MBDef 1.0.0: Explorer data for exactly the released rows, map and topics made on them
714cbfe verified | [{},{"de":[["These articles are designed to manipulate public perception or behaviour.",[]],["key words that suggest manipulation and control, both of which are central to propaganda themes.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["when \"the arrangement of the constituent elements of an event is incompatible with the normal or expected pattern, the event is perceived as incongruous.\"",["McGhee (1979: 6-7)"]]]},{"de":[["It helps in understanding how ideology functions through language",["Breeze 2011","Haider & Hussein 2020","Haider & Olimy 2019"]],["how language constructs identities and social relationships",["Berger 2016"]],["It helps in understanding how ideology functions through language (Breeze 2011;Haider & Hussein 2020;Haider & Olimy 2019) and how language constructs identities and social relationships (Berger 2016).",["Breeze 2011","Haider & Hussein 2020","Haider & Olimy 2019","Berger 2016"]]]},{"rt":[["fragile ego",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Analysing discourse can show the extent to which spoken or written texts are gendered by looking into language use and gender representation.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["brittle self-esteem",[]]]},{"de":[["this may draw attention to the gender biases that are established and disseminated on the internet.",[]]],"rt":[["gender biases",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["congruity",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Knowledge Resources (KRs)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Knowledge Resources (KRs)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This includes opposite themes such as real/unreal, normal/abnormal, possible/impossible.",[]]],"sp":[["Knowledge Resources (KRs)",[]]]},{"sy":[["Gender jokes",[]]]},{"sp":[["Knowledge Resources (KRs)",[]]]},{"de":[["Women's magazines about fashion, hair and makeup, beauty contests, and fashion parades, in addition to the proportion of women who opt for cosmetic surgeries, may help strengthen this stereotype (Sunderland 2004).",[]],["This enhances the stereotype that women's domain is confined to the house.",[]]]},{"de":[["This labelling is usually based on stereotypes and myths about ethnic groups, professions, etc., and may help develop and solidify them.",[]]],"sp":[["Knowledge Resources (KRs)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["news bias",[]]],"ex":[["For instance, when covering a protest, the media might strategically select photos that show violence to promote a negative perspective about the event, even when the protest was largely peaceful",["1","5"]]]},{"de":[["It can manifest as provocation, slander, or insults, often targeting race, skin color, gender, or religion, among other aspects",["2"]]]},{},{"sb":[["supporting the issue",[]],["against the issue",[]],["political CSR",[]]]},{"de":[["One major difference between corporate political activity and the other types of socio-political engagement is its starting point of business interests",["van der Meer and Jonkman, 2021","Wettstein and Baur, 2016"]]]},{"de":[["Explicit stance-taking is a defining point of corporate political advocacy",["Dodd and Supa, 2015","Weber et al., 2023"]],["relative to corporate political lobbying, corporate political advocacy is not for selfserving purposes, and hence the stance it advocates for usually does not have a direct relevance to its core business",["Wettstein and Baur, 2016"]],["corporate political advocacy which alienates some groups and individuals who have a disagreeing stance",[]],["taking an explicit stance on controversial issues",[]]],"sy":[["corporate social advocacy",[]]],"rt":[["political CSR",[]]],"sp":[["corporate political engagement",[]]]},{"de":[["how corporate political engagement would impact the existing dynamic information environment, thus influencing politicized social conflicts.",[]]],"rt":[["political CSR",[]]],"sb":[["corporate political advocacy",[]],["political CSR",[]],["stance supporting the issue",[]]]},{"de":[["increases the perceived importance of the issue",["Bordalo et al., 2020"]],["consequently motivates political engagement",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["perceived polarization, a perceptual level of indicator of political polarization and political discussion, a behavioral level concept that has great implications for polarization",[]],["stakeholders are likely to overestimate the degree of polarization (Westfall et al., 2015).",["Westfall et al., 2015"]],["because individual actions tend to be more directly affected by their understanding of reality than the actual reality, perceived polarization could be more influential than actual polarization (Enders and Armaly, 2019).",["Enders and Armaly, 2019"]],["perceived polarization was found to be more impactful in influencing stakeholders' attitudinal and behavioral responses",["Enders and Armaly, 2019"]],["One of the main manifestations of political polarization is perceived polarization",["Weber et al., 2021"]],["Perceived polarization could carry two layers of meanings",["Yang et al., 2016"]],["Perceived polarization could carry two layers of meanings (Yang et al., 2016). One refers to the perceived distance between oneself or one group and the average position of members from the outgroup (Enders and Armaly, 2019), and the other considers a bystander perspective as it focuses on the perceived distance between different politicized groups to which one does not belong for their issue stances (Yang et al., 2016).",["Yang et al., 2016","Enders and Armaly, 2019"]]],"rt":[["actual polarization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Like corporate political advocacy, political CSR also emphasizes an overt political engagement with motives beyond self-interest",["Wettstein and Baur, 2016"]],["political CSR emphasizes a balance of interests where the corporation remains neutral and doesn't lean toward any side",["Wettstein and Baur, 2016"]],["political CSR aims to promote open dialogue and mutual understanding and play a role in negotiation",["van der Meer and Jonkman, 2021"]],["political CSR also emphasizes an overt political engagement with motives beyond self-interest (Wettstein and Baur, 2016).",[]],["political CSR emphasizes a balance of interests where the corporation remains neutral and doesn't lean toward any side (Wettstein and Baur, 2016).",[]],["political CSR aims to promote open dialogue and mutual understanding and play a role in negotiation (van der Meer and Jonkman, 2021).",[]],["political CSR that promotes open dialogue",[]],["predicted function of political CSR in the polarized world that regulates market transactions through negotiation",["van der Meer and Jonkman, 2021"]],["to encourage open dialogue and mutual understanding for better societal situation, to limit publics' perceived polarization of the issue",[]]],"sy":[["calling for open dialogue",[]]],"rt":[["corporate political engagement",[]]],"sp":[["corporate political engagement",[]],["corporate social responsibility (CSR)",[]],["corporate social responsibility",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["In the context of this paper 1 , we focus on fake news in terms of information disorder as defined by Wardle [1]",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",["1"]],["disinformation",["1"]],["malinformation",["1"]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["with a \"'thematic framing' that orients communicative action\"",["p. 623"]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["scandal clock",[]],["functional phase model of scandals",[]],["functional phase model",[]]]},{"sp":[["scandal clock",[]],["functional phase model",[]]]},{"sy":[["scandal clock",["Burkhardt, 2018, pp. 28-31","Burkhardt, 2015, pp. 178-205","Burkhardt, 2018, pp. 28-31; see also Burkhardt, 2015, pp. 178-205"]]],"sb":[["latency phase",[]],["upswing phase",[]],["establishment phase",[]],["downturn phase",[]],["rehabilitation phase",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The scandal emerges suddenly and unexpectedly, even from other journalists' perspectives.",[]]],"sb":[["extended latency phase",[]]],"sp":[["scandal clock",[]],["functional phase model of scandals",[]],["functional phase model",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["media hype",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["scandal clock",[]],["functional phase model of scandals",[]],["functional phase model",[]]]},{"sb":[["latency phase",[]],["upswing phase",[]],["establishment phase",[]],["downturn phase",[]],["rehabilitation phase",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["scandal clock",[]],["functional phase model of scandals",[]],["functional phase model",[]]]},{"ex":[["teams refusing to play, or significant security threats to competitions",[]]]},{"rt":[["prognostic framing",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["under a neutral flag and only if they have no affiliation with the military or war propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["the Olympic principle of",[]]]},{"rt":[["diagnostic framing",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["if athletes are co-opted into the military or if sporting success is heavily used to fuel wartime nationalism",[]]]},{"de":[["has long been a contested myth rather than a fixed legal reality.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["en su mayoría hablan los cargos políticos, con el 48,5 % y un total de 168 noticias con declaraciones de estos, seguido de profesionales o expertos, con el 22,5 % y de periodistas, con el 20,0 % y en menor medida testigos o víctimas, con el 7,2 %.",[]]]},{"de":[["nombrar a las mujeres con diminutivos como \"Pepi\", \"Conchi\" o \"Malú\", así como mayor familiaridad e infantilización, y con expresiones como \"las chicas\" para referirse a mujeres jóvenes.",[]],["que las nombra con diminutivos y de forma más familiar e infantilizada",[]]]},{"de":[["del total de noticias con estereotipos, estos son en su mayoría marcas de género (56 %)",[]],["muestran al hombre como universal y neutral y a las mujeres como una desviación de esa norma masculina",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["mujeres llevando flores a las tumbas y limpiando estas o cuidando de bebés en noticias sobre pañales",[]],["mujeres limpiando o cocinando, asociadas al servicio doméstico",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["disinformation content of a political, health, environmental, etc. nature, whose discourse may be more effective as the users themselves are not aware that it is fake content",[]],["disinformation on TikTok is narratively determined by individual users, most of them fake profiles, who insert videos and photos from other digital platforms, taken out of context and reinforced with biased texts.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This not only reduced opportunities for other actors but also created a terrain for them to articulate their own claims that had already been primarily defined as being in the realm of political management.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a claim in itself can be constructed of different statements or actions.",[]],["Each of our claims are characterised by a certain structure, which can be distilled into key elements that form the key characteristics of a claim, such as the 'actor' (who makes the claim), the 'position' (whether the claim is favourable or unfavourable to refugees) and the 'issue' (which is the main concern of a claim).",[]]],"rt":[["actor",[]],["position",[]],["issue",[]]]},{},{"de":[["meaning that actors made claims primarily defined around the modalities of crisis management (e.g. border control, asylum application processes and the sharing of responsibilities across EU member states)",[]]],"rt":[["crisis management",[]]]},{"de":[["the generators of the claims being made",[]],["their capacity to set the agenda in the way explicated by Hall et al (1978)",[]],["how the absence of heterogeneity can enable certain actors to primarily define a situation around particular issues that narrows the range of potential discourses and voices and shapes the debate towards certain policy responses.",[]],["rebalance who occupies the crucial role of 'primary definer'",[]],["those actors with greater economic, political and relational resources have more opportunities to have their voices heard.",[]]],"rt":[["Secondary definers",[]]],"ex":[["providing political leaders who are more vocal on this topic the opportunity to be primary definers in the refugee crisis, thus strongly contributing towards both the polarization of the debate and its framing around particular issues",[]]]},{"de":[["predominantly target middle class audiences",[]],["the former frequently adopting a more serious or sober tone",[]]],"sy":[["broadsheets",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["primary definers",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Interpretive Content Analysis (ICA)",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["infodemic",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["infodemic",[]]]},{"sp":[["infodemic",[]]]},{"de":[["a psychological tendency to enjoy thinking",["31"]],["the slower, more analytic approach",["24"]]],"rt":[["analytical thinking",[]]]},{"rt":[["antagonism",[]],["agonistic pluralism",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["fringe communities",[]]],"ex":[["4chan and Gab",[]]]},{"de":[["the political as a dimension of antagonism that can take many forms and can emerge in diverse social relations",[]],["a we/they relation in which the two sides are enemies who do not share any common ground",[]]],"rt":[["agonism",[]]]},{"de":[["efforts and initiatives by individual internet users",[]],["to counter the deluge of hate speech and to advocate a constructive discussion climate through various campaigns and online initiatives",[]],["organized counterspeech to stymie the spread of hate online",[]],["Such forms of counterspeech may contribute to \"civic education in a broader sense\" by \"disseminat[ing] messages of tolerance and civility\"",["Rieger, Schmitt, & Frischlich, 2018, p. 464"]],["Schieb and Preuss (2018) found that counterspeech achieves maximum impact if it is organized, conducted in groups, quick in reaction, and not too extreme in its positions.",["Schieb and Preuss (2018)"]],["organized counterspeech initiatives",[]]],"sy":[["counter initiatives",[]]],"rt":[["organized counterspeech",[]]]},{"de":[["Her understanding of democratic participation as essentially conflict-ridden and emotional allows us to approach the partisan confrontations on social media we see in our data not (only) as expressions of divisive antagonisms that are harmful to society but potentially as the productive agonistic pluralism that is vital for a healthy and functioning democracy.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["deny the basic standing of individuals who belong to vulnerable social groups, in virtue of their belonging to these groups",["p. 853"]],["does not necessarily come in verbal or written form but can also be conveyed visually, for instance, through GIFs or memes",[]],["understood as one of the most extreme forms of incivility",["Lück & Nardi, 2019"]],["highly contested and often used as a stand-in for several forms of group-focused enmity, such as antisemitism, racism, or hostility towards Sinti and Roma",["Zick et al., 2016, p. 33-41"]],["making it a form of norm-transgressing communication",["Rieger, Schmitt, & Frischlich, 2018"]],["At the core of existing definitions of hate speech is the emphasis on an identity-based enmity towards certain groups.",[]],["explicit display of textual or visual expressions aiming to deprecate and denigrate",["Ebner, 2019"]],["form of norm-transgressing communication",["Rieger, Schmitt, & Frischlich, 2018"]]],"rt":[["dangerous speech",[]]],"sp":[["incivility",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["explicitly cautions against practices of othering and framing opponents as a moral enemy by using labels that assign political or ideological stances",[]]],"rt":[["counterspeech",[]]],"sp":[["counterspeech",[]]]},{"de":[["By recurrently postulating correlations and causalities, such narratives \"stir up emotions and can help to motivate and mobilize\"",["Ibid., p. 160"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["abyssal thinking",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is not structural problems in the Eurozone or the global financial and economic system that is seen as the origin of the problem, but rather their victims, the populations of the debt-economies themselves.",[]]]},{"de":[["The culturalization of politics analytically vanquishes political economy, states, history, and international and transnational relations. It eliminates colonialism, capital, caste or class stratification, and external political domination from accounts of political conflict or instability.",["23"]]],"sy":[["culture talk",["21"]]]},{"de":[["The 'enemy' is continuously externalized and disembodied. Political phenomena are removed from any understanding of their historical roots or any recognition of the powers that produce and shape them.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["colonialism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the concept of periphery is often substituted by the term 'PIGS' in mainstream political and media discourses.",[]]],"rt":[["periphery",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The rapid rise of deepfake technology poses a severe threat to social and political stability",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the infodemic hindered the implementation of virus control measures. This promoted the spread of fear, unnecessary confusion, and division at times when collaboration was required to save lives and end the health emergency",[]]],"sy":[["information epidemic",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["often at the expense of increased architectural complexity and computational overhead",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["\"masculine\" issues",[]]],"ex":[["childcare, social welfare, education, healthcare, and women's rights",["Cassese et al., 2022"]]]},{"rt":[["electability",[]]]},{"rt":[["\"feminine\" issues",[]]],"ex":[["foreign policy, national security, and economic concerns",["Cassese et al., 2022"]]]},{},{"de":[["women's passion is framed as volatility to discipline their public presence",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["promoting electability as a candidate's relative advantage over rivals, particularly incumbents",["Mare, 2024"]]],"rt":[["viability",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Research on language and leadership suggests that assertiveness may be interpreted as strategic resolve, contingent upon the discursive context",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This theoretical paradigm critically examines how media discourse constructs, maintains, and occasionally undermines the identities and positions of women, particularly those in power or seeking political office",["Van Zoonen, 1994","Byerly and Ross, 2008"]],["The theory emphasises that the media are not neutral conveyors of information but active agents that shape social realities through symbolic systems that reflect dominant gender ideologies",["Ross, 2010"]],["Feminist media theory criticises the ongoing underrepresentation and misrepresentation of women in media discourse, which perpetuates the exclusion of women's voices and leadership",["Banet-Weiser, 2018"]],["the media are not neutral conveyors of information but active agents that shape social realities through symbolic systems that reflect dominant gender ideologies",["Ross, 2010"]],["criticises the ongoing underrepresentation and misrepresentation of women in media discourse, which perpetuates the exclusion of women's voices and leadership",["2018"]]]},{"de":[["By carefully choosing language and framing issues, the media can influence public opinion of political leaders by defining problems, identifying causes, making evaluative judgments, and proposing solutions.",[]]],"rt":[["problem definition",[]],["causal attribution",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["South African media reduce women's political authority to familial or symbolic roles",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Their silence, emotionality, or lack of unity is depicted as personal rather than systemic weakness.",[]],["Frames them as politically incapable, contrasting with rational male leadership.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["media salience selectively defines power relations",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The merged gendered personalisation and symbolic femininity frame reveals how South African media intertwined gender, personal life, and appearance to construct Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma and Lindiwe Sisulu as political figures whose legitimacy was mediated through womanhood, family, and symbolic representation rather than professional merit or policy vision.",[]]],"rt":[["gendered personalisation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["electability",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Because our method of data collection is continuous and ongoing, the length of our study time frame likely has no survey-based equivalent.",[]],["mining, aggregating, and analysing online textual data in real-time",["7,8"]]]},{},{"de":[["we did not code humourous or confusing posts as misinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Ten swine flu lies told by the mainstream media",["2"]],["WHO and drug companies in collusion",["3"]],["Carbon monoxide poisoning can create same symptoms as H1N1",["4"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["We focus on Canadian and European cases.",[]]]},{"de":[["It might be checkworthy if you can answer \"yes\" to any of these questions: Does it provoke an emotional response? Does it make a bold statement on a controversial issue? Is it an extraordinary claim? Does it contain clickbait? Does it have topical information that is within context? Does it use small pieces of valid information that are exaggerated or distorted?",[]]],"ex":[["Biden's Climate Requirements: Cut 90% of Red Meat From Diet; Americans Can Only Eat One Burger Per Month",[]]]},{"ex":[["The Eiffel Tower is the tallest tower in the world",[]],["Michael Jackson was seen at the department store last week",[]],["My wife can't eat chocolate because she's allergic",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Qualified Privilege",[]],["Responsible Communications",[]],["Fair Comment",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The plaintiff must prove 1) Act (Statement need not be false, but speech must be extreme), 2) Intent (i.e. calculated to produce harm), 3) Injury (i.e. the plaintiff must have suffered actual harm; some injury in the form of psychological harm)",[]]]},{"ex":[["Election Laws, Public Mischief, or Cyberbullying",[]]]},{"de":[["This encompasses both criminal laws, which can lead to incarceration, and civil laws, which can result in fines.",[]]]},{"de":[["can result in significant societal harm when it is spread with malicious or even innocuous intent.",[]],["has had a widespread harmful impact.",[]],["Since the definitions of misinformation are broad, they better serve as an indication of a policy domain rather than a legal category",["van Hoboken et al., 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["Transparency in journalism",[]]],"sp":[["Transparency in journalism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["attempts to locate the flaws and insufficiencies of transparency naïve adoption within the context of radical changes in journalism's business models, production processes, paradigms guiding journalism practice and societal roles",[]]]},{"de":[["attempts to locate the flaws and insufficiencies of transparency naïve adoption within the context of radical changes in journalism's business models, production processes, paradigms guiding journalism practice and societal roles",[]]]},{"de":[["European media policies defining principles include media pluralism and transparency as core values of a media system supportive of democracy",[]],["Media pluralism is a key factor in the quality of the democratic process.",[]]],"rt":[["basic protection",[]],["market plurality",[]],["political independence",[]],["social inclusiveness",[]]]},{"de":[["key element of media pluralism",[]],["a rescue criterion to rebuild a credible relationship with the public based on trustworthiness",[]]],"rt":[["internal or self-media transparency practices",[]],["external media transparency",[]],["media accountability",[]]]},{"sy":[["view from nowhere",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["transparent responsiveness",[]]],"rt":[["Transparency in journalism",[]]],"sp":[["Transparency in journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["entitles journalism with the duty to become more transparent and disclose information about political and financial supporters",[]]]},{"sb":[["actor transparency",[]],["production transparency",[]],["transparent responsiveness",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["fortress newsroom",[]]]},{"rt":[["exclusive discourse strategies",[]]]},{"de":[["This methodology is particularly effective for examining media discourse, as it allows the researcher to analyze the linguistic characteristics of texts while placing them within their wider socio-political and ideological frameworks.",[]],["serves as a powerful tool to unmask these dynamics, it helps see how the media, subtly (or explicitly) influences our conceptions of politics",["Abbas et al., 2023"]]]},{"sp":[["Fairclough's second dimension",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Frames help reporters to cope with large amounts of information and to make it ready for distribution to the public",["1980, p. 7","Gitlin, 1980, p. 7"]],["describing frames as dominant storylines, theme structures that make events clear.",["1987, p. 143"]]],"rt":[["frame analysis",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["systems of beliefs of social categories, beliefs that resemble opinions as reflections of underlying ideological norms",[]],["actualized through representational processes, which perpetuate or challenge power relations, authority and exploitation through identities and interaction",["Fairclough (2003)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["not a mirror reflection of reality but is a product of political, cultural, and economic conditions",["Fowler (1991)"]],["news is an example of public discourse.",["Van Dijk"]]],"rt":[["media discourse",[]],["public discourse",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It studies how discourse is affected by power relations, social norms, and institutional structures.",["1995"]]],"rt":[["Textual Analysis",[]],["Discursive Practice",[]]],"sp":[["The third aspect of Fairclough's model",[]],["Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Note that the definition of bias is general, and can be coupled with different base-line models of occupancy.",[]],["the definition of bias is general, and can be coupled with different base-line models of occupancy.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["News Feed also refers to the algorithm used by Facebook to recommend posts to users.",[]],["With some abuse of notation, News Feed also refers to the algorithm used by Facebook to recommend posts to users. The distinction between the ordered lists of posts and the algorithm used to fill such lists should be clear from the context.",[]]],"sy":[["timeline",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Each publisher is associated to a public page, which contains all the posts published by that source.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["bot",[]]]},{},{"de":[["However, such definition is quite extensive and could contain many edge-cases. Thus, when we prepared our experimental data, we preferred articles with multiple false claims and false narrative support. The fake articles we used were also not fully false, each contained some truthful claims as well.",[]],["However, such definition is quite extensive and could contain many edge-cases. Thus, when we prepared our experimental data, we preferred articles with multiple false claims and false narrative support.",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",["Gelfert, 2018"]]]},{"sy":[["fact-checkers",[]]]},{"de":[["Factual information may be presented in a controversial light, or exaggerated such that it is no longer reliable.",[]]]},{"de":[["The latter can guide the creation of automated detection approaches.",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Noi demoliremo l'Euromostro (G. Meloni). 'We'll smash the Euromonster'",[]]]},{"sp":[["presuppositions",[]]]},{"rt":[["critical engagement",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["PMP",[]]]},{"de":[["a good candidate for passing on potentially tendentious content without the addressee being able to question its truth",["Lombardi Vallauri and Masia, 2014"]]],"sy":[["PMP",[]]],"sp":[["presuppositions",[]]]},{"ex":[["Heureuse d'être ici, chez nous, sur cette terre si française, populaire et patriote, du bassin minier (M. Le Pen). 'I'm happy to be here, at home, in this land that is so French, so popular and so patriotic, in the mining district.'",[]]]},{"de":[["LLMs tended to rely on superficial linguistic forms instead of genuine pragmatic reasoning",[]],["presuppositions have generally been characterized as information that is taken for granted by both the speaker and the receiver at the moment of utterance",[]],["Presupposition is thus, among other things, a highly economical means of avoiding the overt assertion of content that is not intended to fulfill the speaker's informative goal in the ongoing interaction.",[]],["one of the most pervasive and manipulative devices in human communication",["Lombardi Vallauri, 2009","Masia et al., 2017","Domaneschi et al., 2018"]],["One of the most striking properties of presuppositions in discourse is their resistance to negation; in other words, they persist even if the whole utterance is negated.",[]]],"rt":[["implicature",[]],["deixis",[]],["reference",[]],["presupposition triggers",[]],["change-of-state verbs",[]],["definite descriptions",[]]],"sb":[["existence presuppositions",[]],["truth presuppositions",[]],["potentially manipulative presuppositions",[]]],"ex":[["Definite description: Demoliremo l'Euromostro (G. Meloni). 'We'll smash the Euromonster'",[]],["Change-of-state verbs: …commencer à bâtir une Europe-puissance …' (E. Macron). 'start building a European power'",[]],["Iterative adverbs: Make America great again (R. Reagan; D. Trump)",[]]]},{"de":[["Their presence in a linguistic message is typically indexed by",[]]],"rt":[["Presupposition",[]]],"sb":[["existence presuppositions",[]],["truth presuppositions",[]]],"ex":[["Definite description",[]],["Change-of-state verbs",[]],["Iterative adverbs",[]],["adverbial subordinate clauses",[]],["defining relative clauses",[]],["factive predicates",[]],["Definite description: Demoliremo l'Euromostro (G. Meloni). 'We'll smash the Euromonster'",[]],["Change-of-state verbs: …commencer à bâtir une Europe-puissance …' (E. Macron). 'start building a European power'",[]],["Iterative adverbs: Make America great again (R. Reagan; D. Trump)",[]]]},{"de":[["presenting information as already taken for granted and shared in the common ground",[]],["might influence audiences without overtly presenting argumentative claims, which makes them a powerful and potentially manipulative tool in political rhetoric",[]],["a rhetorical device that may subtly influence audiences by packaging some content as already known at the moment of utterance.",[]]],"sb":[["change-of-state verbs",[]],["definite descriptions",[]]]},{"de":[["One of the most striking properties of presuppositions in discourse is their resistance to negation",[]]],"rt":[["presuppositions",[]]]},{"ex":[["Nous poursuivrons sans relâche notre travail pour l'inclusion de nos compatriotes en situation de handicap (E. Macron). 'We will relentlessly continue our work for the inclusion of our compatriots with disabilities'",[]]]},{"ex":[["Hanno cancellato l'unico strumento di sostegno contro la povertà (E. Schlein). 'They canceled the only tool to fight poverty.'",[]]]},{"sp":[["presuppositions",[]]]},{"rt":[["alternative groups",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["As a \"digital expansion\" of that physical territory, it managed to transpose online social and political elements to a new dimension, both through their new virtual state and through their wider expansion, inconsiderate to geographical boundaries.",[]]]},{"de":[["It denotes the intended distortion of reality and truth by its creators who reproduce mass media online formats purposefully, creating confusion around veriied facts and their interpretation by readers",["Frau-Meigs 2019, electronic version"]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["It denotes the intended distortion of reality and truth by its creators who reproduce mass media online formats purposefully, creating confusion around veriied facts and their interpretation by readers",["Frau-Meigs 2019, electronic version"]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Wikipedia defines a fact as something that is consistent with objective reality or that can be proven with evidence-if a statement can be demonstrated to correspond to experience, it's a fact.",[]]]},{"de":[["Character, time, location, relation, extent and any other element can be distorted",[]],["Character, time, location, relation, extent and any other element can be distorted;",[]]],"ex":[["12 people were injured in the shooting. 24 people were killed in the shooting.",[]]]},{"de":[["It can be performed on sentence level",[]],["It can be performed on sentence level;",[]]]},{"de":[["The indeterminacy of rights is embraced, via the 'margin of appreciation' doctrine: it balances legal accountability with democratic states' freedom of action, allowing governments to resolve indeterminacy by making explicitly political judgements about what serves the public interest.",[]]]},{"de":[["Sander contrasts 'marketised' conceptions of human rights law, which primarily protect individual agency against state intervention, with 'structural' conceptions which focus on proactively addressing systemic power imbalances.",[]]],"rt":[["'structural' conceptions",[]]]},{"de":[["Julie Cohen's argument for 'rights-as-affordances' holds that effectively protecting human rights requires understanding them as collective values, because people can only enjoy individual freedoms if the shared material environment accommodates them.",[]]]},{"de":[["Sander contrasts 'marketised' conceptions of human rights law, which primarily protect individual agency against state intervention, with 'structural' conceptions which focus on proactively addressing systemic power imbalances.",[]]],"rt":[["'marketised' conceptions of human rights law",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["mandating respect for rights frequently serves as a key safeguard against excessive censorship by platforms.",[]],["fundamental rights principles serve as judicial constraints on EU legislation.",[]],["rights play a prominent rhetorical role in orienting and legitimising EU social media regulation.",[]],["in EU fundamental rights law, such as the Charter becoming binding and the developing jurisprudence on states' positive obligations.",["30"]],["sometimes seems to be used as a synonym for the public interest.",["146","147"]],["Fundamental rights offer the broadest and most flexible category, meaning that unless research involves another more specific area, such as electoral integrity, researchers will generally have to frame issues in terms of their fundamental rights impacts.",[]],["They function as a default moral standard against which law and policy can be judged, and a widely-accepted normative basis for calls for reform.",[]]],"sy":[["public interest",["146","147"]]]},{},{"de":[["By focusing on protecting individuals against rights violations by identifiable perpetrators, human rights can divert attention from the macro-level social, political and economic context.",[]]],"rt":[["alternative normative frameworks",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Such legislation typically envisages fundamental rights as a guiding principle for, and constraint on, such actions.",[]]]},{"sy":[["structural conceptions of rights",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["degree of consensus in audience reactions (i.e. high numbers of people had previously shared them)",[]]],"sy":[["social proof",["19"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Digital media literacy is widely regarded as an important variable mediating the spread and impact of disinformation",["1"]]],"sy":[["new media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["whether a story can be considered disinformation, misinformation, or true information, depends on the observer's perspective.",[]],["A social media user sharing it in full knowledge that it was untrue would be sharing disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["true information",[]]]},{"de":[["if they shared it believing it was actually true, then from an observer's perspective this would be technically categorised as misinformation",[]],["whether a story can be considered disinformation, misinformation, or true information, depends on the observer's perspective.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["true information",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is relatively easy to manipulate the degree of consensus or social proof associated with an online post.",[]]],"rt":[["consensus",[]]]},{"sy":[["apocalipsis de la información",["Westerlund, 2019"]]]},{"sy":[["apatía por la realidad",["Westerlund, 2019"]]]},{"de":[["Estas representaciones sintéticas, generadas mediante técnicas computarizadas basadas en inteligencia artificial (IA), plantean serias amenazas para la privacidad, en un nuevo escenario en el que se incrementan los riesgos derivados de las suplantaciones de identidad.",[]],["Estas representaciones sintéticas se conocen como deepfake (palabra compuesta en la que se combinan deep learning, o aprendizaje profundo, y fake, es decir, falso)",[]]],"sy":[["ultrafalso",[]]],"sb":[["imágenes, audios o vídeos",[]]],"ex":[["Deepfakes de personalidades como Barack Obama, Donald Trump o Mark Zuckerberg",[]]]},{"de":[["Los deepfakes son el producto de aplicaciones de IA que fusionan, combinan, reemplazan y superponen imágenes y videoclips para crear vídeos falsos que parecen auténticos",["Maras y Alexandrou, 2019"]],["Se trata de montajes difíciles de detectar, ya que se basan en grabaciones reales que incluso pueden tener audio con sonido auténtico.",[]],["Los deepfakes están optimizados para ser compartidos fácilmente en redes sociales, donde las conspiraciones, los rumores y la información errónea se difunden fácilmente.",[]],["los deepfakes podrían interferir en unas elecciones o agitar a determinados segmentos para sembrar disturbios civiles",[]],["ejercen presión sobre los periodistas que luchan por filtrar noticias reales de las falsas",[]],["amenazan la seguridad nacional al difundir propaganda que pueda alterar los resultados de unas elecciones",[]],["obstaculizan la confianza de los ciudadanos en la información transmitida por las autoridades y plantean problemas de ciberseguridad tanto para internautas como para organizaciones",[]],["Los deepfakes representan una amenaza mayor que las noticias falsas tradicionales porque son más difíciles de detectar",[]]],"sy":[["deep fake",[]],["falsificaciones profundas",[]],["falsificación profunda",["Westerlund, 2019"]],["representaciones sintéticas",[]]],"ex":[["un vídeo humorístico, pornográfico o político de una persona que dice o hace algo sin su consentimiento",["Day, 2019","Fletcher, 2018"]],["pornografía de venganza -revenge porn-",["Maras y Alexandrou, 2019"]],["el acoso",["Maras y Alexandrou, 2019"]],["la evidencia de vídeos falsos en los tribunales",["Maras y Alexandrou, 2019"]],["el sabotaje político",["Maras y Alexandrou, 2019"]],["la propaganda terrorista",["Maras y Alexandrou, 2019"]],["el chantaje",["Maras y Alexandrou, 2019"]],["la manipulación del mercado y las noticias falsas",["Maras y Alexandrou, 2019"]],["Un deepfake puede mostrar, por ejemplo, a Sylvester Stallone actuando en películas que nunca ha protagonizado",[]],["un deepfake de 2018 creado por el cineasta de Hollywood Jordan Peele presentaba al expresidente estadounidense Barack Obama discutiendo los peligros de las noticias falsas y burlándose del presidente Donald Trump",[]],["deepfake de B. Obama",[]],["deepfake de Lola Flores",[]],["Deepfake en el que Sylvester Stallone protagoniza Terminator 2",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["pornografía deepfake",[]]],"ex":[["rostros populares como el de la actriz Scarlett Johansson han aparecido en películas para adultos deepfakes",[]]]},{"sp":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["media users tend to pay attention to media content based on certain motivations, which leads to the thinking and processing of information, and finally to the acquisition of knowledge (Eveland, 2001).",["Eveland, 2001"]]]},{"de":[["To reduce this discomfort, individuals take steps to adjust their cognitions to be more consistent with reality (Zajonc, 1960).",[]]]},{"sp":[["news curation",[]]],"ex":[["Examples of these decisions include skimming, muting, and following on social media",["Davis, 2017"]]]},{"sb":[["news preference and avoidance",[]],["news habits",[]],["news perception",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["humans process through mental \"modules\" that include emotional responses, cognitions, and associated behavioral patterns that have evolved over time as a result of genetically-driven adaptations that increase the possibility of being transmitted their genes (Kenrick & Shiota, 2008;Tooby & Cosmides, 2015).",["Kenrick & Shiota, 2008","Tooby & Cosmides, 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["news curation is decomposed into two curatorial practices, production and consumption.",["Davis, 2017"]],["Rosenbaum (2011) suggests that the curation of news is a way of identifying important stories, discovering thematic ideas, providing context for the information, and interpreting the significance of fragmented information, implying that the curator searches for the content of the information and categorizes it, interpreting it in a particular context.",[]]],"sb":[["Productive curation",[]],["consumptive curation",[]]],"sp":[["curation",[]]]},{"de":[["Personal factors include personal perceptions of news, attitudes toward news, news participation, and news needs.",[]]],"sp":[["mediating variable",[]]]},{"de":[["changes in audience attitudes are influenced by a variety of factors, including characteristics of the communicator, characteristics of the content of the message, persuasive methods and techniques, as well as audience attributes, which the researchers categorized into four categories : communicator factors, communication channel factors, message factors and receiver factors (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953).",[]]]},{"sp":[["news curation",[]]]},{"sb":[["news creation",[]],["news participation",[]],["news use",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Relevance theory is founded on Grice's succinct \"relevance\" criterion and describes relevant input as \"contributing meaningfully to a person's perception of the world\"",["Grice, 1975"]],["Relevance is the trade-off between reducing time and effort by getting the most recent information.",[]],["Relevance theory is founded on Grice's succinct \"relevance\" criterion and describes relevant input as \"contributing meaningfully to a person's perception of the world\" (Grice, 1975).",["Grice, 1975"]]]},{},{"de":[["it describes the phenomena where people decide to focus their attention on information that matches their beliefs and attitudes (Festinger, 1962).",["Festinger, 1962"]],["People try to lessen the cognitive dissonance that results from information that conflicts their preconceived notions by choosing the information to which they are exposed (Sears & Freedman, 1967).",["Sears & Freedman, 1967"]],["For this, two general types of explanations have been proposed -one utilizes a variety of mechanisms through which the individual rejects the inconsistent persuasive information he is confronted with, and the other explains voluntary exposure to information (Freedman & Sears, 1965).",["Freedman & Sears, 1965"]]]},{},{"de":[["The process by which people draw conclusions and pass judgment on the intents, behavioral motives, and mental states of others is known as social cognition. Social cognition is based on a study of pertinent cues as well as the cognizer's prior experiences. and must be conducted through the cognizer's thinking activities, which include some degree of information processing, reasoning, categorization, and induction (Bandura, 1986(Bandura, , 1999(Bandura, , 2009)).",[]]]},{"de":[["Information first travels through the mass media, then to opinion leaders, and finally to the general public. Opinion leaders have a responsibility to inform and interpret information for the less active sections of the population (Park, 2013).",[]]]},{"de":[["Usage and gratification theory emphasizes the audience's initiative and suggests that audiences choose media and media content to satisfy specific needs, such as information access, entertainment, and social interaction (Ruggiero, 2000).",["Ruggiero, 2000"]]],"sy":[["Usage and gratification theory",[]]],"ex":[["Scholars utilized U&G in the context of news consumption to explore why people select particular news platforms or content (Rubin & Perse, 1987;Ruggiero, 2000), such as social utility, amusement, leisure, and the search for significant, local, and financial information (Wohn & Ahmadi, 2019).",[]]]},{"de":[["Wymienione zostaną również stosowane w różnych dyskursach perswazyjnych (w tym ideologicznych) chwyty retoryczne, które zaobserwowałem także w badanych tekstach i które mogą być przejawem manipulacji, o ile spełniają pozajęzykowe warunki uznania ich za narzędzie manipulacji.",[]],["które mogą być przejawem manipulacji",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Używając terminu \"wyrażenie językowe\" w niniejszej pracy, mam na myśli zarówno jednostkę leksykalną, jak i połączenie jednostek leksykalnych, najważniejszą zasadą ich wyróżnienia jest bowiem kryterium semantyczne, nie zaś morfologiczne czy leksykalne.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["esta persigue la exageración de determinadas situaciones con el fin de provocar un efecto cómico en la audiencia",[]]],"ex":[["la hipérbole es que el número de flatulencias ha sido tan grande que ha permitido calentar un gran número de hogares",[]],["la exageración está presente en la protagonista de la noticia porque pensó que había roto un ordenador al minimizar una ventana de un programa",[]],["el autor recurre a la hipérbole para decir que el hombre es tan friolero que hasta en verano siempre lleva un jersey de entretiempo en los hombros por si acaso",[]],["el autor de esta exagera que la mesa del salón tiene tantas fotos que no cabe ninguna más",[]],["la exageración está en el hecho de que en las fiestas de Motril, Putin va a tomarse «un rebujito de media arroba», es decir, una gran cantidad",[]]]},{"de":[["ha sido un elemento clave en la ironía negativa, con el que un hablante «ridiculiza a su víctima con el enunciado irónico» y de esta manera produce un efecto humorístico",[]]],"rt":[["ironía negativa",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["incoherencia insólita",[]],["incoherencia paradójica",[]],["lo paradójico",[]]],"sp":[["incoherencias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["este tipo de incoherencia facilita el debate, la reflexión y el análisis sobre la paradoja, al tiempo que permite evidenciar su falta de lógica",["Charaudeau (2006, p. 34)"]],["este tipo de incoherencia facilita el debate, la reflexión y el análisis sobre la paradoja, al tiempo que permite evidenciar su falta de lógica.",["Charaudeau (2006, p. 34)"]],["facilita el debate, la reflexión y el análisis sobre la paradoja, al tiempo que permite evidenciar su falta de lógica",["Charaudeau (2006, p. 34"]]]},{"sb":[["unidades fraseológicas",[]],["hipérbole",[]],["símil",[]],["polisemia",[]],["variaciones de registro",[]]]},{"sy":[["sátira informativa",[]]]},{"de":[["implica que el interlocutor debe cumplir con dos objetivos, que son «manejar la actualidad con una base de humor» y «un manejo técnico elevado en las redacciones»",["Sánchez Peña, 2020, p. 65","Sánchez Peña (2020, p. 65)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["implica que el interlocutor debe cumplir con dos objetivos, que son «manejar la actualidad con una base de humor» y «un manejo técnico elevado en las redacciones»",["Sánchez Peña, 2020, p. 65"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["estas mezclan «la hilaridad y provoca un juego de contextos en el que abundan con éxito los sobreentendidos, los juegos verbales y los contrasentidos»",["Márquez Martínez, 2017, p. 222"]],["también se caracterizan por recurrir «al absurdo, la hipérbole y el sarcasmo, con las que consiguen llevar situaciones cotidianas [...] hasta el extremo»",["Márquez Martínez, 2017, p. 222"]]],"sb":[["las noticias satíricas (news satire), que consisten en «programas de noticias falsas, que suelen utilizar el humor o la exageración para presentar a la audiencia noticias actualizadas»",["Tandoc et al., 2017, pp. 141-46"]],["las noticias paródicas (news parody), que son parecidas a las satíricas, puesto que recurren al humor para atraer audiencia a través de la imitación de principales medios informativos y «juega con lo ridículo de los temas y los resalta inventando noticias totalmente ficticias»",["Tandoc et al., 2017, pp. 141-46"]],["las noticias inventadas (news fabrication), que son noticias que no cuentan con una base objetiva, y con las que el autor pretende desinformar",["Tandoc et al., 2017, pp. 141-46"]],["la manipulación fotográfica (photo manipulation), que consiste en «la manipulación de imágenes o vídeos reales para crear una narra-ción falsa»",["Tandoc et al., 2017, pp. 141-46"]],["la propaganda, que consiste en «noticias creadas por una entidad política» con el objetivo de favorecer a una figura política o gobierno",["Tandoc et al., 2017, pp. 141-46"]]]},{},{"sb":[["las cursivas",[]],["las interrogaciones",[]],["las exclamaciones",[]]]},{"de":[["estas mezclan «la hilaridad y provoca un juego de contextos en el que abundan con éxito los sobreentendidos, los juegos verbales y los contrasentidos» y que también se caracterizan por recurrir «al absurdo, la hipérbole y el sarcasmo, con las que consiguen llevar situaciones cotidianas [...] hasta el extremo»",["Márquez Martínez (2017, p. 222)","Márquez Martínez, 2017, p. 222"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"sb":[["noticias satíricas (news satire), que consisten en «programas de noticias falsas, que suelen utilizar el humor o la exageración para presentar a la audiencia noticias actualizadas»",[]],["noticias paródicas (news parody), que son parecidas a las satíricas, puesto que recurren al humor para atraer audiencia a través de la imitación de principales medios informativos y «juega con lo ridículo de los temas y los resalta inventando noticias totalmente ficticias»",[]],["noticias inventadas (news fabrication), que son noticias que no cuentan con una base objetiva, y con las que el autor pretende desinformar",[]],["la manipulación fotográfica (photo manipulation), que consiste en «la manipulación de imágenes o vídeos reales para crear una narra-ción falsa»",[]],["la propaganda, que consiste en «noticias creadas por una entidad política» con el objetivo de favorecer a una figura política o gobierno",[]],["las noticias satíricas (news satire), que consisten en «programas de noticias falsas, que suelen utilizar el humor o la exageración para presentar a la audiencia noticias actualizadas»",[]],["las noticias paródicas (news parody), que son parecidas a las satíricas, puesto que recurren al humor para atraer audiencia a través de la imitación de principales medios informativos y «juega con lo ridículo de los temas y los resalta inventando noticias totalmente ficticias»",[]],["las noticias inventadas (news fabrication), que son noticias que no cuentan con una base objetiva, y con las que el autor pretende desinformar",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["se basa en recursos como la parodia, la caricatura o la hipérbole, «que, en el momento actual, llegan hasta la Red»",["Gascón-Vera (2020, p. 124)"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["«se volvieron como los calcetines»",[]],["«como un archivo zip»",[]],["«parecía un ladrillo»",[]]]},{"sy":[["TGHV",[]]]},{"ex":[["«Es de locos», «Gin no va a faltar» o «Hay que tener fe»",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the graphs aid in the task by capturing the inherent and hidden relationships between media",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The purpose of fake news detection is to automatically determine whether the statements in news posts are true or false.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["counterpublics function similarly to publics in all but their hostile reception",[]],["counterpublics are more revolutionary and less reformist",[]],["In differentiating his definition of counterpublic from that of Fraser's \"subaltern counterpublic\" (1990:67), Warner argues that counterpublics are more revolutionary and less reformist.",["1990:67"]]],"rt":[["subaltern counterpublic",["1990:67"]]],"sp":[["public",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["reentextualization",["Silverstein and Urban 1996:13"]],["recontextualization",["Bauman and Briggs 1990:74-75"]]]},{},{"de":[["Media events disrupt preprogrammed cycles of news distribution: They are moments of rupture in which a collage of confused responses momentarily supplants existing narrative structures.",[]],["As media scholar John Fiske notes, \"A media event . . . is a point of maximum discursive visibility . . . a point of maximum turbulence . . . It also invites intervention and motivates people to struggle to redirect some of the currents flowing through it to serve their interests; it is therefore a site of popular engagement and involvement\" (1996:8, emphasis added).",["1996:8"]]]},{"de":[["making that which is invisible and unthinkable, suddenly recognized and apprehended",["2010:212"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["media messages intentionally crafted and disseminated by armed actors on any side of the conflict to support their military and political goals",[]],["In Colombian Spanish, the word propaganda connotes advertising as well as the instrumentalization of media by armed actors.",["8"]]]},{"de":[["Publics are essentially intertextual, frameworks for understanding texts against an organized background of the circulation of other texts, all interwoven",["Warner 2002:16"]]]},{},{"de":[["the term recombination highlights the centrality of interactivity in the circulation of digital and digitized media as a means of advancing or constraining publics.",[]],["recombination highlights the centrality of interactivity in the circulation of digital and digitized media as a means of advancing or constraining publics.",[]]],"sy":[["remix",[]]]},{},{"de":[["through personal engagement, civic meetings, sponsored concerts, and local radio programs",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["verbal rejection",[]]],"sp":[["Degree of Action",[]]],"ex":[["poor people tend to abuse alcohol",[]],["negative stereotypes",[]],["jokes",[]],["negative statements",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It increases the burden of poverty, impacting the well-being of this vulnerable group, and constitutes an obstacle to poverty mitigation.",[]],["Aporophobia is rooted in our beliefs and manifests through different degrees of attitudes and actions",["Comim et al., 2020"]],["the pervasive yet under-studied issue of bias against poor people on social media",[]],["negative action towards people living in poverty",[]],["Aporophobia involves negative sentiments and actions directed at the poor, including rejection, fear, and contempt.",[]],["the societal bias against people living in poverty",[]],["aporophobia can manifest through the different degrees of action resulting from prejudice (Allport, 1954)",["Allport, 1954"]]],"rt":[["racism",[]],["xenophobia",[]],["sexism",[]]],"sb":[["Reporting: The tweet mentions or critiques aporophobic behaviors or attitudes of others without expressing the author's own negative views.",[]],["Antilocution",[]],["Avoidance and fear",[]],["Discrimination",[]],["Physical attack",[]],["Extermination",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["racism",[]],["xenophobia",[]],["sexism",[]]]},{"de":[["defines whether the text constitutes 'Direct' aporophobia",[]],["when the minority group is poor, this contributes to racism or xenophobia.",[]]],"rt":[["Reporting Aporophobia",[]]],"sp":[["Type of Speech",[]],["aporophobia",[]]]},{"de":[["segregation is considered an institutionalized form of discrimination, enforced either legally or by tradition.",[]]],"rt":[["segregation",[]]],"sb":[["segregation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Degree of Action",[]]],"ex":[["poor people should be euthanized",[]],["Lynchings",[]],["massacres",[]]]},{"ex":[["forcibly evicting families from their homes or neighborhoods",[]],["physically attacking persons in a situation of homelessness",[]]]},{"rt":[["Direct Aporophobia",[]]],"sp":[["Type of Speech",[]]]},{"sp":[["discrimination",[]]]},{"de":[["Until today, no comprehensive definition is provided for fake news, many explanations, definitions, and ambiguities exist. Understanding what the term represents depends on the purpose and aim of the definer.",[]]],"sy":[["hoax news",["3"]],["false and non-authentic news",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",["1"]],["propaganda",["3"]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",["3"]]]},{},{"de":[["The problem definition is about how the people of the community are portrayed-their population and demographics, culture and experiences, the impact of the shooting on their way of life, and their responses to the shooting as a moral call to action.",[]],["community frame is the journalists' preferred choice for framing the news of the mass shooting to articulate community resilience as a moral value and shed light to solutions of the painful problem of mass shootings.",[]]],"ex":[["CNN applied community frame 56 times, FOX news 33 times, and MSNBC 12 times.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["reactionary political discourse",["Rebecca (2020)"]],["YouTube's strategic position as a digital ecosystem for cultural and alternate conversations, or as Rebecca (2020) describes it, reactionary political discourse.",[]]]},{"de":[["Also, it humanizes peoples' responses to the problem and reveals the value embedded in the collective response to a painful incident such as a mass shooting.",[]]]},{"sb":[["episodic frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is a critical analysis of the process in which media give visibility to specific issues, experiences, and events to make them seem more important than others.",[]],["It is like giving people \"the birds' eye view\" on how they should ponder the event by only presenting selected accounts from the perspectives of these matters (Cacciatore et al., 2016;Walter and Ophir, 2019); thereby shaping audiences' understanding of the event.",["Cacciatore et al., 2016","Walter and Ophir, 2019"]],["In other words, frame analysis identifies and examines frames for problem definition, analysis of possible causal relationships, moral evaluations, and solutions to the framed reality.",[]],["a critical analysis of the process in which media give visibility to specific issues, experiences, and events to make them seem more important than others.",[]],["Unlike agenda-setting theory, which Cohen (1963) states might not tell people how to think, but provides them \"what to think about\", frames tell audiences \"how to think\" (Walter and Ophir, 2019, p. 249) about issues and events through the ways the media present or omit the schemas that represent the stories.",["1963","2019"]]],"rt":[["problem definition, analysis of possible causal relationships, moral evaluations, and solutions to the framed reality",[]]],"sb":[["episodic and thematic frame analysis",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["problem definition",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["proposed solution",[]]]},{"de":[["Every news report on mass shootings may seem to be about the incident. However, how the incident is reported makes a difference in audiences' view of the story and often reveals ideological biases.",[]],["It answers the question, what happened and why this particular incident?",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the most frequent of the nine emerged frames.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the second most frequently occurring frame (n = 122).",[]],["The problem of gun debate (42.73%) is the dominant issue in all networks, but other issues emerged.",[]]],"sb":[["Gun debate",[]],["Policy",[]],["Mental health debate",[]],["Implicit bias",[]],["Assigning or taking blame",[]],["Political",[]],["Religious issues",[]],["Gender and sex ideology",[]],["Self-promotional",[]],["Stereotype",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Unlike the \"Interventions frame, \" which focuses on the actions of nonvictims or non-eyewitnesses, the \"Reactions frame\" focuses on verbal statements made by individuals or groups.",[]],["By highlighting these reactions, the news media encourages the audience to consider the shooting in light of the comments made by individuals they deem noteworthy.",[]],["Its problem definition is using the statements as a way of shaping audiences' perception of what happened or as a way for the audiences to think about what happened.",[]],["By highlighting these reactions, the news media encourages the audience to consider the shooting in light of the comments made by individuals they deem noteworthy. Its problem definition is using the statements as a way of shaping audiences' perception of what happened or as a way for the audiences to think about what happened.",[]]],"rt":[["Interventions frame",[]]]},{"de":[["This frame is the least frequent of the nine emerged frames.",[]]],"ex":[["CNN's use of a security frame focuses on security as a matter of \"top priority for churches\" that must be prepared (References 1-3, 5) and a general USA problem.",["1","2","3","5"]],["\"Finally, we have to accept that no place is safe, and everyone is now a suspect, \" a culture of fear (Reference 6).",["6"]],["Fox News' security frame focuses on prioritizing security as a community need, if not an act of necessity (Reference 1), championed by community faith leaders toward making sense of the massacre which is a problem that has come upon the community (Reference 3), and endorsed by the Sherriff who encourages \"active shooter training\" (Reference 2).",["1","2","3"]]]},{},{"de":[["It focuses on the shooter as the story's main subject and delves into questions about their motives and actions.",[]]],"ex":[["CNN applied the shooter frame 46 times, FOX News 29 times, and MSNBC 7 times.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It aims to answer questions such as \"Who were the victims of the attack?\" and \"How are they portrayed?\" and in what ways are their painful experiences depicted as a broader experience of victims of mass shootings?",[]]],"ex":[["CNN's victim frame occurred 64 times, Fox News occurred 22 times, and MSNBC 9 times.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["that others are more easily swayed and manipulated than we are (in particular by false information)",[]]],"rt":[["Overestimation of gullibility",[]],["perceived danger of misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["susceptibility of the self",[]],["close others",[]],["distant others",[]]],"ex":[["people exhibiting a stronger third-person effect of fake news are more likely to judge fake news on social media as socially undesirable",["Yang & Horning, 2020"]]]},{"sp":[["Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)",[]]]},{"de":[["Collective intelligence and the collaborative learning it fosters are based on a series of fundamental principles to achieve knowledge such as: collaboration among group members sharing ideas, knowledge and skills (Shteynberg et al., 2020); effective communication, whether oral or written, together with the ability to provide and receive feedback from peers (Suran et al., 2020); critical thinking inextricably linked to having to analyse and evaluate the information they receive and respond to the problem posed (Ziska, 2020); reflection on one's own learning fostered during the process of interacting with others (Kameda et al., 2022); shared knowledge among individuals participating in the task, which, through interactions, increases the individual's own knowledge (Woolley & Aggarwal, 2020); distributed cognition among a group of individuals sharing the cognitive load and providing feedback through collaboration (Malone & Bernstein, 2022); social learning between individuals and others through observation, imitation and communication (Kameda et al., 2022); and collective decision-making based on the shared knowledge generated (Orejudo, et al., 2022).",[]]],"rt":[["collaboration among group members",[]],["effective communication",[]],["critical thinking",[]],["reflection on one's own learning",[]],["shared knowledge",[]],["distributed cognition",[]],["social learning",[]],["collective decision-making",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)",[]]]},{"de":[["It is a specific type of misinformation",["Hjort, 2021","Musi, 2022"]]],"rt":[["clickbait",[]],["hoaxes",[]],["framing",[]],["rumors",[]],["satire",[]],["propaganda",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",["Hjort, 2021","Musi, 2022","Hjort, 2021;Musi, 2022"]]],"ex":[["clickbait, hoaxes, framing, rumors, satire, propaganda, and conspiracy theories",["Collins et al., 2020","Zannettou et al., 2019"]],["text, images, hyperlinks, videos, audio, multimedia such as deepfakes, etc.",["Bakdash et al., 2018","Demuyakor & Opata, 2022","Fraga-Lamas & Fernandez-Carames, 2020","Hasan & Salah, 2019","Yang et al., 2019"]]]},{},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["answer popularity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["modern religions",[]]],"ex":[["the Great Duck's Church (GDC), the Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster (CFSM), Discordianism, the Church of the SubGenius, Eventualism, the religion of the Invisible Pink Unicorn, Kibology, the Last Thursdayism, the First Church of the Last Laugh, Bokononism, Dudeism, Gadgetology, Googlism, Jediism, Kopimism, the Church of Maradona, the International Church of Cannabis, the United Church of Bacon, Silinism",["(Аgeyev, 2021, p.17)"]],["the Great Duck's Church (GDC), the Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster (CFSM), Discordianism, the Church of the SubGenius, Eventualism, the religion of the Invisible Pink Unicorn, Kibology, the Last Thursdayism, the First Church of the Last Laugh, Bokononism, Dudeism, Gadgetology, Googlism, Jediism, Kopimism, the Church of Maradona, the International Church of Cannabis, the United Church of Bacon, Silinism (the official religion of the micronation of the Aerican Empire that worships Forsteri, the Great Penguin)",["Аgeyev, 2021, p.17"]]]},{"de":[["which corresponds well with the religious tolerance of Ukrainians",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["the Church of Our Lady , the \"New Generation\" Church, the New Apostolic Church, the New Church (the Church of New Jerusalem), the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (the Mormon Church), the Church of the Full Gospel, the Salvation Army, the New Life Church in Kyiv, the Praise and Worship Center, the Word of Faith Church, the Lord's Word Church, the Cliff Church, the Philadelphia Church of God, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Star-world Christianity -free world religion (\"Taolan\"), the Church of the Risen Christ, the Church of the Living God, the Alpha and Omega Church",["(Dudar, 2000, p. 29)"]]]},{},{"de":[["religious advertising served as a regular information platform for announcements of church community initiatives and church events.",[]],["As a marketing phenomenon, religious advertising fulfills the church's missionary function.",[]],["Its meanings are perceived as spiritual messages, through which the church continues to control people's behaviour, beliefs and sentiments, taking into account the material and spiritual priorities of this target audience.",[]],["fulfills the church's missionary function",[]],["meanings are perceived as spiritual messages, through which the church continues to control people's behaviour, beliefs and sentiments",[]]],"ex":[["religious advertising became the main channel for disseminating the idea of an independent Ukrainian church.",[]]]},{"de":[["one of the most known media effects",[]],["strategic control over media agenda, that includes not just the silencing of regime-critical voices but also the silencing of those developments of the crisis situation and those features of enmified political actors which contradict or blur a regime's arguments about the covered topic.",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]],["media framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["reflect the real-life developments to a lesser extent than they reflect the regime's goals",[]]],"rt":[["securitisation",[]],["construction of enemies",[]],["construction of enemies could be considered as an instance of securitisation",["Rieber & Kelly 1991;Williams 2003"]]],"sp":[["securitisation",[]]]},{"de":[["state-controlled framing is responsible for underlining 'desired' aspects of those topics.",[]]],"rt":[["agenda-setting",[]],["media agenda-setting",[]]],"sb":[["state-controlled framing is responsible for underlining 'desired' aspects of those topics.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["reflect the real-life developments to a lesser extent than they reflect the regime's goals",[]],["construction of enemies could be considered as an instance of securitisation",[]]],"rt":[["enmification",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This involves creating trustful datasets to reduce the absorption of erroneous information during training and applying knowledge editing techniques to correct and dynamically update any acquired mistakes-thus forming \"verified internal knowledge\".",[]],["Additionally, models can enhance their grounding by leveraging curated \"verified external knowledge\" through retrievalaugmented generation (RAG).",[]],["research on knowledge credibility revolves around two complementary paradigms: internal knowledge (static facts encoded within model parameters) and external knowledge (dynamically retrieved and verified evidence).",[]]],"rt":[["internal knowledge",[]],["external knowledge",[]]]},{"ex":[["rumors, fake news, and misleading narratives",["Chen and Shu, 2024"]]]},{"de":[["In contrast to traditional reactive defense methods, which rely on post-hoc detection and correction",[]]],"rt":[["reactive defense methods",[]]]},{},{"de":[["making the spread of disinformation and fake news profitable for its creators",[]]]},{"ex":[["Platforms such as Google, Facebook and Twitter",[]]]},{"de":[["which cause transactions of fake news to be less than Pareto efficient",[]]],"ex":[["Disinformation regarding vaccines leading to mass outbreaks of preventable diseases, conspiracy theories surrounding climate change leading to faster environmental degradation, morphed images and videos causing communal violence and fake political campaigns leading to riots and public shootings",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The theory is concerned with the emphasis the mass media place on topical issues of general interest and how they raise public discourse.",[]],["It describes the mass media activities in playing up a particular topic to public prominence and influencing public discourse.",[]],["Folarin (2001) postulates that the theory is motivated by media bias on specific issues.",["Folarin (2001)"]],["Max McCombs and Donald Shaw, who developed the theory from their study of the 1968 American presidential election, postulate that the media possess enormous power to influence what the audience should think about rather than what the audience thinks.",[]],["Another aspect of the theory is that the media create awareness of issues, prioritise a particular subject, excite it to public importance, and become public discourse.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["desinformación puede resultar más dañina",[]],["intensificada por el avance de la inteligencia artificial, constituye una seria amenaza",[]]],"sy":[["bulos",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["novel and direct metaphor",[]]],"sp":[["metaphor",[]]]},{"de":[["Previous studies addressing the discursive legitimation of social action suggest that legitimation is a function of logical rationalisation and moral justification",["Chilton 2004","Martin Rojo and van Dijk 1997","Reyes 2011","van Leeuwen 2007","van Leeuwen and Wodak 1999"]]],"rt":[["logical rationalisation",[]],["moral justification",[]]]},{"de":[["In FrameNet (Ruppenhofer et al. 2010), frames are made up of core elements, which are essential to the meaning of a frame, and non-core elements, which do not uniquely characterise the frame but which may nevertheless be a salient feature of it.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They are open-ended, encyclopaedic structures that serve as the cognitive 'base' against which semantically associated words are 'profiled' and understood",["Langacker 1987"]],["Frames are modelled in terms of a defining set of frame elements, which are constitutive of a general situation-or event-type, as well as frame-relations in which frames enter into different types of relation with one another",[]],["Frames are Gestalt structures such that any frame-element provides an access point to the rest of the frame which, as a function, is brought to bear in conceptualisation.",[]]],"rt":[["frame elements",[]],["frame-relations",[]]]},{"de":[["the formation of mental imagery in response to metaphor is prevented by incongruent imagery already held in mind as a result of visuals in the text.",[]]]},{"de":[["In Cognitive Linguistics metaphor is treated as a matter of thought and action rather than primarily as a matter of language",["Lakoff and Johnson 1980","Fauconnier and Turner 2002"]],["metaphor is recognised as an important ideological framing device which achieves framing effects in the legitimation of social actions and relations",[]],["Metaphors define how social situations are to be understood, reasoned about, reacted to emotionally and responded to materially.",[]],["Metaphor is ideological in so far as metaphorical construals accentuate particular aspects of the target frame while obfuscating others, problematize situations in particular ways and pave the way for decisions and actions which accord with the particular metaphor rather than an alternative mode of presentation.",[]]],"rt":[["ideological framing device",[]],["source frame",[]],["target frame",[]],["framing effects",[]],["frame projection",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Cognitive Linguistics",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Words like spread or break out",[]]]},{"de":[["more concrete, familiar frames act as source frames providing input structure to more abstract areas of experience",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["partisanship",[]],["selection bias",["13"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["partisan bias",["17"]],["(political) stance",["24"]]],"rt":[["partisan bias",[]],["political stance",[]]]},{"sp":[["statement bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["partisanship",[]],["coverage bias",["13"]]]},{},{"sb":[["phrasing bias",[]],["moral framing",[]],["ideological bias",[]]]},{"ex":[["women are emotional",[]],["men can also be emotional",[]]]},{"de":[["This aims to combat the definitional aspect of a stereotype.",[]]],"ex":[["if S = Women are shallow., Alt(q) would include qualities like \"intelligent\" and \"profound\" but not positive and unrelated quality (e.g., fun).",[]],["feminists hate men",[]],["feminists are inclusive, respectful, and supportive of equality for both men and women",[]]]},{"de":[["Essentially, broadening emphasizes either the uniqueness of a certain quality to the group or highlights the complexity of individual group members, suggesting that they cannot be defined by merely one quality.",[]]],"ex":[["women are shallow",[]],["women are complex individuals like everyone else, and some may be shallow but that cannot be generalized to all women",[]]]},{"de":[["Essentially, broadening emphasizes either the uniqueness of a certain quality to the group or highlights the complexity of individual group members, suggesting that they cannot be defined by merely one quality.",[]]],"ex":[["All people + relation + Alt(QUALITY) QUALITY",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["women are domestic",[]],["many women are very career-driven such as women in the medical field, women CEOs, and women professors",[]]]},{"ex":[["x + relation + Alt(QUALITY) ¬relation + QUALITY where x is a specific individual member of GROUP or a subgroup of GROUP",[]]]},{"de":[["has emerged as a widely supported solution to address hateful online speech without censorship risks of deletion-based content moderation",["Myers West, 2018","Sap et al., 2019"]],["responses to counteract potential harms of hateful speech",[]]]},{"de":[["counterspeech assigns general negative values to the stereotypical statement, using terms like \"hurtful\", \"unhelpful\" or \"not okay\" to express disapproval and challenge the stereotype.",[]]]},{"de":[["it differs from CNTR-EXS by focusing on external factors or details for refutation, rather than specific instances within the group.",[]]]},{"ex":[["fat individuals don't engage in exercise",[]],["media portrayals and beauty standards have reinforced this stereotype, despite the fact that fat individuals do exercise",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This approach has the potential to establish discursive norms and preemptively dismiss similar instances of hate speech (Lepoutre, 2019).",["Lepoutre, 2019"]],["counterspeech assigns general negative values to the stereotypical statement, using terms like \"hurtful\", \"unhelpful\" or \"not okay\" to express disapproval and challenge the stereotype.",[]]],"ex":[["feminists hate men",[]],["this is an unnecessary and hurtful generalization about feminists",[]]]},{"de":[["once formed, these beliefs become extremely difficult to change",["Scheffer et al., 2022"]],["generalizing statements such as \"girls wear pink\"",["Rhodes et al., 2012"]]],"rt":[["stereotypes",[]]],"sp":[["stereotypes",[]]],"ex":[["girls wear pink",["Rhodes et al., 2012"]]]},{"ex":[["gay men",[]],["promiscuous",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["can be an Article, a Claim, a Post, e.g., in a debate, a Thread, i.e., a chain of forum posts, a Sentence, or a Tweet.",[]]]},{"rt":[["argument mining",[]],["opinion mining",[]],["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["It can be a Claim, e.g., \"Corporal punishment be used in K-12 schools.\", a Headline, e.g., \"A meteorite landed in Nicaragua\", a Person, a Topic, e.g., abortion, healthcare, or None (i.e., an implicit target).",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["conspiracy theories became effective tools in modern information warfare, tools actively introduced by the Russian Federation in its hostilities against Ukraine",[]],["anti-Western conspiracy theories became vital instruments for mobilizing supporters of the regime, and simultaneously for discrediting his opponents",[]],["In disseminating these kinds of conspiracy theories, the pro-Kremlin media created distrust against the West and the Ukrainian government among a larger audience and produced discomfort and disorientation about Western and Ukrainian news",[]]],"sb":[["anti-Western conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Russia uses this method effectively to influence larger audiences with controversial information so as to convince or disorientate the target audience",["Mölder & Sazonov, 2018, p. 323"]]],"ex":[["The crash of Flight MH17 is a good example of the 'data deluge' method",["Arold, 2015, p. 14"]]]},{"de":[["intentionally distributed fabricated news and stories in order to disorientate and confuse the audience",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Misinformation against Muslims is regarded as propaganda",[]],["Hate against Muslims is regarded as propaganda",[]],["Tweets designed to spread pro-Hindutva stance (in form of e.g. slogans, hashtags, ...) are also regarded as propaganda",[]],["Misinformation against Uyghurs and the situation in Xinjiang is regarded as propaganda",[]],["Hate against Uyghurs is regarded as propaganda",[]],["Tweets designed to spread pro-China stance in the context of the Uyghur conflict (in form of e.g. slogans, hashtags, ...) are also regarded as propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["Denying claims of forced labor of Uyghurs in Xinjiang",[]],["Denying claims of concentration camps for Uyghurs in Xinjiang",[]],["Denying / falsifying genocide claims (e.g., of Mike Pompeo)",[]],["Beautifying the current situation in Xinjiang",[]],["Conspiracies and lies about the origin of COVID-19",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["dis/misinformation",[]],["conspiracy",[]],["hoax",[]]],"ex":[["dis/misinformation",[]],["conspiracy",[]],["hoax",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The unity formed by articulation is a complex structure of dissimilar features that are hierarchically related.",[]],["links between concepts, with acts of articulations being political in the sense that they constitute meanings.",["Laclau and Mouffe (1985)"]],["exploring articulations means examining how elements of a social field are joined to form unities-not simply as relations of correspondence but as relations of non-correspondence and even contradiction.",[]]],"rt":[["articulation theory",[]]]},{"de":[["instead of traditional racial doctrines",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the concept of hate speech has become problematized as either too narrow, regulatory or an all-encompassing universal term",[]],["Hate speech is seen, for example, as a tool of silencing, used in an attempt to silence unpleasant or dissenting opinions and \"difficult truths.\"",[]],["hate speech has been created to protect certain people, especially sexual and racialized minorities.",[]],["Hate speech is considered a serious phenomenon because words can lead to actions.",[]],["there is no definition of \"hate speech\" in the law-or any consensus definition altogether.",[]],["the obscurity of the term hate speech means that everyone can make up their own definition to accuse others-or their opponents of hate speech.",[]],["Without a clear definition, the only purpose of the term is to hunt down those that dare to speak the truth or hold critical opinions.",[]],["the vernacular, contextual and localized nature of hate speech that emerges in reference to particular political actors, events and debates",[]],["Hate speech is also recognized as an everyday term.",[]]],"rt":[["extreme speech",[]],["toxic speech",[]],["dangerous speech",[]],["cyberhate",[]],["cyberviolence",[]],["networked harassment",[]],["tool of power",[]],["censorship",[]],["silencing",[]],["incitement to hatred",[]]],"ex":[["green-leftists consider everything against their opinions or anti-migration as \"hate speech.\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Rather than truth as a collective and common goal, populism involves divided truth, binary thinking, broken-up communication and the division between \"us\" and 'others'-often the (good, honest) people and the (corrupt) elites, each holding their own versions of truth.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a great deal of it is deliberate, strategically aimed at disinforming as a way to manage opponents and/or govern by capturing attention",["Harsin, 2018"]],["post-truth is not a new phenomenon but rooted in human's built-in cognitive biases, shared by liberals and conservatives alike.",["McIntyre (2018)"]]]},{"de":[["seeks to challenge traditional or legitimate sources of knowledge, societal institutions and power relations",["Harsin, 2023"]],["The post-truth situation has been characterized as a crisis of trust toward society-wide truth-tellers: self-made micro-truth-tellers have replaced traditional knowledge authorities",["Harsin, 2018"]],["the post-truth condition-that shapes the understanding of the world from institutional to everyday social engagements.",[]],["the ways in which hate speech is connected to uncertainty, mistrust, confusion, counter-narratives and other contestation and truth-telling elements, and how this also serves specific political ends.",[]],["shapes the understanding of the world from institutional to everyday social engagements.",[]],["These characteristics are connected to confusion and uncertainty, accusations of silencing, ridicule, and trivialization.",[]],["Post-truth is often understood as the circulation of lies and false beliefs, but it is essentially characterized by confusion.",[]]]},{"rt":[["discursive gameplay of reversals",[]]]},{"de":[["While in origin a neutral term for social justice activists, it has been memified and circulates especially in the alt-right discussions.",[]]]},{"de":[["The phrase is racist in itself, as it often seeks to silence discussion about racism",["Hirsch, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["This articulation questions the gravity of hate speech and its threat to deliberation and democracy.",[]],["Through this articulation, hate speech is carnivalized, with dimensions of absurdity attached to it.",[]],["Hate speech is downplayed by contrasting it with other acts that appear more serious, such as terrorism or economic crises.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["intersectional approaches",[]]]},{"de":[["responses to intersectionality that involve considerable fear or anxiety",[]],["fear over multiply-marginalized groups gaining power and multiply-privileged groups losing status",[]],["The panic expressed over intersectionality's ability to foster coalitions on the Left clearly reflects this fear over feminist and intersectional expansion.",[]],["distinct from racist, sexist, and anti-LGBTQ forms of panic that may focus more centrally on singularlymarginalized groups",[]],["draws attention to the unique fears over multiply-marginalized groups, which cannot always be fully explained by a singular focus on racism, sexism, or heteronormativity, but instead requires greater consideration of how these forms of inequality overlap.",[]]],"rt":[["racist panic",[]],["gender and anti-queer panic",[]],["anti-LGBTQ forms of panic",[]]]},{"de":[["has also expanded as a discourse",[]],["Crenshaw's (1989) original formulation of intersectionality drew attention to how anti-discrimination laws often fail to serve the interests of Black women -while more frequently helping singularly-marginalized groups such as white women or Black men -because these protections require individuals to position their discriminatory experiences as either racist or sexist, even when they are both of these things.",[]],["intersectional approaches have yet still more room to grow, as many areas of academia and social life more broadly have only begun engaging with intersectional ideas and challenging multiple systems of oppression.",[]],["an approach that involves reducing and ultimately eliminating power imbalances",[]],["broader focus on critiquing unequal power relations",["Choo & Ferree, 2010","May, 2015"]],["intersectional philosophy depends on dividing people into warring victim groups",["Zeisloft, 2021a, para. 4"]],["intersectional approaches help draw attention to intra-group differences",[]],["the relational aspects of intersectionality help reveal how individuals can form solidarities and coalitions in working together across differences.",[]],["critiquing unequal power relations",["Choo & Ferree, 2010;May, 2015","Choo & Ferree, 2010","May, 2015"]],["one that helps researchers see the ways that systems of oppression are overlapping or interconnected rather than separate or distinct",[]],["an ideological framework that is \"beginning to exert a powerful effect on public discourse and indeed on all areas of life, from families and schools to places of employment.\"",["Zeisloft, 2021b, paras. 6-7"]]],"rt":[["challenging multiple systems of oppression simultaneously",[]],["coalition building",[]],["additive understanding of oppression",[]],["single-axis approach",[]],["intersectional analysis",[]],["queer theory",[]],["intersectional feminism",[]],["critical social theory",[]]],"sb":[["individualistic understanding of intersectionality -that is, one in which intersectionality is concerned primarily with group-based differences among individuals",[]]],"sp":[["critical social theory",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Both indicators were originally developed to measure and visualize a degree of inequality in societies [7], such as deprivation and satisfaction [14].",["7","14"]],["Both indicators were originally developed to measure and visualize a degree of inequality in societies [7]",["7"]]],"rt":[["Lorenz curve",["1"]]],"ex":[["represented by a Gini coefficient of G = 1, whereas for the \"perfect communist\" scenario G = 0.",[]]]},{"de":[["Both indicators were originally developed to measure and visualize a degree of inequality in societies [7], such as deprivation and satisfaction [14].",["7","14"]],["Both indicators were originally developed to measure and visualize a degree of inequality in societies [7]",["7"]]],"rt":[["Gini coefficient",["1"]]]},{"de":[["Framing influences public opinion on national and international issues such as geopolitics, international laws, investment projects, conflict, security, and religion.",[]],["Media frames can be investigated as the dependent variable, or the output of the manufacturing process",["Emami et al., 2020"]],["Media frames may also be analyzed as independent variables, or the antecedents of audience perceptions.",["Emami et al., 2020"]],["framing theory explains how media frames can selectively emphasize some parts of global events while downplaying others",["Chong & Druckman, 2007"]],["Media frames can be investigated as the dependent variable, or the output of the manufacturing process (Emami et al., 2020).",["Emami et al., 2020"]]],"sy":[["Media frames",[]]],"rt":[["Media frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Media frames can be investigated as the dependent variable, or the output of the manufacturing process",["Emami et al., 2020"]],["Media frames may also be analyzed as independent variables, or the antecedents of audience perceptions.",[]]],"rt":[["Framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Negative framing emphasizes governance faults, a lack of transparency, and accountability gaps in the design and implementation of BRI projects, highlighting worries about project supervision and decision-making.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["making them the primary reference for the interpretation and understanding of the political process to their readership.",[]]]},{"de":[["Given its effectiveness, it's no surprise that governments around the world would want to sway the messages delivered by the media.",[]]]},{"de":[["media capture can be conceptualized as a spectrum that is shaped by how governments exploit financial and institutional vulnerabilities of media outlets.",["Schiffrin (2021)"]],["facilitating the identification of media outlets that receive procurement that is disproportionate to their size",[]],["identifying potentially coopted media outlets, measured as the difference in the monthly procured advertisements and the normalized average daily circulation rate",[]],["The results suggest that there is a strong relationship between the degree of media capture, or the disproportionate targeting of government advertising in certain sources, and the negative tonality of opinion articles published by them.",[]],["a coercion mechanism",[]],["how governments have needed to innovate in their ways to exert some degree of control over traditional and non-traditional outlets",[]],["estimating the degree to which a media organization is disproportionately targeted with excessive government spending.",[]]],"rt":[["media bias",[]],["agenda setting",[]],["cooptation",[]]],"sb":[["economic and institutional dependencies can lead to systemic media capture.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Opinion articles also help drive public opinion by deconstructing complicated topics into bite-size pieces for their readers.",[]]]},{"de":[["Many tools exist for the English language and current debates center on whether it can effectively convey a stance towards a target (Bestvater and Monroe, 2023) or on the merits of translating content to English in order to use these tools (Moritz Laurer et al., 2023).",["Bestvater and Monroe, 2023","Moritz Laurer et al., 2023"]],["Sentiment analysis in Spanish is in a burgeoning stage though (Osorio Angel et al., 2021), and complexities such as varying regionalization, the difficulty of measuring sarcasm, and word inflections complicate progress towards other debates (del Valle Martín and de la Fuente, 2023).",["Osorio Angel et al., 2021","del Valle Martín and de la Fuente, 2023"]]]},{"de":[["This type of bias is subtle and happens through the moderation of tone and frames that comply with the political interests of the government.",[]]],"rt":[["World Association of News Publishers (WAN-IFRA)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["some studies use the linked entity in KG as external knowledge to supplement news content",[]]],"rt":[["fake news detection methods",[]]],"sp":[["fake news detection methods",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["dichotomous opposition",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This is both in recognition of the extremely personalized nature of contemporary politics and election campaigns, and in order to have a signifier that can be clearly traced back to the opposing camp.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the aim is no longer to document an event or certify the leader's popularity, but rather to employ their image in a more promotional way to support a thematiccommunicative function",[]]]},{"rt":[["on stage",[]]]},{"sp":[["narrative approach",[]]],"ex":[["Dot's Home",[]],["Gamer Girl",[]]]},{"sb":[["gameplay",[]],["decision systems",[]],["feedback systems",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["narrative approach",[]]],"ex":[["Not A Game",[]]]},{"sb":[["narrative structure",[]],["identification elements",[]]]},{"rt":[["journalism",[]],["game design",[]]]},{},{"de":[["vaccine analogy",[]]]},{"sb":[["colour codes and visual tone",[]],["illustrations and images",[]],["interface design",[]]]},{"sp":[["Ethical considerations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Proper attribution is crucial for ensuring the reliability and accuracy of news content, as it allows readers to evaluate the credibility and expertise of the sources cited and to verify the information independently if necessary",["Tandoc, 2014"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Ethical considerations",[]]]},{"de":[["Balance can be assessed by examining the range and diversity of sources, the proportionality of coverage, and the inclusion of different types of evidence and data within a news story",["Donsbach & Klett, 1993"]]]},{"de":[["Balance and fairness are essential components of journalistic objectivity and play a crucial role in ensuring the credibility and trustworthiness of news reporting",["Entman, 1993"]],["analyzing the representation of various stakeholders and viewpoints",[]],["These concepts can be understood as the accurate and proportional representation of diverse perspectives, evidence, and stakeholders within a news story or media coverage (Donsbach & Klett, 1993).",["1993"]]]},{"de":[["This may involve presenting opposing perspectives, ensuring that various stakeholders are represented, and providing a comprehensive overview of the available evidence",["Strömbäck, 2008"]]],"sp":[["Balance and fairness",[]]]},{"de":[["This may involve the use of clear and concise language, logical organization and coherence, and the avoidance of jargon and technical terms that may impede understanding",["Alley, 2013"]]]},{"de":[["Clickbait headlines often make use of curiosity gaps, cliffhangers, or exaggerated claims to pique the reader's interest and encourage them to engage with the content",["Chen & Conroy, 2015"]]]},{"rt":[["scientific method",[]]]},{"de":[["Ethical considerations are fundamental to responsible journalism and media practices, as they guide journalists in making decisions that balance the public's right to information with the potential harm that may be caused by reporting",["Ward, 2018"]],["Ethical considerations can be understood as the principles, norms, and guidelines that inform the decision-making process and ensure that journalism adheres to professional standards and respects the rights and interests of all stakeholders involved (Plaisance, 2013).",["2013"]]],"sb":[["truth-telling",[]],["accuracy",[]],["fairness",[]],["minimizing harm",[]],["respecting privacy",[]],["avoiding conflicts of interest",[]]]},{"de":[["Factual accuracy can be assessed by examining the validity and reliability of the facts, data, and claims reported in news articles, as well as the degree to which these elements are supported by credible sources and evidence",["Silverman, 2015"]]]},{"de":[["This may include avoiding the use of biased language, refraining from favoring one side over another, and ensuring that all relevant information is presented in a clear and accurate manner",["Entman, 1993"]],["Fairness can be evaluated by examining the framing and tone of media coverage, the use of loaded language or emotive appeals, and the degree to which news reporting adheres to ethical guidelines and professional standards",["Strömbäck, 2008"]]],"rt":[["impartiality",[]]],"sp":[["Balance and fairness",[]],["Ethical considerations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This may involve weighing the public interest against the potential harm caused by disclosing sensitive information, protecting vulnerable sources, or avoiding the dissemination of graphic or traumatic content",["Ward, 2018"]]],"sp":[["Ethical considerations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is a fundamental principle that guides journalists in their reporting and serves as a standard against which the quality and credibility of news are measured",["Schudson, 2001"]],["In journalism, objectivity can be characterized by several key components, such as neutrality, balance, impartiality, and accuracy",["Tuchman, 1972"]]],"rt":[["neutrality",[]],["balance",[]],["impartiality",[]],["accuracy",[]]],"sp":[["Source credibility",[]]]},{"de":[["This may include topics such as public health, safety, governance, social justice, and the environment, among others.",[]]],"rt":[["Value",[]]],"sp":[["Public interest and value",[]]]},{"de":[["Public interest and value are crucial considerations in journalism and media practices, as they guide the selection, presentation, and evaluation of news content based on its relevance, importance, and potential impact on society",["Curran, 2010"]]],"rt":[["Public interest",[]],["Value",[]]]},{"de":[["Readability can be quantified using various formulas and indices, such as the Flesch-Kincaid readability index, Gunning Fog index, and the SMOG index, which consider factors such as sentence length, word complexity, and syllable count",["Kincaid et al., 1975;Gunning, 1968;McLaughlin, 1969"]]]},{},{"de":[["This may involve considering factors such as the geographic location, demographic characteristics, or cultural background of the audience, as well as the overall importance and impact of the information on their lives, values, or interests",["Shoemaker & Vos, 2009"]]],"rt":[["timeliness",["Harcup & O'Neill, 2001"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Ethical considerations",[]]]},{"de":[["Sensationalism can be assessed by examining the degree to which news content relies on emotional appeals, hyperbole, and vivid descriptions, as well as the extent to which such content deviates from objective, fact-based reporting",["Vettehen et al., 2011"]]]},{"de":[["Source credibility can be evaluated by examining the reputation, qualifications, and potential biases of the sources used in news reporting, as well as the degree to which these sources are accurately and transparently represented",["Hovland & Weiss, 1951"]],["Source credibility is essential for ensuring the accuracy, reliability, and trustworthiness of news content, as well as for fostering public trust in the media",["Tsfati & Ariely, 2014"]]],"rt":[["expertise",["Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953"]],["trustworthiness",["Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953"]],["objectivity",["Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953"]]],"sb":[["expertise",[]],["trustworthiness",[]],["objectivity",[]]]},{"de":[["This may involve considering factors such as the recency of the information, the speed with which it is disseminated, and the degree to which it is updated or revised in response to new developments",["Harcup & O'Neill, 2001"]]],"rt":[["relevance",["Harcup & O'Neill, 2001"]]]},{"de":[["This may involve providing clear explanations of the editorial process, disclosing potential conflicts of interest, or inviting input and feedback from readers and other stakeholders",["Karlsson, 2010"]]]},{"sp":[["Source credibility",[]]]},{"sp":[["Ethical considerations",[]]]},{"de":[["This may encompass various dimensions of news reporting, such as accuracy, objectivity, depth, and timeliness, as well as aspects related to storytelling, narrative, and presentation.",[]]],"rt":[["Public interest",[]]],"sp":[["Public interest and value",[]]]},{"de":[["Personalized rankings further complicate these issues.",[]]],"ex":[["a ranked list of content (e.g., search results) that \"buries\" content found in the lower positions, due to click and sharing bias or users perception of higher ranked content as being more trustworthy",["Hargittai et al., 2010"]]]},{"sy":[["algorithmic bias",["Hajian et al., 2016"]]]},{"de":[["Behavioral biases appear across a wide range of user actions, including how they connect and interact with each other, how they seek information, and how they create and appraise content.",[]],["Behavioral biases affect the ecological/external validity of research, as they may condition the results of a study on the chosen platform or context.",[]]],"rt":[["data bias",[]]],"sb":[["Interaction biases",[]],["Content consumption biases",[]],["Self-selection and response bias",[]],["content production biases",[]]]},{"de":[["Behavioral biases appear across a wide range of user actions, including how they connect and interact with each other, how they seek information, and how they create and appraise content.",[]],["This definition of \"behavioral bias\" refers to a type of data bias.",[]],["In cognitive psychology, \"behavioral bias\" has a different meaning: it is generally used to refer to the ways in which human decision making may systematically differ from the traditional rational account of decision making.",[]]],"rt":[["behavioral bias",[]]],"sb":[["Interaction biases",[]],["Content consumption biases",[]],["Self-selection and response bias",[]]],"sp":[["data bias",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["behavioral biases",[]]]},{"sp":[["behavioral biases",[]]]},{"rt":[["gatekeeping",[]],["statement bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Data biases are often evaluated by comparing a data sample with reference samples drawn from different sources or contexts. Thus, data bias is rather a relative concept (Mowshowitz and Kawaguchi, 2005).",["Mowshowitz and Kawaguchi, 2005"]]],"sb":[["population biases",[]],["content biases",[]],["functional biases",[]],["normative biases",[]],["Behavioral biases",[]],["linking biases",[]],["temporal variations",[]],["redundancy",[]]],"sp":[["Data Quality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Assumptions in the design of data processing pipelines can affect datasets, altering their content, structure, organization, or representation (Barocas and Selbst, 2016;Poirier, 2018).",["Barocas and Selbst, 2016","Poirier, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["disinformation is often posted purposefully (e.g., for political gain).",[]],["Disinformation can take forms beyond the production of hoaxes or \"fake news\" (Lazer et al., 2018); and include other types of manipulation of social systems, such as Google bombs to associate a keyword to a URL by repeatedly searching for the keyword and clicking on the URL, or review spam (Jindal and Liu, 2008) to manipulate the reputation of a product/service.",["Lazer et al., 2018","Jindal and Liu, 2008"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["External validity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["including considerations of socioeconomic status, ideological/religious/political leaning, education, personality, culture, social pressure, privacy concerns, and external events.",[]],["External biases are a broad category that may affect construct, internal, and external validity of research, and be problematic for both type I and type II research (section 2.1).",[]]]},{"rt":[["individual fairness metrics",[]],["group fairness metrics",[]]],"sb":[["individual fairness metrics",[]],["group fairness metrics",[]]],"sp":[["Metrics",[]]]},{"de":[["distorting users' perceptions of the norms in a network-and, thus, their behavior-when popular users behave differently from non-popular users.",[]]]},{"de":[["we need to note whether the platforms we study include functionalities that may affect our results, such as a spell-checker, and whether those functionalities are enabled by default.",[]],["Functional biases make conclusions from research studies difficult to generalize or transfer, as each platform exhibits its own structural differences (Tufekci, 2014), which can lead to platform-specific phenomena (Ruths and Pfeffer, 2014) that are often overlooked.",[]],["Functional biases are problematic for type II research (section 2.1), affecting the external/ecological validity of social data research; and, when e.g., they change over time, they can also affect type I research.",[]]],"sp":[["Data bias",[]]],"ex":[["Platform-specific design and features shape user behavior.",[]],["Algorithms used for organizing and ranking content influence user behavior.",[]],["Content presentation influences user behavior.",[]]]},{"rt":[["coverage",[]],["statement bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["fairness metrics",[]]]},{"de":[["can systematically bias the perceptions of networked users, resulting in under-or over-estimations of the prevalence of user attributes within a population",["Lerman et al., 2016"]]]},{"sp":[["fairness metrics",[]]]},{"de":[["Differences in how people communicate are influenced by shared relationships, norms, and platform affordances.",[]]],"sp":[["behavioral biases",[]]]},{"de":[["Linking biases impact the study of, e.g., social networks structure and evolution, social influence, and information diffusion phenomena (Wilson et al., 2009;Cha et al., 2010;Bakshy et al., 2012).",[]],["On social platforms, they may also result in systematically biased perceptions about users or content (Lerman et al., 2016).",[]],["Network attributes affect users' behavior and perceptions, and vice versa.",[]]],"rt":[["social networks structure and evolution",[]],["social influence",[]],["information diffusion phenomena",[]]],"sp":[["Behavioral biases",[]]],"ex":[["Network attributes affect users' behavior and perceptions, and vice versa.",[]],["homophily-the tendency of similar people to interact and connect (McPherson et al., 2001)-can systematically bias the perceptions of networked users, resulting in under-or over-estimations of the prevalence of user attributes within a population (Lerman et al., 2016).",["Lerman et al., 2016"]]]},{"de":[["Users post misinformation due to errors of judgment",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The distinction between what is \"noise\" and what is \"signal\" is often unclear, subtly depending on the research question (Salganik, 2017); the problem rather being finding the right data (Baeza-Yates, 2013)-simply adding more data may increase the level of noise and reduce the quality and reliability of results.",[]]],"rt":[["signal",[]]],"sp":[["Data Quality",[]]]},{"de":[["Researchers often assume each account is an individual; when this does not hold, internal and external validity can be affected in both type I and type II research (section 2.1).",[]]],"sb":[["Organizational accounts",[]],["Bots",[]],["cyborgs",[]]]},{"de":[["we need to account for how users are expected to write in a site, which would be different, e.g., in a job search vs. an anonymous discussion site.",[]],["normative biases affect the ecological/external validity of research, and are problematic for type II research (section 2.1), since research results may depend on the particular norms of each platform.",[]]],"sp":[["Data bias",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["we need to understand to what extent the demographic characteristics of the population we sample from social media reflect those of the country's population, e.g., whether users are skewed toward the younger.",[]],["Population biases may affect the representativeness of a data sample and, as a result, may compromise the ecological/external validity of research.",[]],["They can also impact the performance of algorithms that make inferences about users (Johnson et al., 2017), further compromising the internal validity of both type I and type II research.",["Johnson et al., 2017"]],["Different user demographics tend to be drawn to different social platforms.",[]],["Different user demographics use platform mechanisms differently.",[]],["Proxies for user traits or demographic criteria vary in reliability.",[]]],"sp":[["Data bias",[]]],"ex":[["Twitter users significantly over-represent men and urban populations, while women tend to be over-represented on Pinterest",["Ottoni et al., 2013"]]]},{"de":[["e.g., sharing patterns as a proxy for popularity",[]]]},{"rt":[["Self-selection and response bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Social data typically comes from social software, which provides an intermediary or a focus for a social relationship (Schuler, 1994).",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["gatekeeping",[]],["coverage",[]]]},{"de":[["Temporal biases affect both the internal and ecological/external validity of social data research.",[]],["They are problematic for both type I and II research (section 2.1), as they may affect the generalizability of observations over time (e.g., what factors vary and how they confound with the current patterns in the data).",[]],["If a platform and/or the offline context are not stable, it may be impractical to disentangle the effects due to a specific variable of interest from variations in other possible confounding factors.",[]],["How one aggregates and truncates datasets along the temporal axes impacts what type of patterns are observed and what research questions can be answered.",[]]],"sb":[["population drifts",[]],["behavioral drifts",[]],["system drifts",[]]],"ex":[["Seasonal and periodic phenomena.",[]],["Sudden-onset phenomena affect populations, behaviors, and platforms.",[]]]},{"sp":[["External validity",[]]]},{"de":[["measure 1) logical and formal thinking",[]]]},{"sb":[["Staging",[]],["Plot Progression",[]],["Cognitive Tension",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["insight",[]],["causation",[]],["discrepancy",[]],["tentative",[]],["certitude",[]]]},{"sp":[["Narrative Arc",[]],["Arc of a narrative",[]]]},{"ex":[["anxiety",[]],["anger",[]],["sadness",[]]]},{"de":[["misinformation regarding COVID-19 and the vaccines. They touch upon unfounded claims such as the virus being a bioweapon, and concerns about the vaccine's safety and potential side effects.",[]],["various forms of misinformation and misconceptions surrounding COVID-19 and its vaccines",[]]]},{"de":[["the tweet must contain (1) At least one specific character (normally is a person) who experiences (2) a series of related events.",[]],["At its core, narrative is the telling of someone's experience about something.",["Dahlstrom, 2021"]],["The narrative is not only about what information is being presented, but the style of communication being used (how it is presented).",[]]],"sy":[["story",[]]],"rt":[["character",[]],["causality",[]],["temporality",[]]],"ex":[["I am so happy that I got the covid vaccine",[]],["Bill Gates is going to come to my house to get the tracker out of my arm from the covid vaccine.",[]],["I have been sick for three days and the medicine didn't have any effect on me. . .",[]],["Me thinks so too! The gov can't say they have been poisoning us for years -imagine the uproar -it affects us all -eating synthetic foods for decades. Why does supermarket meat taste like Rubber? coronvirus smokescreen.. ..but then there is COVID-19 is that the bioweapon?",[]]]},{"rt":[["narrativity",[]]],"sb":[["Staging",[]],["Plot Progression",[]],["Cognitive Tension",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Non-narrative informative (i.e., those not labeled as misinformation or narrative) tweets contained a wide range of topics, from sharing news and public health tips to memes in the form \"If X, don't worry about what's in the vaccine\", where X is something commonly done yet potentially unhealthy, such as eating fast food.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Narrative Arc",[]],["Arc of a narrative",[]]]},{"sp":[["Narrative Arc",[]],["Arc of a narrative",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The idea of selective exposure also implies a notion of active audiences",[]]]},{"de":[["el consumo de medios está determinado por las predisposiciones de la audiencia, que buscan confirmar y reforzar sus opiniones mediante los contenidos informativos a los que se exponen",[]],["La investigación en comunicación sostiene que los individuos se exponen a los contenidos mediáticos seleccionando aquellos que refuerzan sus creencias previas y rechazando los que desafían sus convicciones ideológicas.",[]]],"rt":[["disonancia cognitiva",[]]]},{"de":[["Esta hipótesis de la exposición selectiva afirma que el consumo de medios está determinado por las predisposiciones de la audiencia, que buscan confirmar y reforzar sus opiniones mediante los contenidos informativos a los que se exponen",["Stroud, 2010;2011"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["reclamación programática específica",[]]]},{"de":[["the feelings of cultural belonging (to Catalonia vs. Spain)",[]],["important predictor was national identity",[]]],"rt":[["national identification",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["place of birth and language",[]],["the place of birth and language",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Se trata de elementos de naturaleza subjetiva, relativamente estables en el tiempo y culturalmente mediados, pero susceptibles de cambio, pues en ellos interviene la libertad del individuo para forjarse preferencias políticas específicas.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This selective exposure hypothesis claims that media consumption is determined by the audience's predispositions, as they seek to confirm and reinforce their opinions through the information content to which they are exposed",["Stroud, 2010;2011"]],["selective exposure is stronger among young people (Ziemke, 1980;Chaffee and Miyo, 1983), and that men may be more inclined to selectively expose themselves to political information (Garrett, 2006).",[]],["selective exposure to the media was not the exclusive result of orientations on the classic left-right axis (Stroud, 2008;Goldman and Mutz, 2011;Humanes, 2014;Fraile and Meilán, 2009), but can also come from other lines of ideo-logical fracture, as it was the case with the centre-periphery cleavage.",["Stroud, 2008","Goldman and Mutz, 2011","Humanes, 2014","Fraile and Meilán, 2009"]],["This finding reinforced the theoretical core of selective exposure",[]],["Communication research maintains that individuals expose themselves to media contents by selecting those that reinforce their previous beliefs, and reject those that challenge their ideological convictions.",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure hypothesis",[]],["cross-cutting exposure",[]],["left-right cleavage",[]],["centre-periphery axis",[]]]},{"de":[["Communication research maintains that individuals expose themselves to media contents by selecting those that reinforce their previous beliefs, and reject those that challenge their ideological convictions.",[]],["selective exposure hypothesis claims that media consumption is determined by the audience's predispositions, as they seek to confirm and reinforce their opinions through the information content to which they are exposed",["Stroud, 2010;2011"]],["This selective exposure hypothesis claims that media consumption is determined by the audience's predispositions, as they seek to confirm and reinforce their opinions through the information content to which they are exposed (Stroud, 2010;2011).",["Stroud, 2010;2011"]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["The adversarial network helps the main model focus on unbiased aspects, leading to more fair results",["Dasi et al., 2024","Dasi et al. (2024)"]],["To develop more sophisticated reasoning abilities, future research should focus on developing fairness-aware algorithms and debiasing techniques, such as adversarial debiasing and counterfactual reasoning.",[]]]},{"de":[["Methods such as uneven impact analysis and equity indicators (e.g., demographic parity, balanced odds) allow quantification of model distortions. Continuous audits ensure effective identification and management of biases",["Ferrara, 2023","Mehrabi et al., 2021"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["These models help to effectively identify and eliminate biases.",[]],["Future work should enhance interpretability through advanced Explainable AI (XAI) approaches, such as counterfactual explanations, attention visualization, and user-centered explanations that adapt to different audiences.",[]],["These approaches improve transparency, enabling stakeholders to better understand decision-making processes.",[]]],"ex":[["counterfactual explanations",[]],["attention visualization",[]],["user-centered explanations that adapt to different audiences",[]]]},{"de":[["This ensures that the models make predictions that are fair and accurate for all people, regardless of their background",["Nemani et al., 2023"]]]},{"rt":[["debiasing techniques",[]]],"sb":[["adversarial debiasing",[]],["counterfactual reasoning",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["For instance, a VQA model may rely heavily on text patterns without fully considering visual context, resulting in answers that are influenced by biases present in the dataset.",["Vosoughi et al., 2024"]]]},{"de":[["Sarcasm in these languages often includes informal expressions, slang, and emojis used on social media, which can be hard for models to understand without considering the context.",["Rahma et al., 2023"]]],"ex":[["The word \"sick, \" for instance, can mean positive or negative depending on the situation (\"that's a sick trick\" vs. \"I feel sick\").",[]]]},{"rt":[["Sentiment Analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["For instance, companies may use Sentiment Analysis to monitor how customers feel about their products or services by analyzing posts on platforms like Twitter or Facebook.",[]],["Sentiment Analysis, for instance, can evaluate voter sentiment and forecast election results based on social media activity during election seasons",["Tumasjan et al., 2010"]],["The comprehension of user sentiments and source positions is facilitated by methods like Sentiment Analysis and resources like SPARQL and the OWLAPI module.",[]],["which can include social media posts, product reviews, or any other form of user-generated content.",[]]],"rt":[["SPARQL",[]],["OWLAPI module",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["foreign meddling",[]]]},{"de":[["As opposed to self-coverage, where self is seen as the country of origin of any given media outlet, cross-national coverage is applied to coverage of the other, in this case Canadian media coverage of Russia and Russian media coverage of Canada.",[]]]},{"de":[["become interpretive tools for media consumers and ultimately translate not only elections but any event or phenomenon, using a familiar set of tropes, visual images, and linguistic associations.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this view, Russian-language media mostly represent a platform for the government to maintain a desired level of support among its citizens.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Se caracteriza por el desprecio y la humillación del otro",["(Briones y Ortiz, 2014)","Briones y Ortiz, 2014"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Esta corriente permite anticipar comportamientos de manera inflexible, sin conocerlas previamente y puede manifestarse de manera hostil, con violencia o rechazo, ya sea directa o indirectamente, o adoptando una forma benevolente al ofrecer ayudas y ventajas que, en realidad, resultarían innecesarias",["Sánchez-Rojo, 2023"]],["Varios participantes relacionan el capacitismo con la falta de conocimiento o la representación estereotipada de las personas con discapacidad.",[]],["copan gran parte del discurso de odio que afecta directamente a las personas con discapacidad",[]],["Esta corriente permite anticipar comportamientos de manera inflexible, sin conocerlas previamente y puede manifestarse de manera hostil, con violencia o rechazo, ya sea directa o indirectamente, o adoptando una forma benevolente al ofrecer ayudas y ventajas que, en realidad, resultarían innecesarias (Sánchez-Rojo, 2023).",["Sánchez-Rojo, 2023"]],["Son comentarios como \"no vales nada\", \"tu único talento es estar inmóvil\", \"pero yo puedo andar\" o \"la discapacidad, como el mismo nombre indica, es que sois menos capaces que los demás, ahora ya que vosotros os esforcéis para ser más normales (sic) es cosa vuestra\".",[]]],"sy":[["negación de la discapacidad",[]]],"rt":[["menosprecio",[]],["la infravaloración y discriminación concreta contra las personas con discapacidad.",[]]]},{"de":[["responsables de un impacto negativo y significativo en su bienestar y que involucran más a personas con discapacidades visibles",["Alhaboby et al., 2021"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["manifestaciones que promueven la intolerancia y los prejuicios hacia determinados grupos sociales, ya que crean un clima hostil que puede fomentar la discriminación y la violencia",["Gagliardone et al., 2015"]],["Bustos-Martínez et al. (2019) consideran que un discurso puede considerarse de odio si cumple determinados criterios: 1) que se refiera a un grupo vulnerable o discriminado; 2) que haya símbolos representativos que humillan a este grupo social; 3) que exista maldad y se invite a denigrar a estas personas; y 4) que quede patente la intención de discriminar, humillar y excluirlas.",[]],["El discurso de odio recibido consistió principalmente en burlas en un 34,4% de los casos (n=22).",[]],["Estos discursos aglutinan tanto las expresiones que inducen a cometer actos discriminatorios o violentos por alguna razón xenófoba, racial, de orientación sexual o discapacidad (Cabo-Isasi y García-Juanatey, 2016)",["Cabo-Isasi y García-Juanatey, 2016"]],["como las manifestaciones que promueven la intolerancia y los prejuicios hacia determinados grupos sociales, ya que crean un clima hostil que puede fomentar la discriminación y la violencia (Gagliardone et al., 2015).",["Gagliardone et al., 2015"]],["El discurso de odio, compuesto generalmente de comentarios negativos, insultos, menosprecios y burlas (Martínez-Valerio, 2022), favorece la perpetuación de estereotipos, estigmatización, marginación e, incluso, deshumanización de ciertos colectivos",["Martínez-Valerio, 2022"]],["expresiones que inducen a cometer actos discriminatorios o violentos por alguna razón xenófoba, racial, de orientación sexual o discapacidad (Cabo-Isasi y García-Juanatey, 2016)",["Cabo-Isasi y García-Juanatey, 2016"]],["manifestaciones que promueven la intolerancia y los prejuicios hacia determinados grupos sociales, ya que crean un clima hostil que puede fomentar la discriminación y la violencia (Gagliardone et al., 2015)",["Gagliardone et al., 2015"]],["un discurso puede considerarse de odio si cumple determinados criterios: 1) que se refiera a un grupo vulnerable o discriminado; 2) que haya símbolos representativos que humillan a este grupo social; 3) que exista maldad y se invite a denigrar a estas personas; y 4) que quede patente la intención de discriminar, humillar y excluirlas.",["Bustos-Martínez et al., 2019"]],["compuesto generalmente de comentarios negativos, insultos, menosprecios y burlas (Martínez-Valerio, 2022)",["Martínez-Valerio, 2022"]]],"rt":[["comentarios negativos, insultos, menosprecios y burlas",["Martínez-Valerio, 2022"]]],"sb":[["burlas",[]],["menosprecio",[]],["críticas",[]],["negación de la discapacidad",[]],["insultos",[]]],"ex":[["vigílame la bici",[]],["parece un transformer",[]],["se excedió al cigarro por eso",[]],["me acuerdo cuando jugaba al Mario Bros te pareces",[]]]},{"de":[["Los videos que no contaban con discurso propio se limitaban únicamente a mostrar el mensaje de odio acompañado de una canción, generalmente popular en ese momento, o utilizaban audios externos para realizar un lip sync.",[]]]},{"de":[["todas las ideologías intolerantes han encontrado en estas plataformas un espacio de expresión privilegiado, donde gozan de impunidad para la ira y el odio",[]],["comentarios negativos, los insultos, los menosprecios o las burlas (Martínez-Valerio, 2022), se suman otros como el capacitismo o la negación de la discapacidad",[]]],"rt":[["capacitismo",[]],["negación de la discapacidad",[]]]},{"sy":[["troleo",[]]],"rt":[["troleo",[]]]},{},{"de":[["la concepción del humor como una acción cuyo propósito social es reírse \"a modo de protesta contra quienes intentan romper los derechos y valores universales\" (Cortés-Kandler y Arroyo-Carvajal, 2021, p. 80) y que funciona como crítica social (Rodríguez-Montemayor, 2020).",["Cortés-Kandler y Arroyo-Carvajal, 2021, p. 80","Rodríguez-Montemayor, 2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["En la actualidad, los indicadores no lingüísticos de la ironía superan la entonación de la voz e incluyen otros como memes, emojis, risas, emoticonos o signos de puntuación (Cortés-Kandler y Arroyo-Carvajal, 2021).",["Cortés-Kandler y Arroyo-Carvajal, 2021"]]],"rt":[["antífrasis",[]]]},{"de":[["En este estudio el menosprecio se relaciona con el capacitismo",[]]],"rt":[["capacitismo",[]]]},{"de":[["el modelo social sugiere que para la eliminación de las barreras socioculturales han de plantearse cambios dirigidos principalmente a la sociedad y no al individuo",["Fisher y Purcal, 2016"]]],"rt":[["modelo médico",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["flaming",[]]],"rt":[["flaming",[]]]},{"de":[["El troleo y el flaming son probablemente las formas más comunes de odio contra estas personas en el entorno digital (Sherry et al., 2019). Según este estudio, se trata de discursos que buscan provocar u ofender, así como desviar la atención hacia discusiones superfluas y sin sentido, y que son vivenciadas especialmente por grupos que experimentan desigualdad social.",["Sherry et al., 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["where interests suffer thanks to passions",["12"]],["where interests suffer thanks to passions.",["12"]]]},{},{"de":[["The intention is to favor an ideology, a political party/candidate, or a perspective, instrumentalizing agendas, leading people into error, and denying the right of access to information, as identified by UNESCO (2022).",["UNESCO, 2022","UNESCO (2022)"]],["misleading, manipulated, and fabricated content",[]],["included discrediting of research institutions, such as Datafolha, Ipec, and Ipespe",[]],["disinformation is built, strengthened, and disseminated through an essentially a human infrastructure in the Brazil.",[]],["is built, strengthened, and disseminated through an essentially a human infrastructure in the Brazil",["Nemer (2022)"]],["alternating between fake/manipulated news and discrediting traditional media",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["fake/manipulated news",[]],["discrediting traditional media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the dog-whistle metaphor has drifted from its original referent to signify coded exclusionary language in general, not just exclusionary language imperceptible to anyone but its intended audience.",["Bonikowski and Zhang [9]"]]]},{},{"de":[["subcategory",[]]],"sp":[["Political disinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["All disinformation identified in Bolsonaro's tweets were tied to political agendas.",[]]],"sb":[["fake/manipulated news",[]],["discrediting traditional media",[]],["discredit research institutes/pollsters",[]]]},{"de":[["that is a functioning component of societies",[]]]},{"rt":[["female inappropriate",["Koivula, 2001","Riemer & Visio, 2003"]]]},{"rt":[["female appropriate",["Koivula, 2001","Riemer & Visio, 2003"]]]},{"rt":[["masculinity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["femininity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["highlighting their nice smile, clothes, or features stereotypically associated with femininity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["conveys associative meanings whereby humans can freely and rationally choose from several behavioral options.",[]]]},{"de":[["which is an undesired consequence of negation. Thus, human information processing activates a frame's corresponding mental concepts first and then negates it afterwards",["Kaup, Lüdke, & Zwaan, 2006","Kaup, Yaxley, Madden, Zwaan, & Lüdke, 2007"]],["human information processing activates a frame's corresponding mental concepts first and then negates it afterwards",["Kaup, Lüdke, & Zwaan, 2006","Kaup, Yaxley, Madden, Zwaan, & Lüdke, 2007"]]]},{},{"de":[["These \"bystanders\" may be seeking information and can potentially be misled by incorrect information.",[]]]},{"de":[["Actual infodemiologists can and should be people connected to various communities and networks and include community health workers, nurses, physicians, pharmacists, and community and faith leaders.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The abstraction asymmetry we document, governmental actors rendered dispositionally, community actors rendered situationally, is structurally analogous to what Ling and Yan (2025) describe as the narrative policy framework's allocation of villain and hero roles in algorithmic policy contexts.",[]]],"rt":[["narrative policy framework",[]]]},{"de":[["These inferences shape how people explain behavior, allocate blame or praise, and evaluate social actors across contexts",["Martinko and Mackey, 2019"]],["These inferences shape how people explain behavior, allocate blame or praise, and evaluate social actors across contexts (Martinko and Mackey, 2019).",["Martinko and Mackey, 2019"]],["The heightened abstraction associated with governmental actors aligns with attribution theory's prediction that abstract language signals dispositional inference.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["out-groups are more likely to be essentialized",["1979"]],["This reflects classic intergroup attribution biases, wherein out-groups are more likely to be essentialized (Pettigrew, 1979).",["Pettigrew, 1979"]]]},{"de":[["could provide insight into the attributions people make about the behavior or disposition of others.",[]],["When behavior is interpreted as reflecting fixed, dispositional traits, individuals tend to describe it abstractly. When behavior is seen as circumstantial or temporary, they describe it concretely",["Martinko and Mackey, 2019"]],["By analyzing the level of abstraction in participants' descriptions, the study identified attributional patterns that would otherwise remain implicit or obscured through traditional self-report methods.",[]],["To address these limitations, this paper proposes the analysis of linguistic abstraction as a methodological tool that can detect subtle attribution processes underlying people's perceptions.",[]],["The findings therefore support the broader argument that linguistic abstraction can serve as a valuable tool for researchers investigating trust, credibility, and social perception.",[]]],"sy":[["abstraction analysis",[]]],"rt":[["attributional patterns",[]]]},{"de":[["At the most concrete level are descriptive action verbs (e.g., punch, kiss), which refer to specific, observable behaviors. These are followed by interpretive action verbs (e.g., fight, care), which introduce inferred meaning. State verbs (e.g., love, anger) describe enduring emotional or psychological states. The most abstract form involves adjectives (e.g., aggressive, affectionate), which generalize across instances and imply dispositional traits",[]],["At the most concrete level are descriptive action verbs (e.g., punch, kiss), which refer to specific, observable behaviors. These are followed by interpretive action verbs (e.g., fight, care), which introduce inferred meaning. State verbs (e.g., love, anger) describe enduring emotional or psychological states. The most abstract form involves adjectives (e.g., aggressive, affectionate), which generalize across instances and imply dispositional traits (see Table 1).",["Semin and Fiedler, 1988"]]],"sb":[["descriptive action verbs (e.g., punch, kiss), which refer to specific, observable behaviors",[]],["interpretive action verbs (e.g., fight, care), which introduce inferred meaning",[]],["State verbs (e.g., love, anger) describe enduring emotional or psychological states",[]],["adjectives (e.g., aggressive, affectionate), which generalize across instances and imply dispositional traits",[]]],"ex":[["punch, kiss",[]],["fight, care",[]],["love, anger",[]],["aggressive, affectionate",[]]]},{"de":[["According to this model, people describe positive in-group behaviors in abstract terms (e.g., affectionate), suggesting enduring traits, while negative in-group behaviors are described more concretely (e.g., punch), implying situational explanations. This pattern reverses for out-group members",[]],["According to this model, people describe positive in-group behaviors in abstract terms (e.g., affectionate), suggesting enduring traits, while negative in-group behaviors are described more concretely (e.g., punch), implying situational explanations.",["Maass et al., 1989"]]],"rt":[["Linguistic Category Model (LCM)",[]]],"sp":[["Linguistic Category Model (LCM)",[]]],"ex":[["affectionate",[]],["punch",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Discussing support",[]],["Discussing other",[]]],"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"sy":[["rumour verification",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["root tweets",[]]]},{"rt":[["reply tweets",[]]]},{"sb":[["Irrelevant",[]],["Supporting",[]],["Refuting",[]],["Discussing",[]],["Querying",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance detection",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These boundaries are not stable, pre-determined structures but rather contextual and fluid cultural constructions requiring constant negotiation",["Carlson & Berkowitz, 2014, p. 391"]]],"rt":[["participation",[]],["practices",[]],["professionalism",[]]],"sp":[["Boundary work",[]]]},{},{"de":[["journalists often perform a hybrid function, balancing normative ideals of press freedom and pragmatic constraints imposed by state and corporate actors",["Hanitzsch & Vos, 2017"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Their identity negotiation is constrained by dual pressures from both the government and news organizations leaving limited room for professional autonomy in their daily practices.",[]]]},{"de":[["Through selective effort allocation, outsourced journalists minimize the impact of political propaganda on their professional identity while still fulfilling their role as educators and informing the public.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this sense, Xiaobian prioritizes audience engagement by employing various tactics within their articles to encourage citizen interaction.",[]]],"rt":[["serving the public",[]]],"sp":[["serving the public",[]]],"ex":[["we aim to craft eye-catching headlines to attract readers' attention, encouraging them to learn about upcoming exhibitions. The primary goal is to inform the public and subtly inspire them to visit the museum. Our content is more citizen-oriented, often promoting public events and educational activities, functioning as a role in public education.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this way, Xiaobian are performing the role of loyal facilitators, contributing to constructing a positive image of political elites (Wang & Li, 2024).",[]]],"rt":[["serving the state",[]]],"sp":[["serving the state",[]]]},{"rt":[["hard propaganda",[]]]},{"de":[["The bias effect will cause an anchoring effect",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["information used to debunk misinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["rumor",[]]]},{"de":[["people prefer sharing positive content",["Ferrara and Yang, 2015"]]]},{"rt":[["debunking message",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["takes advantage of social media's rapid distribution channels and global audience to maximize its reach",["7"]]]},{"de":[["A multi-label classification head predicts both the veracity and fine-grained type of misinformation (e.g., satire, rumor, propaganda), enabling nuanced and actionable detection.",[]]],"ex":[["satire",[]],["rumor",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["source credibility",[]],["message credibility",[]],["media credibility",[]],["trust",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["an essential concept in real-life, face-to-face communication.",[]],["It results from an expectation that the source would observe social norm of not lying (not communicating a false message).",[]],["source credibility can also be based on the trustworthiness of the source in the context of veracity; it is difficult, however, to reliably observe, measure or predict this property.",[]],["source credibility is a combination (or multiple criteria evaluation) of two kinds of trust: credibility trust and the trust in the expertise of the source.",[]]],"rt":[["message credibility",[]],["credibility trust",[]],["trust in the expertise of the source",[]]]},{},{"de":[["By evaluating the models ability to classify articles in specific contexts this metric ensures that it performs well across various types of fake news.",[]]]},{"de":[["The models accuracy in categorizing these articles is given more weight because higher engagement indicates greater significance.",[]]]},{"de":[["This metric gives falsepositives a higher penalty according to the possible harm they could cause (e. g. 3. resulting in needless alarm).",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["NLP techniques, including sentiment analysis, semantic similarity, and keyword extraction, help analyze the textual content for misleading or inflammatory language.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["TCI assesses the models consistency in detecting false information over various time periods.",[]]]},{"rt":[["social influence",[]]]},{"de":[["the conformity effect in LLMs is amplified when majority inputs are presented in a more natural and conversational tone.",[]]],"sp":[["biases",[]]]},{"de":[["This approach is directly applicable in the sycophancy setup, where the model's responses tend to align with user preferences or biases rather than objective correctness.",[]]],"ex":[["the DA method significantly reduces conformity in models that are more susceptible to conformity biases (e.g., Gemma2 and Llama3).",[]]]},{"rt":[["normative",[]]],"sp":[["conformity pressures",["1955"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They are more common in areas like literature, ethics, or social sciences, where answers can vary based on individual reasoning or experiences.",[]]]},{"de":[["generating outputs that appeal to evaluators regardless of their correctness",["Perez et al., 2023","Sharma et al., 2024"]],["where the model's responses tend to align with user preferences or biases rather than objective correctness.",[]]]},{"de":[["This might miss relevant information further away from the InputClaim in the input document and further away from the VerClaim in the document accompanying the VerClaim.",[]],["information further away from the InputClaim in the input document and further away from the VerClaim in the document accompanying the VerClaim",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Euroscepticism",[]]]},{"de":[["In this context, discourse is considered to be a great conditioner of public opinion and, therefore, a key tool in the social construction of reality",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Specifically, visibility-depending on the number of channels in which it is disseminated-the impact understood as the degree of reactions generated by a message, and legitimacy-determined by the degree of positive reactions-are the three most determining characteristics for a message to be successful",["Koopmans and Olzak, 2004"]]]},{"rt":[["homophilia",[]]]},{"de":[["an attribute present in the communicative strategy on Twitter of European populist parties of both left and right.",[]]],"rt":[["economic Euroscepticism",[]],["cultural Euroscepticism",[]]],"sb":[["\"hard\" form of Euroscepticism",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing theory",["1993"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["political opportunity structure (POS)",[]],["discursive opportunity structure (DOS)",[]]]},{"de":[["the POS is \"the playing field where the context is set.\"",["Gamson (2004, p. 249)"]]]},{},{"de":[["a moldable ideology that can be adapted to a multitude of contexts and that considers that society is divided into two homogeneous and antagonistic groups, the pure people and the corrupt elite, and that maintains that politics should be the expression of the general will",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["these investigations consider that consumption relations are no longer only interpreted from a utilitarian or behavioral perspective, but can now also be understood as a cultural phenomenon (Arnould & Thompson, 2005;2015).",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["microcelebrities",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["paratext",[]],["paratexts",["Gray, 2010"]],["paratextuality",[]]],"ex":[["trailers, promotional actions, extra materials",["Gray, 2010","Janes, 2015"]]]},{"de":[["objects derive from delimitations specified in the references of the statements; concepts indicate how the production of statements is based on certain knowledge (i.e., associated fields); modalities refer to the enunciative style used by subjects; and strategies are the discursive purposes manifested through the materiality of the statements.",[]]]},{"de":[["The approach proposes to analyze the production of discourses as practices",["Kendall & Wickham, 1999","Tadajewski, 2011"]],["FDA allows the identification of these discursive practices, revealing the means by which knowledge is produced and legitimized",["Denegri-Knott et al., 2018","Thompson, 2017"]],["It was developed in the context of his archeological cycle, in order to reveal discourse regularities that allow conditions to identify the existence of epistemes related to such discourses",["Foucault, 2014"]]]},{"sp":[["paratext",[]],["paratexts",["Gray, 2010"]],["paratextuality",[]]],"ex":[["fan theories, reviews of the specialized media",["Gray, 2010","Jenkins, 2009","Sørenssen, 2016"]]]},{},{"rt":[["marketplace ideologies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["While the former concerns the ethical commitment to report accurately and objectively, the latter refers to the need to reach the widest possible audience.",[]]]},{"de":[["For this purpose, texts should be understood as any materiality that can be read and interpreted, whether in written, visual, iconographic, or audiovisual form, and so forth.",[]],["The function of the paratext ranges from complementation to extrapolation, as it provides the reader with new interpretations of his/her readings",["Gray, 2010"]]],"sb":[["peritext",[]],["epitext",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Its functions include passing on the products and preparing consumers for the consumption experience (Hills & Garde-Hansen, 2017;Sørenssen, 2016)",["Hills & Garde-Hansen, 2017","Sørenssen, 2016"]],["media paratextuality can be expected to overlap different points of view and interests in different layers of meaning",[]],["Its functions include passing on the products and preparing consumers for the consumption experience (Hills & Garde-Hansen, 2017;Sørenssen, 2016).",["Hills & Garde-Hansen, 2017","Sørenssen, 2016"]]],"rt":[["author-function",[]]],"sb":[["peritext",[]],["epitext",[]],["entryway paratext",[]],["in-media-res paratext",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["They can be identified in the language signs, although they are not reduced to them, since they lie in the pragmatic context of discourse production.",[]],["Built on the notion of discursiveness, statements are interpreted as instances of practices (i.e., discursive practices, according to Foucault).",[]],["They can be identified in the language signs, although they are not reduced to them, since they lie in the pragmatic context of discourse production. Built on the notion of discursiveness, statements are interpreted as instances of practices (i.e., discursive practices, according to Foucault).",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["YouTube thumbnails provide users with an instant and compulsory view of video content",["Steiner et al., 2011"]]]},{"de":[["Periodic training messages are likely to help users better understand the meaning of the fake news flag and other aspects of social media.",[]]],"rt":[["Security Education Training and Awareness (SETA)",["D' Arcy et al. 2009","Johnston et al. 2015","Straub Jr 1990"]]]},{},{"de":[["This contradiction causes cognitive discomfort",["Aronson 1969"]],["users either ignore the discomfort or invoke System 2 to resolve it.",["Aronson 1969"]],["If the cognitive dissonance is weak or the issue is unimportant to the users, they often ignore it.",[]],["If it is strong, users may invoke System 2 cognition to think critically",["Aronson 1969"]],["This contradiction causes cognitive discomfort (Aronson 1969), and users either ignore the discomfort or invoke System 2 to resolve it.",["Aronson 1969"]]]},{"de":[["This confirmation bias is driven by the associative memory processing of System 1, which quickly searches for confirming evidence of the question posed.",["Kahneman 2011"]],["influence users' beliefs in social media articles",[]],["capture both the direction (agree/disagree) and the magnitude (strongly/weakly) in the fit between one's preexisting beliefs and the articles.",[]],["users are more likely to believe news articles-real or fake-that align with their prior beliefs (Kim and Dennis 2018).",["Kim and Dennis 2018"]]]},{},{"sy":[["Disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["Individuals in a hedonic mindset are less likely to critically consider information than those in a utilitarian mindset, and thus, they are less likely to engage in deep consideration of the information they see",["Kahneman 2003"]],["In other words, people use social media to detach from work and unwind-to \"deactivate\" (Panger 2018).",["Panger 2018"]]],"rt":[["utilitarian mindset",[]]]},{"de":[["System 1 cognition is our \"fast thinking,\" where our simple heuristics produce perceptions and actions in less than a second",["Kahneman 2011"]],["System 1 is intuitive",["Achtziger and Alós-Ferrer 2013"]],["it is our \"gut reaction\".",[]],["When we process information using System 1 cognition, we only use the information immediately at hand; the vividness and saliency of that information drives decisions, rather than a more nuanced and carefully considered approach",["de Castro Bellini-Leite 2013","Kahneman 2011"]],["We cannot avoid System 1 cognition because it runs continuously without voluntary control and is constantly telling us what to do",["Evans and Stanovich 2013","Kahneman 2011","Thompson 2013"]],["its answer and the story that we have developed to support it feel intuitive and credible",["Kahneman 2011"]],["the gullible nature of our System 1",[]],["confirmation bias is driven by the associative memory processing of System 1, which quickly searches for confirming evidence of the question posed.",["Kahneman 2011"]],["The heuristics almost instantly match a stimulus to a set of perceptions and behaviors linked to that stimulus.",[]],["Thus, an intervention striving to influence through System 1 cognition needs a stimulus whose meaning is instantly and intuitively obvious to the target population without deliberate thought.",[]],["pay little attention to its meaning",[]],["emotional and gut-level decision",[]],["does not involve critical thinking",[]],["state of effortless processing associated with the hedonic mindset",[]],["automatic and emotional reaction",[]],["System 1 cognition is our \"fast thinking,\" where our simple heuristics produce perceptions and actions in less than a second (Kahneman 2011).",["Kahneman 2011"]]],"sy":[["fast thinking",["Kahneman 2011"]],["sense",[]],["intuitive System 1 cognition",[]],["gut reaction",["Achtziger and Alós-Ferrer 2013"]]],"rt":[["System 2 cognition",[]],["heuristics",[]]],"sp":[["cognition processes",[]]],"ex":[["walk, talk, recognize faces, and effortlessly retrieve certain facts from memory",["Kahneman 2011","(Kahneman 2011)"]]]},{"de":[["these terms refer to interventions designed to act primarily-not exclusively-through one type of cognition or the other",[]]],"sy":[["intuitive intervention",[]]],"ex":[["In the case of computer warning messages, a System 1 intervention can easily be implemented through the icon that accompanies the text.",[]],["a System 1 intervention can easily be implemented through the icon that accompanies the text.",[]],["the stop sign",[]]]},{"de":[["It is an intervention whose meaning needs to be studied and integrated with the information in the recipient's existing mental model before it has its full ability to influence perceptions and/or actions.",[]],["Such a System 2 intervention is a persuasive argument that has the strongest effect when the user elaborates on the message (Petty and Cacioppo 1986); i.e., invokes their System 2 cognition to critically read the message and engage in sufficient cognition to understand its meaning in context (Kahneman 2011).",["Petty and Cacioppo 1986","Kahneman 2011"]]],"sy":[["persuasive argument intervention",[]]],"ex":[["we use the text portion of the message to implement our System 2 intervention.",[]]]},{"rt":[["hedonic mindset",[]]]},{"de":[["for promoting one candidate or defaming him",[]]],"rt":[["cyber troops",[]]]},{"de":[["censorship was used primarily against movements and groups anti-regime.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["works as a tool of censorship because the use of force represses the liber opinion of people in the name of the narrative made by the regime.",[]]],"rt":[["censorship",[]]]},{"rt":[["propaganda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The ruling classes also control the political structures and primary ideology, which as Gramsci (1971) noted, access control through the consent of the below, without violence (Altheide, 1984).",[]],["Gramsci's theory's critical and fundamental principle is that people are not ruled only by force but also by ideas. Political leadership takes control and has consent given by the leader through diffusion and popularization (establish a hegemony) (Bates, 1975, p. 351-352).",["Bates, 1975, p. 351-352"]],["Political leadership takes control and has consent given by the leader through diffusion and popularization (establish a hegemony)",["Bates, 1975, p. 351-352"]]],"rt":[["media hegemony",[]]],"sp":[["Marxist thought",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["buzzers",[]],["cyber troops",[]]],"sp":[["cyber troops",[]]]},{"de":[["helped Duterte during his campaign",["Freedom House, 2017"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["with a more intensive spread of disinformation and propaganda, as was the cases where this micro group spreading disinformation on Overseas Filipino Worker, normally conspiracy theory or anti-propaganda establishment and anti-mainstream media",["Ong & Tapsell, 2020"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The main difference between social media and mainstream media is that social media does not tend to be hegemonized by individuals or entities as it appears for traditional media such as television.",[]]],"sy":[["alternative media",[]]],"ex":[["Twitter and Facebook",[]]]},{"de":[["günümüzde bilgi kirliliğinden korunma hakkı [18][19][20][21] ortaya çıkmıştır.",["18","19","20","21"]],["günümüzün dijital ortamında bilgi kirliliği problemi eklemlenmiştir.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["search work",[]]]},{},{"de":[["hybridization as a negotiated process",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["participant/observational (whether journalists influence the political process)",["Donsbach, 2012"]],["advocacy/neutral (whether journalists express their values and beliefs)",["Donsbach, 2012"]],["commercial/educational (Donsbach, 2012)",["Donsbach, 2012"]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["content tailored specifically for the algorithm",[]]],"rt":[["high-quality work",[]]]},{"de":[["drawing on work such as that of Lewis and Westlund (2014)",[]]]},{"de":[["They do not explicitly called this adaptation a new hybridization of journalism to a new logic, but saw it more as a reconceptualization of work they already do.",[]]]},{"de":[["artificial intelligence literacy is an integral component of general media literacy.",[]],["an integral component of general media literacy",[]]],"sp":[["general media literacy",[]],["media literacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["use deep learning techniques to synthesize and alter human appearances, particularly in fraudulent and disinformation campaigns",[]]],"sb":[["deepfakes created with the help of generative adversarial networks",[]]]},{"de":[["It helps define principles for media outlets when working with artificial intelligence.",[]],["Facts and evidence, a clear distinction between original and synthetic content, editorial independence, and human responsibility will serve as fundamental guarantees of the right to reliable news and information in the media in the era of artificial intelligence.",[]]]},{"rt":[["abusive nominations",[]]]},{"de":[["This metaphor implies a number of mappings: D IS EASE D CE LL S ar e EN EM Y COMBATANTS MEDICAL PROFESSIONALS are ARMY OF ALLIES BODY is a BATTLEFIELD MEDICAL TOOLS are WEAPONS TREATING a DISEASE is FIGHTING",["Flusberg, Matlock, Thibodeau, 2018"]],["This metaphor implies a number of mappings: D IS EASE D CE LL S ar e EN EM Y COMBATANTS MEDICAL PROFESSIONALS are ARMY OF ALLIES BODY is a BATTLEFIELD MEDICAL TOOLS are WEAPONS TREATING a DISEASE is FIGHTING [Flusberg, Matlock, Thibodeau, 2018].",["Flusberg, Matlock, Thibodeau, 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["has been pervasive in understanding a wide range of human experiences such as time, causation, events, emotions, self, morality, and disease.",["Gibbs, 2012","Kovecses, 2020","Lakoff, Johnson, 2003"]],["it can be potentially useful or harmful when framing societal challenges, such as global pandemic.",[]]]},{"de":[["this frame bears a strong negative emotional valence.",[]],["pervasiveness of the military metaphors to figuratively frame the discourse about coronavirus and measures to combat it.",[]]],"rt":[["war framing",[]]]},{"de":[["deriving from specific concerns about long-term safety, fears due to past experiences and other uncertainties about COVID-19 vaccines",[]]]},{"rt":[["antiglobalist/nationalist approaches",[]]]},{"rt":[["military metaphors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["blended information operations with cyber threat capabilities",[]]],"rt":[["malicious interference in people's minds",[]]],"ex":[["AI-generated content in deepfake ads",[]],["hijacking websites",[]],["planting fabricated content under anonymity",[]],["abusing social networks",[]],["purchasing targeted advertisements to manipulate vulnerable social groups",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["cognitive hacking",[]]],"sb":[["cognitive domain operations (CDOs)",["21"]],["coordinated chaos",["23"]]]},{"sp":[["cognitive warfare",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The project was designed to codify and share intelligence on disinformation and influence operations through a knowledge base of techniques and countermeasures and presented as a standard that the EU and the United States are now using to analyse and share information in countering FIMI threats",["53"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Such activity is manipulative in nature and carried out in an intentional and coordinated manner.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Communication effect is the ultimate goal and tests the effectiveness of the communication procedure",["Zhou & Xie, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["conceptual metaphors are constituted not by words or linguistic units, but by ontological mapping across conceptual domains.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Frame",[]]]},{"de":[["Frame is the psychological structure related to the real world.",[]],["Frame is also a metaphorical mindset with which to make people think and reason in a more logical manner (Ji & Wang, 2019).",[]],["Frame shapes and influences the way we reason and behave (ibid).",[]],["Frame can be viewed as a neural circuit of a synapse in the brain.",[]]],"sb":[["surface frames",["Lakoff, 2006"]],["deep frames",["Lakoff, 2006"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Frame",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["social justice teacher education",["Cochran-Smith, 1999;McDonald & Zeichner, 2009;Zeichner, 2011"]],["anti-racist teacher education",["Cochran-Smith, 1999;McDonald & Zeichner, 2009;Zeichner, 2011"]],["critical teacher education",["Cochran-Smith, 1999;McDonald & Zeichner, 2009;Zeichner, 2011"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["in order to cause a harm because of private interest conflict",[]]],"sp":[["rumors",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["rumor",[]]]},{"de":[["does not aim to cause a certain harm such as lack of economic confidence in government due to repeated untrue promises",[]]],"sp":[["rumors",[]]]},{"de":[["Rumors represent a tool of modern psychological warfare or a tool of the fourth generation of psychological warfare to implement the desired goals, whether economic, social or military, and countries resort to them to justify their internal and external policies in times of crisis, and are linked to the culture of societies and the interests and goals of individuals and institutions that adopt them.",["Flavio C., and Silvio, L,2011"]],["rumors spread more during the times of crises, periods of political or social transition.",[]],["Rumors also spread whenever media blackout exists or there is ambiguity in stands or with the government officials statements or with the intended mislead through the various mass media.",[]],["It is often untrue news without a proof or evidence or it is exaggerated through maximizing or belittling its significance.",["Al-Hams, Shldan,2013"]],["It is random and non-organized launched by some individuals against others.",["Al-Hams, Shldan,2013"]],["It may be carefully planned by a big organized and highly specialized system in order to direct the public opinion to publish the news in a well-planned way.",["Al-Hams, Shldan,2013"]],["The aim of any rumor is to cause a degree of impact on those who receive either positively or negatively or make them neutral towards the rumor topic.",["Al-Hams, Shldan,2013"]],["A rumor does not pose a new idea but deal with news or information about a topic, person or certain situation and each rumor has its audience",["Al-Hams, Shldan,2013"]],["A rumor does not pose a new idea but deal with news or information about a topic, person or certain situation and each rumor has its audience (Al-Hams, Shldan,2013 ).",["Al-Hams, Shldan,2013"]],["The rumor is characterized with rapid spread of information and circulation among people so they cannot be easily stopped.",[]],["The rumor success depends largely on the social class that accepts the rumor due to the precedent psychological readiness.",[]],["Rumor as a social phenomenon represents an important element in every human culture, and the definition of rumor varies according to the field of specialization.",[]],["A rumor is a semi-real say which might be positive or negative.",[]],["One of its characteristics as well is that it can be true or false or true and false at the same time.",[]],["The rumor appears in an atmosphere prevailed with awaiting, expectation, instability and lack of confidence.",[]]],"rt":[["psychological warfare",[]],["fourth generation of psychological warfare",[]]],"sb":[["deliberate or intended type",[]],["random unintended rumor",[]],["rumors of fear and hatred",[]],["diseases spread rumors",[]],["riots and demonstrations rumors",[]],["accidents and disasters rumors",[]],["racial rumor",[]],["optimism and hope rumor",[]],["economic rumors",[]],["political rumors",[]],["social rumors",[]],["religious rumors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The circulation of this information is considered rumors that affect the movement and direction of securities prices, whether by increasing or decreasing, and the decline may continue for a period of time leading to a financial crisis.",[]],["Rumors are often related to information from their main sources such as institutions, companies, speculation markets.",[]],["The spreading of rumors in the stock markets is associated with the characteristics and nature of their promoters.",[]],["Rumors strongly appear due to the late declaration by institutions and financial companies of their annual profits to investors.",[]]],"sb":[["intentional rumors that aim to cause harm due to conflicting private interests",[]],["unintentional rumors that do not aim to cause specific harm",[]]],"ex":[["Rumors aim to create artificial supply and demand of some companies' shares and thus increase the shares of some companies and decrease the shares prices of others without reasonable justifications of the prices falling and rising.",[]]]},{"de":[["The first situation is criticizing and evaluating the rumor if he has knowledge, science, personal experience, and frequent habit of the rumor topic.",[]],["The second situation is the inability to evaluate and believe the rumor due to the lack of information or previous experiences about the topic, as well as to satisfy personal needs and interests.",[]],["The third situation is repeating the rumor due to lack of interest in its content.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["the concept, just like populism, covers a diverse panoply of problems.",[]],["emerged as a strategy of delegitimizing opponents",[]],["Fake news is also associated with a form of proximity that is characterized in particular by the absence of critical distance.",[]]],"rt":[["anachronistic populism",[]],["cascading information chains",[]],["political misinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["misinformation",[]],["yellow journalism",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]],["unconfirmed rumors",[]]],"sb":[["Satire or parody: not intended to cause harm, but with the potential to deceive",[]],["Misleading content: misleading use of information to frame a problem or person",[]],["Imposter content: when genuine sources are represented",[]],["Manufactured content: new content that is 100% fake, designed to deceive and harm",[]],["False connection: when headlines, images or captions do not support the content",[]],["Fake context: when genuine content is shared with fake contextual information",[]],["Manipulated content: when genuine information or images are manipulated to deceive",["Ferreira, 2018, p. 142"]],["Misleading content",[]],["Imposter content",[]],["Manufactured content",[]],["False connection",[]],["Fake context",[]],["Manipulated content",[]]],"ex":[["becoming viral thanks to agreement with the message and not prior verifiability",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["The relationship between assumptions and inferences is replaced by a linking of ideas that rest on mere resemblance, often through association, employing the same characteristic word in two propositions that are not logically related. This method not only avoids the control mechanisms of rational examination, but also makes it psychologically easier for the listener to follow.",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["public, civic, online, web journalism",[]],["proximity online journalism",[]]],"sb":[["Virtuous proximity",[]]]},{"de":[["Within a given audience exposed to specific communications, reinforcement or at least constancy of opinion is typically discovered as the dominant effect made; small change, such as small change in the intensity of opinion, is the second most common effect; and conversion is typically the rarest effect.",["Klapper, 1960, p. 15"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The hypothesis made an appearance in the limited effects theory, centering on the repeated belief that people who did not expose themselves to messages contradicting their beliefs entrencehed their opinion",["Klapper, 1960"]]],"rt":[["polarization can lead to partisan political commitment and thus selective exposure.",[]]]},{"de":[["not only did people expose themselves to media content selectively, but they perceived it selectively too, and they tended to memorize essentially the information that best suited their ideas",["Klapper, 1960, p. 10-11"]]]},{"de":[["Members of the public \"are covered and protected by existing predispositions, selective processes, and other factors\"",["Klapper, 1960, p. 247"]]]},{"de":[["just as group members better handle, perceive, and memorize messages they agree with, they also share messages they agree with more readily.",[]],["group members better handle, perceive, and memorize messages they agree with, they also share messages they agree with more readily",[]]]},{"rt":[["public, civic, online, web journalism or proximity online journalism",["Jerónimo, 2015"]]],"sp":[["proximity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["news frames",[]],["generic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["this could involve equivalence (or valence) frames (Chong & Druckman, 2007), positively or negatively presenting some aspect of the technology.",[]]]},{"sy":[["valence frames",[]]]},{"de":[["the Evaluation category simply facilitates a broader understanding of the positive and negative evaluations of emerging technologies without being constrained by the foci of the other categories.",[]]],"rt":[["equivalence (or valence) frames",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["problem definition",[]],["causal diagnosis",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]],"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"de":[["This Mainstream frame has implications for how readers might perceive the state and success of AI-if it already seems established, they may be more likely to engage with this technology, as this improves the observability of the innovation",["Rogers, 2003"]]]},{},{"sp":[["framing devices",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing devices",[]]]},{"sp":[["news frames",[]],["generic frames",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["equivalence frames",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["By manipulating the level and direction of information presentation, media shapes public interpretation of events, impacting societal viewpoints and behavior.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Additionally, by concentrating on specific issues, the media emphasizes them as the sole critical matters requiring public discourse.",[]],["The agenda-setting approach demonstrates how media influences public priorities by highlighting specific societal issues and shaping the agenda for public discourse.",[]],["Additionally, by concentrating on specific issues, the media emphasizes them as the sole critical matters requiring public discourse. The agenda-setting approach demonstrates how media influences public priorities by highlighting specific societal issues and shaping the agenda for public discourse.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["reporting that is out of proportion with reality",[]]]},{"de":[["varies across demographic groups and does not always correspond to the reality of misinformation prevalence.",[]],["report how concerned they were about misinformation",[]],["does not always correspond to the reality of misinformation prevalence",[]]],"sy":[["concern with misinformation",[]],["concern about misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["misaligned sources",[]]],"rt":[["politically aligned media",[]]]},{},{"de":[["greater concern with misinformation may result in exposure to media sources that are politically aligned with one's views, also resulting in this selective exposure phenomenon.",[]]],"rt":[["political polarization",["Stroud, 2010"]]]},{"de":[["Its goal is to separate and identify false from true news in extracted texts and increase the accuracy of identifying false news.",[]]]},{"de":[["techniques have recently been explored to improve interpretability in fake news detection models, helping researchers and policymakers understand how predictions are made",[]]]},{"de":[["The purpose of fake news is to deliberately convince readers to believe erroneous information [10][11].",["10","11"]],["First, fake news has the ability to upset the natural balance of the ecosystem.",[]],["fake news is deliberately produced to mislead readers, making it challenging to identify based just on the content of the story.",[]],["The goal of fake news is to suppress real news while distorting the truth in a variety of ways.",[]],["False information is produced with the goal of misleading customers.",[]],["The veracity or aim of the news material is the main emphasis of general definitions of false news",["18","19"]],["The most common types of misleading and unverified information are fake news and rumors",[]]],"sy":[["false news",[]],["bogus news",[]]],"rt":[["rumors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which may allow misinformation to spread",[]],["false negatives refer to failing to detect rumors, which may allow misinformation to spread",[]],["may allow misinformation to spread",[]]]},{"de":[["which might cause harm to legitimate discourse and damage reputations",[]],["false positives refer to flagging factual information as a rumor, which might cause harm to legitimate discourse and damage reputations",[]],["might cause harm to legitimate discourse and damage reputations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Rumors may alternatively be described as unverified informational claims and associated instruments that circulate in an environment of risk, uncertainty, or possible harm and serve to educate about risk and help them manage it.",[]]],"ex":[["rumors can undermine the credibility of the news industry and raise people's suspicions about all social media content.",[]],["Readers can be misled by rumors about a variety of things or individuals [7][8].",["7","8"]]]},{"de":[["The most common types of misleading and unverified information are fake news and rumors",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["allows for the consideration of complex relationships between elements of context-specific frames using various metrics from network analysis.",[]]]},{"de":[["low moderation policies",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These frames denote the structural coherence of messages, identifying a distinct semantic core that describes relations between the primary agents of the war -Russia and Ukraine.",[]],["Around this core, peripheral concepts form a background that provides relational and nuanced meaning by linking Russia and Ukraine to different roles, events, and topologies.",[]],["form the representations of specific events",[]],["denote the structural coherence of messages, identifying a distinct semantic core that describes relations between the primary agents of the war",[]]]},{"de":[["providing a cognitive basis for contextual understanding of meaning",["Lakoff & Johnson, 1980"]],["In the Russo-Ukrainian, media frames are employed as a lens for disseminating political narratives, used by both sides to interpret the key \"elements\" of the wartime discourse (Tange & Jenks, 2023) such as \"enemy\" (Murphy, 2023), \"threat,\" and \"reason\" (Johnson, 2022).",[]],["a collectively-constructed and shared way of creating meaningful representations of social situations in media.",[]],["More narrowly, it allows political actors to select relevant aspects of real-life cases to present them to the audience more beneficially (Lakoff, 1996;Vliegenthart, 2012;Mejias & Vokuev, 2017).",["Lakoff, 1996;Vliegenthart, 2012;Mejias & Vokuev, 2017"]]],"sb":[["it allows political actors to select relevant aspects of real-life cases to present them to the audience more beneficially",["Lakoff, 1996;Vliegenthart, 2012;Mejias & Vokuev, 2017"]]]},{},{"ex":[["describing the Battle of Azovstal",[]]]},{},{"de":[["being a watchdog and check in a modern democracy",[]],["one of its most critical roles; that of being a watchdog and check in a modern democracy.",[]],["ceases to serve one of its most critical roles; that of being a watchdog and check in a modern democracy.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which most journalists would fully support, are complex",[]]]},{"de":[["which most journalists would fully support, are complex",[]]]},{"de":[["Both positions become more extreme from seeing the same set of data",[]]],"rt":[["different prior beliefs in both the central hypothesis and source reliability",[]]],"sp":[["confirmation bias",[]]],"ex":[["Those who were pro-capital punishment selfreported that the evidence swayed them to be more fervent in their beliefs, and those who were against capital punishment stated that they also became more fervent, in the opposite direction -the two groups diverged in their beliefs after seeing the same data.",["1979"]]]},{"de":[["In belief perseverance, the order that beliefs are formed is important. And if beliefs are formed from observed data, then the order that data is received is important.",[]]],"rt":[["primacy effect",["Nickerson, 1998","1998"]]],"sp":[["confirmation bias",[]]],"ex":[["participants held onto these opinions even after they were told that the feedback was fictitious",["Ross et al., 1975"]],["induced participant beliefs that persisted even once the data was revealed to be fictitious",["Anderson et al., 1980"]],["participants held onto these opinions even after they were told that the feedback was fictitious.",[]],["This induced participant beliefs that persisted even once the data was revealed to be fictitious.",[]]]},{"de":[["This ranges from the everyday usage of the term as a leaning or tendency in one direction, to the precise use in statistics of a systematic departure from accuracy.",["Hahn & Harris, 2014"]],["which is often Bayesian rationality",["Hahn & Harris, 2014","Klayman, 1995"]]]},{"de":[["with a stronger posterior belief in the central hypothesis than the simple and rational models following both (c) confirmatory and (d) disconfirmatory evidence",[]],["biased assimilation dynamics mean that the data received earlier has a stronger effect on posterior beliefs than data received later.",[]],["a sufficient condition for biased assimilation is if an individual updates their beliefs in the central hypothesis more so than they would do under the rational version of Bayes' theorem with the Bayesian network.",[]]],"sy":[["biased evaluation",[]]],"sp":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["judging confirmatory sources more favourably, and disconfirmatory sources less favourably",[]],["with (a) confirmatory sources judged to be more reliable than (b) disconfirmatory sources",[]],["judging confirmatory sources more favourably, and disconfirmatory sources less favourably.",[]]],"sy":[["biased assimilation",[]]],"sp":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Confirmation bias encompasses numerous distinct but closely related behaviours",["Fischhoff & Beyth-Marom, 1983","Friedrich, 1993","Klayman & Ha, 1987","Nickerson, 1998"]],["It has been described as one of the most pernicious (Nickerson, 1998) of the cognitive biases, with impacts felt in many social domains including religion (Batson, 1975;Nickerson, 1998), politics (Lord, Ross, & Lepper, 1979;Nickerson, 1998;Nyhan & Reifler, 2010;Taber & Lodge, 2006), climate change (Cook & Lewandowsky, 2016;Hart & Nisbet, 2012), health and medicine (Liberman & Chaiken, 1992;Malthouse, 2022;Nickerson, 1998), justice (Nickerson, 1998), stereotyping (Darley & Gross, 1983), conspiracy theories (McHoskey, 1995), and science (Mahoney, 1977;Nickerson, 1998).",["Nickerson, 1998","Batson, 1975","Lord, Ross, & Lepper, 1979","Nyhan & Reifler, 2010","Taber & Lodge, 2006","Cook & Lewandowsky, 2016","Hart & Nisbet, 2012","Liberman & Chaiken, 1992","Malthouse, 2022","Darley & Gross, 1983","McHoskey, 1995","Mahoney, 1977"]],["This form of confirmation bias may go beyond the selection of external sources, and Kunda (1990) also suggested a confirmation bias in the selection of memories and cognitive processes.",["Kunda (1990)"]],["usually defined not only in terms of assimilating information, but also in the selection of information in a way that supports existing beliefs.",[]],["Confirmation bias is the search for and assimilation of information in a way that favours the preservation of prior beliefs (Nickerson, 1998).",["Nickerson, 1998"]]],"sy":[["Confirmation bias is the search for and assimilation of information in a way that favours the preservation of prior beliefs",["Nickerson, 1998"]]],"sb":[["biased evaluation",[]],["biased assimilation",[]],["attitude polarisation",[]],["belief perseverance",[]],["confirmation bias in the selection of sources",[]]]},{"sp":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["No hypothesis can be tested in isolation and upon receiving evidence we update a set of beliefs together, sometimes partitioned into central and auxiliary hypotheses, while maintaining overall coherence.",["Gershman, 2019"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the independence approximation introduces path dependency, such that biases accumulate over successive steps.",[]]],"rt":[["exchangeability",[]]]},{"de":[["where data observed earlier has a larger impact on belief than data seen more recently.",[]]],"rt":[["belief perseverance",[]]]},{"de":[["Given the data generating process, this is the rational way to update beliefs.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people can experience source confusion where the belief remains but the source is mis-attributed",["Johnson, Hashtroudi, & Lindsay, 1993"]]]},{"de":[["Hatred can be expressed toward someone's race, religion, handicap, sexual orientation, and gender, without being limited to any particular language.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["reinforced through social interactions and have a profound impact on information dynamics",["Arthur, 2018"]],["Social media platforms intensify echo chambers, making diverse networks susceptible to false information",["Pennycook et al., 2018","Vosoughi et al., 2018"]],["Limited media literacy exacerbates echo chambers' impact, leading individuals to accept biased information.",[]],["These chambers are reinforced through social interactions and have a profound impact on information dynamics, especially in ethnically and religiously diverse populations",["Arthur, 2018"]],["These chambers are reinforced through social interactions and have a profound impact on information dynamics, especially in ethnically and religiously diverse populations (Arthur, 2018).",["Arthur, 2018"]]],"sb":[["conspiratorial echo chambers",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Misinformation has prolonged conflicts by perpetuating stereotypes and misconceptions. It becomes challenging to find common ground for resolution when the narrative is distorted",[]]]},{"rt":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Discourse analysis can be combined with topic modelling by connecting filtered comments/posts with the strength/size of the topics to thematise topic categories",["Shirazi, 2013","Törnberg & Törnberg, 2016"]],["discourse analysis helps to provide a richer understanding of the subjective negative content, rather than labelling all content as offensive content.",[]]]},{"de":[["emotion analysis can aid in improving the accuracy of hate speech detection",[]]],"rt":[["Sentiment analysis",[]]],"ex":[["anger, surprise, trust, etc.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["hate speech can be observed in many forms, including visual and audio",[]]],"sb":[["text-based hate speech analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["takes account of how female bodies are sexually evaluated based on \"their bodies or body parts\"",[]],["Objectification theory has been used as a theoretical framework for studying the experiential consequences of being a female in a culture which sexually objectifies the female body.",["Tylka & Hill, 2004"]]]},{"de":[["sentiment analysis and topic modelling are key techniques currently used for hate speech detection from unstructured textual social media data extracts",[]]],"rt":[["emotion analysis",[]]]},{"sy":[["valence score",[]]]},{"sy":[["valence score",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Future research needs to examine which time lags exhibit the most reliable agenda setting relationships while still giving candidate and media enough time to establish complete agendas.",[]],["The statistical evidence for an agenda setting relationship between April and May indicates that Kaine temporarily dropped debates from his strategy agenda in response to Kilgore's refusal to add it to his agenda.",[]],["Kilgore displayed an agenda setting effect on Kaine's audience agenda in these early months of the campaign.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["agenda setting has evolved from a hypothesis about media effects on the public to a research paradigm that examines the transfer of salience at all levels of political discourse.",[]]],"sb":[["Intermedia and intercandidate agenda setting",[]]]},{"de":[["Lewin labeled gatekeepers as those who control what information is included in media content.",[]]]},{"de":[["He particularly encouraged study of how reporters' sources use \"information subsidies,\" or attempts to make favorable information \"available at something less than the cost a user would face in the absence of the subsidy\" (p. 61).",[]],["influence of information subsidies by identifying the sources that put a particular issue on the media agenda.",[]],["influence of information subsidies on media agendas.",[]],["information subsidies from official government sources and a Presidential hopeful seemed to push the issue into a more prominent spot on the media agenda.",[]],["research on information subsidies provided by political campaigns to media outlets confirms that this strategy is successful, although the extent of that success varies among different election contexts.",[]],["Generally, past research indicates that a fairly high amount (at least half) of candidate information subsides will inspire stories in the news media, and that there tends to be a high correlation between candidate and media agendas.",[]],["influences of candidate information subsidies on media agendas",[]]],"ex":[["Gandy examined how Ronald Reagan's staff effectively kept Reagan's budget initiatives on the press agenda by continually releasing new statistics interpreted to indicate the need for economic policy changes. These releases were information subsidies, in that they presented seemingly newsworthy, easy to use information that favored Reagan's economic agenda.",[]]]},{"de":[["the agenda tends to be similar for various media outlets, that print media tend to influence television, and that certain media outlets, especially The New York Times, have particularly strong agenda setting power.",[]],["Virginia newspapers exhibited intermedia agenda setting effects on each other.",[]],["agenda setting effects between various media outlets",[]]]},{"de":[["those policy issues deemed important by media outlets, members of the public, or policy makers",[]]]},{"de":[["coverage of both the campaign strategies and of the media coverage itself",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Political advertising is an example of controlled media rather than information subsidies",[]],["its primary function is to take the candidate's message directly to the public",["Kaid, 2004"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["explaining how media practices shape the representation of vulnerable groups",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["explaining how media practices shape the representation of vulnerable groups",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["This is often implemented with a deliberative choice of birth cohorts based on assumed formative media settings in media users' youth (Bolin 2016), despite that it flattens the perspective on media generations since generation as actuality is projected onto generation as location.",["Bolin 2016"]]]},{"rt":[["shared media experience",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["They are an invaluable method for approaching media use in the lifeworld and how it changes over time.",[]]],"rt":[["biographical interviews",[]]],"sb":[["stability and change of 'generation units' in the life course",[]],["patterns of media use in the family and with social peers",[]],["nostalgia for media technologies and the anxiety for cherished technologies to disappear",[]],["upheavals in the biography and life events important for changes in media use (coming-of-age, first own household, caesura in professional life, marriage, children, divorce, retirement)",[]]]},{"de":[["The idea of distinct media generations is frequently discussed in the research literature about elderly media users.",[]],["understand media generations in the sense of ageing as an ongoing process rather than in the sense of the completed status of being old",[]]],"rt":[["generation as location and actuality",[]],["generation as unit",[]]]},{"de":[["Also Gamson and Modigliani (1989: 3) stress that framing is \"central organizing idea…for making sense of relevant events, suggesting what is at issue.\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["This type of media outcomes polarize people, escalate conflict, otherize distinct group (s) of society as 'them' and dehumanize, demonize 'other' easily.",[]]]},{"rt":[["peace/conflict journalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]],"ex":[["For instance, the model might analyze the connection between civil rights and the death penalty, recognizing how opinions on one issue might influence or correlate with opinions on the other.",[]]]},{"de":[["It delves into the full context of an Arabic sentence to discern whether the author's stance is supportive, opposing, or neutral regarding the embedded topic.",[]]],"rt":[["opinion mining",[]]],"sb":[["Target-specific",[]],["Multi-related targets",[]],["Cross-target",[]],["Target-independent",[]]],"sp":[["opinion mining",[]]],"ex":[["For example, the tweet \"Handguns should be banned in the US\" illustrates a supportive stance on gun control.",[]]]},{"de":[["This method does not rely on predefined targets but instead evaluates stances based on the context of the discussion.",[]]],"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{"de":[["For example, it identifies opinions related to particular issues like civil rights, where the stance is evaluated directly against a clearly defined subject.",[]]],"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]],"ex":[["For example, it identifies opinions related to particular issues like civil rights, where the stance is evaluated directly against a clearly defined subject.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["undermines democracy by distorting how the public interprets and understands information about important societal issues",["Farhall, et al (2019)"]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["By this definition, fake news encompasses content that is both verifiably false and deliberately produced for monetary and/or ideological gain.",["Alcott and Gentzkow 2017","Bakir and McStay 2017"]],["Prior to Trump's election, it was understood as political satires, parodies, and news propaganda",["Baym 2005"]],["A broader definition would, however, situate fake news within the larger context of misinformation (i.e. the inadvertent sharing of false information), and disinformation (the deliberate distortion of facts and/or presentation of fabricated stories)",["Wardle 2017","Wardle and Derakshan 2017"]],["conceptualise fake news within a broader context of misinformation and disinformation",[]],["the 'fake news' label becomes an effective rhetorical device for asserting their own positions on the topic of people seeking asylum",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["fake news as a genre",["Egelhofer and Lecheler 2019"]],["fake news as a label",["Egelhofer and Lecheler 2019"]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["fake news",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The agenda, whether a media agenda or a public agenda, is a hierarchy because the included topics do not all bear the same weight.",[]],["The agenda, whether a media agenda or a public agenda, is a hierarchy because the included topics do not all bear the same weight. Some receive considerable attention, others much less.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["pirtza",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The first evaluates the trustworthiness of the sources where the news appears and spreads based on its authors and publishers",[]],["The second evaluates the trustworthiness of the sources where the news appears and propagates based on the social media users involved",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["content-based",[]],["context-based",[]],["propagation-based",[]]]},{"de":[["These methods detect fake news by analyzing the differences in the propagation structures of fake and real news on social media platforms.",[]]],"sb":[["Static graph-based detection",[]],["Dynamic graph-based detection",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Media has been used for decades as a tool to direct the attention of its consumers towards a certain topic and distract them from other ones.",[]]]},{"de":[["the media can be privately or publicly owned. Additionally, in the Authoritarian media system, media is used more to maintain the status quo rather than to bring change.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the main role of the media is to act as a 'watchdog' by keeping the state powers in check.",[]]]},{"de":[["When we think of media, what comes mostly to our minds are the old traditional forms of media such as radio, TV, and newspaper, however with modernization, new forms of media have emerged such as digital and social media.",[]]],"ex":[["radio, TV, and newspaper",[]],["digital and social media",[]]]},{"de":[["Usage of propaganda is seen in times of war, or if we recall the authoritarian regimes of the 20 th century, however, it remains alive and well even in modern and democratic societies.",[]]],"ex":[["usage of commercials during election times or the biased news coverage.",[]]]},{"de":[["This theory does not make the assumption that anyone can use the media like the Libertarians, instead, they argue for the importance of professionals.",[]],["highlights the importance of media professionalism and code of conduct.",[]]]},{"de":[["The role of the media in this case is to serve as a tool of the ruling party to bring change.",[]],["the media tends to report less negatively about the regime, while criticizing democracies.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the goal of fake news is to exploit consumers' pre-existing cognitive biases.",["Gelfert, 2018, p. 1"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news is crucial phenomenon since it contributes to the formation of our \"real\" world through the constant consumption of media products that present their interpretation of reality.",[]],["this conceptualization of fake news emphasizes, on the one hand, that this information formally imitates media content and, on the other hand, that it has not been produced following the same processes or with the same intention as news produced by the media",["Miró-Llinares & Aguerri, 2021, p. 5"]],["Fake news is usually associated with freshly emerging, time-critical events, or hot topics in order to attract the attention of internet users, and this content may not have been thoroughly vetted by existing knowledge bases due to a lack of confirming evidence or assertions",["Shu et al., 2017","Zhang & Ghorbani, 2020"]],["Newsmakers frequently communicate their thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and sentiments through fake news.",[]],["To make their news more persuasive, authors frequently express strong positive or negative emotions in the text body",["Devitt & Ahmad, 2007"]],["the vocabulary employed by fake news is more formal and simpler in terms of details and production techniques, not just in article headlines but also throughout the content",["Horne & Adali 2017"]],["Fake news producers regard certain aspects, such as straightforward and stunning messages, appealing headlines that appeal to the audience's emotions, and clickbait, as important for multiple disclosures.",[]],["the most commonly used words in discovered fake news, such as \"sex\", \"death\", \"corruption\", \"illegal\", \"alien\", or \"lies\", refer to dramatic or scandalous content",["Budak 2019"]],["Conscious intent to deceive or mislead. The intentions of content creators are malicious.",[]],["The fundamental purpose of fake news is to become viral (Rini 2017) and generate a large number of reactions, including views, likes, reposts, and debates.",["Rini 2017"]],["fake news is directed at a specific part of society, thus the content must relate to the values and attitudes of that target group in order to be noticed.",[]],["Fake news takes the form of true news and refers to freshly developing, time-critical events or hot topics in order to attract the audience's attention.",[]],["Fake news, viral or not, has a short lifespan.",[]],["Fake news is manufactured and circulated for selfish reasons, since the author seeks to fool the audience.",[]],["The primary purpose of any fake news is to become viral and generate a lot of reactions (views, likes, reposts, etc.).",[]],["Fake news may exploit customers' innate cognitive biases.",[]],["Fake news has also been defined as the alteration of real photographs or videos to create a misleading narrative.",[]],["Fake news headlines are typically inaccurate and outrageous, with exaggeration, sensationalism, and even violence as prevalent themes.",[]],["Fake news multiply rapidly and act as narratives that omit or add information to facts.",[]],["Fake news is \"a catch-all term with multiple definitions\"",["Lilleker, 2017, p. 1"]]],"sy":[["Altered truths",["Shrivastava et al., 2020"]],["bogus information",["Rini (2017)"]]],"rt":[["information overload",[]],["social media",[]],["disinformation",[]],["non-physical content",[]],["journalistic errors",[]],["satire",[]],["parody",[]],["misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["partially produced fake news",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["Fake news is made-up news, manipulated to look like credible journalistic reports that are designed to deceive us",["Brennen (2017, p. 180)"]],["Information that is knowingly false, erroneous, or deceptive and that is intended to hurt the public or be profitable",["HLEG, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["a type of misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["present the concept of \"non-physical content\" as the core kernel of fake news",["Zhang & Ghorbani (2020)"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Post-truth era has emerged, characterized by the intersection of sometimes opposing ideas, perceptions, and techniques.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["other types of journalistic genres",[]]]},{"de":[["Social media is widely regarded as an essential channel for disseminating news and user-generated material, among other types of information.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter are the main platforms used for information dissemination.",["Nielsen (2016)","Vosoughi et al. (2018)"]]]},{"sb":[["Intrinsic information quality",[]],["Contextual information quality",[]],["representational information quality",[]]]},{"de":[["It enhances relevance and timeliness of information.",[]]],"sp":[["clarity",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["clarity",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["opinion leaders",[]],["opinion followers",[]]]},{"de":[["It improves reading ease and interpretability",["17","18"]]],"sp":[["clarity",[]]]},{"de":[["Despite being unverified however, rumors can be used by social media users to make sense of uncertain situations",["1"]],["As they ripple across the cyberspace, rumors engender misunderstanding and strike panic.",[]]],"rt":[["rumor corrections",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["mantenía que el modo en que la gente ve el mundo está influido de una manera directa y mensurable por los medios de comunicación",["McCombs y Evatt, 1995"]]]},{"de":[["Linguistic assimilation usually consisted of inserting the words \"is,\" \"is as,\" \"as,\" or \"it's\" or noise.",[]]],"rt":[["levelling",[]],["sharpening",[]],["leveling",[]]]},{"sy":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["previous theory of rumor argueing a transmission in three steps",[]]],"sb":[["levelling",[]],["sharpening",[]],["assimiliation",[]],["assimilation",[]]]},{"sp":[["assimilation",[]]]},{"de":[["A rumour can be interpreted as a speech act but with transmission patterns.",[]],["rumours are a communication strategy similar to speech acts [30,31].",["30","31"]],["rumours can evolve in the same way that language evolves",[]],["rumours can spread with a combination of features that are not found in existing platforms",[]],["largely disseminated in natural language (as a speech act) whereby they seem to have lexically no specific genre, and have a propagation with a certain resilience and assimilation process",[]],["Rumour analysis, being a psycho-social phenomenon",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]],"rt":[["rumour discourse",[]],["rumour lifecycle",[]]],"sb":[["hoaxes, jokes, little stories or information leaks",["24","25","26"]],["early reports during breaking news lacking enough support or evidence",[]],["computer virus alerts, superstitious chains, solidarity chains, petitions, hoaxes, urban legends, fun stories and funny photos/pictures",[]],["urban legends, commercial disinformation, political attacks, commercial offer attacks, false commercial offers, financial disinformation, defamation, loss of credibility operations and panic alert to induce terror",[]],["computer virus alerts",[]],["superstitious chains",[]],["solidarity chains",[]],["petitions",[]],["hoaxes",["24","25","26"]],["urban legends",[]],["fun stories",[]],["funny photos/pictures",[]],["commercial disinformation",[]],["political attacks",[]],["commercial offer attacks",[]],["false commercial offers",[]],["financial disinformation",[]],["defamation",[]],["loss of credibility operations",[]],["panic alert to induce terror",[]]],"ex":[["the urban legend \"rue des Marmousets\" in Paris where a barber and a pastry chef made cake trade based on human flesh in XVth century",["5"]],["the disappearance of young girls in fitting rooms inside Jewish shops in the town of Orleans (France) in 1969",["5"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["levelling",[]],["assimilation",[]],["leveling",[]]]},{"ex":[["opposition to murder is uncontroversial while opposition to euthanasia is controversial.",[]],["opposition to murder is uncontroversial while opposition to euthanasia is controversial",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a rank of 0 means the given value was the least influential and a rank of 11 means the value was the most influential",[]],["a rank of 0 means the given value was the least influential and a rank of 11 means the value was the most influential.",[]]]},{"de":[["Nonetheless, expect less topic consistency than paraphrase consistency; e.g., one might morally, but not legally, oppose euthanasia.",[]]],"ex":[["answering \"yes\" to the question \"Do you think that euthanasia is morally acceptable?\" often entails the same to \"Do you believe that euthanasia should be legalized?\"",[]]]},{"de":[["We formalize such steerability, or value change, as the average effect of a limited set of values, (e.g. Schwartz (2012), thus v ∈ V Schwartz ), comparing when we prompt a model with and without a specific value.",[]]],"sy":[["value change",[]]]},{"de":[["Public attention to emerging topics decays over time or suffers the so called memory buoyancy from users",[]]]},{"de":[["stimulates the reader's curiosity by creating a cognitive gap that needs to be filled between what we already recognize and what we would like to recognize",["1"]],["appears in different forms, ranging from partial facts, exaggerated headlines, and catchy wordings",["2"]],["clogs up social media and news feeds while also violating journalistic codes of ethics",["4"]],["Clickbait appears in different forms, ranging from partial facts, exaggerated headlines, and catchy wordings [2] to enticing advertisements, and misinformation campaigns [3].",["2","3"]]],"ex":[["partial facts",["2"]],["exaggerated headlines",["2"]],["catchy wordings",["2"]],["enticing advertisements",["3"]],["misinformation campaigns",["3"]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["promoting a socially accepted image",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Although denialism can take different forms, it involves primarily the presentation of fabricated or distorted evidence to negate historical events or to deny scientific discoveries.",[]],["Denialistic views often spread when various parties with vested interests related to contrarian alternatives coordinate communication campaigns, whilst appearing to be independent entities.",[]],["The aim is to manipulate public opinion through the dissemination of rumors and misinformation in order to support specific political, social, or corporate agendas (also known as astroturfing; Ratkiewicz et al. 2011).",["Ratkiewicz et al. 2011"]],["Since the underlying motivation of denialists is to influence public policy, an upsurge in the vigor and intensity of the denialist rhetoric in the public sphere can often be observed when a new scientific issue enters the political debate (Ceccarelli, 2011).",["Ceccarelli, 2011"]],["Denialism is not an entirely new communication strategy (Festinger, 1962), but the explosive growth of digital media and the resulting accelerated pace and diffusion of information have amplified its impact.",["Festinger, 1962"]],["First, we discuss the concept of denialism, an irrational cognitive process that leads to the refusal to accept an empirically verifiable reality (O'Shea, 2008).",["O'Shea, 2008"]]],"rt":[["rhetorical tactics of denialism",[]],["astroturfing",["Ratkiewicz et al. 2011"]]],"sb":[["Historical denial",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Such tactics include promoting a socially accepted image, exploitation of a healthy lifestyle, using experts and celebrity influencers, selectively using or omitting facts, exploiting regulatory loopholes and sponsoring research and pseudo-science",[]]],"ex":[["promoting a socially accepted image",[]],["associating brands with a healthy lifestyle",[]],["use of experts",[]],["working with celebrity influencers",[]],["selectively using and omitting facts",[]],["sponsoring research and pseudo-science",[]],["exploiting regulatory loopholes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["fake news lacks the editorial norms and processes that ensure the accuracy and credibility of the information",[]],["Fake news tends to spread like wildfire on digital and social media channels due to the sensationalism of the claims",[]],["As such, fake news lacks the editorial norms and processes that ensure the accuracy and credibility of the information.",[]]]},{"ex":[["the nicotine and tars trapped in the Viceroy filter can never stain your teeth",[]]]},{"de":[["These solutions are often detrimental to more sustainable and long-term weight reduction and, in some cases, to dieters' health and safety",["Bellows and Moore, 2013"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Denialism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["this approach obstructs scientific discovery and progress (Specter, 2009) and delays important public policy decisions.",[]]]},{"ex":[["the new and improved Marlboro filter",[]]]},{},{"de":[["By omitting knowledge and casting the blame of undesirable consequences towards other factors, this practice contributes to truth decay",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["disinformation is content put in the wrong context and imposter, manipulated, or fabricated content",["63"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["people need to be able to understand where a piece of information comes from.",[]],["the intention and background of a source should be made transparent.",[]]]},{"de":[["This involves verifying a claim and the skill to look for a second source for a claim.",[]],["skills like skimming an article and identifying the central arguments and statistics worth checking",[]]]},{"sp":[["Providing Evidence",[]]],"ex":[["POLSCI-3 cites Wikipedia as a model for providing sources for claims.",[]]]},{"de":[["The interviewees distinguished between labels for news sources and labels for content.",[]]],"sb":[["labels for news sources",[]],["labels for news articles",[]],["labels for content",[]]]},{"de":[["PSY-2 believes labeling content like tweets as potentially suspicious could motivate people to investigate whether the information is actually true.",[]]],"sp":[["Labeling Misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["LAW-2 and PSY-2 envision a database of websites that have been proven to misinform people. Other interviewees advocate highlighting reliable sources (COM-3) and high-quality sources (COM-2).",[]]],"sp":[["Labeling Misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["false and misleading information that is shared intentionally or unintentionally",[]],["include both false and misleading information that is shared intentionally or unintentionally",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["false information",[]],["false connections",[]],["misleading content",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["The interventions can help individuals to identify misinformation themselves.",[]]],"sp":[["Phase Model of Misinformation Interventions",[]]]},{"de":[["Solutions for Phase 3 are, again, focused on long-term effects.",[]]],"sp":[["Phase Model of Misinformation Interventions",[]]]},{"de":[["This model can help practitioners decide what solutions against misinformation they should implement.",[]],["we believe that when fighting misinformation, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Interventions against misinformation are like the Swiss cheese model [50]: each intervention has weaknesses, but when layered together, they dramatically cut down on the failure rate.",[]],["Figure 2 illustrates the Phase Model of Misinformation Interventions and the three phases: before misinformation is created (Phase 1), before misinformation is identified (Phase 2), and after misinformation is identified (Phase 3).",[]],["The distinction between Phase 2 and Phase 3 is necessary because a lot of misinformation remains undetected [8] and because the identification of misinformation lags behind the creation of misinformation, typically by 10 to 20 hours [55].",["8","55"]]],"sb":[["before misinformation is created (Phase 1)",[]],["before misinformation is identified (Phase 2)",[]],["after misinformation is identified (Phase 3)",[]],["Phase 1",[]],["Phase 2",[]],["Phase 3",[]]],"ex":[["Promoting Media Literacy, for instance, is helpful for any of the three phases. However, in practice, we believe it is most effective for the setting right before misinformation is created. We, therefore, assigned it to Phase 1.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Finding Sources For Claims",[]]]},{"de":[["using multiple sources to verify a claim is important in journalistic practice.",[]],["comparing different accounts and sources",[]]]},{"de":[["we adopt the definition that a comment is abusive if it contains some kind of hate speech and otherwise clean.",[]]],"rt":[["Hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["Hate speeches",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hate speech is more general and not necessarilypracticed electronically among children andaimed at a specific person.",[]]]},{"de":[["Hate speech is a form of discrimination that is identified and used as the basis for unfair manifests verbally or in writing.",[]]],"rt":[["Hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["hate speech",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["The speech of hatred refers to words that tend to insult, intimidate or harass people because of their race, color, ethnicity, nationality, sex or religion, or who have the ability to instigate violence, hate or discrimination against such persons.",[]]],"rt":[["hate",[]],["cyberbullying",[]],["abusive language",[]],["discrimination",[]],["profanity",[]],["toxicity",[]],["Hateful conduct",[]]],"sp":[["Discrimination",[]],["Abusive language",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Training on books can exacerbate this problem as they have been shown to perpetuate outdated social norms, influencing representations of gender in children's literature and movies (Toro Isaza et al., 2023;Gooden and Gooden, 2001;Xu et al., 2019), reinforcing antisemitic ideas (Tripodi et al., 2019), and sustaining negative African American stereotypes (Kocyigit et al., 2023).",["Toro Isaza et al., 2023","Gooden and Gooden, 2001","Xu et al., 2019","Tripodi et al., 2019","Kocyigit et al., 2023"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["These temporal shifts introduce biases, known as temporal concept drifts, into LLM training processes (Zhao et al., 2022), which impact tasks such as rumor detection (Mu et al., 2023), abusive language detection (Jin et al., 2023), first story detection (Wurzer and Qin, 2020), and creative writing (Hoque et al., 2022).",["Zhao et al., 2022","Mu et al., 2023","Jin et al., 2023","Wurzer and Qin, 2020","Hoque et al., 2022"]]]},{"de":[["introduce biases, known as temporal concept drifts, into LLM training processes",["Zhao et al., 2022"]]],"rt":[["temporal concept drifts",[]]]},{"de":[["the mere presence of offensive words or language does not constitute \"hate speech\" since the use of such language is characteristic to many groups and is also quite prevalent in popular culture.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["we measure the salience of an issue by calculating the average relative daily attention that different groups of the public paid to each political issue.",[]]],"rt":[["salience",[]]]},{},{"de":[["whether politicians also follow constituents' issue preferences and priorities on the policies they implement",[]],["Existing responsiveness research in the United States studies how the issues discussed by Federal political elites are shaped by public issue and policy preferences",[]]]},{"sy":[["centrist opinion",[]]]},{},{"de":[["erosion of a student's authorial voice and linguistic fingerprint",["2"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["LLMs alone are prone to hallucinations and provide unreliable information in specialized domains like medicine.",[]],["hallucinating false information (e.g., incorrect page numbers)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It centralizes knowledge production and enunciation, perpetuates global inequities, and exploits data and labour from the Global South.",["Cambraia & Pyrrho, 2025"]]]},{"de":[["categorises AI use from the ethically sound (such as refining grammar, improving readability, and translating text with human verification) to the ethically contingent, including generating outlines or brainstorming ideas, but only when based on substantial human-provided input and critical steering",["Cheng et al., 2025"]],["This framework categorises AI use from the ethically sound (such as refining grammar, improving readability, and translating text with human verification) to the ethically contingent, including generating outlines or brainstorming ideas, but only when based on substantial human-provided input and critical steering (Cheng et al., 2025).",["Cheng et al., 2025"]]]},{"de":[["The proposed approach did not address one of the important aspects which is the fake news explainability (De Magistris, Russo, Roma, Starczewski, & Napoli, 2022), that is, Why the news is classified as counterfeit remains a critical question.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Stance detection was identified as the basic step to detect the news is fake or real.",[]],["In this module, it is determined whether the summary and the news headline are similar.",[]]]},{"de":[["they encapsulate facets of popular entertainment, political moods, and novel elements of humor.",[]],["encapsulate facets of popular entertainment, political moods, and novel elements of humor",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["bots",[]]]},{"de":[["The European Commission's report prefers 'disinformation'",["Directorate-General for Communication Networks, Content and Technology, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["It may follow the media agenda and tries to distort and manipulate the truth",["Canavilhas et al., 2019","Rini, 2017"]],["Fake is associated with imitating the real",["Fallis & Mathiesen, 2019","Gelfert, 2018"]],["Fake news seeks legitimacy by imitating the real to manipulate the news consumer",["Blokhin & Ilchenko, 2015","Lazer et al., 2018","Levy, 2017"]],["The purpose of its creation is to deceive or manipulate a specific audience.",[]],["Fake news has a specific format. This format imitates a news article or report to acquire credibility.",[]],["It has an opportunistic structure, such as title, image, and content.",[]],["The structure of the content attracts consumers of news.",[]],["Fake news can persuade consumers to believe in falsehoods to engage users in the content for articles to obtain and shares.",[]],["Therefore, in the end, the reward for fake news is higher advertising revenue, ideological gain, or both.",[]],["The typical attributes of fake news are that it spreads fast, is doctored, is incorrect, is sensational, is intentional, is unverified, and goes viral.",[]],["bots keep telling fake news that is trending on the Internet; however, they never testify to the facts of the news.",[]],["bots use the same pieces of false information to reply to the postings of real social media users.",[]],["They supported fake news. It fostered disbelief in real news and distracted voters from facts.",["Reuters Staff, 2019"]],["fake news finds synergy with conflict zones of India in which some forces are using it to perpetuate divisions such as caste, gender, class, language, and regional differences",[]],["The purpose of its creation is to deceive or manipulate a specific audience. Fake news has a specific format. This format imitates a news article or report to acquire credibility. It has an opportunistic structure, such as title, image, and content. The structure of the content attracts consumers of news. Fake news can persuade consumers to believe in falsehoods to engage users in the content for articles to obtain and shares. Therefore, in the end, the reward for fake news is higher advertising revenue, ideological gain, or both.",[]]],"sy":[["false information",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["echo-chamber effect",[]]]},{"sy":[["echo-chamber effect",[]]]},{"de":[["They select and deliver the advertisements users will most likely react to positively.",[]]]},{"de":[["Therefore, these popularity indexes are more likely to will attract more people to news and get more likes, shares, and comments",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They interact with other users and share information and messages (Morstatter et al., 2016).",[]],["On social media, bots are capable of several social interactions.",[]],["These make them appear to be regular human-like people.",[]],["They respond to postings.",[]],["They respond to questions from other users.",[]],["They can search for influential users on a particular social media platform.",[]],["Politicians share fake news using the opportunities of social bots, which, though not able to distinguish like the human brain, have the potential to identify what is trending and share the same with a broader audience.",[]],["the majority of bots in the mainstay of the digital political communication landscape in India spread the news on caste, religion, and Hindutva.",[]],["On social media, bots are capable of several social interactions. These make them appear to be regular human-like people. They respond to postings. They respond to questions from other users. They can search for influential users on a particular social media platform.",[]]],"sy":[["bots",[]],["automated social media accounts",[]],["automated accounts",[]]],"rt":[["manipulative technologies",[]]],"sp":[["bots",[]]]},{"de":[["They behave autonomously, independent of a human actor and are primarily used in unfair and despicable ways.",[]],["Many social media bots do not communicate using language at all.",[]],["A single person can manage several bots.",[]],["They behave autonomously, independent of a human actor and are primarily used in unfair and despicable ways. Many social media bots do not communicate using language at all. They perform interactions such as \"following\" and \"likes.\" A single person can manage several bots.",[]]]},{"de":[["Trolls perpetuate fake news. It is their primary mechanism to sustain false information.",[]],["Attacking a perceived enemy by any means forms their only purpose in cyberspace.",[]],["Trolls insult and name-call their opponents.",[]],["Targeting public figures to undermine their public visibility, trolls can take drastic measures if they do not like an idea that one holds.",[]],["Constantly harassing people who align with an opposite ideology, trolls negate the spirit of democracy.",[]],["Political trolls operate through social divides. They support and promote fake news stories that they ideologically align with.",[]],["Trolls are often vicious in their comments and get other regular users to be wicked, too, making cruelty and disinformation a normal part of the online experience.",[]],["That is how trolls turn fake news into truth for ordinary social media users.",[]],["This research found home-grown varieties of trolls in India",[]]],"sb":[["Political trolls",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["NATURALNESS",[]]],"sp":[["newsworthiness (news value)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Framing analysis can be seen as part of critical discourse analysis, as it reveals \"the way in which content of the text is presented to its audience, and the sort of perspective, angle and slant the writer or speaker is taking. Related to this is what is foregrounded and what is backgrounded in the text; that is, what the author has chosen to emphasize or de-emphasize\"",["Paltridge 2013: 100"]],["Media framing is a process that leads news readers to accept one meaning over another, or provides a consistent, even though simplified or biased, understanding of an issue.",[]],["Framing analysis can be seen as part of critical discourse analysis, as it reveals \"the way in which content of the text is presented to its audience, and the sort of perspective, angle and slant the writer or speaker is taking. Related to this is what is foregrounded and what is backgrounded in the text; that is, what the author has chosen to emphasize or de-emphasize\" (Paltridge 2013: 100).",["Paltridge 2013: 100"]]],"sy":[["Media framing",[]]],"rt":[["Media framing is a process that leads news readers to accept one meaning over another, or provides a consistent, even though simplified or biased, understanding of an issue.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["newsworthiness (news value)",[]]]},{"de":[["negativity (i.e., negative aspects of events), timeliness (i.e., temporal relevance), proximity (i.e., geographical/cultural nearness), prominence (i.e., status/eliteness), consonance (i.e., alignment with expectations/stereotypes), impact (i.e., effects), novelty (i.e., newness/unexpectedness), superlativeness (i.e., large scale/ scope/intensity), and personalization (i.e., human aspects)",[]]]},{"sy":[["news value",[]]]},{"de":[["novelty in biomedical coverage is framed as more significant, as it carries a promise of saved lives and cured populations.",[]]],"sp":[["newsworthiness (news value)",[]]]},{"sp":[["newsworthiness (news value)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Science journalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["newsworthiness (news value)",[]]]},{"sp":[["newsworthiness (news value)",[]]]},{"de":[["popular science reporting includes foregrounding perspectives, representations or features of science considered by science editors to be attractive for audiences.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["representations of timeliness (recent events or future developments).",[]]],"sp":[["newsworthiness (news value)",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["defense motivation",[]],["impression motivation",[]]]},{"rt":[["deliberate motivations",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals might engage in selective exposure and attention where they selectively access and attend to (mis)information that is consistent with their prior belief and avoid information that contradicts it",["Guess et al., 2018","Hart et al., 2009","Knobloch-Westerwick and Meng, 2009"]]]},{},{"de":[["Biased perception represents another group of strategies that are frequently employed in response to corrections.",[]]],"ex":[["source derogation, which involves questioning the credibility and/or expertise of the source of counterattitudinal information",["Cameron et al., 2002","Zhou and Shen, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["The ultimate manifestation of resistance lies in the boomerang or backfire effect",[]]],"sy":[["backfire effect",[]]]},{"de":[["targets manipulation tactics employed in the production of misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the tendency to be unaware that one's choices and preferences have been changed or manipulated after the decision is already made.",[]],["When people have formed their positions and opinions based on misinformation, more or less due to manipulations, choice blindness means they tend to rationalize and justify this manipulated decision and adjust their attitudes to align with the misinformation",["Stille et al., 2017"]]],"rt":[["Epistemic egocentrism",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive fallacies",[]]]},{"sb":[["balance theory",[]],["congruity theory",[]],["cognitive dissonance theory",[]]]},{"de":[["As the ratio of dissonant to consonant cognitions and the importance of dissonant elements increase, individuals experience greater cognitive dissonance and greater motivation to reduce it.",["Festinger, 1957"]]],"sp":[["cognitive consistency theories",[]]]},{"de":[["Cognitive fallacies are distinct from the motivations and can occur absent any motivations.",[]]],"rt":[["epistemic egocentrism",[]]],"sb":[["epistemic egocentrism",[]],["choice blindness",[]],["confirmation bias",[]],["illusory correlation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["can be considered a special case of epistemic egocentrism.",[]],["leading misinformation-believing individuals to reject correction regardless of their involvement",["Zhou and Shen, 2022"]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]],"sb":[["selective exposure",[]]],"sp":[["epistemic egocentrism",["Royzman et al., 2003"]],["cognitive fallacies",[]]]},{"sp":[["Cognitive consistency theories",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["value motivation",[]],["truth motivation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Associated with value-relevant involvement where a person's attitude is primarily linked to one's selfidentity and values, defense motivation drives people to process information in ways that preserve their self-definition and -concept.",[]]],"rt":[["Accuracy motivation",[]],["impression motivation",[]]]},{"rt":[["automatic motivations",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["This tendency means that people have a hard time adopting viewpoints that are not their own and struggle to process and understand counterattitudinal information, such as corrective information",["Shen and Zhou, 2021"]],["Epistemic egocentrism leads people to ( 1) look inward to examine their own thoughts and inner states such as emotions, preexisting judgments, and perceptions, (2) (incorrectly) believe they fully understand the roots of their inner states, but (3) assume that other people's introspections are largely unreliable.",[]]],"rt":[["Choice blindness",[]]],"sb":[["confirmation bias",[]]],"sp":[["perspective-taking failure",[]],["cognitive fallacies",[]]]},{"sp":[["Inoculation",[]]]},{"de":[["Often co-occurring with confirmation bias and selective exposure is another cognitive fallacy, illusory correlation.",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive fallacies",[]]],"ex":[["The (mis)belief in the MMR vaccineautism link and the (mis)belief that the influenza vaccine gives one the flu are good examples of illusory correlation.",[]],["The (mis)belief in the MMR vaccineautism link and the (mis)belief that the influenza vaccine gives one the flu",[]]]},{"de":[["It corresponds with impression-relevant involvement that highlights the selfpresentational and social-relational consequences of one's expressed attitudes. When impression-motivated, people engage in processing strategies that yield conclusions that enable social acceptance.",[]]]},{"de":[["offers an umbrella or blanket of protection",[]],["may even offer cross-protection such that its protection spillover from one topic to other related topics",[]],["confer resistance",[]],["mitigate the impact and persistence of misinformation",[]]],"sb":[["forewarning message",[]],["refutational preemption treatment",[]]]},{"sp":[["Social judgment theory",[]]]},{"sp":[["Social judgment theory",[]]]},{"de":[["The defining characteristic of misinformation lies in its (lack of) truth value: Information that is inaccurate, incomplete, misleading, or false information as well as selective and halftruths.",[]],["Misinformation, in its broadest sense, encompasses \"any information that is demonstrably false or otherwise misleading, regardless of its source or intention\" (van der Linden et al., 2023, p. 7).",["van der Linden et al., 2023"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["selective and halftruths",[]]]},{"sp":[["Social judgment theory",[]]]},{"de":[["a bias termed objectivity illusion",["Schwalbe et al., 2020"]]],"sp":[["cognitive fallacies",[]]]},{"rt":[["inoculation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which is known to trigger reactance (Brehm, 1966)",["Brehm, 1966"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Inoculation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["When corrective information is difficult to refute, individuals resort to relative weighting",[]]]},{"de":[["One consequence of confirmation bias is selective exposure",[]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive fallacies",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["social judgment theory suggests that the size of the latitude varies based on the level of ego involvement.",[]]],"sb":[["latitude of acceptance",[]],["latitude of rejection",[]],["non-commitment",[]]]},{"de":[["This can be reflected as, for example, source derogation",[]]]},{"rt":[["value motivation",[]],["Control motivation",[]]]},{"rt":[["Control motivation",[]],["truth motivation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They optimize their interests through exploiting information asymmetry",["46"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["They have a subconscious desire to be viewed positively [13,14].",["13","14","13,14"]],["During interactions, individuals actively manage and construct their positive image to influence others' perceptions.",[]],["They have a subconscious desire to be viewed positively",["13","14"]]]},{"de":[["This strategy enhances the overall tone, making the disclosed information more optimistic",["29"]]]},{"de":[["For reasons such as attracting readers, pursuing commercial interests, or other motives, they may produce biased media sentiment.",[]],["The larger the Slant, the more optimistic the media slant.",[]]],"sy":[["Slant",[]]],"rt":[["reporting bias",[]]]},{"de":[["The larger the Slant, the more optimistic the media slant.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is primarily manifested in two ways [118].",["118"]],["The first way is through optimistic psychological expectations. This means overestimating the likelihood of favorable outcomes.",[]],["The second way is the overestimation of one's abilities. This involves an excessive confidence in the effectiveness and reliability of one's judgment.",[]],["This confidence exists without considering personal bias.",[]],["Overconfidence is a cognitive bias in decision-making.",["119"]],["It is prevalent among corporate managers [119].",["119"]],["This overconfidence epitomizes managers' irrational behavior.",[]],["According to the overconfidence hypothesis and stewardship theory, cognitive biases lead overconfident managers to maintain an optimistic view of the market and the company's prospects [120].",["120"]],["They often overestimate their management skills, underestimate potential risks, and struggle to respond rationally to negative management feedback [121].",["121"]],["It is primarily manifested in two ways",["118"]],["The first way is through optimistic psychological expectations.",[]],["This means overestimating the likelihood of favorable outcomes.",[]],["The second way is the overestimation of one's abilities.",[]],["This involves an excessive confidence in the effectiveness and reliability of one's judgment.",[]],["It is prevalent among corporate managers",["119"]],["It is primarily manifested in two ways [118]. The first way is through optimistic psychological expectations. This means overestimating the likelihood of favorable outcomes. The second way is the overestimation of one's abilities. This involves an excessive confidence in the effectiveness and reliability of one's judgment.",["118"]]],"sy":[["overestimation of one's abilities",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive bias",[]]]},{"de":[["From a micro perspective, principal-agent problems can occur between shareholders and management.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This theory in management explains how companies use signaling to address information asymmetry in exchanges.",[]]]},{"de":[["constructed to quantify the emotional tendencies of management",[]],["A larger Tone value indicates a more positive sentiment in the text.",[]]]},{"de":[["Management might manipulate the tone of disclosed information to attract investors. They aim to showcase a promising future and efficient management. This can obscure any unfavorable information. It also masks the real business situation.",[]],["amplify successes of digital transformation through tone manipulation. They also obscure its challenges.",[]],["using tone manipulation to blur negative information and emit positive signals for specific goals.",[]],["The objective is to steer investors toward decisions that benefit management.",[]]]},{"de":[["It reflects the exaggerated emotional tendencies in management's expressions. This is used as a proxy for management's tone manipulation.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["freedom of speech",[]]]},{"de":[["the right of a citizen to freely proclaim their views is seen as self-evident and treated also as a good that should be equally guaranteed to all citizens of a democratic state.",[]],["The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man",[]],["With regard to the freedom of speech, these restrictions appear in the form of ethical self-constraints or legal norms",[]],["in a liberal democracy that freedom of speech is restricted by the ban on speech which would harm other citizens or impinge on the stability of the state",["Rawls, 1993, p. 336"]],["fundamental civil right",[]]],"sy":[["freedom of expression",[]],["free communication of ideas and opinions",[]]],"rt":[["human rights",[]],["political freedoms",[]],["freedom of expression",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The basic principle of totalitarian propaganda is that \"white is black and black is white\". It involves the reversal of the established meaning of concepts and resorting to lies in order to maintain control over individual human minds.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["contemporary politicians who use this special language are not bothered with the truth of their statements, but, instead, they rely on feelings and prejudices to present counter-factual opinions.",[]],["They hope that, due to the media and the Internet, these opinions will be repeated and widely disseminated so that they can achieve their intended goals.",[]],["Their aim, however, is not to create a false worldview, as was the case with old propaganda strategies, but, rather, to establish prejudices.",[]]],"sy":[["posttruth politics",[]]],"ex":[["the last American election campaign",[]],["propaganda speeches in Great Britain before Brexit",[]],["statements made by some Polish politicians, which suggests a plot between the post-communist leaders and the former communist regime",[]],["declarations made by the Russian president, who denied the presence of Russian soldiers in Ukraine during the recent invasion of Crimea",[]]]},{"de":[["This strategy, used predominantly in election campaigns, is supported by the Internet and the spreading of unreliable information.",[]]]},{"de":[["this concept takes on a pejorative connotation; propaganda becomes involved in the relationship between freedom and power",[]],["The destructive propaganda mechanism, however, also influences other spheres of social life, in which concepts that are crucial for the functioning of the community are subjected to manipulation and, as a result, change their meanings",[]],["this political propaganda can be defined in terms of transforming certain ideas into their opposites; the paradigm of propaganda, he argues, is to present biased and subjective intentions as objectively valuable goals",["2015, p. xiii"]],["The goal of propaganda in totalitarian systems is to attain and maintain power by means of language",[]],["propaganda in the democratic world today works in a more subtle way and, by violating the mechanisms of a democratic debate, it destroys the values of the community.",[]],["The functioning of propaganda is currently based on the misuse of the democratic vocabulary towards achieving certain goals for the sake of political manipulators and demagogues.",[]],["propaganda is much more difficult to grasp in a democratic society than in a totalitarian regime, since it often takes on a masked form.",["Stanley, 2015, p. 27"]],["Authoritarian political powers aim to destroy the freedom of the individual by means of language and, in consequence, propaganda makes freedom of speech a meaningless, blank concept.",[]],["It involves imposing on citizens a world-view that falsifies reality and forces them to exhibit particular behaviors.",[]]],"rt":[["totalitarian censorship",[]]],"ex":[["the Catholic Church began to intensively propagate the principles of faith. Under the name of propaganda, the writings of Rome aimed to popularize religious contents among the masses",[]],["the overwhelming propagation of the myth of the imperial power of the British Empire was taking place",[]],["writings of anarchists that popularized the idea of abolishing the state",[]]]},{"de":[["According to him, public political culture creates the basis for a public agreement on the one hand and the conception of political justice on the other.",[]],["distinct from the background culture",[]]]},{"de":[["It manifests mainly in the institutions of a democratic state, but its effective functioning involves a public discussion in which arguments are presented in compliance with some established rules, which facilitates the reaching of an agreement.",["1993, p. 9"]],["its effective functioning involves a public discussion in which arguments are presented in compliance with some established rules, which facilitates the reaching of an agreement.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["aggravated by hostility toward people based on certain protected characteristics",[]]]},{"de":[["the anonymity of the Internet can provide opportunities for freer speech because people can say what they think without fear that other people will react or respond unfavourably simply because of the colour of their skin, their sexual orientation, or even their gender identity",[]],["anonymity-even perceived anonymity-can embolden people to be more outrageous, obnoxious, or hateful in what they say than would be the case in real life",[]]]},{"sy":[["online hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["The content is often uploaded slowly and carefully by people who may have given a great deal of thought to what they are saying, based on a pattern of saying the same thing over time.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the Internet not merely facilitates, but also encourages, instant responses that are by their nature more spontaneous",[]],["some parts of the Internet encourage gut reactions, unconsidered judgments, off-the-cuff remarks, unfiltered commentary, and first thoughts, because they encourage instant responses",[]],["the Internet encourages forms of hate speech that are spontaneous in virtue of the combination of qualities that online communication possesses",[]],["online hate speech has especially harmful effects because it is done in front of larger audiences, thus ramping up the public shame element",[]]],"sy":[["cyberhate",[]]],"rt":[["offline hate speech",[]],["cyberhate",[]]],"sb":[["negative stereotyping",[]],["group defamation",[]],["Holocaust denial",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["content which is deemed to fall foul of the editorial standards never sees the light of day",[]],["codes of practice and editorial guidelines are operated as prior self-restraint",[]]],"sy":[["codes of practice",[]],["editorial guidelines",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the Internet encourages forms of hate speech that are spontaneous in the sense of being instant responses, gut reactions, unconsidered judgments, off-the-cuff remarks, unfiltered commentary, and first thoughts.",[]]]},{"sy":[["abusive language",["Wiegand et al., 2019"]],["toxic language",["Gehman et al., 2020","Hartvigsen et al., 2022","Gehman et al., 2020;Hartvigsen et al., 2022"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["KGs",[]]],"ex":[["Freebase (Bollacker et al., 2008)",["Bollacker et al., 2008"]],["Wikidata (Vrandecic and Krötzsch, 2014)",["Vrandecic and Krötzsch, 2014"]]]}] |