MBDef 1.0.0: Explorer data for exactly the released rows, map and topics made on them
714cbfe verified | [{"de":[["more a movement than a theory",[]],["an \"open-ended and experimental\" project",[]],["advocates of public journalism have believed that community is the sole source of life's meaning and that a good life therefore requires deep engagement in collective decision-making about how to live together.",[]],["focuses exclusively on individual practices",[]],["the ideal of public journalism is hardly compatible with deliberative theory, which is liberal insofar as it assumes that individuals are capable of generating and pursuing their own conception of the good life without needing to derive its value from the community",[]],["public journalism was more a movement than a theory, as its advocates were more concerned with trying to reform journalistic practice (mostly in the U.S.) than with developing a well-articulated normative theory of the press.",[]]],"sy":[["an argument",[]],["an experiment",[]],["a movement",[]],["a debate",[]],["an adventure",[]]],"rt":[["deliberative journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This does not entail accepting those attitudes and beliefs as justified but just getting how they fit together into a more or less coherent set, as arguments and theories typically do.",[]]],"sp":[["political understanding",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["can provoke an ideological response which aims to repair and cover over the dislocatory event before it becomes a source for new political construction",["Glynos & Howarth, 2007, p. 117"]],["Crisis as dislocation refers to undecidability.",[]]],"sy":[["dislocatory event",[]]]},{"de":[["Dislocatory events signify a rupture in established cultural and social understandings of social reality",[]],["Dislocatory events signify a rupture in established cultural and social understandings of social reality, and Glynos and Howarth argue: 'can provoke an ideological response which aims to repair and cover over the dislocatory event before it becomes a source for new political construction' (Glynos & Howarth, 2007, p. 117, emphasis in original).",["Glynos & Howarth, 2007, p. 117"]]]},{"de":[["'Knowledge relativism' and 'postmodernism' were articulated together with mistrust in scientific knowledge and research in general, because such ideas were claimed to also be spreading outside the universities.",[]],["transferring responsibility for problems related to the posttruth situation to 'postmodernism', 'knowledge relativism', and 'constructivism'",[]]],"rt":[["postmodernism",[]],["post-truth",[]]]},{"de":[["It signifies a state in which society finds itself and is distinguished by an anxiety that popular movements and autocratic political leaders are not respecting truth or facts.",[]],["the meaning of post-truth (the problem at hand) was constructed as an external disorder by emphasising a sense of urgency, with the future portrayed as dystopian, and a frightening hypothetical scenario being presented.",[]],["post-truth is a dislocation, a crisis, and one that is constructed as a major problem against which the universities must act.",[]],["the notion of post-truth certainly represents a crisis for universities, there is at the same time an opening for attaching new meanings to the concepts associated with knowledge production -that it is possible to rearrange the ideals attached to knowledge and truth in order to potentially include more perspectives or broaden the understanding of knowledge, rather than to fix them in narrow ways.",[]]],"sy":[["posttruth",[]]],"rt":[["fact resistance",[]],["fake news",[]],["alternative facts",[]],["made-up stories",[]],["filter bubbles",[]],["knowledge relativism",[]],["new media landscape",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a system guaranteeing that what we produce is trustworthy",[]],["We have different systems of control, and what we produce, before we can publish it, is controlled by -those we call -our peers, our colleagues",[]]],"rt":[["gut feelings",[]],["guesses",[]]]},{"de":[["functioned as a demarcation from critical theories such as constructivism and postmodern theory (which were then seen as not living up to the standards of scientific practice).",[]]]},{"de":[["the construction of a straw man, whereby invited experts attribute elements to 'the enemy' based on a distorted version of what these theories mean.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["sustained media exposure contributes to raising public salience of environmental issues",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["Selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["most of the research on selective exposure has been conducted either on what material participants select or what they attend to once the material is presented.",[]],["the bias is moderated by a number of factors. These include open-mindedness, confidence in the attitude, the quantity of available information, and attitude support prior to information selection.",[]],["the confirmation bias of preferring attitude-consistent over attitude-inconsistent information",[]]],"sy":[["confirmation bias",["Jonas, Schulz-Hardt, Frey, & Thelen, 2001"]],["confirmation bias (Jonas, Schulz-Hardt, Frey, & Thelen, 2001)",[]]],"rt":[["selection bias",[]],["attention biases",[]]],"ex":[["stereotypes (Johnston, 1996)",[]],["attitudes about general social matters (Jonas et al., 2001)",[]],["board-game and card-game decision-making (Bilalić, McLeod, & Gobet, 2008;Frey, 1982)",[]],["legal problem solving (Fischer, Schulz-Hardt, & Frey, 2008)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The selection of issues that become the focus of coverage can be influenced by factors such as the mass media's political, commercial, or ideological interests.",["50"]],["How the mass media selects and frames these issues can influence the public's understanding of the urgency and relevance of Internet regulations in maintaining social and moral order.",[]],["The gatekeeping process of the mass media can also affect public political participation in the digital environment.",["53"]]],"ex":[["Through the gatekeeping process, mass media provide intensive coverage of privacy violations or data misuse cases, thus influencing society's understanding of the importance of individual rights.",[]]]},{"de":[["With media pluralism, society can be exposed to various viewpoints and have broader access to diverse information.",["24"]],["the challenge in maintaining media pluralism lies in specific groups or individuals' domination or concentration of media ownership.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["wacana pembentukan narasi",[]],["pengaturan akses informasi",[]]],"sp":[["kerangka wacana media",[]]]},{"rt":[["penentuan agenda",[]]],"sp":[["kerangka wacana media",[]]]},{"rt":[["memorative signs",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["antithetical to any kind of dogmatism and fundamentalism, as it is to quackery and disinformation in general.",[]],["is antithetical to any kind of dogmatism and fundamentalism, as it is to quackery and disinformation in general.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["One, which he called the Promethean attitude, has long been the reigning paradigm in the West.",[]]]},{"sy":[["cross-thinkers",[]],["people who think \"outside the box\"",[]]]},{"sy":[["the object as perceived",["47"]]]},{"de":[["characteristic of a metaphysical stance",[]]]},{"de":[["It could be considered, then, as anti-fake news regulation",[]]],"ex":[["the crime of Holocaust denial, which is part of the legal system in various countries",[]]]},{"sy":[["deterrence",[]]]},{"de":[["Both misinformation and disinformation consist of false information; the key difference lies in the intent of the person spreading it.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"rt":[["epistemic power",[]]]},{"de":[["those capable of shaping what others believe and know",[]],["almost everyone possesses some degree of epistemic power, since most people can influence the beliefs of those around them to a limited extent.",[]],["epistemic authority is multidimensional; follower counts alone are insufficient and should be complemented by indicators such as average reach, engagement rate, or the individual's social role (e.g., journalist or medical professional)",["Bartsch et al. 2025"]],["Those who possess epistemic power are often publicly known, operate under their real names, and frequently monetize their online presence.",[]],["this form of influence, like political or institutional power, can also be abused.",[]],["epistemic power is a much broader concept, traditionally encompassing individuals and groups who shape collective understanding and belief beyond digital platforms.",[]]],"rt":[["institutional power",[]]],"ex":[["scientists, religious leaders, and public intellectuals",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Instagram influencers",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"sp":[["Instagram influencers",[]]]},{"de":[["smaller influencers are often more persuasive than mega-influencers, as they tend to be perceived as more authentic.",["2021","Park et al. (2021)"]],["smaller influencers may exert greater persuasive power than larger ones, at least within marketing contexts.",["2020","Kay et al. (2020)"]],["micro-influencers (over 10,000 followers) are generally perceived as more authentic and trustworthy, and outperform mega-influencers particularly in perceived similarity.",["2025"]],["generally perceived as more authentic and trustworthy, and outperform mega-influencers particularly in perceived similarity.",[]]],"sp":[["Instagram influencers",[]]]},{"de":[["Both misinformation and disinformation consist of false information; the key difference lies in the intent of the person spreading it.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]],"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"sp":[["epistemic power",[]]]},{"rt":[["epistemic power",[]]]},{"rt":[["information disorder",["Wardle and Derakhshan","2017"]]],"sp":[["information disorder",["Wardle and Derakhshan (2017)"]]]},{"sy":[["misinformation",["Wardle and Derakhshan (2017)"]]],"rt":[["information disorder",["Wardle and Derakhshan"]]]},{},{"de":[["Journalism's criterion for information is inherently linked to the portrayal of an event from the perspective of its uniqueness",["1987"]],["valuation is already present in the form of recognition, hierarchization, and the selection of facts",[]],["reaffirm itself as a socially significant form of knowledge",[]]],"rt":[["truth-oriented journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["deliberate acts of deception lead to the erosion of the public sphere, consequently rupturing the symbolic agreement that designates certain knowledge domains, including journalism, as integral components of this shared space",[]],["Therefore, it is this intention that serves as the differentiating factor between veracity and falsehood within the realm of journalism's discourse.",[]]],"rt":[["veracity",[]],["falsehood",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["information disorder",["Wardle and Derakhshan","2017"]]],"sp":[["information disorder",["Wardle and Derakhshan (2017)"]]]},{"rt":[["information disorder",["Wardle and Derakhshan","2017"]]],"sp":[["information disorder",["Wardle and Derakhshan (2017)"]]]},{"de":[["Therefore, it excludes verbs that refer to the invisible and the unverifiable, such as thinking, believing, trusting.",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["the National Rifle Association of America's media sphere",["14"]]]},{"de":[["These stories include power struggles, war, crime and social discord that are considered newsworthy \"because their conflict spurs negative interest.\"",["52"]]],"ex":[["power struggles, war, crime and social discord",["52"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["universal suffrage",[]],["lipstick feminism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["When used, it is commonly put in quotation marks, to indicate irony or the author's recognition of its unattainability.",["68"]]],"rt":[["ethical and responsible journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["quoted or paraphrased sources contribute to the framing process, even to an extent that the latter are sometimes called 'frame sponsors'",["Gamson & Modigliani 1989"]]]},{"de":[["function, as Entman, Matthes & Pellicano (2009) state, 'to promote an interpretation of a problematic situation or actor and (implicit or explicit) support of a desirable response, often",["Entman, Matthes & Pellicano (2009)"]],["the frames form the constitutive elements for the overarching 'strategic narratives' telling the reader about both Russian and Chinese worldviews.",[]],["frames, which are considered tactical instruments with a structural effect upon narratives",["Miskimmon et al. 2013, p. 7"]]],"rt":[["strategic narratives",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["framing processes",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing devices",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["presenting a stable, secure identity with 'consistent self-concepts' (Steele 2008, p. 3) and putting up boundaries for outsiders.",["Steele 2008"]]]},{},{"de":[["Narratives are considered strategic scripts 'creating consensus' about how actors should function in certain situations.",[]],["indicating both Russian and Chinese outlook on the international world order and moral values.",[]],["The temporal dimension and sense of movement over time or causal transformation of actors give narratives a strategic character and distinguish them from frames, which are considered tactical instruments with a structural effect upon narratives",["Miskimmon et al. 2013, p. 7"]]],"rt":[["frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It highlights the experience of positive emotions toward one's own group and negative emotions toward opposing groups.",[]]],"sp":[["Polarization",[]],["static polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["attitude polarization is the process by which attitudes are reinforced toward the pole to which they were previously directed.",["Myers and Lamm (1976)"]]],"sp":[["Polarization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["attitudinal polarization could result from the desire for positive self-perception and self-representation within a group.",[]]],"sp":[["polarization",[]],["dynamic polarization",[]]]},{"sy":[["mixed evidence disagreement",[]]],"sp":[["Polarization",[]]]},{"sp":[["polarization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Dynamic polarization encompasses attitudinal polarization.",[]]],"sb":[["attitudinal polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake News is the deliberate presentation of usually false or misleading claims in the form of news.",["Gelfert (2018, p. 108)"]],["FN is news that not only contains false and/or misleading information but also has no intention to show the falsity of such information.",["Wang (2020)"]],["FN is a type of online disinformation whose content is based on false statements that, being able to be related to real events, are intended to manipulate readers using a structure and aesthetics that mimics that of a real news and whose purpose is to obtain some gain (economic or ideological).",["Baptista and Gradim (2022)"]],["FN must have a low factuality (through false, misleading, or fabricated content and connections between false facts), have a format that mimics that of a real news, and have an intention to influence society.",["Tandoc et al. (2018)"]]],"sy":[["FN",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["satires (present topical news using exaggerations and humor, e.g., The Daily Show)",["Tandoc et al. (2018)"]],["parodies (use humor to present news, but introduce false content or create completely fabricated stories, e.g., El Mundo Today)",["Tandoc et al. (2018)"]],["fabrication (articles that mimic news articles, have no real basis, attempt to create legitimacy, and are intended to manipulate, e.g., false news verified by fact-checkers)",["Tandoc et al. (2018)"]],["photographic manipulation (manipulation of videos or photographs in order to create false narratives, e.g., deepfakes)",["Tandoc et al. (2018)"]],["propaganda (news-format stories created by political entities in order to influence citizens to benefit a group, character, or political entity, e.g., political propaganda)",["Tandoc et al. (2018)"]],["advertising (use of the news format to promote or advertise services or products, e.g., narrative advertising)",["Tandoc et al. (2018)"]],["health (news about medicine, viruses, infections, lifestyles, etc.)",[]],["religion (news with religious or political religious content, about spirituality, religious practices, etc.)",[]],["politics (news about political institutions, political figures, or political issues)",[]],["crime (news about violence and criminality)",[]],["entertainment (news linked to celebrities and popular culture)",[]],["miscellaneous (encompassing the rest of news not linked to any of the previous categories)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Polarization",[]],["static polarization",[]]]},{"sp":[["polarization",[]],["static polarization",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Polarization",[]]]},{"sp":[["Polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["social polarization, is understood as a phenomenon that arises in conditions of conflict where positions are reduced to opposing extremes (two confronted groups) and where intermediate points (the other possible groups) disappear and are delegitimized",["Piñuela & Yela, 2016"]],["Sociology and political science have focused more on the static aspect of the phenomenon, addressing the outcome-the formation of rigid, divided groups or poles. On the other hand, psychology has focused on the dynamic aspect of the phenomenon. It emphasizes the process through which these poles and rigid groups are formed.",[]]],"sb":[["ideological polarization",[]],["partisan polarization",[]],["platform polarization",[]],["affective polarization",[]],["belief polarization or mixed evidence disagreement",[]],["political polarization",[]],["attitudinal polarization",[]],["network polarization",[]],["sociocognitive polarization",[]],["ideological polarization, the distance between certain ideological positions within a spectrum",["Almagro (2023)"]],["partisan polarization, the level of uniformity of ideas and ideology that is associated with a certain political group",["Almagro (2023)"]],["platform polarization, how far apart the proposals of different political parties are with respect to certain issues",["Almagro (2023)"]],["affective polarization, the tendency to express and have negative feelings toward the out-group and positive feelings toward the group to which one belongs",["Almagro (2023)"]],["belief polarization or mixed evidence disagreement, greater acceptance of what is in line with our attitudes, which leads to a reinforcement of our attitudes and to interpretative biases (Lord et al., 1979).",["1979"]],["attitude polarization as \"a change in attitudes, affected by the group and with effects on the group\" (p. 115)",["1992"]],["attitude polarization is the process by which attitudes are reinforced toward the pole to which they were previously directed.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["polarization",[]],["static polarization",[]]]},{"rt":[["Attitude change",[]],["behavior change",[]],["behavior intention",[]],["confirmation bias",[]],["group identity",[]],["motivated reasoning",[]],["moralization",[]],["selective exposure",[]],["trust",[]]],"ex":[["attitudes, group identity, trust, or motivated reasoning",[]]]},{"de":[["should be seen simultaneously as both a potential cause and outcome of other types of polarization.",[]]],"sp":[["Polarization",[]]]},{"sp":[["polarization",[]],["static polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["In contrast, static polarization includes ideological polarization, political polarization, sociocognitive polarization, affective polarization, and network polarization.",[]]],"sb":[["ideological polarization",[]],["political polarization",[]],["sociocognitive polarization",[]],["affective polarization",[]],["network polarization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They can be considered to represent a more detailed point within a frame.",[]]],"rt":[["political perspectives",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a political strategy that used to bias the discussion on an issue toward a specific stance.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["highlight different aspects of the news story and frame facts shared by all articles in different ways",[]]],"rt":[["bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["can be used as the first step of a detection system",[]]],"rt":[["Fake news detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Its aim is to influence and manipulate public opinion on targeted topics.",[]]]},{"de":[["It may also be a situation where the calculation method of the indicator differs, but none of these sources confirms the number or claim in question.",[]]]},{"de":[["These are inappropriate or disproportionate comparisons.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["information warfare",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["types of decisions made by people",[]]]},{"de":[["It can establish the largest distributed record that allows the transfer of ownership or the exchange of trade transactions without the need for a third party. In addition to achieving a high degree of safety and reliability.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["associated with agenda setting",["Colistra, 2012"]]],"rt":[["agenda setting",[]]]},{"de":[["In this way, he emphasizes that this discourse is closely associated with the media's entertainment format, namely news activity (Altheide, 2013). He goes further and argues that the media intentionally distort the reporting of certain events in order to influence the opinions and decisions of the public (Altheide, 2016). In order to do this, according to the author, they do not need to use an explicit argument supported by deception or fallacy, but simply orient their communication strategies towards a specific framing, reporting certain events to the detriment of others, valuing either the concealment or the repetition of facts, and using tragic visual resources, with the ultimate aim of arousing exacerbated emotions in the public (Altheide, 2016).",["Altheide, 2013","Altheide, 2016"]]],"rt":[["politics of fear",[]]]},{},{"de":[["references to the aversion or prejudice towards Islam that emerged after the attacks",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["discourse of fear",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Generally, communication strategy is working on a business goals framework. It pays attention to the customer's needs, surveys the competitive environment, identifies the uniqueness of brands, and builds successfulness.",[]]],"sb":[["Organisational approach spotlights on the essentials of strategic communication processes for the efficiency of organisation, culture, democracy, management and related aspects",[]],["societal approach focuses on analysing the publics' attitudes, the public opinion, democracy, and culture contractions and many others",[]],["organisational approach",["Falkherimer and Heide (2018)"]],["societal approach",["Falkherimer and Heide (2018)"]]]},{},{"sy":[["hoax",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Hoax comes from the word hocus which means \"to perpetrate a trick or hoax on\" (Santoso and Wardiana, 2017, p. 30). According to Merriam-Webster, hoax is \"an act intended to trick or dupe\".",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["hoax",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["help the individual or organisation to deliver their messages 'physically easier' to the audience in relating and connecting the information",["Simiciklas (2012, p. 7)"]]]},{"rt":[["visual literacy",[]],["television literacy",[]],["cine-literacy",[]]],"sp":[["literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["This hoax news spreads in multi-platform social media which attempt to deceive audiences as a prank and joking, causing harm to the victims who believe in that news",["Rubin et al., 2015"]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It is divided into two types: yellow press and tabloids. Both of them focus on exaggeration information, such as sensation crime stories, astrology, gossip columns about celebrities, and junk food news",["Rubin et al., 2015"]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["The goal of the fact verification task is to help identify misinformation.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["greater totals reflect deeper reasoning and self-reflection.",[]]]},{"de":[["a larger (less negative) score signals more confident, less hedged language.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["serving as an indicator of evidence integration versus echo-chamber behavior (Tessler et al., 2024)",["Tessler et al., 2024"]]],"rt":[["echo-chamber behavior",[]]]},{"de":[["with high certainty signaling authoritative claims",[]]]},{"de":[["higher scores mean stronger out-group focus and greater polarization.",[]]]},{"de":[["aligning with human-like group polarization patterns",[]]],"rt":[["group polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["networks, where false information is often perceived as \"normal\"",[]]]},{"de":[["where emotions may enhance manipulative persuasion",[]]]},{"de":[["higher values indicate a net positive emotional tone and lower hostility.",[]]]},{"de":[["capturing how persuasive interactions alter affective tone.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["where imbalanced causation-toinsight ratios may indicate fallacious reasoning",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We operationalize persuasion as its measurable effect on recipient's beliefs: given a claim x i and accompanying persuasive stances, we treat each response as a binary belief label (believe/disbelieve x i ) and compute a correctness/accuracy rate against the groundtruth veracity y i",[]]],"ex":[["CR human for humans and CR LLM for LLM personas",[]]]},{"de":[["reflecting in-group appeals that reinforce echo chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["lower scores reflect reliance on generic language that may signal manipulative vagueness (Sparck Jones, 1972), while higher scores indicate concrete, substantive arguments.",["Sparck Jones, 1972"]]],"rt":[["manipulative vagueness",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Scholars reported how algorithmic bias has a significant influence on reshaping diversity, inclusion, and marginalization addressing \"the potential harm experienced by those largely invisible workers in the Global South who clean up data and refine algorithm development for the benefit of those using algorithms in the Global North\"",["Arora et al., 2023, p. 1","Arora et al., 2023"]]],"sb":[["historical",[]],["cultural",[]],["content moderation biases",[]]]},{"de":[["ChatGPT has proven to generate inaccurate data (referred to as hallucinations) in Arabic.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["distributed cognitive map of the IL",[]]]},{"de":[["to emphasize that this content is not limited to descriptions of situations (as provided, e.g., by narrative texts)",[]]],"sy":[["mental models",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["intertextual similarity",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a sort of linguistic relativity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the capacity of people to form associations, to participate freely in civic debates, and to influence social and political decisions.",[]],["governance through legal procedures rather than statist decree.",[]],["civil society exists in a minimal sense where there are free associations not under the tutelage of the state.",[]],["a stronger sense of civil society ensues 'where society can structure and co-ordinate its actions through such associations'.",[]],["a public dimension of civil society is strongest 'where the ensemble of associations can significantly determine or inflect the course of state policy'",["98"]],["This reveals itself in the capacity of people to form associations, to participate freely in civic debates, and to influence social and political decisions. Civil society also implies governance through legal procedures rather than statist decree.",[]],["For instance, the key element of liberal civil society is a normative separation between state and society (He, 1992). This reveals itself in the capacity of people to form associations, to participate freely in civic debates, and to influence social and political decisions.",["He, 1992"]]],"sb":[["civil society exists in a minimal sense where there are free associations not under the tutelage of the state.",[]],["a stronger sense of civil society ensues 'where society can structure and co-ordinate its actions through such associations'.",[]],["a public dimension of civil society is strongest 'where the ensemble of associations can significantly determine or inflect the course of state policy' (98).",["98"]]]},{"de":[["These are often imprecise and vague in language. And in contradistinction to law, documents are not required to be open to the general population",[]],["the mode of political communication in China is documentation",[]]]},{"de":[["Perhaps the most appropriate way to describe the relationship between the state and the production and dissemination of culture under Maoism is an 'engineer state' model (Keane, 1999).",["Keane, 1999"]]]},{},{"rt":[["low politics",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In the view of China's leaders the people were bound by common interests and needs, and were a community that lacked knowledge",[]]],"sp":[["the public",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["civil society",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a counter-hegemonic space between official culture and cultural works supported by the market",[]]],"rt":[["civil society",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This was a world in which all relationships were in flux and amenable to resolution.",[]]],"sb":[["people (renmin)",[]],["nationals (guomin)",[]],["citizens (gongmin)",[]]]},{"de":[["The monopolization by the Chinese Communist Party of the mass media and the emphasis on propaganda work (sixiang gongzuo) during the Maoist era led many scholars to typify the Chinese state as totalitarian",[]]]},{"de":[["viewed as an organic form of culture is thus presented as an antihegemonic groundswell",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing choice",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In media logic, elite sources are the most accredited, authoritative and representative",["Hall et al. 1978"]]]},{"de":[["a conscious and intentional act used to promote a particular version of reality.",[]],["making connections among them so as to promote a particular interpretation, evaluation, and/or solution",[]],["a conscious and intentional act used to promote a particular version of reality",[]]],"sy":[["framing choice",[]]]},{"rt":[["agenda setting",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The rhetoric of these narratives frequently shares similarities across contexts, generally depict three key elements: the \"glorious past,\" a \"degraded present,\" and the \"utopian future\".",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The aim of Ottomanism was to establish single citizenship from diverse religious and ethnic communities of the country.",["12"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["in the land that was to become the country of the Turks.",["14"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This construct was created in the nineteenth century",["Guibernau, 2007","2007"]]],"rt":[["Ethnic nationalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["Civic nationalism",[]]]},{"de":[["when editors and journalists favor, emphasize, downplay, or exclude certain aspects or issues of a story they define and shape it for their readers",[]],["when editors and journalists synthesize information to construct a story, certain aspects or issues are emphasized or given greater salience and this is often at the expense or even exclusion of other aspects of the same story or theme.",["Entman (1993)"]]]},{"de":[["the fact that these communities are 'imagined' emphasizes the fact that even in the smallest of nations we can never know all of our fellow countrymen and women",[]]],"sy":[["imagined political communit[ies]",["Benedict Anderson (1981: 6)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["out-groups",["Stott et al., 2001"]]]},{"de":[["to detail the ways in which different stereotypes of national character were visible in media discourse across fifteen European nations",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["in-groups",["Stott et al., 2001"]]]},{"de":[["This theory focuses on the formation of perceived in-groups and out-groups depending on elements such as demographics, psychographics, sociology, or some combination of elements.",[]]],"sy":[["social identity of the group",["Tajfel and Turner, 1986"]]],"rt":[["social identity of the group",["Tajfel and Turner, 1986"]]]},{},{"de":[["This involves examining the creator's background and the broader context in which the content was produced.",[]],["thorough bias and perspective analysis involves examining the symbolism and imagery used in visual media.",[]]],"rt":[["symbolism and imagery",[]]],"sb":[["deconstructing visual elements in media, such as color schemes, settings, and character portrayals",[]]]},{"rt":[["visual misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["a deepfake video that falsely featured a prominent media figure endorsing a financial scheme",[]]]},{"rt":[["visual misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["visual disinformation",["Erhardt and Pentland, 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["cognitive processes involved in media literacy, including the need to filter information, interpret messages, and construct meaning from media texts.",[]],["framing media literacy as both a protective and empowering skill.",[]]],"rt":[["visual media literacy",[]]],"sb":[["visual media literacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["underscores the potent influence of images in memory retention and behavior shaping",[]],["Conceptually, images are easier to understand and recall, while perceptually, their rich detail engages multiple cognitive pathways, making them particularly memorable.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["images, like language, follow specific syntactic rules that can be decoded and interpreted.",[]],["They argued that images, like language, follow specific syntactic rules that can be decoded and interpreted.",[]]]},{"de":[["not merely about seeing but goes beyond that in integrating visual alongside various sensory stimuli to improve comprehension and communication.",[]],["emphasizing the interpretative aspect of visual literacy and the importance of making meaning from visual representations.",[]],["Chauvin (2003) highlighted the distinctions between visual and media literacy, noting that while the terms are often used interchangeably, they carry different meanings that can create confusion in educational contexts.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]],["visual media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["involves a constantly evolving set of skills necessary for full participation in a media-rich society, emphasizing critical thinking and ethical considerations when engaging with visual content.",[]],["encompasses not only the ability to decode and interpret visual messages but also to engage critically with and ethically produce visual content.",[]],["teaching students to deconstruct visual content by considering the creator's background, the intended audience, and the socio-political context in which the content is produced",[]]],"rt":[["visual literacy",[]],["Media Literacy",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]],["critical media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["This can include techniques such as photoshopping, deepfakes, or selective editing, as well as using images out of context to support misleading claims. These manipulations distort reality, painting a misleading picture that obscures the truth",[]]],"rt":[["visual disinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["prevention and treatment",[]],["crisis situation updates",[]],["disease information",[]],["conspiracy",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["conspiracies were commonly found during health crises",["Sommariva et al., 2018","Wood, 2018"]],["Though conspiracies accounted for only a tiny proportion of misinformation, they can significantly tarnish the reputations of health authorities and prevent effective health and crisis communication",["Cohen, 2020"]]],"ex":[["The coronavirus is a human-made, bioengineered disease.",[]]]},{"de":[["conspiracies do not emerge from a particular information need; instead, it serves to provide an immediate and holistic understanding of the situation: why the crisis happened, who benefits from it, and who should be blamed",[]]],"rt":[["prevention and treatment",[]],["crisis situation updates",[]],["authority action and policy",[]],["disease information",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["prevention and treatment",[]],["authority action and policy",[]],["disease information",[]],["conspiracy",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The model demonstrates uncertainty reduction, self-efficacy, and reassurance as the three main communication strategies at this stage",["Reynolds and Seeger, 2005"]]],"rt":[["CERC",[]]]},{"de":[["It may inhibit effective outbreak communication by amplifying public fear and misleading the public to develop practices that might harm their health",["Poland and Spier, 2010","Swire and Ecker, 2018"]]]},{"rt":[["crisis situation updates",[]],["authority action and policy",[]],["disease information",[]],["conspiracy",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["hypernudging",[]],["microtargeting",[]],["filtering",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Cognitive dependence is what makes us potentially vulnerable to manipulation. This is because our cognitive abilities are not very developed to take up the slack when those we might depend on are no longer performing their roles as they ought. And cognitive abilities are quite weak when the social environment on which we depend is not, epistemically speaking, reliable.",[]],["This is because our cognitive abilities are not very developed to take up the slack when those we might depend on are no longer performing their roles as they ought.",[]],["And cognitive abilities are quite weak when the social environment on which we depend is not, epistemically speaking, reliable.",[]]],"rt":[["shortcuts",[]],["heuristics",[]]]},{"de":[["Here one can try to nudge people with a certain set of characteristics to go out and vote or engage in other political activities",["Zittrain 2014"]]],"sp":[["hypernudging",[]]]},{},{"de":[["One has not sought it out with the idea that the marginal benefit from it is greater than the marginal cost.",[]],["Free information, on this model, is the base from which one then figures out how to acquire more information, what sources are reliable, and how to think about that information.",[]],["high-quality free information tends to induce a person to become even better informed.",[]],["Low-quality free information often leaves a person unconcerned with acquiring more information.",[]]],"ex":[["education",[]],["casual discussions with family and friends",[]],["information one acquires from doing one's job",[]],["information that may grab one's attention for a variety of reasons",[]],["Education is a clear example of free information.",[]]]},{"rt":[["filtering",[]],["microtargeting",[]],["nudging",[]]],"sb":[["Digital gerrymandering",[]]],"sp":[["nudging",[]]],"ex":[["Google map directions given when a person is already driving toward some goal",[]],["A recommender system also has this characteristic",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the lack of informational power that makes people vulnerable to manipulation.",[]],["of informational power that makes people vulnerable to manipulation. And they are vulnerable to people who have a lot of such power.",[]],["Those who have more of any one of these have more political power since differences in political power essentially consist of differences in informational power in societies with minimally egalitarian systems of collective decision-making processes.",[]],["differences in political power essentially consist of differences in informational power in societies with minimally egalitarian systems of collective decision-making processes",[]]]},{"de":[["Since the idea of manipulation itself is primarily an ethical concept having to do with the ethical motivations of the putative manipulator, it is not primarily suited to the democratic context.",[]]],"rt":[["objective manipulation",[]]],"sb":[["Manipulation as undercutting reason",["Wood 2014, 289"]],["Manipulation as indifference to reason",["Coons and Weber (2014)"]]]},{"sp":[["manipulation",[]]]},{"sp":[["manipulation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Microtargeting can be manipulative in many ways. It can be highly emotional, triggering anger or fear; it may involve half-truths, outright misinformation, or hasty inferences.",[]]],"rt":[["filtering",[]],["hypernudging",[]]],"ex":[["It can be used in get-outthe-vote campaigns.",[]],["It can be used to shape the development of opinion in a particular direction.",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["hypernudging",[]]]},{"de":[["This creates an important inequality in power over the collective decision-making that violates the fundamental principle of political equality.",[]]],"rt":[["conflict of interests and aims",[]],["systematic inequality of political sophistication",[]]]},{"de":[["Minds are changed in such a way that the appreciation of reasons is set back either intentionally or at least is welcomed.",[]],["Furthermore, the manipulation is directed impersonally at many, though only some are successfully manipulated.",[]],["The manipulative activity is probabilistic and may manipulate only with a low probability.",[]],["As long as the harvest is sufficient, it is worth it even if only a fraction of all targeted people is affected.",[]],["Another condition of objective manipulation is that the manipulated person is not responsible for being manipulated.",[]]],"sp":[["manipulation",[]]]},{"ex":[["setting defaults",[]]]},{"de":[["Some, in particular the worst-off groups, live in the weakest social conditions for developing political sophistication.",[]]]},{"de":[["There must be some conflict of purpose here between A and B such that without the flaw, B would go in a different direction that goes against A's purpose.",[]],["wrongful manipulation looks like it sets back the interest of the manipulated person by subverting their reasoning or depriving them of important tools of reasoning, and, in the second case, sacrificing that interest for the sake of someone else's interests.",[]]]},{"sp":[["manipulation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["exploiting the persuasive power of multimodal content to bypass conventional detection systems",[]]]},{"rt":[["malicious deception",[]],["social commentary",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["talk exchanges, even when they are one-sided, are to some extent cooperative practices, with the participants sharing some goal to which they are expected to contribute.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Essentially, you should not leave out bits of information relevant to the purpose of the communication.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Quantity",[]],["Quality",[]],["Relation",[]],["Manner",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["For our purposes, the most relevant kind of failure is violation, which is the most apt to mislead.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Any report frames issues to favor a particular interpretation by highlighting or excluding certain aspects of a story.",[]],["It can manifest in loaded vocabularies, like the war on terror, or broader phrases with implicit assumptions.",[]],["Framing has long been studied as an instrument for creating a specific political image or favoring a particular point of view.",[]],["While it is natural for any non-trivial argument to be framed by the presenter, its intentional (mis)use can create persistent associations and sway opinions on political issues.",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the ease of identifying tangible concepts and mental images that arise in correspondence to words",["Paivio et al., 1968"]],["The concreteness of a frame is then measured as the average concreteness of non named-entity words in its headlines (we treat named-entities as having a concreteness measure of 5).",[]],["the ease of identifying tangible concepts and mental images that arise in correspondence to the frame",[]],["the ease of identifying tangible concepts and mental images that arise in correspondence to words (Paivio et al., 1968)",[]],["a measure of frame concreteness or the ease of identifying tangible concepts and mental images that arise in correspondence to the frame",[]]],"rt":[["ratio of relevant images for frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Media framing refers to the journalistic practice of selecting aspects of a perceived reality and making them more salient in news coverage",["Entman, 1993","Reese et al., 2001"]],["In political communication, for example, news framing is helpful as it reveals how the news article is structured to promote a certain side of the political spectrum, thus influencing the public opinion in a particular way.",[]]]},{"de":[["Political campaigns and upcoming elections (e.g., using guns as a wedge issue or motivating force to get people to the polls)",[]],["Fighting between the Democratic and Republican parties, or politicians",[]],["Political money contributions from gun lobbies (e.g., NRA)",[]],["One political party or one politician's stance on gun violence.",[]]],"ex":[["\"Baltimore students walk out of class to protest gun violence\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Angry, isolated white men as primary perpetrators of domestic gun violence",[]],["The disparities in how black and white men die in gun violence, state by state",[]],["Immigrants from Mexico bringing in guns from across the border",[]],["Gun violence in African American communities",[]]],"ex":[["\"Illegal immigrant acquitted of Kate Steinle's murder faces judge on gun charges\"",[]],["\"The disparities in how black and white men die in gun violence, state by state\"",[]],["Angry, isolated white men as primary perpetrators of domestic gun violence",[]],["The disparities in how black and white men die in gun violence, state by state",[]],["Immigrants from Mexico bringing in guns from across the border",[]],["Muslim \"terrorists\"",[]],["Gun violence in African American communities",[]]]},{"ex":[["Awareness and monitoring of \"troubled\" individuals by law enforcement (e.g., local police, FBI)",[]]]},{"de":[["Violence in media (e.g., TV/movies and video games)",[]],["Social pressures that may incite someone to violence (e.g., cliques/bullying and isolation)",[]],["Breakdown in family structures, so there is a lack of familial support and stability",[]],["Breakdown in community structures (e.g., religious organizations, other civic-oriented groups), so there is a lack of community support and stability",[]]],"ex":[["\"There's Not A Single Ounce Of Evidence To Link Mass Shootings To Video Games\"",[]],["Violence in media (e.g., TV/movies and video games)",[]],["Social pressures that may incite someone to violence (e.g., cliques/bullying and isolation)",[]],["Breakdown in family structures, so there is a lack of familial support and stability",[]],["Breakdown in community structures (e.g., religious organizations, other civic-oriented groups), so there is a lack of community support and stability",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Our method relies on Bipolar Argumentation Frameworks (Cayrol and Lagasquie-Schiex, 2005) for representing the argumentative relations (disagree and agree) between text pairs",["Cayrol and Lagasquie-Schiex, 2005"]]]},{"rt":[["veracity assessment",[]]],"ex":[["as in the Fact Extraction and Verification (FEVER) shared task (Thorne et al., 2018)",["Thorne et al., 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["It involves examining agreement expressed by a text in relation to a claim. The text could be a headline (Ferreira and Vlachos, 2016), a topic (Mohammad et al., 2016) or a lengthier text fragment (Pomerleau and Rao, 2017). Stance detection can be thought of as a two-part task: we first aim to determine if the text and claim are sufficiently close with respect to their subject matter, and then, once relatedness of the text and claim is established, we want to know whether the text takes a favourable or unfavourable view of the claim.",[]]]},{"rt":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["This layer models attitudinal information such as beliefs, judgments, certainty and sentiment of the source towards the propositional content.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This layer can represent information about events, their participants, their locations or their time, but also information about (generic) concepts or ideas.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["restricted to text",[]]]},{"de":[["Investigating perspectives can provide useful insights into the reliability of information, changes in viewpoints over time, shared beliefs among social or political groups and contrasts with other groups, etc.",[]]],"rt":[["content",[]],["stance",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["which include background noises, unnatural frequency profiles, varying levels of perceived audio quality, and inconsistent reverb and echo behavior.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["has a significant influence, suggesting that participants have reflected well on their decisions.",[]]]},{"de":[["Among the most popular applications of deepfake technology is to \"fake\" people by replicating their appearance or their voice [47].",["47"]],["deepfakes are predominantly used unethically and without consent of the depicted individuals [18].",["18"]]],"sp":[["synthetic media",[]]],"ex":[["fraud [11,17]",["11","17"]],["non-consensual depiction in pornographic contexts [46,58]",["46","58"]],["the spread of disinformation [2]",["2"]]]},{},{"de":[["Accents (e.g., New York accents) influence this pronunciation and can impact whether a participant perceive an audio as bona fide or spoofed. Added filler words and stutters are usually associated with bona fide stimuli, while odd mispronunciations can be indicators for spoofed stimuli as well.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["identified as a form of generalization in various settings including political speeches (Atkinson, 1984), health reports (Potter et al., 1991) and broadcast talk (Hutchby, 2006).",[]]],"ex":[["three-part listing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["incidence rate",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Typically, framing promotes \"a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation and/or treatment recommendation\" for the issue at hand",["Entman, 1993, p.52","Entman, 1993"]],["Typically, framing promotes \"a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation and/or treatment recommendation\" for the issue at hand (Entman, 1993, p.52).",["Entman, 1993, p.52"]]]},{},{"de":[["conspiracy culture is no monolithic whole since it consists of distinct subcultures that hold substantially different beliefs, worldviews, and practices",["Harambam and Aupers, 2017"]]],"sb":[["distinct subcultures",["Harambam and Aupers, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["The more alike people and their communications are, the more the network resembles an \"echo chamber\" (and vice versa).",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]],["rabbit holes",[]]]},{"de":[["self-enclosed",[]],["rather than their typical sketch as solidified ideas bouncing off insular walls",[]],["sites of negotiation with varying degrees of openness across and within subcultures, rather than their typical sketch as solidified ideas bouncing off insular walls",[]]],"rt":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["Homophily and heterophily within networks can indicate whether and how echo chambers are present on social media networks",["Caballero, 2020"]],["a situation of homophily",[]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]],["heterophily",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["dominant",[]],["negotiated",[]],["oppositional",[]]]},{"de":[["the codes, manners, morals, and distinct symbolic resources (Murdock, 1974)",["Murdock, 1974"]],["the codes, manners, morals, and distinct symbolic resources (Murdock, 1974) on which these groups draw",["Murdock, 1974"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a programme of anti-Catholic discrimination",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Expressions of bias can include the use of the passive voice (e.g., \"mistakes were made\"), or references to known ideological talking points and framing decisions",["Baumer et al., 2015","Budak et al., 2016","Card et al., 2016","Field et al., 2018","Morstatter et al., 2018"]]],"rt":[["informational choices",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["AAL is a language variety which follows consistent morphological, syntactic, and lexical patterns distinct from WME, such as the dropped copula (e.g., \"she at work\") and aspect markers (e.g., the habitual be: \"he be running\")",["Lanehart, 2001","Green, 2009"]]],"sy":[["African American Vernacular English",[]],["AAL",[]]],"rt":[["African American Vernacular English",[]]]},{"de":[["findings of bias could result in both allocational harms and representational harms posed by the evaluated models",[]]],"rt":[["representational harms",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["findings of bias could result in both allocational harms and representational harms posed by the evaluated models",[]]],"rt":[["allocational harms",[]]],"ex":[["Stereotypical or offensive uses of AAL by LLMs thus reflect a representational harm to AAL speakers that can further promote these views.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["Standard American English",[]],["WME",[]]],"rt":[["Standard American English",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an effective medium for the articulation of social and political criticism against state authorities",[]],["conspiracy theories rely on their circulation through social media.",[]],["conspiracy theories rely on their circulation through social media",[]]],"rt":[["rumours",[]],["witchcraft discourses",[]],["rumours of the occult and witchcraft",[]]]},{},{"de":[["manipulative policy of a government that attempts to exploit the ignorance and gullibility of its citizens.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["allegorical narratives and a social commentary addressing anxieties associated with past experiences and future uncertainty.",[]],["Rumours are not about facts or fiction, implausible half-truths, bizarre quackery or misinformation but resonate with the view that power operates secretly and needs to be approached with suspicion",[]]],"sy":[["Gossip",[]]],"rt":[["suspicion",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["witchcraft discourses",[]]]},{"de":[["These narratives all communicate that one should be careful and prepared for possible misfortunes.",[]],["they also help the idea or suggest that ordinary people could regain control of their lives.",[]],["They mirror the intellectual endeavour of a society that could help to discover real conspiracies.",[]]],"ex":[["One of the widespread rumours among some of my interlocuters has been that COVID-19 is a hoax and an invention of the illuminati.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a crucial attitude that propels people's curiosity into unveiling secret plots.",[]],["When suspicion (or doubt) is raised, things are not taken for granted and people search for new insights.",[]],["Suspicion motivates extensive information exploration to reduce ambiguity",["Fein, 1996"]]],"sy":[["doubt",[]],["mistrust",[]]],"rt":[["doubt",[]],["mistrust",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["can cause misunderstandings in receiving information",[]],["can also be used as a weapon to bring down and harm certain parties based on issues spread on social media that are irrelevant and intentional",["7"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The journalists' talk of making the abstract concrete, while the scientists opposes the concrete and prefers to talk in general terms. For journalists accessibility is the act of making things understandable to the general public, and the position themselves in opposition to the non-accessible language of the field of science.",[]],["the position themselves in opposition to the non-accessible language of the field of science.",[]]]},{"de":[["Accuracy in the sense of 'reality' rather than 'truth' exists in tension with the journalists' need to engage the audience -to find an 'angle' or 'hook' for the news item, feature article or broadcast material.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["communication as a capital",[]],["communication as a capital is not widely recognised in the field.",[]],["the amount of communicative capital means that she understands how the journalist work and accept this as a condition, if she wants to be a public media figure",[]],["dissemination of knowledge",[]]],"rt":[["scientific capital",[]]],"sp":[["capital",[]]]},{"rt":[["Art",[]],["Science",[]],["Journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["feels a sort of responsibility for the article, and is worried about how he is perceived, which is very different from the strategy of the media-positive scientist of leaving it up to the journalist.",[]],["The media-pragmatic scientist finds it difficult, not because he finds it silly, but he feels a sort of responsibility for the article, and is worried about how he is perceived",[]]]},{},{"de":[["sees herself as a representative of the mainstream media, unlike the narrow and specialized, and thus she as generalist can write about everything unlike the more specialized colleagues in the field",[]],["The science-distanced journalist talks of scientists, who are \"nutty\", scientists who \"live in their own little worlds\" and who \"wants to have everything checked before publication\".",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["motivated reasoning results from an agent's choice.",[]],["First, motivated beliefs are goal-oriented, while biases skew information processing in a general fashion.",[]],["Second, a bias tends to result from inattention or lack of effort, but motivated reasoning requires neither.",[]],["Third, because pointing out their errors helps the victims of gullibility or naivety but thwarts motivated reasoners' efforts, a challenge to motivated beliefs-not biases-provokes an emotional response.",[]]],"rt":[["rational irrationality",[]]]},{"de":[["Caplan, in contrast, views it as a result of instrumentally rational choices.",[]]]},{"de":[["The notion of a rationally irrational public offers more palatable implications for those committed to democratic values. It suggests that people's judgment is hindered by weak or subversive motivations, not cognitive deficiencies.",[]]]},{"de":[["The motif of a fragile public that awaits the helping hand of its benevolent keepers is not benign.",[]]]},{"de":[["attributes the public's scant concern for the sources' credibility to the flaws and bounds of human rationality.",[]]]},{"ex":[["tweets",[]],["news articles",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["HL",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["HL",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which was found to be impacted by contextual factors, among others younger age and a lower level of education, vaccine related determinants, such as for example belief that vaccines are not safe or effective, and group/individual factors, among others less trust in science and healthcare system [23].",["23"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["often preoccupied with a belief of social presence (Bandura, 1989;Eltantawy & Wiest, 2011;Ems, 2014).",["Bandura, 1989","Eltantawy & Wiest, 2011","Ems, 2014"]]]},{},{"de":[["People have different expectations from society, and they invest varying degrees of effort to fulfill these expectations (Butler, 1991;Ganesan, 1994).",["Butler, 1991","Ganesan, 1994"]],["Researchers in human psychology recognize this trait as -fulfilled expectations.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Group members develop familiarity over a period of continuous interaction on social media, which reveals each member's personality, opinions, beliefs, and behaviors (Kumar et al., 1995).",["Kumar et al., 1995"]],["Familiarity, a behavioral component of trust, mostly governed by affective attitude, can reduce uncertainty (Fukuyama, 1995.).",["Fukuyama, 1995.","Fukuyama, 1995"]]]},{},{"rt":[["social presence",[]],["connectivity",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Trust is a complex human behavior, composed of and influenced by multidimensional parameters",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["content homogenization",[]],["external news diversity",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the media provide a framework for the audience to interpret news by promoting the salience of some values and characteristics of the topics over others",["Druckman, 2001"]],["framing is a strategy for producing influence, or political capital, and also involves choosing the right path for delivering information to policymakers",["Gandy, 2015"]]],"sb":[["episodic frame",["Iyengar, 1990"]],["thematic news frame",["Iyengar, 1990"]],["issue-specific frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This inequality is founded on differences between people in terms of income, wealth, and opportunities (Therborn, 2013), linked to gender, education, social class, or place of birth (Pérez-Mayo, 2019).",["Therborn, 2013","Pérez-Mayo, 2019"]],["the micro perspective dominates (81.4 per cent), which means it is defined by differences between individuals rather than between groups.",[]],["This inequality is framed, mainly, from a micro level; that is, from the differences between individuals, and also refers to income inequality and, less frequently, to wealth inequality.",[]]],"sb":[["income inequality",[]],["wealth inequality",[]],["inequality of opportunities in education, health and research",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"sy":[["center-left",[]],["left",[]]]},{"de":[["Professionalisation of journalism is relatively strong. Journalistic autonomy is more likely to be constrained by commercial pressures than by political instrumentalization, although the latter is more common in Britain. News-oriented journalism predominates, with a stronger tradition of commentary in Britain.",[]],["Journalistic autonomy is more likely to be constrained by commercial pressures than by political instrumentalization, although the latter is more common in Britain. News-oriented journalism predominates, with a stronger tradition of commentary in Britain. The role of the state is limited, though more so in the United States than in Ireland and Canada, where concern for national culture has given the state an important role, and in Britain, where both public broadcasting and the regulation of commercial broadcasting have been very strong",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is a press that is very focused on political life, with a high proportion of comments. In addition, there is a struggle between a profession that is less well developed than in other European countries and a state that usually plays a vital role as owner, regulator, or funder of the media",["p. 73"]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["conservative",[]],["liberal/conservative",[]],["liberal",[]],["far-right",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Desecuritizing frames",[]]]},{"de":[["desecuritizing frames that emphasize minority integration.",[]],["Desecuritizing frames that emphasize the loyalty of Russian-speakers that appeal to notions of appropriateness",[]]],"sb":[["Desecuritizing inclusion",[]],["Desecuritizing exclusion",[]]]},{"sp":[["Desecuritizing frames",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["securitization",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["art performances, petitions, and smallerscale protests",[]]]},{},{"de":[["securitization is always contested, and the ways in which minorities are securitized change over time in response to both international and domestic-level processes.",[]]],"sb":[["Securitizing exclusion occurs when policies that are less accommodating to the minority are justified by presenting the minority as a threat to the state or core nation.",[]],["Securitizing inclusion occurs when more accommodative policies are justified by security concerns.",[]],["Desecuritizing inclusion happens when accommodative policies are justified without reference to security.",[]],["Desecuritizing exclusion, where marginalizing policies are justified by factors other than security is theoretically possible.",[]]]},{"sb":[["policies limiting or preventing the minority from participating in normal democratic processes",[]],["assimilative policies that raise the barriers to participation by requiring minorities to adopt the dominant culture and values",[]]],"sp":[["Securitizing frames",[]]]},{"de":[["include concerns about Russian-speakers' lack of support for Ukraine and support for Russia's aggression, the loyalty of Russian-speakers to Latvia, and the vulnerability of Russian-speakers to Russia's propaganda.",[]],["securitizing frames can be utilized in the service of more accommodating and less accommodating policies.",[]],["Securitizing frames linking Russianspeakers to their support for Russia's aggression, consumption of the Russian media, and cultural choices are used to present them as a potential security threat and to justify policies that raise the barriers to minority participation.",[]]],"sb":[["Securitizing exclusion",[]],["Securitizing inclusion",[]]]},{"sp":[["Securitizing frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation narratives targeting the EU and its member states",[]],["common reflection on the phenomenon of disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["information disorder",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["disinformation arising from the Covid-19 pandemic and the Ukraine-Russia war",[]]]},{"sb":[["Dis-information",[]],["Mis-information",[]],["Mal-information",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["higher media literacy scores correspond to lower levels of distrust in scientists and journalists.",[]],["Media literacy programs to empower citizens, Academic research on disinformation and citizenship-related issues, national fact-checking initiatives and projects have been conducted to promote media literacy competencies, trust in news and information, and responsibility toward informed consumption and sharing of information.",[]]],"rt":[["media education",[]],["digital literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["media literacy",[]],["information literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["the use of AI to create messages designed to have an emotional impact",["Participant 2, FGD6"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["The female candidate was alluded to by suggesting she had a romantic relationship with the leader of her party. Montages were produced showing them kissing-images that were evidently created with AI",["Participant 1, FGD5"]]]},{"de":[["perception of personal resistance to the influence of disinformation without denying its existence",[]],["mitigating the negative impact of AI-generated disinformation in elections",[]],["perceived influence of disinformation on one's own vote",[]],["disinformation erodes trust",[]],["the act of installing disinformation as a control device, creating political divisions, and denigrating women",[]],["made it impossible for people to distinguish what is true from what is false",[]],["More specifically, disinformation is \"verifiably false or misleading information created, presented and disseminated for economic gain or to intentionally deceive the public, and which may cause public harm\" (European Commission, 2019).",["European Commission, 2019"]],["disinformation-spreading influencers",[]]],"sb":[["AI-generated disinformation",[]],["electoral disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["videos can be made with people's actual faces; their voice is taken to produce false publications.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Media and information literacy (MIL) has accordingly emerged as a strategy \"in the fight against disinformation, especially in a world where the overabundance of information and the speed at which it spreads can overwhelm people\" (Abuín-Penas et al., 2024, p. 23).",["Abuín-Penas et al., 2024, p. 23"]],["MIL is understood as the set of competencies that enable citizens to access, analyse, evaluate, and produce information in a critical manner (Grizzle et al., 2013).",["Grizzle et al., 2013"]]]},{"de":[["a digitally literate citizenry does not merely detect disinformation but also demands transparency, questions manipulated narratives, and actively participates in the construction of a more ethical information ecosystem",[]],["Teaching digital verification tools in secondary schools and universities",[]],["promoting the habit of checking reliable sources and not sharing anything without verification",[]],["articulating MIL with its ethical dimension",[]],["self-training of the electorate",[]],["systematic civic education",[]]],"sy":[["digital literacy",[]]],"rt":[["digital literacy",[]],["civic education",[]],["digital verification tools",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The vulnerable groups considered-rural residents, women, and older people-were defined based on documented deficiencies in media literacy, limited exposure to verification tools, and structural inequalities of a socio-economic, geographical, and cultural nature (Martínez, 2025;United Nations, 2024b), rather than by the absence of digital devices or connectivity.",["Martínez, 2025","United Nations, 2024b"]]]},{},{"de":[["In this paper, both are treated on similar basis, as their embedding into mainstream media is similar.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["regime of post-truth",[]]],"sp":[["regime of post-truth",[]]]},{"de":[["Being embedded into journalistic content legitimizes their truthfulness",["Thomas 2014","Mitrokhin 2015","Khaldarova&Pantti 2016","Desigaud et al. 2017","Thomas 2014;Mitrokhin 2015;Khaldarova&Pantti 2016;Desigaud et al. 2017"]],["Being embedded into journalistic content legitimizes their truthfulness (Thomas 2014;Mitrokhin 2015;Khaldarova&Pantti 2016;Desigaud et al. 2017)",["Thomas 2014","Mitrokhin 2015","Khaldarova&Pantti 2016","Desigaud et al. 2017"]]]},{"de":[["invisible to the audience",[]]],"rt":[["Frontstage performances",["Meyrowitz 1985","Karlsson 2011"]]]},{},{"sy":[["problem",[]],["opposition",[]]]},{"sp":[["production cycle",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The definition in journalistic approach",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news in the context of the aforementioned events could have been interpreted as intentionally widely spread misinformation",[]],["In this paper, both are treated on similar basis, as their embedding into mainstream media is similar.",[]]],"rt":[["alternative facts",[]],["regime of post-truth",[]]],"sp":[["regime of post-truth",[]]]},{"rt":[["Back-stage performances",["Meyrowitz 1985","Karlsson 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["In Tuchman's (1980) interpretation, the construction of a fact is always related to professionalism and motivated by the political sphere.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["product-oriented students only mentioned the information processing stages that were visible to readers in the final news text (e.g. selection of information, quotes from sources, editing text).",[]]],"rt":[["process approach",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["production cycle",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["This field in Social Sciences observes and analyzes the methods through which people make sense of the world out of their interactions.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Mis-information",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017, p. 5","Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["Online interactions spreads in many places and many distinct media are employed complementarily at the service of communication between participants.",["Braga, 2008, p. 279"]]]},{"de":[["He identified membership categorization as one of the ethnomethods used by people.",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["debunked false stories shared on social media and messaging apps",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We use entity exclusively with reference to persons",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["To avoid incorrectly identifying hallucinations, we additionally require that at least one of the tokens in the entity does not appear in the source to count as hallucinated.",[]]]},{"rt":[["hallucinations",[]],["inclusion bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Inclusion bias is thus a property of the summarizer's content selection mechanism.",[]],["Inclusion bias poses a form of allocative harm (Barocas et al., 2017) since it reduces visibility of members of certain groups if, for example, news is consumed through the filter of automatic summarization.",["Barocas et al., 2017"]],["If we frame content inclusion in terms of a classification problem over the content units in a document, this corresponds to demanding equality of opportunity (Hardt et al., 2016), as opposed to equality of outcome.",["Hardt et al., 2016"]]],"rt":[["equality of opportunity",[]],["equality of outcome",[]],["allocative harm",["Barocas et al., 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["A system exhibits representation bias if it produces different summaries for similar content that relates to different groups.",[]],["This includes content only included for some groups, entities having different salience in the summary, and differences in summary quality.",[]],["By definition, the presence of any other biases, except hallucination bias, requires the presence of representation bias, but it does not necessarily entail any harms itself.",[]]],"rt":[["hallucination bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Cognitive processes make use of working and long-term memory resources to transform, manipulate, combine, and validate information",["Dinsmore, 2017","Richter & Maier, 2017"]],["Although covert, such processes may be externalized through means like think-alouds and cognitive interviews.",[]],["Cognitive processes make use of working and long-term memory resources to transform, manipulate, combine, and validate information (Dinsmore, 2017;Richter & Maier, 2017).",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Processing",[]]]},{"sb":[["attending to the factual backing",[]],["emotional appeal",[]],["considering whether or not the information presented was one-sided in nature",[]],["analyzing the types of words or phrases strategically used in texts",[]],["identifying or questioning text's invocation of narrative frames",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["inter-text model",[]],["integrated mental model",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Because narrative frames anchor and set the parameters for discourse on social issues, students' recognition of and resistance to statusquo-and inequity-perpetuating narrative frames is examined as a facet of social justice reasoning.",[]],["students' abilities to recognize common narrative frames used across texts is examined as a facet of integration",[]],["super-textual factors, used to shape the discourse on various social issues",[]],["recognizing narrative frames in texts is essential for students to link texts to one another and to recognize intertextual patterns in how media portrays issues in society.",[]],["Because narrative frames are ubiquitous in mass media (Lakoff, 2010), applying the MD-TRACE to understand students' reasoning about mass media portrayals of social issues necessarily requires considering students' abilities to recognize and analyze these.",["Lakoff, 2010"]]],"sy":[["common reporting tropes",[]]],"rt":[["reporting tropes",[]]],"ex":[["the pro-capitalist frames used across texts",[]],["inappropriately used war metaphors in headlines",[]],["the incorrect use of the American Dream as a frame",[]],["American Dream frame",[]],["war metaphors",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["students' seeking out of various, and particularly non-dominant or marginalized, perspectives on social issues, when learning from mass media.",[]]]},{"de":[["Social justice reasoning can be distinguished from critical thinking writ large in this equity or social justice focus.",[]],["Reasoning about equity, here, includes students' structural analysis of issues of power, dominance, and representation, particularly as these are expressed in text(s), as well as their considerations of particular values, like fairness or justice, that texts obscure or advance",["Amemiya et al., 2012","Kumar & DeCuir-Gunby, 2022","Ruck et al., 2019"]],["Such reasoning may involve students seeking out a multitude of perspectives, particularly from marginalized groups, approaching texts critically to recognize what information may be presented incompletely or selectively, and reasoning intertextually to identify the common narrative frames or themes introduced across texts and their aims.",[]],["students' recognition of and resistance to statusquo-and inequity-perpetuating narrative frames is examined as a facet of social justice reasoning.",[]],["students' abilities to recognize and resist narrative frames used for inequity-perpetuating aims is examined as reflective of social justice reasoning.",[]],["seeking out of marginalized perspectives to understand social issues (Study 1), critically reasoning about the impacts of various policy proposals, particularly for marginalized groups (Study 2), and recognizing when narrative frames, like shared values, are used in texts to promote inequitable aims (Study 3)",[]],["social justice reasoning is evidenced by students, to varying extents, and conceptualized as, in part, including the processes of perspective taking, prior knowledge application for critique, and attendance to intertextual narrative frames.",[]],["conceptualized as, in part, including the processes of perspective taking, prior knowledge application for critique, and attendance to intertextual narrative frames.",[]],["Reasoning about equity, here, includes students' structural analysis of issues of power, dominance, and representation, particularly as these are expressed in text(s), as well as their considerations of particular values, like fairness or justice, that texts obscure or advance (Amemiya et al., 2012;Kumar & DeCuir-Gunby, 2022;Ruck et al., 2019).",[]],["social justice reasoning seems to involve learners' perspective taking when encountering mass media representations of social issues.",[]],["social justice reasoning seems to require that students invoke their prior knowledge or real-world understanding of issues to critically appraise the ways in which these are described in texts.",[]],["a key aspect of social justice reasoning seems to involve students' abilities to identify narrative frames, as super-textual factors, used to shape the discourse on various social issues.",[]]],"rt":[["perspective taking",[]],["prior knowledge application for critique",[]],["attendance to intertextual narrative frames",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["human interest",[]],["conflict",[]],["morality",[]],["economic consequences",[]]],"sp":[["five/frame model",[]]]},{"rt":[["attribution of responsibility",[]],["human interest",[]],["morality",[]],["economic consequences",[]]]},{"de":[["Does the story refer to two sides or to more than two sides of the problem or issue?",[]],["Does one party-individual-group-country reproach another?",[]],["Does the story reflect disagreement between Bosnian-Serbs' political individuals/parties?",[]],["Does the story reflect disagreement between individuals-ethnic groups-entities?",[]],["Does the story refer to winners and losers?",[]]],"sp":[["five/frame model",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["attribution of responsibility",[]],["human interest",[]],["conflict",[]],["morality",[]]]},{"de":[["Is there a reference to economic consequences of pursuing or not pursuing a course of action?",[]],["Is there a mention of financial losses or gains now or in the future?",[]],["Is there a mention of the costs/degree of expense involved?",[]]],"sp":[["five/frame model",[]]]},{"rt":[["attribution of responsibility",[]],["conflict",[]],["morality",[]],["economic consequences",[]]]},{"de":[["Does the story provide a human example or \"human face\" on the issue?",[]],["Does the story employ adjectives or personal vignettes that generate feelings of outrage, empathy-caring, sympathy, or compassion?",[]],["Does the story go into the private or personal lives of the actors?",[]],["Does the story emphasize how individuals and groups are affected by the issue/problem?",[]],["Does the story contain visual information that might generate feelings of outrage, empathycaring, sympathy or compassion?",[]]],"sp":[["five/frame model",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["attribution of responsibility",[]],["human interest",[]],["conflict",[]],["economic consequences",[]]]},{"de":[["Does the story contain any moral message?",[]],["Does the story offer specific social prescriptions about how to behave according to democratic principles/rights/tools or mentions democracy in general?",[]]],"sp":[["five/frame model",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["demand-and supply-side factors",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a channel of government influence",[]],["the US government's selective information provision during press briefings and through press releases",[]]]},{"sp":[["demand-and supply-side factors",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["old media",[]],["legacy media",[]]],"ex":[["television, national and local newspapers, and radio",[]]]},{"de":[["supporters on the losing side believe elections are less credible",["Bush and Prather 2017","Whitt et al. 2023"]]]},{},{"de":[["It can be divided in two categories. One is when Social Bias, as explained earlier, influences the training dataset and generates the same bias in outputs [42]. The second is an intentional bias built into the platforms to gear the users' engagement and revenue generation.",["42"]]],"sb":[["Social Bias, as explained earlier, influences the training dataset and generates the same bias in outputs",["42"]],["an intentional bias built into the platforms to gear the users' engagement and revenue generation",[]],["One is when Social Bias, as explained earlier, influences the training dataset and generates the same bias in outputs",["42"]],["The second is an intentional bias built into the platforms to gear the users' engagement and revenue generation.",[]]],"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Toxicity is further categorized into implicit and explicit, based on target groups, political and social bias, illegal, violent, aggressive, and more",["7"]]],"sy":[["discrimination",[]]],"rt":[["Implicit Bias",[]],["Social Bias",[]],["Algorithmic Bias",[]]],"sb":[["Implicit Bias",[]],["Social Bias",[]],["Algorithmic Bias",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["when LLM-powered resume-screening tools reinforce existing hiring inequities",["169"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Most research dealing with toxicity still focuses only on linguistic expressions, and is usually classified as implicit and explicit toxicity",["19"]],["It is aggressive and offensive. Bansal et al. describe it as direct and intentional flaming",["27","19"]],["Its implied meaning and actual content have the same meaning.",[]],["It is aggressive and offensive.",[]],["It is aggressive and offensive. Bansal et al. describe it as direct and intentional flaming [27,19].",["27","19"]],["Its implied meaning and actual content have the same meaning. Some explicit toxic messages that do not have a target are prevalent in the form of profanity, sarcasm, and other forms of offensive language.",[]]],"sy":[["direct and intentional flaming",["27","19"]],["fallacy",[]]],"sp":[["Toxicity",[]]],"ex":[["Some explicit toxic messages that do not have a target are prevalent in the form of profanity, sarcasm, and other forms of offensive language.",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation and fake news have a dramatic effect on public opinion and are likely to move society toward extremism",["9","10"]],["It mimics real news construct.",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Fallacies provide support to fake news, misinformation, and disinformation dissemination.",[]]],"sy":[["Explicit toxicity",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["ethos (assuming false credibility)",[]],["logos (false logic)",[]],["pathos (appealing to emotions)",[]]],"sp":[["toxicities",[]]]},{"de":[["can further be considered as direct or indirect, and straight or satirical",["163"]]],"sy":[["Toxicity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hallucinations arise from several factors, including gaps in training data, overgeneralization, and the probabilistic nature of language model generation",["148"]],["When AI systems lack sufficient context or rely on incomplete datasets, they generate content that may appear plausible but is factually incorrect",["149"]]]},{},{"de":[["Illegal content is unlawful and is regulated by law",["31","32","33","34"]],["Illegal content is unlawful and is regulated by law [31,32,33,34].",["31","32","33","34"]]]},{"de":[["Implicit bias exhibited during the dataset annotation process also besets datasets with the bias inherent to experts or human annotators.",[]]],"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Generative AI models reinforce biases by personalizing content recommendations based on user behavior, which can lead to echo chambers and filter bubbles",["138","62"]]],"rt":[["echo chambers",[]],["filter bubbles",[]]]},{"de":[["It introduces toxicity indirectly, which often targets one or more individuals, races, or genders in context.",["26"]],["includes caps lock and repetition as aggressive speech; irony, metaphor, circumlocution, hyperbole, rhetorical questions, (re)interpretation, euphemism, simile, contrast, and name-calling are fine-grained in discrediting, insulting, dehumanization, derogation, and discriminatory speech.",[]],["It introduces toxicity indirectly, which often targets one or more individuals, races, or genders in context. [26]. It often involves use of figures-of-speech like metaphor, simile, irony or sarcasm.",["26"]]],"rt":[["metaphor",[]],["simile",[]],["irony",[]],["sarcasm",[]]],"sp":[["Toxicity",[]]],"ex":[["metaphor, simile, irony or sarcasm",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["This can be seen in LLM-assisted healthcare systems, where demographic proxies contribute to inequities in patient care",["169"]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation and fake news have a dramatic effect on public opinion and are likely to move society toward extremism",["9","10"]],["It does not mimic real news.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["Disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["It leverages multiple forms of inputs, making toxic and harmful content more engaging and impactful.",[]],["Due to the interplay of different content types, multi-modal toxicity is challenging to detect and moderate [16].",["16"]]],"ex":[["The rise of toxic memes, which blend text and imagery to create offensive or toxic content is a perfect example.",[]]]},{"de":[["It leverages multiple forms of inputs, making toxic and harmful content more engaging and impactful.",[]],["Due to the interplay of different content types, multi-modal toxicity is challenging to detect and moderate",["16"]],["Traditional AI moderation tools struggle to analyze cross-modal interactions and toxicity",["100"]]],"ex":[["The rise of toxic memes, which blend text and imagery to create offensive or toxic content is a perfect example.",[]],["Memes spread toxicity effectively using humor and sharing to broadcast toxic content",["99"]],["toxic memes",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["SMPs have added various features like followers, reactions, comments, replies, streaming services, advertisements, feeds, and political and social influencers, to mention the least.",[]],["The primary source of revenue for SMPs is user engagement, i.e., how long users are glued to it.",[]]]},{"de":[["The pervasive nature of toxicity in online platforms and AI systems impacts individuals, society, and businesses, and has regulatory implications",[]],["In online context, it is often derogatory, rude, harmful, and disrespectful. Toxic content induces stress, anxiety, suicidal thoughts, depression, and loneliness. These are the least among the impacts on society",["24","25"]],["In online context, it is often derogatory, rude, harmful, and disrespectful. Toxic content induces stress, anxiety, suicidal thoughts, depression, and loneliness.",["24","25"]],["Often, toxicity has intentions of causing harm and is targeted towards a particular target group",["142"]]],"sy":[["harm",["6"]],["incivility",[]],["offensive behavior",["19"]],["flaming",["162,163"]]],"sb":[["implicit",[]],["explicit",[]],["Implicit Toxicity",[]],["Explicit Toxicity",[]],["fallacy",[]]],"ex":[["hate speech, cyberbullying, misinformation, and harassment",[]],["hate, hate speech, offensive language, flaming, incivility, risk, malicious, harmful, hateful sexual, illegal and abusive content, information hazards, discrimination, bias, fake news, misinformation, human-computer-interaction harms",["5","6"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["English example: \"Richard Dawkins, an evolutionary biologist and perhaps the foremost expert in the field says evolution is true, therefore it must be true.\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"Imran Khan keh raha hai isko follow nai karna chahye tou isko unfollow karna is the best option\"",[]],["English translation: \"Imran Khan is saying that we shouldn't follow him so unfollowing him is the best option\"",[]]]},{"de":[["In some cases, the support is built based on preconceived judgements and acts as a tactic commonly used in marketing, politics, and media.",[]]],"ex":[["English example: \"We must stop these refugees; they are terrorists\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"Pakistan ne bankrupt hojana soon. Pack your bags aur nikal lo Canada before it's too late\"",[]],["English translation: \"Pakistan is about to get bankrupt soon. Pack your bags and leave for Canada before it's too late\"",[]]]},{"de":[["It is used to persuade the target audience to join in and take the course of action because \"everyone else is taking the same action\"",["Hobbs and McGee, 2014"]],["It is used to persuade the target audience to join in and take the course of action because \"everyone else is taking the same action\" (Hobbs and McGee, 2014).",["Hobbs and McGee, 2014","(Hobbs and McGee, 2014)"]]],"ex":[["English example: \"Would you vote for Clinton as president? 57% say yes\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"We hate Babar cause all of India does. Apnay liay nai tou issiliay karlo ke hum sab bhi kartay hain\" English translation: \"We hate Babar cause all of India does. If not for yourself you should hate him because we all do.\"",[]]]},{"sb":[["Dictatorship is an extreme case where the audience is told exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other possible choices.",[]]],"ex":[["English example: \"Either we go to war or we will perish\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"Either you are a Muslim woman or a feminist, koi beech ka raasta nhi, faisla kr lo and stick to it\"",[]],["English translation: \"Either you are a Muslim woman or a feminist, there is no middle way, decide now and stick to it\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Dictatorship is an extreme case where the audience is told exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other possible choices.",[]]]},{"ex":[["English example: \"Either we go to war or we will perish\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"Either you are a Muslim woman or a feminist, koi beech ka raasta nhi, faisla kr lo and stick to it\"",[]],["English translation: \"Either you are a Muslim woman or a feminist, there is no middle way, decide now and stick to it\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Some people use it to cast doubt on their opponents, controversial issues or the credibility of some media organizations.",[]]],"ex":[["English example: \"A candidate talks about his opponent and says: Is he ready to be the Mayor?\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"Death penalty is ridiculous. Aik rapist ko latka dene se baqion ko kia faraq pare ga?\"",[]],["English translation: \"Death penalty is ridiculous. What difference will it make to others if one rapist is hanged?\"",[]]]},{"de":[["This technique involves \"hyping\" up by using impressive sounding words that are nonetheless meaningless and vague.",[]]],"ex":[["English example: \"I am so hungry I could eat a horse.\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"You are the top crypto scammer of Pakistan. Tumhain pata hai tum ne in masoom logon ke sath kya kya kiya hai kabhi ponzi scheme, kabhi courses aur kabhi paid subscriptions\"",[]],["English translation: \"You are the top crypto scamer in Pakistan. You know what you have done to these innocent people -sometimes running Ponzi schemes, other times offering courses or paid subscriptions.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["This technique involves \"hyping\" up by using impressive sounding words that are nonetheless meaningless and vague. Minimization on the other hand refers to understating an idea, product's value or someone's characteristics than what they actually are. This is particularly done to make something seem less important or smaller than it is.",[]]]},{"ex":[["English example: \"Entering this war will make us have a better future for our country.\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"Afghanion ko Pakistan se nikalo, haraamkhor humara khaa kr humein hi gaali dete hain. Also remember how they caused destruction through Kalashnikov culture in our beloved country\"",[]],["English translation: \"Expel Afghanis from Pakistan, these morally corrupt people benefit from our land and then curse us. Also remember how they caused destruction through Kalashnikov culture in our beloved country\"",[]]]},{"de":[["The technique makes use of emotionally appealing phrases or words that are closely associated with highly valued concepts and beliefs such that they carry conviction without supporting information or reason.",[]],["Such highly valued concepts attract general approval when attached to a person or issue.",[]],["The technique makes use of emotionally appealing phrases or words that are closely associated with highly valued concepts and beliefs such that they carry conviction without supporting information or reason. Such highly valued concepts attract general approval when attached to a person or issue.",[]]],"ex":[["Peace, hope, happiness, security, leadership, freedom, family values, and patriotism.",[]],["Because I'm Worth It (L'Oreal makeup)",[]],["I'm Lovin' It (McDonald's fast food)",[]],["The Best a Man Can Get (Gilette razors)",[]],["Taliban are the true mujahids defending their country like lions",[]]]},{"de":[["It is used to influence the public's opinion or mindset by using these words or phrases with strong connotations.",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["English example: \"how stupid and petty things have become in Washington\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"I hope women get over their bad boy syndrome soon. Pehle ameer baap ki aulaad dekh ke shaadi krti hain phir domestic abuse ke randi rone, you girls know what you're getting yourself into\"",[]],["English translation: \"I hope women get over their bad boy syndrome soon. First they see rich dads kids and marry them and then cry foul of domestic abuse, you girls know what you're getting yourself into\"",[]]]},{"de":[["This is particularly done to make something seem less important or smaller than it is.",[]]],"ex":[["Another English example: \"I did not hit her; it was a slight pat\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"You are the top crypto scammer of Pakistan. Tumhain pata hai tum ne in masoom logon ke sath kya kya kiya hai kabhi ponzi scheme, kabhi courses aur kabhi paid subscriptions\"",[]],["English translation: \"You are the top crypto scamer in Pakistan. You know what you have done to these innocent people -sometimes running Ponzi schemes, other times offering courses or paid subscriptions.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["One who engages in this fallacy is said to be \"attacking a straw man\".",[]]],"ex":[["Claiming that all vegans are opposed to all forms of animal captivity, including pet ownership.",[]],["Aurat march is trash as rather than helping women who actually needs helps all they talk about is nanga honei do, lesbian honei dou",[]]]},{"de":[["Primarily they are in the form of an argument where labels are insulting or demeaning.",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["English example: \"Republican congressweasels\", \"Bush the Lesser\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"Patwaari aur youthiye larte rehein ge, meanwhile Nawaz and Niyazi will loot the country and leave for England\"",[]],["English translation: \" Patwaari and youthiye will keep on fighting, meanwhile Nawaz and Niyazi will loot the country and leave for England\"",[]]]},{"de":[["instance, when an unclear phrase with multiple possible meanings is used within the argument, and, therefore, it does not really support the conclusion.",[]]],"ex":[["English example: \"It is a good idea to listen to victims of theft. Therefore, if the victims say to have the thief shot, then you should do it.\" Here the word \"listen\" can either mean to listen to the personal account of the experience of being a victim of theft and empathize with them or it could mean to carry out the punishment of their choice.",[]],["Code-switched example: \"As we all know in big guns circles a term used \"Get a promotion with wife swap\". Baqi aap samajhdar ho keh keya matlab hey es ka\" English translation: \"As we all know in big guns circles a term used \"Get a promotion with wife swap\". The rest of you are wise enough to understand the meaning of this\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This form of misleading or distraction may either be a logical fallacy or literary device. Those subjected to a red herring argument are led away from the issue that had been the focus of the discussion and urged to follow an observation or claim that may be associated with the original claim, but is not highly relevant to the issue in dispute (Teninbaum, 2009).",["Teninbaum, 2009","2009"]]]},{"de":[["Propaganda has always existed, but social media platforms have made it easier for individuals and organizations to promote their agenda and narratives quickly across large audiences.",[]],["Propaganda is also used as a tool to manipulate people's emotions and behavior, often for political or ideological purposes.",[]],["This can result in a decline in critical thinking abilities, impairing the capacity to make well-informed decisions grounded in factual information and evidence.",[]]]},{"de":[["This form of misleading or distraction may either be a logical fallacy or literary device. Those subjected to a red herring argument are led away from the issue that had been the focus of the discussion and urged to follow an observation or claim that may be associated with the original claim, but is not highly relevant to the issue in dispute",["Teninbaum, 2009"]],["This form of misleading or distraction may either be a logical fallacy or literary device. Those subjected to a red herring argument are led away from the issue that had been the focus of the discussion and urged to follow an observation or claim that may be associated with the original claim, but is not highly relevant to the issue in dispute (Teninbaum, 2009).",[]]]},{"de":[["It can refer to any person or concept with a negative connotation",["Teninbaum, 2009"]],["It is an attempt to persuade the audience to disprove an action or idea of someone by invalidating their position on the basis that their view is popular among hated groups. It can refer to any person or concept with a negative connotation (Teninbaum, 2009).",["Teninbaum, 2009","(Teninbaum, 2009)"]]]},{"de":[["This technique attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the object as something the target audience likes or dislikes",["Dan, 2015"]],["This technique attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the object as something the target audience likes or dislikes (Dan, 2015).",["Dan, 2015","(Dan, 2015)","2015"]]],"ex":[["English example: \"Make America great again!\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"Utho Pakistanio! Save your country!\"",[]],["English translation: \"Wake up Pakistanis! Save your country!\"",[]]]},{"de":[["It can be applied to individuals or groups.",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda techniques",[]]],"ex":[["I'm not pregnant, I haven't been tested. But the President says if it's not tested it's not real. I think it's gas...",[]],["Malik Riaz is a cult. PPP ke saath mil kar paani ke daamon zamin kharredi hai to make Bahria Town Karachi",[]]]},{"de":[["One who engages in this fallacy is said to be \"attacking a straw man\".",[]]],"ex":[["English example: \"Claiming that all vegans are opposed to all forms of animal captivity, including pet ownership.\"",[]],["Code-switched example: \"Aurat march is trash as rather than helping women who actually needs helps all they talk about is nanga honei do, lesbian honei dou\" English translation: \"Aurat march is trash as rather than helping women who actually needs helps all they talk about is let us naked, let us be lesbians\"",[]]]},{"de":[["They are typically short, generic sentences that offer seemingly simple answers to complex questions or that distract the attention away from other lines of thought",["Hunter, 2015"]],["They are typically short, generic sentences that offer seemingly simple answers to complex questions or that distract the attention away from other lines of thought (Hunter, 2015).",["Hunter, 2015","(Hunter, 2015)"]]]},{"de":[["Here an opponent's position is discredited by charging them with hypocrisy without directly disproving their argument",["Richter, 2017"]],["Here an opponent's position is discredited by charging them with hypocrisy without directly disproving their argument (Richter, 2017).",["Richter, 2017","(Richter, 2017)","2017"]]]},{"de":[["It is a difficult problem in the fields of natural language processing (NLP) and artificial intelligence (AI) for which the classical or deep learning methods experimented.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["publishing (the logic of the news media gate)",[]],["sharing (the logic of the public gate)",[]],["spreading (the logic of the algorithmic gate)",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["news values",[]]]},{"rt":[["news judgement",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The publishing logic operates through journalists' and editors' assessment of news values (cognitive and normative concepts of what constitutes news) and news judgement (the application of those concepts on bits of information) as they select events to write about and publish",["Strömbäck et al., 2012"]]],"sp":[["logic",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Factors involved in the logic of sharing relate to both content and context.",[]],["selection in the sharing logic is mainly driven by social values and social judgement.",[]]],"sp":[["logic",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["A Facebook algorithm instantiates the spreading logic, where the collection of data to enable advertising sales is the paramount goal",["Van Couvering, 2017"]],["the algorithmic gate where spreading occurs is marked by commercial values and commercial judgement.",[]]],"sp":[["logic",[]]]},{"de":[["content is often shared only among people that hold similar beliefs and ideologies, leading to the formation of",[]]]},{},{"de":[["content which resembles news in form but lacks the journalistic standards ensuring its quality",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Conspiracy theory beliefs may be premised on little access to (or ignorance of) information that is either veracious or honest but represent a rational attempt to understand complex phenomena and deal with feelings of powerlessness, for example.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Type III Fake News",[]]]},{"sp":[["Discourse of liberty",[]]]},{"rt":[["Type I Fake News",[]]]},{"rt":[["negative liberty",[]]]},{"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news travel faster with distinct propagation patterns than genuine news, and also differ in their cascade depth and width size",["Zhou and Zafarani 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["action orientation refers to gaining information for decision making and practical actions in everyday life",[]],["interaction orientation refers to getting information on how to behave or talk to other people in various situations (e.g., how to behave on a job interview)",[]]],"sb":[["action orientation",[]],["interaction orientation",[]],["action orientation refers to gaining information for decision making and practical actions in everyday life",[]],["interaction orientation refers to getting information on how to behave or talk to other people in various situations (e.g., how to behave on a job interview).",[]]]},{"sb":[["social understanding",[]],["self-understanding",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["how to behave on a job interview",[]]]},{"sp":[["media dependency theory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Media dependency is higher in societies which are less plural, and where there are fewer sources among which audiences could choose",["Jackob, 2010, p. 590"]],["Media dependency is not the same as media use, but they are positively correlated, as familiarity with the media makes audiences more likely to be dependent on them for their information goals",["Lowery, 2004"]],["audiences will depend more on media in the moments of social change, disruption, conflict, or crisis",[]]],"rt":[["media use",[]]],"sp":[["media dependency theory",[]]]},{"de":[["explains the links between production of information in the media system, and individual uses of media audiences.",[]]]},{"sp":[["media dependency theory",[]]]},{"de":[["The third factor is named 'play&communication goal', as it refers to communication and entertainment with others and relaxation.",[]]]},{"de":[["The first factor is named 'social understanding goal', because it refers to using media for understanding actions of others, current events, making decisions and thinking about the future.",[]]],"rt":[["social understanding",[]],["orientation goals",[]]]},{"de":[["Ball-Rokeach (1985) delineates three major goals which define individual media use.",[]]],"sb":[["social world (understanding and learning about social world or community)",[]],["self (learning about self)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["formed by confounding C i",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Stance bias",[]]]},{"sb":[["Sentiment-stance Spurious Correlations (SSC)",[]],["Target Preference Bias (TPB)",[]],["Sentiment-stance Spurious Correlations",[]],["Target Preference Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["stance detection plays a pivotal role in analyzing public opinion on social media topics",[]],["including favor, against, and neutral.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Stance bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Journalistic roles",[]]]},{"de":[["It is often seen as a counterpart to the notion of impartiality.",[]],["it potentially frees journalists from a bias towards elite sources and a 'he said, she said' style of reporting.",[]],["supported the peace process and were in favour of pushing for reconciliation",[]],["It is often seen as a counterpart to the notion of impartiality. Yet, it potentially frees journalists from a bias towards elite sources and a 'he said, she said' style of reporting. It is thus in favour of a more analytical approach to socio-political reality (Donsbach and Klett, 1993;Entman, 1989).",["Donsbach and Klett, 1993","Entman, 1989"]]],"sp":[["Journalistic roles",[]]]},{"de":[["referred to it in terms of the obligation of spreading the truth and sticking close to the facts",[]]],"sp":[["Journalistic roles",[]]]},{"de":[["This style of journalism entails that news coverage is driven by the theme decided upon by the journalists or editors.",[]],["interpretative journalism entails an emphasis on the meaning of news events, beyond describing the 'Who, What, Where and When'. (Salgado and Strömbäck, 2011: 149).",["Salgado and Strömbäck, 2011"]],["global shift of journalism to strengthen its focus on the 'why' question",["Patterson, 1996","Salgado and Strömbäck, 2011"]]],"rt":[["Peace Journalism",[]]]},{"rt":[["watchdog",[]]],"sp":[["Journalistic roles",[]]]},{"de":[["The way journalists perceive their role has been shown to have a substantial impact on their production of media content",["Bartholomé et al., 2015"]]],"sb":[["the disseminator",[]],["the interpreter",[]],["the adversarial",[]],["the watchdog",[]],["the public mobilizer",[]],["the advocate",[]],["the adversary",[]]]},{"de":[["Peace journalism focuses less on societal elites",["Lynch and McGoldrick, 2012"]],["this proposed style of reporting has been criticized for crossing the line to advocacy and opposes the notion of objective journalism",["Van Aelst et al., 2017"]],["not compatible with journalistic working practices that emphasize conflict as a key news value",["Bartholomé et al., 2015"]],["Importantly, peace journalism is rooted in interpretative routines (Fong, 2009).",[]],["This type of journalism explores contexts and causes of conflicts and promotes the transparent representation of all stakeholders, not only of the elites.",[]],["Also, it focuses on creative ideas for conflict resolution and the exposure of lies (Galtung, 2003;Lynch and McGoldrick, 2012).",["Galtung, 2003","Lynch and McGoldrick, 2012"]],["regarded as a desirable way of dealing with a conflict, but can be rather impracticable in many cases.",[]],["Its aim is to look deeper, contextualize, look for solutions and to not simply reproduce the official narrative of the elites",["Keeble et al., 2010","Pilger, 2010"]],["potential to improve the journalistic praxis in Colombia",[]],["its focus on the civil society instead of on the elites",[]],["described as major advantage",[]],["Within Peace Journalism, this selfreflection should ideally happen in a way that is comprehensible for the audience",["Lynch and McGoldrich, 2005","Mitra, 2016"]],["The main features of the concept of Peace Journalism have been embraced by the interviewees. This includes a stronger focus on contextualizing, proposing solutions, giving voice to the voiceless and turning away from the practice of only offering a voice to the elites",["Keeble et al., 2010","Fong, 2009"]],["dismiss the notion of objectivity",[]],["Peace journalism focuses less on societal elites (Lynch and McGoldrick, 2012).",["Lynch and McGoldrick, 2012"]],["This type of journalism explores contexts and causes of conflicts and promotes the transparent representation of all stakeholders, not only of the elites. Also, it focuses on creative ideas for conflict resolution and the exposure of lies (Galtung, 2003;Lynch and McGoldrick, 2012).",["Galtung, 2003","Lynch and McGoldrick, 2012"]],["Peace Journalism is a way to reflect on the consequences that reporting might have on the audience.",[]],["Within Peace Journalism, journalists are prescribed the role to contribute to peaceful conflict transformation.",["Mitra, 2016"]]],"rt":[["interpretative peace journalism",[]],["interpretative journalism",[]],["War journalism",[]]],"sb":[["advocates",[]]]},{"de":[["social networks create bubbles in societies, in which people tend to only consume media content that confirms their views.",[]]]},{"de":[["telling the stories of ordinary people and shedding light on what was going on in society were the main reasons for the journalists to choose this category.",[]],["In addition, journalism should include ordinary people in public debates, should propose possible solutions for urgent problems, and should set the agenda (Cassidy, 2005).",["Cassidy, 2005"]]],"sy":[["public mobilizer -who primarily wants to engage the masses into the public debate",[]]],"sp":[["Journalistic roles",[]]],"ex":[["the mobilization of people to participate in shaping the country's future",[]]]},{"sp":[["Journalistic roles",[]]],"rt":[["watchdog",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it involved strong investigative duties for journalists",[]]],"sp":[["Journalistic roles",[]]],"ex":[["covering corruption",[]]]},{"de":[["This approach can be understood as a way of removing high-activity users, including both bots and genuine users with idiosyncratic or semi-automated tweeting patterns (Larsson & Hallvard, 2015).",["Larsson & Hallvard, 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["Twice as much of the Islamophobia expressed by followers of the BNP is Implicit (i.e. subtle and nuanced) rather than Explicit (i.e. aggressive and overt).",[]]]},{"sp":[["Islamophobia",[]]]},{"de":[["far right parties are 'embedded in a general socio-cultural authoritarianism'",["Rydgren, 2010, p. 2"]]]},{"de":[["Islamophobia is more likely to be implicit and covert rather than explicit.",[]]]},{"de":[["Islamophobia is a deeply contested and contentious concept, and despite substantial theoretical, conceptual and critical reasoning (Bleich, 2012;Mohideen & Mohideen, 2008;Klug, 2012;Sayyid, 2014;Allen, 2013), it remains true that 'there is no singular, cogent, or consensus definition of Islamophobia' (Beydoun, 2016, p. 108).",["Bleich, 2012","Mohideen & Mohideen, 2008","Klug, 2012","Sayyid, 2014","Allen, 2013","Beydoun, 2016, p. 108"]],["Islamophobia, as with any expression of prejudice, inflicts a large human cost on its victims (Simpson, 2013;Shepherd, Harvey, Jordan, Srauy, & Miltner, 2015;Matsuda, Lawrence, Delgado, & Crenshaw, 1993;Sheridan, 2006).",["Simpson, 2013","Shepherd, Harvey, Jordan, Srauy, & Miltner, 2015","Matsuda, Lawrence, Delgado, & Crenshaw, 1993","Sheridan, 2006"]],["when left unchallenged, Islamophobia raises questions of social fairness and justice as it can have 'a significant negative impact on the life chances and quality of life enjoyed by British Muslims' (All Party Parliamentary Group on British Muslims, 2018, p. 7).",["All Party Parliamentary Group on British Muslims, 2018, p. 7"]],["these harms can be inflicted by Islamophobia which takes place either online or offline.",[]],["undermining community cohesion and social integration and reinforcing group-based divisions.",[]],["when left unchallenged, Islamophobia raises questions of social fairness and justice as it can have 'a significant negative impact on the life chances and quality of life enjoyed by British Muslims'",["All Party Parliamentary Group on British Muslims, 2018, p. 7"]],["problematic associations that are routinely made between Muslims and terrorism (Allen, 2015(Allen, , 2017)), or between Muslims and 'barbaric' practices (Marranci, 2006;Evolvi, 2018).",[]],["enables granular insight into the different ways in which Muslims, and Islam, are prejudicially associated with negative traits (Benford & Snow, 2000).",["Benford & Snow, 2000"]]],"rt":[["Islamophobic hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["Explicit Islamophobia",[]]],"sp":[["racism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In terms of media effects, agendasetting proposes the salience of an issue in the media",["Chen et al., 2019"]],["The theory suggests that the media shape opinion by determining what issue is given the salient attention",["Zahariadis, 2016","Chen et al., 2019"]]]},{"sp":[["sub-frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the headlines indicated that sanctions resulted from disputes between Western powers or regional powers and the country. Political causes, socio-economic issues, and hu-man rights violations were also portrayed in the headlines as possible reasons for the sanctions the country faced.",[]]],"sb":[["Political cause",[]],["Socio-economic cause",[]],["Human right violation",[]],["Morality frame",[]],["Global/regional dimension",[]]]},{"sp":[["prognostic framing",[]]]},{"de":[["the presentation of an event, or \"frame\", influences how people process information about the event and provides a lens through which the audience perceives the intended perspective of journalists or media in an event",[]]],"rt":[["generic framing approach",[]],["sub-frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This frame includes subframes such as conflict, human interest, economic impact, morality, responsibility, and nationalization",["Godefroidt et al., 2016","D'Angelo, 2017"]]],"sb":[["conflict",[]],["human interest",[]],["economic impact",[]],["morality",[]],["responsibility",[]],["nationalization",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"rt":[["first level of agenda-setting",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Assistance",[]],["Rejection",[]],["Internal reform",[]],["Nationalisation",[]],["External assistance",[]]]},{"sp":[["prognostic framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["sub-frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This finding points towards a limited agenda building capacity of all four organizations in terms of \"what to think\".",[]]]},{"sp":[["agenda building",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["agenda building",[]]]},{},{"de":[["items of fake news pass as facts that could be interpreted as true",[]]]},{"rt":[["Informal Messages",[]],["information overload",[]]]},{"de":[["supports the fact that audiences, or readers, get only partial information on reality.",["Lozano, 2007: 34"]]]},{"de":[["the concept of gender asserts that the characteristics allocated to sex come from the cultural context and not from nature.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Formal Messages",[]],["information overload",[]]]},{"sy":[["Media Education (ME)",[]],["Media and Information Literacy (MIL)",[]],["Computer Literacy",[]],["Digital Literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a falsehood that continues to be accepted even knowing that it is a false, which does not prevent decisions based on it",["67","ibid.: 67"]]]},{"rt":[["discrimination",[]]],"sp":[["discrimination",[]]]},{"de":[["a stereotype has a neutral meaning because it allows for an internal restructuring of the world",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Esto se hace mediante el análisis de sentimiento de la data obtenida en Twitter.",[]],["analizar los sentimientos y emociones de la gente durante el COVID-19 en base a los tweets emitidos",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Sentimientos Positivos",[]],["Sentimientos Neutrales",[]]]},{"rt":[["Sentimientos Positivos",[]],["Sentimientos Negativos",[]]]},{"rt":[["Sentimientos Negativos",[]],["Sentimientos Neutrales",[]]]},{"de":[["Esta librería pronostica de manera automática la puntuación del sentimiento de los tweets, usando la capacidad del aprendizaje automático para clasificarlos y hacer inferencias acerca de los tweets extraídos.",[]],["VADER pertenece a un tipo de análisis de sentimiento basado en léxicos de palabras relacionadas con sentimientos.",[]],["Es un modelo basado en reglas para análisis general de sentimiento",[]],["En este enfoque, cada una de las palabras en el léxico se clasifica como positiva o negativa, y en michos casos qué tan positiva o negativa.",[]],["Es un modelo basado en reglas para análisis general de sentimiento, y su efectividad fue comparada con 11 benchmarks típicos, incluyendo Word Count (LIWC), Affective Norms for English Words (ANEW), the General Inquirer, Linguistic Inquiry, Senti WordNet, y técnicas de aprendizaje automático que se basan en Máquinas de Soporte Vectorial (SVM), Bayes ingenuo, y Entropía Máxima. En este enfoque, cada una de las palabras en el léxico se clasifica como positiva o negativa, y en michos casos qué tan positiva o negativa.",[]]]},{"ex":[["fake news",[]],["conspiracies",[]]]},{"de":[["We use a pretrained RST parser [8] 23 to obtain the tree for each news article and count each rhetorical relation (in total, 45) within a tree, based on which 45 features are extracted and classified in a traditional statistical learning framework.",["8"]]]},{"de":[["SAFE facilitates recognizing the news falseness in its text, images, and/or the \"irrelevance\" between the text and images.",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{"sb":[["External factchecking",[]]]},{"sy":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["the term 'misinformation' is used as an umbrella term for any type of inaccurate or deceptive information, regardless of its motivation",["Altay et al., 2023"]],["But in many studies, the term 'misinformation' is used as an umbrella term for any type of inaccurate or deceptive information, regardless of its motivation (Altay et al., 2023).",["Altay et al., 2023"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["bothsiderism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["often making use of attracting \"action-oriented images\"",["Iyengar, 1991, p. 7"]]]},{"de":[["Are particularly attention-arousing",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]],["Focus on individual cases and individual circumstances",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]],["Elicite stronger emotional reactions",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]]],"sy":[["storytelling",[]]]},{"de":[["Are particularly attention-arousing",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]],["Focus on individual cases and individual circumstances",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]],["Elicite stronger emotional reactions",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]]],"rt":[["Thematic news frames",[]]]},{"de":[["The basic assumption is that the selective accentuation of distinct aspects of reality in media contexts provides recipients with interpretive patterns that can simplify but also significantly shape their information processing.",["Tewksbury and Scheufele, 2009"]],["Framing is considered one of the most important theoretical perspectives for analyzing the influence of media information on the perception and evaluation of political content",["Tewksbury and Scheufele, 2009"]]]},{"de":[["framing theory as a general framework for analyzing subsequent stages of information perception and processing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Understanding multimodal framing as a multistep process",[]],["ranging from the first stimulus exposure to its deeper elaboration.",[]],["the unique qualities of each framing modality-visual versus textual-become apparent at different levels in the multistage framing process",["Geise and Baden, 2015","Powell et al., 2015"]],["the power of a news frame to 'catch' a recipient is not exclusively shaped by its effectiveness in changing the importance of cognitive evaluations; it is also shaped by the frame's capacity to attract attention and direct cognitive appraisal steps into support for the policy position framed by the multimodal news article.",[]]],"rt":[["multimodal news frames",[]]],"sb":[["episodic multimodal frames",[]],["thematic frames",[]]],"sp":[["Framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Understanding multimodal framing as a multistep process",[]],["the inclusion of an attention-grabbing image increased attention to the accompanying text as well, and its structure in turn guided participants' interpretation and support for policy intervention",[]]]},{"de":[["multimodal frames shape the cognitive evaluation of how strongly recipients agree with a certain political decision (e.g., policy support)",[]],["suggests a strong interaction of both modalities in which the effects of visuals possibly amplify the textual framing effects",["Geise and Baden, 2015"]]],"sb":[["Episodic multimodal frames",[]],["thematic multimodal frames",[]],["thematic news frames",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["responsibility attributions are closely linked to emotions such as anger, guilt, and satisfaction",["Smith and Ellsworth, 1985"]]],"sb":[["individual level",["Iyengar, 1991"]],["social-societal",[]],["political",[]]]},{},{"de":[["thematic frames generate stronger emotional responses.",[]],["which often materializes as a \"background report\" that requires deeper cognitive elaboration",["Iyengar, 1991, p. 7"]]],"sp":[["multimodal framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Are not likely to attract attention 'at first sight'",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]],["Focus on (political) consequences of a certain problem",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]],["Promote social-societal attributions of responsibility",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]],["Elicit emotional reactions",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]]]},{"de":[["Are not likely to attract attention 'at first sight'",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]],["Focus on (political) consequences of a certain problem",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]],["Promote social-societal attributions of responsibility",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]],["Elicit emotional reactions",["Aarøe (2011)","Dahmen (2012, 2015)","Grabe et al. (2017)","Gross (2008)","Hart (2011)","Iyengar (1991)","Major (2009)"]],["issue-based thematic frames",[]]],"rt":[["Episodic news frames",[]]],"sp":[["multimodal news frames",[]]]},{"de":[["a mental action tendency",["Scherer and Moors, 2019, p. 724-725"]]]},{"rt":[["SARF",[]]]},{},{"de":[["disastrous events have become increasingly important partly because of the need to apportion blame for the failure to identify and prevent risk.",["Alaszewski and Brown (2011)"]],["disastrous events have become increasingly important partly because of the need to apportion blame for the failure to identify and prevent risk",["Alaszewski and Brown (2011)"]],["Blame is a dominant media trope and, according to Alaszewski and Brown (2011), disastrous events have become increasingly important partly because of the need to apportion blame for the failure to identify and prevent risk.",["Alaszewski and Brown (2011)"]]],"rt":[["risk perception",[]]]},{"de":[["reflecting government inaction with regards the failure to implement a precautionary ash import ban",["Fellenor et al. 2017","Tomlinson 2016"]],["blame is part of the fabric of reporting disastrous events, rather than necessarily being particular to dieback in itself.",[]],["The role of the government for not instituting an import ban can be thought about as the frame 'surface', which is predicated on and yet occludes, or black-box's, the broader aspects of how the frame has evolved",[]]]},{"ex":[["hazardous waste spillages and train wrecks",["Kasperson et al. 1988"]]]},{"rt":[["risk event",[]]],"sp":[["risk event",[]]],"ex":[["seasonal dengue fever or smoke haze",["Ng et al. 2017"]]]},{},{"rt":[["issue framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["One aspect of the templates used by journalists is their enrolment of current events as evidence of an underlying persistent problem",["Kitzinger 2000;2004"]]]},{},{"de":[["displacing blame via a process of 'othering'",[]]]},{"de":[["subjective reflection of the uncertainty around potentially deleterious outcomes and events",[]]]},{"de":[["the amplification process […] starts with either a physical event […] or a report of environmental or technological events…",["Kasperson 1992, p. 159"]],["risk is conceptualized partly as a social construct and partly as an objective property of a hazard or event",["Renn et al. 1992, p. 140"]],["connotes a socially constructed state of affairs that draws in and on different actors and dimensions such as public and media attention, scientific knowledge and policy practice.",[]]],"rt":[["dispersed risk event",[]]],"sb":[["dispersed risk event",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["SARF's core thesis is that events related to hazards, communicated via channels such as the media, interact with psychological, social and cultural processes in ways that can intensify or attenuate the public perception of risk, subsequently shaping and influencing risk behaviour",["Renn 1991"]]],"rt":[["risk signal",[]],["risk event",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["outgroup members",[]],["animosity towards outgroups",["Rathje et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["CORFing is also reflected by fans referring to the team with self-exclusive references like \"they\" (as in: \"They lost the game today\"), which implies that they see themselves as distinct from the team.",[]]],"rt":[["BIRGing",[]]]},{"de":[["analyze fairness, i.e., to which degree a report accurately represents activities of all parties as they occurred in reality",[]]],"rt":[["bias",[]]]},{"de":[["as better than and distinct from other rival groups ('out-groups').",[]]],"rt":[["out-groups",[]]]},{"rt":[["outgroups",[]]]},{"de":[["the desire to conform to this group norm is an important driver of their behavior",[]],["clubs reported relatively more of their own positive events compared to those of their opponents, which was amplified by fans who engaged more with these tweets mentioning positive events of their own team compared to their opponents.",[]]],"rt":[["outgroup derogation",[]]],"ex":[["clubs can show ingroup favoritism by being more active during matches that move in a favorable direction (wins), while they can be more restrained and refrain from posting during matches that are more unfavorable (losses or draws).",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["live commentaries in traditional mass media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["group members strive to perceive their own group ('in-group') as better than and distinct from",[]]],"rt":[["in-group",[]]]},{"rt":[["in-groups",[]]]},{"sy":[["SIT",[]]]},{"sy":[["traditional sports reporting",[]]],"rt":[["live Twitter commentaries",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["selective",["2009"]],["habitual",["2009"]],["avoidance choices",["2009"]],["selective, habitual and avoidance choices",[]]]},{"de":[["In some instances, these behaviours were instinctive and not necessarily the most logical way to access the content that our participants wanted to view. However, they remained easy to use because they had become habitual practices within their everyday lives.",[]]],"ex":[["defaulting to a single aggregator platform",[]],["defaulting to the electronic programme guide (EPG)",[]],["defaulting to a specific linear channel number",[]],["defaulting to pre-recorded programmes on the STB or personal video recorder (PVR; Johnson, Hills and Dempsey, 2024)",["Johnson, Hills and Dempsey, 2024"]]]},{"de":[["default viewing can be a gift, a burden, a compromise and an obligation.",[]],["defaulting may reflect a strategy to reduce the burden of choice, thus making choice manageable and pleasurable.",[]],["defaulting is the default, so to speak",[]],["defaulting needs to be understood as integral to the everyday experience of television",[]]],"sb":[["technical defaults",[]],["behavioural defaults",[]],["social defaults",[]],["technical defaults (related to the settings of TV devices or services)",[]],["behavioural defaults (related to habitual, learned behaviours of audiences)",[]],["social defaults (related to the choices of other people, either in the household, through other interpersonal relationships or online)",[]],["defaulting to routinised pathfinding",[]],["Defaulting to the crowd",[]]],"ex":[["defaulting to the interface of a connected TV device or service ('1-World Default')",[]],["defaulting to the EPG ('EPG Default')",[]],["defaulting to a specific linear channel ('3-Digital Default')",[]],["defaulting to 'My Recordings' on a set-top-box ('3-Step Default')",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["in media psychology, habit is often theorised as a subconscious and passive response to stimulus",["Kim and Choi, 2007"]],["Habits, conceptualised as unthinking routines, are understood as both an inevitable and lamentable part of everyday life.",[]]],"ex":[["Habits keep us doing what we have always done, despite our best intentions to act otherwise",["Neal et al. (2006)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["neither passive nor active, ritual nor instrumental, but rather a cognitive process supporting media dependency relationships (329; see also Webster, 2009).",["329","Webster, 2009"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["abstract descriptions of people tend to be much more powerful as compared to concrete descriptions",[]],["When presented with abstract descriptions, message recipients perceive the information conveyed as being more stable over time",["Wigboldus, Spears, and Semin 2005"]]],"rt":[["concrete descriptions",[]]]},{"de":[["the most abstract is that involving an adjective",[]]],"rt":[["Linguistic Category Model",[]]]},{"de":[["the most concrete description is that involving a descriptive action verb",[]]],"rt":[["Linguistic Category Model",[]]]},{"rt":[["Linguistic Category Model",[]]]},{"de":[["may play a key role.",[]],["linguistic biases are not attributed to cultural differences, nor to any conscious attempt to alter the content created.",[]],["They are believed to have cognitive origins, although as we will see, they have very social consequences.",[]]],"rt":[["Linguistic Expectancy Bias",[]],["Linguistic Intergroup Bias",[]]],"sb":[["Linguistic Expectancy Bias",[]],["Linguistic Intergroup Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["linguistic biases are not attributed to cultural differences, nor to any conscious attempt to alter the content created.",[]],["They are believed to have cognitive origins, although as we will see, they have very social consequences.",[]],["Linguistic biases are not only driven by cognitive and motivational underpinnings, they are also influenced by social and communicative context",["Maass et al. 1989"]],["linguistic biases contribute to the maintenance and transmission of stereotypes, as information encoded in an abstract manner is more resistant to disconfirmation.",[]]],"sb":[["Linguistic Expectancy Bias",[]],["Linguistic Intergroup Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["LCM specifies four categories of predicates with respect to the level of abstraction in a description of a person",[]]],"sb":[["descriptive action verb",[]],["adjective",[]],["state verb",[]],["interpretive action verb",[]]]},{"de":[["Abstract descriptions of a target individual provide more information about their perceived traits and characteristics, and less about a particular situation they are in or action they have taken.",[]],["Studies have shown that when a target individual violates our expectations, we are likely to focus on more tangible, concrete details in our descriptions of him or her",["Maass et al. 1989","Wigboldus, Spears, and Semin 2005"]],["In contrast, stereotype-congruent people and behaviors are likely to be described more abstractly, using language that makes reference to their general disposition and traits.",[]],["the basis for this bias is cognitive (Karpinski and von Hippel 1996): unexpected information, which does not align with our existing prototypes, is more difficult for us to process.",["Karpinski and von Hippel 1996"]],["When something or someone is unexpected, LEB predicts that the biographer would tend to focus on more concrete descriptions, avoiding the use of more abstract language that is subjective or inferential.",[]]],"rt":[["Linguistic Intergroup Bias",[]]],"sp":[["Linguistic biases",[]],["Linguistic bias",[]]]},{"de":[["For members of our in-group, we tend to describe positive actions and attributes using more abstract language, and their undesirable behaviors and attributes more concretely. Conversely, when an out-group individual does or is something desirable, we tend to describe him or her with more concrete language, whereas her undesirable attributes are encoded more abstractly.",[]],["LIB builds on LEB, since we expect our in-group members to have desireable attributes and/or to exhibit desireable behaviors, whereas positive characteristics of out-group members may be unexpected.",[]],["LIB predicts that white men biographers, the majority, are more likely to describe the achievements of white men actors in an abstract manner, and those of other social groups in a more concrete manner. In this way, they imply that their own group behaves in a positive way, and that achievement by other social groups are not usual (i.e., are not broadly generalizable)",["Guerin 1994"]]],"rt":[["Linguistic Expectancy Bias",[]],["LIB builds on LEB, since we expect our in-group members to have desireable attributes and/or to exhibit desireable behaviors, whereas positive characteristics of out-group members may be unexpected.",[]],["LEB",[]]],"sp":[["Linguistic biases",[]],["Linguistic bias",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Linguistic Category Model",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Esta categorización pretende trazar una línea divisoria clara entre esta tipología de canales y las empresas mediáticas (medios de comunicación) especializadas en la producción de información que participan en la plataforma.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["RTVE, Deutsche Welle, o BBC",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["expulsión/exclusión silenciosa",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Esta etiqueta no anuncia de forma explícita una mayor calidad informativa, pero es inevitable que dicho elemento sea considerado por los usuarios como un indicador de confianza.",[]]],"sy":[["medios confiables",[]]]},{"de":[["The widespread and rapid dissemination of fake news cost us in many ways.",[]],["Fake news is being propagated on various platforms to present misinformation or hoaxes.",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["hoaxes",[]]],"ex":[["individual or societal costs by hampering elections integrity, significant economic losses by impacting stock markets, or increases the risk to national security.",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news detection",[]]],"sp":[["fake news detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["strategy frame",[]],["issue framing",[]],["human-interest framing",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["exemplars",[]]],"rt":[["game frame",[]],["strategy frame",[]],["issue framing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["game frame",[]],["strategy frame",[]],["human-interest framing",[]]]},{"de":[["McNair sees that journalism is required to be a supplier of information, a resource that participates in public life and political debate, and a medium of education, enlightenment and entertainment.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["McNair sees that journalism is required to be a supplier of information, a resource that participates in public life and political debate, and a medium of education, enlightenment and entertainment.",[]]]},{"rt":[["game frame",[]],["issue framing",[]],["human-interest framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["sexism, racism and ableism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Specifically, a classifier is considered unfair or biased if the prediction changes according to the identities present, i.e. in similar sentences, the degree of hate is increased if terms such as white or straight are replaced by adjectives such as black or non-binary, revealing imbalances, possibly resulting from skewed and unrepresentative training data.",[]]]},{"de":[["It was first issued in July 2014 in various languages.",[]],["Dabiq itself states the magazine is for the objectives of Unitarianism, truth-seeking, migration, holy war and community -tawhid, manhaj, hijrah, jihad, and jama'ahrespectively",["Fraser, 2014"]]]},{},{"de":[["ISIS then argues at length as to why its organization most imitates imamah (Islamic religious leadership).",[]]],"sy":[["Islamic religious leadership",[]]]},{"de":[["ISIS was established by Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi and attained global status in 2014 when it drove Iraqi security forces out of key cities in its Western Iraq offensive",["Schmid, 2015"]]],"sy":[["Daesh",[]]]},{},{"de":[["ISIS capitalizes divisively on the aspect of violent struggle to further its own purposes",["Armborst, 2011"]]]},{"de":[["Oftentimes, such attacks are executed without direct material support from global terrorist organizations, yet are influenced (whether through social media or propaganda tools such as those currently under discussion) by such organizations.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["it models sufficiently opinion diffusion and incorporates elaborate characteristics of the process",["5"]]]},{"de":[["These sites typically employ professional journalists (or even volunteers) who invest the time to research and comment on the truthfulness of articles shared on the web and on online social media, focusing primarily on evaluating the accuracy of articles or stories that become viral and receive increased user attention",["22"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["inference bias, which arises from the language of the query and may trigger alignment with specific regional perspectives",[]],["inference bias is induced by the language of the input query",[]],["inference bias dominated-models tended to align with the language of the query while preserving factual correctness.",[]],["arises from the language of the query and may trigger alignment with specific regional perspectives",[]]],"rt":[["model bias",[]]],"ex":[["the same Koreantrained model may generate Chinese-aligned responses when prompted in Chinese, reflecting the influence of the query language rather than the model's original pretraining data.",[]]]},{"de":[["model bias, which stems from the training data and may reflect dominant cultural narratives",[]],["outputs reflect the model's primary training language",[]],["stems from the training data and may reflect dominant cultural narratives",[]]],"rt":[["inference bias",[]]],"ex":[["a Koreantrained model may produce Korea-aligned answers even when prompted in another language, like English or Chinese.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["juggernaut science is a way of thinking about science that is prevalent not only among science journalists but also among Japanese ethicists and others",[]]],"ex":[["no one could stop technological advances",[]]]},{"de":[["According to Price et al. (1997), the framing effect is embedded in text as a given message that renders the readers' thoughts applicable to evoking particular thoughts and feelings.",[]]]},{"rt":[["ELM",[]]],"sp":[["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",["Petty & Priester, 1994"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["magnitude",[]],["likelihood",[]],["immediacy",[]]],"sp":[["Informational Utility Model (IUM)",[]],["utility dimensions",[]]]},{"de":[["makes use of an individualized perspective of informational utility, referring only to a single person's utility at a given moment.",[]]],"rt":[["perceived magnitude",[]],["likelihood",[]],["immediacy",[]],["efficacy of threats or opportunities",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["color",[]],["sound",[]],["sex appeal",[]],["humor",[]],["production quality",[]],["Photographs and video materials",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Brehm's theory of reactance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Furthermore, we caution that the use of swear words is, at best, an indirect indicator of backfire: it suggests an increase in negative emotion from some users, and previous lab experiments have shown that this is symptomatic of a stubborn individual clinging to their original false beliefs [124].",["124"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Other scholars restrict \"misinformation\" to unintentional inaccuracies",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["These clusters include verbs that describe fakes (fake, mislead, fabricate, etc., ρ = -0.087 * * * ), and nouns for very fake content (hoax, scam, conspiracy, etc., ρ = -0.045 * ) and somewhat fake content (propaganda, rumor, distortion, etc., ρ = -0.046 * )",["ρ = -0.087 * * *","ρ = -0.045 *","ρ = -0.046 *"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["its veracity may vary from untruths to true but manipulative information.",[]],["its veracity may vary from untruths to true but manipulative information",["11","62"]]]},{"de":[["Stance classification [5,6] shows the position of support or response from public opinion to the news using classification techniques based on data or attitudes toward a particular target [7].",["5","6","7","5,6"]]],"rt":[["fake news detection",[]]],"sb":[["supporting (for)",[]],["neutral (observing)",[]],["opposing (against)",[]]],"ex":[["supporting (for)",[]],["neutral (observing)",[]],["opposing (against)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["construcción del consenso",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["un sistema impuesto de propaganda sistemática",[]]],"sy":[["construcción del consenso o manufacturing consent",[]],["engineering of consent",[]]]},{"de":[["A través de la música y el arte escénico, el franquismo intentó construir una narrativa que conciliara sus intereses propagandísticos con las demandas de un país que buscaba integrarse en un nuevo orden mundial.",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["transferencia de prestigio",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["De esa forma, se resaltan las buenas acciones del grupo propio y se destacan las malas acciones del grupo ajeno, como también se mitigan las malas acciones del grupo y se minimizan las buenas acciones del grupo ajeno",["Van Dijk 1996"]],["estrategia de polarización",[]]]},{"de":[["con el fin de persuadir en los lectores",["Erausquin (1995)"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["A Unesco prefere chamá-las de campanhas de desinformação",["United…, 2019, p. 3"]]]},{"de":[["resulted in the growth of disinformation, leading to questions of how human beings can be manipulated by false information.",[]],["These processes generate an overload scenario for the population, also causing anxiety and fatigue, which in turn can begin the dissemination of disinformation",[]],["can be used to destabilize democracies by removing the credibility and trust of organs and institutions and causing damage to society, as it can influence the discrediting of public health, politics, security, and the environment. Furthermore, it can also render the rights of citizen to have access to true information and freedom of expression unfeasible",["European Commission, 2019"]],["The definition addresses public confusion, since it is common for the population to be unable to distinguish true and false news and identify the truth of news.",[]]],"sy":[["campanhas de desinformação",[]]]},{"de":[["fake news started to be part of people's daily lives, as it is considerably easy to manipulate a human's desired behavior, especially when the behavior has ideological characteristics and involves issues that individuals already have a tendency to believe in",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]],["false news",[]]]},{"sy":[["social bubbles",[]]]},{"de":[["Fogg's Behavior Model includes three elements (Motivation, Ability and Trigger) that have factors and characteristics which can be used to persuade the desired behavior of citizens individually or in groups",[]],["The model includes characteristics of human psychology and behavioral orientations, and its main focus is to better understand the changes in human behavior in the media and in digital technologies, constituting a systematic way of understanding these phenomena (Fogg, 2009).",["Fogg, 2009"]],["The use of Fogg's Behavior Model can thus characterize the reasons leading individuals to perform certain actions, such as sharing disinformation on social media.",[]]],"sb":[["Motivation",["Fogg, 2009"]],["Ability",["Fogg, 2009"]],["Trigger",["Fogg, 2009"]]]},{"sp":[["Motivation",[]]],"ex":[["Hope/Fear are illustrated, for instance, by the hope of doing something productive in your professional career or the fear of not being able to accomplish something that you want.",["Fogg, 2009"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["related to the elements of Motivation by Pleasure/Pain, as it tries to affect certain groups through their feelings, creating triggers for greater commotion.",[]],["misinformation usually does not fail to follow social norms or rules, requiring little or no critical shortterm thinking and no financial expense to carry out a behavior involving false information.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["false news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["responsible for propelling the user to perform a desired behavior.",[]]],"sb":[["Pleasure/Pain",[]],["Hope/Fear",[]],["Social Acceptance/Rejection",[]]],"sp":[["Fogg's Behavior Model",[]]]},{"sp":[["Motivation",[]]],"ex":[["Pleasure/Pain involves carrying out any activity that gives you pleasure, such as eating your favorite food, or the pain arising from an inflicted violence that consequently generates the need for protection.",["Fogg, 2009"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["Sign",[]]],"sp":[["Trigger",[]]],"ex":[["using an application that reminds you to drink water",["Fogg, 2009"]]]},{"sp":[["Motivation",[]]],"ex":[["we can mention the desire for social acceptance in a group of messages or on social media and interaction as a way to prevent social rejection",["Fogg, 2009"]]]},{"sy":[["filter bubbles",[]]]},{"sp":[["Ability",[]]],"ex":[["going to work in pajamas in an environment with a formal dress code.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Trigger",[]]],"ex":[["A video or message that inspires hope",[]]]},{},{"de":[["can be used to analyze more objective contexts such as news articles in an effective way without the extraction of complex dependency structure with opinion expressions",[]],["While entity-to-entity stance detection combines holders, targets, and polarities with more streamlined, directed link labels.",[]],["It is a streamlined task without the complex dependency structure for structural sentiment analysis, while it is more informative compared to most previous work assuming that the source is the author.",[]]],"rt":[["sentence-level (Pang et al., 2002) or aspect-level sentiment analysis (Pontiki et al., 2014)",["Pang et al., 2002","Pontiki et al., 2014"]],["target-oriented stance detection (Hu and Liu, 2004;Somasundaran and Wiebe, 2010)",["Hu and Liu, 2004","Somasundaran and Wiebe, 2010"]],["structured analysis (Kim and Hovy, 2004;Wiebe et al., 2005;Barnes et al., 2022)",["Kim and Hovy, 2004","Wiebe et al., 2005","Barnes et al., 2022"]],["structural sentiment analysis",[]]],"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["stance detection can be considered as a simplified task of structured sentiment analysis",[]]],"rt":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the incorporation of AI is a matter of narrative agency",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a stance that may result in editorial values being neglected.",["Brennen et al. (2020)"]]]},{"de":[["involves development of mental health literacy through (a1) direct contact with (a2) specifically targeted persons.",[]]],"rt":[["public health level",[]]],"ex":[["mental health literacy programs provided in specific schools for specific identified staff and/or students",[]],["mental health literacy programs provided in specific schools for specific identified staff and/or students.",[]]]},{"de":[["understanding of mental health disorders as health-related entities and (b) their general characteristics, causes, and treatments; (c) decreased stigma towards mental illness; and (d) one's ability to promote positive mental health and effective help-seeking for mental health problems as necessary",[]],["mental health literacy training such as this at the individual person level has a number of advantages. First and foremost, there is extended direct contact between the individual and the trainer, where detailed information can be provided with questions and uncertainties answered, in the context of a trusting professional relationship.",[]],["This definition of mental health literacy was later expanded to include several components, including (a) understanding of mental health disorders as health-related entities and (b) their general characteristics, causes, and treatments; (c) decreased stigma towards mental illness; and (d) one's ability to promote positive mental health and effective help-seeking for mental health problems as necessary",["2"]]],"rt":[["mental health literacy development at the public health level",[]],["population-level mental health literacy",[]]],"sb":[["mental health literacy development at the public health level",[]]]},{"ex":[["community awareness campaigns (via the TV, etc.) intended to increase the general public's mental health literacy regarding depression",[]]]},{"de":[["Mental illness is generally seen as an individual's own fault, due to personal weakness, or life style choices. So individuals with mental health problems experience significant discrimination",[]],["The Vietnamese public are over-anxious about and over-reactive towards people with mental health problems; for instance, if a student says she is depressed, her school will isolate her and require a forensic psychiatric evaluation",[]]]},{"de":[["If someone experiences mental health problems, they feel guilty and ashamed about their illness, and do not want to talk about their experience with their family, relatives, or anyone",[]]],"sp":[["stigma",[]]]},{"rt":[["Facebook reactions",[]]]},{"de":[["They represent a light version of Unicode emojis indicated by an icon resembling common graphic substitutions for ASCII emoticons (Paolillo, 2023), which allow users to express how they feel about the contents.",["Paolillo, 2023"]],["The users had six more responsive options (i.e., like, love, haha, wow, angry, sad)",[]]],"rt":[["user engagement",[]]],"sb":[["love reaction",[]],["haha reaction",[]],["wow reaction",[]],["sad reaction",[]],["angry reaction",[]]]},{"de":[["thus, Facebook reactions have the nature of PDA.",[]]]},{"de":[["it is used to convey the content message and relation-based sentiment where users can click a single button and let others interpret their meaning",["Sumner et al., 2020"]]],"sp":[["non-verbal communication",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["great",[]],["thousands",[]],["more",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["legitimacy indicator",[]],["iL",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This process induces the construction of social identifications, which are identities for action or struggle, that is, for the specific context of the movement.",[]],["transformation of this indignation into hope, using complex symbolic and expressive forms of communication based on emotional management and mobilization.",[]],["usually lack lofty program goals and charismatic leaders, as a result of which, they tend to dissolve once they have achieved all, or a significant part of, their objectives.",[]],["tend to be nonviolent social expressions, although they often resort to peaceful civil disobedience strategies.",[]]],"sy":[["online social movement",[]]]},{},{"de":[["media producers view the message as more important than the person who conveys it, thus looking for other actors or people of influence to talk about a particular subject or demand",["Koopmans and Olzak 2004, 204"]],["reproducing the message or demand of the social movements can be advantageous, that is, resonance",[]]],"rt":[["dissonance",["Koopmans and Olzak 2004, 204"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Symbols are the tools par excellence of 'social integration': as well as tools for knowledge and communication, they make consensus on the meaning of the social world possible, contributing fundamentally to the reproduction of the social order",["Bourdieu 2001, 91-92"]]]},{},{"de":[["Ideas enable the production of discourse, and may lead to institutionalization.",[]],["formation of alternative discourses is the precondition for institutional changes.",[]],["For DI, by contrast, institutions are internal to sentient agents, serving both as structures (of thinking and acting) that constrain action and as constructs (of thinking and acting) created and changed by those actors.",[]]],"sp":[["new institutionalism",[]]]},{"de":[["institutions are conceptualized as formal and informal procedures, routines, norms, and agreements",[]],["For historical institutionalism, institutions are the legacy of particular historical processes, i.e. the result of past political struggles. Institutions are understood as social constructs, meaning that they embody common understanding, becoming interpretative frames.",[]],["For historical institutionalism, institutions are the legacy of particular historical processes, i.e. the result of past political struggles.",[]]],"sp":[["new institutionalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["human rights",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["new institutionalism",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation is a more multifaceted and complex concept than merely fake news or inaccurate information (Karlova; Lee, 2011).",["Karlova; Lee, 2011"]],["Even if it is partially or completely false, misinformation is a species of information since \"informing does not require truth, and information need not be true\" (Fox, 1983, p. 193).",["Fox, 1983, p. 193"]],["Misinformation is even more important in its intersection with social and political communication due to its potential performative character (Austin, 1975(Austin, [1962]]) insofar as it pursues actions that aim to transform reality and has implications for democracy.",["Austin, 1975(Austin, [1962]]"]],["even if it is partially or completely false",[]],["the analysis and understanding of misinformation cannot be reduced merely to the analysis and understanding of falsehoods, lies or inexact and incomplete information",[]],["Misinformation has been shown to be associated with forms of intentionality, context and meaning; it is always of an informative natu-re, even when distorted.",[]],["Misinformation makes sense and acquires full meaning through the desire to maintain the coherency of the worldview, the use of facts and arguments to keep it intact and a disproportionate outpouring of energy to combat or refute the opposing worldview, that is, by making the own worldview more stable and resistant to contradiction.",[]],["the misinformation phenomenon is not exclusive to the pro-independence worldview, but something which has become generalized in the struggle for power to establish power relations of definition based on the events that were happening.",[]],["the misinformation events seem to have found an adequate breeding ground in the social, economic, political and ethical tensions and uncertainties arising from the effects of globalization.",[]],["misinformation is a more multifaceted and complex concept than merely fake news or inaccurate information (Karlova; Lee, 2011)",["Karlova; Lee, 2011"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["alternative facts",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["alternative facts",[]],["information disorders",[]],["(dis)affective polarization",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Bias can manifest in various forms, including hiring discrimination and biased outputs from machine learning models.",[]]],"rt":[["societal biases",[]]],"ex":[["hiring discrimination and biased outputs from machine learning models",[]],["hiring discrimination",[]],["biased outputs from machine learning models",[]]]},{"de":[["Stereotypes, which are harmful and widespread assumptions about certain groups, often underlie biased decision-making.",[]]],"ex":[["stereotypes about intelligence and strength",[]],["assumption that \"Asians are good at Math\"",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["false information about the pandemic",[]]],"ex":[["consumption of the Corona brand of beer has an effect on the spread of COVID-19",[]],["the 5G network has an effect on the spread of COVID-19",[]]]},{"de":[["Through the mechanism of motivated reasoning, people tend to seek out, pay attention to, remember, and trust information which corroborates their prior attitudes and discredits opposing information",["Kahan, 2013"]],["Avoidance, or discounting, of information inconsistent with one's beliefs",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["has mainly been applied in research on behaviors related to protection of health and environment",["Ajzen, 1991","Armitage and Conner, 2001","Xu et al., 2020"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["often driven by needs such as maintaining self-worth or reducing cognitive dissonance.",["Chaiken et al., 1989","Kruglanski et al., 2009","Kunda, 1990"]]],"rt":[["open processing",[]]]},{"de":[["the collective process was based on members' intrinsically motivated collaboration and adaptation, consistent with the MCIP's conceptualization of collective information processing.",[]]]},{"de":[["individual media use is often embedded in collective processes that go beyond the sum of their parts and shape how media content is processed",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This mode is characterized by collective efforts to achieve a shared and predetermined judgmental goal.",[]]],"rt":[["motivated processing",[]]],"sp":[["collective information processing",[]]],"ex":[["A prime example is confirmation bias in group judgments (Schulz-Hardt et al., 2000), which requires high levels of elaboration while being selectively driven by a specific outcome.",["Schulz-Hardt et al., 2000"]]]},{"de":[["It involves thorough and open-minded group debate to reach collective judgments.",[]]],"rt":[["substantive processing",[]]]},{"rt":[["groupthink",[]]]},{"rt":[["group centrism",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["newspapers",[]],["movies",[]],["social media",[]]]},{"de":[["open-mindedness toward diverse opinions, arguments, and information",[]],["These items were designed to capture open-mindedness toward diverse opinions, arguments, and information-key features of open processing",[]],["open-mindedness toward different opinions, the core of open information processing",[]]]},{"de":[["openness was associated with nondirectional attitude shifts and reduced polarization",[]],["These items were designed to capture open-mindedness toward diverse opinions, arguments, and information-key features of open processing",[]],["Openness reflected receptiveness to diverse opinions, arguments, and information within the discussions.",[]],["systematicness and openness are not inherently positive or negative, though their outcomes may be socially desirable or undesirable depending on the context.",[]],["by combining systematicness and openness to conceptualize general processing styles",[]],["group information processing can also be meaningfully described in terms of its openness",[]]],"sy":[["open processing",[]]],"rt":[["closed processing",[]],["open processing",[]],["systematicness",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Systematicness predicted persuasive attitude change and increased issue relevance at the group level",[]],["Systematicness was characterized by motivated, broad, and deep engagement in the group discussion.",[]],["systematicness and openness are not inherently positive or negative, though their outcomes may be socially desirable or undesirable depending on the context.",[]],["by combining systematicness and openness to conceptualize general processing styles",[]],["collective information processing can be meaningfully characterized as more or less systematic",[]]],"sy":[["systematic processing",[]]],"rt":[["automatic processing",[]],["systematic processing",[]],["openness",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["media education",[]]]},{"de":[["media education can be understood as supporting the consumption of certain types of media.",[]]],"rt":[["art education",[]],["cultural heritage education",[]],["cultural education",[]],["media education",[]],["media literacy",[]]],"sp":[["media education",[]]]},{"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["The diversity and multifaceted aspects of media education are evident both in the variety of different policy areas relevant to the topic, such as library, youth, and cultural policies",[]],["media education develops media literacy to protect individuals from different media-related risks.",[]],["media education is intended to help develop a safe media environment as part of the information society, with children and young people as the central focus point.",[]],["Media education is understood as a way to develop the competencies needed in the future by both children and adults.",[]],["media education also supports inclusion in society (12%).",[]],["Media education is also presented as an avenue for social participation.",[]],["an avenue for social participation. From this perspective, it is framed in the data as a support for citizens' social and societal inclusion.",[]],["an important part of social integration: in addition to ICT skills, the production and critique of media content should also be taught.",[]],["media education is not tied to a single administrative sector, but is instead a topic addressed to a certain extent in almost all administrative sectors.",[]],["media education can have many different, even opposing, rationales and purposes.",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]],"sb":[["Protectionism",[]],["Cultural participation",[]],["Inclusion",[]]]},{"de":[["From the social perspective, media literacy contributes to social growth and competitiveness, while from the economic perspective, media literacy contributes to the competitive and innovative knowledge economy",["Kupiainen, 2010, pp. 335-336"]],["conceptions of media literacy in policies cannot be taken for granted",[]],["understand the multifacetedness of media literacy",[]],["media literacy can open up opportunities for people to get involved and to participate in culture in different ways.",[]],["media literacy has been seen as one of the central skills in future working life",[]],["preconditions for the democratic development of the modern information society, enabling the participation of citizens in societal discussions and decision-making",["Document 4"]],["one of the central competences for engaged citizenship in a participatory democracy",["Mihailidis and Thevenin (2013)"]],["Media literacy should not be seen as a silver bullet for various problems without a clear explanation of how to use it.",[]]],"rt":[["media education",[]]],"sb":[["critical media literacy",["Document 55"]],["Future working competences",[]]]},{"rt":[["media education",[]],["media literacy",[]]]},{"rt":[["media education",[]],["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["the protectionist tradition in media education has been well recognized and discussed in the academic literature, but it has also been debated",[]]],"ex":[["media violence, bullying, crimes, hate speech, pornographic content, and economic risks",[]]]},{"de":[["The transnational media literacy and its development that covers the whole population requires from the media organizations intercultural understanding, and especially the consideration of different cultural perspectives",["Document 42"]]],"rt":[["global perspective on media education",[]]]},{"rt":[["media education",[]]]},{"de":[["The formation of filter bubbles is a known risk to democracy. It can bring negative consequences like polarisation of the society, users' tendency to extremist viewpoints and the proliferation of fake news.",[]],["the role of these platforms in creating filter bubbles could not be totally ignored.",[]],["The formation of filter bubbles is a known risk to democracy.",[]],["pushing users into the psychological comfort zone of self-confirmation and risking polarisation on a societal level",["Courtois, Slechten, & Coenen, 2018, p. 2008"]],["risk to a well-functioning democracy in modern society",["Bozdag, 2015"]]],"sy":[["information bubble",["Liao & Fu, 2013"]],["[online] echo chamber",["Möller et al. 2018"]],["the personal ecosystem of information",["Helberger, Kleinen-von Königslöw, & van der Noll, 2015"]],["partial information blindness",["Haim, Graefe, & Brosius, 2018"]],["information cocoons",["Sunstein, 2007"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]],["social fragmentation",[]],["social recommendation systems",[]],["web personalisation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["polarisation",[]],["extremism",[]]],"ex":[["the fundamental phenomenon these groups use over social media to attract their supporters",["Winter, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["Filter bubbles can develop in social networks as a result of users' confirmation bias, the structure of the network, the algorithms incorporated within the network, or a mixture of all the above (Bozdag et al. 2014;LR et al. 2018).",["Bozdag et al. 2014","LR et al. 2018","Bozdag et al. 2014;LR et al. 2018"]],["This research, however, looks at filter bubbles as not only a product of recommendation algorithms in social networks but also a social issue that considers an active role for users building a filter bubble around them.",[]],["Filter bubbles can develop in social networks as a result of users' confirmation bias, the structure of the network, the algorithms incorporated within the network, or a mixture of all the above",["Bozdag et al. 2014","LR et al. 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["consider the user's demographic information, history and search behaviour in suggesting new content by social media and search engines, creating a filter bubble for the information the user receives",["Divyaa, Tamhane, & Pervin, 2018","Nguyen et al., 2014","Sanz-Cruzado & Castells, 2018"]]],"rt":[["filter bubble",[]]]},{"rt":[["gaslighting",[]],["coercive persuasion",[]],["coercive control",[]],["Coercion or Threats",[]],["Deception or Misinformation",[]],["Emotional Manipulation",[]],["Gaslighting or Demeaning",[]],["Persuasion or Influence",[]],["Control or Power Dynamics",[]]],"ex":[["Appeal to Emotions: Person2 is appealing to Person1's emotions by using phrases like \"the road to survival,\" \"future,\" ... , which can influence Person1's decision-making process.",[]],["Framing: Person2 is framing the situation in a way that makes it seem like a noble cause, with phrases like \"brothers,\" \"mutants,\" ... This framing can manipulate Person1's perception of the situation ...",[]],["Assumption of Understanding: Person2 assumes that Person1 understands the situation and the need for sacrifice, ... This assumption can be seen as a form of mental manipulation, ...",[]],["Use of Identity: Person2 uses the identity of \"Logan\" and \"Wolverine\" to create a sense of connection and familiarity with Person1. This can be seen as a form of mental manipulation ...",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["position",[]],["diversity",[]]],"sp":[["sub-aspects of summarization",[]]]},{"rt":[["importance",[]],["diversity",[]]],"sp":[["sub-aspects of summarization",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["position",[]],["importance",[]],["diversity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Esta última definición es la que se considerará pertinente para la elaboración del instrumento en esta investigación, más específicamente el odio racial considerado la forma de ciberodio más común (Douglas et al., 2005).",["Douglas et al., 2005"]],["discurso de odio explícito o directo, el cual instiga a la violencia física y puede ser considerado delito, de aquel más sutil que, aunque supone una ofensa y rechazo hacia ciertos individuos o grupos vulnerables, se mantiene dentro de los márgenes de la libertad de expresión",[]]],"rt":[["odio racial",[]],["xenofobia",[]],["orientación sexual",[]],["intolerancia",[]],["ciberodio",[]]],"sb":[["los que incitan a la violencia física",[]],["los que constituyen violencia moral",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Evitar las noticias conlleva consecuencias negativas para la cohesión social entre los ciudadanos (Ohme, 2021;Strömbäck, 2017), y es un problema para la democracia, dado que el consumo de noticias tiene un impacto positivo en el conocimiento de la sociedad y la política por parte de los ciudadanos, así como en su compromiso y participación política (Scherman et al., 2013;Santana, 2016;Navia y Ulriksen, 2017). Evitar las noticias con regularidad puede conducir a ciudadanos desvinculados y fomenta la polarización de la opinión, al mismo tiempo puede provocar un desequilibrio en las democracias representativas (Blekesaune et al., 2012).",["Ohme, 2021","Strömbäck, 2017","Scherman et al., 2013","Santana, 2016","Navia y Ulriksen, 2017","Blekesaune et al., 2012"]]]},{},{"de":[["reintroduce grammatical gender markers associated with the feminine gender",[]]],"ex":[["contracted double forms using a mid-dot (such as Un•e élève)",[]]]},{"rt":[["gender-neutral expressions",[]]],"ex":[["Young people should be out interfering with the local maidens.",[]],["We cannot tolerate attacks on the wife of an American citizen.",[]]]},{"de":[["are often used as generic masculine forms.",[]]]},{"sy":[["common-gender",[]],["nondifferentiating",[]],["gender-neutral",[]],["gender-balanced",[]]],"rt":[["neutralization strategy",[]]]},{"de":[["gender-unmarked forms seem to yield intermediate results between double forms and masculine generic forms, suggesting a more nuanced impact on mental representations.",[]],["gender-unmarked forms are not fully effective in neutralizing the inherent masculine bias",[]],["where the gender of the character was intentionally left unspecified",[]]],"sy":[["neutralization strategy",[]],["common-gender",["Richy and Burnett,"]],["nondifferentiating",["Braun et al.,"]]],"rt":[["neutralization strategy",[]],["double forms",[]],["masculine generic forms",[]]],"sp":[["gender-fair forms",[]]],"ex":[["in French, le ministre vs. la ministre [the MASC The use of this sentence has been reported by Hofstadter and Sander ( ). The authors also stressed that its comprehension requires some mental effort. In practice French speakers would usually circumvent this paradoxical phrasing by opting for a more explicit wording such as J'ai trente-quatre étudiants en cours, dont seulement sept sont des garçons Nevertheless, it is important to note that the original sentence remains grammatically correct. It can therefore be seen as a thought-provoking example highlighting the challenges posed by plural masculine terms.",[]],["when using plural forms (les ministres [the plur,unmarked ministers plur,unmarked ]) or when an elision occurs on the article due to the phonological context (le or la replaced by l' if the following word begins with a vowel). For instance, l'acrobate [the unmarked acrobat unmarked ] can refer to either a female or a male acrobat.",[]]]},{"sy":[["common-gender",[]],["nondifferentiating",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["gender-unmarked forms",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["contracted double form",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["cognitive",[]],["discursive",[]]],"sp":[["competencies",[]]]},{"rt":[["behavioural",[]],["discursive",[]]],"sp":[["competencies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This process demands three key competencies: cognitive, involving the understanding of facts and the application of relevance criteria; behavioural, referring to the objective verification of facts and the maintenance of impartiality; and discursive, which encompasses the ability to translate knowledge into effective news discourse",["Guerra, The Introduction of the HPV Vaccine in Brazil, the Print Media, and Misinformation . Marcia Michie Minakawa & Paulo Frazão 2003"]]],"rt":[["cognitive",[]],["behavioural",[]]],"sp":[["competencies",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{"sb":[["favor",["2"]],["against",["2"]],["none",["2"]],["supporting",[]],["denying",[]],["querying",[]],["commenting",[]]],"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["supporting, denying, querying, and commenting",[]]]},{"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["epistemological bias",[]]],"ex":[["For example, verbs like claim or pointed out.",[]]]},{"sb":[["cognitive biases",[]],["cultural biases",[]],["Data",[]],["Annotation",[]],["Representation",[]],["Models",[]],["Research design",[]],["Framing -words of praise or discrediting",[]],["Epistemological -modify the credibility of a proposition",[]],["Demographic -related to race, gender, etc",[]],["Framing bias",[]],["epistemological bias",[]],["demographic bias",[]],["Framing",[]],["Epistemological",[]],["Demographic",[]]]},{"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["A model is biased if it does not perform consistently across all demographic groups.",["Gupta et al. (2024, p. 2)"]]],"sb":[["gender bias (against a particular gender)",[]],["racial bias (against certain races)",[]],["ethnic bias (against certain ethnicity)",[]],["sexual orientation bias (against certain sexual preferences)",[]],["cultural bias (against particular cultural identities like the urban tribes)",[]],["income-based hierarchy (against a particular income like poor populations)",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["epistemological bias",[]]],"ex":[["The most famous examples are the words murdered and killed.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["It operates bidirectionally, emerging either when doubt is cast on a proposition generally accepted as true or when an assumption is made about one typically regarded as false",["(Recasens et al., 2013)"]]],"sb":[["presupposition",[]],["entailment",[]],["assertion",[]],["hedging",[]],["factive verbs",[]],["assertive verbs",[]],["hedges",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["epistemological bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Bias",[]]]},{"de":[["This is shown through phrases or words linked to a particular point of view using intensifiers and one-side terms that usually reveal the stance of the author",["(Recasens et al., 2013)"]]],"rt":[["Subjective intensifiers",[]],["One-side terms",[]]],"sb":[["subjective intensifiers",[]],["one-side terms",[]]],"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["epistemological bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Framing bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Framing bias",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["self-praise",[]]],"rt":[["attack",[]],["defence",[]]]},{"sy":[["downgrading opponents",[]]],"rt":[["acclaim",[]],["defence",[]]]},{"sy":[["counterattack",[]]],"rt":[["acclaim",[]],["attack",[]]]},{"de":[["disinformation and propaganda may incite violence, hostility, discrimination and war crimes.",[]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["an epithet is a type of nickname and is a way of strengthening or displaying the strength of certain traits of a person.",["Claire (2020)"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The theory provides a political analysis, enabling media scholars and linguists to understand the frame of argument in political debate, and it proposes the impact the message would have on the target audience.",[]],["The core principles of the theory state that (i) voting is a comparative act where candidates must be seen as a preferable choice, (ii) a candidate must be distinguished from opponents to be considered preferable, (iii) campaign messages are means through which a candidate can be distinguished, (iv) campaign discourse creates preference ability through three functions-acclaim, attack and defence, and (v) candidates set themselves apart from opponents by emphasising differences in character (image) and policy (issues).",[]],["Propounded by Willian Benoit in 1999, the functional theory of political campaign posits that during electoral campaigns, political candidates perform three major functions: acclaim, attack, or defence (Gyasi and Sarfo-Kantankah, 2022).",["Gyasi and Sarfo-Kantankah, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["hate speech is beyond mere insults as it has the effect of dehumanising, discriminating against and inciting violence.",[]],["hateful rhetoric precedes violence and affects crimes",["United Nations, 2019a"]],["hate speech often leads to discrimination, harassment, and violence and precedes serious criminal acts.",["Kukah (2015)"]],["hate speech causes mass violence, encourages extremism, undermines democracy, reproduces racism",[]],["beyond mere insults as it has the effect of dehumanising, discriminating against and inciting violence.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]],["epithet",[]],["slur",[]]],"sb":[["epithet",[]],["slur",[]],["misinformation",["Warldle, 2024"]],["disinformation",["Warldle, 2024"]],["malinformation",["Warldle, 2024"]],["slurs",[]],["careless statements",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"de":[["a slur has the capacity to derogate and dehumanise target group members.",["Popa-Wyatt and Ginzburg (2025)"]],["slurs can be used to create or reinforce negative attitudes towards a target group or individual.",["Rinner (2023)"]],["They are pejorative expressions and words that become offensive when used about people about their race, tribe, gender or physical appearance.",["Diaz-Legaspe (2019)"]],["a slur causes harm to people, especially due to their status or group of membership",["Popa-Wyatt and Ginzburg, 2025"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["positional polarization",[]],["Interactional polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["Affect becomes the currency of attention, rewarded by algorithms and exploited by actors across the ideological spectrum.",[]]],"rt":[["affective polarization",[]]]},{"rt":[["algorithmic visibility metrics",[]]]},{"de":[["where credibility is inferred from visibility and engagement rather than institutional integrity",["2024"]]],"rt":[["institutional integrity",[]]]},{"de":[["tailoring political content by opaque platform systems",["2022"]],["can distort perceptions of institutional performance and democratic responsiveness.",[]]]},{"rt":[["news cycle",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["offer interpretability, speed, and replicability but tend to be rigid and domain-sensitive, often failing to capture evolving language patterns, sarcasm, or platform-specific jargon.",[]]],"rt":[["topic modeling",[]]]},{"de":[["directly impacting private governance and public influence.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["algorithmic curation",[]],["homophilic networks",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["positional polarization",[]],["affective polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["The distinct affordances of each platform profoundly shape the design of political communication strategies on social media",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["to simulate popular support and suppress opposition discourse",[]]]},{"rt":[["Interactional polarization",[]],["affective polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["It affords connection but incentivizes confrontation. It provides access but privileges amplification. It lowers communicative thresholds but raises epistemic uncertainty. These contradictions are not flaws to be corrected-they are features of the platform's socio-technical design embedded within broader political economies of attention and power.",[]]]},{"rt":[["emotional immersion",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["thereby offering 'a sense of authenticity and personal intimacy with events' (2014: 3)",["2014: 3"]]],"rt":[["shared gate-keeping",[]],["joint framing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["narrative personalization",[]],["lasting newsworthiness",[]]],"sp":[["digital story-telling",[]]]},{"rt":[["authenticating strategies",[]]],"de":[["curating UGC as personalized, digital story-telling",[]]],"sp":[["narrative registers of western reporting",[]]]},{"sp":[["flesh witnessing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["affective power of UGC",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["testimonies of the flesh whose often mortal vulnerability is, in fact, the very condition of possibility upon which western broadcasting rests.",[]],["a sensory experience that communicates the dramatic urgency of (the witnesses') bodies under imminent threat: 'bodies carrying cues of either impending death or its own fragility', in Zelizer's words (2010: 171).",[]],["our use of the term is meant as an invitation to scrutinize the journalistic re-narrations of UGC and ask what their dominant methods of fact-checking do to UGC's truth as lived experience.",[]],["While all communication requires some form of mediation and so disembodiment, thereby inevitably rendering flesh witnessing literally impossible in UGC",[]],["our use of the term is meant as an invitation to scrutinize the journalistic re-narrations of UGC and ask what their dominant methods of fact-checking do to UGC's truth as lived experience",[]]],"rt":[["user-generated content (UGC)",[]],["eye-witnessing authority",[]],["testimonial practice",[]]],"sb":[["meta-discursive",[]],["curated",[]],["non-narrative",[]],["Meta-discursive witnessing",[]],["Curated witnessing",[]]]},{"de":[["reflects the dual values of platform journalism: civic-mindedness, where conflict reporting is shown as a heroic endeavour of individuals in the line of fire, and profit, where sensational content maximizes popularity metrics and revenue for the platform.",[]]],"rt":[["breaking news, which is event-driven and works through constant updates",[]]]},{},{"de":[["news stories where the very question of UGC authentication constitutes the newsworthy part of the story",[]],["making the truth status of UGC the topic of the story",[]]],"rt":[["authenticating strategies",[]]],"sp":[["flesh witnessing",[]],["narrative registers of western reporting",[]]]},{"sp":[["flesh witnessing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["this subjective or 'biased' standpoint works to invite viewers to an immersive experience of 'being-there', as-if audiences were present in the event and seen them with their own eyes (Zelizer, 2007).",["Zelizer, 2007"]],["this subjective or 'biased' standpoint works to invite viewers to an immersive experience of 'being-there', as-if audiences were present in the event and seen them with their own eyes",["Zelizer, 2007"]]],"rt":[["content curation",[]]],"sp":[["digital story-telling",[]]]},{"rt":[["authenticating strategies",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["techno-social construct of affective value to platform journalism, theorized as both a carrier of fake news and as emotional story-telling that maximizes audience engagement.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Distrust in power infrastructure fosters fear and mistrust concerning the reliability and safety of Taiwan's electric grid, thus eroding public confidence in the government's ability to manage energy systems effectively.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["misleading climate action revolves around mischaracterizing climate advocacy and sowing undue anxiety about the potential repercussions of addressing climate change, hindering proactive measures.",[]]]},{"de":[["Nuclear distraction operates on two fronts: firstly, it diverts public focus from renewable energy solutions to an exclusive emphasis on nuclear power; secondly, it proliferates misinformation about Japan's handling of nuclear wastewater, thereby impacting Taiwan's relationship with a key ally.",[]]]},{"de":[["Renewable delayism involves spreading exaggerated claims about the limitations or negative impacts of renewable energy-solar in particular-to delay its adoption.",[]]],"ex":[["claims that solar panels \"breed mosquitoes that spread dengue fever, \" \"produce waste 300 times more toxic than nuclear waste, \" and \"contaminate nearby soil and water bodies with harmful chemicals.",[]]]},{"de":[["technologies that are less effective or detrimental for certain populations become barriers that actively prevent those populations from using the technology, leading to diminished opportunities in jobs, education, health, etc.",[]]],"ex":[["machine translation errors lead to arrests",["Ong, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["In the context of AI fairness",[]]]},{"de":[["formulate bias triggers using gradient-based methods",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["re-inflection",["Habash et al., 2019","Zmigrod et al., 2019","Alhafni et al., 2020"]],["re-writing text to use neutral viewpoints",["Pryzant et al., 2020"]],["genderneutral English",["Sun et al., 2021"]],["more agency",["Ma et al., 2020"]]],"sp":[["Transformation Generation Tasks",[]]]},{"rt":[["regard ratio",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["allocational impacts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Open-domain generation tasks can amplify a group's vulnerability to manipulation and harm",[]]],"rt":[["representational impacts",[]],["allocational impacts",[]]]},{"de":[["A single evaluation cannot be made for all of them; their standard features are that they were murdered, and these murders reveal the moral level of their society.",[]]],"rt":[["male violence",[]]]},{"de":[["If a woman acts contrary to the rules of sexual abstinence determined by custom, her honor is tarnished.",[]],["The concept of honor, especially in patriarchal societies, represents values that men use to control women, in particular female sexuality",["Hamzaoglu et al., 2019","Kalam, 2014","Naz et al, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["If a woman acts contrary to the rules of sexual abstinence determined by custom, her honor is tarnished.",[]]]},{"de":[["News stories shape individuals' perceptions of social reality reflect the public's interest, and influence people's understanding of social issues, especially crime",[]]],"sy":[["News stories",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["These social practices are believed to be controlled by an uneven distribution of power and may be attributed to sociocultural and sociopolitical reasons that render one or more social groups as dominant and others as dominated.",[]],["The critical issues or topics vary among different societies, yet power abuse, inequality, and ideological struggle are central concerns.",[]]],"rt":[["descriptive analysis (DA)",[]],["power abuse",[]],["inequality",[]],["ideological struggle",[]]],"sb":[["the sociocognitive (van Dijk, 2015)",[]]],"sp":[["discourse analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["Discourse analysis, although it is a major area in the study of language, is often neglected in foreign language teaching; this is particularly true for critical discourse analysis (CDA).",[]]],"sb":[["descriptive analysis (DA)",[]],["critical discourse analysis (CDA)",[]],["critical discourse analysis",[]]]},{"sb":[["phonological",[]],["semantic",[]],["syntactic",[]],["rhetorical",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["van Dijk's sociocognitive approach (SCA) to serve as an analytical framework to guide analysis",[]],["The cognitive component of SCA consists of mental models that represent the shared knowledge, attitudes, and ideology of a social group.",[]],["The social component addresses discursive power abuse and the domination of the social groups/organizations that influence public discourse.",[]]],"sp":[["critical discourse analysis (CDA)",[]]]},{"rt":[["overt translation",[]]]},{"rt":[["major mistakes",[]],["minor errors",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["critical errors",[]],["minor errors",[]]]},{"rt":[["critical errors",[]],["major mistakes",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a text should be translated according to its function, so a translated text should be assessed according to its function.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Interpreted narrowly. For example, a reference to equality doesn't automatically fall into this category.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Includes people taking offense, disrespect, damage to social well-being, and supporting students.",[]],["Both increasing harm and reducing harm fall in this category.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The concept of white privilege is central in areas such as contemporary diversity training [9] and whiteness studies scholarship [10]. However, in public discussion, the term is more controversial. Popular media has variously talked about white privilege as a topic to be taught to children [11], a racist term [12], and a distraction from the root causes of racial inequality [13].",["9","10","11","12","13"]],["The effect of the term white privilege on framing was explained by individuals' stances.",[]],["The white privilege question brought 80% more low-quality responses than the racial inequality question.",[]],["The effect of using the term white privilege did not affect all whites equally",[]],["whites were less likely to respond to the white privilege question",[]],["Responses to the white privilege question garnered a higher percentage of low-quality responses",[]],["language like white privilege that targets the racial identity of specific groups.",[]],["draws on this tendency to conflate individual traits with group averages, in a way that creates unpleasant emotions.",[]],["As commonly used, the phrase white privilege draws on this tendency to conflate individual traits with group averages, in a way that creates unpleasant emotions.",[]]],"rt":[["racial inequality",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["if a source article is left-oriented, a right-oriented article could reuse only excerpts that report about an event itself but omit parts that fall into the liberal agenda",[]]]},{"de":[["journalists often rely on the same news source, copy reports, or the (factual) information in other reports",["5"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This deals specifically with the authority of government to regulate, and the authority of individuals/corporations to act independently of government.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This includes trade agreements and outcomes, comparisons of policy outcomes or desired policy outcomes.",[]]]},{"de":[["Also the balance between the rights or interests of one individual or group compared to another individual or group.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["By highlighting specific elements of a topic and minimizing others, communicators frame messages in ways they believe will resonate with audiences (Goffman, 1974) and can shape the way the topic is perceived by readers or viewers (Schudson, 2003).",[]],["Frames serve as metacommunicative structures that use reasoning devices such as metaphors , lexical choices , images , symbols , and actors to evoke a latent message for media users",[]]],"rt":[["news framing",[]],["generic news frames",[]],["issue-specific frames",[]]],"sb":[["generic news frames",[]],["Economic",[]],["Capacity and resources",[]],["Morality",[]],["Fairness and equality",[]],["Policy prescription and evaluation",[]],["Crime and punishment",[]],["Security and defense",[]],["Health and safety",[]],["Quality of life",[]],["Cultural identity",[]],["Public Opinion",[]],["Political",[]],["External regulation and reputation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["news framing",[]]],"ex":[["Economic, Capacity & Resources, Morality, Fairness & Equality, Legality, Constitutionality & Jurisprudence, Policy Prescription & Evaluation, Crime & Punishment, Security & Defense, Health & Safety, Quality of Life, Cultural Identity, Public Opinion, Political, External Regulation & Reputation and Other",[]]]},{"de":[["it allows for a more granular examination of media bias, as textual analysis alone may miss the ideological and emotional undertones of visual elements",["Wessler et al., 2016","Geise et al., 2025"]]],"rt":[["multimodal framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The generated outputs are limited to a few words, but are open-ended as the model is not instructed to choose from a given set of frames but rather generate them inductively.",[]]]},{"sp":[["news framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Includes stories about enforcement and interpretation of laws by individuals and law enforcement, breaking laws, loopholes, fines, sentencing and punishment. Increases or reductions in crime.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["generic news frames",[]],["issue-specific frames",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Issue actions or efforts or stances that are political, such as partisan filibusters, lobbyist involvement, bipartisan efforts, deal-making and vote trading, appealing to one's base, mentions of political manoeuvring. Explicit statements that a policy issue is good or bad for a particular political party.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Generally an action or a call to action that can be taken to protect the welfare of a person, group, nation sometimes from a not yet manifested threat.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The event atoms in reference timelines are annotated in advance by human annotators.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A high score indicates that the node contains verified and accurate facts.",[]]]},{"de":[["A high score indicates that the node adds significant and relevant detail to the overall understanding of the event.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["legitimising racist antagonism via its presentation as legitimate news",[]],["This packaging occurs through the tactical appropriation of institutional authority, for example by exploiting existing platforms or mimicking established formats, such as journalistic genres.",[]]]},{"de":[["where distorted facts on the platform supported other distorted facts",[]]]},{"de":[["Clickbait articles are often simplified, speculative, negative, and provocative (Blom & Hansen, 2015)",["Blom & Hansen, 2015"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["junk news",[]],["hyperpartisan media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The combination of visual layout of The People's Voice's, Ekstra Bladet's insistence in treating The People's Voice as an opinion page, and the ability of such to travel through social media in the guise of news articles written by professional journalists, created a hybrid news format.",[]],["enabled through The People's Voice's openness and lack of moderation coupled with the institutional authority of Ekstra Bladet, creating a genre with little resemblance to the opinion pages in traditional news (Wahl-Jorgensen, 2004)",["Wahl-Jorgensen, 2004"]]],"rt":[["journalistic news genre",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["racist discourses at the intersection of user practices, interfaces, and (lack of) policies and business models",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This approach thus enables us to comprehend \"the underlying reasons and biases driving specific representations\" (Breazu and Katsos, 2024, p. 693).",["Breazu and Katsos, 2024, p. 693"]],["enables us to comprehend \"the underlying reasons and biases driving specific representations\"",["Breazu and Katsos, 2024, p. 693"]]]},{"de":[["using gender-inclusive language is a powerful way to promote gender equality and eradicate gender bias.",[]]]},{"de":[["It can be seen that women in the UN domain are easy to be hurt by something negative or harmful, which further strengthens women's representation as victims.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a catch-all term with multiple definitions",[]],["The content of fake news may be entirely or partially fabricated. In the former case, fake news might consist of fabricated facts that do not align with reality and fail to represent actual events or situations. In the latter case, it may include some factual elements, but these are presented in a misleading manner.",[]],["The real facts might be distorted, inaccurately presented, or selectively framed to manipulate the reader's perception.",[]],["Fake news often imitates real news by adopting its format and structure (headline, visuals, body, and conclusion). This 'legitimized format' exacerbates the issue, as individuals or organizations exploit it to present the news as authentic, thereby misleading and confusing the audience.",[]],["Fake news is characterized by the absence or vagueness of source attribution and the lack of factual evidence supporting its validity.",[]],["the primary aim of the creators of fake news is emphasized: to persuade the public to believe the information, elicit a response (such as commenting, sharing, or forwarding), and generate widespread attention, thereby achieving the desired outcome.",[]],["It is deliberately created to mislead or manipulate a specific audience.",[]],["To enhance its perceived credibility, fake news adopts the format of a recognized journalistic genre (e.g., news reports) and follows a specific structure.",[]],["This includes elements such as headlines-typically exaggerated, inaccurate, or sensational-along with the main text, which generally lacks a systematic, cohesive, and well-supported evidentiary basis, such as official documents, critical data, statistics, or scholarly papers.",[]],["While multimedia elements like photos or videos are not mandatory in fake news, they are often used to reinforce its impact.",[]],["The topics addressed in fake news are strategically selected to align with the interests and values of a specific audience segment, thereby amplifying its potential for virality.",[]],["Additionally, fake news frequently exploits cognitive biases, reinforcing pre-existing informal beliefs and undermining critical thinking.",[]],["It is deliberately created to mislead or manipulate a specific audience. To enhance its perceived credibility, fake news adopts the format of a recognized journalistic genre (e.g., news reports) and follows a specific structure. This includes elements such as headlines-typically exaggerated, inaccurate, or sensational-along with the main text, which generally lacks a systematic, cohesive, and well-supported evidentiary basis, such as official documents, critical data, statistics, or scholarly papers. While multimedia elements like photos or videos are not mandatory in fake news, they are often used to reinforce its impact. The topics addressed in fake news are strategically selected to align with the interests and values of a specific audience segment, thereby amplifying its potential for virality. Additionally, fake news frequently exploits cognitive biases, reinforcing pre-existing informal beliefs and undermining critical thinking.",[]]],"sy":[["hoax",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["biased news",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["one might start with a kernel of truth and then add false information",[]],["the infamous memes-images accompanied by phrases referencing a news item, but both the headline and the image are false",[]],["one might start with a kernel of truth and then add false information. Or consider the infamous memes-images accompanied by phrases referencing a news item, but both the headline and the image are false.",[]]]},{"de":[["Then, there is 100% fake content, which presents itself as true with a link to a legitimate site, but is, in fact, false.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["credibility indicators",[]]]},{"de":[["which are mainly developed from two streams: one is the classification-based approach that uses automatic methods like machine learning techniques for assessing the credibility of tweets [18,19]; the other one is the survey-based approach that looks into factors affecting perceived credibility of posts based on survey or experiments [20,21].",["18","19","20","21"]]],"sb":[["classification-based approach",[]],["survey-based approach",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["message-based features",[]]]},{},{"de":[["For clarity, in this study, misinformation refers to false rumors irrespective of whether it is deliberate or accidental and has already been falsified by credible sources, such as the government, the scientific community, news media, and journals",["17"]]],"sy":[["false rumor",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["false rumor",[]]]},{"sp":[["credibility indicators",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["earnings reports of large companies listed on the Dutch stock exchange, the release of weekly or monthly data by national or international statistics bureaus or the publication of annual reports by various economic organizations.",[]]]},{"de":[["in which the economy itself is constituted through and managed by means of communicative utterances",[]]],"rt":[["communicative utterances",[]]]},{},{"de":[["explains why speeches given by central bankers do not have an immediate effect on financial markets as soon as they are published on the Fed's website, but are effective with a time-lag, after the media have reported on them",[]]],"rt":[["noticeable filter",["Hayo et al., 2008"]]]},{},{"de":[["in which committee members try to impose a different understanding of reality by changing interpretive frames",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["structure the way journalists cover monetary policy",[]],["If an event cannot be fitted into one of journalism's dominant frames, it is likely to be neglected or to receive less attention. Here frames function in other words as filters.",[]],["analogous to a lack of category fit, discussed in neo-institutional sociology",["Zuckerman, 1999"]]],"rt":[["news rules",[]]],"ex":[["Typical news frames include drama (e.g. the 'strength' of the euroand the failure of the ECB to weaken itwhich would 'demolish' export-oriented companies such as the French aeroplane producer Airbus), national identities and clashes between them (e.g. the booing by journalists when Trichet responded in French to a question by a French journalist at his first appearance at the ECB's press conference as ECB president), power struggles (e.g. the former French president Sarkozy exerting pressure on Trichet to lower interest rates and the latter being adamant in resisting those pressures), geographical strife (e.g. the strength of the American economy versus the eurozone, for which journalists take the euro-dollar exchange rate as a measuring rod) or internal conflict within the ECB's governing board.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["central bankers seek to enact their understanding of transparency by releasing economic data and controlling information flows in such a way that monetary policy is fully predictable and markets are never taken by surprise.",[]],["Journalists, by contrast, are less interested in such official information flows. Instead, they seek to move the markets and produce transparency by retrieving and reporting on information which has not yet been released or should not be released according to central bankers, but which is, according to journalists, relevant to the audiences they write for.",[]]],"rt":[["information flows",[]]],"sb":[["the release of information (for instance macro-economic data or information regarding the central bank's decision-making procedures) controlled by the central bank itself",[]],["the publication of information by actors such as the media which are beyond the central banker's control",[]]]},{"de":[["how well does a central bank explain its objectives, its monetary strategy, the way it comes to its policy decisions, the assumptions it makes in this decision-making process, the quality (e.g. precision) and quantity of the data it publishes",[]]]},{"de":[["communication policy rose in stature from a nuisance to a key instrument in the central banker's toolkit",["Blinder et al., 2008, p. 912"]],["In particular, for members of the Federal Reserve's Open Market Committee, which sets interest rates, the paradigm was 'a convenient way both to burnish the Federal Reserve's credibility as being \"serious\" about inflation and to avoid the potentially damaging association between policy moves and incoming data on the economy'",["Krippner, 2007, p. 499"]]],"rt":[["communication policy",[]]]},{"rt":[["virtual image of the popular will",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["is the most straightforward filter since it upholds the notion that capitalism has no alternative.",[]],["this filter has evolved into anything that challenges the dominant neoliberal ideology.",[]]],"sy":[["anti-socialism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["neoliberal projects induced anti-political and depoliticizing changes through an anti-popular commitment to free markets, deregulation, and privatization, replacing economics for politics and advancing economic freedom instead of political freedom",[]],["Additionally, it relates to nationalist and authoritarian ideas and beliefs that reject the social practices and institutions of liberal democracy.",["576"]],["neoliberal projects induced anti-political and depoliticizing changes through an anti-popular commitment to free markets, deregulation, and privatization, replacing economics for politics and advancing economic freedom instead of political freedom.",[]]]},{"sy":[["anti-communism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Civil society includes institutions such as schools, churches, and media companies, to name a few.",[]]],"ex":[["schools, churches, and media companies",["58"]]]},{},{"de":[["creates divisions and integrates users into the capitalist system",[]],["communicative capitalism encompasses the notion that the market is where the people's democratic hopes and dreams unfold. The market is the site where their collective inclinations tend to materialize.",["555"]],["ideals of access, inclusion, discussion and participation come to be realized in and through expansions, intensifications and interconnections of global telecommunications.",["556"]]],"sp":[["late capitalism",[]]]},{"de":[["the net effect of the concentration of media ownership is to enclose the civic mind within the equivalent of a hermetically sealed dome.",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["socialism",[]]]},{"sy":[["false information",[]]]},{"rt":[["decoding",[]]]},{"de":[["governments and corporations regularly employ experts. They serve as consultants and set up think tanks that use them to spread their message.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["fascism",[]],["right-wing populism",[]]]},{"de":[["Mussolini's movement embraced extreme violence, advocated anti-intellectualism, rejected compromising, and hated the established social and political order.",["369"]],["a whole system of thought tied to a world-shaping project.",["371"]],["Fascism is totalitarian, while neopopulism is not. Fascism often resorts to political violence, whereas populism, at least, formally renounces it.",["390"]]],"rt":[["right-wing populism",[]]],"sp":[["populism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This backlash takes on the \"form of letters, telegrams, phone calls, petitions, lawsuits, and other modes of complaint, threat, and punitive action.\"",["216"]],["Moreover, \"it may be organized centrally or locally, or it may consist of the entirely independent actions of individuals.\"",["216"]]]},{"de":[["The term exemplifies the political power of the mass media.",[]],["However, today, the term is usually used merely as a synonym for the press and news media.",[]]],"sy":[["press",[]],["news media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This concept explains why people act contrary to their self-interest, supporting right-wing and conservative political parties and social movements.",["57"]],["the capacity to influence public opinion was the essence of political hegemony.",["172"]],["hegemony concerns persuasion, not coercion.",["174"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["All ideological state apparatuses strive for the same outcome, to reproduce the relations of production.",[]],["Every one of them is partially responsible for this shared goal. However, they have relatively different functions.",[]]]},{"de":[["Therefore, ideology places the blame on others.",[]],["ideology has a material existence.",[]]]},{"de":[["Ultimately, the infotainment approach is problematic because news organizations cannot compete with mass media companies specializing in entertainment.",[]],["Infotainment draws sizable numbers of people and is cheap to produce, and it creates a superficial, disloyal audience because it does not rely on substance.",[]],["associated with the commercialization of news broadcasting",[]],["diverts their attention from important social and political issues",[]],["redirects people's attention away from the harsh realities of neoliberal capitalism and supplies television news programs with a slew of soft news and other light-hearted content.",["269"]],["reporting facts as human-interest stories, mixing information with entertainment, arranging material episodically, and breaking down complex relationships into smaller fragments -all of this comes together to form a syndrome that works to depoliticize public communication.",[]],["Infotainment is associated with the commercialization of news broadcasting. The growth of 24-hour television news channels, the benefits of broadcasting to a global audience, and the reliance on advertising revenue have encouraged newsrooms to step away from hard-hitting news to more market-friendly \"soft news,\" highlighting scandals, sports, and entertainment.",["265"]],["It teaches people how to behave while reaffirming cultural values and answering complex questions, but it also makes the important appear unimportant.",["264"]],["Infotainment is associated with the commercialization of news broadcasting.",[]],["This changing media ecology forces journalists and reporters to produce infotainment.",["268"]],["Infotainment drives viewership numbers and keeps production costs down.",["268"]],["Instead, it redirects people's attention away from the harsh realities of neoliberal capitalism and supplies television news programs with a slew of soft news and other light-hearted content.",[]],["all of this comes together to form a syndrome that works to depoliticize public communication.",["528"]]],"rt":[["soft news",[]],["hard news",[]],["commodification of news and information",[]],["age of hyper-commercialism",[]],["sensationalism",[]],["rampant infotainment",[]]]},{"rt":[["managed democracy",["404"]]]},{},{"de":[["Unlike liberals, these groups seek radical economic, political, and cultural transformation, so the \"Left\" excludes left-wing liberals and reformers, such as the members and supporters of the liberal Democratic Party that believe that change does not require the end of capitalism or that an egalitarian society can come to fruition within the nation-state.",[]]]},{"rt":[["right-wing populism",[]]],"ex":[["Syriza in Greece and Podemos in Spain",[]]]},{"de":[["the \"liberal media,\" i.e., the idea that the news organization displays an inherently \"liberal\" bias",[]]],"rt":[["mainstream media",[]]]},{"de":[["relates to social organizations, such as businesses, where power is in the hands of different groups and institutions",[]],["Liberal pluralism is an ideology that represents reality from the standpoint of the bourgeoisie.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They highlight dubious policies, questionable behaviour, and broken promises.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["modern populism developed as an authoritarian anti-communist, albeit democratic, project during the Cold War.",["396"]]]},{},{"de":[["The state should set up and sustain this institutional framework but not meddle in the market's activities.",["15"]],["Supporters of neoliberalism maintain that there should be minimal government interference when businesses are in control.",["16"]],["Therefore, they advocate policies prioritizing the expansion of markets and profit maximization while minimizing the role of nonmarket institutions.",["16"]],["Since the eighties, neoliberal ideas and beliefs regarding competition, individualism, and the dominance of the free market have slowly yet steadily shaped social relations.",[]],["Furthermore, they support earlier notions concerning the need for wage labour and consumer culture.",[]],["Proponents of this ideology argue that the \"modern form of capitalism\" is the best system people can hope for, and it is up to them to take advantage of the opportunities ahead.",[]],["Neoliberal ideas and beliefs are far-reaching in our day-to-day decisions and our ability to understand what is politically and economically feasible.",[]],["As a result, even when individuals are unhappy and want to improve their lives or societies, the dominant ideology still influences their vision of a better tomorrow.",[]],["For example, these ideas and beliefs reorient people away from issues and concerns and instead have them focus on the idea that the current mode of production is not the problem.",[]],["If anything, such ideologies articulate that the government is too big, specific groups take advantage of the system, or people must work harder.",[]],["threatens to disassemble liberal democracy",[]],["people in North America and Western Europe now reject fundamental liberal values and principles, such as civil rights, equality, and pluralism, while keeping faith in \"the market.\"",[]],["anti-popular commitment to free markets, deregulation, and privatization, replacing economics for politics and advancing economic freedom instead of political freedom",[]],["neoliberal projects induced anti-political and depoliticizing changes",[]],["Neoliberals argue that the state's limited role is to create and maintain the institutional framework that enables such practices.",[]],["They believe that governments ought to keep economic interventionism to a minimum.",[]]],"ex":[["the state should be involved with the \"quality and integrity of money.\"",[]],["it must also \"set up those military, defence, police and juridical functions required to secure private property rights and to support freely functioning markets.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["In addition, news bias regularly involves lies, propaganda, or ideas that reinforce the dominant ideology.",["496","497"]]]},{},{"de":[["nostalgia for a fondly reimagined version of the past",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["this strategy justifies shifting blame and oppressing migrant, minority, and marginalized social groups, instead of targeting the dominant social class.",[]],["the main point is to showcase that there are hostile outgroups.",[]]]},{"de":[["Today, however, it relates to social organizations, such as businesses, where power is in the hands of different groups and institutions.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["socialists",[]]]},{"de":[["evolved into a slur directed at fascists and socialists since they seem to threaten the dominant social class",[]],["a valuable hermeneutic tool for recognizing and describing those political candidates and parties that brand their enemies as populists",["345"]],["Whoever criticizes the dominant social class, corporate bailouts, privatizations, tax cuts for the super-rich, and wage cuts for the working class is suddenly a \"populist.\"",[]]],"sy":[["an insult",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["\"progressive neoliberalism\" extols \"diversity,\" \"meritocracy,\" and \"emancipation,\" at the same time, it dismantles the welfare state and allows capital to plunder the lower social classes and groups.",[]],["For example, in the United States, this alliance consists of, on the one hand, mainstream liberal social movements, such as feminists, antiracists, proponents of multiculturalism, environmentalists, and LGBTQ rights activists, and, on the other, the most vibrant financial sectors of the economy.",[]]]},{"de":[["Herman and Chomsky's propaganda model concentrates on wealth and power and how they influence the mass media.",[]],["raises a significant issue concerning the role of media outlets as \"passive transmitters\" or \"active interveners\" in shaping the news and information",[]],["This model determines what media outlets will broadcast or print.",[]],["It produces insights concerning the relationship between political and economic power, mainly due to its substantial predictive power.",[]],["The propaganda model describes how the mass media can produce and communicate the dominant ideology and shape people's consciousness.",["78"]],["They argue that the mass media's purpose is to entertain and inform but, more importantly, familiarize people with the ideas, beliefs, and codes of conduct that will integrate them into society's institutional structures.",[]],["The propaganda model is the most comprehensive conceptual model in political economy for understanding cultural hegemony. It produces insights concerning the relationship between political and economic power, mainly due to its substantial predictive power.",[]]],"rt":[["ownership and control of cultural production",[]],["news filters",[]]],"sb":[["concentration of media ownership, distribution of wealth, and profitseeking mainstream media organizations",[]],["advertising, the media's principal source of revenue",[]],["anti-communism",["79"]]]},{"ex":[["As a result, viewers have been made less sensitive to human suffering.",["260"]]]},{"de":[["is a construct related to the effects of mass media.",["173"]]]},{"de":[["take advantage of widespread dissatisfaction with mainstream political parties on the centre-right and centre-left and rapidly changing socio-economic and sociocultural conditions.",[]],["combine their far-right ideology with authoritarianism.",[]],["advocate the concentration of power, paternalistic policies limiting citizens' choices seemingly for their well-being and often without their consent, and reject participative democracy, pluralism, and compromise between conflicting groups.",[]]]},{"de":[["Populist political candidates and public officials often mobilize their supporters using \"us versus them,\" antielitist, or Manichaean appeals.",[]],["Right-wing populist political candidates and public officials believe that \"the people\" are at the heart of politics rather than any specific social class, ethnic group, or nation, although particular social groups frequently overlap.",[]],["Right-wing populists frame politics in polemical terms.",["272"]],["offers the working class an allegedly counter-hegemonic alternative but does not seek to transform society's social system and organization",[]],["stress racial, cultural, and gendered divisions",["331"]],["Right-wing populists believe that common sense regarding ordinary affairs and shared values and traditions unify society. Thus, they ought to preserve them at all costs.",[]],["This mutual support concerns the ingroup, usually at the expense of minorities and other marginalized groups.",[]],["they consider the demands and complaints of outgroups as unmerited, whereas their feelings, such as suspicion of the elite and minority groups, are warranted and reasonable",[]],["Right-wing populist political parties and social movements are openly hostile to parliamentary democracy, but, at the same time, they make every effort to be elected.",[]],["For right-wing populists, \"the people\" signify the nation or a particular part of it.",[]],["The growth of right-wing populist political parties and social movements results from increasing disillusionment with the political and economic elites that supposedly control the government.",[]],["Right-wing populists argue that the elites overlook the difficulties \"the people\" face.",[]],["Right-wing populists usually target angry white straight men with poor education, looking for scapegoats to blame and a strong leader who can articulate their grievances.",[]]],"rt":[["left-wing populism",[]],["white working class",[]],["anti-globalization",[]],["xenophobia",[]]],"ex":[["commitment to free markets, deregulation, and privatization but opposition to immigration, minority rights, and socialism",[]],["Political candidates and public officials such as Trump, Le Pen, Geert Wilders, Jimmie Åkesson, and Giorgia Meloni",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["Playing the victim card",[]]],"rt":[["rightwing populism",[]]]},{"sp":[["socialism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Frank Newport says it is a broad concept, and they understand it differently.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the sudden violent intrusion of the whole world into family and 'private' life, 'presentified' in a way which directly captures the immediate moment, which offers truth and participation, or at least appears to do so.",["163"]],["keeps people in a state of unconsciousness as they pass through practical changes in their conditions of existence.",["171"]],["This mobilization refers to capital moving to urban areas amid heightened market competition.",["571"]],["it is a social relation between people that is mediated by images.",[]]],"ex":[["daily photo opportunities, to highly orchestrated special events that dramatize state power, to TV ads, and image management for competing candidates.",["570"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It emphasizes an understanding of journalists acting as constructive partners of government and supporting it in its efforts to bring about national development and socio-economic well-being. In such a role, journalists may be defensive of authorities and routinely engage in self-censorship, and they tend to exhibit a paternalistic attitude toward \"the people\".",["Standaert, Hanitzsch, and Dedonder 2019, 5"]],["It emphasizes an understanding of journalists acting as constructive partners of government and supporting it in its efforts to bring about national development and socio-economic well-being.",["Standaert, Hanitzsch, and Dedonder 2019, 5"]]],"sb":[["facilitator",["Hanitzsch and Vos 2018, 156"]],["collaborator",["Hanitzsch and Vos 2018, 156"]],["mouthpiece",["Hanitzsch and Vos 2018, 156"]],["the facilitator",["Hanitzsch and Vos 2018, 156"]],["the collaborator",["Hanitzsch and Vos 2018, 156"]],["the mouthpiece",["Hanitzsch and Vos 2018, 156"]]]},{"sp":[["collaborative-facilitative",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Fact-checking organizations devoted to this role identify rather as think tanks than as journalists or activists while often still promoting policy change (Graves and Cherubini 2016, 17).",[]]]},{"de":[["As a form of development journalism",[]]],"rt":[["development journalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["collaborative-facilitative",[]]]},{"de":[["As a form of development journalism, facilitative journalism focusses on unification and nation building.",[]]]},{"de":[["success of a still young profession that tries to find its place in-between traditional news providers and the participatory web.",[]]],"rt":[["reporters",[]],["reformers",[]],["experts",[]],["collaborative-facilitative",[]]]},{"de":[["Fact checker roles as perceived by users match fact checker self-perception as reporters, reformers and experts but also contain a fourth, collaborative-facilitative, dimension.",[]]],"rt":[["accountability journalism",[]]],"sb":[["reporters",[]],["reformers",[]],["experts",[]],["collaborative-facilitative",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Journalists are, in that view, mere distributers of elite propaganda. They lie in order to steer public opinion and facilitate the state's or other elites' interests",["Voigt 2018","Holt and Haller 2017","Lilienthal and Neverla 2017"]]]},{},{"sp":[["collaborative-facilitative",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Independence from mainstream media organizations is seen as an important indicator of credibility by these fact checkers (Graves and Cherubini 2016, 14-16).",[]]]},{"de":[["Holding politicians accountable is an important function in this category as well (Graves and Cherubini 2016, 12-13).",[]]]},{"de":[["The messages are typically simple and invite for sharing which makes them particularly \"spreadable\" (Jenkins, Ford, and Green 2013).",["Jenkins, Ford, and Green 2013"]]]},{"de":[["They function as uncritical collaborators who support the government as facilitators for its agenda, defend the ruling elites and steer public opinion.",[]],["By disseminating information from the government to the people they are a mouthpiece for the people in power.",[]],["They are not independent journalists but part of the state and as such they legitimize its policy and actions",["Hanitzsch and Vos 2018, 156","156"]],["They are not independent journalists but part of the state and as such they legitimize its policy and actions (Hanitzsch and Vos 2018, 156).",["Hanitzsch and Vos 2018, 156"]],["People who see fact checkers as collaborative facilitators trust them and consequently their fact checks less.",[]]]},{"de":[["This reflects closely the expert role identified by Graves and Cherubini (2016) who found that many fact-checking organizations first and foremost were founded by professionals from research or policy that organized themselves, initially often without an explicit editorial role or clear distinctions between research and editorial functions",["17"]],["This reflects closely the expert role identified by Graves and Cherubini (2016) who found that many fact-checking organizations first and foremost were founded by professionals from research or policy that organized themselves, initially often without an explicit editorial role or clear distinctions between research and editorial functions (17).",["17"]]]},{"de":[["It matches closely the role of the reformer identified by Graves and Cherubini (2016) who found that fact-checking outlets that see themselves mainly as reformers tend to reject the narrow framework of journalism.",["Graves and Cherubini 2016"]],["Those fact checkers often have protest or NGO backgrounds who want to \"involve average people into the process of accountability of officials\"",["Graves and Cherubini 2016, 14","14"]]]},{"de":[["Fact checkers' independence from both politics and traditional media as well as their expertise in economy, their status as academics and generally knowledgeable persons underlines the journalistic ideal of intellectual independence and autonomy.",[]],["An assumption of slightly diminished criticism of the government is implied by reporters wanting to improve communication between the government and the people and mainly relying on official information, whereas official could have been understood as correct or objective by the participants.",[]],["One of the reporter's most important functions is to improve public discourse.",[]]]},{"rt":[["media trust",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["often used interchangeably with 'unrest', 'conflict', 'revolution', and to describe vaguely disturbing moods or situations",["p. 399"]],["culturally produced global phenomenon, whose cultural construction as a crisis relied mainly on the representational work of media",[]],["reveals the undercurrents of everyday life and its socio-political formations",[]]],"sy":[["unrest",[]],["conflict",[]],["revolution",[]]]},{},{"de":[["identifying and coding key themes (problem definition); 2. detect causal interpretations, specifically success or failure; 3. assess moral evaluations that could be positive, negative, or neutral; 4. analyze recommendations that could include a call for, or against certain action(s).",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Developed by the Brazilian anthropologist Gilberto Freyre, the Portuguese dictatorship regime adopted Luso-Tropicalism to circumvent public pressure for the independence of colonized territories in the aftermath of World War II",["Warwick et al., 2019"]],["Furthermore, it would attest the country's role as the inventor of human rights",["Jerónimo & Monteiro, 2020"]],["advocated a fundamental difference between Portuguese and Northern European colonialism.",[]],["Developed by the Brazilian anthropologist Gilberto Freyre, the Portuguese dictatorship regime adopted Luso-Tropicalism to circumvent public pressure for the independence of colonized territories in the aftermath of World War II (Warwick et al., 2019). Valuing a supposed exceptionality in the relationship between the Portuguese and people from the 'tropics', Luso-Tropicalism advocated a fundamental difference between Portuguese and Northern European colonialism.",["Warwick et al., 2019"]]]},{}] |