction",[]],["structured outputs",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["claim",[]]]},{"rt":[["hallucination",[]]],"sp":[["hallucinations",[]]]},{"de":[["usually shared with small variations and nuances to create an illusion of consensus",["Weber and Neumann 2021"]]]},{"de":[["this manipulation technique was mainly used to push fringe narratives",[]],["From Figure 5(b), we observe remarkably high proportions of quotes in the copypasta activity, suggesting that this sharing activity might be used to diffuse problematic content, as further indicated by the suspiciously high volume of fringe tweets.",[]]]},{"sb":[["QAnon -hashtags originated from and propagated by the QAnon conspiracy",[]],["US Election -hashtags encompassing a diverse set of conspiracies supporting the election fraud rhetoric",[]],["COVID-19 -a single hashtag related to a conspiracy theory about the pandemic",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["manipulation campaigns",[]],["social movements",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Followers of QAnon assert that a secretive group of Satanic, cannibalistic individuals engaged in global child sex trafficking conspired against Donald Trump.",[]]],"rt":[["#wwg1wga",[]],["#pizzagate",[]],["#taketheoath",[]],["#projectveritas",[]],["#thegreatawakening",[]],["#civilwar",[]],["#obamagate",[]]],"ex":[["#wwg1wga",[]],["#pizzagate",[]],["#taketheoath",[]],["#projectveritas",[]],["#thegreatawakening",[]],["#civilwar",[]],["#obamagate",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["generally employed to amplify content generated by targeted users",["Mazza et al. 2019","Pacheco et al. 2021"]]]},{},{"rt":[["digital divide",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["user",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Not all definitions of media literacy include the requirement to create, to produce symbolic texts.",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Bazalgette (1999) terms this component of literacy 'contextualisation'",[]]]},{"de":[["aesthetic, political, ideological and/or economic",[]],["distinctions must be drawn between aesthetic, political/ideological and economic bases for evaluation.",[]]],"ex":[["what is an advertisement",[]],["how is news objective",[]],["who is the target audience for a film",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Burbules (1998: 110) begins to map a critical semiotics for the online environment, arguing that",[]]],"rt":[["critical semiotics",[]]]},{"de":[["Hypertext, for example, challenges print's long-established prioritisation of linear directionality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["masks a complex history of contestation over the power and authority to access, interpret and produce printed texts",["Luke, 1989"]],["This paper has argued that, in theoretical terms, literacy concerns the historically and culturally conditioned relationship among three processes",[]]],"sy":[["computer literacy",[]],["internet literacy",[]],["cyber-literacy",[]],["network literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]],["information literacy",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]],["print literacy",[]]],"sb":[["computer literacy",[]],["cyber-literacy",[]],["internet literacy",[]],["network literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]],["information literacy",[]],["print literacy",[]],["audiovisual literacy",[]],["critical literacy",[]],["visual literacy",[]],["oral literacy",[]],["cultural literacy",[]],["social literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["promote a democratised, diverse, antielitist approach to online representations",[]],["underpin a more traditional, hierarchical discrimination of good from bad, authoritative from unauthorised, information and communication",[]],["promote ideals of selfactualisation, cultural expression and aesthetic creativity",[]],["use of literacy to achieve a competitive advantage vital to a globalised information society",[]],["conceived as the key means, even a right, by which citizens participate in society and by which the state regulates the manner and purposes of citizens' participation",[]],["media literacy can no longer refer only to audiovisual material but must include the internet -this in turn referring not only to the world wide web but also to email, internet-chat, online games, etc. Since use of the internet relies on use of computers (and, soon, use of mobile telephones, digital television, etc), technological convergence is sweeping all forms and uses of mediated symbolic texts under the umbrella term 'media'.",[]],["the fourth component is better labelled 'content creation', the key being creation (or production) rather than reception of content.",[]],["media literacy can no longer refer only to audiovisual material but must include the internet -this in turn referring not only to the world wide web but also to email, internet-chat, online games, etc.",[]],["interpreting, evaluating, downloading, integrating and generally making the most of the wealth of information potentially available",[]],["is increasingly a matter of media literacy",[]],["identifying four components of media literacy: access, analysis, evaluation and content creation",[]],["my focus will be on challenges posed by the convergence of print, audiovisual and computer media, particularly since widespread public use of the internet.",[]],["this article will use the term 'media literacy' to cover the use of material either broadcast or published on electronic communications networks",[]],["Taken together, the components of literacy discussed in this paper constitute a skillsbased approach centred on the abilities of the individual reader/viewer/user.",[]]],"rt":[["computer literacy",[]],["internet literacy",[]],["cyber-literacy",[]],["print literacy",[]],["literacy at the level of the word, the sentence and the text, across different media (reading, writing, speaking, etc)",[]],["ICT literacy",[]],["literacy",[]],["audiovisual literacy",[]],["critical literacy",[]],["visual literacy",[]],["oral literacy",[]],["cultural literacy",[]],["social literacy",[]],["digital literacy",[]],["information literacy",[]]],"sb":[["access",[]],["analysis",[]],["evaluation",[]],["content creation",[]]],"sp":[["literacy",[]]],"ex":[["create, to produce symbolic texts",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["pan-media or media-neutral definition of literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Bias amplification measures the model's errors, so a model with perfect accuracy will have perfect (zero) bias amplification.",[]],["Bias amplification has been measured by looking at binary classifications without attributes (Leino et al., 2019), GANs (Jain et al., 2020;Choi et al., 2020), and correlations (Zhao et al., 2017;Jia et al., 2020).",[]],["bias amplification would not be a good way to measure fairness when the ground truth is either unknown or does not correspond to desired classification.",[]],["captures only one perspective, which is that of not amplifying already present biases",[]],["Bias amplification measures only whether the model matches the (biased) training data, not the bias of the overall system.",[]],["a type of group fairness where correlations are amplified.",[]],["Bias amplification occurs when a model exacerbates biases from the training data at test time. It is the result of the algorithm (Foulds et al., 2018), and unlike some other forms of bias, cannot be solely attributed to the dataset.",[]]],"rt":[["bias of the overall system",[]],["A → T",[]],["T → A",[]],["overall learned bias amplification",[]]],"sp":[["group fairness",[]],["fairness measure",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["gender expression",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["forms in opposition to the established information system to disrupt democracy",[]],["a comprehensive disinformation order",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["As it is knowingly false, disinforming news is clearly different from inadvertent misinformation (e.g., honest mistakes)",[]],["distinguished from other forms of disinformation (e.g., conspiracy theories) by its distinct news character: By applying news values such as unexpectedness and negativity as well as news formats, disnews purports to hold journalistic credibility",[]],["Our understanding of disinforming news does not only cover propagandistic disinformation made up to manipulate (political) attitudes and behavior. It also takes clickbait disnews into account, which employs inaccurate information to generate advertising revenues",[]],["To acquire a stock of disnews articles that circulated online during the election campaign, we applied an approach introduced by Allcott and Gentzkow (2017, pp. 219-220).",[]],["we should not merely understand disinforming news as an isolated phenomenon but rather as a symptom of a more deep-rooted public disaffection with the news media as well as the political",[]],["a specific \"species of disinformation\"",["Gelfert, 2018, p. 103; see also Marwick & Lewis, 2017, p. 44;Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017, p. 20"]]],"sy":[["disnews",[]],["online disinformation",[]],["online political disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["species of disinformation",["Gelfert, 2018, p. 103"]],["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["clickbait disnews into account, which employs inaccurate information to generate advertising revenues",["Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017, p. 217"]]]},{"de":[["As it is knowingly false, disinforming news is clearly different from inadvertent misinformation (e.g., honest mistakes) (Weedon, Nuland, & Stamos, 2017, p. 5).",["Weedon, Nuland, & Stamos, 2017, p. 5"]],["It is distinguished from other forms of disinformation (e.g., conspiracy theories) by its distinct news character: By applying news values such as unexpectedness and negativity as well as news formats, disnews purports to hold journalistic credibility (Lazer et al., 2018;Levy, 2017;Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018a, p. 143).",["Lazer et al., 2018","Levy, 2017","Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018a, p. 143"]],["Our understanding of disinforming news does not only cover propagandistic disinformation made up to manipulate (political) attitudes and behavior. It also takes clickbait disnews into account, which employs inaccurate information to generate advertising revenues (Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017, p. 217).",["Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017, p. 217"]]],"sy":[["disnews",[]]],"sp":[["species of disinformation",["Gelfert, 2018, p. 103"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Repeated studies have confirmed this partisan, or confirmation, bias in truth judgments",["Reedy, Wells, & Gastil, 2014","Swire, Berinsky, Lewandowsky, & Ecker, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["placebo news items were meant to control for a possible inflation of the disnews scores in the upcoming analysis",["Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017, p. 220"]]]},{},{"de":[["Trust is a social mechanism to deal with this risk",["Luhmann, 1979"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["has been repeatedly proven in cognitive psychology as well as in political communication",["Dechêne, Stahl, Hansen, & Wänke, 2010","Ernst, Kühne, & Wirth, 2017","Koch & Zerback, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["often reflected in which ministries are headed by men and women",[]],["To find out how far the politicians' posts were shaped by gender issue ownership, we compare how often women and men politicians addressed female and male issues.",[]],["Following the traditional dichotomy of public and private spheres, both genders are stereotypically considered more competent to handle certain issues: Men are considered more competent in relation to policy issues that are strongly associated with leadership (Brands et al., 2021), for example, economy and finance, (national) security, crime, terrorism, and defence, while women are associated with \"soft\", \"compassion\" policy issues related to caring, for example, health, family, social policy, education, environment, and culture (Lee & Lim, 2016;Winfrey & Schoebelen, 2019).",["Brands et al., 2021","Lee & Lim, 2016","Winfrey & Schoebelen, 2019"]]],"rt":[["party issue ownership",[]],["female issues",[]],["male issues",[]]],"ex":[["economy and finance, (national) security, crime, terrorism, and defence",["Brands et al., 2021"]],["health, family, social policy, education, environment, and culture",["Lee & Lim, 2016","Winfrey & Schoebelen, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["Characteristics such as dominant, powerful, independent, strong, and active -which are seen as characteristics of successful leadership -were across countries assigned to men by the majority. Characteristics such as obedient, dependent, anxious, soft-hearted, passive, and weak -which seem rather diametrical to successful leadership -were predominantly assigned to women.",[]],["politicians might use gender stereotypes in a somewhat reserved manner due to strategic reasons.",[]],["investigate if targeted ads differ in their use of gender stereotypes.",[]],["Their gendered self-presentations can become problematic if they show systematic biases that repeat and thus further reinforce existing gender stereotypes -not only in politicians' self-presentations but also in society as a whole.",[]],["They \"shape what people think is appropriate behavior from men and women\" (Winfrey & Schoebelen, 2019: 113), independent of individual characteristics, competencies, and qualifications.",["Winfrey & Schoebelen, 2019"]]]},{"sp":[["Personalisation of politics",[]],["Personalisation",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a communication strategy to reduce complexity of political issues, which resonates well with the brevity of communication on social media.",[]],["individualisation as measured by references to professional competencies",[]],["privatisation, Figure 2 details the percentages of posts that featured at least one referral to home and family",[]]],"sb":[["individualisation",[]],["privatisation",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a communication strategy to reduce complexity of political issues, which resonates well with the brevity of communication on social media.",[]]],"sb":[["individualisation",[]],["privatisation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Indicators are, for example, a focus on personal characteristics and on the private lives of politicians.",[]]],"sp":[["Personalisation of politics",[]],["Personalisation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Offensive language on social networking platforms can take multiple forms.",[]]],"sb":[["Hate speech",["Schmidt & Wiegand, 2017"]],["aggressive content",["Schmidt & Wiegand, 2017"]],["cyberbullying",["Schmidt & Wiegand, 2017"]],["toxic comments",["Schmidt & Wiegand, 2017"]]]},{"rt":[["Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy's (REBT's) ABC framework",[]]],"sp":[["Cognitive Behavioural Therapy",[]]]},{"de":[["The trainer effectively unleashed a vicious monologue, calling all participants \"assholes\", blaming us for every problem in the world, and repeating over and over again just how \"stupid\" we all were. We were no longer individuals -we were grouped together as \"assholes\" who were the cause of every bad thing in the world.",[]],["Things previously mentioned as \"abuse\" -the three hour introductory talk convincing participants that they were assholes responsible for the planet's woes; the further lectures and explanations that rendered the opinions of participants as worthless; the threats of pain, discomfort, desperation, boredom, and hatred; the constant mockery about logic and how participants had to abandon logic to survive the training; the stress of simple things like seating positions; the abuse of the older woman for sitting in the wrong chair; the incensed blame brought on by \"failing\" in the red and black game; the \"I can see right through you exercise\" where participants were made to stand in front of the group and be taken apart by the trainer; the \"what do you want?\" exercise and the purging of all inner thoughts brought about by that exercise (the self-betrayal involved in the \"what do you want?\" exercise for becoming involved in the abuse of one's partner); the guided regression into painful childhood memories, the dressing up like a little girl and singing a song, all under the blanket of sleep deprivation and constant verbal abuse -all fits the description of \"Assault Upon Identity\".",[]]],"sp":[["Lifton's twelve steps of death and rebirth",[]]]},{"de":[["Elevate blind trust (particularly in the trainer) to a virtue.",[]]]},{"de":[["Robbins and Anthony (1990) ascribe this definition to Singer, a definition that Singer (1994, as cited in Anthony, 1999) fiercely rejects.",[]],["If it is defined loosely as 'manipulation' then brainwashing is real; however the more onerous the conditions to be met, the fewer environments will qualify as brainwashing.",[]],["the much-feared Communist program of brainwashing was really more of an intensive indoctrination program in combination with very sophisticated techniques of undermining the social structure of the prisoner group, thereby eliciting collaboration which in most cases was not based on ideological change of any sort",["p. 8"]],["Brainwashing is not experienced as a fever or pain might be; it is an invisible social adaptation. When you are the subject of it, you are not aware of the intent of the influence processes that are going on, and especially, you are not aware of the changes taking place within you",["p. 61"]],["the brainwashing paradigm was developed originally by the American CIA as a propoganda device to explain why a few POWs appeared to convert to communism while imprisoned during the Korean War.",[]]],"sy":[["thought struggle",[]],["thought reform",[]],["coercive persuasion",[]],["mind control",[]]],"rt":[["indoctrination",[]],["mind control",[]],["thought reform",[]]]},{"de":[["He is in a situation where the government will never back down on its perspective -that he is guilty -so he must concede guilt. The prisoner is alienated from psychological support without which he cannot survive. He is concurrently put through self-betrayal, confession, and the subsequent loss of identity. This increasingly causes a rift within himself, a sense of distancing between his former self and who he is becoming.",[]]]},{"de":[["The process of changing involved the prisoner moving from feeling that there was a strong need to change (unfreezing), to gaining some understanding of how he should change or what attitudes and beliefs needed to be reformed; to become acceptable to interrogators and cellmates.",[]]],"sp":[["coercive persuasion",[]]]},{"de":[["The prisoner, rather than feeling general guilt, starts to feel specific guilt for things he has done.",[]]],"ex":[["During the 2010 LGAT the unspecific guilt is generated during the first three hours, guilt which is maintained throughout the course. This occurs through the convincing yet unspecific blame placed on participants.",[]]]},{"de":[["What up until this point has been unspecific is made to do explicit work for thought reform -the prisoner learns to identify \"proof\" of his wrongdoings. \"What was most prosaic, even generous, must now be viewed as 'criminal'\" (Lifton, 1961, p. 75). Entrenched in this process is that the prisoner is condemned, or condemns himself, more for what he has been than for what he has done.",["Lifton, 1961, p. 75"]],["At this stage of channelling the prisoner moves from feeling general guilt to feeling specific guilt.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["hypothesises the process by which participants come to take on an abusive and philosophically weak doctrine.",[]],["It is argued that, through a classical conditioning process of sorts, LGAT participants associate the (arguably defective) beliefs of the trainings with feelings of love, joy, confidence, optimism, energy and acceptance (which occur concurrently with the training).",[]],["It is hypothesised that participants are convinced that their normal thinking processes are flawed -and should be abandoned -and that decision-making based upon emotional experience is a legitimate epistemology.",[]]]},{"rt":[["mental coercion",[]]]},{"de":[["All abuse and leniency serves the purpose of emphasising this point. In the case of certain prisoners the guilt became even more profound as they \"came to believe in their own falsehoods\" (Lifton, 1961, p. 74).",["Lifton, 1961, p. 74"]]],"rt":[["repentant sinner",[]],["receptive criminal",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Confession allows the interrogator access to the person's past. He does not only control what the prisoner does in the room and who he is in the room but, in reinterpreting the subject's confessions, he takes control of the prisoner's past. Chiefly confession causes prisoners to feel guilt, \"the demand that one confess to crimes one has not committed, to sinfulness that is artificially induced…\" (p. 425).",["p. 425"]],["Chiefly confession causes prisoners to feel guilt, \"the demand that one confess to crimes one has not committed, to sinfulness that is artificially induced…\" (p. 425).",["(p. 425)"]]]},{"de":[["This process of death and rebirth has profound effects on the person in question's loyalties and beliefs, as well as his sense of being an individual and being part of a group.",[]]]},{"de":[["Subjects are judged in black and white terms, and all \"'taints' and 'poisons' which contribute to the existing state of impurity must be searched out and eliminated\" (p. 423).",["(p. 423)"]]]},{},{"de":[["Those who do not submit to the dogma are rejected, while those who do submit are welcomed. Crucially \"the thought reform process is one means by which nonpeople are permitted, through a change in attitude and personal character, to make themselves over into people\" (p. 433). This theme relates to the rebirth component of Lifton's twelve steps and is central to the LGAT process.",["p. 433"]]]},{"de":[["Because of the presence of the sacred science, any historical events brought up will be processed through the group's philosophy. \"The underlying assumption is that the doctrine -including its mythological elements -is ultimately more valid, true, and real than is any aspect of actual human character or human experience\" (p. 431).",["p. 431"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It is the end result of a process of embellished confession, shaped by the interrogators, assisted by cellmates, and extracted by the captors over many months. Lifton highlights the many confessions of a particular prisoner (representative of almost all prisoners) leading up to the final confession -each marking a step further from his prior identity and closer to his reformed identity.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["as it was hard for participants to not outsource certain decisions to group members who must have at least seemed to have a better idea about what was going on",[]],["it was hard for participants to not outsource certain decisions to group members who must have at least seemed to have a better idea about what was going on",[]]],"rt":[["authority",[]],["normative social influence",["Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2005;Kelman, 1958"]]]},{"de":[["The trainees are told that they fail to truly experience events because of their beliefs, to which they cling obstinately and which are the enemies of direct experience. The trainer argues that belief systems, understanding, and reasonableness isolate the trainees from the direct experience of reality which alone could make their lives work",["Finkelstein, Wenegrat, & Yalom, 1982, p. 520"]]]},{"de":[["While the environment does not relent on its principles -its insistence that the prisoner is guilty and must confess -it eases up enough for the prisoner to sense permeability between who he was and who he is asked to become. This sudden friendly treatment, rather than allowing backtracking, facilitates a greater absorption of the Communist principles. The impact of leniency cannot be overstated. Instead of viewing total annihilation as the only possibility, the prisoner is offered, on the condition of a new identity, cessation and consideration -a chance to escape from the horror of the previous months. Instead of challenging his captors, he sees reform as the gateway to respite and actively participates in the process from this point forward.",[]]]},{"de":[["Lifton acknowledges that this language exists in all cultural, or organisational groups -stating \"It is in part an expression of unity and exclusiveness\" (p. 429) -but argues that in a totalist environment it is more extreme.",["p. 429"]]],"rt":[["thought-terminating cliché (TTC)",[]]]},{"rt":[["re-education",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["knowing without understanding",[]]]},{"rt":[["depression",[]]]},{"de":[["the seeming approval of the other participants with whom they could not communicate",[]]],"rt":[["Informational social influence",["Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2005;Kelman, 1958"]]]},{"rt":[["classical conditioning",[]]]},{"de":[["induced in participants to the point of pathology",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Lifton speaks about the negative identity (parts of a person of which he is not proud), and the positive identity (parts that he likes and draws esteem from). Logical dishonouring aimed to maximise the negative identity, and minimise the positive identity, creating a sense of worthlessness.",[]],["This stage is \"the most dangerous part of thought reform\" (Lifton, 1961, p. 78). Relative to the more superficial guilt previously experienced, here the prisoner experiences deep, internalised guilt. The very essence of his being is threatened.",["Lifton, 1961, p. 78"]]],"rt":[["negative identity",[]],["positive identity",[]]]},{"rt":[["repentant sinner",[]]],"sp":[["two basic identities of thought reform",["Lifton, 1961, p. 74"]]]},{"de":[["content and processes, like reframing and thought-terminating clichés, which make questioning very difficult",[]]]},{"de":[["It involves creating the conditions conducive to brainwashed material not being rejected by the person in question when he leaves the indoctrination environment.",[]],["This process implies that the new belief must be integrated into other parts of the person and must be supported and reinforced by the behaviour of significant others",["p. 136"]]],"rt":[["compliance versus genuine attitude change",[]],["normative and informational social influence",[]]],"sp":[["coercive persuasion",[]]]},{"rt":[["receptive criminal",[]]],"sp":[["two basic identities of thought reform",["Lifton, 1961, p. 74"]]]},{},{"de":[["\"This sacredness is evident in the prohibition (whether or not explicit) against the questioning of basic assumptions, and in the reverence which is demanded for the originators of the Word, the bearers of the Word, and the Word itself\" (p. 427).",["p. 427"]],["Lifton speaks of the way that the doctrine transcends ordinary reason, yet claiming \"airtight logic, of absolute 'scientific' precision\" (p. 428). Whatever else sacred science achieves, its main function is to restrict individuality.",["p. 428"]],["Lifton speaks of the way that the doctrine transcends ordinary reason, yet claiming \"airtight logic, of absolute 'scientific' precision\" (p. 428).",["(p. 428)"]]]},{"de":[["This included friends, colleagues and religious beliefs. These people and structures were core to who these prisoners were, and disavowal constituted a betrayal of self.",[]],["These things made up a great deal of the prisoners' identities and so by disavowing them they were betraying themselves.",[]]]},{"de":[["summarises and integrates the best research on mental coercion conducted by the most authoritative researchers, especially Robert Lifton and Edgar Schein",[]]],"rt":[["mental coercion",[]]]},{"de":[["emotion and reason are inextricably linked",[]]]},{},{"de":[["all major theorists support the idea that the person in question is broken down and rebuilt",[]]],"sy":[["brainwashing",[]],["coercive persuasion",[]],["mind control",[]],["thought struggle",[]]]},{"sy":[["open-minded",[]]],"ex":[["open-minded",[]]]},{"de":[["Their intended (frequently achieved) impact is to shut down the argument, making the person questioning look foolish, obstinate, or arrogant.",[]],["TTCs effectively destroy thinking and, as put by Lionel Trilling, they create \"the language of nonthought\" (Lifton, 1961).",["Lifton, 1961"]],["these mechanisms serve the purpose of quelling debate and quashing reason.",[]]],"rt":[["Loading the Language",[]]],"ex":[["you cannot judge it without experiencing it",[]],["content versus context",[]],["At one point the brightest minds in the world thought that the earth was flat…",[]]]},{"de":[["Uncertainty, like previous elements, is the enemy of reason.",[]]]},{"de":[["Unfreezing involves the demand to confess",[]]],"sp":[["coercive persuasion",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["equivalence frames",[]]],"ex":[["farmers voice an 'agricultural' frame and environmental groups an 'environmental' frame, not because of strategic purposes, but because of the interests they represent",["Candel et al. 2014"]]]},{"de":[["Frames are, thus, often a reflection of interests rather than the strategic presentation of a message.",[]],["Emphasis frames are often endogenous to the underlying interests and positions represented.",[]]],"sy":[["emphasis frames",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]],"ex":[["producers operated from a 'productionist frame', nature organizations from an environmental frame and local authorities from a regionalist frame",[]]]},{"rt":[["emphasis frames",[]]],"ex":[["both farmers and environmental groups may (strategically) emphasize the risks or opportunities of different policy alternatives.",[]]]},{"de":[["All equivalence frames are also generic frames, as they are applicable across different policy issues.",[]],["Equivalence framing also involves emphasizing certain aspects of an issue in a communicative message, but the scope of emphasis is much narrower than with emphasis frames.",[]],["Equivalence frames are relevant for interest group scholars as they match with the argumentation patterns interest groups use.",[]],["All equivalence frames are also generic frames, as they are applicable across different policy issues. Equivalence framing also involves emphasizing certain aspects of an issue in a communicative message, but the scope of emphasis is much narrower than with emphasis frames.",[]]],"sy":[["equivalence frames",[]]],"sb":[["1. opportunities versus risks",[]],["2. gains (benefits) versus losses (costs)",[]],["3. positive consequences versus negative consequences",[]],["opportunities versus risks",[]],["gains (benefits) versus losses (costs)",[]],["positive consequences versus negative consequences",[]]],"sp":[["generic frames",[]],["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["framing should be seen as an intentional and strategic process, part of the communication by interest groups.",[]],["It is assumed that interest groups strategically deliberate about which frames are best suited to promote their policy goals and ideas.",[]],["Drawing on this conception, framing should be seen as an intentional and strategic process, part of the communication by interest groups.",[]]],"rt":[["issue-definitions",[]]],"sb":[["issue-specific frames",[]],["generic frames",[]],["Emphasis framing",[]],["equivalence framing",[]],["macro-level framing",[]],["micro-level framing",[]]]},{"de":[["All equivalence frames are also generic frames, as they are applicable across different policy issues.",[]],["studies pursuing external validity align better with a focus on generic frames",[]],["Instead, generic frames are applicable across different policy areas and settings.",[]]],"sb":[["equivalence frames",[]],["equivalence framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]],["emphasis frames",[]]],"ex":[["distinguish between self-, other-, public-and ideal-regarding frames",[]],["distinguish between economic and public frames",[]],["self-, other-, public-and ideal-regarding frames",[]],["economic and public frames",[]]]},{"de":[["For case studies, these issue-specific frames serve as descriptive devices to unveil what is at stake in an issue and how this evolves through time and space.",[]],["One of the limitations of issue-specific frames is that they are less suitable for studying interest group framing across different policy issues and areas.",[]],["ideally (but not exclusively) suited for understanding influence and strategies for one specific policy case. This research strategy provides in-depth and qualitative knowledge about how policy is understood and unfolds, although it is often limited in producing findings generalizable across a wide array of policy cases.",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]],["emphasis frames",[]]],"ex":[["the morality frame long dominated the death-penalty debate in the US, but that it has been replaced by the innocence frame",[]],["Kurzer and Cooper's (2013) study on food information labelling",[]],["Candel et al.'s (2014) study on the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)",[]],["Voltolini's (2015) study on Israel-EU relations",[]],["Agustín's (2008) study on gender equality",[]]]},{"de":[["From this perspective frames are seen as the building blocks that construct a policy debate, rather than an emphasis in communication as in Entman's definition.",[]],["A frame is then a perspective from which a policy problem can be made sense of and acted upon",["Rein and Schön 1991: 265"]],["In this way, frames are both seen as tools of political actors to obtain a certain outcome and as societal forces structuring policy and how interests mobilize.",[]],["Framing is then the process of how a policy debate is defined and understood (Dudley and Richardson 1999: 226).",["Dudley and Richardson 1999: 226"]],["A frame is then a perspective from which a policy problem can be made sense of and acted upon (Rein and Schön 1991: 265).",["Rein and Schön 1991: 265"]],["Framing is then the process of how a policy debate is defined and understood (Dudley and Richardson 1999: 226). From this perspective frames are seen as the building blocks that construct a policy debate, rather than an emphasis in communication as in Entman's definition. A frame is then a perspective from which a policy problem can be made sense of and acted upon (Rein and Schön 1991: 265).",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Second, interest groups can also be taken as the central unit of analysis, namely in micro-level framing studies.",[]],["With this approach, frames are seen as instruments of change or as strategic tools that interest groups rely on to obtain their political and policy goals.",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["quantifiable biases that could lead to disparate impact in the specific contexts in which they are to be applied",[]]]},{"sy":[["dislocation",["Partington 1995: 34"]],["deviance",["Krishnamurthy 1995: 13"]]]},{"de":[["Nowadays, it is often used as a cover term for stylistic, regional or emotional meaning components",[]],["the difference between collocation and connotation is not upheld in such cases",[]],["it is employed in the sense of intension in opposition to denotation/extension especially by philosophers.",[]]],"rt":[["intension",[]],["denotation/extension",[]]]},{"sy":[["collocational clash",["Louw 1993: 157"]]]},{"sy":[["collocational clash",["Louw 1993: 157"]]]},{"rt":[["irony",[]],["disapproval",[]]],"sp":[["pragmatic meanings",[]]]},{"sp":[["semantic prosody",[]]]},{"de":[["a more general semantic group than the groups usually listed in SEM collocation studies",[]]],"sp":[["semantic preference",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["semantic preference in this paper refers to a particular type of collocational phenomenon, which is (relatively objectively) observable by looking at corpus evidence",[]],["semantic preference interacts with syntactic patterning (colligation), word class and meaning",[]],["a semantic preference that is dependent on register or genre",[]],["the collocation of a lexical item with positive/negative lexical items should be regarded as a special kind of semantic preference",[]],["semantic preference involves semantic sub-groups of different levels of generality",[]],["semantic preference interacts with syntactic patterning, word class, meaning, genre, domain and context",[]],["semantic preference in this paper refers to a particular type of collocational phenomenon, which is (relatively objectively) observable by looking at corpus evidence.",[]]],"sy":[["register or genre preference",[]],["collocational patterning",[]]],"rt":[["semantic prosody",[]],["collocation",[]],["colligation",[]]],"sb":[["POS/NEG collocation",[]],["SEM collocation",[]]],"sp":[["POS/NEG collocation",[]]]},{"de":[["on the pragmatic side of the semantics/pragmatics continuum",["Sinclair 2004b: 34"]],["the amount of inference necessary to identify [. . . ] evidence [of a semantic prosody] is often great",["Stubbs 2001: 107"]],["prosody, like preference is contextdependent",[]],["it is highly likely that the quality and strength of the prosody of a good many items will differ from genre to genre or from domain to domain",["Partington 2004: 153"]],["semantic prosody is very frequently used to refer to lexical items that have a preference for POS/NEG collocates, and are simultaneously (automatically) said to express evaluative meaning.",[]],["The term semantic prosody in this sense refers to the complex attitudinal and/or functional meaning of lexical items: \"It [semantic prosody] expresses something close to the 'function' of the item -it shows how the rest of the item is to be interpreted functionally\" (Sinclair 2004b: 34).",["Sinclair 2004b: 34"]],["Semantic prosody refers to attitudinal meanings of all kinds, not just positive and negative evaluative meanings",[]]],"rt":[["semantic preference",[]],["connotations",[]],["connotation",[]],["colligation",[]],["collocation",[]],["invariable core",[]]],"sb":[["register prosody",[]],["genre-specific (genre prosody)",[]],["genre prosody",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["extração de características",[]]]},{"ex":[["teorias que desenvolvem explicações alternativas às oficiais para determinados acontecimentos, tais como a chegada do homem à lua organizada pela CIA",[]],["hipóteses que as pessoas criam para explicar certos acontecimentos por não acreditarem nas explicações oficiais, como os ataques do 11 de setembro e de que Michael Jackson não morreu",[]],["teorias que tentam dar um novo significado para fatos que já possuem uma explicação oficial e aceita pela maior parte da população",[]]]},{"de":[["atos e manobras que são realizados com o intuito de controlar a opinião das pessoas na sociedade, controlando a sociedade conforme seus interesses",[]]],"sp":[["Classe 5",[]]],"ex":[["teorias que vão contra o que está estabelecido e partem do saber popular envolvendo ações que o governo promove às escondidas, como assassinatos de figuras públicas e doenças incuráveis",[]],["atos e manobras que são realizados com o intuito de controlar a opinião das pessoas na sociedade, controlando a sociedade conforme seus interesses",[]],["uma forma de controlar a massa e encobrir certas informações",[]]]},{"de":[["Dessa maneira, apresenta a ideia de que tais teorias constituem uma tendência de racionalizar e explicar eventos que são de difícil compreensão (ataques terroristas, proliferação de doenças).",[]],["apresenta a ideia de que tais teorias constituem uma tendência de racionalizar e explicar eventos que são de difícil compreensão (ataques terroristas, proliferação de doenças).",[]]],"ex":[["teorias da conspiração são teorias que tentam explicar algum evento que aconteceu e acontece, com outros argumentos ou pontos de vista deferentes do que é explicado para o resto da população; eu penso em algumas teorias como a do ataque as torres gêmeas nos EUA",[]],["são uma forma de explicar o porquê de a população mundial ser tão manipulada. Eu penso nas informações e acontecimentos que são ocultos do conhecimento das pessoas porque eu acho que toda a sociedade, a política e os meios de comunicação conspiram para que as pessoas se comportem dentro de um padrão",[]]]},{"ex":[["são ideias resultantes de condições adversas que advêm de conspirações criadas por um grupo que domina o mundo",[]],["teorias que afirmam a existência de grupos secretos que controlam a informação, tecnologia e economia para manter o mundo da forma que eles querem",[]],["teorias de que determinados grupos definem os acontecimentos dentro do meio social e político e que grupos secretos estão no controle das decisões da sociedade",[]]]},{},{"de":[["forma de dar sentido à incerteza cognitiva do cotidiano",[]],["fornecerem explicações causais para eventos sociais complexos",[]],["persistem como um meio popular de articular oposição às forças do capitalismo internacional e da globalização (Byford, 2011), possibilitando o enfrentamento às hierarquias sociais estabelecidas e oferecendo entendimentos alternativos sobre eventos da realidade social (Sapountzis & Condor, 2013)",["Byford, 2011","Sapountzis & Condor, 2013"]],["teorias que vão contra o que está estabelecido e partem do saber popular envolvendo ações que o governo promove às escondidas, como assassinatos de figuras públicas e doenças incuráveis",[]],["atos e manobras que são realizados com o intuito de controlar a opinião das pessoas na sociedade, controlando a sociedade conforme seus interesses",[]],["uma forma de controlar a massa e encobrir certas informações",[]],["as teorias da conspiração são vistas muitas vezes como ligadas a indivíduos ou grupos poderosos e secretos que ocupam posições de autoridade.",["Goertzel (2010)"]],["teorias da conspiração se revelam como um construto importante para explicar diversas condutas sociais (confiança interpessoal, engajamento em políticas de saúde, contestação das estruturas ideológicas dominantes)",["Leman & Cinnirella, 2013","Oliver & Wood, 2014","Sapountzis & Condor, 2013"]],["teorias conspiratórias envolvem organizações ou grupos que se unem com o objetivo de controlar, influenciar as informações fornecidas pela mídia, disseminar versões convenientes de acontecimentos de difícil explicação ou que favoreçam interpretações especulativas",["Moulding et al., 2016"]]],"sy":[["conspiração",[]],["conspiracionismo",[]],["pensamento conspiratório",[]],["teorias conspiratórias",[]]],"rt":[["confiança interpessoal",[]],["engajamento em políticas de saúde",[]],["contestação das estruturas ideológicas dominantes",[]],["engajamento político",["Jolley & Douglas, 2014b"]],["comportamentos ambientais",["Jolley & Douglas, 2014b"]],["ideologia",["Byford, 2014"]],["heurísticas e equilíbrio cognitivo",["Leman & Cinnirella, 2013"]],["traços de personalidade",["Swami, Weis, Lay, Barron, & Furnham, 2016"]],["valores humanos",["Gouveia, 2013"]]],"ex":[["os ataques terroristas de 11 de setembro foram conduzidos pelo governo do ex-presidente estadunidense George Bush",[]],["a guerra do Iraque foi resultado de um plano secreto promovido por empresas poderosas do setor petrolífero",[]]]},{"de":[["Dessa forma, são entendidas como teorias hipotéticas que a população cria para entender eventos sociais, tais como decisões tomadas pelo governo ou implementação de novas tecnologias.",[]],["são entendidas como teorias hipotéticas que a população cria para entender eventos sociais, tais como decisões tomadas pelo governo ou implementação de novas tecnologias.",[]]],"ex":[["teorias que não têm um embasamento científico, que vêm do senso comum",[]],["são ideias ou teses que a população leiga cria a respeito de decisões governamentais sem embasamento consistente",[]],["são um conjunto de hipóteses mirabolantes sem comprovação alguma e que buscam explicações complexas para os eventos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This explicit sharing mechanism creates information cascades",[]]]},{"de":[["measured by using the Wiener index",[]]],"ex":[["Cascades with a low Wiener index d resemble star graphs, while those with a high index appear more viral",[]]]},{"de":[["First, humans have a biologically based optimal level of arousal at which they feel most comfortable. They try to reach or maintain that optimum level by regulating the stimulation that is provided by external sources, in particular exposure to media messages. Second, humans vary in their needs for stimulation, or, in terms of the model, in their level of sensation seeking. Finally, media messages vary in the stimulation they provide, or, in terms of the model, in message sensation value. Consequently, exposure to a media message is a function of both the individual's level of sensation seeking and the sensation value of the message",["Donohew et al., 1998"]]]},{},{"de":[["Operationally, emotional arousal has been measured by physiological measures or self-report measures.",[]],["Operationally, emotional arousal has been measured by physiological measures or self-report measures. Among the physiological measures, the most common measure is skin conductance (cf. Hopkins & Fletcher, 1994). Skin conductance is an indicator of activation in the autonomous nervous system, the type of activation that is involved in emotional behavior (Zillmann, 1982). Among the self-report measures, emotional arousal is often measured on the arousal scale of the Self-Assessment Manikin (Bradley & Lang, 1994) or on the emotional arousal scale of the Perceived Message Sensation Value Scale (Palmgreen, Stephenson, Everett, Baseheart, & Francies, 2002).",[]]],"ex":[["skin conductance",["cf. Hopkins & Fletcher, 1994"]],["arousal scale of the Self-Assessment Manikin",["Bradley & Lang, 1994"]],["emotional arousal scale of the Perceived Message Sensation Value Scale",["Palmgreen, Stephenson, Everett, Baseheart, & Francies, 2002"]]]},{},{"de":[["media messages vary in the stimulation they provide, or, in terms of the model, in message sensation value.",[]]],"ex":[["intense images, the number of cuts, the presence of visual and sound effects, and the category \"acted out of a situation\" (as opposed to being told about the situation by a talking head) as aspects of message sensation value",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["humans vary in their needs for stimulation, or, in terms of the model, in their level of sensation seeking.",[]]]},{"de":[["In line with such definitions, sensationalism has also been connected to human evolution. The basic argument is that over the course of biological and cultural evolution, the human brain has become adapted to the task of noting information that may increase chances of survival and reproduction, in particular information about real or potentially threatening situations.",[]],["The human sensitivity to this kind of information explains why both journalists and their audience pay so much attention to deviant or bad news",["Davis & McLeod, 2003","Shoemaker, 1996"]]],"rt":[["market-driven journalism",[]]],"sb":[["dramatic subject",[]],["interviews with laypersons",[]]],"ex":[["Stories about negative events such as crime, violence, natural disasters, accidents, and fires are generally considered sensational",["cf. Adams, 1978","Slattery & Hakanen, 1994"]]]},{},{"de":[["With this metric, a headline would no longer have a dichotomous ground truth, and instead, would have a degree of truth.",[]]],"rt":[["ground truth",[]]]},{"de":[["that encourage deliberation",[]],["guide people to come to a better discernment based on what they already know",[]],["interventions that we studied in this work aim at this problem by first, introducing a barrier, albeit low, to posting and sharing, and second, shifting users' attention to accuracy and away from the social feedback and engagement that they would receive at posting time.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["We expect that subjective assessment of accuracy will correlate with objective accuracy, but imperfectly.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["They weigh a potential loss more negatively than the positive effect of a gain of the same value (\"losses loom larger than gains\").",[]]],"rt":[["cognitive heuristics and biases",[]]]},{"de":[["Ultimately, whether or not something is offensive is subjective, and several authors emphasize that any decisions (e.g., on classification or mitigation strategies) should respect community norms and language practices",[]],["Offensive content can include several related and overlapping phenomena, including abuse, toxic content, hate speech, and cyber-bullying.",[]]],"sy":[["an umbrella term encompassing toxicity, hate speech, and abusive language",[]]],"sb":[["toxicity",[]],["hate speech",[]],["abusive language",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["politics, religion, drugs, NSFW, relationships/dating as well as medical advice",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["value flows",[]]],"sp":[["\"value dams and flows\" heuristic",[]]],"ex":[["An example of value dams would be thresholds on some features, as a way to translate values into design requirements",["Van de Poel, 2013"]],["thresholds on some features, as a way to translate values into design requirements",["Van de Poel, 2013"]]]},{"rt":[["Value dams",[]]]},{"rt":[["privacy",[]],["ownership",[]],["property",[]],["physical welfare",[]],["freedom from bias",[]],["universal usability",[]],["autonomy",[]],["informed consent",[]],["trust",[]]],"ex":[["getting or providing education",[]],["companionship",[]],["comfort",[]],["preserving privacy",[]],["widening access to more populations through automation",[]],["trust",[]],["friendship",[]],["accessibility",[]],["universality",[]],["privacy, ownership, property, physical welfare, freedom from bias, universal usability, autonomy, informed consent, and trust",["Friedman et al., 2008"]]]},{"de":[["the system agreeing with known social biases",[]]]},{"de":[["Determining authors' confidence in their findings (certainty of the conclusion statement, otherwise approached as recognition of speculative language, or hedging) is another important area of research.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["and directly deducts the biases in inference.",[]]],"ex":[["masking out the context for measuring mention-context biases",[]],["giving empty inputs to measure overgeneralization biases (Wang et al., 2022)",["2022"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["spurious correlations",[]]],"ex":[["Deutsche Bank would neither confirm nor deny the discharge of the two executives, and it also would not specify who was the target of the alleged spying",[]],["labeling mention \"next day\" with the type day and additional relevant types leads to the F1 up to 0.749.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["spurious correlations",[]]]},{"de":[["Benjamin Netanyahu as a biased named entity containing much prior knowledge, while Jintara Poonlarp as an unbiased named entity without much type-relevant information revealed.",[]]],"rt":[["spurious correlations",[]]],"ex":[["The mention Benjamin Netanyahu, known as Israeli former prime minister, is normally annotated with politician, leader and authority.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["making biased predictions towards popular types observed during training",[]]],"ex":[["This problem is exemplified in a case study in Tab. 5, where typing models are queried with an empty sentence. Compared with the uniform probability distribution expected from models free from overgeneralization bias, existing models are inclined to give much higher probabilities to coarse types such as person and title.",[]]]},{"rt":[["spurious correlations",[]]],"ex":[["To type the pronoun her in T7 of Tab. 1, the entity typing model can successfully infer general types woman, female as well as the context-sensitive type actress.",[]]]},{"de":[["shortcuts from surface patterns to annotated entity labels and biased training",["Wang and Culotta, 2020","Wang et al., 2021","Branco et al., 2021"]],["trivially leveraging surface forms or distributional cues to guess the type.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This method, referred to as Data Augmentation, was demonstrated to successfully reduce gender bias in ELMo for pronoun resolution tasks, relative to a model trained on the unaugmented training data (Zhao et al., 2019).",["Zhao et al., 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["We refer to these two forms of bias as skew and stereotype, respectively.",[]]],"rt":[["skew",[]]],"sp":[["gender bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["Stance",[]],["Object",[]],["Intensity",[]],["Reasoning",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Stance",[]],["Object",[]],["Reasoning",[]],["Consensus",[]]]},{"de":[["Our task involves generating independent abstractive summaries of both left and right-leaning political perspectives given collections of opinionated news passages with mixed perspectives.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Stance",[]],["Intensity",[]],["Reasoning",[]],["Consensus",[]],["stance object",[]]],"sp":[["stance triangle",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Stance",[]],["Object",[]],["Intensity",[]],["Consensus",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Object",[]],["Intensity",[]],["Reasoning",[]],["Consensus",[]],["stance triangle",[]],["attitude",[]],["stance object",[]]],"sp":[["stance triangle",[]]]},{"de":[["correlation neglect is especially likely to sway elections involving overcon…dent correlation neglectors with low q values",[]],["the degree to which they underestimate the correlation between their signals",[]],["overcon…dence arising from correlation neglect can lead to stronger partisanship and ideological extremeness as well as increased voter turnout.",[]],["cognitive bias",[]]],"rt":[["overcon…dence",[]],["Dunning-Kruger e¤ect",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["overcon…dence",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news reached more people than the truth",[]],["widespread presence of misinformation and fake news",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["false news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Mass misinformation, now also known as fake news, is at the center stage of political and academic discourse because it disrupts the veracity of media coverage and may undermine public opinion.",[]],["widespread presence of misinformation and fake news",[]],["misinformation may indeed have a wider reach than correct information",[]],["voters may have misleading information.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["misleading information",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["overcon…dence",[]]],"sp":[["false news",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["competence",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals may be overcon…dent (or undercon…dent) in their competence to obtain accurate news and form correct opinions.",[]],["overcon…dence results in a true deviation from it",[]],["overcon…dence may prevent individuals them from perceiving the misleading nature of their news signal",[]],["the negative e¤ect of overcon…dence is likely limited if q > 0:5",[]],["the negative impact of overcon…dence extends to almost all values in large elections",[]],["easy tasks are conducive to overcon…dence",[]],["negative e¤ect of overcon…dence on information aggregation",[]],["overcon…dence is responsible for a large share of the excessive turnout we observe, which in turn prevents groups from making the correct decision",[]],["voters in both cases tend to be overcon…dent in the sense that they do not recognize their information is inaccurate",[]],["overcon…dent in the sense that they do not recognize their information is inaccurate",[]],["individuals hold subjective (and possibly in ‡ated) views about their competence (e.g., the quality of the news they receive and the accuracy of their opinions).",[]],["populations tend to exhibit overcon…dence on easy tasks",[]]],"sy":[["overplacement",[]]],"rt":[["Dunning-Kruger e¤ect",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["perceptions biases",[]]]},{"rt":[["correlation neglect",[]]],"sp":[["biased",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Framing is an indispensable narrative device for news media because even the same facts may lead to conflicting understandings if deliberate framing is employed.",[]],["Framing is, however, difficult to operationalize and detect",[]],["Framing is implemented by emphasizing certain aspects of an issue more than other aspects and making them more salient [7,13].",["7","13"]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]],["selection bias",[]]],"ex":[["those who are exposed to the former framing of poverty were more likely to blame it on individual failings, while those exposed to the latter were more likely to blame it on the government or other forces beyond their control.",["21"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["grand coalitions",[]],["mutual veto",[]],["proportionality",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["protecting their minister from reputational damage",[]]]},{"de":[["promoting their minister's agenda",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["SpAd",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Advertising is product propaganda that conceals actual or possible negative features of products.",[]],["Advertising only presents the products and ideologies of powerful companies and discriminates competing products and views and of less powerful actors, especially noncommercial and non-profit organizations.",[]],["Advertising advances the concentration of the economy.",[]],["Advertising advances media concentration (advertising-circulation spiral).",[]],["Advertisers try to manipulate humans' needs, desires, tastes, purchasing and consumption decisions.",[]],["Advertising is mainly aimed at wealthy consumers.",[]],["Advertising structures the corporate media as a filter in such a way that criticisms of corporate behaviour are avoided in order not to face loss of advertising clients.",[]],["They statistically sort consumers and users into groups and tend to discriminate especially the weak, people with low purchasing power and people of colour who as a consequence have disadvantages in society.",[]],["Advertisements frequently contain and tend to enforce stereotypes, prejudices and biases.",[]]],"ex":[["classist, racist and patriarchal stereotypes.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["alternative platforms",[]]],"sp":[["alternative media",[]]],"ex":[["Diaspora*",[]],["N-1",[]],["Occupii",[]],["InterOccupy",[]],["OccupyTalk",[]],["Occupy News Network",[]],["Occupy Streams",[]],["Riseup",[]]]},{"de":[["They are culturally located in the public sphere, but at the same time they are part of the capitalist economy and therefore not only produce public information, but capital and monetary profit by selling audiences/users and/or content.",[]]],"sp":[["Capitalist media",[]]]},{"de":[["Civil society media are full parts of the public sphere. They are economically related to the state if they receive subsidies and often stand in an antagonistic relation to the capitalist economy and governments because as alternative media they tend to reject for-profit and commercial logic and they tend to express alternative points of view that challenge governments and corporations.",[]],["They are economically related to the state if they receive subsidies and often stand in an antagonistic relation to the capitalist economy and governments because as alternative media they tend to reject for-profit and commercial logic and they tend to express alternative points of view that challenge governments and corporations.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It sets \"limits to the inner dynamic of media-steered subsystems and to subordinate them to decisions arrived at in unconstrained communication\"",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["imperialist, private sphere",[]]]},{"rt":[["autonomy",[]]]},{"de":[["Immanent critique compares proclaimed ideals to reality. If it finds out that reality permanently contradicts its own ideals, then it becomes clear that there is a fundamental mismatch and that reality needs to be changed in order to overcome this incongruity.",[]]]},{"de":[["All information media circulate ideas in public to a broad range of people.",[]]],"sb":[["Capitalist media",[]],["Public service media",[]],["Civil society media",[]]]},{"de":[["On social media like Facebook, we act in various roles (as friends, citizens, consumers, workers, colleagues, fans etc), but all of these roles become mapped onto single social media-profiles that are observed by different people that are associated with our different social roles.",["Fuchs and Trottier 2013"]],["This means that social media like Facebook are social spaces, in which social roles tend to converge and become integrated in single profiles.",["Fuchs and Trottier 2013"]]],"rt":[["social roles",[]]]},{"de":[["This means for example on Facebook, an individual creates a multi-media content like a video on the cognitive level, publishes it so that others can comment (the communicative level), and allows others to manipulate and remix the content, so that new content with multiple authorship can emerge.",["Fuchs and Trottier 2013"]],["One step does not necessarily result in the next, but the technology has the potential to enable the combination of all three activities in one space.",["Fuchs and Trottier 2013"]]],"rt":[["cognition",[]],["communication",[]],["cooperation",[]]]},{"sy":[["pseudo-public sphere",["Habermas 1991, 162"]]]},{},{"rt":[["Information media",[]]],"sb":[["storage media (information technologies) such as paper, tapes, film reels, computer hard disks, DVDs, web space",[]],["transport media (communication technologies) such as the telephone, television, radio, e-mail",[]],["collaborative media (technologies of co-operation) such as wikis and online communities",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["the participatory media fee",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the underlying worldview of liberal theory since John Locke and John Stuart Mill.",[]],["underlying worldview of liberal theory since John Locke and John Stuart Mill",[]],["relatively unhindered private accumulation of wealth, as the neoliberal regime of accumulation has shown since the 1970s, comes into conflict with social justice and is likely to result in strong socio-economic inequality.",[]]],"rt":[["critique of liberalism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Privacy is a social, contextual and relational moral value",["Fuchs 2011"]],["Privacy has to do with the question what dimensions of human life should be made visible to the public or should remain invisible.",[]]]},{"sp":[["public sphere",[]]]},{"de":[["They are seen as a public service that plays the role of providing political, educational and entertainment information to citizens. They are as organisations located in or close to the state system.",[]]],"sy":[["Public service media",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["the common world",["Arendt 1958, 52"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Its cultural and political role is that it enables communication within the public sphere: \"the collection and dissemination of information and the provision of a forum for debate\" (Garnham 1990, 111).",["111"]],["It has universal access obligations that enable \"equal access to a wide range of high-quality entertainment, information and education\" and ensure that \"the aim of the programme producer is the satisfaction of a range of audience tastes rather than only those tastes that show the largest profit\" (Garnham 1990, 120).",["120"]],["Public service media's universal access principle means \"the provision of a service of mixed programmes on national channels available to all\" (Scannell 1989, 137).",["137"]],["PSM's means of production are publicly owned.",[]],["The circulation of information is based on a not-forprofit logic.",[]],["Consumption is made available in principle to everyone by giving citizens easy access to PSM's technology and information.",[]],["On the political level, PSM make available inclusive and diverse political information that can support political debate and the achievement of political understanding.",[]],["On the cultural level, PSM provide educational content that has the potential to support cultural debate and the achievement of understanding in society.",[]]],"sy":[["public service broadcasting",[]]]},{"de":[["a cultural-materialist understanding of the public sphere concept that is grounded in political economy",[]],["The public sphere would therefore require media for information and communication and access by all citizens.",[]],["it is a kind of interface and intermediate sphere mediating between the economy, the state, and the realm of the family and intimacy.",[]],["It allows stressing not only aspects of public discussion, but also the public or private ownership of crucial goods and services such as communications.",[]],["A public sphere emerges where people struggle for a better society and their struggle is a process of constituting the public that creates spatial domains of resistance in the public.",["1996"]],["Juha Kovisto and Esa Valiverronen (1996) see the public sphere not as domain, but as process of counter-hegemonic struggles.",["1996"]],["The public sphere of the media would thereby have become undemocratic and a privatised realm controlled by powerful actors instead of citizens",[]],["limited by the steering media of political power and money",[]],["colonise and thereby destroy the public sphere potentials of social media",[]],["limited by the steering media of political power and money so that corporations own and control and the state monitors users' data on social media.",[]],["controlled by corporations and the state that colonise and thereby destroy the public sphere potentials of social media.",[]],["The task of a public sphere is that society can become engaged in \"critical public debate\"",["Habermas 1991, 52"]],["the public sphere is not just a sphere of public political communication, but also a sphere free from state censorship and from private ownership.",["Habermas 1991, 36"]],["The public sphere is a concept of immanent critique for criticising the shortcomings of societies.",[]]],"rt":[["civil society",[]],["ideology",[]],["hegemony",[]],["lifeworld of communicative action",[]]],"sb":[["pseudo-public sphere",[]],["manufactured public sphere",[]],["strong public sphere",[]]],"ex":[["occupied squares as public spheres",[]],["Tahrir Square in Cairo, Egypt; Syntagma Square in Athens, Greece; Puerta del Sol in Madrid, Spain; Plaça Catalunya in Barcelona, Spain; Zuccotti Park in New York City, St. Paul's Cathedral's and Finsbury Square in London.",[]]]},{"rt":[["socio-political sphere",[]],["socio-economic sphere",[]],["socio-cultural sphere",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Described as information processes, sociality can be expressed as a threefold interconnected process of cognition (a), communication (b) and cooperation (c, d)",["Fuchs 2014c, chapter 2"]]],"rt":[["social facts",["Fuchs 2014c, chapter 2"]],["social relations",["Fuchs 2014c, chapter 2"]],["co-operation",["Fuchs 2014c, chapter 2"]],["community",["Fuchs 2014c, chapter 2"]]]},{"de":[["The Internet could become what Nancy Fraser terms a strong public sphere so that plat-forms are self-managed",[]]],"sp":[["public sphere",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["dialogue model can spew offensive language either 1) directly -by disrespecting a target-group or 2) contextually -by agreeing with previous offensive utterances",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Stance alignment between a pair of utterances is annotated as Agree, Disagree or Neutral.",[]]],"rt":[["Stance alignment",[]]]},{"rt":[["stance detection",["Yu et al., 2020"]]],"sp":[["Stance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Prosocial behavior is a critical component in building relationships and supporting our society",["Baumeister and Bushman, 2017"]],["Prosocial behavior is a critical component in building relationships and supporting our society (Baumeister and Bushman, 2017).",["Baumeister and Bushman, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["responses should be grounded in communicative intents or goals",["Clark and Brennan, 1991"]]],"sy":[["commonsense social rules",[]]]},{"de":[["Bias brings along the notion of harm to the task in consideration",["Bishop and Nasrabadi, 2006","Caliskan et al., 2017"]],["It exists in both conscious and unconscious forms and influences decision making.",[]],["when an overgeneralized idea gets opinionated, it becomes a bias.",[]],["However, biases do not always originate from stereotypes, and they can be an opinionated statement targeted towards an identity.",[]]],"sy":[["stereotypes",[]]],"rt":[["social identity",[]]]},{"de":[["It is always preceded by the character's name.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A sensitive utterance can be both implicit and explicit in nature and is loaded with potential tension which might lead to aggression.",[]],["The notion of sensitivity is deeply rooted in the power position or people power and always bear a negative sentiment.",[]],["The definition of sensitivity encompasses an array of terminologies such as hate, offensive and abusive text provided an identity is targeted.",[]],["A sensitive utterance can be both implicit and explicit in nature and is loaded with potential tension which might lead to aggression. The notion of sensitivity is deeply rooted in the power position or people power and always bear a negative sentiment. The definition of sensitivity encompasses an array of terminologies such as hate, offensive and abusive text provided an identity is targeted.",[]]],"ex":[["\"The Jews are again using holohoax as an escape to spread their agenda.\" is a sensitive statement against Jews.",[]]]},{"de":[["separate socio-linguistic phenomena",[]],["It guides our thought process by prompting us to ignore facts and thus cause biases.",[]],["When a fact (existential quantifier) is replaced with an overgeneralized statement (universal quantifier), it becomes a stereotype.",[]],["It guides our thought process by prompting us to ignore facts and thus cause biases. When a fact (existential quantifier) is replaced with an overgeneralized statement (universal quantifier), it becomes a stereotype.",[]]],"sy":[["bias",["Nadeem et al., 2021"]]],"ex":[["\"Some white men can not dance\" is a fact statement; but \"White men can not dance\" is a stereotype.",[]]]},{"rt":[["news automation",[]]]},{"rt":[["pro-innovation bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["fact-claim discrepancies",[]]]},{"de":[["The underlying problem is that it is possible to take multiple true statements and accidentally produce language that is objectively false in the sense in which most people read it.",[]]],"sy":[["\"incorrect statements\"",[]],["\"lies\"",[]],["incorrect statements",[]],["lies",[]]],"rt":[["fact-belief discrepancies",[]]]},{"de":[["News automation is not a radical break with the past but a gradual continuation of the use of software in the newsroom.",[]]],"sy":[["news robot",[]]],"rt":[["news robot",[]]]},{"de":[["This can be prevented in automatic news generation by selecting facts that are of interest to an individual, while including facts that are collectively viewed as important by the newsroom.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["levels of transparency, ranging from simple disclosure to what Myles calls justification, explainability and full reproduction of stories based on the data used.",[]]],"rt":[["justification",[]]],"sb":[["explainability",[]]]},{"de":[["Automated reporting from unveracious data has the same consequences as humans writing news that are found to be untrue. As such, the veracity of data should be considered both as a business concern as well as an ethical concern of utmost concern to the editorial integrity of automated content.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["encourage unconscious mental associations",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["comparing the extent to which members of different racial groups are portrayed as perpetrators",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["rooted in the superior media resources of the prosecution (which makes the playing field of frame contests uneven)",[]]]},{"sy":[["racial resentment",["41"]],["racial animosity",["41"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the news cycle -the daily rhythms in the news media that have long been the subject of qualitative interpretation but have never been captured accurately enough to permit actual quantitative analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["we then track all threads over time, considering both their individual temporal dynamics as well as their interactions with one another.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["differences irrelevant or damaging to ongoing efforts to adequate two people or groups will be downplayed, and similarities viewed as salient to and supportive of the immediate project of identity work will be foregrounded.",[]],["The term adequation emphasizes the fact that in order for groups or individuals to be positioned as alike, they need not -and in any case cannot -be identical, but must merely be understood as sufficiently similar for current interactional purposes.",[]]],"rt":[["distinction",[]]]},{"de":[["Such a definition of agency does not require that social action be intentional, but it allows for that possibility; habitual actions accomplished below the level of conscious awareness act upon the world no less than those carried out deliberately.",[]],["agency may be the result of individual action, but it may also be distributed among several social actors and hence intersubjective.",[]],["agency may be ascribed through the perceptions and representations of others or assigned through ideologies and social structures.",[]]]},{"de":[["the first focuses on the ways in which identities are discursively verified",[]]],"rt":[["denaturalization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The first of these, authorization, involves the affirmation or imposition of an identity through structures of institutionalized power and ideology, whether local or translocal.",[]]],"rt":[["illegitimation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the second on how assumptions regarding the seamlessness of identity can be disrupted.",[]],["In denaturalization, by contrast, such claims to the inevitability or inherent rightness of identities is subverted. What is called attention to instead is the ways in which identity is crafted, fragmented, problematic, or false.",[]]],"rt":[["authentication",[]]]},{},{"de":[["depends on the suppression of similarities that might undermine the construction of difference.",[]],["The counterpart of adequation, distinction, focuses on the identity relation of differentiation.",[]]],"rt":[["adequation",[]]],"sp":[["production of social-class difference by members of the bourgeoisie",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["approaching identity as a relational and sociocultural phenomenon that emerges and circulates in local discourse contexts of interaction rather than as a stable structure located primarily in the individual psyche or in fixed social categories",[]],["identity is the product rather than the source of linguistic and other semiotic practices and therefore is a social and cultural rather than primarily internal psychological phenomenon",[]],["identities encompass macro-level demographic categories, temporary and interactionally specific stances and participant roles, and local, ethnographically emergent cultural positions",[]],["identities may be linguistically indexed through labels, implicatures, stances, styles, or linguistic structures and systems",[]],["identities are relationally constructed through several, often overlapping, aspects of the relationship between self and other, including similarity/difference, genuineness/artifice and authority/ delegitimacy",[]],["identity may be in part intentional, in part habitual and less than fully conscious, in part an outcome of interactional negotiation, in part a construct of others' perceptions and representations, and in part an outcome of larger ideological processes and structures",[]],["a view of identity that is intersubjectively rather than individually produced and interactionally emergent rather than assigned in an a priori fashion",[]],["This discursive approach further allows us to incorporate within identity not only the broad sociological categories most commonly associated with the concept, but also more local positionings, both ethnographic and interactional.",[]],["Identity is best viewed as the emergent product rather than the pre-existing source of linguistic and other semiotic practices and therefore as fundamentally a social and cultural phenomenon.",[]],["intersubjectively achieved social and cultural phenomenon",[]]],"rt":[["interactionally relevant accomplishment",[]],["labels",[]],["implicatures",[]],["stances",[]],["styles",[]],["entire languages and varieties",[]]],"sb":[["macro-level demographic categories",[]],["local, ethnographically specific cultural positions",[]],["temporary and interactionally specific stances and participant roles",[]]],"ex":[["labels, implicatures, stances, styles, and entire languages and varieties",[]]]},{"de":[["The counterpart of authorization, illegitimation, addresses the ways in which identities are dismissed, censored, or simply ignored by these same structures.",[]]],"rt":[["authorization",[]]]},{"ex":[["the first-person pronoun I",["Silverstein, 1976"]]]},{"de":[["in the process of indexical inversion described by Miyako Inoue (2004), indexical associations can also be imposed from the top down by cultural authorities such as intellectuals or the media.",[]]]},{"de":[["the mechanism whereby identity is constituted",[]],["indexicality relies heavily on ideological structures, for associations between language and identity are rooted in cultural beliefs and values -that is, ideologies -about the sorts of speakers who (can or should) produce particular sorts of language.",[]]],"rt":[["ideological structures",[]],["ideologies",[]],["an index is a linguistic form that depends on the interactional context for its meaning",[]]]},{"de":[["these temporary roles, no less than larger sociological and ethnographic identity categories, contribute to the formation of subjectivity and intersubjectivity in discourse.",[]],["the interactional positions that social actors briefly occupy and then abandon as they respond to the contingencies of unfolding discourse may accumulate ideological associations with both large-scale and local categories of identity.",[]]],"rt":[["sociological and ethnographic identity categories",[]],["subjectivity",[]],["intersubjectivity",[]]]},{"sb":[["situational identities",[]]],"ex":[["problematizer/problematizee",[]],["primary storyteller",[]],["recipient",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["The prototypical quotative form is say, but go has also entered widespread use to perform quotative functions.",[]],["the form be like has been widely adopted by young people in the United States",[]],["another form has emerged, especially on the West Coast: be all",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This term encompasses the disciplinary subfields of sociolinguistics, linguistic anthropology, socially oriented forms of discourse analysis (such as conversation analysis and critical discourse analysis), and linguistically oriented social psychology, among others.",[]]],"sb":[["sociolinguistics",[]],["linguistic anthropology",[]],["socially oriented forms of discourse analysis (such as conversation analysis and critical discourse analysis)",[]],["linguistically oriented social psychology",[]]]},{"de":[["John Du Bois (2002) characterizes stance as social action in the following terms: 'I evaluate something, and thereby position myself, and align [or disalign] with you.'",["2002"]],["Recent work on stance -that is, the display of evaluative, affective, and epistemic orientations in discourse -has made explicit the ways in which other dimensions of interaction can be resources for the construction of identity.",[]]],"rt":[["assessment",["Goodwin and Goodwin, 1992","Pomerantz, 1984"]],["epistemic authority",["Heritage and Raymond, 2005"]],["evaluation",["Hunston and Thompson, 2000"]]]},{"de":[["Mirka Rauniomaa (2003) has developed Du Bois's (2002) concept of stance accretion to capture the way in which stances accumulate into more durable structures of identity.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["authentication",[]]]},{"de":[["The main goal or task is to allow non-specialists to participate in the process of making a story.",[]]],"ex":[["Sometimes the public is specifically asked to participate while at other times they do so on their own free will.",[]]]},{"de":[["Ethnic media tells the many stories of different ethnicities including African, African-American, Asian, European, Indigenous, Latino, and Middle Eastern communities.",[]],["outlets serve as an important resource for information for minority communities.",[]],["Ethnic media is a sole source of information for a good amount of the population.",[]],["Ethnic media gives the minority communities a chance to see the news that is targeted more toward them.",[]]],"ex":[["print, online, radio, and television outlets",[]]],"rt":[["Mainstream Media",[]]]},{"de":[["Ethnic media gives minority communities who are not well represented in the mainstream news media industry a chance to see news that is targeted towards, as well as created by them.",[]],["enables these media outlets to cover issues of specific interest to and concern to their audiences",["Vikki S. Katz, Matthew D. Matsaganis, & Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach, 2012"]]]},{"sy":[["Those that work in news media",[]]]},{"de":[["It is distributed by the largest distribution channels as well as provides news and information to a large amount of people at a time.",[]],["It is an entity that is becoming what the majority of media consumers are likely to encounter.",[]],["It is also employed that mainstream media is generally reflective of the prevailing currents of thought, influence, or activity.",[]],["Due to the fact that the mass media is geared to large audiences, the news reported is typically centered on topics of general interest.",[]],["It is distributed by the largest distribution channels as well as provides news and information to a large amount of people at a time. It is an entity that is becoming what the majority of media consumers are likely to encounter. It is also employed that mainstream media is generally reflective of the prevailing currents of thought, influence, or activity. It is often times associated with integrity and reliability. Due to the fact that the mass media is geared to large audiences, the news reported is typically centered on topics of general interest.",[]]],"rt":[["Ethnic media",[]]]},{"sp":[["mass media",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["social networking sites",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["With increasing level of engagement, appraising a scholarly document or agent can range from a brief mention in a post on Twitter or Facebook to a citation in a policy document.",[]]]},{"de":[["Simon (1971) was one of the first to postulate that the world is full of information and that this takes the attention of the information consumer.",["Simon (1971)"]],["human attention becomes increasingly valuable because there is a limited amount to be utilized.",[]],["This in turn would reduce the amount of documents they would need to examine when trying to find information in the future.",[]]]},{"sy":[["attention economics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a citation is a symbolic act of authors associating particular ideas (i.e., concepts, procedures, or kind of data) with particular documents",[]]]},{"de":[["Merton (1973) defined the ethos of science (i.e., the set of norms and values that rule science) in terms of the four basic norms: communism, universalism, disinterestedness, and organized skepticism.",["Merton (1973)"]]],"sb":[["communism",[]],["universalism",[]],["disinterestedness",[]],["organized skepticism",[]]]},{"de":[["the blogger may be attempting to create an impression that implies they understand and have expertise on the cited material.",[]]],"rt":[["self-presentation",[]],["dramaturgical framework",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Thus, scientists who are rich in recognition find it easier to get more recognition (and resources), which causes \"the rich [to] get richer at a rate that makes the poor become relatively poorer\" (p. 62).",["p. 62"]],["platforms such as Mendeley and Twitter support the necessary processes most often associated with the Matthew effect and preferential attachment, as documents with more events get higher visibility within the platforms through different mechanisms (e.g. re-tweets, number of followers or Mendeley filtering tools).",[]]],"sy":[["cumulative advantage",["Price (1976)"]],["success breeds success",["Price (1976)"]]],"rt":[["preferential attachment",["In network theory, the Matthew effect is referred to as preferential attachment"]],["cumulative advantage",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In other words, these are citations to papers that may have been challenged or contradicted in other work.",[]]]},{"de":[["this noise can introduce doubt as to how to properly interpret the significance of the acts leading to these captured metrics.",[]]]},{"sy":[["variant of the cumulative advantage",[]]],"sp":[["variant of the cumulative advantage",[]]]},{"sp":[["ethos of science",[]]]},{"sp":[["social constructivist theory",[]]]},{"sp":[["social constructivist theory",[]]]},{"sp":[["social constructivist theory",[]]]},{"rt":[["impression management",[]],["dramaturgical framework",[]]]},{"de":[["it suggests that there are different motivations for citing, many of them influenced by cognitive style and personality and not necessarily by universalistic reasons.",[]],["This implies that the foundation of science originates from social actors engaging in a negotiation process in which one party convinces the other through persuasion.",[]]],"rt":[["normative theory",[]]],"sb":[["persuasion hypothesis",[]],["perfunctory citations",[]],["Matthew effect",[]],["negational citations",[]],["Negational (or negative) citation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["temporal data",[]],["spatial data",[]],["social data",[]]]},{"de":[["with reporters and editors covering only stories with clear court outcomes, which are 'safer' rather than pursuing more investigative, open-ended stories on gender violence regimes",[]]]},{"de":[["There is a tendency, therefore, to ignore the overarching social context in which violence against women occurs.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Frames present one meaning out of multiple possible meanings, while simplifying, organizing, and structuring narratives, which, when repeated over time become the conventional way to define incidents in the media.",[]],["Once established in media routines, frames are institutionalized through training, production practices, and 'news cultures which strengthen a common interpretation of events' (Norris et al, 2003: 8).",["(Norris et al, 2003: 8)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["has an affinity with feminism in its study of gendered power within the cultures of media production",["Banks, 2018: 157"]],["By systematically examining the production of stories the research highlights precisely where interventions for change can occur and identifies key organizational players needed to advocate for action to generate change.",[]],["emphasizes the importance of looking for the logics and structures that create problematic representations rather than merely critiquing the nature of representation",[]]]},{"de":[["blaming the victim was the most commonly occurring theme across their analysis of media reporting on cases of domestic violence.",["Lloyd and Ramon (2016)"]]]},{"de":[["In various contexts, bias can manifest as a skewed representation or inaccurate judgments that unfairly advantage or disadvantage certain individuals or groups",["Garrido-Muñoz et al. 2021"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Temporal bias arises from differences in populations and behaviors over time",["Olteanu et al. 2019"]],["can lead to a decrease in the accuracy of abusive language detection models, potentially allowing abusive language to be undetected or falsely detected",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This dialogue has a normative dimension: in telling and being told, accepting or refusing someone's word, both speaker and hearer engage in a normative relationship of trust.",[]],["Testimony is not a piece of information which we assess independently, but a sort of dialogue with normative social implications.",[]],["testimony as a source of knowledge 'works' fundamentally different to perception or logical reasoning, since it is based on communication, or to be more precise: on the interpersonal relation of telling and being told.",[]],["testimony has a dialogical character: testimony is an act 'addressed to another person'.",[]],["in telling and being told, accepting or refusing someone's word, both speaker and hearer engage in a normative relationship of trust.",["24"]],["knowledge that is essentially based on an interpersonal relation of trust",[]]],"sy":[["Second-Person-View",[]]],"rt":[["Second-Person-View",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["epistemic authorization",[]],["accreditation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The report of an eyewitness in court, for example, is drawn upon to reconstruct true facts (the accident happened at four o'clock at the big junction, when the silver car went through the red light).",[]],["consists of perceptual knowledge based on external events only",[]]],"rt":[["internal truth",[]]],"sp":[["truth",[]]],"ex":[["The report of an eyewitness in court, for example, is drawn upon to reconstruct true facts (the accident happened at four o'clock at the big junction, when the silver car went through the red light).",[]]]},{"de":[["The eyewitness is neither victim nor perpetrator, neither acting nor suffering: he or she speaks from the position of a third party (the word testis comes from terstis, Latin the third), and his or her authority is rooted in impartiality and distance.",[]]],"sy":[["testis",[]]],"rt":[["survivor witness",[]]]},{"de":[["What survivor testimony speci?cally expresses, Margalit emphasizes, is an inner, existential experience.",["31"]],["The interruptions, the silence, and even the flaws within Holocaust survivor testimonies are symptomatic expressions of the internal truth of the events to which they are bearing witness.",[]],["an inner, existential experience",[]]],"rt":[["external truth",[]]],"sp":[["truth",[]]],"ex":[["survivor testimonies, as they are recorded in oral history databases, recordings from therapy sessions, or as acts of commemoration",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the role and the responsibility of the audience regarding what kind of 'perpetrator knowledge' is articulated",[]]],"rt":[["perpetrator testimony",[]]]},{"de":[["They do not differ from victims' accounts in being fallible sources of historical knowledge.",[]],["it is a precarious source of 'external truth': it is not only as unreliable as any eyewitness reports, but it is considered to be even more unreliable insofar as the perpetrator usually has a direct reason to conceal the factual truth or certain details.",[]],["perpetrators very often dispose of factual knowledge which the victims lack, or to which they are too traumatized to attest.",[]],["perpetrators' accounts, reports, and confessions",[]],["problematic as a source of truth in both respects",[]],["requires specific hermeneutic and moral considerations",[]],["the speaker has a direct motivation to distort the factual truth",[]]],"rt":[["perpetrator knowledge",[]]]},{"de":[["the capacity to give knowledge -to be a good informant for others -is part of our capacity for reasoning, and thus a significant part of what it means to be human.",["25"]]]},{"de":[["Accepting testimony is different from accepting a reason or a piece of evidence since it means to authorize and to give credit to the witness.",[]]],"rt":[["accreditation",[]]]},{"de":[["normatively ambivalent, depending on what purpose it serves",[]],["based on communication, or to be more precise: on the interpersonal relation of telling and being told",[]],["to learn something via testimony requires accepting the speaker's authority, to rely on it, and to give credit to it.",[]],["the listener plays a constituent part in the acceptance of testimony as a source of knowledge: it is only through his or her accreditation and authorization that the act of testifying is completed.",[]],["testimonial knowledge is essentially second-hand knowledge: to learn something via testimony requires accepting the speaker's authority, to rely on it, and to give credit to it.",[]],["To reflect upon the dialogical nature of testimony is to reflect upon the fact that both speaker and listener are responsible for the 'knowledge' which is transferred or even newly produced in a situation of testimony.",[]],["a social practice, binding speaker and listener together in a special way",[]],["Testimony is a dialogue in which the speaker and the listener both play an active role.",[]]],"rt":[["historical knowledge",[]],["empirical evidence",[]],["social practice",[]]],"sb":[["religious martyr",[]],["historical witness",[]],["survivor witness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The eyewitness is neither victim nor perpetrator, neither acting nor suffering: he or she speaks from the position of a third party (the word testis comes from terstis, Latin the third), and his or her authority is rooted in impartiality and distance.",[]]],"sy":[["eyewitness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["While many sources may cover the same topic, they may not report all sides of a story or may have an imbalanced quantity of coverage",["Lin, Bagrow, and Lazer 2011"]],["This type of coverage bias has been explored in terms of political party slant in US congress stories (Lin, Bagrow, and Lazer 2011), and similar notions of bias, including framing and agenda setting bias, have been in explored in various media studies (Entman 2007) (Pan and Kosicki 1993).",["Lin, Bagrow, and Lazer 2011","Entman 2007","Pan and Kosicki 1993"]]],"rt":[["framing",["Entman 2007","Pan and Kosicki 1993"]],["agenda setting bias",["Entman 2007","Pan and Kosicki 1993"]]]},{"de":[["A score of 0 indicated by the vertical line is perfectly balanced coverage.",[]]],"ex":[["sources with higher scores report more about what the players are protesting (police brutality) than the disrespect for the flag and military (lower score is vice-versa).",[]],["sources with higher scores report more about the Russia collusion than the Clinton email scandal (lower score is vice-versa).",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In practice-although this is rarely made explicit-the concern is with what I have described elsewhere as \"hand manipulation.\"",["144"]]],"sb":[["highly specific or local manipulations",["149"]],["manual intervention",["146"]],["special treatment",["146"]],["manual bias",["146"]]]},{"rt":[["search neutrality",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["transparency",[]]]},{},{"de":[["perhaps search engines should similarly be required not to discriminate among websites.",[]],["search neutrality advocates recognize that websites must plead their case in terms of users' needs.",[]]],"rt":[["network neutrality",[]]],"sb":[["Equality",[]],["Objectivity",[]],["Bias",[]],["Traffic",[]],["Relevance",[]],["Self-interest",[]],["Transparency",[]],["Manipulation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["normalization",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["just plain normal",[]]]},{"de":[["By 'continuing to voice concerns of disaffected voters from a position of public office', populist parties in government may 'continue to evoke political discontent among their supporters'",["Haugsgjerd 2019"]]],"sy":[["split strategy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["At the heart of the populist ideology lies",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["ne concerne que ceux qui croient assez en la réalité de Dieu pour penser qu'il puisse être offensé.",[]]],"rt":[["incitations à la haine religieuse et au racisme",[]]],"ex":[["l'impietas des Romains",[]],["la novitas",[]],["l'atteinte aux bonnes mœurs",[]]]},{"de":[["La laïcité bipolaire, en vertu d'une démarche volontaire de reconnaissance et selon une « éthique reconstructive » (J.-M. Ferry 24 ), exclut le communautarisme qui isole ou juxtapose.",[]]]},{"de":[["d'un côté s'affirme une sorte de fondamentalisme laïque plus ou moins scientiste, voire matérialiste, faisant preuve d'une « ignorance crasse » du religieux, et souvent anticlérical par principe (selon la tradition dominante des Lumières françaises, comme si la dimension religieuse de l'être humain pouvait être disqualifiée d'emblée comme irrationnelle ou réactionnaire)",[]]]},{"de":[["de l'autre, s'y oppose de manière antithétique un fondamentalisme religieux déconnecté de la culture lorsqu'elle est dénoncée globalement comme une « culture de mort » ou « dégénérée », au risque d'opposer ou d'identifier le culturel au cultuel (Boko Haram en particulier en a fait sa marque de fabrique en identifiant l'Occident à l'illicite).",[]]],"ex":[["Boko Haram en particulier en a fait sa marque de fabrique en identifiant l'Occident à l'illicite",[]]]},{"de":[["Il s'agit d'une « disjonction » entre religion et culture : d'un côté s'affirme une sorte de fondamentalisme laïque plus ou moins scientiste, voire matérialiste, faisant preuve d'une « ignorance crasse » du religieux, et souvent anticlérical par principe (selon la tradition dominante des Lumières françaises, comme si la dimension religieuse de l'être humain pouvait être disqualifiée d'emblée comme irrationnelle ou réactionnaire) alors que la modernité européenne, particulièrement en Allemagne, en a fait l'enjeu d'un débat public très animé (notamment autour des querelles sur l'athéisme et le panthéisme) ; de l'autre, s'y oppose de manière antithétique un fondamentalisme religieux déconnecté de la culture lorsqu'elle est dénoncée globalement comme une « culture de mort » ou « dégénérée », au risque d'opposer ou d'identifier le culturel au cultuel (Boko Haram en particulier en a fait sa marque de fabrique en identifiant l'Occident à l'illicite).",["20"]]],"sy":[["religion sans culture",["20"]]]},{"de":[["la neutralité de l'état démocratique et libéral concerne tous les secteurs de l'espace public dont la religion est une des composantes, comme l'économie ou la culture, et qui supposent toutes un « pacte social » au moins dans nos sociétés occidentales diversifiées.",[]],["La laïcité suppose donc la retenue et le dialogue que s'imposent chacun de leur côté l'état, les citoyens et les « cultes », pour que l'état reste neutre et la liberté d'expression garantie.",[]]],"sy":[["secularism",[]]],"sb":[["laïcité unipolaire",[]],["laïcité irritée",[]]]},{"de":[["La bipolarité laïque doit donc se garder de deux extrêmes : par défaut ou par excès, dans l'un ou l'autre de ses pôles.",[]]]},{"rt":[["liberté religieuse",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["produit ce qu'Olivier Roy a défini comme « la sainte ignorance » ou la « religion sans culture »",[]]],"sy":[["religion sans culture",[]]],"rt":[["religion sans culture",[]]]},{"de":[["Cette sécularisation est également bipolaire, puisqu'elle fait la preuve du service rendu par les religions au bien commun en permettant aux sociétés de s'approprier ce qu'elles peuvent proposer de meilleur et de plus universel, compte tenu aussi du principe de subsidiarité.",[]],["bien accueillie en Europe pour sa compatibilité avec le principe biblique de la sécularité du monde",[]]]},{},{"de":[["aims to align itself with the values and the mission of the publication",[]]],"sy":[["sponsored content",[]]]},{"de":[["The BLC problem consists in computing the consensus labels from the user input",["13","15","5"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the opinion expressed on the aspect (the third element in the triple) could be described in three types: 1) emotional adjectives are used (e.g.'cool appearance'); 2) two or five star rating (e.g. high rating score means positive opinion); 3). an ordered set of non-numerical labels (e.g. poor, average, good, very good, excellent) is used.",[]]],"rt":[["frequency and relation based approaches",["51","58","60","101","103","135","137"]],["topic model based approaches",["62","63","69","71","102","113","118","120","136"]]],"ex":[["Inputs: A review corpus of Mac generated by users Outputs: < Mac, sound, good>, < Mac, CPU, good>, < Mac, price, bad>, < Mac, screen,good>, < Mac, appearance, good>, < Mac, weight, bad>, and . . .",[]]]},{},{"de":[["automatically mining opinion from online texts, aiming at discovering user concerned topics and the corresponding opinion",[]],["aiming at analyzing and discovering the latent opinion in user-generated reviews on the Internet",[]]],"ex":[["opinion mining processes the review text ''I bought a new iPhoneX today, the screen is great, but the voice quality is poor'' and outputs two quintuples < iPhoneX, screen, great, I, today> and < iPhoneX, voice quality, poor, I, today>.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["detecting the user stance (favor, against) on a particular debate topic or hot-debated event.",[]],["Identifying user stance (favor, against) in online debate forums attracts researchers in last years.",[]],["Stance detection focuses on detecting the user stance (favor, against) on a particular debate topic or hot-debated event.",[]]],"rt":[["sentiment analysis",[]],["opinion mining",[]],["classification task",[]]],"sb":[["online stance detection",[]]],"sp":[["opinion mining",[]]],"ex":[["''The pregnant are more than walking incubators.'' express the favor stance for the target 'legalization of abortion'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Textual content based approaches view stance detection as a binary classification problem. And the key point of these models is feature engineering.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The essentializing approach to culture(s) and communities hurt the minority and marginalized people the most, because they were lost in this representation and their experiences and voices were not integrated into the narratives.",[]]],"ex":[["Binnur: Halloween. Yeah it's not welcome because it's not our it's not our festival. I don't know. It's, we don't need to celebrate it. I don't know. Yeah, our parents don't like it. It's like a party a reason to party. And our parents say you don't need to do that and it's not our, it's not a part of our culture so it's not very welcome here. Maybe in Istanbul they celebrate it, but the normal people don't do that in Turkey.",[]]]},{"de":[["such as expectations from a professional role or group membership (e.g., teacher candidate, (non)religious, Turkish/American citizen).",["Harré & Langenhove, 1991, p. 397"]],["PTs' narratives started from their personal experiences but extended to broader society and their position in it, enabling conversations on social justice issues in a broader perspective",[]]],"rt":[["moral and personal positioning",["Harré & Langenhove, 1991, p. 397"]],["personal positioning",[]]],"sp":[["modes of positioning",[]],["positioning theory",[]],["Positioning",[]]],"ex":[["e.g., teacher candidate, (non)religious, Turkish/American citizen",[]]]},{"de":[["such as deviance from the expectations present in moral positioning.",["p. 398"]],["PTs shared stories from their biographical experiences, and the scope of the conversations was limited to themselves.",[]]],"rt":[["moral and personal positioning",["Harré & Langenhove, 1991, p. 397"]],["moral positioning",[]]],"sp":[["modes of positioning",[]],["positioning theory",[]],["Positioning",[]]]},{"de":[["PTs positioned interlocutors as unique individuals (inviting their biographical narratives), or as cultural representatives (eliciting responses that connect to the larger society).",[]]],"rt":[["discursive choices",[]]],"sb":[["Moral positioning",[]],["Personal positioning",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["not only because journalism -as the term in itself implies -has to inform the public and this only works if the facts are correct",[]],["Fact checking is thus not merely a luxury but rather of essential significance for quality journalism.",[]],["the fact checker only examines whether two statements correspond in terms of content: those in the article he has to examine and the relevant statements in the sources.",[]],["This is not only because journalism -as the term in itself implies -has to inform the public and this only works if the facts are correct: Even a tabloid will make sure that Kate Middleton's name is spelt correctly so as not to discredit itself in the eyes of its readers. If errors regularly occur in a publication, its reputation suffers in the long run and thus potentially also its circulation; in some cases this can even result in claims which threaten the very existence of the publication. Fact checking is thus not merely a luxury but rather of essential significance for quality journalism.",[]]],"rt":[["fact finding",[]]]},{"de":[["it conveys which research work a society supports on the basis of ethical, economic or other reasons and where it would like to draw boundaries",[]],["science journalism has a considerable influence on the public's image of the scientist's personality and of the essence of his work.",[]],["This includes presenting the results in such a way that they can be understood even by a nonscientist, and to classify them in such a way that their meaning in a scientific debate becomes evident to society and each individual.",[]]]},{"de":[["They embed the scientific content in a story about people and try to give the text a clear message.",[]]]},{"ex":[["people, customers, drivers",[]]]},{"ex":[["dress casually, tip to express gratitude",[]]]},{},{"de":[["reveals how culture changes in response to global influences",[]],["the study of cultural adaptation becomes important, as it reveals how culture changes in response to global influences.",[]]]},{"ex":[["American, Californian, Asian American, peo-",[]]]},{"de":[["This includes , but is not limited to , practices , behaviors , norms , values , beliefs , habits , customs , architectural styles , environmental engagements , and any other elements that are emblematic of a particular cultural setting .",[]],["It does not include generic information or widespread practices that are not distinctly tied to a specific cultural identity .",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["to adapt to different cultures, to celebrate",[]]]},{"de":[["to test LLMs' ability to integrate cultural knowledge into their responses",[]],["Given the answer, we perform automatic evaluation and human evaluation.",[]]]},{"ex":[["respond with thanks, accept card payments",[]]]},{"ex":[["parents to children, actor to audience, amongfriends",[]]]},{"sy":[["factualness",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["response bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["self-report",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["implicit attitudes",[]],["stereotypes",[]],["self-esteem",[]],["self-concept",[]]]},{"de":[["The hypothesized causal influences on attitudes include early (even preverbal) experiences, affective experiences, cultural biases, and cognitive consistency principles.",["34"]],["implicit attitudes that reveal more bias than explicit attitudes",[]],["implicit attitudinal biases are especially important in influencing nondeliberate or spontaneous discriminatory behaviors",[]]]},{"de":[["can be reduced merely by increased deliberative effort on a decision",[]],["malleable",[]]],"rt":[["implicit attitudes",[]],["implicit stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["Implicit biases are especially intriguing, and also especially problematic, because they can produce behavior that diverges from a person's avowed or endorsed beliefs or principles.",[]],["weak automatic influences",[]]],"rt":[["implicit attitudes",[]],["implicit stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["For stereotypes, the content of the ascribed trait, rather than its evaluative valence, is central.",[]]],"rt":[["implicit attitudes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["explanations that cannot be eliminated remain worth considering.",[]]]},{"sy":[["bias",[]]]},{"de":[["The association may reflect a statistical reality, but it need not. If the association does reflect a statistical reality, members of the group will be more likely to display the trait than will members of other groups.",[]]]},{"sp":[["transparency",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["corporate transparency",[]]]},{},{"de":[["transparency may seem intuitive as a high-level concept",[]],["Transparency in practice is deeply political, contested, and oftentimes problematic",["Etzioni 2010","Ananny and Crawford 2018"]],["furthering traditional democratic values",[]],["posited as an antonym to secrecy",[]],["fundamentally rooted in pessimistic expectations about human fallibility and the corrupting influence of power",[]],["the concept of transparency became central to twentieth-century forms of power, visibility, and knowledge",["Flyverbom 2016"]],["transparency is merely a form of regulation by other means",["Etzioni 2010, p. 10"]],["Transparency was thus advocated as a core element of public accountability for business",["Waddock 2004"]],["deeply political, contested, and oftentimes problematic",["Etzioni 2010","Ananny and Crawford 2018"]],["transparency may seem intuitive as a high-level concept (often conceived narrowly as the disclosure of certain information that may not previously have been visible or publicly available; see Albu and Flyverbom 2016)",[]]],"rt":[["digital transparency studies",[]],["freedom of information",[]],["public accountability",[]],["disclosure",[]]],"sb":[["corporate transparency",[]],["\"opaque\" forms of transparency",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Ways of dealing with stigmatisation are directed first towards protecting the individual self.",[]],["On the level of action, identity strategies can be used by correcting the negative image, by questioning the credibility of the cri-tic, by emphasising other qualities, by offering excuses or by trivialising/denying deviations (frey 1983: 77).",["frey 1983: 77"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Personal identity consists of cognitive (self-image), emotional (self-esteem, pride) and motivational (ability to act) components.",[]]]},{"de":[["the actors in the city also show signs of rejecting the norm through forms of self-stigmatisation.",[]],["this can occur through forms of self-stigmatisation.",[]]],"rt":[["rejecting the norm",[]]],"sp":[["rejecting the norm",[]]],"ex":[["expressed in the media campaign \"sangerhausen-so what?\"",[]],["a self-stigmatisation is, for instance, expressed in the media campaign \"sangerhausen-so what?\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["collective spatially related identities thus repose upon human cognitive attainments introduced onto a more or less common denominator in the course of negotiation processes. (…) identity development must always be seen in connection with the shared history of a society. it is based on a historical inheritance, is embedded in collective memory",["christmann 2009","christmann 2009: 3"]]]},{"de":[["stigmas and stigmatisation are thus relative assessments of social attributes.",[]],["stigmas were originally understood as being marks on human bodies such as tattoos, scars from wounds or burns, or injuries, i.e. negative characteristics differing from the social norm.",[]]]},{"de":[["stigmas were originally understood as being marks on human bodies such as tattoos, scars from wounds or burns, or injuries, i.e. negative characteristics differing from the social norm.",[]],["stigmas and stigmatisation are thus relative assessments of social attributes.",[]]],"rt":[["stigmatisation",[]],["negative images",[]]],"ex":[["the greeks … originated the term stigma to refer to bodily signs designed to expose something unusual and bad about the moral status of the signifier. the signs were cut or burnt into the body and advertised that the bearer was a slave, a criminal, a traitor-a blemished person, ritually polluted to be avoided, especially in public places",["goffman 1963: 1"]]]}] |