MBDef 1.0.0: Explorer data for exactly the released rows, map and topics made on them
714cbfe verified | [{"sy":[["non-specific authority references",[]]],"rt":[["non-specific authority references",[]]],"sp":[["authority appeal",[]]],"ex":[["Japanese doctors",[]],["advice from a nurse friend",[]]]},{"sp":[["authority appeal",[]]],"ex":[["Factcheck.org",[]],["the CDC",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["second-level agenda-setting",[]]]},{"sp":[["discourse-historical approach (DHA)",[]]]},{"sp":[["legitimation strategies",[]],["framework of legitimation",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["referential strategies",[]],["predicational strategies",[]],["argumentation strategies",[]],["perspectivization strategies",[]]],"sp":[["Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["legitimation strategies",[]],["framework of legitimation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["legitimation strategies",[]],["framework of legitimation",[]]]},{"de":[["mythopoesis is used in the form of personal stories and case studies to illustrate the harms of high bride prices or the bene ts of reform",[]]]},{},{"de":[["positioning these couples as moral exemplars, framing them as role models for the younger generation",[]],["perspectivization strategy that legitimizes the organization's in uence by presenting it as simultaneously authoritative (government-affiliated) and representative (community-based).",[]]],"sp":[["discourse-historical approach (DHA)",[]]]},{"de":[["characterizing rural families with phrases such as \"因婚致贫\" (marriage-induced poverty) and \"因婚返贫\" (poverty caused by marriage), attributing to them the qualities of economic vulnerability and nancial instability directly resulting from bride price demands",[]],["attribute qualities to women that reinforce their objecti cation",[]],["characterizes women in economic terms, reinforcing patriarchal structures by diminishing women's autonomy and positioning them as dependent on marriage for economic security",[]],["describing them as \"隐形资产\" (intangible assets) and \"摇钱树\" (money tree) whose value is measured by the bride price.",[]]],"sp":[["discourse-historical approach (DHA)",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["legitimation strategies",[]],["framework of legitimation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["emphasis on affected groups, frequently mentioning \"贫困家庭\" (impoverished families) and \"低收⼊\" (low-income) households to evoke empathy and moral outrage among readers",[]],["position officials as \"先锋\" (pioneers) challenging outdated customs to promote social stability and economic development",[]]],"sp":[["discourse-historical approach (DHA)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Agenda-setting theory",[]]]},{"sb":[["topos of burden",[]]]},{"sp":[["topoi",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Collaboration among trainees is another positive aspect that must be promoted in terms of interaction since it makes exchange and enrichment of personal experiences and practical examples easier.",[]],["Collaboration is understood by editors-in-chief as a means for boosting the development of more integrated and efficient media systems, particularly when it comes from the need to have better work conditions for journalists and technological supporting tools to perform their roles.",[]],["Collaboration is a key-factor to create advocacy and to sustain part of the media ecosystem.",[]],["the collaboration of journalists with other colleagues working for the same organization and responsible for communication, IT, digital and social media marketing units, as well the collaboration between journalists and partner organisations, which could be other media organizations, schools, education and research organization, but also sponsor or advertisers.",[]],["collaboration (opening up journalistic structures to interaction with other spheres, either other media structures or academia / specialist actors)",[]]]},{"de":[["Another element of continuity refers to the opportunities to foster constructive relations with parallel projects on disinformation that are being carried out/attended by trainees and their employers.",[]],["Continuity ensures the bridge between training contents' quality and professional practice.",[]],["It can also serve to ensure the ML principles and effectiveness in educative and journalistic culture, at both levels of projects already in place in the newsrooms, schools or parallelly developed by ML trainees and their communities.",[]],["the continuity of journalistic work because it does not conflict with traditional verification practices, but on the contrary can strengthen and sophisticate them.",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"rt":[["Media Literacy (ML)",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["information literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["trainings",[]]]},{"sp":[["trainings",[]]]},{"de":[["The sustainability dimension refers to the current dangers and problems pointed out by respondents and to the possible answers.",[]],["the sustainability of professional practice embedded within media economic system, supporting the development of quality verified content and the opportunity for media to validate and communicate their fact-checking procedures to audiences, within a virtuous cycle which can increase citizens' trust and recognition of journalistic work and potentially their willingness to pay to access journalistic contents.",[]],["sustainability (media literacy as an inductor for the sustainability and survival of journalism)",[]]]},{"de":[["the use of feminine-masculine word pairs tends to increase the visibility of women in various social roles.",[]],["the language used in the media to describe social roles",[]],["Gender-inclusive language can be used to reduce genderstereotypic images of certain male-typed social roles in a community with a grammatical gender language",[]],["this type of language may help to present women and men more equally in various social roles",[]],["may help to present women and men more equally in various social roles",[]],["can be effective not only when read or heard, but it can expand and resonate later when reproduced",[]]],"sy":[["gender-inclusive forms",[]],["inclusive forms",[]]],"rt":[["masculine generics",[]],["gender-inclusive forms",[]]],"sb":[["word pairs",[]],["neutralizing words",[]],["gender-neutral forms",[]]],"ex":[["heroine or hero",[]],["he or she",[]],["firemen and firewomen",[]],["they",[]],["firefighters",[]]]},{"rt":[["gender-inclusive language",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["social media logic",[]]]},{"sp":[["social media logic",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["social media logic",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The logic of a particular medium will influence what content is presented, how it is presented, how it is framed, and how audiences interpret or consume it.",[]],["By shaping the ways news is presented, media logic influences both the act of political campaigning and also the representations of politics, political campaigning, and politicians.",[]],["In prioritizing messages that focus on the leaders rather than the parties, other individuals, or policies; and the contest (that is, horse-race style coverage), rather than platforms, media logic works to structure political coverage in specific ways (Cushion, Thomas, Kilby, Morani, and Sambrook, 2016;Takens, Van Atteveldt, van Hoof, and Kleinnijenhuis, 2013;Brants and Van Praag, 2006).",["Cushion, Thomas, Kilby, Morani, and Sambrook, 2016","Takens, Van Atteveldt, van Hoof, and Kleinnijenhuis, 2013","Brants and Van Praag, 2006"]],["The relatively low number of policy-related tweets in our sample suggests that a media logic, rather than a political logic, is at play",[]],["The most influential voices covering the most dramatic topics are more likely to spread far on Twitter, just as they are more likely to be covered on television or in newspapers.",[]]],"rt":[["political logic",[]],["social media logic",[]],["social media logics",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["creating a government brand \"grounded in control, simplicity and consistency\" and maintained across all government communication (Marland, Lewis and Flanagan, 2017, p.125).",[]],["The popularity of the hashtag #realchange among the most influential #cdnpoli and #elxn42 tweet sample is evidence of political branding at work",[]],["Political branding tends to involve both simplification and coordination of political messaging to make it consistent across multiple platforms and issues.",[]]],"rt":[["social media logic",[]]],"ex":[["shortening Conservative Party of Canada to #cpc",[]]]},{"de":[["Studies have also shown that the relationship between media logic and political logic is trending toward a model characterized coverage that focuses on the professionalization of politics and fragmentation of political parties (Takens, Van Atteveldt, van Hoof and Kleinnijenhuis, 2013).",["Takens, Van Atteveldt, van Hoof and Kleinnijenhuis, 2013"]]],"rt":[["media logic",[]]]},{"sp":[["social media logic",[]]]},{"sp":[["social media logic",[]]]},{"rt":[["social media logic",[]]]},{"de":[["Social media logic is characterized by four elements: programmability, popularity, connectivity, and datafication, each of which will be discussed in turn.",[]],["There is a clear social media logic which can be seen in our sample of election-related tweets",[]],["The logic of digital or social media, like traditional media logic, has an entertainment frame, and is driven by a need to attract advertisers' attention to support the medium in question (Altheide, 2013;van Dijck and Poell, 2013).",["Altheide, 2013","van Dijck and Poell, 2013"]]],"rt":[["media logic",[]]],"sb":[["logic of popularity",[]],["social media logic of connectivity",[]],["programmability",[]],["popularity",[]],["connectivity",[]],["datafication",[]]]},{"sp":[["social media logic",[]]]},{"de":[["For example, in a recent study, Zerbeck and Fawzi (2017) found that people supporting an issue may be less likely to speak out about their support when they are confronted with strong online comments contradicting their opinions.",["Zerbeck and Fawzi (2017)"]]],"ex":[["people supporting an issue may be less likely to speak out about their support when they are confronted with strong online comments contradicting their opinions",["Zerbeck and Fawzi (2017)"]]]},{"de":[["Originally developed as a way to post to the web through short message service or text messaging, it was soon expanded, allowing people to connect and share topics of interest in real time, respond or retweet, and add mixed media elements like photos and videos to the original text.",[]],["Pew Research reports that 74% of Twitter users get news on the site",["Shearer and Gottfried, 2017"]],["it has become a very important tool for politicians and political journalists and is also widely used by young people as a source of political news",["Davis, Bacha and Just, 2016"]]],"rt":[["Facebook",[]]],"sp":[["microblog",[]]]},{"de":[["(victims and affected persons)",[]]],"rt":[["official sources",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["counter-memes",[]]]},{"ex":[["claiming that the virus is either a Chinese or American biological weapon; that the virus does not exist or is completely harmless; that telecommunication technologies disseminate COVID-19; or that shadowy elitist groups and individuals like the deep state, Bill Gates, George Soros, Big Pharma, the World Health Organisation or an international Jewish conspiracy are using the hysteria to hurt Donald Trump, cull certain populations, and achieve other malicious goals",["Bavel et al., 2020","Biddlestone et al., 2020","Durand & Cunha, 2020"]]]},{"sy":[["anti-legends",["Astapova, 2022"]]]},{"de":[["gelotophobia varies among individuals, with different factors contributing to it, such as having been ridiculed by a father in childhood and many more yet to be discovered.",[]]],"rt":[["katagelasticism",[]]]},{"de":[["The COVID-19 pandemic has also brought about an infodemic",[]]]},{"de":[["Rather than merely countering claims or preventing belief formation, interbunking would involve creating a conversational space where scepticism is acknowledged, and critical engagement is encouraged without direct confrontation.",[]]],"rt":[["prebunking",[]],["debunking",[]]],"ex":[["Humour, in such interactions, could function not as a tool of ridicule but as a subtle form of comic complicity that lowers defensive barriers and invites hesitant individuals to reconsider their views without feeling personally attacked.",[]]]},{"rt":[["gelotophobia",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["prevents the spread of conspiracy theories rather than dealing with their consequences",["Knight, 2021"]]],"sy":[["a misinformation vaccine",[]]]},{"de":[["This group exemplifies a case of social media activism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This theory encourages people to criticize the status quo because it is a form of power structure from domination and pressure, hence attitude theory points to problems in the social order and also implies new ways to organize social life so that it becomes more equal and fairer",["Fiske, 2012"]]]},{},{"de":[["Discourse analysis does use language in texts to be analyzed, but the language analyzed here differs from the understanding of language in the traditional linguistic sense. The language analyzed is not merely describing only its linguistic aspects, but also relates to the context in which the context here can mean that language is used for specific practice purposes, including the practice of power (Mills, 2001).",["Mills, 2001"]],["Analysis of discourse critical is the study of the text, speech or talk, and images visually to find or express a variety of meanings that were distributed as well as contribute to or represent the structures of social and ideological",["Mills, 2001"]],["discourse analysis which aims to (a) systematically explore the relationship between causality and determination among discursive practices, events, and texts; (b) broader social structures and cultural structures, relationships, and processes; (c) to investigate how practices, events, and texts develop outside and are ideologically shaped by power relations and survive from power; and (d) to explore how the opacity of the relationship between discourse and society itself is a factor in securing power and hegemony.",[]],["critical discourse analysis is a model of text analysis as well as a theory that is less than ideal if it has not been paired with a theory.",[]]],"rt":[["discourse analysis",[]]],"sp":[["Discourse Analysis",[]]],"ex":[["gender inequality and racism",[]],["how men and women are represented in the media",[]],["how various ethnic groups appear in policy documents",[]]],"sy":[["analysis of discourse critical",[]]]},{"de":[["something that produces something else",[]],["forms a certain set of constructs that shape reality",[]],["a practice where a person is positioned in a certain position in social relations",["Mills, 2001"]],["Discourse is an area where social relations, social practices, and social behaviors are formed and managed.",[]],["Althusser explains discourse as a practice where a person is positioned in a certain position in social relations. Discourse plays a role in defining the individual and positioning a person in a certain position (Mills, 2001).",["Mills, 2001"]]]},{"sb":[["content discourse analysis",[]],["Critical Discourse Analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This theory encourages people to criticize the status quo because it is a form of power structure from domination and pressure, hence attitude theory points to problems in the social order and also implies new ways to organize social life so that it becomes more equal and fairer",["Fiske, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["The role of ideology is to naturalize dominant structures so that the process of forming meaning and social formation becomes blurred",["Littlejohn, 2016"]],["The role of ideology is to naturalize dominant structures so that the process of forming meaning and social formation becomes blurred (Littlejohn, 2016).",["Littlejohn, 2016"]]]},{"sy":[["cyber journalism",["Romli, 2012"]],["internet journalism",["Romli, 2012"]],["journalism web (web journalism)",["Romli, 2012"]]]},{"de":[["The author comprehensively describes the news as a quick report of events delivered by journalists about facts that are interesting, important, and need to be known by a wide audience.",[]],["the news as a quick report of events delivered by journalists about facts that are interesting, important, and need to be known by a wide audience.",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalistic online (Online Journalism) is also called cyber journalism, internet journalism, journalism web (web journalism) is a new generation of journalism after conventional journalism (print journalism, as newspapers) and broadcast journalism (broadcast journalism, radio, and television) (Romli, 2012).",["Romli, 2012"]]],"sy":[["cyber journalism",[]],["internet journalism",[]],["journalism web",[]],["web journalism",[]],["journalism web (web journalism)",[]]],"rt":[["conventional journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Such users may want to violate the confidentiality of FACTS by learning extra information about messages or complaints, beyond what they learn through the messages they validly receive. Or, they may want to break the integrity of the complaint and audit mechanism of FACTS to blame innocent parties for audited messages, or to delay or speedup the auditing of targeted messages.",[]]]},{"de":[["The most common approach today for reporting malicious messages in encrypted messaging systems is message franking [11], [21], [42].",["11","21","42"]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Clusters with high dispersion indicate controversial topics, as they contain articles from diverse ideological views.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["inherently interpretable, with dimensions explicitly grounded in semantically meaningful bias indicators",[]],["To generate interpretable political bias embeddings, PRISM assigns values to each controversial topic dimension for a given article.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["synthetic media may facilitate the spread of misinformation and erode public trust.",[]],["broadly defined as",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This approach to measuring variety is partially based on the idea of structural virality from Goel et al. (2015) and focuses on how far outside a poster's network a tweet travelled.",[]]]},{"de":[["It has played a determinant role in the cultural cohesion of nations, the ideological dispute during the Cold War, and widespread cultural and economic globalisation over the past decades.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["epistemic modality",[]]]},{"sp":[["epistemic modality",[]]],"ex":[["slaughter, genocide, firebrand; condemn, slam; merely, intensely, overwhelmingly, delusional, long-hyped; hawkish stance, blatant violation, bungled performance, international condemnation, rampant corruption, a slew of reforms, to foment protests, to dupe countries around the world, to fuel the conflict",[]],["aggressive, all of a sudden, to put it mildly, absolutely, fed up with, fatal, shameful, desperate, cloying, tawdry, flagrant, impetuous, flimsy, capricious; including questions, exclamations, witty comments",[]],["aggressive",[]],["all of a sudden",[]],["to put it mildly",[]],["absolutely",[]],["fed up with",[]],["fatal",[]],["shameful",[]],["desperate",[]],["cloying",[]],["tawdry",[]],["flagrant",[]],["impetuous",[]],["flimsy",[]],["capricious",[]],["questions",[]],["exclamations",[]],["witty comments",[]],["including questions, exclamations, witty comments",[]]]},{"de":[["related to how truth is presented",[]],["related to how truth is presented.",[]],["how the journalists of the RT channel commit themselves to the statements",["Gaufman, 2017"]]],"sb":[["speculative",[]],["deductive",[]],["assumptive",[]],["subjective modality",[]],["epistemic authoritative",[]],["epistemic assumptive",[]],["speculative, deductive, assumptive",["Palmer (2001, p. 22)"]],["speculative modality",[]],["deductive and assumptive modality",[]],["emotional modality",[]],["moral modality",[]]],"sp":[["propositional modality",[]],["modality",[]],["epistemic subtypes of modality",["Martirosyan (2022)"]]]},{"sb":[["deontic (permissive, obligatory, commisive)",["Palmer (2001, p. 22)"]],["dynamic (abilitive, volitive)",["Palmer (2001, p. 22)"]]],"sp":[["two categories of modality",["Palmer (2001, p. 22)"]]]},{"sb":[["reported",[]],["sensory",[]],["reported, sensory",["Palmer (2001, p. 22)"]]],"sp":[["propositional modality",["Palmer (2001, p. 22)"]]]},{"de":[["This type of modality has to do with a firm individual position, especially prominent in political leaders; it is meant to be unwavering to remain in high esteem in the public eye",[]]],"ex":[["want, refuse, reject, deny, promise, doubt",[]],["bid for",[]],["insist",[]],["agree",[]],["prompt",[]],["plan",[]],["intend",[]],["adverbs like even (though)",[]],["conjunctions as well as",[]]]},{"ex":[["US-fueled",[]],["Trump's circle of dimwits",[]],["ever-obliging European vassals",[]],["backfire",[]]]},{"de":[["helps to identify the attitude of the author or editorial board towards the reality in focus and indicate how power and ideology are implemented within news discourse",[]],["textual choices of RT's editorial board produce different discursive representations and differnet levels of commitment towards Russia's political and military adversaries",[]],["is a powerful tool of rendering the ideologically biased content as was seen in the analysis of our corpus.",[]],["Modality, used as a supportive device in rendering the news stories in the desired discursive manner, is a less evident, but potent tool to exert leverage on the minds and hearts of global audiences",[]],["Modality is one of the more subtle means if we expand it beyond the basic auxiliary modal verbs (must, will, would, can, could, may, might, and others), notional verbs and adverbs with inherent modality (desire, condemn, prefer, allegedly, supposedly, and others), nominative modal structures (it is necessary, it is with condemnation that …, and others)",["Lillian, 2008"]],["used as a supportive device in rendering the news stories in the desired discursive manner, is a less evident, but potent tool to exert leverage on the minds and hearts of global audiences",[]]],"rt":[["presuppositions",[]],["implicatures",[]],["nominalizations",[]],["transitivity",[]],["agency",[]],["irony",[]],["intertextuality",[]]],"sb":[["propositional modality",["Palmer (2001, p. 22)"]],["event modality",["Palmer (2001, p. 22)"]],["deontic modality",[]],["epistemic modality",[]],["modality of negativity",[]],["Ironic modality",[]],["Emotional modality",[]],["Neutral modality",[]],["epistemic",[]],["deontic",[]],["speculative",[]],["assumptive",[]],["reported",[]],["moral",[]],["intentional",[]],["negativity",[]],["Ironic",[]],["Emotional",[]],["Neutral",[]],["authoritative",[]]]},{"ex":[["criticize",[]],["reject",[]],["refuse",[]],["block",[]],["delegitimize",[]],["denounce",[]],["complicit",[]],["no (method, way)",[]],["hostilities",[]],["backlash",[]],["crimes against",[]],["insurrection",[]],["decouple",[]]]},{"sp":[["epistemic modality",[]]]},{"ex":[["introductory segments",[]],["universal facts",[]],["statistics",[]]]},{"de":[["They also introduce the modality of involvement into the activities without an explicit predication and generally belong to the register of traditional objective impersonal journalism and resent being questioned.",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["epistemic (speculative, deductive, assumptive)",["Palmer (2001, p. 22)"]],["evidential (reported, sensory)",["Palmer (2001, p. 22)"]]],"sp":[["modality",[]],["two categories of modality",["Palmer (2001, p. 22)"]]]},{"sp":[["modality",[]]]},{"ex":[["The White House reportedly gave Kiev permission to use some of the American missiles to attack military targets across the border from Kharkov Region in late May.",[]]]},{"de":[["testifies to the power of the news provider to inflict political hints",[]]],"sp":[["modality",[]],["epistemic modality",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["i.e., how much differing information can be found within a group of related articles or between its subgroups.",[]]]},{"de":[["MNA reveals different perspectives in news by structuring news articles in a two-dimensional matrix, whose elements show what entity i (row) states about entity j (column).",[]],["The dimensions of the matrix can encode arbitrary entities ranging from politicians to the media landscape of countries or regions.",[]]],"rt":[["news aggregators",[]]]},{"de":[["MNA organizes news content according to inherent attributes, e.g., publisher and mentioned country, and visualizes this information to reveal diverse and controversial information that can hardly be found using established news aggregators.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is an ubiquitous phenomenon in news coverage that can have severely negative effects on individuals and society.",[]],["The coverage of media outlets often exhibits media bias, e.g., due to political interference, lobbyism, or ideological focus [48].",["48"]],["can critically impact people's opinions and decisions.",[]],["media bias is a structural, often intentional, flaw inherent to news publishing [14] and can critically impact people's opinions and decisions.",["14"]],["Figure 1 depicts different forms of media bias that can occur in the news production process, in which publishers transform an actual event into a news story [51].",["51"]]]},{"de":[["The analysis workflows of most news aggregators find the most important news articles and summarize them for users.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["culture is experiential and requires a reference for contrast",["Geertz, 1973","Bourdieu, 1977"]],["making it both an individual and a social construct",[]],["It ranges from tangible artifacts such as art, music, food habits, etc, to more intangible and abstract concepts like patterns of ideas, principles, and values, making it hard to define.",[]],["Culture has a long-tail distribution",[]],["Culture is dynamic. Culture changes over time.",[]],["Culture is experiential, multimodal",[]],["culture arises whenever there is a distinction in the way of life between groups, making it both an individual and a social construct (Spencer-Oatey and Franklin, 2012).",["Spencer-Oatey and Franklin, 2012"]],["we can define culture in the context of language technology more formally as an intersection of demographic and semantic proxies.",[]]],"rt":[["demographic proxies",[]],["semantic proxies",[]]]},{"rt":[["semantic proxies",[]]]},{"de":[["explication and negotiation are properties of the system as a whole, that involve the various modes of input-output between the user(s) and the system and should be guided by the principles of Human-Computer Interaction",[]],["explication and negotiation are properties of the system as a whole, that involve the various modes of input-output between the user(s) and the system and should be guided by the principles of Human-Computer Interaction.",[]]],"sp":[["meta-cultural competency",[]]]},{},{"de":[["to solve the problem of cultural equitability of AI models, we must build and evaluate systems for meta-cultural competency, as defined by Strategy 4.",[]]],"sb":[["Variation awareness",[]],["explication strategy",[]],["negotiation strategy",[]]]},{"de":[["we must build and evaluate systems for meta-cultural competency, as defined by Strategy 4.",[]],["It comprises three major components-variation awareness, explication strategy, and negotiation strategy.",[]],["Metacultural competency is thought to be innate in humans (Noshadi and Dabbagh, 2015).",[]]],"sy":[["metacultural competency",[]]],"rt":[["cultural competency",[]]],"sb":[["Variational Awareness",[]],["Explication and Negotiation ability",[]],["variation awareness",[]],["explication strategy",[]],["negotiation strategy",[]]]},{"sp":[["meta-cultural competency",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["demographic proxies",[]]]},{"de":[["It is the understanding that culture manifests in different forms, such as practices, beliefs, and expressions, which might drastically differ from one's culture.",[]],["variational awareness -the awareness that there are variations in cultural conceptualizations between cultures",[]]],"sy":[["variational awareness",[]]],"rt":[["variational awareness",[]]],"sp":[["meta-cultural competency",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Ser incapaz de chegar a um julgamento rápido e definitivo, ou seja, acolher a suspensão do julgamento, é muitas vezes a melhor escolha.",[]],["Devemos frequentemente ser mais relutantes em formar nossas opiniões, devemos ser mais lentos em nosso julgamento e exercer mais frequentemente a suspensão desse julgamento.",[]]]},{"sp":[["human rights",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Relevant studies emphasize that hate speech -has been prevalent in human interactions in many forms over time in the actual world (such as racism and prejudice), and now it has found a carrier in the virtual world defined by social media Internet",["Nazmine et al. 2021"]],["The target of hate speech is not based solely on a single identity. It can be based on various factors, including religion, ethnicity, disability, and gender",["Seglow 2016"]],["Hate speech has been incorporated into hybrid strategies or hybrid wars, which have notably increased in recent times and are intended to generate social insecurity, panic, fear, and various forms of societal division.",[]]],"rt":[["Islamophobia",[]]]},{"de":[["Human rights are inherent rights that are vested in every individual by virtue of being human (KWIRC 2005).",["KWIRC 2005"]]],"sb":[["civil rights",[]],["political rights",[]],["social rights",[]],["religious freedom",[]]]},{"de":[["Among Albanians in general, Islamophobia is identity-based, and Islamophobic discourse is intended to be all-encompassing and totalitarian.",[]]],"rt":[["Hate speech",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This approach examines not only the content of media messages but also their ideological underpinnings and potential effects on audience perceptions.",[]]]},{"sp":[["human rights",[]]]},{"de":[["poses an alternative authority to that of the state.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is protected by the highest international legal instruments as well as by the laws of respective states.",[]],["religious freedom is a potent human right that simultaneously encompasses the freedom of conscience and association, the right to own property, to publicly worship, publish, speak, petition government, and raise children according to family desires.",[]],["it can be said that religious freedom goes beyond mere participation in mosques, churches, synagogues, or other places of worship. It implies that individuals should not be required to go against their core values and beliefs in order to conform to cultural, societal, or governmental norms and policies.",[]],["freedom implies the absence of constraints, while religion entails a self-imposed framework of constraints.",[]],["the interpretation and protection of religious freedom as a human right are more complicated than those of other rights",["Scolnicov 2010, 36"]],["As implied by this declaration, religious freedom is a potent human right that simultaneously encompasses the freedom of conscience and association, the right to own property, to publicly worship, publish, speak, petition government, and raise children according to family desires.",[]]],"rt":[["freedom of belief",[]]],"sp":[["human rights",[]],["human right",[]]],"ex":[["Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion. This right includes the freedom to change one's religion or belief, and the freedom, either alone or in communities with others, and in public or private, to manifest one's religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance",["Hertzke 2012"]]]},{"rt":[["journalistic techniques",[]]],"ex":[["catchy headlines, expert sources, and metaphors",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",["36"]]]},{},{"rt":[["Rhetorical framing devices",[]]],"ex":[["hyperbole and imagery",[]],["metaphor",[]],["exemplars",[]],["catchphrases",[]],["depictions",[]],["visual images",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["fake news",["36"]]]},{"de":[["These frames then become a powerful mechanism that shapes public opinion and behaviour.",[]]],"rt":[["narrative",[]],["discursive strategies",[]],["journalistic techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["Restricting the diversity of perspectives (e.g., not including patients) perpetuates a paternalistic view of medicine",[]],["the only people with authority to speak on medical issues are the doctors and politicians, and patients are seen as unreliable narrators in their own medical stories.",[]],["the only people with authority to speak on medical issues are the doctors and politicians, and patients are seen as unreliable narrators in their own medical stories",[]]]},{"rt":[["cadeia equivalencial",[]]]},{"de":[["Dessa forma, a diferença lida como ameaça se constitui como antagonismo.",[]],["Laclau (1990) conceptualiza, através da ideia de deslocamento, o antagonismo como parte do sistema discursivo.",[]],["a diferença lida como ameaça se constitui como antagonismo.",[]]],"rt":[["hegemonia",[]],["cadeias equivalenciais",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Todo discurso é prática, uma vez que as práticas se constituem discursivamente: não é apenas linguagem, mas abrange ações e instituições, sendo o próprio funcionamento do social entendido como linguagem.",[]],["Todo discurso aspira dominar a discursividade, fixar e deter as diferenças e, ainda que de forma provisória e precária, definir a significação, o fechamento que nunca se completa.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Farkas e Schou (2018) se apoiam no pós-fundacionalismo laclauniano para demonstrar como as fake news se tornaram gradualmente um significante flutuante",["2018"]],["como um operador das lutas políticas para hegemonizar a realidade social como passível de ser acoplada em alguma dimensão de transparência e finitude.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Esse processo de esvaziamento/universalização sustenta a perspectiva de hegemonia",[]]],"rt":[["antagonismo",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A figura da liderança, como ícone para a satisfação das demandas oprimidas, segundo Silva e Baron (2021), não incorporaria a representação Sociologias, Porto Alegre, volume 27, 2025, e139936 como a conquista da emancipação, por exemplo, mas como promessa dela, algo que a extrapola, como um nome que delineia um horizonte interpretado como satisfatório.",["2021"]]]},{"de":[["A equivalência é um momento na política em que se tem a sensação de um povo mobilizado em torno de um nome/ causa contra.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Sua leitura do populismo chama a atenção para a construção de espaços dicotômicos no social, a fronteira entre o povo e a oligarquia (o povo contra seus inimigos), associada à fragilização de um discurso hegemônico que fracassa em sua capacidade de se sobrepor a um conjunto de particularidades, gerando novas disputas e práticas discursivas.",[]],["O populismo, nesse sentido, compreende a eleição de um nome que provoca o desejo pelo objeto, prometendo sua consecução, e o conjunto dos afetos que constituiriam força de investimento na própria cadeia",["Silva; Baron, 2021"]],["chama a atenção para a construção de espaços dicotômicos no social, a fronteira entre o povo e a oligarquia (o povo contra seus inimigos), associada à fragilização de um discurso hegemônico que fracassa em sua capacidade de se sobrepor a um conjunto de particularidades, gerando novas disputas e práticas discursivas.",[]],["a construção de espaços dicotômicos no social, a fronteira entre o povo e a oligarquia (o povo contra seus inimigos), associada à fragilização de um discurso hegemônico que fracassa em sua capacidade de se sobrepor a um conjunto de particularidades, gerando novas disputas e práticas discursivas.",[]]],"rt":[["populismo de direita",[]]],"sb":[["populismo de direita",[]]]},{"rt":[["populismo",[]]],"sp":[["populismo",[]]]},{},{"de":[["não há qualquer essência ou conteúdo que possa definir o povo e seus inimigos fora de um contexto político específico.",[]]]},{"rt":[["pós-política",[]]],"sp":[["crise da democracia",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{},{"de":[["As subjetividades políticas, precipitadas na precariedade, constituem-se por intermédio da articulação de demandas estabelecidas contingencialmente em torno de determinadas lutas, frentes, bandeiras, nomes na política, em resposta a uma ameaça ao atendimento de tais demandas.",[]]]},{"de":[["Boosterism had long shaped the ideologies of capitalism, especially in cities like Chicago",[]]],"ex":[["boosting Chicago meant seeing citizens as workers and subjecting them to propaganda from the factory owners",[]]]},{},{"de":[["rather than being seen as a more structural feature of (print) capitalism.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Holding the power to accept or reject a scientific article",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["individualism",[]]]},{"de":[["Cosmopolitanism in ELT textbooks appears through such mechanisms as the promotion of global interconnectedness, travel, cross-cultural communication, and the celebration of diversity.",[]],["By foregrounding experiences such as studying abroad, traveling for holidays, and interacting with iconic international landmarks, these materials appear to promote a vision of personal success and fulfillment tied to global opportunities and consumption.",[]]]},{"de":[["In ELT textbooks, cultural representation shapes learners' understanding of themselves and others by selectively highlighting or omitting particular cultural practices, values, and perspectives",["Gray, 2010"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["collectivism",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Outer Circle",[]],["Expanding Circle",[]]],"sp":[["World Englishes model",[]]],"ex":[["the United States",[]],["the United Kingdom",[]],["Australia",[]]]},{"sb":[["Inner Circle",[]],["Outer Circle",[]],["Expanding Circle",[]]]},{},{"de":[["served as an analytical lens for examining how social actors are represented within specific contexts, thereby uncovering the ways in which these representations construct and perpetuate underlying ideologies.",[]]]},{"de":[["The model's division of Inner, Outer, and Expanding Circles, provides a framework for analyzing whose English(es) and whose cultural values are prioritized or marginalized in the textbooks.",[]],["provided a framework for analyzing how social actors are positioned and how linguistic and cultural norms interact within the global English landscape.",[]]],"rt":[["Inner Circle",[]],["Outer Circle",[]],["Expanding Circle",[]]],"sb":[["Inner Circle",[]],["Outer Circle",[]],["Expanding Circle",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["audience-oriented commercial logic",[]],["normative logic",[]]]},{"de":[["would lead to an increasing de-massification and individualization of communication thus resulting in a progressive wearing away of the essential prerequisites of mediatization",[]]],"rt":[["de-massification",[]],["individualization of communication",[]],["mediatization",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["soft news",[]]]},{"de":[["media companies are mainly driven not by one, but by two competing logics: an audience-oriented commercial logic and a normatively oriented public logic.",["Landerer, 2013"]]]},{"rt":[["media logic",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["commercial logic",[]]]},{"sy":[["entertainment",[]],["infotainment",[]]],"rt":[["hard news",[]]]},{"de":[["This approach, involving integrated and binary lessons, allows students to perceive logical connections between disciplines and adapt to a changing professional landscape.",[]]]},{"de":[["higher perseverance is associated with resistance to external pressure and manipulative influence",["18"]],["is considered as one of the key components of professional resilience and self-regulation in journalism education",[]]],"rt":[["professional resilience",[]],["self-regulation",[]]],"sp":[["professional resilience",[]],["self-regulation",[]]]},{"de":[["has become a core professional competence rather than an auxiliary skill.",[]]]},{"rt":[["fake news",[]],["tall tales",[]],["memes",[]],["legends with a sliding truth scale",[]]]},{"ex":[["how Stalin's death could have ended the atrocious war",[]]]},{"de":[["the creators of fake news are usually consciously lying to their audience, for whatever reason",[]]],"rt":[["urban legends",[]],["legendry",[]]],"ex":[["the Venice hoax",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Lately, memes have become a part of popular self-expression in online communication.",[]],["The term largely signifies the transmitting of visual information online, a mix of ideas and images that spread virally.",[]],["The term 'meme' was adopted by Richard Dawkins for describing small units of cultural transmission as a parallel to biological genes(Dawkins 1976).",["Dawkins 1976"]]],"rt":[["biological genes",[]]]},{"de":[["The term largely signifies the transmitting of visual information online, a mix of ideas and images that spread virally.",[]],["Humour, repetitiveness, dialogicity, simplicity, creativity, artistry, playfulness, imagery, unpredictability and the digital context -all these keywords characterise memes",["Shifman 2007(Shifman , 2011, etc., etc.)"]],["photo-based memes act as a kind of hypersignification mechanism, in which the code itself becomes the focus of attention and functions as prospective photography",[]],["the memes here mark a kind of intertextual link with falsity and stupidity",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["seemingly truthful subject matter is initially presented in picture form",[]],["The emergence of image material of this sort was greatly influenced by major catastrophes such as the World Trade Centre terrorist attack, Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, etc.",[]],["seemingly authentic photographs of extraordinary or curious events circulating on the internet",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["their inclusion or omission shapes how a news story is perceived",[]]]},{"de":[["how opposite sides of the media are discussing or framing a subject",[]]],"rt":[["Event selection",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["which may exist in even the most apparently nonpartisan news, but which is especially hard to detect without extensive cross-article comparison.",[]]],"sp":[["media bias",[]]]},{"de":[["an event is frequently deemed partisan if it is labeled by at least one annotator.",[]],["the subtlety of partisan event usage by media.",[]]]},{"rt":[["synthetic",[]]]},{},{"de":[["developed by Val Plumwood",[]]]},{"de":[["developed in the post-9/11 moment",[]]],"sy":[["medial pre-emption",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["news literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["fostering critical thinking to promote civic and political participation",[]],["how students perceive critical thinking and its role when encountering (dis)information",[]],["doubting or being suspicious about its veracity, as opposed to believing faithfully in it",[]],["Developing critical thinking as a way to an informed citizenship.",[]],["This means doubting or being suspicious about its veracity, as opposed to believing faithfully in it",[]]]},{"de":[["addressing the problem of disinformation",[]],["encountering (dis)information",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorders",["2018: 953"]]]},{"de":[["combating the spread of fake news",[]],["spotting fake news",[]],["fake news can emerge from rumours or hoaxes",["Tambini, 2017"]],["initially used in the academic community to mark off infotainment contents from political satire programs",["Baym, 2005;Brewer and Marquardt, 2007;Crittenden et al., 2011;Balmas, 2014"]],["includes not only what has been described as false information itself, but also what is considered fake news, just because one does not agree with or feel comfortable about it",["Newman et al., 2017: 20"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]],["mal-information",[]],["rumours",[]],["hoaxes",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorders",["2018: 953"]]]},{"sp":[["information disorders",["2018: 953"]]]},{"sp":[["news literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorders",["2018: 953"]]]},{"sb":[["false context, when genuine content is presented with false contextual information",["2018: 953"]],["imposter content, when genuine sources are impersonated",["2018: 953"]],["fabricated contents, when false contents are designed to deceive and do harm",["2018: 953"]],["false connection, when headlines, visuals and captions do not support the content",["2018: 953"]],["manipulated content, when information is manipulated to deceive",["2018: 953"]],["misleading content, when it is used to frame an issue or an individual",["2018: 953"]],["satire or parody, when there is no intention to cause harm and is only to fool",["2018: 953"]]]},{"sp":[["information disorders",["2018: 953"]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]]],"sp":[["information disorders",[]]]},{"sp":[["information disorders",["2018: 953"]]]},{"sp":[["information disorders",["2018: 953"]]]},{"de":[["currently viewed as an omnipresent societal threat, disrupting audiences' news diets",["Pennycook et al., 2021"]],["misinformation has more recently raised ample concern of more incidental spread of falsehoods that, for example, are (accidentally) picked up by news outlets",["Tsfati et al., 2020"]],["The dissemination of misinformation undermines democracy.",[]],["The dissemination of misinformation increases societal polarization.",[]],["The dissemination of misinformation distorts the truth.",[]],["The dissemination of misinformation results in misperceptions that endanger rational decision making.",[]],["false information can both be driven by honest mistakes and intentional or planned deception",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]],["misinformation-i.e., information that is false or deceptive",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["informational disorders",[]]],"ex":[["the amount of misinformation in audiences' media diets is relatively little, often even below one percent",["Acerbi et al., 2022","Grinberg et al., 2019","Guess et al., 2020","Osmundsen et al., 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["disproportionate focus on negativity is an engrained systematic bias of journalistic processes",[]],["negativity bias has been associated with a core news value and journalistic tools like dramatizing or sensationalizing used to garnish attention in a competitive attention economy",["Harcup & O'Neill, 2017"]],["can present an overly negative media reality which creates worldviews amongst audiences that do not accurately reflect reality",["Jacobs et al., 2018","van der Meer et al., 2019"]],["negativity bias tends to be associated with lower news quality",[]],["Negativity, as a more systematic news bias",["Soroka & McAdams, 2015"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["in which test examples are edited to change a single variable of interestsuch as the race of the subject",[]]],"sy":[["contrastive evaluation",[]]],"ex":[["if our variable of interest is gender, and our original sentence is The conversation with that boy was irritating, then our intervention creates the counterfactual sentence The conversation with that girl was irritating.",[]]]},{"sy":[["contrastive evaluation",[]]],"ex":[["if our variable of interest is gender, and our original sentence is The conversation with that boy was irritating, then our intervention creates the counterfactual sentence The conversation with that girl was irritating.",[]]]},{"de":[["We measure bias as the difference in scores for the pair.",[]],["An unbiased model should be invariant to the counterfactual, with a difference of zero.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Ontologically, DWs are constructs of our mind, they are \"cognitive entities simulating a reality\"",["28. P. 298"]]],"sp":[["representational structure",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["macroframe",[]]],"ex":[["Culture",[]],["Residents",[]],["Authorities",[]],["Economy",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["constituent frames",[]]],"sb":[["frames",[]],["subframes",[]],["slots",[]]],"sp":[["frame",[]],["macrostructure",[]]]},{},{"de":[["link journalistic approaches of shaping the news to structures of meaning and, thus, stimulate the public to adopt the introduced frames and to view the urban reality from the perspective the journalists intend",["26. P. 485; 32. P. 94; 33 ; 34"]]],"rt":[["news frames",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["media packages",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Media messages about the urban issues are understood through the construction of mental representations, which are induced in the media discourse and dependent on \"the linguistic cues provided by the text\", and \"vitally grounded in the context of the discourse\"",["19. P. 1"]]],"rt":[["mental representations",[]]]},{"de":[["and link journalistic approaches of shaping the news to structures of meaning and, thus, stimulate the public to adopt the introduced frames and to view the urban reality from the perspective the journalists intend",["26. P. 485","32. P. 94","33","34"]]]},{"de":[["The urban identity is predominantly framed in four major perspectives: as an issue of culture, residents, authority, economy.",[]]],"rt":[["macroframe",[]],["constituent frames",[]]],"sp":[["macroframe",[]]]},{"sp":[["psychological reactance",[]]]},{"sb":[["Trivialization",[]],["Effort justification",[]]]},{"sp":[["psychological reactance",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["If the reward or perceived reward for that effort does not meet their expectations, a dissonance occurs. To try to decrease that dissonance, the reward is reframed and viewed in a more positive way.",[]],["how understandable (i.e., effort justification) the issue discussed in the news was to them",[]]],"rt":[["dissonance reduction strategy",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive dissonance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The novelty of Knox et al. 2019's design is that it allows the experimenters to measure the extent to which ex ante stated preferences predict ex post actual treatment choices.",[]]]},{"de":[["is a plausible alternative explanation to the results obtained in this study.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["affective reactance",[]],["cognitive reactance",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["how important (i.e., trivialization) the issues discussed in the news were.",[]],["how important (i.e., trivialization) the issues discussed in the news were",[]]],"sp":[["cognitive dissonance",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing dimensions",[]]]},{"rt":[["framing",[]]],"ex":[["is an 8-ounce glass containing 4 ounces of water half empty or half full?",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing dimensions",[]]]},{"de":[["The patterns that emerge from these decisions and assumptions are, in essence, what we refer to as framing.",[]],["often more complex than positive or negative sentiment",[]],["important feature of even seemingly neutral or objective language",[]]],"rt":[["equivalence framing",[]]]},{"sb":[["Economic",[]],["Capacity and resources",[]],["Morality",[]],["Fairness and equality",[]],["Legality, constitutionality and jurisprudence",[]],["Policy prescription and evaluation",[]],["Crime and punishment",[]],["Security and defense",[]],["Health and safety",[]],["Quality of life",[]],["Cultural identity",[]],["Public opinion",[]],["Political",[]],["External regulation and reputation",[]],["Other",[]]],"sp":[["metaframes",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing dimensions",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing dimensions",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing dimensions",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["framing dimensions",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing dimensions",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing dimensions",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["patient",["Kroeger, 2005"]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["agent",["Kroeger, 2005"]]]},{"de":[["These groups can be based on social attributes such as gender, race, economic class, and so on.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["press freedom",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Problem Definition",[]],["Moral Evaluation",[]],["Treatment Recommendation",[]]],"sp":[["framing functions",[]],["Entman's four framing functions",[]],["News frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["News frames that incorporate culturally resonant terms-those that are noticeable, understandable, memorable, and emotionally charged-exert a stronger influence on audiences (Entman, 2004, p. 6)",["2004, p. 6"]]]},{"de":[["how leaders use framing as a strategic tool to construct national identity, justify policy choices, and communicate with domestic and global publics simultaneously",[]],["digital diplomacy has become a hybrid space where humanitarian norms and security imperatives co-exist and where leaders must balance moral expectations with geopolitical constraints.",[]]],"rt":[["social media framing",[]]]},{"de":[["constructs a crisis environment in which humanitarian distress and terrorism are mutually reinforcing aspects of the problem.",[]]]},{"de":[["Each of Entman's four framing functions was operationalized into concrete indicators",[]]],"sb":[["problem definition",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]]},{"de":[["tends to lead audiences to attribute responsibility to individuals",["Iyengar's (1991)"]]]},{"sb":[["natural frameworks",[]],["social frameworks",[]]]},{"ex":[["headlines",[]],["images",[]],["quotes",[]]]},{"de":[["four core framing functions: problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and treatment recommendation",[]],["framing functions operate as mechanisms through which leaders not only interpret crises but also project national values, define moral legitimacy, and pursue diplomatic objectives.",[]]],"sb":[["problem definition",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendation",[]]]},{"de":[["Initially rooted in sociology and communication studies, this theory examines how individuals and organizations shape perceptions of reality by emphasizing certain aspects of an issue while downplaying others",[]],["Initially rooted in sociology and communication studies, this theory examines how individuals and organizations shape perceptions of reality by emphasizing certain aspects of an issue while downplaying others.",[]],["uncovering how media messages are constructed, disseminated, and interpreted by examining its role in news media, political communication, social media, and crisis communication",[]]],"sb":[["problem definition",[]],["causal interpretation",[]],["moral evaluation",[]],["treatment recommendations",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Problem Definition",[]],["Causal Interpretation",[]],["Treatment Recommendation",[]]],"sp":[["framing functions",[]],["Entman's four framing functions",[]],["News frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["news frames operate on three distinct objects: political events, issues, and actors (such as individual leaders, groups, or nations).",[]],["News frames are built through \"keywords, metaphors, concepts, symbols, and visual images emphasized in a news narrative\" (Entman, 1991, p. 7)",["1991, p. 7"]]]},{"de":[["It shapes narratives, legitimizes policies, and signals political alignment to domestic and international publics.",[]]]},{"sp":[["framework",[]]]},{"de":[["Entman's (1993) first function of selecting and highlighting aspects of perceived reality",[]]],"rt":[["Causal Interpretation",[]],["Moral Evaluation",[]],["Treatment Recommendation",[]]],"sp":[["framing functions",[]],["Entman's four framing functions",[]]],"ex":[["framing the Gaza crisis primarily as an urgent humanitarian and security emergency",[]]]},{"sp":[["primary frameworks",[]],["framework",[]]]},{"de":[["online framing serves both communicative and diplomatic purposes. It shapes narratives, legitimizes policies, and signals political alignment to domestic and international publics.",[]]],"sy":[["online framing",[]]]},{"de":[["encourages attributions to systemic factors",["Iyengar's (1991)"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["is thus a less visible and coercive form of election manipulation",[]]]},{"de":[["manipulate the media, prevent domestic election monitors from operating freely, and to stuff ballots and manipulate the counting of votes",[]],["high-capacity autocrats are in fact more likely to use subtle manipulation strategies than are low-capacity autocrats",[]]],"rt":[["subtle electoral manipulation",[]]],"ex":[["media bias",[]],["restrictions on domestic monitors",[]]]},{"ex":[["control of the media",[]],["obstruction of the opposition's campaign",[]],["ballot stuffing and false counting of votes",[]],["restrictions on domestic election observers",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["pSTEM self-concepts and expectations for success",[]]]},{},{"de":[["attainment value and utility value",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It investigates how the world, linguistic structures, and mental representation are integrated and related.",[]],["Metaphor is employed in the corpus to reflect the ideology and it is also politicised, which is the core of the Critical Metaphor Analysis presented by Charteris-Black (2004).",[]]],"sy":[["CMA",[]]],"rt":[["Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)",[]],["Corpus Analysis",[]],["Pragmatics",[]],["Cognitive Linguistics",[]],["corpus analysis",[]],["CDA",[]],["pragmatics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Metaphors are not only used to add beauty to the language, but also as a rhetorical device to persuade the audience and reflect ideology",[]],["metaphor is a blended form of thought and meaning",[]],["The writers highly depend on them to represent abstract ideas in terms of physical concepts.",[]],["metaphorical language to turn abstract ideas into physical concepts to be easily understood by the audience.",[]]],"rt":[["figurative language",[]],["metonymy",[]],["hyperbole",[]],["parallelism",[]]]},{"sy":[["MIP",[]]],"rt":[["MIP",[]]]},{"de":[["The entity mentioned as an authority may, but does not need to be, an actual valid authority in the domain-specific field to discuss a particular topic or to be considered and serve as an expert.",[]],["What is important, and makes it different from simply sourcing information, is that the tone of the text indicates that it capitalizes on the weight of an alleged authority in order to justify some information, claim, or conclusion.",[]],["Referencing a valid authority is not a logical fallacy, while referencing an invalid authority is a logical fallacy, and both are captured within this label.",[]],["In particular, a self-reference as an authority falls under this technique as well.",[]],["The entity mentioned as an authority may, but does not need to be, an actual valid authority in the domain-specific field to discuss a particular topic or to be considered and serve as an expert. What is important, and makes it different from simply sourcing information, is that the tone of the text indicates that it capitalizes on the weight of an alleged authority in order to justify some information, claim, or conclusion. Referencing a valid authority is not a logical fallacy, while referencing an invalid authority is a logical fallacy, and both are captured within this label. In particular, a self-reference as an authority falls under this technique as well.",[]]],"sp":[["Justification",[]]],"ex":[["Example: Since the Pope said that this aspect of the doctrine is true we should add it to the creed.",[]],["Since the Pope said that this aspect of the doctrine is true we should add it to the creed.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Justification",[]]]},{"de":[["The alternative could be the status quo, in which case the current situation is described in a scary way with Loaded Language.",[]],["The alternative could be the status quo, in which case the current situation is described in a scary way with Loaded Language. If the fear is linked to the consequences of a decision, it is often the case that this technique is used simultaneously with Appeal to Consequences (see Simplification techniques in B.4), and if there are only two alternatives that are stated explicitly, then it is used simultaneously with the False Dilemma technique (see B.4).",[]]],"rt":[["Appeal to Consequences",[]],["False Dilemma technique",[]],["Loaded Language",[]]],"sp":[["Justification",[]]],"ex":[["It is a great disservice to the Church to maintain the pretense that there is nothing problematical about Amoris laetitia. A moral catastrophe is self-evidently underway and it is not possible honestly to deny its cause.",[]],["Example: It is a great disservice to the Church to maintain the pretense that there is nothing problematical about Amoris laetitia. A moral catastrophe is self-evidently underway and it is not possible honestly to deny its cause.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Justification",[]]]},{"de":[["This can be done explicitly by calling out hypocrisy directly, or more implicitly by underlying the contradictions between different positions that were held or actions that were done in the past.",[]],["A special way of calling out hypocrisy is by telling that someone who criticizes you for something you did, also did it in the past.",[]],["This can be done explicitly by calling out hypocrisy directly, or more implicitly by underlying the contradictions between different positions that were held or actions that were done in the past. A special way of calling out hypocrisy is by telling that someone who criticizes you for something you did, also did it in the past.",[]]],"sp":[["Attack on reputation",[]]],"ex":[["Example: How can you demand that I eat less meat to reduce my carbon footprint if you yourself drive a big SUV and fly for holidays to Bali?",[]],["How can you demand that I eat less meat to reduce my carbon footprint if you yourself drive a big SUV and fly for holidays to Bali?",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attack on reputation",[]]]},{"de":[["As such, the target audience is encouraged to gregariously adopt the same idea by considering \"everyone else\" as an authority, and to join in and take the course of the same action.",[]],["Here, \"everyone else\" might refer to the general public, key entities and actors in a certain domain, countries, etc.",[]],["Analogously, an attempt to persuade the audience not to do something because \"nobody else is taking the same action\" falls under our definition of Appeal to Popularity.",[]],["As such, the target audience is encouraged to gregariously adopt the same idea by considering \"everyone else\" as an authority, and to join in and take the course of the same action. Here, \"everyone else\" might refer to the general public, key entities and actors in a certain domain, countries, etc. Analogously, an attempt to persuade the audience not to do something because \"nobody else is taking the same action\" falls under our definition of Appeal to Popularity.",[]]],"sp":[["Justification",[]]],"ex":[["Example: Because everyone else goes away to college, it must be the right thing to do.",[]],["Because everyone else goes away to college, it must be the right thing to do.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Justification",[]]]},{"de":[["The very timeliness of the idea is part of the argument.",[]]],"sp":[["Call",[]]],"ex":[["This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice.",[]],["Example: This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice.",[]]]},{"de":[["These values are presented as an authoritative reference in order to support or to reject an argument.",[]],["Examples of such values are, for instance: tradition, religion, ethics, age, fairness, liberty, democracy, peace, transparency, etc.",[]],["When such values are mentioned outside the context of a proper argument by simply using certain adjectives or nouns as a way of characterizing something or someone, such references fall under another label, namely, Loaded Language, which is a form of Manipulative Wording (see B.6).",[]],["These values are presented as an authoritative reference in order to support or to reject an argument. Examples of such values are, for instance: tradition, religion, ethics, age, fairness, liberty, democracy, peace, transparency, etc. When such values are mentioned outside the context of a proper argument by simply using certain adjectives or nouns as a way of characterizing something or someone, such references fall under another label, namely, Loaded Language, which is a form of Manipulative Wording (see B.6).",[]]],"rt":[["Loaded Language",[]]],"sp":[["Justification",[]]],"ex":[["Example: It's standard practice to pay men more than women so we'll continue adhering to the same standards this company has always followed.",[]],["tradition, religion, ethics, age, fairness, liberty, democracy, peace, transparency, etc.",[]],["It's standard practice to pay men more than women so we'll continue adhering to the same standards this company has always followed.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Justification",[]]]},{"de":[["The object of the argumentation can also refer to a group of individuals, an organization, an object, or an activity.",[]]],"sb":[["Name Calling or Labelling",[]],["Guilt by Association",[]],["Casting Doubt",[]],["Appeal to Hypocrisy",[]],["Questioning the Reputation",[]],["Name Calling or Labelling [AR:NCL]",[]],["Guilt by Association [AR:GA]",[]],["Casting Doubt [AR:D]",[]],["Appeal to Hypocrisy [AR:AH]",[]],["Questioning the Reputation [AR:QR]",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]]]},{"sb":[["CALL Slogans",[]],["Conversation Killer",[]],["Appeal to Time",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["Slogans tend to act as emotional appeals.",[]]],"sp":[["Call",[]]],"ex":[["Immigrants welcome, racist not!",[]],["Example: Immigrants welcome, racist not!",[]]]},{"de":[["This can be done for instance, by speaking about the target's professional background, as a way to discredit their argument.",[]],["Casting doubt can also be done by referring to some actions or events carried out or planned by some entity that are/were not successful or appear as (probably) resulting in not achieving the planned goals.",[]],["This can be done for instance, by speaking about the target's professional background, as a way to discredit their argument. Casting doubt can also be done by referring to some actions or events carried out or planned by some entity that are/were not successful or appear as (probably) resulting in not achieving the planned goals.",[]]],"sp":[["Attack on reputation",[]]],"ex":[["Example: This task is quite complex. Is his professional background, experience and the time left sufficient to accomplish the task at hand?",[]],["This task is quite complex. Is his professional background, experience and the time left sufficient to accomplish the task at hand?",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attack on reputation",[]]]},{"de":[["This technique has the follow-ing logical form(s): (a) Y occurred after X; therefore, X was the only cause of Y, or (b) X caused Y; therefore, X was the only cause of Y+ (although A, B, C...etc. also contributed to Y.)",[]]],"sp":[["Simplification",[]]],"ex":[["School violence has gone up and academic performance has gone down since video games featuring violence were introduced. Therefore, video games with violence should be banned, resulting in school improvement.",[]],["Example: School violence has gone up and academic performance has gone down since video games featuring violence were introduced. Therefore, video games with violence should be banned, resulting in school improvement.",[]]]},{"de":[["This technique has the following logical form: if A will happen then B, C, D, ... will happen. The core essence behind this fallacy is an assertion one is making of some 'first' event/action leading to a domino-like chain of events that have some significant negative effects and consequences that appear to be ludicrous. This technique is characterized by ignoring and/or understating the likelihood of the sequence of events from the first event leading to the end point (last event). In order to take into account symmetric cases, i.e., using Consequential Oversimplification to promote or to support certain action in a similar way, we also consider cases when the sequence of events leads to positive outcomes (i.e., encouraging people to undertake a certain course of action(s), with the promise of a major positive event in the end).",[]],["The core essence behind this fallacy is an assertion one is making of some 'first' event/action leading to a domino-like chain of events that have some significant negative effects and consequences that appear to be ludicrous. This technique is characterized by ignoring and/or understating the likelihood of the sequence of events from the first event leading to the end point (last event).",[]]],"sp":[["Simplification",[]]],"ex":[["If we begin to restrict freedom of speech, this will encourage the government to infringe upon other fundamental rights, and eventually this will result in a totalitarian state where citizens have little to no control of their lives and decisions they make.",[]],["Example: If we begin to restrict freedom of speech, this will encourage the government to infringe upon other fundamental rights, and eventually this will result in a totalitarian state where citizens have little to no control of their lives and decisions they make.",[]]]},{"de":[["They are a form of Loaded Language, often passing as folk wisdom, intended to end an argument and quell cognitive dissonance.",[]]],"rt":[["Loaded Language",[]]],"sp":[["Loaded Language",[]],["Call",[]],["Manipulative Wording",[]]],"ex":[["I'm not so naïve or simplistic to believe we can eliminate wars. You can't change human nature.",[]],["Example: I'm not so naïve or simplistic to believe we can eliminate wars. You can't change human nature.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Strawman [D:SM]",[]],["Red Herring [D:RH]",[]],["Whataboutism [D:W]",[]],["Strawman",[]],["Red Herring",[]],["Whataboutism",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["First, a new argument is created via the covert replacement of the original argument with something that appears somewhat related, but is actually a different, a distorted, an exaggerated, or a misrepresented version of the original proposition, which is referred to as \"standing up a straw man.\" Subsequently, the newly created 'false argument (the strawman) is refuted, which is referred to as \"knocking down a straw man.\"",[]]],"sy":[["misrepresentation of the argument",[]]],"ex":[["Referring to your claim that providing medicare for all citizens would be costly and a danger to the free market, I infer that you don't care if people die from not having healthcare, so we are not going to support your endeavour.",[]],["Example: Referring to your claim that providing medicare for all citizens would be costly and a danger to the free market, I infer that you don't care if people die from not having healthcare, so we are not going to support your endeavour.",[]]]},{"de":[["rhetorical dimension",[]]]},{"sp":[["Manipulative Wording",[]]],"ex":[["From the seminaries, to the clergy, to the bishops, to the cardinals, homosexuals are present at all levels, by the thousand.",[]],["Example: From the seminaries, to the clergy, to the bishops, to the cardinals, homosexuals are present at all levels, by the thousand.",[]],["representing something in an excessive manner -by making things larger, better, worse (e.g., the best of the best, quality guaranteed)",[]],["saying that an insult was just a joke",[]]]},{"de":[["One of the alternatives is depicted as a no-go option, and hence the only choice is the other option. In extreme cases, the author tells the audience exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other possible choices (also referred to as Dictatorship).",[]],["In extreme, the author tells the audience exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other possible choices.",[]]],"sy":[["either-or fallacy",[]],["Dictatorship",[]]],"sp":[["Simplification",[]]],"ex":[["There is no alternative to Pfizer Covid-19 vaccine. Either one takes it or one dies.",[]],["Example: There is no alternative to Pfizer Covid-19 vaccine. Either one takes it or one dies.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Justification",[]]]},{"sp":[["Justification",[]]]},{"de":[["what key aspects are highlighted",[]],["For this purpose, we adopted the concept of framing introduced in (Card et al., 2015) and the taxonomy of 14 generic framing dimensions, their acronym is specified in parenthesis: Economic (E), Capacity and resources (CR), Morality (M), Fairness and equality (FE), Legality, constitutionality and jurisprudence (LCJ), Policy prescription and evaluation (PPE), Crime and punishment (CP), Security and defense (SD), Health and safety (HS), Quality of life (QOL), Cultural identity (CI), Public opinion (PO), Political (P), and External regulation and reputation (EER).",[]]]},{"de":[["More precisely, this can be done by claiming a link or an equivalence between the target of the technique to any individual, group, or event in the presence or in the past, which has or had an unquestionable negative perception (e.g., was considered a failure), or is depicted in such way.",[]],["The most common example, which has given its name in the literature (i.e. Reduction ad Hitlerum) to that technique is making comparisons to Hitler and the Nazi regime. However, it is important to emphasize, that this technique is not restricted to comparisons to that group only. More precisely, this can be done by claiming a link or an equivalence between the target of the technique to any individual, group, or event in the presence or in the past, which has or had an unquestionable negative perception (e.g., was considered a failure), or is depicted in such way.",[]]],"sy":[["Reduction ad Hitlerum",[]]],"sp":[["Attack on reputation",[]]],"ex":[["making comparisons to Hitler and the Nazi regime",[]],["Example: Manohar is a big supporter for equal pay for equal work. This is the same policy that all those extreme feminist groups support. Extremists like Manohar should not be taken seriously.",[]],["Manohar is a big supporter for equal pay for equal work. This is the same policy that all those extreme feminist groups support. Extremists like Manohar should not be taken seriously.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attack on reputation",[]]]},{"sb":[["Flag Waving [J:FW]",[]],["Appeal to Authority [J:AA]",[]],["Appeal to Popularity [J:AP]",[]],["Appeal to Values [J:AV]",[]],["Appeal to Fear, Prejudice [J:AF]",[]],["Flag Waving",[]],["Appeal to Authority",[]],["Appeal to Popularity",[]],["Appeal to Values",[]],["Appeal to Fear, Prejudice",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["The connection to nationalism, patriotism, or benefit for an idea, group, or country might be fully undue and is usually based on the presumption that the recipients already have certain beliefs, biases, and prejudices about the given issue.",[]],["It can be seen as an appeal to emotions instead to logic of the audience aiming to manipulate them to win an argument.",[]],["As such, this technique can also appear outside the form of well constructed argument, by simply making mentions that resonate with the feeling of a particular group and as such setting up a context for further arguments.",[]],["The stereotypical example would be national pride, and hence the name of the technique; however, the target group it applies to might be any group, e.g., related to race, gender, political preference, etc. The connection to nationalism, patriotism, or benefit for an idea, group, or country might be fully undue and is usually based on the presumption that the recipients already have certain beliefs, biases, and prejudices about the given issue. It can be seen as an appeal to emotions instead to logic of the audience aiming to manipulate them to win an argument. As such, this technique can also appear outside the form of well constructed argument, by simply making mentions that resonate with the feeling of a particular group and as such setting up a context for further arguments.",[]]],"ex":[["Example: We should make America great again, and restrict the immigration laws.",[]],["We should make America great again, and restrict the immigration laws.",[]]]},{"de":[["It is also known as Appeal to Argument from Emotive Language.",[]]],"sy":[["Appeal to Argument from Emotive Language",[]]],"sb":[["Obfuscation, Intentional Vagueness, Confusion",[]],["Exaggeration or Minimisation",[]],["Repetition",[]]],"sp":[["Manipulative Wording",[]]],"ex":[["It's standard practice to pay men more than women so we'll continue adhering to the same standards this company has always followed.",[]],["They keep feeding these people with trash. They should stop.",[]],["Example: They keep feeding these people with trash. They should stop.",[]]]},{"de":[["rhetorical dimension",[]]]},{"sb":[["Loaded Language",[]],["Obfuscation, Intentional Vagueness, Confusion",[]],["Exaggeration or Minimisation",[]],["Repetition",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["Labelling an object as either something the target audience fears, hates, or on the contrary finds desirable or loves. This technique calls for a qualitative judgement that disregards facts and focuses solely on the essence of the subject being characterized. This technique is in a way also a manipulative wording, as it is used at the level of the nominal group rather than being a full-fledged argument with a premise and a conclusion.",[]],["Labelling an object as either something the target audience fears, hates, or on the contrary finds desirable or loves. This technique calls for a qualitative judgement that disregards facts and focuses solely on the essence of the subject being characterized.",[]]],"rt":[["Loaded Language",[]]],"sp":[["Attack on reputation",[]]],"ex":[["'Fascist' Anti-Vax Riot Sparks COVID Outbreak in Australia",[]],["'Fascist' Anti-Vax Riot Sparks COVID Outbreak in Australia.",[]],["Example: 'Fascist' Anti-Vax Riot Sparks COVID Outbreak in Australia.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attack on reputation",[]]]},{"de":[["For example, an unclear phrase with multiple or unclear definitions is used within the argument and, therefore, does not support the conclusion. Statements that are imprecise and intentionally do not fully or vaguely answer the question posed fall under this category too.",[]]],"sp":[["Manipulative Wording",[]]],"ex":[["Feathers cannot be dark, because all feathers are light!",[]],["Example: Feathers cannot be dark, because all feathers are light!",[]]]},{},{"de":[["We use a 2-level persuasion techniques taxonomy, which is an extended version of the flat taxonomy introduced in Da San Martino et al. (2019).",[]]],"rt":[["propaganda detection",[]]],"sb":[["Attack on Reputation",[]],["Justification",[]],["Simplification",[]],["Distraction",[]],["Call",[]],["Manipulative wording",[]]]},{"de":[["Whether the claims are true or false is irrelevant for the effective use of this technique.",[]],["Smears can be used at any point in a discussion.",[]],["One particular way of using this technique is to preemptively call into question the reputation/credibility of an opponent, before he had any chance to express himself, therefore biasing the audience perception.",[]],["the former focuses on questioning the capacity, the capabilities, and the credibility of the target, while the latter targets undermining the overall reputation, moral qualities, behaviour, etc.",[]],["Whether the claims are true or false is irrelevant for the effective use of this technique. Smears can be used at any point in a discussion. One particular way of using this technique is to preemptively call into question the reputation/credibility of an opponent, before he had any chance to express himself, therefore biasing the audience perception. Hence, one of the name of that technique is \"poisoning the well.\"",[]]],"sy":[["poisoning the well",[]]],"sp":[["Attack on reputation",[]]],"ex":[["I hope I presented my argument clearly. Now, my opponent will attempt to refute my argument by his own fallacious, incoherent, illogical version of history",[]],["Example: I hope I presented my argument clearly. Now, my opponent will attempt to refute my argument by his own fallacious, incoherent, illogical version of history",[]]]},{"sp":[["Attack on reputation",[]]]},{"de":[["The aim of attempting to redirect the argument to another issue is to focus on something the person doing the redirecting can better respond to or to leave the original topic unaddressed.",[]],["The name of that technique comes from the idea that a fish with a strong smell (like a herring) can be used to divert dogs from the scent of someone they are following.",[]],["The aim of attempting to redirect the argument to another issue is to focus on something the person doing the redirecting can better respond to or to leave the original topic unaddressed. The name of that technique comes from the idea that a fish with a strong smell (like a herring) can be used to divert dogs from the scent of someone they are following. A strawman (defined earlier) is also a specific type of a red herring in the way that it distracts from the main issue by painting the opponent's argument in an inaccurate light.",[]]],"rt":[["strawman",[]]],"sb":[["Distraction Strawman",[]]],"sp":[["Distraction",[]]],"ex":[["Lately, there has been a lot of criticism regarding the quality of our product. We've decided to have a new sale in response, so you can buy more at a lower cost!",[]],["Lately, there has been a lot of criticism regarding the quality of our product. We've decided to have a new sale in response, so you can buy more at a lower cost!.",[]],["Example: Lately, there has been a lot of criticism regarding the quality of our product. We've decided to have a new sale in response, so you can buy more at a lower cost!",[]]]},{"sp":[["Distraction",[]]]},{"sp":[["Manipulative Wording",[]]],"ex":[["Hurtlocker deserves an Oscar. Other films have potential, but they do not deserve an Oscar like Hurtlocker does. The other movies may deserve an honorable mention but Hurtlocker deserves the Oscar.",[]],["Example: Hurtlocker deserves an Oscar. Other films have potential, but they do not deserve an Oscar like Hurtlocker does. The other movies may deserve an honorable mention but Hurtlocker deserves the Oscar.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It deliberately exposes real-world individuals, organisations and events to ridicule.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Causal Oversimplification",[]],["False Dilemma or No Choice",[]],["Consequential Oversimplification",[]]],"sp":[["persuasion techniques",[]]]},{"de":[["Slogans tend to act as emotional appeals.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Distraction",[]]]},{"sp":[["Distraction",[]]]},{"ex":[["Feathers cannot be dark, because all feathers are light!",[]]]},{"de":[["Instead of answering a critical question or argument, an attempt is made to retort with a critical counter-question that expresses a counteraccusation, e.g., mentioning double standards, etc. The intent is to distract from the content of a topic and to switch the topic actually.",[]],["There is a fine distinction between this technique and Appeal to Hypocrisy, introduced earlier, where the former is an attack on the argument and introduces irrelevant information to the main topic, while the latter is an attack on reputation and highlights the hypocrisy of double standards on the same or a very related topic.",[]],["Instead of answering a critical question or argument, an attempt is made to retort with a critical counter-question that expresses a counteraccusation, e.g., mentioning double standards, etc. The intent is to distract from the content of a topic and to switch the topic actually. There is a fine distinction between this technique and Appeal to Hypocrisy, introduced earlier, where the former is an attack on the argument and introduces irrelevant information to the main topic, while the latter is an attack on reputation and highlights the hypocrisy of double standards on the same or a very related topic.",[]]],"rt":[["Appeal to Hypocrisy",[]]],"sp":[["Distraction",[]]],"ex":[["A nation deflects criticism of its recent human rights violations by pointing to the history of slavery in the United States.",[]],["Example: A nation deflects criticism of its recent human rights violations by pointing to the history of slavery in the United States.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Distraction",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In the Indian context, 'Islamic feminism' thus poses a dilemma at the theoretical-conceptual level. On the one hand, some women dislike being associated with Islamic feminism. On the other hand, in actual practice, Muslim feminist organising has been heavily influenced by both Islamic texts as well as texts of modern feminist thought.",[]],["In the Indian context, 'Islamic feminism' thus poses a dilemma at the theoretical-conceptual level. On the one hand, some women dislike being associated with Islamic feminism.",[]]]},{"de":[["a term that both juxtaposes and conflates an urge to idealize and desire Indians and a need to despise and dispossess them",["4"]]]},{"de":[["a person living in a wild state . . . regarded as primitive and uncivilized.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["associating Indigenous people with the forest is not simply a result of perceived gendered activities such as hunting and warfare that take place in the wooded spaces where so many white American males encountered Indigenous males.",[]],["it encapsulates an imaginative conflating of Indigenous bodies with trees, and the perceived benefit of clearing the American landscape of literal and figurative wildness.",[]]],"rt":[["daughters of the forest",[]],["vanishing Indian trope",[]]],"sb":[["rude sons of the forest",[]],["degraded sons of the forest",[]],["these benighted sons of the forest",[]],["poor sons of the forest",[]],["untutored sons of the forest",[]],["untaught sons of the forest",[]],["ignorant sons of the forest",[]]],"ex":[["half human sons of the forest",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["For example, in the claim \"Oxford vaccine triggers immune response\", a salient word would be \"triggers\".",[]]],"sy":[["keywords",[]]],"ex":[["in the claim \"Oxford vaccine triggers immune response\", a salient word would be \"triggers\".",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["claim",[]]]},{"de":[["mobilizing nationwide rescue and support, disciplining local state agents, conducting massive reconstruction",[]],["During this process, state propaganda engaged in both agitation (for example, mobilizing nationwide rescue and support, disciplining local state agents, conducting massive reconstruction) and publicity/persuasion (highlighting agitation efforts and achievements to validate propaganda messages).",[]]],"rt":[["publicity/persuasion",[]]],"sp":[["state propaganda",[]]]},{"rt":[["indoctrination",[]],["persuasion",[]],["agitation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Proponents of the \"hard propaganda\" viewpoint suggest that the state may not care about citizens' trust at all; they contend instead that rather than aiming at indoctrination and persuasion, propaganda functions effectively to signal the state's power and thus deter citizens from mobilizing.",[]],["effectively signals the state's power, deterring citizens from engaging in collective mobilization.",[]],["may help to preserve stability by signalling the state's strength, but it is even less effective in persuasion today.",["35","36","37","38","39","40","41"]],["hard propaganda under certain circumstances can be persuasive.",[]]],"rt":[["soft propaganda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["characterized the Soviet Union and Maoist China",[]],["built on the communist ideology, which drove both indoctrination and agitation",[]],["The state aimed to impose its will over citizens by changing their belief systems (justifying collectivization with communist ideology) to align with reality (state and collective land ownership).",[]]],"rt":[["agitprop",[]],["propaganda state 2.0",[]]]},{"de":[["explains how the Chinese state transformed crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic into opportunities to garner popular support and why zero-COVID ultimately ended up as a propaganda and governance fiasco.",[]],["the propaganda system is integrated with authoritarian governance -it is impossible to study state propaganda without a holistic understanding of the Chinese political system, and vice versa",[]],["propaganda in China has an agitprop tradition, aiming at both indoctrinating and persuading citizens (conventionally perceived propaganda functions today) and agitation (to mobilize)",[]],["puts propaganda back within the totality, reminding us of the agitprop tradition of the Chinese regime",[]],["it still exhibits the holistic attributes of a Leninist partystate",[]],["state propaganda remains a highly centralized system under the Party, serving both indoctrination/persuasion and agitation purposes",[]],["follows a performance legitimacy logic",[]],["more than just an attempt to persuade the public",[]],["highlighting the need to mobilize reality to render the propaganda effective",[]],["unlike the \"propaganda state\" built on the communist ideology, which drove both indoctrination and agitation, \"propaganda state 2.0\" follows a performance legitimacy logic and therefore functions differently in important ways. First, rather than indoctrinating citizens ideologically, it aims to persuade citizens by following a practical and non-ideological logic of \"seeing is believing\" with the state's governance performance. Second, given this performance legitimacy logic, agitation is now more targeted at state agents (goading them to achieve performance goals) than at citizens, who have become more spectators of state performance.",[]],["While the regime may mobilize reality to better align with its propaganda, there are associated costs -it is entirely conceivable that propaganda could be pulled down by unfavourable policies or poor policy performance. Moreover, propaganda can sometimes condition a policy agenda that is both costly and ineffective, leading to socio-economic or political disasters which, because of the totality of propaganda, can often indicate systemic failure.",[]],["This framework indicates that propaganda serves both persuasion and agitation functions.",[]],["it is a lens through which we can better understand state propaganda and politics in China today.",[]],["This system performs both conventional persuasion and indoctrination functions, as well as fulfilling the now underestimated mission of agitation, which can enhance the credibility of propaganda messages.",[]]],"rt":[["agitprop",[]],["propaganda state",[]],["performative state",[]],["performance legitimacy",[]],["act of agitation",[]],["state propaganda",[]],["hard and soft propaganda",[]],["hard propaganda",[]],["soft propaganda",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda state",[]]]},{"de":[["During this process, state propaganda engaged in both agitation (for example, mobilizing nationwide rescue and support, disciplining local state agents, conducting massive reconstruction) and publicity/persuasion (highlighting agitation efforts and achievements to validate propaganda messages).",[]]],"rt":[["agitation",[]]],"sp":[["state propaganda",[]]]},{},{"de":[["those of the \"soft propaganda\" camp argue that the state still intends to indoctrinate and persuade and has embraced many innovative tactics to better package propaganda messages so as to increase their appeal and credibility.",[]],["hiding propaganda traces",["18"]],["packaging and delivering propaganda messages more skilfully to make them appear to better reflect reality",[]],["Such tactics are often deceptive in nature.",[]],["the Chinese state cares about persuasion (thus it embraces soft propaganda tactics)",[]]],"rt":[["hard propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["the \"fifty-cent army\" hides its connection to the government",["43"]],["remote control disperses propaganda messages through marketized media",["45"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["inter-imperiality",[]]]},{"de":[["a practice often rooted in the power dynamics between languages and cultures in the world linguistic and translation system",["Rosa, Pięta and Maia, 2017, p. 114"]]],"sy":[["intermediate",["Toury, 1988, p. 139"]],["mediated",["Linder, 2014, p. 58"]],["second-hand translation",["Popovič, 1976, p. 19"]]]},{},{"de":[["a concept that underscores the ethical and political responsibility of translators, publishers, and scholars in post-imperial contexts",[]]]},{"rt":[["linguistic hegemony",[]]]},{},{"de":[["linguistic imperialism emerges as \"a primary component of cultural imperialism\" (Phillipson, 1992, p. 53), given that \"linguistic domination is strongly tied to cultural hegemony\" (Baumgarten, 2021(Baumgarten, , p. 1581)).",["Phillipson, 1992, p. 53","Baumgarten, 2021(Baumgarten, , p. 1581)"]]],"rt":[["linguistic violence",[]]],"sp":[["linguicism",["(Phillipson, 2010, p. 75)","Phillipson, 2010, p. 75"]],["cultural imperialism",["Phillipson, 1992, p. 53"]]]},{"de":[["This mode of conformism, as H. Arendt notes in The Origins of Totalitarianism, is marked by a constant undercurrent of regret.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["rumors acquire their power through familiarity",[]],["repetition of rumors can augment their 'fluency', thereby increasing the likelihood that individuals will accept misinformation as truth",[]],["Fluency is therefore a mental state arising between the interaction of an individual person and information in the environment.",[]],["fluency is a general mechanism that influences truth judgments independently of how it is instantiated",[]]],"ex":[["Fluency can be induced by any process that makes it easier to process new information, including the color and font of the text.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["robs racialized people of their humanity, leaving them unprotected by the law and subject to police suspicion.",["Haas (2022)"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a callous disregard and unwillingness to investigate leads or act on evidence for MMIWGs is central.",[]]]},{"sy":[["underpolicing",[]]],"rt":[["over-policing",[]]],"sb":[["gross negligence",[]],["failure to exercise proper duty of care",[]]],"sp":[["police violence",[]]]},{"de":[["e.g., use of force, lethal force, assault, etc.",[]],["these normative practices were embedded in laws and legislation, such as a lack of case law, the intoxicated persons detention act, and shooting centre mass policies.",[]],["These normative practices that perpetuate police impunity ended up naturalizing Indigenous dispossession and death as \"inevitable,\" and legitimatized the state violence behind it",["Garcia del Moral 2008","Klippmark & Crawley 2018"]]],"ex":[["a lack of case law, the intoxicated persons detention act, and shooting centre mass policies",[]]]},{"rt":[["inequitable protection",[]],["lethal use of force",[]],["excessive use of force",[]]],"sb":[["lethal use of force",[]],["excessive use of force",[]]],"sp":[["police violence",[]]],"ex":[["lethal use of force",["Aiello, 2023;Cuneen et al., 2017;Klippmark & Crawley, 2018"]],["excessive use of force",["Aiello, 2023;Cuneen et al., 2017;Klippmark & Crawley, 2018"]]]},{"rt":[["over-policing",[]],["inequitable protection",[]]]},{"de":[["Resistance to police, whether video capture of police actions, community vigils, and protests, was a mechanism of truth-telling-elucidated and augmented by media, against the layers of denial about state-induced traumas; it also spurred metaphorical action against dehumanization by the state",["Klippmark & Crawley, 2018","Powell, 2015"]]],"sy":[["Resistance to police",[]]],"ex":[["video capture of police actions, community vigils, and protests",[]]]},{"sy":[["inequitable protection",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["on the quantity of content modalities, the content-based rumor detection approaches can be classified as single-modal methods and multi-modal methods.",[]]],"sb":[["single-modal methods",[]],["multi-modal methods",[]]],"sp":[["rumor detection",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["rumor propagation",[]]],"sp":[["rumor detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Depending on the news features, rumor detection tasks can be broadly categorized as either content-based or propagation-based.",[]]],"rt":[["content-based rumor detection",[]],["Propagation-based rumor detection",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["was one of the usual strategies in the propaganda/counter-propaganda binomial, especially employed in the rebel media.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["For example, one word might be more frequent in the training data and therefore the LMs might generate it with higher probabilities. All X are lazy might have a higher probability than All X are diligent for any group X, just because lazy is a more common word.",[]]]},{"de":[["The LM is fed the sentence with the slot for the keyword masked and is asked to calculate the probabilities for both possible keywords. The measure of bias is the percentage of samples where the model prefers the stereotypical keyword",[]]],"rt":[["CrowS-Pairs",[]]]},{"rt":[["word filling behavior",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Fake news is one type of misinformation, which also includes disinformation, rumors, and propaganda.",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Fake news is one type of misinformation, which also includes disinformation, rumors, and propaganda.",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["un concepto acuñado en 1969 por Jean d'Arcy",[]]]},{"de":[["muchos consideran los derechos digitales como un espacio heterogéneo en lugar de un movimiento unificado (Postill, 2018).",["Postill, 2018"]],["estos documentos han sido interpretados como un medio para limitar el ejercicio del poder en el entorno en línea (Celeste, 2023).",["Celeste, 2023"]],["ha recibido críticas por su ambigüedad y su uso estratégico en diferentes proyectos políticos.",[]]],"rt":[["cultura participativa",[]],["libertades negativas",[]],["derechos positivos",[]],["capacidades de las plataformas",[]],["justicia informativa",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Basado en el paradigma de investigación postestructuralista, el enfoque de WPR se centra en la construcción de problemas sociales y la naturaleza inestable de sus significados.",[]],["una premisa del enfoque es que la investigación de las problematizaciones a lo largo del tiempo puede desafiar las representaciones actualmente dominantes",["Bacchi, 2009"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["reforma mediática",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["justicia mediática",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["convergent relations",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["parallel",[]],["additive",[]]]},{"sy":[["divergent",[]]]},{"de":[["Frames of communication are ubiquitous in social media discourse and can impact how people understand issues and, more importantly, how they form their opinions",["Chong and Druckman, 2007"]]],"rt":[["frame evocation",[]]],"ex":[["Confidence",[]],["Complacency",[]],["Constraints",[]],["Calculation",[]],["Collective",[]],["Conspiracy",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["convergent relations",[]]]},{"rt":[["Diverging relation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Instead of considering stance towards a target, we consider stance towards a frame of communication, which articulates precisely the relevant aspects highlighted by the frame.",[]]]},{"rt":[["multimodal stance",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["every group studied used conspiracy to demonise 'forces beyond our control, articulating an enemy to hate, sharply dividing the group from the non-group… the frequency of conspiracy theories within all these groups suggests that they play an important social and functional role within extremism itself.'",["10"]]],"rt":[["radicalisation",[]]]},{"de":[["What appears to be critical information evaluation actually serves as a process of conspiracy confirmation",[]]],"rt":[["critical information evaluation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["an overt goal of media literacy education",[]]],"rt":[["critical consumption of information",[]]]},{"de":[["The recurring plot casts the spectator in the role of a hero whose awareness and action can stop the omnipresent menace of trafficking.",[]],["The role of trafficking narratives as instruments of social cohesion are incredibly consistent.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["generative models such as generative adversarial networks (GANs)",[]]]},{"de":[["this malaise more generally to any false or misleading information that is purposely spread to deceive someone.",[]],["Fake news can be thought of as an instance of yellow journalism in which deliberate hoaxes are created and disseminated across traditional media or social media. Such hoaxes contain sensational, eye-catching, and fabricated content that is intentionally created to mislead, harm, and accomplish certain political and financial objectives.",[]]],"sy":[["disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]],["rumor mongering",[]]],"rt":[["deliberate hoaxes",[]]]},{"rt":[["personalized and customized news sites",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["large bold typefaces may indicate violence or mocking, while dark filters or distorted proportions can evoke discomfort, so promoting the demonization or trivialization of Harris' public image.",[]]]},{"de":[["A decontextualized speech quote turns a potentially rhetorical phrase into a subject of derision or sarcasm.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["visual elements, including eye gazing, facial expressions, modality (reality versus exaggeration), and textual tone (irony, satire, pathos)",[]]]},{"de":[["Memes are designed to be shared, retweeted, and repurposed, thereby increasing their ideological impact across various online platforms.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["By utilizing this approach, the researchers can thoroughly analyze how political memes use rhetorical components, including humour, irony, sarcasm, pathos, and exaggeration to deliver multiple cultural and political interpretations.",[]],["examine how visual elements in texts create significant ideological constructions that alter audience comprehension",[]],["examine how visual elements in texts create significant ideological constructions that alter audience comprehension.",["Kress and van Leeuwen (2006)"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["appeals to the viewer's feelings, which are frequently uncertainty, guilt, or discontent",[]],["mockery-pathos emerges from the audience's shared frustration or embarrassment at seeing a national leader portrayed as incoherent",[]]]},{"de":[["Political discourse is characterized by this polysemic effect",[]]],"rt":[["Political discourse",[]]]},{"ex":[["expressions (e.g., serious, laughing, angry, bewildered), and the symbolic implications of these representations within broader discussions of race, gender, and authority. For example, memes of Harris with exaggerated expressions frequently convey stereotypes such as the \"angry Black woman\" or the \"inept female leader.\"",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"ex":[["storytelling",[]],["news delivery",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["narratives of science",[]],["narratives of nature",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The selection of events to include in a story and their structuring in a particular sequence is used to endorse a moral standpoint, provide evaluative judgments, present eyewitness evidence as reliable, and contextualize and rationalize claims or counterclaims",["Zimmerman, 1998","Ochs and Capps, 2001","Thornborrow, 2001","Georgakopoulou, 2007","Ainsworth and Hardy, 2012"]],["storytelling as a social practice anchored in particular contexts and reflecting specific interactional goals",["Georgakopoulou, 2007"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["modest witnesses",[]]]},{"de":[["malicious websites that frequently release false or highly biased posts",["Starbird 2017"]]]},{},{"rt":[["rumor",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is often spread through social media platforms, where it can reach a wide audience quickly.",[]],["Fake news can take many forms, including misleading headlines, doctored images, and false stories.",[]],["It can be created for various reasons, including political gain, financial gain, or simply to cause chaos.",[]],["There are many shades of grey between false information and completely accurate information.",[]],["fake news stories can be difficult to distinguish from satire or other forms of humour.",[]]],"sy":[["Bogus news",[]],["false information",[]]],"ex":[["fake news stories about the COVID-19 pandemic have caused confusion and fear, leading some individuals to take dangerous actions such as ingesting bleach or other harmful substances.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Learning to assess news stories critically allows people to differentiate between genuine and fabricated news.",[]]],"ex":[["a media-literate individual would check the source of a news article, examine the author's credentials, and look for corroborating evidence from other sources.",[]]]},{"de":[["Analytical thinking is considered to be a broader cognitive ability",[]],["people with better analytical thinking are usually better at discerning fake news from the real news, regardless of their political orientation.",[]],["Analytical thinking seems to help in evaluating both content and format of health messages (fake, true, and edited messages) when an individual needs to decompose the whole into parts in order to evaluate these parts as well as the whole, to find disrupting parts of the message.",[]]],"rt":[["intuitive thinking",[]],["Type 2 processing",[]]],"sb":[["scientific reasoning",[]],["Analytical thinking is considered to be a broader cognitive ability, while scientific reasoning is a narrower ability.",[]]],"sp":[["broader cognitive ability",[]],["cognitive abilities",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["When a problem is simple, intuitive thinking helps us to come to quick decisions, gives us important cognitive shortcuts, and thus reduces endeavor and time.",[]]],"sy":[["System 1",[]]]},{"de":[["it refers to the perceived credibility and trustworthiness of the information, not the measure of the actual quality of the information",["240"]],["Message credibility can be evaluated by describing its accuracy, authenticity, and believability (Appelman and Sundar, 2016: 73).",["Appelman and Sundar, 2016: 73"]]],"rt":[["accuracy",["73"]],["authenticity",["73"]],["believability",["73"]],["media credibility",[]],["source credibility",[]],["Message credibility is also distinct from media or source credibility (e.g., Flanagin and Metzger, 2007;Appelman and Sundar, 2016;Sungur et al., 2016)",["Flanagin and Metzger, 2007","Appelman and Sundar, 2016","Sungur et al., 2016"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["warmth",[]]],"sb":[["ability",["Nicolas et al. (2021)"]],["assertiveness",["Nicolas et al. (2021)"]]],"sp":[["dimensions of stereotype content",["Nicolas et al. (2021)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["fairness measurement",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["When we use words like \"race\" or \"gender\", we are referring to perceived race or gender.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["allows us to isolate the influence of perceived social attributes depicted in images on text generated by LVLMs because other image details (e.g., image background) are held constant.",[]]],"rt":[["counterfactuals",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["competence",[]]],"sb":[["sociability",["Nicolas et al. (2021)"]],["morality",["Nicolas et al. (2021)"]]],"sp":[["dimensions of stereotype content",["Nicolas et al. (2021)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["formal",[]],["cognitive",[]],["motivational theories",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["aimed at emulating human intelligence",["Chan-Olmsted, 2019"]]],"sy":[["cognitive technologies",["Chan-Olmsted, 2019"]]]},{"sp":[["journalistic values",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Field theory is particularly relevant for analyzing power dynamics within journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["frequently serves as a normative framework in media studies",["Danzon-Chambaud & Cornia, 2021","Lindén, 2017b","Usher, 2017"]]]},{},{"sb":[["Organization-centered values",[]],["audience-centered values",[]]],"ex":[["accuracy",[]],["trust",[]],["objectivity",[]],["accountability",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These studies primarily investigated ownership structure, organizational culture, technical training programs, and the distribution of collective financial resources in journalism organizations-factors that affected the integration of AI in journalism.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["technology acceptance model (TAM)",[]]]},{"de":[["This friction, however, involves productive tension that reshapes the awareness of data scientists and AI engineers, prompting them to consider ethics more seriously than some of their previous places of employment",["Møller & Thylstrup, 2024, p. 9"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the platform's algorithms and user behavior are responsible for the formation of echo chambers, reinforcing pre-existing beliefs and polarizing political discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["a specific position was expressed in relation to the topic",[]],["part of the second-level agenda-setting process, namely priming",["Valenzuela and McCombs, 2021"]]],"rt":[["second-level agenda-setting process",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["highlighting a particular type of participation, internet activism (Jackson and Valentine, 2014)",["Jackson and Valentine, 2014"]]]},{"de":[["Twitter's fast-paced nature makes it vulnerable to the dissemination of false information and conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the second-level agenda-setting process",["Valenzuela and McCombs, 2021"]]],"rt":[["second-level agenda-setting process",[]]]},{"de":[["prominent platform for public discourse and opinion sharing",[]]]},{"rt":[["priming",[]]]},{"rt":[["thematic",[]]]},{"de":[["episodic frames lead audiences to attribute responsibility for issues such as poverty to individual citizens",["Iyengar, 1991"]],["thematic frames are stronger when there are no or weak emotional responses; and that the opposite is true for episodic frames.",["Aarøe (2011)"]],["episodic framing diverts attention from societal and political party responsibility",["Iyengar (1990)"]],["news stories using episodic frames tend to be more emotionally engaging",["Iyengar, 1991","Gross, 2008","Iyengar, 1991;Gross, 2008"]]],"rt":[["thematic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["frame-building studies thus treat framing as the dependent variable.",[]]],"rt":[["Frame-setting",[]]]},{"de":[["responses to news media framing cannot be directly observed",["Eberl et al., 2018"]]],"rt":[["Frame-building",[]]]},{"de":[["Framing serves four functions: (i) defining problems, (ii) diagnosing causes, (ii) making evaluative judgments, and (iv) suggesting solutions",["Entman, 1993","(Entman, 1993)"]],["Framing impacts what people notice about an issue, making it a key mechanism by which a text influences its audience.",[]]]},{"de":[["Issue-generic frames include policy frames that focus on aspects of issues important for policymaking, such as economic consequences or fairness and equality",["Boydstun et al., 2013"]]],"rt":[["issue-specific",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["issue-generic",[]]]},{"de":[["its impersonal sense can be in broad generalizations (thematic)",[]]],"rt":[["episodic",[]]]},{"de":[["thematic frames lead them to hold the government responsible",["Iyengar, 1991"]],["thematic frames are stronger when there are no or weak emotional responses",["Aarøe (2011)"]],["thematic frames can be more persuasive",["Iyengar, 1991","Gross, 2008","Iyengar, 1991;Gross, 2008"]]],"rt":[["episodic frames",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["source-indicative signals",[]]]},{},{"de":[["models are predisposed to rely on source cues in predicting political biases",[]],["ranging from sentences to templates to other patterns, which are often irrelevant to its context/semantics",[]]],"rt":[["source-indicative patterns",[]],["source-predictive patterns",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["the sentence \"Update at {time}\" frequently written in news articles in NPR while the first sentence in the most articles from USA Today tend to start with a city name (e.g., WASHING-TON)",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["informational bias",[]]],"ex":[["legality",[]],["public opinion",[]]]},{},{"de":[["journalists typically make a conscious effort to avoid biased language, but can still introduce informational bias, either intentionally or through negligence.",[]],["informational bias is often embedded in context, and therefore can appear at any position in the article.",[]],["informational bias is better captured by sentence-level context",[]],["the prevalence of informational bias in news articles when compared to lexical bias",[]],["Informational bias often depends on the broader context of an article, such as in the second FOX annotation in Figure 1: gathering new supporters would be benign in an article describing political campaign efforts.",[]],["Informational bias often depends on the broader context of an article",[]]],"rt":[["lexical bias",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]],["bias type",[]]]},{"de":[["Lexical bias appears early in an article.",[]],["the breakdown of lexical bias distinguishes FOX from the other two outlets: it comparatively has more negative bias spans towards liberals and fewer towards conservatives",[]],["these word-level cues, though widely used in prior sentiment analysis studies, are insufficient to fully capture lexical bias.",[]],["Such forms of bias typically do not depend on context outside of the sentence and can be alleviated while maintaining its semantics: polarized words can be removed or replaced, and clauses written in active voice can be rewritten in passive voice.",[]]],"rt":[["informational bias",[]]],"sp":[["bias type",[]]]},{"ex":[["an actor",[]],["an entertainer",[]],["a performer",[]],["a singer",[]],["a sports figure",[]]]},{"de":[["By using sensational and misleading headlines, especially on social media platforms, clickbait has the objective of attracting and determining online users to click on a given link to generate website traffic",["Zhang and Clough, 2020"]],["this negative phenomenon is being used to arouse interest and suspense to mislead and determine internet users to take any action, as a response to the created \"curiosity gap‖",["Zhang and Clough, 2020"]],["By using sensational and misleading headlines, especially on social media platforms, clickbait has the objective of attracting and determining online users to click on a given link to generate website traffic (Zhang and Clough, 2020).",["Zhang and Clough, 2020"]]],"rt":[["eye-catching breaking news announcements",[]],["phishing",[]],["spam",[]]]},{"de":[["Eye-tracking has the advantage that it measures the unconscious reactions of the consumer, facts that the consumer is unable to explain",["Pop et al., 2013","Rosca, 2017"]],["This method can be used to decide where a consumer looks at an advertisement, news article, or internet page, how long he holds his eye on a specific point, and follow his eye direction.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In the literature on social welfare attitudes, this type of information is typically referred to as deservingness cues.",[]],["varying the information about his motivation to work in return for receiving social welfare benefits and his efforts to find gainful employment instead of depending on public welfare",[]],["triggers stronger negative antisocial emotions and leads people to perceive them as more undeserving",["Hopmann et al., 2017","Petersen, Sznycer, Cosmides & Tooby, 2012"]]],"rt":[["social welfare attitudes",[]]]},{"de":[["This organizational setup grants the editorial policy a central place in shaping the news practices in a newsroom",["Duffy, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["how their education promotes the internalization of news values that privilege outlying, negative, vivid, and concrete information",["Harcup & O'Neill, 2001","Helfer & Van Aelst, 2016","Soroka, 2014"]]],"rt":[["professional socialization",[]]]},{"de":[["narrative of a concrete person who is personally affected by the issue to make it more accessible and interesting to ordinary people",[]],["exemplars illustrate the concrete implications through a vivid representation of the issue and the group affected by it to make the news story more engaging and relatable for the audience",["Hinnant et al., 2013"]],["a vivid but often biased way of representing public opinion on an issue",["Beckers et al., 2018"]],["Compared with abstract and statistical information or expert \"talking heads,\" exemplars illustrate the concrete implications through a vivid representation of the issue and the group affected by it to make the news story more engaging and relatable for the audience (Hinnant et al., 2013).",["Hinnant et al., 2013"]]],"sy":[["case study exemplars",["Iyengar, 1991"]],["episodic frames",["Iyengar, 1991"]],["human interest frames",["Iyengar, 1991"]]],"rt":[["vox populi",["Peter & Zerback, 2020"]],["case study exemplars",["Iyengar, 1991"]],["episodic frames",["Iyengar, 1991"]],["human interest frames",["Iyengar, 1991"]]],"sb":[["extreme exemplar",[]],["moderate exemplar",[]]],"ex":[["being a busy parent with children",[]],["having recently become unemployed",[]],["someone forced to lower their living standards during a high-inflation period",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["newsworthiness",[]]]},{"sy":[["news factors",[]]]},{"de":[["Newsworthiness therefore indexes the likelihood that a news story will be selected for publication",["Kepplinger & Ehmig, 2006, p. 27"]]],"rt":[["news value",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["a vivid but often biased way of representing public opinion on an issue",["Beckers et al., 2018"]]]},{"de":[["The term \"affordances\" was originally suggested by Gibson (1966) in the context of ecological psychology to explain what the environment affords animals.",[]]]},{"de":[["discussions about affordances have expanded in various directions, including recent research on social media affordances",[]],["anonymity, editability, persistence, and association with people",[]]],"sb":[["visibility",[]],["editability",[]],["persistence",[]],["association",[]],["anonymity",[]]]},{"de":[["Association with people indicates social ties between social media users.",[]],["Meanwhile, association with content refers to how a user interacts with social media information that appears relevant to them.",[]]],"sb":[["association with people",[]],["association with content",[]]]},{"sp":[["association",[]]]},{"sp":[["association",[]]]},{"sp":[["affordances",[]]]},{"sp":[["offensive language",[]],["hate speech is conceptualized as a subset of offensive language",[]]]},{"sp":[["affordances",[]]]},{"sp":[["affordances",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It caused fear, speculation, and rumors among the population",["Arroyo-Sánchez et al., 2020"]],["false or unreliable news that could be misleading and, as a whole, caused infodemic among the population",[]]]},{"sp":[["native advertising",[]]]},{"de":[["In such situations, individuals engage in a thorough evaluation of the message and process its content in depth.",[]]],"sp":[["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]]},{"de":[["By emphasizing fear and urgency, such ads tap into consumers' emotional responses, fostering a heightened need for products and services that promise relief or protection.",[]]],"ex":[["uncertainty",[]],["Multiple combinations",[]],["Use of numbers",[]],["Emphasis on emotions",[]],["Use of vague pronouns",[]],["Reverse narrative style",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a model applicable to various areas of theory and practice, including psychotherapy and counselling",["Petty et al., 1984a","Cacioppo et al., 1985"]],["as well as mass media advertising, selling and marketing communications",["Petty et al., 1984b","Cacioppo & Petty, 1985","Kemeter & Bušljeta Banks, 2013","El Hedhli & Zourrig, 2022"]],["At its core, the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) explains how persuasive communication can influence attitude change.",[]]],"rt":[["central route",[]],["peripheral route",[]]],"sb":[["central route",["Petty & Cacioppo, 1986"]],["peripheral route",[]]]},{"de":[["its objectives extend beyond mere revenue generation, aiming to capture the attention of potential customers, stimulate word-of-mouth effects, and foster customer engagement with a brand or product",["Brown & Hayes, 2008"]]],"sp":[["endorsement marketing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["linguistic style encompasses not just verbal expressions but also that structural and visual elements influence how the audience perceives the message",[]]]},{"sy":[["Nativno oglašavanje",[]]]},{"de":[["serves as an umbrella term intended to simplify the classification of hybrid forms",[]],["Its purpose is to attract a target audience with useful content while simultaneously promoting a brand, its values, and its products (Cole & Greer, 2013;Howe & Teufel, 2014;Wojdynski & Evans, 2016).",[]],["Its purpose is to attract a target audience with useful content while simultaneously promoting a brand, its values, and its products",[]]],"sy":[["sponsored content",[]],["content marketing",[]],["brand journalism",[]]],"rt":[["sponsored content",[]],["content marketing",[]],["brand journalism",[]]],"sb":[["branded/native content",[]]]},{"de":[["shape the reach and effectiveness of native advertisements",[]],["visual content provide powerful peripheral cues that quickly capture attention",[]],["influencers' reputation and appeal, which serve as a strong peripheral cue for the audience",[]],["crucial role of peripheral cues in attracting initial audience attention",[]],["native ads leveraging strong peripheral cues, such as influencers, clickbait headlines, and rich visual elements",[]]]},{"de":[["Conversely, under different circumstances, individuals may lack the motivation to carefully assess information and instead focus on superficial and external cues.",[]]],"sp":[["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]]},{"sp":[["Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)",[]]]},{"de":[["Such sources may be diverse, including other individuals, government agencies, other media organizations, and non-governmental organizations",["Malović, 2005"]],["In an advertising context, they can also include employees within an organization, product or service users, and others.",[]],["Such sources may be diverse, including other individuals, government agencies, other media organizations, and non-governmental organizations (Malović, 2005).",["Malović, 2005"]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["5 things you missed at the town hall meeting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["results from actionable bias measures should facilitate informed actions with respect to the bias under measurement.",[]],["Such results might communicate aspects of the measured bias such as who is impacted or harmed by a system, the degree and scale of impact or harm, or potential sources of the issue.",[]],["Providing descriptions of the mechanical conditions and socio-historical context and that render the result of a measure meaningful facilitates actionability by bounding a measure's application space, thereby giving potential users of a measure the information needed to assess whether the measure is appropriate for their use cases.",[]]],"rt":[["accountability",[]],["transparency",[]],["interpretability",[]],["validity",[]]],"sp":[["hypothesis validity",[]]],"ex":[["targeted improvements to training or fine-tuning processes",["Talat and Lauscher, 2022","Lauscher et al., 2021","Delobelle and Berendt, 2023","Bartl et al., 2020","Attanasio et al., 2022"]],["deployment of appropriate safeguards",["Tamkin et al., 2023","Suau et al., 2024","Bauer et al., 2024"]],["decisions to re-design or not to deploy",["Birhane et al., 2024"]],["changes in regulation or policy",["Kolkman, 2020","Sztandar-Sztanderska and Zieleńska, 2022"]]]},{"ex":[["automatically downgrading the resumes of female applicants in recruiting",["Li et al. (2022)"]]]},{},{"de":[["a bias construct articulates the measure's scope-e.g., what impacts or harms the measure is intended to capture, for which populations those impacts or harms are intended to be captured, or what constitutes impact or harm.",[]]]},{"de":[["which is applied to measure bias.",[]]],"rt":[["bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Broadly, intended use seeks to describe a wide variety of conditions that may be mechanistic-e.g., models, data, or hyper-parameters-or social, e.g., particular social settings in which the result of a measure is considered meaningful.",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["measuring direct discrimination",["Sweeney and Najafian, 2019"]],["adapting to new socio-cultural contexts",["Bhatt et al., 2022"]],["extending to new languages",["Huang et al., 2020"]]]},{},{"sp":[["belief fixation",[]]]},{"de":[["Belief brings to the individual a sense of security that guides their desires and, consequently, shapes their opinions and actions. On the contrary, doubt generates a state of discomfort and dissatisfaction that we wish to free ourselves from in order to return to the state of belief.",[]]],"sb":[["tenacity",[]],["authority",[]]]},{"de":[["which start to consider other bubbles as inconvenient, whose members would not have an affinity with their beliefs. And, therefore, they begin to practice contempt or verbal attacks on the members of those other bubbles.",[]],["Those virtual environments, called echo chambers or bubbles, reinforce the perspective of the subjects and promote confirmation biases, and thus the content produced becomes viral.",[]]],"sy":[["echo chambers",["Törnberg, 2018"]]],"rt":[["polarisation of political and social relations",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["According to Karhawi (2017, p. 3), influencers are those who have some power in a subject's decision-making purchase process; power to put discussions into circulation; power to influence decisions about the lifestyle, preferences, and cultural assets of those who are in their network.",["Karhawi (2017, p. 3)"]]]},{},{"sy":[["bubbles",["Törnberg, 2018"]]]},{},{"de":[["many of those fake news have political objectives, and mathematics is customarily used in political debates and argumentation structures to provide credibility to information.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["mathematical arguments used in discourses can give credibility to false news and be responsible for fixing beliefs and forming opinions",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["attitude -often disseminated in schools and society -that assumes that mathematics will provide neutral responses to the problems of reality, responses free of social, political or ideological interests.",[]],["responsible for establishing beliefs by the method of authority that tend to disguise or hide social problems.",[]],["In the school context, when teachers focus on checking algorithmic procedures or their results, taking for granted a pre-established answer, ideology is established.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Those institutions are supposed to enjoy control of the truth.",[]],["In the conception of Peirce (1877), to avoid the state of irritation that doubt causes, there is a natural impulse to accommodate human beings to delegate to the authorities the management of what is assumed to be true.",["1877","Peirce (1877)"]],["The institutions of authority appropriate this impulse to maintain control and regulate opinions.",[]],["No institution is able to administer opinions on all matters. Institutions are effective in managing only the issues that are most dear to them.",[]],["establishing beliefs by the method of authority that tend to disguise or hide social problems.",[]],["when the teacher, the textbook, the answers at the end of the book, and the assessments become authorities that hide the scenario of correction and development of knowledge.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The method consists of regularly reiterating to ourselves the belief for which we have sympathy and then learning to look with contempt and indignation at what may disturb us.",[]]],"rt":[["authority",[]],["the a priori method",[]],["the scientific method",[]],["fixation of beliefs",[]]],"sp":[["belief fixation",[]]],"ex":[["fanaticism that causes a subject to refuse the introduction of new experiences that would be able to modify their beliefs",[]]]},{"de":[["Social engagement based on this method tends to ignore contrary evidence and disregard divergent opinions",[]]],"rt":[["authority",[]],["the a priori method",[]],["the scientific method",[]]],"ex":[["The method consists of regularly reiterating to ourselves the belief for which we have sympathy and then learning to look with contempt and indignation at what may disturb us.",[]]]},{"de":[["digital repression is a tool that allows governments to save the negative costs of mass mobilization and direct repression, however, digital repression has specific costs, specifically those related to implementing the technological platforms needed for surveillance, bots acquisition and servers.",[]],["digital repression allows surveillance to happen at scale when done at an internet backbone or at the level of an internet service provider, which provides regimes with unprecedented windows into public discontent, social movements, and even lowerlevel state functionaries whose incompetence or corruption may incite social unrest.",[]],["specifically those related to implementing the technological platforms needed for surveillance, bots acquisition and servers.",[]],["it could be a mechanism to prevent bigger costs in the future, i.e., costs related to direct repression, the government's image, and possible reelections.",[]]],"ex":[["censorship and mass surveillance measures, manipulation through disinformation campaigns and internet censorship",[]]]},{"de":[["Repression has been used by democratic and autocratic governments (although at different levels); it often consists of deploying police or military forces in the streets where the protests are occurring or of incarcerating key members of social movements. Its moves are all directed at undermining resistance in general.",[]]]},{"de":[["manipulation through disinformation (i.e., spreading fake news through social media) could be a potent tool for a politician or government intending to stay in power.",[]]],"sy":[["false information",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["As direct/analog repression is very costly, it is recognized that unnoticed acts or those done in ways that make the connection to the protest harder to discern are likely more practical and effective; in this realm, social media has enormous potential.",[]],["Overt strategies would include government-linked accounts posting distracting information and/or flooding online spaces or hashtags with irrelevant material, and covert strategies include creation of disinformation and/or misrepresentations that would influence the perception of key topics by social media users.",[]],["This is achieved by fostering a specific perspective, altering topics, or creating the illusion of widespread support for a specific viewpoint.",[]],["city-and county-level governments primarily implement information channeling, such as flooding online spaces with non-political, highly positive content from local government social media accounts before periods of heightened risk of collective action",["Lu and Pan, 2021"]]],"sp":[["preventive digital repression",[]]],"ex":[["In China, city-and county-level governments primarily implement information channeling, such as flooding online spaces with non-political, highly positive content from local government social media accounts before periods of heightened risk of collective action (Lu and Pan, 2021).",["Lu and Pan, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["governments can use digital surveillance to harvest intelligence to target coercion.",[]],["For example, governments can use digital surveillance to harvest intelligence to target coercion.",[]]],"sp":[["preventive digital repression",[]]]},{"de":[["Wagner (2018) suggests that effectively preventing mobilization is crucial for short-term Internet shutdowns, while negating the presence of \"others\" is more pertinent for explaining long-term shutdowns.",["Wagner (2018)"]]]},{"de":[["increasing levels of manipulation through social media increases the occurrence of mass mobilization.",[]]],"rt":[["demonstrations",[]],["strikes",[]],["sit-ins",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["mass mobilization",[]]]},{"sb":[["fake accounts",[]],["troll farms",[]],["political propaganda",[]]]},{"sb":[["presenting",[]],["gamifying",[]]]},{"sb":[["gamifying",[]],["motivating",[]],["interacting",[]],["reflecting",[]]]},{"sp":[["video games",[]]]},{"sb":[["promoting",[]],["criticizing",[]],["recruiting",[]],["awareness",[]],["identities",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["the cultivation of ludus",["Walz & Deterding, 2014"]],["the gameful world",["Walz & Deterding, 2014"]]]},{"sb":[["protesting",[]],["voting",[]],["producing",[]]]},{"de":[["political discourse consists of the language-in-use, behaviors, values, ways of thinking, and other social practices that are associated with politics.",[]],["consists of the language-in-use, behaviors, values, ways of thinking, and other social practices that are associated with politics. This includes the language used by politicians, the rhetoric of political campaigns, the language used in political news coverage, and the everyday conversations that people have about politics-in this specific context, within digital games and social platforms.",[]],["In this vein, political discourse consists of the language-in-use, behaviors, values, ways of thinking, and other social practices that are associated with politics. This includes the language used by politicians, the rhetoric of political campaigns, the language used in political news coverage, and the everyday conversations that people have about politics-in this specific context, within digital games and social platforms.",[]]],"rt":[["language used by politicians",[]],["rhetoric of political campaigns",[]],["language used in political news coverage",[]],["everyday conversations that people have about politics",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Education",[]]]},{"de":[["The papers studied mention the use of a pixelated or cartoonish aesthetic to convey political messages for parodic or humoristic purposes",["Gómez García & de la Hera, 2023"]]],"sb":[["political figures",[]],["political parties",[]],["political events",[]]]},{"de":[["can offer interactive engagement with real-world events and issues, providing an engaging and memorable experience.",[]]],"sy":[["Newsgames",[]]],"sb":[["persuasive games",[]],["expressive games",[]]],"sp":[["video games",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["an element of confirmation bias can be explained within the Bayesian framework",[]]],"rt":[["tenacious Bayesian",[]]]},{"de":[["although this terminology can be confusing in a political discussion",[]]]},{},{"de":[["deliberate or malicious disinformation that misguide the public",[]],["The intention of deliberate disinformation-the so-called \"fake news\"-is, as many people interpret the phrase nowadays, to create a bias in people's minds so as to impact their behaviors and decision makings.",[]],["Because disinformation is not part of the \"signal\" that in some sense represents truth, it can be viewed as a kind of noise.",[]],["the release of deliberate disinformation is equivalent to the introduction of a bias into the noise that is undetected by the receiver of the information.",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["if a decision maker were to assign, say, a very low a priori probability on one of the alternatives, then the interpretation here is that the probability merely reflects the subjective perception of that decision maker, while in reality the objective probability of that alternative being selected may remain high",[]],["In other words, a false belief does not represent a rare event.",[]]]},{"de":[["this can be exploited by a malicious fake-news advocator",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation given to the public ultimately determines how they act and spreads certain moral judgments to the people who read the disinformation",["5"]],["aim to mislead, deceive, or confuse readers",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["hoax",[]]]},{"de":[["The dissemination of hoax information usually has a dual purpose: to persuade or manipulate public opinion.",["7"]],["The spread of hoaxes is also usually accompanied by fraud and even threats",["7"]],["aim to mislead, deceive, or confuse readers",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The widespread fake news can negatively impact individuals and society",["Shu, Sliva, Wang, Tang, and Liu 2017"]]]},{},{"de":[["formal legal arguments will typically entail at least a degree of contestation",[]],["This may take place in a formal setting as part of the ordinary legal process, for example in domestic or international judicial proceedings. It may also occur in the context of legal interactions conducted outside, but in the shadow of, a formal legal process.",["106"]]],"rt":[["contestation of the law",[]],["contestation through the law",[]]],"sp":[["narrative contestation",[]]],"ex":[["letters before action or cease and desist notices sent by a private party to another",["106"]]]},{"de":[["These range from denying the applicability or validity of individual norms to more subtle re-interpretations of the existing rules.",[]]],"rt":[["norm entrepreneurship",[]],["contestation before the law",[]],["contestation through the law",[]]]},{"de":[["the use of legal language and arguments is designed primarily to obtain goals beyond the law, although it may have some incidental legal implications.",["114"]],["Here, the use of legal language and arguments is designed primarily to obtain goals beyond the law, although it may have some incidental legal implications.",[]]],"rt":[["contestation before the law",[]]],"sp":[["narrative contestation",[]]],"ex":[["international actors often appeal to high-level principles to portray themselves as good international citizens and to justify their policy choices as part of their overall strategic communication.",[]],["they may accuse other actors of breaching their legal obligations in an attempt to depict them and their conduct as irresponsible or otherwise question their legitimacy.",[]]]},{"de":[["Such a discourse ethic may prevail more readily in formal settings, but the findings of this paper suggest that actors may avoid formal venues in preference to informal settings precisely to escape such ethical strictures.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Adapted to the present context, the normative coherence of a narrative refers to its fit with pre-existing norms, including normative felicity conditions, while what we may term factual coherence refers to its capacity to establish the probable truth of propositions about facts.",[]]],"sy":[["narrative coherence",[]]]},{},{"de":[["understood here in a Habermasian sense",["69"]]]},{"de":[["In the past, information operations were conceived in narrow terms as activities designed to affect an adversary's information and informational capabilities whilst defending one's own.",["163"]]],"rt":[["information activities",[]]]},{"rt":[["legal narratives",[]]]},{"de":[["Narratives are a familiar feature of the law.",["1"]],["much about the law revolves around narration.",["2"]],["Stories, plots, events, and characters loom large everywhere.",["3"]],["Legal narratives abound at the international level too.",["4"]],["International actors, from States to non-governmental organisations, rely on the language of international law to portray themselves and the world in a particular way.",["5"]],["Clients tell stories to their lawyers, providing an account of their grievances, deeds, and aspirations. Lawyers retell these stories before the courts, translating them into the formal language of claims, allegations, and defences.",[]],["legal narratives create versions of legal reality.",["39"]],["This argumentative and instrumental character makes legal narratives an ideal tool of discursive contestation.",[]],["States and other international actors tell their legal stories and present their claims in the strongest possible form, glossing over weaknesses, gaps, and contradictions in their arguments.",[]],["Legal narratives are often less coherent than they may appear at first sight.",[]],["To be recognisable as legal narratives, they must also take some notice of normative felicity conditions, including paying at least lip-service to basic patterns of legal interpretation and reasoning.",[]],["the less a legal narrative aims to persuade a community of experts, but is directed primarily or exclusively at a lay audience instead, the more it can afford to disregard normative felicity conditions and aim to be merely plausible, rather than normatively valid and compelling.",[]],["They are marked by normative constraints imposed by the formal nature of legal reasoning and interpretation.",[]],["they also obey the logic of rhetoric and the policy choices they are meant to serve.",[]],["outside formal legal processes and venues, this tension becomes more acute. In such settings, fidelity to normative felicity conditions competes with the art of influence without the moderating impact that legal procedures and authorities exert. In the absence of epistemic scrutiny by legal experts and the prospect of an authoritative determination of their validity, legal narratives may stray far from the formalism of the law in pursuit of competing goals, above all in pursuit of information advantage.",[]],["legal narratives deployed in informal environments thus lend themselves to be utilised as instruments of misinformation and, as we have seen, fake law.",[]],["all legal narratives are both legal and political in character.",[]],["They serve to restrain and to enable the exercise of power through an appeal to norms.",[]]],"sy":[["legal stories",[]]],"rt":[["legal counter-narratives",[]],["legal storytelling",[]],["misinformation",[]],["fake law",[]]]},{"de":[["a means for making sense of the world from a legal perspective. By providing an account of events happening over time, it imposes order and meaning on what would otherwise be a random constellation of things, rules, and incidents.",[]],["a means for making sense of the world from a legal perspective.",[]],["By providing an account of events happening over time, it imposes order and meaning on what would otherwise be a random constellation of things, rules, and incidents.",[]]],"rt":[["legal narratives",[]]]},{"rt":[["narrative contestation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["dynamic and interactive character",["101"]],["a clash of competing discourses and framings",[]]],"rt":[["legal storytelling",[]],["legal topology",[]]],"sb":[["contest the authority of the law indirectly",[]],["contestation through the law",[]],["contestation before the law",[]],["narrative contestation before the law",[]]]},{"de":[["This may take place in a formal setting as part of the ordinary legal process, for example in domestic or international judicial proceedings.",[]],["It may also occur in the context of legal interactions conducted outside, but in the shadow of, a formal legal process.",[]]],"sp":[["Narrative Contestation",[]]],"ex":[["letters before action or cease and desist notices sent by a private party to another",[]],["formal setting as part of the ordinary legal process, for example in domestic or international judicial proceedings.",[]],["legal interactions conducted outside, but in the shadow of, a formal legal process. Examples include letters before action or cease and desist notices sent by a private party to another.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Adapted to the present context, the normative coherence of a narrative refers to its fit with pre-existing norms, including normative felicity conditions",[]]],"rt":[["narrative coherence",["16"]]]},{},{"ex":[["adoption of statutes",[]],["conclusion of contracts",[]]]},{"de":[["Image of a religious symbol with derogatory comment or video of a man abusing a particular community, all become hate speech with its every modality (such as text, image, and audio) contributing towards it.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These images were rated by 822 human participants on valence (degree of positivity or negativity) and arousal (intensity of the valenced response).",[]]],"rt":[["valence",[]]]},{"de":[["the current work finds consistently across all approaches, positive and generally strong correlations (Spearman's ρ of 0.83 ± 0.10) between intrinsic biases in VLM representational spaces and extrinsic bias outputs in zero-shot ITT and TTI retrieval tasks",[]],["measure how isolated valence signals in text and valence signals in images are propagated through VLMs",[]]],"rt":[["intrinsic biases",[]],["extrinsic bias outputs",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["intrinsic bias in the representational spaces of VLMs",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Our comprehensive analysis across 114 scenarios reveals consistent correlations between intrinsic and extrinsic biases, substantiating the directional influence implied by propagation.",[]]]},{"de":[["This approach allows the values associated with the target words to convey the psycho-semantic characteristics of the sentence.",[]],["These templates are designed to be semantically neutral, meaning they do not contribute novel semantic information but ensure that the target word phrases are placed within similar syntactic frames.",[]]],"rt":[["sentence template approach",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a primary dimension in our analysis",[]],["is the basic dimension along which biases are evaluated",["Eagly and Chaiken, 1998"]],["These images were rated by 822 human participants on valence (degree of positivity or negativity) and arousal (intensity of the valenced response).",[]],["a primary dimension in our analysis, as it captures biased attitudes critical to understanding bias manifestation in AI",["Toney and Caliskan, 2021","Osgood et al., 1957"]]],"rt":[["arousal",[]]]},{"de":[["help create conditions for activating human agency and facilitating positive change",["40"]]],"sp":[["entertainment-education",[]]]},{"de":[["entertainment media for mass audiences have been used to raise awareness, increase knowledge, spur discussions, shift attitudes, and influence practice using a social and behavior change communication strategy called entertainment-education",["56","58","59","60"]],["used to raise awareness, increase knowledge, spur discussions, shift attitudes, and influence practice",[]]]},{"de":[["The notion of framing was initially developed by Goffman as a way to help people organize and process information in everyday life",["42"]],["Gitlin further connected framing with mass media in the context of news coverage when reporters employ frames to draw public attention to certain aspects of a phenomenon",["43"]],["the two essential elements of framing are selection and salience",[]],["a way to help people organize and process information in everyday life",["42"]],["reporters employ frames to draw public attention to certain aspects of a phenomenon",["43"]],["Entman explicated that \"to frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation for the item described\" (p. 52) [38].",["38"]]]},{"de":[["it has been used in social psychology, communication research, and media studies",[]]]},{"de":[["with tremendous values for research because they are an indispensable part of the popular culture and can have a significant impact on individual audiences, social norms, and even public policy",["56","67","68","69","70"]]]},{"ex":[["An example is \"凯勒奇\", a reference to the anti-Semitic Kalergi Program, which is used as an inflammatory term.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["surface features",[]]],"sy":[["abbreviations",[]]],"sp":[["surface features",[]]]},{"de":[["expressions in hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["categories of toxic expressions",[]],["expressions in hate speech",[]],["Hate speech",[]]]},{"rt":[["hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["Toxic language",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["general offensive language",[]]],"sb":[["Reporting",[]],["Implicitness",[]],["Explicitness",[]]],"sp":[["Toxic language",[]]]},{"de":[["surface features",[]]],"rt":[["deformation",[]]],"sp":[["surface features",[]]],"ex":[["For instance, netizens always substitute \"满\" (meaning \"Manchu\") for \"蛮\" (meaning \"barbarians\"), both of which are pronounced similarly to \"man\".",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["indirect expressions",[]]],"ex":[["stereotype",[]],["irony",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["expressions in hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["categories of toxic expressions",[]],["expressions in hate speech",[]],["Hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["microaggressions",[]],["stereotyping",[]]]},{"ex":[["Like \"仙女\" (meaning \"fairy\"), what was originally a gentle and kind image is implied to be a rude and impolite \"shrew\".",[]]]},{"ex":[["In the term \"蠢驴\" (meaning \"silly donkey\"), the publisher compares men to donkeys, transmitting aggression against others.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["expressions in hate speech",[]]],"sp":[["categories of toxic expressions",[]],["expressions in hate speech",[]],["Hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a tendency of Muslim representatives to use an adaptation strategy",[]]],"rt":[["protest",[]],["decoupling",[]]]},{"de":[["People whom we classified as adaptation-oriented often argued that they wanted to pursue constructive activities and to believe in initiating dialogue.",[]],["Those who display the pattern of adaptation focus on finding similarities between Muslims and non-Muslims in order to minimise the gap between internal and external demands.",[]]],"sy":[["adaptation model",[]],["adaptation strategy",[]],["adaptation-oriented",[]]],"ex":[["organisation of multifaith meetings and joining multicultural events",[]],["Examples include the organisation of multifaith meetings and joining multicultural events.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This happens, for instance, when representatives aim to stay away from the debate and avoid confrontation with the outside audience. While this might come across as an evasive strategy, Rosenow-Williams treats decoupling not as a negative strategy, but as a possible \"functional alternative\" for reconciling conflicting expectations between internal and external demands",["ibid."]],["This strategy is passive and has the advantage that the representative does not have to worry about journalists, but it has the disadvantage that the community does not feel protected.",[]]],"sy":[["decoupling strategy",[]]]},{"de":[["The external function may require that representatives work closely together with the government",[]]],"ex":[["one important external function representatives hold is arguably to engage in the political debate in the media",[]]]},{"de":[["they can control to a certain extent what kind of actors and which issues are introduced into the public sphere",["McCombs, and Shaw, 1972","Koopmans, 2004","Cinalli and Giugni, 2013a","Koomen and van Heelsum, 2013"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Externally, some representatives may have openly protested on TV to defend their faith or community. Internally, they aimed to show members how wrong the general picture is.",[]],["In these cases, they actively protested against the negative image by trying to formulate a more positive identity, both internally and externally.",[]]],"sy":[["protest strategy",[]],["protest category",[]]]},{"de":[["detect fake news (i.e., designing a classifier to judge a piece of given news as real or fake)",[]]]},{"sp":[["cross-modal correlations",[]]]},{"de":[["we consider the multimodal news as entity inconsistent only when there are no aligned multimodal entities.",[]]],"ex":[["if the person mentioned in the text is inconsistent with the recognized celebrity in the image, this news post may be fake with misused images (see Figure 1(a))",[]]]},{"de":[["This paper targets multimodal fake news detection, which is utilizing information of multiple modalities (here, text and images) to detect fake news.",[]]]},{"de":[["of importance in understanding the news semantics and also helpful in detecting fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["important for semantic understanding and fake news detection",[]]],"sb":[["organizations, such as Nazi, Buddhism and police, by detecting flags or clothes",[]],["eye-striking visual concepts, such as violence, bloodiness, and disaster",["20"]],["general objects and scenes",[]]],"ex":[["celebrities and landmarks",[]]]},{},{"de":[["natural language watermarking methods represent watermarks by replacing words in original sentences with synonyms from handcrafted lexical resources (e.g., WordNet), but they do not consider the substitution's impact on the overall sentence's meaning.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the concept of agenda setting has expanded to agenda building and political agenda setting",[]]],"rt":[["agenda building",[]],["political agenda setting",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the text can communicate if the frames are the same or similar both in the sender and in the receiver.",[]],["Frames as shared fi gures are based on the attitudes of the journalist (columnists) who organize the reality and the audience that is able to understand the meaning of the frame",["Ardèvol-Abreu, 2015"]],["the researcher determines linguistic elements that signify a frame",["Matthes & Kohring, 2008"]]],"rt":[["framing",[]],["media frames",[]],["audience frames",[]]],"sb":[["syntactical",[]],["script",[]],["thematic",[]],["rhetorical and stylistic choices",[]]]},{"de":[["those who would like to introduce new ideas, strategies and so on, will have to use culturally known and acceptable ideas and develop new concepts that fi t in with existing frames.",[]],["the framing process in which particular elements of the real world engraved in words are noted and presented as important",["Entman, 1993"]],["How messages are 'framed' infl uences how the audience will perceive the reality, as the audience is not in real, physical contact with the events; people understand the reality mediated through the media, so it can be said that framing is a process of construction of social reality (Scheufele, 1999).",["Scheufele, 1999"]]],"sy":[["psychological frames",["Hallahan, 2008"]]],"rt":[["Agenda setting",[]],["agenda building",[]],["political agenda setting",[]],["media frames",[]],["audience frames",[]]],"sp":[["agenda setting",[]]]},{"de":[["the researcher determines linguistic elements that signify a frame",["Matthes & Kohring, 2008"]]]},{"de":[["Framing analysis is about the choices of words as mental representations of reality and their organization into news stories.",[]],["messages promoted through media can only have an infl uence if media frames and audience frames are able to recognize one another.",[]]],"sb":[["syntactical",[]],["script",[]],["thematic",[]],["rhetorical and stylistic choices",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A referendum is the most important and widespread institution of direct democracy in the world.",[]],["an increasingly important means of enacting or preventing legislation in countries around the world",["Vreese & Semetko, 2014"]]]},{"sp":[["structural dimensions of frames",["Pan and Kosicki (1993)"]]]},{"sp":[["structural dimensions of frames",["Pan and Kosicki (1993)"]]]},{"sp":[["structural dimensions of frames",["Pan and Kosicki (1993)"]]]},{"sp":[["structural dimensions of frames",["Pan and Kosicki (1993)"]]]},{"rt":[["stereotypes",[]],["rhetoric of insecurity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The \"rhetoric of insecurity\" suggested by Cambell seems to accurately capture the basic functions of the enemy images.",[]]],"rt":[["enemy images",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["echo chamber",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["media diversity impact public support for government in COVID-19. Thus, it is important to use as many media platforms as possible to convey policies and promote public understanding of emergency measures in public health crisis.",[]],["media source diversity can effectively mitigate echo chamber acts.",[]]]},{"de":[["Thus, nationalism here are defined as the conviction of superiority of one's country over other countries, especially including hostility to other countries.",[]]],"rt":[["patriotism",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["For lower-class individuals, they are more dependent on external forces due to the lack of educational and economic resources, which leads to the formation of contextualist social cognitive tendency.",[]],["In contrast, for upper-class individuals, with abundant material resources and elevated rank in society, they are free to pursue the interests they choose for themselves and tend to ignore the influences of situational factors, which causes solipsistic social cognitive tendency",["Kraus et al., 2012"]]]},{"de":[["typical of texts generated by language models",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["first-person narration",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["audioblogging",[]],["online radio",[]]]},{"sp":[["first-person narration",["Pettengill, 2025"]]]},{},{"de":[["words, phrases and vocalisations that lack the actual situatedness of human podcasts",[]],["to mimic the sense of situatedness of a human-produced podcast",[]]]},{},{"de":[["News organization still set public agendas but social movements, like any group seeking greater attention or publicity, attempt to entice media to prioritize their concerns.",[]]],"rt":[["Agenda setting",[]],["Agenda actions",[]]],"sp":[["Agenda actions",[]]],"ex":[["Southern civil rights protests, for example, were often planned for mornings so footage could be flown to New York in time to air nationally on the evening news",["Torres 2018"]],["movement leaders selected Selma, AL, as a site for voting rights protests partly for its proximity to television network affiliates in Montgomery",["Torres 2018"]]]},{"rt":[["Agenda seeding",[]],["Agenda actions",[]]],"sp":[["Agenda actions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Though movement-initiated frame construction serves multiple purposes, including mobilizing members of the ingroup, for this paper, I focus on the role of frame construction in \"garnering [or dampening] bystander support\"",["Snow and Benford 1988"]]],"sy":[["staging",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["nationalist strategy",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["media framing",[]],["frames in communication that influence public opinion",[]]],"rt":[["Framing actions",[]]],"sp":[["Framing actions",[]]]},{},{"de":[["frames in communication that influence public opinion",[]]],"sy":[["frames in communication",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["violent protest",[]],["political violence",[]],["civil unrest",[]],["riots",[]],["uprisings",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["frame construction",[]],["social movement frame construction",[]]]},{"rt":[["Framing actions",[]]],"sp":[["Framing actions",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["has profound effects on public perception, often eroding support for essential government policies in areas as sensitive as national security",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017"]],["poses a growing and complex challenge to public perception and policy implementation, especially in sensitive sectors like national defense",[]],["weakens public trust, undermining confidence in government-led initiatives",["Vasu et al. (2018)"]],["distorting public perception, promoting skepticism, and reducing support for defense policies, ultimately obstructing effective policy implementation",["Nadzir, 2020"]],["Misleading narratives regarding defense strategies erode public trust and create resistance to policies critical for national security",["Sarjito, 2022"]],["disinformation campaigns leverage social media to spread narratives that erode trust in defense policies, ultimately weakening public support for initiatives critical to national security",["Setiawan 2021","Saputra 2022"]],["disinformation campaigns, particularly through social media, exploit public concerns and create skepticism toward defense initiatives, significantly affecting the government's ability to gather public support for these essential policies.",[]]],"ex":[["narratives that question military budgets, criticize alliances, or exaggerate security threats",[]],["exaggerated foreign threats",[]],["Narratives suggesting misuse of defense funds",["Colgan (2016)","Kraft & Furlong (2020)"]],["Disinformation narratives related to defense spending, military alliances, and perceived threats",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In the first case, a reporter chooses events that will become news and is mostly guided by professional standards that numerous researchers, starting with Galtung & Ruge (1965), have tried to systematize.",["Galtung & Ruge (1965)"]]],"rt":[["news selection",[]],["processing and presentation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["information warfare",["Khaldarova, Pantti, 2016;Pasitselska, 2017"]]]},{"sy":[["hybrid war",["Khaldarova, Pantti, 2016;Pasitselska, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["Cognitive resilience, on the other hand, works as a vaccine and seeks to produce enough antibodies so that further 'viral infections' can be prevented.",[]]]},{"de":[["Conspiracy theories are embraced by the public not for their factual value but for their ability to provide a (false) sense of reassurance in times of great uncertainty.",[]],["Conspiracies open discursive spaces to obtain cognitive relief but may prove self-defeating.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]],"sp":[["disinformation",[]]],"ex":[["the 5G hoax",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The recent upsurge in digital activities resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic has heightened this phenomenon.",[]],["disinformation is likely to increase polarisation, in particular along politically partisan lines, by spreading harmful conspiracy theories, radical and supremacist thoughts, Islamophobia, cynicism, racism, distrust or misogyny.",["7"]],["disinformation contributes to lowering trust in mainstream media and institutions, although these two variables appear to be mutually reinforcing.",["8"]],["disinformation poses a threat to democratic political processes by corrupting the integrity of electoral processes and undermining the democratic values which shape public policies, including in the health and science sectors.",["9"]]],"rt":[["false news",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["unsourced or false claims",[]],["non-credible claims with sources",[]],["claims based on unsourced or non-credible claims",[]],["conspiracy theories",["4"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["By analyzing the sentiment expressed in social media posts, researchers can identify patterns and anomalies indicative of misinformation.",[]],["This approach leverages the emotional content of the text, providing a nuanced layer of analysis that can enhance the accuracy of fake news detection systems.",[]],["has emerged as a powerful tool in the fight against fake news.",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["true negative rate",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the way we talk about the environment is inseparable from how we act upon it.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["risks reinforcing decontextualised crisis narratives that highlight immediacy over systemic causes",["Stibbe 2015"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["undermines the communicative potential of environmental journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["hedging scientific claims while maintaining their relevance (Boykoff and Boykoff 2004).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the micro-level, which focuses on lexical and syntactic choices; the meso-level, which examines discursive practices and intertextual relationships; and the macro-level, which situates these linguistic patterns within broader socio-political and institutional contexts.",[]]],"sb":[["the micro-level, which focuses on lexical and syntactic choices",[]],["the meso-level, which examines discursive practices and intertextual relationships",[]],["the macro-level, which situates these linguistic patterns within broader socio-political and institutional contexts",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Fairclough's three-dimensional framework",[]]]},{"de":[["where populist framings replace engagement with systemic causes (Bennett 2010).",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Fairclough's three-dimensional framework",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Fairclough's three-dimensional framework",[]]]},{"de":[["subtly neutralising political responsibility by positioning climate change as an event beyond human control (Hulme 2013).",[]]]},{},{"de":[["replace engagement with systemic causes (Bennett 2010).",[]]]},{"de":[["a rhetorical strategy frequently used in climate journalism to frame environmental change as a long-term planetary phenomenon rather than an immediate socio-political crisis (Nerlich and Koteyko2009).",[]]]},{"de":[["When these terms appear, they frequently take technocratic and depersonalised forms (le emissioni sono state ridotte), which obscure agency and responsibility",["Van Dijk, 2008","Fairclough, 2013"]],["subordinates climate discourse to governance and economic concerns",[]]]},{"rt":[["physical resource",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["Irish and Chinese immigrants to the USA were blamed for bringing smallpox and cholera to the US",[]],["Italian newcomers were blamed for the polio epidemic in East Coast cities",[]]]},{"sy":[["bio-security",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The whole results in a social construction that is legitimated and reproduced by law, and utilized to expand the financial and institutional support for government agencies and private actors focusing on illegal immigration.",[]]]},{"ex":[["discussing human mobility in a negative light repetitively -linking it with terrorism or criminal activity, for example",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["refugees",[]],["asylum seekers",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["socially constructed discourses",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Discourses and narratives have an intersectional and interdependent relationship.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["portraying migrants as resource drains.",[]],["These negative portrayals inject anxiety into debates surrounding the future of the state and future immigration.",[]]],"rt":[["humanitarian solidarity",[]]]},{"de":[["It also suggests that transnational humanitarian migrants often find themselves in dire situations, evoking a range of emotions, including pity toward the migrant, resentment toward the perceived causes of their precarity, and/or a level of compassion toward the individuals in need of assistance.",[]],["In turn, these emotions may lead to a desire to help migrants through various means, such as making physical and financial donations and extending a welcome to those in need.",[]],["commonly associated with humanitarian migrants, be it refugees or asylum seekers",[]]],"rt":[["humanitarian migrants",[]],["refugees",[]],["asylum seekers",[]]]},{"de":[["The focus of these narratives is not the migrants themselves as much as their contributions to host societies. They are, therefore, typically associated with a positive stance toward immigration.",[]],["The focus of these narratives is not the migrants themselves as much as their contributions to host societies.",[]],["They are, therefore, typically associated with a positive stance toward immigration.",[]]],"sb":[["A first narrative supports the need for immigrant arrival in societies facing a declining birth rate and/or an ageing population.",[]],["A second narrative views migrant labour to host societies as an infusion of human capital, a stimulus for creativity, entrepreneurship, and investment.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["encompasses the processes and structures bringing forth fake news, misinformation, confirmation bias, and alternative facts, and includes the public's reactions to them",["Su, 2023, 4"]],["According to Su (2023), 'post-truth' encompasses the processes and structures bringing forth fake news, misinformation, confirmation bias, and alternative facts, and includes the public's reactions to them (Su, 2023, 4).",["Su, 2023, 4"]]]},{},{"sp":[["Humanitarian migration",[]]]},{"de":[["where migrants were framed as potential threats to society",[]]]},{"de":[["Both goals are presented as matters of national security.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["truths",[]]]},{"sy":[["illegal migrants",[]],["illegals",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["These boundaries help define who belongs to what particular social class and who does not.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Bourdieu (1984) discusses how social structures shape individual practices through the concept of habitus",[]]]},{"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["Media literate persons are commonly defined as credibly informed, reflexive, critical persons, who are also able to participate in a digital environment actively and responsibly.",[]]],"rt":[["media education",[]]],"sb":[["critical digital media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["fact-checking",[]]]},{"de":[["the next step is to determine which ones are worth checking.",[]]],"sb":[["non-factual",[]],["factual non relevant",[]],["factual relevant",[]],["not applicable",[]],["factual-relevant-but-complex",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Once we have identified the factual and relevant sentences (claims) the next step is to determine the veracity of them. Here we find two main approaches, on the one hand we can transform the sentences into triplets (subject, predicate, object) and somehow verify these triplets against an existing knowledge base, and on the other hand we can try to verify the claim using some measure of similarity with respect to given evidence.",[]]],"rt":[["check-worthiness",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Check-worthiness",[]]],"ex":[["Own emotions and mood that contain affirmations about some fact: \"As a physician, I feel very bad because I believe our vaccine is a good treatment that can extend these people's lives.\"",[]],["Opinions and value judgments that contain statements about some fact: \"In practice, not all pregnant women receive flu shots, and I think that universal vaccination of pregnant women could get us into a whole new set of problems.\"",[]],["Questions that contain statements about some fact: \"Olive oil comes from olives, peanut oil from peanuts, sunflower oil from sunflowers; but what is a canola?\"",[]],["Specific predictions that can be checked. They will be relevant if they are interesting to a wide audience: \"The more people get vaccinated, the less severe this Omicron outbreak will be.\"",[]],["Claims in sentences containing references to reports and investigations can be checked by accessing these documents.",[]]]},{"de":[["if there is a false sentence, the news item is false (F), otherwise, the news item is true (T)",[]]],"rt":[["fake news detection",[]]]},{"rt":[["Fake news classification",[]]]},{"sy":[["article",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Check-worthiness",[]]],"ex":[["Promises about what someone is going to do in the future and therefore cannot be checked at this time: \"I will no longer vaccinate my other children.\"",[]],["Proverbs and sayings: \"Prevention is better than cure.\"",[]],["Instructions given/received and recipes, do not imply a statement about some fact but a sequence of steps to be performed: \"2.Use a 24k-14k Gold ring to scratch on the lipstick.\"",[]],["Affirmations about one's own emotions and mood: \"I opened one of his eyes and I just knew inside my heart that it was something really bad.\"",[]],["Opinions and value judgments: \"I think I would call death an adverse side-effect\"",[]],["Questions that do not contain a claim in themselves: \"What is Crohn's Disease?\"",[]],["Vague predictions that cannot be checked: \"We are committed to transforming over a billion lives. . .and we won't stop there!\"",[]]]},{"de":[["are always considered factual and not relevant",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["subject",[]],["predicate",[]],["object",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["truth value",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["serves as a crucial lens for understanding how persistent engagement with global media shapes interpretations of information and events",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the role of media education emerges as a proactive and strategic mechanism imperative for the safeguarding of the public and the preservation of information integrity in the face of these complicated challenges",[]]]},{"de":[["provides insights into the motivations driving media consumption within a globalized context (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1973)",["Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1973"]]]},{},{"de":[["In this theory, people expose themselves only to the information that supports their point of view (certain view).",[]],["Selective exposure explains how people see certain media messages broadcasted and published by their trustworthy sources of information and how it ultimately affects their thinking pattern, forcing them to incline towards the message of the content.",[]],["This selection may be based on the nature/context generated by a person's parents, environment and surroundings.",[]]],"ex":[["if a person sees an item elsewhere after buying it, s/he can go on to check and reconfirm its price.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["namely those showing evaluation, importance, and expectation",[]]],"sb":[["Attitudinal stance adverbials showing evaluation",[]],["Attitudinal stance adverbials showing importance",[]]],"sp":[["stance adverbials",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["stance adverbials",[]]]},{"sb":[["Move 1: Introducing",[]],["Move 2: Discussing",[]],["Move 3: Giving Opinions",[]],["Move 4: Calling for Action",[]]]},{"de":[["Stance adverbials, among the linguistic features employed by editorial writers, play a significant role in expressing the writers' opinions towards a particular issue or situation.",[]]],"sy":[["hedges",[]],["boosters",[]]],"rt":[["hedges",[]],["boosters",[]]],"sb":[["epistemic stance",[]],["attitudinal stance",[]],["style stance",[]]],"ex":[["certainly and maybe",[]],["effectively and properly",[]],["basically and frankly",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance adverbials",[]]],"ex":[["basically and frankly",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["intergroup contact theory",["Allport, 1954","Pettigrew, 1998"]]],"sp":[["intergroup contact theory",["Allport, 1954","Pettigrew, 1998"]]]},{"rt":[["hostile media phenomenon",[]]],"sp":[["hostile media phenomenon",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["pose critical challenges related to misinformation, media trust, and societal harm",[]],["highly realistic synthetic media",[]]],"sy":[["synthetic media",[]]],"sp":[["synthetic media",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["AI-created misleading content",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["AI-created misleading content",[]]]},{},{"de":[["are understudied compared to single-modality cases, leaving detection methods less prepared for increasingly sophisticated manipulations.",[]],["further complicate detection by exploiting gaps between unimodal approaches",[]]]},{"de":[["for improved factual grounding and reliability",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["R3 hypothesis",[]]]},{"sp":[["GAN",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Non-verbal communication such as throwing bananas into a football field where African team is playing is also a medium of the first level.",[]],["The non-verbal media of the first level are often implicit and based on stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination, as for example in body language.",[]]],"sb":[["oral communication",[]],["Written antilocution",[]],["Non-verbal communication",[]]],"ex":[["Written antilocution are graffiti on the walls of houses, fences, bridges and shops.",[]]]},{"de":[["hate speech is the power that spreads, provokes, encourages or justifies racial hatred, xenophobia, or other forms of intolerance-based hatred; it is based on negative attitudes to people.",[]],["Hate speech is not only ethnic minorities and immigrants' discrimination; it helps avoid real problems solution and creates preconditions for aggression and physical violence.",[]],["Hate speech is destructive not only for individuals, but for society as a whole, for mass media and for the journalism as a profession in particular.",[]],["hate speech as a social phenomenon adds to tension and stress",[]],["Hate speech as a phenomenon can be considered in the list of other negative attitudes such as hatred, racism, xenophobia, interethnic or religious intolerance, homophobia, hostility as well as sexism.",[]],["hate speech embraces self-expression, fake information, gossip and may be able to provoke hostility, violent nationalism or ethnocentrism, promote racial conflicts or others kinds of loathing based on intolerance, leading to discrimination and segregation, causing ethnic or religious confrontation.",[]],["Besides, hate speech embraces self-expression, fake information, gossip and may be able to provoke hostility, violent nationalism or ethnocentrism, promote racial conflicts or others kinds of loathing based on intolerance, leading to discrimination and segregation, causing ethnic or religious confrontation.",["Avtaeva, 2010"]],["During pandemic young people as a social group have become hate speech main source and accordingly its main target and victim.",[]],["Usually these are groups that possess a different system of religious, national, cultural or more specific, subcultural values or sexual orientation.",[]]],"sy":[["language of hostility",[]],["rhetoric of hatred",[]],["prejudicial statement",[]]],"rt":[["racial hatred",[]],["xenophobia",[]],["intolerance-based hatred",[]],["Language hostility",[]],["manifestation racism",[]],["interethnic hostility",[]],["intolerance",[]],["homophobia",[]],["sexism",[]],["speech aggression",[]]],"sb":[["calls to violence",[]],["calls for discrimination",[]],["creating a negative image of a victim group",[]],["inferiority assumption (lack of culture or intellectual abilities)",[]],["accusations of negative impact within a derogatory or offensive context",["Bar-Tal, 1989","Jakubowicz , 2006","Semin, Fiedler, 1988"]],["calls to violence, appeals like \"Hit the immigrants!\" and \"Kick the gypsies out of the country!\"",[]],["calls for discrimination, creating a negative image of a victim group",[]],["inferiority assumption (lack of culture or intellectual abilities), accusations of negative impact within a derogatory or offensive context",["Bar-Tal, 1989;Jakubowicz , 2006;Semin, Fiedler, 1988"]]],"ex":[["Hit the immigrants!",[]],["Kick the gypsies out of the country!",[]]]},{"de":[["In the language of journalists, this is how they began to denote an information virus, that is, the flow of unverified messages about the coronavirus in the media, blogs, chats and social networks.",[]]],"sy":[["information epidemic",[]]],"rt":[["information virus",[]]]},{},{"de":[["one of the most widespread media assessments that use the neologisms mentioned above.",[]],["The main thing in creating a label is a symbol, some authors argue that the label is the creation of an image of the enemy.",[]]],"rt":[["Label-assessment",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["information gap",[]],["convincing",[]],["building rapport",[]],["information distortion",[]],["fake news",[]],["frauds",[]],["lies",[]],["biased compilation",[]],["fake facts in information delivery",[]],["fraud arguments justifying the writer's position",[]]]},{"de":[["The common features are radically enhanced capabilities for perlocution.",[]],["However, the second level media are by no means free from implicit communication based on prejudice and discrimination.",[]]],"sb":[["interpersonal and mass media",[]]]},{"sy":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"sy":[["meta-media",["Friesem, 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["particularly in the reports on the survivors of tsunami in Aceh, earthquake and volcano eruption in Yogyakarta",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The research subjects include the different categories of emotional commitment, moral response and dispositions of the audience.",[]]]},{"de":[["news narratives illustrate and propagate social values, providing us with a means of organising and comprehending the events of the world around us.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["affective media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["social media literacy (SML)",[]]]},{"sp":[["social media literacy (SML)",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["SML (i.e., a cognitive and an affective dimension)",[]]],"sb":[["cognitive SML",[]],["affective SML",[]],["Cognitive structures",[]],["Affective structures",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]],["traditional media literacy frameworks",[]]]},{"de":[["the tendency to post positive social media content is common across age groups",["Holiday et al., 2020"]]],"ex":[["sharing idealized content has become the norm (Yau & Reich, 2019)",["Yau & Reich, 2019"]],["viewing enhanced selfies on Instagram decreased girls' body satisfaction",["Kleemans et al., 2018"]]]},{"rt":[["tu quoque",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["epistemic crisis",[]]]},{"rt":[["epistemic closure",["Roberts 2017"]]]},{"de":[["One part of the context is the usage of the \"tu quoque\" fallacy in the argumentation rhetoric of politicians and their defenders, and clear examples of this can be observed when their statements are publically presented on television, on the internet, and on social media such as Twitter.",[]]],"sy":[["whataboutism",[]]],"rt":[["ad hominem argumentation",[]],["whataboutism",[]],["ad hominem",[]]]},{"de":[["In this way, an accusation of an offence is met with a counter-accusation, and the intent is to pivot away from the original criticism.",[]],["rhetorical device that structures political conversations in the media and shapes political identities in the public sphere.",[]],["part of an asymmetrical media ecosystem polarizing the American electorate, and one of the rhetorical tools systematically used in maintaining political group divisions.",[]],["diverting blame, muddying the waters and confusing the hell out of rational listeners",[]],["redirect and reframe public criticisms of Trump, often toward some type of implied/supposed hypocrisy located in his opponents",[]],["Whataboutism appears to broaden context, to offer a counterpoint, when really it's diverting blame, muddying the waters and confusing the hell out of rational listeners.",[]],["they are using this term to describe, criticize and decry the particular rhetorical practice as juvenile, defi cient and deceptive.",[]],["associate the practice of \"whataboutism\" with reviving Soviet Cold War propaganda techniques or to mention that it is a form of argumentation borrowed by Trump and his supporters from Putin and the Russians.",[]],["whataboutism\" rhetorical rituals in politics and punditry",[]],["Allowing unquestioned and unchecked \"whataboutism\" as a normative type of argument in public political discourse and debate",[]],["A misapplied cycle of \"tu quoque\" and \"whataboutism\" is paralyzing because it avoids truly confronting the complex tangled principles and hypocrisies this type of pursuit inherently must address",[]],["General acceptance of the assumptions in \"whataboutism\" rhetoric and argumentation is a sign of the previously described group divisions, polarization and tribalization of political identity in American society.",[]],["even as some political observers lament it, \"whataboutism\" has seemingly become a commonplace way to sully an opponent and gain partisan advantage over the other side.",[]],["\"Whataboutism\" rhetoric uses the guise of entering into participation in a debate, but this proves to be a relatively empty exercise. While having the appearance of truth-seeking, it is unmoored from a commonly shared epistemic and therefore allows introduction of unfounded conspiracy theories and propaganda as supporting evidence in a falsely comparative framework.",[]],["The inherently false equating and negating effects in posing a \"tu quoque\" rejoinder to a question causes even reasoned attempts to call out this \"whataboutism\" to fall into perpetually divisive \"us versus them\" conceptualizations of the relationships between political groups.",[]],["an attempt to defend against criticism by turning a critique back at the accuser",[]],["an accusation of an offence is met with a counter-accusation, and the intent is to pivot away from the original criticism",[]],["responding in this way is considered to be a defl ection, because whether the accuser is guilty of exactly the same type of misdeed is irrelevant to the veracity of the original accusation",[]],["journalists label observable uses of the 'tu quoque' argumentative fallacy with the term \"whataboutism\", they are using this term to describe, criticize and decry the particular rhetorical practice as juvenile, defi cient and deceptive.",[]],["While having the appearance of truth-seeking, it is unmoored from a commonly shared epistemic and therefore allows introduction of unfounded conspiracy theories and propaganda as supporting evidence in a falsely comparative framework.",[]],["the practice of short-circuiting an argument by asserting moral equivalency between two things that aren't necessarily comparable",[]],["a quick, convenient way to thoughtlessly avoid uncomfortable confrontations with truth",[]]],"sy":[["whataboutery",[]],["tu quoque",[]],["\"what-about\" style accusations and false moral equivalencies",[]],["\"tu quoque\" rejoinder",[]]],"rt":[["tu quoque",[]],["ad hominem argumentation",[]],["Soviet propaganda",[]],["whataboutery",[]]],"sb":[["a what-about strategy in order to defl ect questions and avoid addressing inquiries into topics they don't want to discuss",[]]],"ex":[["the practice of short-circuiting an argument by asserting moral equivalency between two things that aren't necessarily comparable",[]],["We've gotten very good at what-abouting.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["generalmente consisten en la compartición de un material preexistente acompañado de un texto que modifica su sentido original (Aneja et al., 2021) o en la alteración burda de imágenes",["Aneja et al., 2021"]],["la generalmente nula o burda alteración de los recursos multimedia compartidos",["Gamir-Ríos & Tarullo, 2022"]]],"ex":[["la facilidad para informar sobre ellos",[]]]},{"rt":[["estrategias discursivas",[]]],"sp":[["estrategias discursivas desinformadoras",[]]]},{"de":[["la desinformación puede tener intenciones diversas: la económica, pues cada clic se puede monetizar y los mensajes difunden engaños que benefician a ciertos sectores y perjudican a otros",["Tucker et al., 2018"]],["el delito, pues en ocasiones las ganancias se generan mediante acciones ilegales",["Tandoc et al., 2018"]],["la polarización, para promover ideas que favorecen a ciertas personas y desacreditan a otras",["Gutiérrez-Coba et al., 2020"]],["la desestabilización, pues cuando la ciudadanía precisa de información de calidad para orientar sus comportamientos",["Casero-Ripollés, 2020"]],["la condición fundamental para que se dé la desinformación es la intencionalidad, porque mientras no haya intención no hay desinformación",["Emmerich, 2015, p. 46"]],["con el objetivo de \"causar daño, obtener beneficios e influir en el comportamiento de las personas, aunque algunos fines suelen estar ocultos y permanecen invisibles\"",["Guallar et al., 2020, p. 597"]]],"sy":[["noticias falsas",[]],["bulos",[]]]},{"rt":[["estrategias discursivas",[]]],"sp":[["estrategias discursivas desinformadoras",[]]]},{"sb":[["sátira o parodia",[]],["contenido engañoso",[]],["contenido impostor",[]],["contenido fabricado",[]],["conexión falsa",[]],["contenido falso",[]],["contenido manipulado",[]]]},{"sb":[["humor",[]],["minimización",[]],["exageración",[]],["descontextualización",[]],["engaño",[]]]},{"rt":[["estrategias discursivas",[]]],"sp":[["estrategias discursivas desinformadoras",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["estrategias discursivas desinformadoras",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["Apelación emocional",[]]]},{"rt":[["estrategias discursivas",[]]],"sp":[["estrategias discursivas desinformadoras",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Apelación emocional",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["broma",[]],["exageración",[]],["descontextualización",[]],["engaño",[]]]},{},{"de":[["social media metrics were primarily envisioned as a complement to traditional citation-based indicators, aiming to quantify forms of attention distinct from those represented by citations",["8","9","10"]]]},{"de":[["It serves as a communication channel for the account owner to publish content, send notifications, provide services, and chat with followers.",[]]]},{"sp":[["digital news start-ups",["Nichols et al. (2018: 6)"]]]},{},{"sp":[["digital news start-ups",["Nichols et al. (2018: 6)"]]]},{"de":[["readers should feel that the news organization is a partner in an interdependent relationship in which they receive something they value in return for engaging with the brand.",["Fournier (1998)","Ross, Lester and Konkes (2021)"]],["loyalty to journalism is less about actions than about feelings within a relationship, one that is often obscured as we focus solely on its most economically beneficial outcomes.",["Gajardo and Costera Meijer (2023)"]]],"rt":[["social interaction",[]],["giving continued attention, sharing and subscribing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Fake news is becoming a major challenge that greatly affects the public's trust in the media.",[]],["The tactic of creating public opinion by providing false information has been used as a propaganda tool and has now become a major problem.",[]]]},{"de":[["Informal methods involved personal interactions with district health officials to facilitate rapid response and information flow.",[]]],"rt":[["early warning systems",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The tool builds the willingness of communities and individuals through community engagement, risk communication and other chains of communication strategies to reduce infections.",[]],["It is a bottom-up approach for reinforcing the capacity of communities, clinical and non-clinical professionals, non-governmental organizations, and the media to resist infodemics and have a management response system to counter disinformation",["3","5"]],["combating the rampant infodemic in public health emergencies.",[]]]},{"de":[["I approach mediascape as a fluid, digital landscape that creates \"imagined worlds\" (Appadurai 1990: 299) through ritual practices.",["1990: 299"]]]},{},{"rt":[["ethnoscapes",[]],["technoscapes",[]],["finanscapes",[]],["ideoscapes",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Fake news",["Wardle & Derakhshan"]]]},{"de":[["The term has been politicized by politicians, and it has been used as a weapon against media reporting, as politicians attempt to undermine the credibility of media that they do not like (Wardle & Derakhshan, 2018).",["Wardle & Derakhshan, 2018"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["mal-information",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",["Wardle & Derakhshan"]],["disinformation",["Wardle & Derakhshan"]],["mal-information",["Wardle & Derakhshan"]]]},{"sp":[["Fake news",["Wardle & Derakhshan"]]]},{"de":[["Misinformation can emerge from many sources, from deliberate campaigns to careless coverage, and even social and work pressures (Thorson, 2016).",["Thorson, 2016"]]],"sp":[["Fake news",["Wardle & Derakhshan"]]],"ex":[["one such example was that consuming alcohol could reduce the coronavirus risk.",[]]]},{"de":[["Ranging from traditional media publishers, such as the People's Daily, to individual news producers, millions of people and companies create content on self-media platforms, which include web portals (e.g., Sina, Toutiao, Tencent), audio media (e.g., Ximalaya FM, Qingting FM), social media (e.g., Weibo, WeChat), video media (e.g., Douyin, Kuaishou), and e-commerce platforms (e.g., Taobao Live; Bandurski, 2018;Guanyan.com, 2018).",["Bandurski, 2018","Guanyan.com, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["higher-level stylistic categories inspired by prior linguistic research",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["higher-level stylistic categories inspired by prior linguistic research",[]]]},{"de":[["higher-level stylistic categories inspired by prior linguistic research",[]]]},{},{"de":[["higher-level stylistic categories inspired by prior linguistic research",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["higher-level stylistic categories inspired by prior linguistic research",[]]]},{"de":[["higher-level stylistic categories inspired by prior linguistic research",[]]]},{"de":[["higher-level stylistic categories inspired by prior linguistic research",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["fake news",["Rubin et al., 2015"]]]},{},{"sp":[["fake news",["Rubin et al., 2015"]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",["Rubin et al., 2015"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["encompassing all expressions and manifestations of racism, xenophobia, and homophobia (in addition to many other prejudices).",["15"]]],"rt":[["racism",[]],["xenophobia",[]],["homophobia",[]],["incitement to violence",[]]],"sb":[["racism",[]],["xenophobia",[]],["homophobia",[]],["incitement to violence",[]]],"sp":[["abusive language",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["chromatic aberration",[]]]},{"de":[["ranging from decontextualized to outright fabricated videos, photos, and statements",[]]]},{"de":[["utilized psychological operations, including the dissemination of misinformation, to achieve strategic aims without escalating into major conflicts",[]]]},{"rt":[["multimodal fake news detection",[]]],"sp":[["multimodal fake news detection",[]]]},{"de":[["Such methods aim to fully explore the cross-modal feature alignment, interaction and fusion, thus identifying fake news.",[]]]},{"rt":[["multimodal fake news detection",[]]],"sp":[["multimodal fake news detection",[]]]},{"de":[["With preprints, you tend to have to just go on, like, the preprint websites and kind of just sift through it and, like, see.",[]]],"rt":[["Passive strategies (Finding preprints)",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Active strategies (Finding preprints)",[]]]},{"de":[["The calculation is: 'Do we think that the audience needs to hear the story now or can they wait six to eight weeks. . . for the story to be peer reviewed?'",[]]]},{"sy":[["standard best practices for science reporting",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["can help to automatically verify if a premise is related to a given claim and, with that, also aid stance detection.",[]],["Connectives include coordinators (such as and, or but), subordinators (such as because, or while), as well as linking adverbs (such as therefore, or however; Dorgeloh and Wanner 2022).",["Dorgeloh and Wanner 2022"]]],"sy":[["linking words",[]]],"sb":[["coordinators (such as and, or but)",[]],["subordinators (such as because, or while)",[]],["linking adverbs (such as therefore, or however; Dorgeloh and Wanner 2022)",[]],["coordinators",[]],["subordinators",[]],["linking adverbs",[]]],"ex":[["therefore",[]],["but",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the presence and absence of certain keywords, stock phrases, stereotyped images, sources of information and sentences that provide thematically reinforcing clusters of facts or judgments",["Entman, 1993, p. 52"]],["frames are contained within the news and are the result of production processes in the communication media",["Igartua & Cheng, 2009, p. 728"]]],"rt":[["thematic units",[]]]},{},{"de":[["did not encourage either critical thought or contextualization, and which respected neither a code of ethics as a whole nor international norms",["Dorado & Sixto-García, 2021"]]]},{"sp":[["Debiasing",[]]]},{"sp":[["Debiasing",[]]]},{"de":[["These models, trained on vast corpora from diverse sources, inherit and amplify the biases in the data and algorithms",["Bommasani et al., 2023"]]]},{"de":[["Practical constraints, such as high computational costs (especially in cloud computing), lack of expertise, and time pressures for extensive model retraining or continuous bias monitoring-which may conflict with regulatory requirements-often hinder effective resource-intensive debiasing efforts, especially for smaller organizations that often rely on generic solutions and prioritize rapid deployment over fairness.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Debiasing",[]]]},{"sp":[["Debiasing",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["Counterfactual Data Augmentation (CDA)",["Lu et al., 2020"]],["Counterfactual Data Substitution",["Maudslay et al., 2019"]],["contrastive loss",["He et al., 2022"]],["Regularization techniques",["Chen et al., 2024","Sokolová et al., 2024"]],["contrastive learning",["Oh et al., 2022","Li et al., 2023"]],["Adversarial training",["Zhang et al., 2018"]],["Bias auditing",["Raji et al., 2020"]],["human-LLM collaborations",["Ferdaus et al., 2024"]],["prompt engineering",["Schick et al., 2021"]]]},{"ex":[["the Word Embedding Association Test uses cosine similarity to assess bias between word pairs",["Caliskan et al., 2017"]],["the Sentence Encoder Association Test extends this to sentence embeddings, capturing bias in more complex linguistic structures",["Dolci et al., 2023"]]]},{"sb":[["zero-shot prompting",[]],["few-shot prompting",[]],["chain-of-thought prompting",[]]],"ex":[["zero-shot prompting",[]],["few-shot prompting",[]],["chain-of-thought prompting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Extensive templates have been created to assess various biases",["Stanczak and Augenstein, 2021"]],["recent advancements in models to automatically generate prompts, reducing manual effort",["Radcliffe et al., 2024"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["articles adopting a community frame situated displaced Jasper residents within a larger imagined Canadian community, and as worthy of empathy and accommodation during the climate disaster.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Stories framed in cultural terms suggested the value of Jasper must be understood in ways that transcend the economic use value of the town as a location of business or tourism.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["thematically",["p. 857"]]]},{"de":[["mainstream news coverage of climate change still performs an agenda setting function, influencing public perceptions and fostering dialogue with policy makers and political actors",["Crow et al., 2017"]]]},{"de":[["perpetuate the slow violence (e.g., Nixon, 2013) of colonialism, forced movement, and human-induced environmental disaster in Indigenous communities.",[]]]},{"sp":[["connotation frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Subtle changes in word choice in communication can evoke very different associations with the involved actors.",[]]],"ex":[["a company 'employing workers' evokes a more positive connotation than the one 'exploiting' them.",[]],["the choice of the term 'undocumented workers' vs. 'illegal aliens' to describe immigrants can elicit different levels of prejudice toward that group (M.S., 2010).",[]]]},{"de":[["The original framework cover several connotations, inclding the writer's perspective (e.g., being sympathetic/antagonistic towards the agent), effect (e.g., the theme has been hurt), and the mental states projected onto agents and themes (e.g., being unhappy).",[]],["connotation frames implied by the predicate from its arguments and the sentence structure",[]],["disentangle connotation frames implied by the predicate from its arguments and the sentence structure",[]]],"rt":[["emphasis frames",[]],["media bias",[]]],"sb":[["power",["Sap et al. (2017)","Sap et al., 2017"]],["agency",["Sap et al. (2017)","Sap et al., 2017"]],["sentiment",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["connotation frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["moral disengagement",[]],["Online Moral Disengagement",[]],["moral disengagement strategies",[]]]},{"rt":[["witnesses of OHS",[]]],"sb":[["vicarious victim",[]],["pure bystander",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["witnesses of OHS",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Diffusion of responsibility claim present, referring to others performing the same behavior",[]]],"sp":[["moral disengagement",[]],["online moral disengagement strategies",[]],["Online Moral Disengagement",[]],["moral disengagement strategies",[]]]},{"sp":[["moral disengagement",[]],["Online Moral Disengagement",[]],["moral disengagement strategies",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["vrijheid van meningsuiting",[]],["eigen mening",[]],["aanvaardbaar",[]],["normaal",[]],["oké",[]],["prima",[]],["freedom of expression",[]],["own opinion",[]],["acceptable",[]],["normal",[]],["okay",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["moral justification",[]],["diffusion of responsibility",[]],["distortion of consequences",[]],["attribution of blame",[]]]},{"rt":[["neutralization theory",[]]],"sb":[["moral justification or the reconstruction of the conduct itself so it is not viewed as immoral",[]],["diffusion of responsibility or minimizing one's role in causing harm",[]],["distortion of consequences or minimizing the consequences that result from the harmful behavior",[]],["attribution of blame or devaluing targets of harmful behaviors as human beings and blaming them for what is being done to them",[]],["moral justification",[]],["diffusion of responsibility",[]],["distortion of consequences",[]],["attribution of blame",[]]]},{"de":[["Moral justification claim present, protecting the commenter's own group",[]]],"sp":[["moral disengagement",[]],["online moral disengagement strategies",[]],["moral disengagement strategies",[]]]},{"rt":[["OHS",[]],["online aggression",[]],["online incivility",[]]]},{"de":[["described in the literature as a common element of many hate speech definitions and qualifies as hate speech",["Paasch-Colberg et al., 2021","Rieger et al., 2021"]]],"rt":[["hate speech",["Paasch-Colberg et al., 2021","Rieger et al., 2021"]]],"sp":[["hate speech",[]]]},{"sy":[["neutraal",[]],["neutral",[]]]},{"rt":[["moral disengagement strategies",[]]]},{"sy":[["hate speech",[]],["hate message",[]],["hateful",[]],["hostile",[]],["sexist",[]],["stereotypical",[]],["generalizing",[]],["discriminatory",[]],["misogynistic",[]],["racist",[]],["lumping",[]],["attacking a group",[]],["pigeonholing people",[]],["prejudice",[]],["unjust",[]]]},{},{"de":[["online hate speech (OHS), which is a type of speech that attacks a person or a group based on a group characteristic, e.g., gender identity or sexual orientation.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["moral justification",[]],["diffusion of responsibility",[]],["distortion of consequences",[]],["attribution of blame",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["positief",[]],["grap",[]],["goed",[]],["leuk",[]],["aardig",[]],["ludiek",[]],["positive",[]],["joke",[]],["good",[]],["fun",[]],["nice",[]],["playful",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["being exposed to OHS targeting an individual with whom the bystander shares the targeted group characteristic",[]]],"rt":[["victims",[]],["perpetrators",[]],["bystanders",[]]],"sp":[["bystander",[]]]},{},{"de":[["frequently offer alternative viewpoints and narratives that diverge from those presented by state-controlled media sources",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This approach helps avoid bias and ensures that the audience receives a more complete picture of the issue at hand. By actively engaging with a diverse array of sources, journalists can offer their audience a comprehensive understanding of complex issues, reflecting the pluralistic nature of society. This commitment to diversity in sourcing is pivotal in maintaining the integrity of journalism and upholding its role as a vital pillar of democracy.",[]],["This approach helps avoid bias and ensures that the audience receives a more complete picture of the issue at hand. By actively engaging with a diverse array of sources, journalists can offer their audience a comprehensive understanding of complex issues, reflecting the pluralistic nature of society.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["does not stem from their competence. Instead, it is a result of societal norms that tend to prioritize men over women in media appointments.",[]]]},{"sb":[["the social system level",[]],["the social institution level",[]],["the media organization level",[]],["the routine practices level",[]],["the individual level",[]]]},{},{"de":[["These canons serve to structure the news-making process and ensure that the news stories are presented in an accurate, informative, and balanced manner.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Twelve categories were used to classify news sources: political, business, health, scientific and academic, police/security, anonymous, religious, civil society, citizen, media, sports, and celebrity sources.",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is thus a key userlevel factor that could shape attention to and interpretation of outlet cues.",[]],["Some news media literacy (NML) scales measure specific knowledge of news production processes as well as media effects (Maksl et al., 2015).",["Maksl et al., 2015"]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Put simply, acceptance is the first step -the idea that LGBTQ individuals have the right to express their sexuality and live in peace",[]],["acceptance is the first step -the idea that LGBTQ individuals have the right to express their sexuality and live in peace -",[]]],"rt":[["Sensitization",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Accordingly, the meanings of different representation techniques and communicational acts are analyzed with due consideration of the social context -hidden or suggested meanings, symbols, etc. -of the analyzed text.",[]]]},{"de":[["CDA as a theoretical approach claims that language cannot be a neutral communication tool as it actively influences the meaning-making processes. Neither is discourse a neutral phenomenon: by communicating about specific topics in a certain way using certain language, discourse shapes our perception of every field.",[]],["CDA as a methodology emphasizes the importance of the context of the chosen data (discourse).",[]]],"rt":[["discourse theory",[]],["discourse",[]]],"sp":[["discourse theory",[]]]},{"de":[["The technique's important components are close-ups that usually zoom in on unusual clothes or follow participants through the crowd. With these visual representations, participants could be presented as some kind of exotic, unusual phenomena.",[]],["The two dancing men may be classified as examples of deviant visual representation, since the first one is visibly under the influence of some kind of legal or illegal drug while the camera focuses on him, while the other is wearing only his underwear and imitating intercourse while the camera also follows him in the crowd.",[]]],"ex":[["The takes may have reminded viewers of documentaries about exotic animals",[]],["the first one is visibly under the influence of some kind of legal or illegal drug while the camera focuses on him",[]],["the other is wearing only his underwear and imitating intercourse while the camera also follows him in the crowd",[]]]},{"de":[["Positive or negative direct framing can result in positive or negative associations about the presented minority.",[]]]},{"de":[["discourses are connected to (and shape) situations, institutions, and social structures, while also being shaped by them (Fairclough -Wodak 1997).",["Fairclough -Wodak 1997"]],["media discourse is a social practice and, as such, shapes society while also being shaped by society.",[]],["discourses in general are the means and places for defining and creating identities, minorities and meanings.",[]],["discourses are connected to (and shape) situations, institutions, and social structures, while also being shaped by them",[]]],"rt":[["meaning-making process",[]],["social practice",[]]]},{"de":[["The expression \"according to gay people\" suggests that gay people think that the ban is discriminatory towards LGBTQ, while this is not a thought but a fact",[]]],"ex":[["the prohibition of same-sex marriage is outright discrimination, which excludes hundreds of thousands of people from the group of equal citizens",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The Pride festivals are one of the most well-known LGBTQ events that are reported on by media, organized in both countries every summer.",[]],["refer to the same kind of events",[]]],"sy":[["Pride March",[]],["March",[]],["Parade",[]]]},{"de":[["Showing these pictures (literally and metaphorically) can make viewers sympathize with the minority.",[]],["Sensitization as a technique does not try to legitimize the existence of the Pride March or the fight for LGBTQ rights.",[]],["sensitization is the next step -active support for the group, the vocalized fight for LGBTQ rights (such as marriage and childbearing).",[]]],"rt":[["Acceptance",[]]]},{"de":[["A leading theme of the supporting visual representation was familiarizing viewers with LGBTQ people.",[]]],"ex":[["showing the marchers from the front or the side, from eye-level or higher",[]],["showing supporting groups marching at the Pride Parade",[]],["Showing same-sex couples in average situations",[]]]},{},{"de":[["negative dimension (i.e., conversational dominance)",[]],["the more involved in social conflict events young people are, the stronger willingness to express themselves they would have. In this situation, they usually tend to show their own stance through dominant expression.",[]],["when a group's mood is aroused, the most emotionally aroused individuals often seize the floor, and others feed off that energy which raises dominance but does not ensure arguments are clear or logically structured.",[]]],"sp":[["online public deliberation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["negative mood are the possible consequences of inter-group emotional contagion",[]],["young people feel the inter-group emotion, which can stimulate young people to express their ideas more actively and confidently to a certain extent, may promoting more effective communication.",[]]],"sy":[["group polarization",[]],["irrationality",[]]],"rt":[["conversational dominance",[]]]},{"de":[["describing the degree of engagement of an individual in a certain cognitive task or activity.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["conversational dominance",[]],["clarity of opinion expression",[]],["reasoning in talk",[]],["comprehension of opposing views",[]]]},{"de":[["(1) reasonable expression, where participants support their expressions with reasonable and effective claims (Habermas, 1985), including the relevance of the discussion topic (Stromer-Galley, 2003)",[]],["(2) communication of different opinions, where participants with different views interact with each other (Thompson, 2008)",[]],["(3) understanding opposite views, where participants reflect on the claims of others and themselves, even opposing their own claims (Dahlberg, 2001)",[]],["(4) clear expression of views, where participants express their views clearly (Moy and Gastil, 2006)",[]],["(5) civil communication, where participants interact with each other in a polite and respectful manner (Papacharissi, 2004)",[]],["the concept of public deliberation, which originated in the era of traditional mass communication, has also changed with the evolution of media and space.",[]],["public deliberation can promote the development of social democracy by improving the public's ability to judge the complexity of things, ultimately affecting the development and decision-making process of events.",[]],["originated in the era of traditional mass communication",[]],["changed with the evolution of media and space",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Individuals independently decide whether to expose and the degree of exposure by recognizing and evaluating information, involving active choice and control of their own behaviors which requires willpower to maintain and execute related behaviors",[]],["Specifically, audiences are more willing to contact what is consistent with or close to their existing positions and attitudes, while tending to avoid what is opposite or in conflict with",[]],["positively affects the three positive dimensions of online public deliberation of young people, which indicates that young people would increase their willingness to take part in public deliberation and be able to conduct reasonable discussions and deliberations with a clearer perspective after they are exposed to events that are close to their existing positions, views and attitudes.",[]],["This also indicates that individuals tend to seek out echo chambers in response to emotionally charged, conflictual, and psychologically engaging events.",[]],["selective exposure functions as a significant mediator between individual cognition, emotion, and online public deliberation.",[]],["exposure to like-minded sources would intensify polarization and reduce reflexivity, thereby reinforcing cognitive bias and attitudinal extremity.",[]],["Specifically, audiences are more willing to contact what is consistent with or close to their existing positions and attitudes, while tending to avoid what is opposite or in conflict with.",[]],["volitional motivation of regulatory behavior",[]]],"rt":[["echo chamber effect",[]]],"sp":[["typical manifestation of individual will in network information behavior",[]]]},{"de":[["existing datasets differ substantially in content distributions and annotation policies, complicating fair evaluation and generalization assessment.",[]],["existing datasets differ substantially in content distributions and annotation policies",[]]]},{"sy":[["coarse-grained labels",[]]],"rt":[["article-level annotations",[]]]},{"de":[["the first period is predominantly associated with economic frames, the other two periods feature all four dominant frames.",[]],["casting pelagic sealing practices as detrimental to commercial hunting revenue due to its impacts on Alaskan fur seal populations",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["framing is not a theory that makes specific hypotheses, but an approach…or, for lack of a better word, a framework.",[]],["Herein, \"different actors frame reality or, rather, the basic problem at issue in different and, at any rate, competing or even conflicting ways.\"",["Strydom, 2000, p. 64"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["represent a novel regulatory response to the growing power of platforms in shaping public discourse",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the harsher measure of temporary account suspension",[]],["It was not supposed to be a restriction on any other content-level measures, like the removal or blocking of specific posts by the user. In theory, taking such measures by platforms against specific posts, therefore, would have been still allowed without additional judicial approval.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["It is a broad concept, which includes search engines, social media services, app portals, user-generated content portals, blogging portals and news aggregators.",["76"]]]},{},{"ex":[["mis/disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["New must-carry rules are motivated by concerns over the growing private power of large-scale influential platforms over online expression.",[]],["The goal is to prevent them from arbitrarily restricting access to (lawful) expression.",[]],["'must-carry' should not automatically be awarded but should be strictly limited to those channels serving an overall content fulfilling general interest objectives.",["153"]],["The central aim of such an obligation is to guarantee access to public service broadcasting and ensure a diverse choice of programmes in order to effectively protect the right to freedom of expression and access to information for the public.",[]],["Their aim was to guarantee access to public service broadcasting and ensure a diverse choice of programmes to effectively protect the right to freedom of expression and access to the information of the public.",[]],["From the perspective of the private entities subject to the obligation, this amounts to a limitation on their right to freedom of expression. They are forced to provide content that they would otherwise not be interested in carrying. They are also restricted in their ability to use their own capacity freely.",[]]],"rt":[["Traditional must-carry obligations",[]]]},{"de":[["such an obligation 'should ensure that recommender systems display information from trustworthy sources, such as public authorities or scientific sources as first result following search queries in areas of public interest'",["33"]]],"rt":[["recommender systems",[]]]},{"de":[["the scope is varied, but usually relates to certain categories of speakers (eg, media providers or politicians) and specific types of content (eg, journalistic or political).",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Essentially, it provides a possibility to publish a response to inaccurate information in the same medium where the original statements were made.",["147"]],["The purpose is to provide a way to protect oneself against statements or opinions disseminated by the media that are likely to be injurious to the private life, honour, dignity, and reputation.",["148"]],["The right to reply is based on the premise that it should be possible to contest untruthful information, but also to ensure a plurality of opinions, especially in matters of general interest such as literary and political debate.",["148"]],["According to the court, such situations may create a positive obligation 'for the State to ensure an individual's freedom of expression in such media', for example by requiring publication of a retraction, an apology or a judgment in a defamation case.",["149"]],["The right of reply, therefore, demands balancing of the right to freedom of expression of the media against the right to freedom of expression (next to reputation and other rights) of the subject of the information.",[]]],"rt":[["access to forum",[]],["freedom of expression",[]]]},{"de":[["They aim to bring more balance in the relationship between platforms, speakers and the audience in the digital information ecosystem.",[]]],"sb":[["Special treatment for politicians",[]],["special treatment rule for politicians",[]]]},{"de":[["intended to safeguard pluralism and access to trustworthy information, such rules risk creating a two-tier system of expression in which established voices receive disproportionate protection while ordinary users remain vulnerable",[]],["effort to recalibrate the relationship between platforms of significant influence and their users by limiting the former's capacity to exercise disproportionate control over particular categories of speakers and their expression",[]],["They aim to bring more balance in the relationship between platforms, speakers and the audience in the digital information ecosystem.",[]],["In our view, the rules examined above are better understood as restrictions on the rights of platforms in order to recognise a special treatment privilege for some categories of speakers and their expression.",[]]],"rt":[["must-carry obligations",[]]],"sb":[["special treatment rules for politicians",[]]]},{"de":[["They emerged in the context of electronic communications, in light of the growing power of cable providers tempted to suppress local broadcasters.",["157"]],["Their aim was to guarantee access to public service broadcasting and ensure a diverse choice of programmes to effectively protect the right to freedom of expression and access to the information of the public.",["158"]],["With supply growing quickly, these rules were meant to ensure that public service broadcasting, which was financed by the general public, could actually reach the public.",[]]],"rt":[["must-carry",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It encompasses online measures including effective tools for personalising platform use, mechanisms to exercise and protect rights, and avenues for collective action.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They are a summons to defend 'your' tribe, they romanticise violence, and they portray the enemy as the quintessence of evil.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["decoding",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["political marketing, especially the American negative campaigning variety, is a marketing/propaganda hybrid",[]],["methods and techniques, e.g. opinion polling, focus grouping, negative and permanent campaigning, persuasive audio-visual communications, have increasingly been used by social pressure groups to change government policy.",[]]]},{"de":[["Underlying causal unities are perceived where none exist.",[]]],"rt":[["political marketing",[]]]},{"de":[["This means that there are two ways of experiencing arousal, one which runs from relaxation to anxiety as arousal increases, and the other that runs from boredom to excitement as arousal increases.",[]],["The thesis of Reversal Theory is that we often switch between these two modes. Thus, people seek the arousal of excitement or avoid the arousal of anxiety.",[]],["unlike the theories of mainstream cognitive psychology, it is not grounded in an assumption of rational process.",[]]],"rt":[["telic mode",[]],["paratelic mode",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{"sp":[["Media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["media education has emerged as a strategic means to foster critical awareness and analytical skills.",[]],["media education teaches young people how to observe, interpret and listen critically and cautiously, enabling them to become more discerning media consumers.",[]],["Media education further promotes ethical judgment and self-regulation, helping individuals distinguish interpretation from objective analysis",["Hobbs & Jensen, 2013"]],["It empowers youth to question, evaluate and verify information, thereby promoting more informed and tolerant societies.",[]],["media education as a key instrument for digital resilience and social responsibility",[]],["Media education also includes production",[]],["It is also about creating an audience who can be producers as well as consumers.",[]],["Media education influences our orientation, our opinions, our outlook on different things in life, and our perception of different environments, through knowledge aspects.",[]],["In response, media education has emerged as a strategic means to foster critical awareness and analytical skills. It safeguards individuals, especially youth, from harmful influences while cultivating reflective thinking essential for informed citizenship (Buckingham, 2010(Buckingham, , 2020;;Martens, 2010).",["Buckingham, 2010(Buckingham, , 2020;;Martens, 2010"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["fake news",[]],["hate speech",[]],["media literacy",[]]]},{"de":[["essential for navigating complex information environments, engaging constructively and fostering equitable and democratic societies",[]],["transformative tool that empowers individuals to critique and contribute to the media ecosystem",[]],["media literacy is vital for developing critical thinking and analytical skills necessary to identify and resist disinformation.",[]]],"rt":[["media and information literacy",[]]],"sb":[["Critical engagement",[]],["Logical evaluation",[]],["Active participation",[]],["Civic engagement",[]],["Cultural awareness",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["even highly educated men who support gender equality in theory may struggle to implement egalitarian practices in daily life, particularly in contexts where workplace culture or institutional norms discourage paternal leave",["Martín-García et al., 2023"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["extremes",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["extremes",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Internet memes are among the latest developments in producing social media content.",[]]],"sy":[["Internet memes",[]]],"ex":[["such as elections",[]],["mocking particular concepts or events, such as elections.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the amount of attention to political and business misinformation was measured based on the following items: duration of news coverage (number of days); number of articles; length of articles (sum of all articles: number of words divided by 100); position of inaccurate information in article titles (sum of all articles: 1 = not in the title or lead; 2 = in the lead; 3 = in the title) and article texts (sum of all articles: 1 = in the third part; 2 = in the second part; 3 = in the first part).",[]]]},{"rt":[["availability heuristic",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Availability cascades",[]]]},{"de":[["newspapers with an up-market orientation",[]]]},{"sy":[["fake news",["9"]]]},{"sy":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["First, obviously, more than one actor needs to be involved. Second, the situation must have an iterative character with sequential decision-making of the actors involved. Third, actors must be able to observe each other's actions [30].",["30"]]]},{},{"de":[["More specifically, actors \"will buy information [. . .] only up to the point where the information yields no more net benefits than just following signals emitted by others\" ([50] page 16).",["50"]]]},{},{"de":[["misinformation is an appropriate descriptor of false information until it is confirmed as disinformation",["7","page 2"]]]},{"de":[["national status (1 = local; 3 = regional; 9 = national); hierarchical status (1 = lower level; 2 = middle level; 3 = higher level); personalization (0 = no personalization; 1 = professional life; 2 = private life; 3 = intersection of professional and private life); prominence (0 = not prominent personalized actor; 3 = prominent personalized actor); intimacy (0 = intimate issue of personalized actor is not addressed; 3 = intimate issue of personalized actor is addressed); relevance (1 = consequences for one individual; 2 = consequences for two or more individuals; 3 = consequences for one organization; 4 = consequences for two or more organizations; 5 = consequences for one system; 6 = consequences for two or more systems); negativity (1 = positive; 2 = neutral; 3 = negative).",[]]]},{"de":[["By imitating other actors, they aim to maintain social approval.",[]],["if a decision should turn out to be wrong, they will be able to \"share the blame\" ([47] page 466).",["47"]]]},{},{"de":[["newspapers with a mass-or mid-market orientation",[]]]},{"de":[["In his paradigm-shifting paper Hilgartner [1990] showed how this term keeps knowledge to the exclusive realm of scientists and hence this approach is not able to deal with the aims scientists and the society had set for communication of science.",["1990"]]]},{},{"rt":[["science journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["As a genre, livestreaming is rooted in witnessing and liveness.",[]],["People participating in events are able to livestream without leaving or interrupting the scene (Martini, 2018: 4043), and geographically remote users may \"experience and interact co-presently via the livestreams\" (Gregory, 2015(Gregory, : 1378)).",[]],["First, it offers immersion by establishing a sense of \"being there.\"",[]],["Second, immediacy is granted by users gaining exclusive access to following events in real time.",[]],["Being the \"first to see an event\" (Haimson and Tang, 2017: 54) instills excitement and drama by the unpredictability of which turns actions might take.",["Haimson and Tang, 2017: 54"]],["Third, livestreaming allows users to interact in real time with the person livestreaming as well as with other users by commenting, liking, etc.",[]],["Finally, livestreaming opens for sociality, a shared experience which enhances the emotional proximity motivating people to join livestreaming (Haimson and Tang, 2017: 55).",["Haimson and Tang, 2017: 55"]]],"sb":[["pre-mediation",[]],["mediation",[]],["re-mediation",[]]]},{"de":[["alluding to the deliberate strategy deployed by the perpetrator to attract attention.",["Beasley and Peters, 2019: 112"]]]},{"de":[["Perpetrator livestreaming, in sum, tests the limits of witnessing by reconfiguring both the norms and forms of this genre.",[]],["challenges the norms of witnessing by undermining the ethos traditionally associated with testimonies; it also challenges the forms of witnessing by being integral to attacks and by being disseminated across media.",[]]],"sb":[["pre-mediation",[]],["mediation",[]],["re-mediation",[]]],"sp":[["witnessing genre",[]]]},{"de":[["the perpetrator witness appears to be a contradiction of terms.",[]],["normatively ambivalent and transgressive",[]]],"ex":[["photographs taken by German conscripts during World War II",[]],["Abu Ghraib images",[]]]},{"de":[["This manifests itself not least during pre-mediation. At the same time, premediation largely builds up to the future, authentic moment of direct livestreaming.",[]],["Premediation thus establishes the livestream as a unique, one-off mediated event in time and space as well as a viral event, mediated to be re-mediated.",[]]],"sp":[["perpetrator livestreaming",[]]]},{"sp":[["perpetrator livestreaming",[]]]},{"de":[["testimonial knowledge is essentially second-hand knowledge: to learn something via testimony requires accepting the speaker's authority, to rely on it, and to give credit to it.",["Schmidt, 2017: 95"]],["the listener plays a constituent part in the acceptance of testimony as a source of knowledge: it is only through his or her accreditation and authorization that the act of testifying is completed.",["Schmidt, 2017: 95"]],["taking a testimony means to take in someone's point of view and accept this person's authority over a certain matter",[]]],"rt":[["witnessing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the social practice of witnessing, as we have learned from classic texts on witnessing by Ellis (2000) and Peters (2001), is based on the premise of a bond between the person delivering testimony and the person receiving testimony.",[]],["The core values of sincerity and righteousness, which have traditionally been key to how this practice has been perceived within journalistic contexts, are no longer intact.",[]],["Pragmatically, witnesses acted as sources of information that were able to convey insider knowledge from their presence at events. Normatively, however, witnesses were only entitled to make public statements if their moral integrity was trusted to be intact.",[]]],"rt":[["testimony",[]]]},{},{"de":[["recent legislation on samesex marriage in Western countries demands that same treatment for same-sex marriage and opposite-sex marriage, which extends the definition of adultery beyond hetero-sexuality",["Hosie","2017","Volokh","2015","Hosie, 2017","Volokh, 2015"]]]},{},{"de":[["In a context of the legal disputes about adultery, the attribution of responsibility frame is often associated with cause of divorce.",[]]]},{"de":[["The frame indicates the competition and conflicts among individuals, groups, or institutions, or nations",["Neuman et al., 1992","1992"]]]},{},{"sp":[["generic frames",[]]],"ex":[["conflict, economic consequences, human impact, and morality",["Neuman, Just and Crigler (1992)"]]]},{"de":[["Thus, the media tends to the economic consequences of an individual, group, institution, or nation.",[]]]},{"de":[["Journalists employ episodic frames to make a story more compelling and to draw the readers' attention by offering a specific examples or anecdotes.",[]],["the high number of episodic frames reflected how the media attributed adultery to individuals rather than society. As a result, the remedy is sought at individual levels instead of societal levels.",[]]],"ex":[["Actress Kim Ye-bun has been arrested on charges of adultery, the Seoul Central District Prosecutors Office said Friday. Kim is charged with three counts of extramarital intercourse with a Korean-American businessman identified as Kim at his home between April and June 2004.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In order to capture the audience's interest, this frame personalizes, dramatizes, or emotionalizes the news.",[]]]},{"de":[["Through a process of recurring selection, emphases, and omission, media frames are transferred to the public",["Entman","1993","Gamson","1992"]]]},{},{"de":[["This may even include the government.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["News must be framed not only to make certain facts and interpretations salient but also to resonate with what writers and readers take to be real and important matters of life",["Ettema (2005)","p. 131"]]]},{"de":[["Thematic frames included articles with general or abstract context.",[]],["the thematic approach often suggests social remedies.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Such information is disseminated for disinformation, propaganda, provoking aggression, raising doubts, panic, or changing established views.",[]],["It can manipulate the audience into acting or thinking in a way that is favourable to the addressee and is often difficult to distinguish from truthful material.",["1","2","3"]],["However, fake news is not always purely false information. True facts can often be presented manipulatively, focusing on certain aspects and thus distorting objective reality.",["4","5"]],["Such content should not be confused with political satire or parody, which have a different nature and purpose.",["8"]],["fake news's ability to influence people mainly relies on this \"economy of emotions\".",["13"]],["The use of manipulative strategies (appeal to fear, distortion of facts, and mention of authoritative names) makes such texts convincing to readers, creating a false impression of credibility.",[]],["Emotional appeal, exaggeration and distortion of facts are key tools that ensure the effective spread of disinformation.",[]],["Such information is disseminated for disinformation, propaganda, provoking aggression, raising doubts, panic, or changing established views. It can manipulate the audience into acting or thinking in a way that is favourable to the addressee and is often difficult to distinguish from truthful material.",["1","2","3"]]],"sy":[["fabricated or false information that is disseminated through available media channels, including print, television, and the Internet",["8"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["propaganda",[]]],"ex":[["Bill Gates planned to give people microchips through the vaccines in the COVID-19 pandemic",["9","10"]],["Everyone who learned about COVID-19 kept it under wraps at their secret lab!",["11","12"]],["Global warming is a false idea to gain money from research",["11","12"]],["Clinton's election will put the United States in a socialist disaster",["13","14"]],["Trump's plans could destroy the planet and lead to many species losing their lives",["13","14"]],["COVID-19 vaccines have led to thousands of deaths worldwide!",["3","9","15"]],["Vaccines have been proved to change your DNA!",["3","9","15"]],["5G towers can make you ill and are used for mass surveillance!",["3","9","15"]],["New study proves that organic food is a scam: It is no healthier than junk food!",[]],["Aliens have been spotted on Mars, and NASA is hiding the truth!",[]],["New secret weapon can destroy entire cities in seconds!",[]],["Climate change is a natural cycle: Scientists admit they were wrong!",[]],["Hurricane X devastates entire East Coast: Millions homeless and without food!",[]],["The stock market crash will wipe out all the savings of ordinary Americans!",[]],["Hospitals overwhelmed with vaccine injuries: Doctors refuse to speak!",[]]]},{},{"de":[["this devaluation trend stems from the fact that initial observations showing a positive effect are much more often published than those reporting no effect [6,7,9]",["6","7","9"]]]}] |