MBDef 1.0.0: Explorer data for exactly the released rows, map and topics made on them
714cbfe verified | [{},{"rt":[["distortion in health science communication",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The interpretation of bodily sensations in cyberchondria tends toward catastrophizing.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Individuals with low health literacy, high anxiety, limited access to care, or preexisting psychopathological conditions are disproportionately affected. These users are less equipped to appraise digital content critically and more susceptible to algorithmically reinforced health anxiety",[]]]},{"rt":[["filter bubble",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["echo chambers",[]]]},{"de":[["Rather than resolving uncertainty, this surplus of raw data, when insufficiently contextualized, may exacerbate epistemic instability, destabilizing existing schemas and reinforcing recursive anxiety-search cycles",[]],["informational entropy thresholds for anxiety escalation.",[]],["unlimited access to online information increases informational entropy, generating anxiety and cognitive stress.",[]]]},{"de":[["particularly relevant in the digital context, where information is not only abundant but often ambiguous, contradictory, or unverifiable",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Scholars assert that three paradigms shape communication: constructionist, critical, and cognitive.",[]]],"sp":[["paradigm",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the media outlets tried to explain the challenge.",[]]]},{"de":[["Scholars assert that three paradigms shape communication: constructionist, critical, and cognitive.",[]],["This paradigm holds that a frame can have long-term dominance over coverage",["D 'Angelo, 2002"]]],"sp":[["paradigm",[]]]},{"de":[["The positive consequences focus on the issues related to economic benefits (stimulus packages or other facilities by individuals, organizations, or by the government) to reduce the loss of the pandemic on the country's economy.",[]]],"sb":[["positive (gain)",[]],["negative (loss)",[]],["positive consequences",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["crisis",[]],["How hard will the poor be hit?",[]]]},{"de":[["Regarding the economic crisis due to COVID-19, framing permits us to recognize how the media approach the coverage of the pandemic",["Liu & Kim, 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["The media coverage accentuating hope in such kind of demolishing period can minimize the fear of the pandemic.",[]],["all the dailies have tried to frame hope by avoiding the worst things and portraying the positive views through its writings.",[]]],"ex":[["'opportunities', 'recovery', 'security', 'economic sustainability', 'strengthen'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The media outlets in Bangladesh have presented a large number of COVID-related human stories with a soft standpoint showing the crisis in another outlook",[]]]},{},{"de":[["And media, as the fourth power, have also some responsibility to find out the proper solution.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["discourse and frame work together to suggest a taken-for-granted perspective for how one might approach the problem",["Altheide (1996)"]]],"rt":[["frame",["31"]]]},{"de":[["frames are a kind of 'super theme'.",["Altheide (1996)","31"]],["discourse and frame work together to suggest a taken-for-granted perspective for how one might approach the problem",["Altheide (1996)"]]],"rt":[["discourse",["31"]]]},{"sy":[["framing",[]]],"rt":[["structural news biases",["242"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["First, there are results; basically, politic actors get more resources and energy for their media strategies.",[]],["Second, pressure group activities will be more media-centric.",[]],["Third, political decisions will be more media mediated.",[]],["Fourth, personalization dominates politics rather than difficult issues.",[]],["Finally, media will determine the rules of the modern publicity game.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Taxonomy analysis",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["general type",["Walter & Ophir, 2019"]]]},{"rt":[["thematic framing",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["the episodic frame appeared in articles focusing on specific labor demographics",[]],["In contrast, episodic frames provide spotlight on specific issues such as stories of laid-off workers.",[]],["The episodic frame is especially effective in evoking reader empathy and raising awareness of urgent labor concerns.",[]]],"sy":[["\"context\" frame",[]],["\"specific-topic\" frame",[]]]},{"de":[["An equivalent frame was usually applied in the issues that needed to be presented by logical formulas",[]]],"sp":[["general type",["Walter & Ophir, 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["online newspapers tend to provide generalized information to support policymakers and businesses in understanding the broader labor market context.",[]],["emphasizing long-term labor market trends and macro-level policy perspectives.",[]],["The thematic frame was applied to analyses of employment trends and social welfare policies",[]],["The application of thematic frames in this news group indicates that online newspapers tend to provide generalized information to support policymakers and businesses in understanding the broader labor market context.",[]],["The thematic frame is particularly effective in highlighting systemic issues, such as labor shortages in key economic regions or the impact of technology.",[]]],"sy":[["Thematic framing",[]],["\"generic\" frame",[]]]},{"rt":[["episodic approach",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The blueprint of computational propaganda entails autonomous agents acting based on big data collected on people's behaviour in order to advance certain ideological projects.",[]],["Computational propaganda, therefore, can be regarded as a technical strategy to use information technology for social control",[]],["a technical strategy to use information technology for social control",["Howard and Woolley (2016:4886)"]],["Computational propaganda, therefore, can be regarded as a technical strategy to use information technology for social control (ibid.).",["ibid."]]],"ex":[["the spread of disinformation, automated amplification with bots and fake accounts, the suppression of opposition with hate speech and trolling and the infiltration of political groups and events",["Howard and Woolley (2016:4886)"]]]},{"de":[["generally referred to as an unconscious exercise of confirmation bias.",[]]]},{"de":[["The EUvsDisinfo Project has the core objective of exposing disinformation narratives and media manipulation, with special focus on messages in the international information space that are identified as 'providing a partial, distorted, or false depiction of reality'",["EUvsDisinfo 2020b"]],["disinformation narratives being planted via computational propaganda",[]],["narratives around phenomena that cannot be linked to one particular event, specific country or geography, but hold significant importance in constituting narratives",[]]],"sy":[["purposeful deception",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]],["media manipulation",[]],["fake news",[]],["computational propaganda",[]]],"sb":[["disinformation narratives",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["Islam",[]],["Russophobia",[]],["Nazism",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["They play an integrative role in structuring individual occurrences and socio -economic contexts into a universal pattern of understanding that can shape people's views and attribute meaning to their subjective experiences.",[]]],"rt":[["narratives",[]]]},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["sentiments (e.g., Russophobia)",[]]],"rt":[["xenophobia",[]],["Nazism",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["Bots",[]],["Trolls",[]]]},{"de":[["Discursive framing of local, regional and global occurrences can determine who gets to construct the experience of international events (ibid:103).",["ibid:103"]]]},{"rt":[["Bots",[]],["Sockpuppets",[]]]},{"de":[["Common analytical methods, such as corpus analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), are employed to explore themes including gender, ideology, culture, and language teaching.",[]]],"rt":[["corpus analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Gender representation in the English teaching textbook is such an essential aspect in the field of educational curriculum that multiple studies have been made nationally and internationally on this perspective.",[]],["utilizing materials with equitable gender representation to offer impartial education on gender perspectives",[]],["the imbalance in gender portrayal has significantly decreased in the new edition compared to the previous one, though there are still areas for improvement.",[]],["Textbooks should ensure equal portrayal to maintain balance, avoiding unequal dominance of one gender over another.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Greek media's attention wasn't what they had struggled for and what they were expecting it to be. Each participant in our research shared stories of distortion and censorship initiated by private and public media organizations to frame their messages according to their interests and narratives.",[]],["initiated by private and public media organizations to frame their messages according to their interests and narratives",[]]]},{"de":[["To this end, for the purposes of this study, we decided to adopt the notion of grassroots collectives as an umbrella term.",[]]]},{"de":[["pointing out that the appearance of a particular story on their front page renders the topic as newsworthy for the rest of the media as well",["Denham, 2014","McCombs, 2014","Meraz, 2009"]]]},{"de":[["Global elite media, such as the New York Times, have been demonstrated to exert a strong influence on the agendas of other news outlets, a phenomenon widely known as intermedia agenda setting effect",[]],["when a story is featured on the front pages of a global medium, it has more chances to find its place in other -national or internationalnews outlets that will change and adjust their content to match the coverage depicted in high status news organizations",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["прогностические фреймы",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["all the above three image search engines are deemed to have a gender bias with search terms that include 'United States' in them",[]]],"sp":[["demographic biases",[]]]},{"de":[["The ground truth of a searched profession is usually available through open data, such as census data.",[]]]},{"rt":[["passive reaction",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the information in fake news is presented to the consumer as accurate and official",[]],["fake news contains information with varying degrees of inaccuracy, up to complete fiction, and lacks evidence of its authenticity",[]],["another feature of fake news is its purpose, which is to mislead or deceive the consumer",[]],["a special style of presenting fake information, which has an increased emotional colouring",["Orhan, 2023"]],["This content contains false or distorted information related to significant areas of public life and aims to influence the population's adoption of significant decisions.",[]],["Fake news is a special type of content that has an external similarity to official information and often contains the emotional colouring of the message.",[]],["These peculiarities can mislead many people, causing negative consequences of personal, political, and economic nature.",[]],["fake news contains information with varying degrees of inaccuracy, up to complete fiction, and lacks evidence of its authenticity.",[]],["Therefore, another feature of fake news is its purpose, which is to mislead or deceive the consumer.",[]]],"rt":[["news",[]],["clickbait",[]],["information pathologies",["Weiss et al., 2020"]]],"sp":[["news",[]],["information pathologies",["Weiss et al., 2020"]],["news content",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Opisujući ovaj fenomen, istraživači naglašavaju njegovu odvojenost od kulturnih osobina i postojanje unutar određene virtualne zajednice.",["Carter i Nguyen, 2024"]]]},{"rt":[["poznavanje načela i pravnih osnova rada medija",[]]]},{"de":[["lažne vijesti sadrže informacije s različitim stupnjevima netočnosti, sve do potpune fikcije, i nemaju dokaze o njihovoj autentičnosti.",[]],["njihova svrha, a to je dovesti korisnike u zabludu ili ih obmanuti.",[]],["Motivacija za takvu obmanu može biti različita i ovisi o osobnim ciljevima tvorca i distributera lažnih vijesti.",[]],["lažne vijesti uglavnom imaju politički ili ekonomski fokus i imaju za cilj ostvariti određeni utjecaj na društvo.",[]],["Ovaj sadržaj sadrži netočne ili iskrivljene informacije koje se odnose na važna područja javnoga života i ima za cilj utjecati na donošenje važnih odluka stanovništva.",[]],["Lažne vijesti posebna su vrsta sadržaja koja izvanjski sliči službenim informacijama i često sadrži emocionalnu obojenost poruke.",[]],["Sadrže lažne ili iskrivljene informacije koje se odnose na važna područja društvenoga života.",[]],["Glavna svrha ovakvoga sadržaja je utjecaj na donošenje važnih odluka stanovništva.",[]],["Istodobno, lažne vijesti sadrže informacije s različitim stupnjevima netočnosti, sve do potpune fikcije, i nemaju dokaze o njihovoj autentičnosti.",[]]],"sy":[["komplet pristupa i strategija i kao jedna od inačica informacijske patologije",[]]],"rt":[["vijest",[]]]},{"sy":[["traditional media",[]]]},{"de":[["it is crucial to broadly understand media education as the ability to use the Internet in terms of algorithm and information evaluation",[]]]},{"sb":[["The technical components aim to form a general understanding of different information platforms and their algorithms and technical means of verifying information.",[]],["The psychological components of the educational program involve learning the methods used by the creators of fake news to increase their influence on users and their decisions and manipulate user behaviour in general (increased emotional colouring of texts, NLP tools).",[]],["The communicative components include educating students to be responsible for their information behaviour, a negative attitude towards creating fake news, and a responsible attitude towards disseminating news in general.",[]]]},{"de":[["This education's expected result is a specific behaviour pattern in the media space. This pattern includes a critical evaluation of available information, a negative attitude toward the independent creation of fake news and its dissemination, as well as respect for the rights and privacy of other users",["Zhenzhena, 2022"]]],"sb":[["technical components",[]],["psychological components",[]],["communicative components",[]]]},{"de":[["medijska pismenost moćan alat za suzbijanje lažnih vijesti u digitalnom dobu",[]]],"rt":[["slobode medija",[]],["obrazovanja",[]],["razine međuljudskoga povjerenja",[]]],"ex":[["vještine čitanja, znanstvena pismenost, matematička pismenost i visoko obrazovanje",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["active reaction",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["Tehničke komponente",[]],["Psihološke komponente",[]],["komunikacijske komponente",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Misinformation, disinformation, hoax, and rumor are all terms used in similar literature to describe fake news.",[]]],"sy":[["Misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["hoax",[]],["rumor",[]]],"rt":[["Misinformation, disinformation, hoax, and rumor are all terms used in similar literature to describe fake news.",[]]]},{"sy":[["Rumours",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The goal of misinformation is to fool the intended recipient of the information.",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation, hoax, and rumor are all terms used in similar literature to describe fake news",[]]],"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["It can be positive, neagtive or neutral. Polarity is float value which lies in the range of [-1,1], here 0.5 refer to positive sentence.",[]]],"sy":[["orientation",[]]]},{"de":[["This parameter determines whether or not the selected tweet contains a quote.",[]]]},{"sy":[["hoaxes",[]]]},{"sp":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["Subjective sentences generally refer to personal opinion, emotion or judgment whereas objective sentence refers to factual information.",[]],["Here the value 0.7 represents that subjectivity is more, which ultimately refers that mostly it is a public opinion and not a factual information.",[]]]},{"de":[["bias is the action or consequence that results from these beliefs",["Ellemers, 2018"]],["gender bias is often conveyed indirectly through context rather than explicit gender markers.",[]],["While gender stereotypes refer to general social beliefs about gender roles",[]],["While gender stereotypes refer to general social beliefs about gender roles, gender bias represents the partiality that stems from these stereotypes",["Avitzour et al., 2020"]]],"rt":[["gender stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["a subjective task based on the annotator agreement",[]],["identify language indicative of gender stereotypes",[]]]},{"de":[["These stereotypes often arise from subconscious beliefs that could influence how an individual perceives another based on established culture and social norms.",[]]],"sb":[["positive gender stereotypes",[]],["Negative gender stereotypes",[]]]},{"sp":[["Gender stereotypes",[]]]},{},{"de":[["activity is computed as the average number of daily posts since the first event post was released",[]]]},{"de":[["is on the Y-axis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["explores interconnectivity between the public and the government by understanding the behavior of both parties",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This means that these provincial governments have established a certain level of information interaction with their followers -however, their follower numbers are limited.",[]]]},{"de":[["intensity is measured as the ratio of event posts to all posts",[]]]},{"de":[["This implies that information disseminated in these accounts has not only attracted the public's attention (indicated by likes) but also addressed their concerns and triggered their intentions to voice their opinions (indicated by shares and comments). This is the highest level of public feedback.",[]]]},{"de":[["and is plotted on the X-axis",[]]]},{"de":[["the term positivity is computed as the inverse of the duration between the first event post and the first time an event-relevant post ratio reaches a threshold 𝛿. In this study we set the threshold at 0.50, indicating that the number of event posts exceeds the number of routine posts.",[]]]},{"de":[["Specific activities undertaken during an emergency situation for similar purposes are understood as risk communication",["Ju, Ohs, Park, & Hinsley, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["unidirectional information dissemination",["Hand and Ching (2011)"]]],"rt":[["speak to power",[]]]},{"de":[["helps enhance information transparency with the public and formulate a public-to-government feedback loop",["Picazo-Vela, Gutiérrez-Martínez, & Luna-Reyes, 2012"]]],"rt":[["speak from power",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Emotional and Cognitive Reactions (Emo. & Cog.)",[]]]},{"de":[["The situation is a short (2-8 words) free-text description of the situation in which the statement could likely be uttered (e.g., \"Debate about defunding police\", \"online conversation in a forum about feminism\").",[]],["The speaker identity and listener identity capture likely social roles of the statement's speaker and the listener (e.g., \"a teacher\", \"a doctor\") or their demographic identities (e.g., \"queer man\", \"black woman\"), in free-text descriptions.",[]]]},{"de":[["their interpretation can be highly contextual",["Sue, 2010","Nadal et al., 2014"]]],"ex":[["microaggressions, compliments, criticism, and offers for advice",[]]]},{"de":[["inspired by adversarial and counterfactual test sets in NLP",["Gardner et al., 2020","Li et al., 2020","Chang et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["The emotional reactions capture the short-term emotional effects or reactions to a statement (e.g., \"anger and annoyance\", \"worthlessness\") On the other hand, the cognitive reactions focus on the lessons someone could draw, the subsequent actions someone could take, or on the long-term harms that repeated exposure to such statements could have.",[]],["The emotional reactions capture the short-term emotional effects or reactions to a statement (e.g., \"anger and annoyance\", \"worthlessness\")",[]],["On the other hand, the cognitive reactions focus on the lessons someone could draw, the subsequent actions someone could take, or on the long-term harms that repeated exposure to such statements could have.",[]]],"ex":[["anger and annoyance",[]],["worthlessness",[]],["not wanting to come into work anymore",[]],["avoiding a particular teacher",[]]]},{"sp":[["Emotional and Cognitive Reactions (Emo. & Cog.)",[]]]},{"de":[["which can be harmful and perpetuate stereotypical thinking (Chen and Ratliff, 2018;Mandalaywala et al., 2018;Kurzwelly et al., 2020)",["Chen and Ratliff, 2018","Mandalaywala et al., 2018","Kurzwelly et al., 2020"]]]},{"de":[["This implication is very closely related to the received meaning from the listener's or targeted group's perspective and may differ from the speaker's intended meaning",[]],["similar to Sap et al. (2020).",[]],["This implication is very closely related to the received meaning from the listener's or targeted group's perspective and may differ from the speaker's intended meaning (e.g., for microaggressions; Sue, 2010).",["2010"]]],"ex":[["microaggressions",["Sue, 2010","2010"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["individuals have different levels of power and privilege depending on which identity axis is considered, which can strongly influence the pragmatic interpretations of statements",[]]],"ex":[["gender differential",[]],["racial power differential",[]]]},{"de":[["Humans judge the offensiveness and harms of a statement by reasoning about its pragmatic implications with respect to the social and interactional context",["Cowan and Hodge, 1996","Cowan and Mettrick, 2002","Nieto and Boyer, 2006","Khurana et al., 2022"]]]},{"de":[["which could include the listener if they are targeted.",[]]]},{"rt":[["valence-framing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["valence-framing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The value of the context is shaped according to the language, signs, visual symbols etc. used in the news report.",[]],["The same themed message can consequently be presented with a positive or negative meaning and opinion formation can occur in only two logically equivalent modes, that is, a rise or drop in political preferences.",[]],["Valence-framing is a product of the heuristic processing of information",["Kim et al., 2005: 1"]],["or manifests itself in the form of a decision that is based only on available information.",[]],["Framed information thus influences in the process of the perception of events, through the activation of an evaluating scheme of the recipient.",[]],["The proportion expresses whether the thematically same information is presented in positive or negative terms.",[]]],"rt":[["valence-framing effect",[]]]},{"de":[["The proportion expresses whether the thematically same information is presented in positive or negative terms.",[]],["derives from the information context value (positive, negative)",["Chong and Druckman, 2007: 104"]],["the valence-framing effect is perceived here as the long-term influence of framed news reports on their recipients",[]],["It is declared when the viewpoint of the population of a certain object corresponds to the value of contextual information in which it is received (Chong and Druckman, 2007: 104).",["Chong and Druckman, 2007: 104"]],["Valence-framing effects are derived from the qualitative value of the context presenting the receivers with the formation of a specific message interpretation possibility that is based on the language, signs, visual symbols, etc. used.",[]],["The valence-framing effect is examined in relation to the character and form of information presented by the designated television programmes concerning the Czech parliamentary parties Civic Democratic Party (ODS), Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) and their chairmen at the time, Mirek Topolánek and Jiří Paroubek, two important figures in the 2009 Czech governmental crisis.",[]]],"sy":[["Učinak vrijednosnog uokvirivanja",[]]],"rt":[["valence-framing",[]]]},{"de":[["The value of the context is shaped according to the language, signs, visual symbols etc. used in the news report. It defines \"the percentage of different but logically equivalent words or phrases\" (Druckman, 2004: 671). The proportion expresses whether the thematically same information is presented in positive or negative terms.",["Druckman, 2004: 671"]]],"rt":[["valence-framing effect",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["pull messages often contain a comprehensive set of events and issues.",[]]],"rt":[["deliberation",[]],["consultation",[]],["feedback",[]],["E-participation",[]],["push",[]],["networking",[]]]},{"de":[["Studies show that the push category is most common, particularly for information provision",["Gao & Lee, 2017","Reddick et al., 2017","DePaula & Dincelli, 2016","Mossberger et al., 2013"]],["governments are prone to push tactics due to the \"risk-averse\" context in which they operate, and therefore, they often recycle information already published on their website or by trusted institutional sources.",["Mergel (2017: 490)"]],["municipalities perceive social media as \"fast, easy and cheap\".",["Fredriksson and colleagues (2018: 21)"]]],"rt":[["one-way communication",[]],["e-government",[]],["pull",[]],["networking",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sb":[["individuals who earn a living as spokespersons for anti-vaccine causes",[]],["grassroots activists who use Facebook pages to spread misinformation",[]],["non-profit organizations that push anti-vaccine narratives",[]]],"ex":[["individuals who earn a living as spokespersons for anti-vaccine causes and engage in related activities, grassroots activists who use Facebook pages to spread misinformation, and non-profit organizations that push anti-vaccine narratives",["CCDH, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["They employ marketing strategies to entice users with a progression from freely available anti-vaccine content to paid-for products and services, which can range from books to alternative medical treatments.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["SMA researchers can affect the autonomy of social media users by applying AI in the analysis of the data to derive certain criteria and predictions about the individuals, e.g. their likelihood to suffer from depression.",[]],["Manipulation of timeline or newsfeed which unconsciously steers the discourse of a group in one direction can hurt autonomy, too.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["algorithmic explainability",[]],["accountability",[]],["traceability",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["social media often blurs the lines between public and private and people might share information online without being fully aware that these are public.",[]],["is an important norm in ethics guidelines.",[]],["SMA researchers should be aware that social media often blurs the lines between public and private and people might share information online without being fully aware that these are public.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["If these insights touch on sensitive areas or could have substantial harmful impacts, they might",[]]],"ex":[["hate speech, cyberbullying, sedition, harmful fake news, terrorist groups or acts, manipulation of users",[]]]},{"de":[["Specifically, the type and sensitivity of the communities, actions, and interactions under study but also the expectations of the individuals (e.g., regarding the publicity of their content) evoked by the platform",["Ess & Association of Internet Researchers, 2002"]],["Specifically, the type and sensitivity of the communities, actions, and interactions under study but also the expectations of the individuals (e.g., regarding the publicity of their content) evoked by the platform (Ess & Association of Internet Researchers, 2002).",["Ess & Association of Internet Researchers, 2002"]]],"ex":[["users might not expect that data from a seemingly more private venue (e.g., a Telegram channel) can be accessed by third parties.",[]]]},{"de":[["fake content circulating amongst social media users can be viewed as a digital meme",[]]]},{"de":[["The credibility of sources may influence the effect range of fake news.",[]]],"sp":[["rhetorical triangle",[]],["rhetorical framework",[]]]},{"de":[["It includes three basic forms of information disorder: misinformation, disinformation, and mal-information.",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["mal-information",[]]]},{},{},{},{"ex":[["science, technology, and health",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["politics, history, economy, and finance",[]]]},{},{"de":[["social media users rely on a set of criteria for evaluating the logic of a message, including neutrality, specificity, and meaningfulness (Marcella et al., 2019).",[]],["a precise, closed, and plain language message without any emotional elements may signify logos.",[]]],"sp":[["rhetorical triangle",[]],["rhetorical framework",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Arousal of emotions and an emphasis on common beliefs and values are central themes of pathos.",[]]],"sp":[["rhetorical triangle",[]],["rhetorical framework",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Therefore, we estimate the spreading rate with the retweet count instead of the number of likes or replies of a tweet.",[]]],"rt":[["fake news popularity",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["ethos",[]],["pathos",[]],["logos",[]]]},{},{},{"ex":[["life, celebrity, and sports",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Deepfake content is proliferating rapidly, with recent reports estimating that deepfake files surged from around 500,000 in 2023 to over 8 million in 2025, business losses an average of nearly $500,000 per deepfake-related incident, and human detection rates on high-quality deepfake videos dropping to 24.5 per cent, especially when compression or post-processing is involved [1].",["1"]]],"sp":[["synthetic media",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The SciLens News Platform automatically collects contextual information about news articles in real-time and provides quality indicators about their validity and trustworthiness.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Stance can be positive (i.e, users support or comment on an article without expressing doubts), or negative (i.e., users question the quality of an article, or directly contradict what the article is saying).",[]]],"sb":[["positive (i.e, users support or comment on an article without expressing doubts)",[]],["negative (i.e., users question the quality of an article, or directly contradict what the article is saying)",[]]]},{"rt":[["editorial biases",["17"]]]},{},{"rt":[["consistency in reporting",[]]]},{"de":[["the data generation process (DGP) that undergirds media-sourced data",[]]]},{"rt":[["frame control",[]],["access biases",["17"]]]},{},{"de":[["demographic bias with word/phrase usage under presuppositions of a particular demographic factor (i.e., gender or religion)",[]]],"sp":[["subjective bias",[]]],"ex":[["gender or religion",[]]]},{"de":[["epistemological bias which includes subtle linguistic features that can affect the believability of the texts",[]]],"sp":[["subjective bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["subjective bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Contents with the subjective bias can make people be doubtful about the texts' reliability and possibly trigger social unrest with offensive language.",[]]],"sb":[["framing bias",[]],["epistemological bias",[]],["demographic bias",[]]]},{"de":[["arising from the same folk process that generates serious rumours and legends",["ibid.: 124"]]]},{},{"de":[["born through a prolonged interpretive work and laden with \"the nearly impossible burden of finding an ending\" (Fenster, 2008: 14)",[]],["emphasise commonly held beliefs, shared values, and socio-cultural myths, from which collective identities emerge",[]],["Assessed from an anthropological perspective, conspiracy narratives about medical specialists assert the mythical roots of contemporary public imagination.",[]]]},{"de":[["products of collective everyday efforts to make sense of a rapidly changing world",["Campion-Vincent, 2017: 103"]]]},{"de":[["Conspiracy theories are not precisely rumours, but they are constructed out of rumours.",[]],["In other words, conspiracy theories can explain large swaths of an otherwise ambiguous world; they are transcendent explanations, unlocking a closed world with a cleverly forged key.",[]]],"rt":[["rumours",[]],["legends",[]]]},{"sy":[["scenarios",[]]]},{"de":[["potentially dangerous myths and rumours which must be tracked and refuted, primarily through the channels for their most intense dissemination: social media platforms.",["World Health Organization, 2020: 2"]]]},{"rt":[["rumour",[]]]},{"rt":[["assertive rumour",[]],["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{"de":[["often articulate issues of social difference and justice",[]]]},{"de":[["informal, improvised news arising from collective discussions of important and ambiguous events",[]],["spontaneous social products, devoid of purposeful motives or strategies",[]],["an expression of belief about a specific event, passed along by word of mouth, without secure standards of evidence",["Turner, 1993: 4-5; Fine, Ellis, 2010: 4"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a powerful metaphor for perceived political corruption -but also a trope of conspiracy that dominated the anti-government protests in 2020 and the pre-election discourses in 2021",[]]]},{"de":[["Specifically, subjects were asked four questions: \"Which one is more important for a child to have? (Independence/Respect for Elders, Curiosity/Good Manners, Obedience/Self-Reliance, Being Considerate/Well Behaved).\" Subjects who indicated \"Independence,\" \"Curiosity,\" \"Self-Reliance,\" and \"Being Considerate\" scored a minimum on the scale of zero; while those who indicated \"Respect for Elders,\" \"Good Manners,\" \"Obedience,\" and \"Well Behaved\" scored a maximum of 4.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["subset of misinformation",[]],["Indeed, a goal of contemporary social media disinformation campaigns is to lead unsuspecting targets to spread the deceptive messages on their own.",[]]],"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"sb":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It is grounded in our most basic embodied experiences and interactions in the world",["Gibbs, 1994","Kövecses, 2000","Lakoff & Johnson, 1980"]],["Metaphor helps us make sense of abstract or complex things, including time (Clark, 1973), economics (Henderson, 1982), mathematics (Lakoff & Núñez, 2000), chemistry (Watkins, 1989), physics (Pulaczewska, 1999), medicine (Coulehan, J. (2003), electricity (Genter & Genter, 1983), politics (Lakoff, 2008), and even horror movies (Winter, 2014).",[]],["It can affect how they think about crime",["Thibodeau, 2016","Thibodeau & Boroditsky, 2011"]],["It influences how they reason about impacts of climate change",["Flusberg et al., 2017"]],["It can also affect how people reason about social and political issues such as immigration",["Landau, Sullivan, & Greenberg, 2009"]],["It can even affect how people perform basic physical actions, such as walking in a straight line",["Gibbs, 2012"]],["the use of metaphor (above and beyond a monster framing) can often make information seem more vivid",["Brann, 1993","Kövecses, 2000","Lakoff & Johnson, 1980","Taylor, 2002"]],["It is grounded in our most basic embodied experiences and interactions in the world (Gibbs, 1994(Gibbs, , 1996(Gibbs, , 2011;;Kövecses, 2000;Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Metaphor helps us make sense of abstract or complex things, including time (Clark, 1973), economics (Henderson, 1982), mathematics (Lakoff & Núñez, 2000), chemistry (Watkins, 1989), physics (Pulaczewska, 1999), medicine (Coulehan, J. (2003), electricity (Genter & Genter, 1983), politics (Lakoff, 2008), and even horror movies (Winter, 2014).",["Gibbs, 1994","Kövecses, 2000","Lakoff & Johnson, 1980","Clark, 1973","Henderson, 1982","Lakoff & Núñez, 2000","Watkins, 1989","Pulaczewska, 1999","Coulehan, J. (2003)","Genter & Genter, 1983","Lakoff, 2008","Winter, 2014"]],["It is grounded in our most basic embodied experiences and interactions in the world (Gibbs, 1994(Gibbs, , 1996(Gibbs, , 2011;;Kövecses, 2000;Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Metaphor helps us make sense of abstract or complex things, including time (Clark, 1973), economics (Henderson, 1982), mathematics (Lakoff & Núñez, 2000), chemistry (Watkins, 1989), physics (Pulaczewska, 1999), medicine (Coulehan, J. (2003), electricity (Genter & Genter, 1983), politics (Lakoff, 2008), and even horror movies (Winter, 2014). It is known to influence our reasoning about real world problems, such as cancer (Gibbs & Franks, 2002;Pensen, Schapira, Daniels, Chabner, & Lynch, 2004), crime (Thibodeau & Boroditsky, 2011), and climate change (Flusberg, Matlock, & Thibodeau, 2017).",[]]],"rt":[["abstract or complex things",[]]],"ex":[["a monster framing",[]],["time (Clark, 1973)",["Clark, 1973"]],["economics (Henderson, 1982)",["Henderson, 1982"]],["mathematics (Lakoff & Núñez, 2000)",["Lakoff & Núñez, 2000"]],["chemistry (Watkins, 1989)",["Watkins, 1989"]],["physics (Pulaczewska, 1999)",["Pulaczewska, 1999"]],["medicine (Coulehan, J. (2003)",["Coulehan, J. (2003)"]],["electricity (Genter & Genter, 1983)",["Genter & Genter, 1983"]],["politics (Lakoff, 2008)",["Lakoff, 2008"]],["horror movies (Winter, 2014)",["Winter, 2014"]]]},{"de":[["They are large, scary, and erratic. They are mysterious, and evoke fear and anxiety. They carry out actions that lead to deadly outcomes (for discussion, see Ingebretson, 2001).",["Ingebretson, 2001"]],["They are large, scary, and erratic. They are mysterious, and evoke fear and anxiety.",[]]]},{"rt":[["WILDFIRE IS MONSTER",[]]]},{"rt":[["SUPPRESSING FIRE IS A BATTLE",[]]]},{"de":[["Abnegation is characterized by the denial or repudiation of relationships of influence of various kinds.",[]],["Relationships of dependence are predominantly presented in negative terms.",[]],["Abnegation as a mode of executive discourse shows how influential the US discourse on the power of private ownership against government interference continues to be, and how it has been transformed into dominant norms.",[]],["This discursive mode serves a strategic function in the legitimization of the executives' organizations as being better than all other similar organizations",["Chilton and Schäffner, 1997: 213"]],["Abnegation places not just particular emphasis but all its emphasis on the ownership form as the means of guaranteeing ultimate independence",[]],["It draws on a collective memory that connects journalistic freedom with ownership and defend trough through reference to the past",[]],["Abnegation places not just particular emphasis but all its emphasis on the ownership form as the means of guaranteeing ultimate independence, as academic discourses have done for several decades.",[]],["Like academic discourses around the issue of ideal ownership, abnegation has deeply ideological dimensions, setting out the boundaries in an ideal journalistic practice between 'us' (independent) and 'them ' (dependent).",[]],["abnegation, which primarily functions as a publicly-oriented communicative discourse (Schmidt, 2015: 115)",["Schmidt, 2015: 115"]]],"sp":[["discursive modes",[]],["independence discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["Statements in this mode tend to present relationships of dependence in ambivalent terms.",[]],["In this mode, such relationships are presented in neither positive nor negative terms.",[]],["accommodation entails adjusting to the limitations of either (1) the influence the government/state has politically and/or financially over the agency; or (2) the ownership form of the agency.",[]],["It is about the space where autonomy is gained, maintained or lost.",[]],["accommodation consists of two key dimensions: (1) coming to terms with the relationship with the state or owners as an external force; and/or (2) admitting to the existence of internal institutional forces that potentially reduce journalistic autonomy within an agency.",[]],["accommodation is a discursive mode that is more coordinative in nature",[]],["In this mode, internal and external autonomy are intertwined, and many of the conflicts over autonomy emerge inside organizations, through their own shareholders and structures of governance, rather than in relation to external forces.",[]],["In this mode, a relationship is acknowledged between the news agency and the state, through legislation, funding or as one of its clients, but also acknowledged between ownership and governance.",[]],["In contrast to abnegation, accommodation is less ideological in tone.",[]]],"sp":[["discursive modes",[]],["independence discourse",[]]]},{"de":[["However, statements in this mode frequently reframe the relationship in terms that reassert the value of independence.",[]],["Affirmation discourse shapes boundaries that define the limits of autonomy but also gives agency to actors.",[]],["affirmation is a coordinative discourse that mainly happens behind closed doors and is seldom publicly displayed.",[]],["Particular to this mode is the reframing of all external relationships -including with government -as commercial client relationships, which are presented as a viable means of creating the appearance of independence.",[]],["Affirmation, like accommodation, foregrounds the power of individual executives as actors narrating the independence of their organizations.",[]]],"sp":[["discursive modes",[]],["independence discourse",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["journalistic autonomy",[]],["economic independence",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This in turn implies that journalists must also have autonomy to shape their own work without being controlled by either internal or external forces (Örnebring, 2010: 572).",["Örnebring, 2010: 572"]]]},{},{"sb":[["narrated role performance",[]]]},{"sp":[["narrated role",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["TRAIT FOR PERSON metonymy",[]]]},{"de":[["derogatory expressions such as wheelchair-bound, wheelchair-confined, and prikovan za kolica were replaced by inclusive metonymic euphemisms.",[]]],"ex":[["korisnici kolica'wheelchair users'",[]],["wheelchair-bound",[]],["wheelchair-confined",[]],["prikovan za kolica",[]]]},{"de":[["are often metaphor-or metonymy-based.",[]]]},{"de":[["metonymy and its concepts help us organize our thoughts and actions.",[]],["metonymy as a cognitive process is generally regarded as universal",[]]]},{"de":[["In Canada, Australia, and the USA, referring to a person through their illness or impairment has been replaced by neutral, person-first expressions bolstering positive identification of the disabled community.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this type of reference, the speaker has no specific entity in mind, and its usage is understood to represent the generic type",["Radden, 2009:p.283"]]]},{},{"de":[["Specifically, by providing an example of a Paralympian athlete referred to as the wheelchair, Littlemore (ibid) concludes that the TRAIT FOR PERSON metonymy can be used to convey underlying prejudice toward a disabled individual.",[]]]},{"sp":[["five generic frames typically used in news analysis",[]]]},{},{"de":[["by using such an approach, researchers try to find out if certain pre-defined ideas are recognizable in a news story",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the order of priorities",[]]]},{"sb":[["generic news frames",[]],["issue-specific news frames",[]]]},{"de":[["the media have the ability to select some aspects from the reality and make them salient in a communication context",["Entman, 1993"]],["by emphasizing some aspects and ignoring others, the media guide people's perceptions on a specific topic",[]],["the media offer, through framing an event or an issue, a certain direction of understanding",["de Vreese, Boomgaarden, & Semetko, 2011","Lee, McLeod, & Shah, 2008","Matthes, 2008"]]],"sb":[["generic news frames",[]],["issue-specific news frames",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["responsibility frame",[]],["conflict frame",[]],["morality frame",[]],["economic consequences frame",[]],["human interest frame",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]]],"ex":[["responsibility frame",[]],["conflict frame",[]],["morality frame",[]],["economic consequences frame",[]],["human interest frame",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In terms of responsibility, this could mean that journalists emphasized the need to take responsibility, action, and blame not only when the European decisions and actions were discussed, but also for individual countries, stories, or particular topics related to the crisis (Table 2).",[]]],"sp":[["five generic frames typically used in news analysis",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the news not only tells us what to think and how to think, but also determines how we associate different messages to conceptualize social reality",["Guo, 2016, p. 3"]],["the salience of media networks of objects and attributes influences the salience of the networks of these elements among the public",["Guo, 2016, p. 5"]],["shaping or reshaping people's cognitive network",[]],["the media influence not only the objects and their associated attributes, but also the relationship between the objects themselves",["Guo, 2014"]]],"sy":[["network agenda model",[]]]},{"sp":[["social norms",[]]]},{"de":[["empower users",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["social norms",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["explore the impact of social norms",[]]],"sb":[["descriptive norms",[]],["injunctive norms",[]]],"ex":[["Everyone is on semaglutide",[]]]},{},{"de":[["discourse knowledge, which enhances understanding of the samples",[]]],"rt":[["episodic knowledge",[]]],"sp":[["background knowledge",[]]]},{"de":[["episodic knowledge, which helps them judge difficult samples through background information",[]]],"rt":[["discourse knowledge",[]]],"sp":[["background knowledge",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["in-target stance detection",[]]],"sp":[["Stance detection",[]]]},{"sp":[["translation quality",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["overt sexism",["Mills (2008)"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["In biblical translation, these terms aim to reflect inclusivity by avoiding the patriarchal linguistic conventions prevalent in older Bible versions.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["translation quality",[]]]},{"sy":[["Referential Translation Shift",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["overt sexism",[]],["covert or subtle sexism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Catford (1965) initially described shift as a deviation from formal correspondence, highlighting fundamental disparities between languages.",["Catford (1965)"]],["Recent scholars contend that translation alterations are not merely unavoidable but also endowed with ideological relevance, since they include interpretive choices influenced by cultural and geopolitical contexts Venuti (2017), and Hatim & Munday (2019).",["Venuti (2017)","Hatim & Munday (2019)"]]],"ex":[["In the context of gender, such adjustments can either reduce or enhance the prominence of sexist language, contingent upon the linguistic attributes of the target language and the translator's stance on gender portrayal.",[]],["Zhang (2018) notes that in the Tok Pisin Bible translation, gender-neutral English phrases are often translated into masculine equivalents, a change that has considerable theological and societal implications.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Here, the meaning and categories of certain aspects stay the same, but the intensity is increased in the same direction.",[]]],"sp":[["Modification",[]],["We define the modification relation as a parent relation under which several types of modification can be distinctly subcategorized as follows:",[]]]},{"rt":[["illustration",[]]]},{"de":[["For example, the authors' intent could be just to inform readers about an event or persuade them by making them align with an idea in the article.",[]],["persuasive author intent",[]],["informative, reports facts, and opinions",[]]],"rt":[["communicative purpose of a text",[]]],"sb":[["Informative",[]],["Entertaining",[]],["Persuasive",[]],["Informative, Entertaining and Persuasive are the top-level categories.",[]]]},{"rt":[["News values",[]]],"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{"de":[["Just like novelty, expectedness in text can be identified with evaluative phrases like famed for, notorious for and comparisons like yet another, once again.",[]],["Moreover, images can show aspects that fit a particular stereotype and combine with text to construct consonance.",[]],["Consonance is divided into yes and no categories.",[]]],"ex":[["The sample Figure 12D realizes consonance news value by associating certain traits (drugs, flooded the border) to immigrants that reinforce stereotypes.",[]]]},{"de":[["In other words, this primarily indicates how image and text are tied together for the story in an article.",[]],["interplay between these different aspects",[]]],"sb":[["There are then two types of high-level cross-modal relations in the framework, Objective relations and Semantic relations, which are explained in detail in following two Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2.",[]]]},{"de":[["When words or phrases and visual cues in text and image respectively refer to one of these aspects, they are categorized as culture-bound; otherwise, they are culture-free.",[]]],"rt":[["Proximity",[]]],"sp":[["Proximity",[]]]},{"sp":[["News values",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["News values",[]]]},{},{"de":[["defined with respect to the core theme or idea of the article",[]]],"sp":[["Persuasive articles",[]]]},{"rt":[["News values",[]]],"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{"de":[["In this case, concepts could be different in image and text, and a combination of both gives the list of all concepts.",[]]],"rt":[["Proximity",[]]],"sp":[["Proximity",[]]]},{"de":[["We consider only certain people and organizations under eliteness and not nations as defined in Caple (2013).",[]],["Although, it can be true that certain developed countries get more coverage and be considered as elite in news value.",[]]],"sp":[["news values",[]]],"ex":[["People like celebrities, politicians, elite professionals (e.g., authors, scientists), and organizations that are well known to operate as for-profit or non-profit are considered of high status.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Author Intent",[]],["Informative, Entertaining and Persuasive are the top-level categories.",[]]]},{"sp":[["STATUS",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It can be seen as the scope of the event or the news, such that the news piece could directly or indirectly impact people who come under this scope.",[]]],"sb":[["local (a city)",[]],["regional (multiple cities in the state/province)",[]],["national (country or multiple states/cities in the country)",[]],["global (multiple countries)",[]]],"sp":[["Proximity",[]]]},{"de":[["However, sharing information, i.e., partial or high objective overlap, is optional.",[]]]},{"rt":[["anchorage",[]]]},{"de":[["The text acts as a caption or explicitly references the image, indicating that the image holds vital information regarding the message. It is still possible that text adds context here and fixes the intended meaning of the image-text pair.",[]]],"sp":[["STATUS",[]]]},{"de":[["Although the impact is sometimes closely related to superlativeness, impact focuses more on the consequences of an event.",[]],["impact focuses more on the consequences of an event.",[]]],"rt":[["superlativeness",[]]],"sb":[["low [impacts number of individual(s)], medium (that affects a group of people in a community) and high (that affects larger regions or countries).",[]]],"sp":[["news values",[]]],"ex":[["references to effects on individuals (e.g., unwarranted environment regulations on farmers, see Figure 11A), important and relevant consequences (e.g., the aftermath of a natural disaster, celebrations after a World Cup, see Figure 11C) and significance of the event (e.g., historic, momentous day).",[]],["negative or positive (e.g., damage to public property, Olympic gold medal win) imagery of effects or the event.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The articles under this category are descriptive and expository focused on details, facts, eye-witness accounts and opinions/arguments of others (such as public figures or people in general) and linguistically distinguishable as aligning along some of the distinct dimensions of registerial variation described in detail by Biber (1988).",[]]],"sp":[["Author Intent",[]],["Informative, Entertaining and Persuasive are the top-level categories.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["News values",[]]],"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Unlike semantic correlation, modification is directional in nature because it changes or enhances the meaning or interpretation of the other modality's content.",[]],["Such aspects can be sentiment, emotion, quantities, or broad modifiers (adjectives) present in image or text.",[]],["modification is directional in nature because it changes or enhances the meaning or interpretation of the other modality's content.",[]]],"sb":[["Amplification",[]],["Quality modification",[]],["Amplification: One modality changes the conveyed message by making it, i.e., its meaning or certain aspects in the other modality, stronger (\"louder\").",[]],["Quality modification: The Quality modification changes the conveyed message, its meaning or certain aspects in any way or direction (not the same direction as in Amplify).",[]]],"sp":[["semantic relations",[]],["Semantic relations include three different aspects of capturing relationships on the meaning level: Semantic Correlation captures whether image and text belong together, STATUS signifies modality importance in terms of context and information, and Modification indicates whether one modality changes or strengthens certain aspects provided in the other modality.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Semantic Correlation",[]]],"ex":[["For example, in Figures 7A, B, two samples of negative semantic correlation are shown where the images contradict the news or information provided in the text. On the left, we have a celebratory image of people with a Tokyo 2020 banner, while the news is about alleged labor violations and resulting deaths.",[]],["In the middle, we again have an image of football players celebrating that resembles the action of playing the match, whereas the text in news article is about an abandoned match.",[]]]},{"rt":[["opinion",[]]]},{"de":[["News angles, in addition to signifying the newsworthiness of an event, also provide a predefined theme/structure to report the event.",[]]]},{"de":[["developed in journalism studies",[]],["the concept of news values can equally well be applied to text and image content",["Bednarek and Caple, 2017"]],["linguistic techniques such as tagged lemma frequencies, collocation, part-ofspeech tags, and semantic tagging to extract news values.",[]],["news values provide crucial insights into how some events are packaged as \"news\" by news media.",[]],["As explained earlier, news values provide crucial insights into how some events are packaged as \"news\" by news media.",[]]],"rt":[["text-image relations",[]],["News writing objectives",[]],["Selection factors",[]],["Material perspective",[]],["Cognitive perspective",[]],["Discursive perspective",[]],["author intent",[]],["cross-modal relations",[]]],"sb":[["culture-free",[]],["culture-bound",[]],["superlativeness",[]],["impact",[]],["proximity",[]],["timeliness",[]],["sentiment",[]],["eliteness",[]],["Material perspective",[]],["Proximity is defined by Caple and Bednarek (2016) as a geographical or cultural nearness of an event or issue.",[]],["Timeliness is defined as the relevance of an event in terms of time of occurrence.",[]],["Eliteness refers to the involvement of known individuals, organizations, or nations in an event.",[]],["Sentiment refers to the negative and positive evaluation of events etc. in addition to language and vocabulary used in the news article.",[]],["Superlativeness refers to intensified or maximized aspects in the news article.",[]],["Impact refers to positive or negative effects and consequences of the event covered in the news article.",[]],["Personalization refers to personal aspects in the news article.",[]],["Novelty refers to the new or unexpected aspects of the event.",[]],["Consonance refers to the expectedness (unlike novelty) of the event or presence of certain stereotypical aspects, which can be with respect to a person, community, organization or country in the news article.",[]]],"ex":[["the involvement of elite personalities (e.g., celebrities, politicians) or the impact of an event and its negative consequences",[]],["Negativity, Proximity, Timeliness, Prominence, Novelty, Consonance, Impact, Superlativeness and Aesthetics",[]],["frequency, threshold, and proximity",[]]]},{"rt":[["News values",[]],["selection factors",[]]]},{"sp":[["non-literal relations",[]]]},{"de":[["In the text, the aspect of new can be identified with evaluative words like different, strange, comparisons (with the past) that indicate unexpectedness like never seen anything and references to extreme emotions like shock and surprise.",[]],["Unusual news or happenings that are categorized as bizarre news in media also construct novelty.",[]],["Novelty is divided into yes and no categories.",[]]],"ex":[["The sample in Figure 12B has a Novelty news value because the text mentions the phrases \"new invention\".",[]],["Similarly the image in example Figure 12C realizes novelty by showing a contrast scene with one demonstrator surrounded by riot police.",[]]]},{"de":[["Objective extension (OE) indicates which modality extends another based on the amount of information contributed by each modality. The relation is inspired from Extension described by Martinec and Salway (2005), where the additional information is new but related information (such as date, country, person's name).",[]],["The relation is inspired from Extension described by Martinec and Salway (2005), where the additional information is new but related information (such as date, country, person's name).",[]]],"sb":[["No extension",[]],["Text extends image and image extends text",[]],["Both extend",[]]],"sp":[["Objective relations",[]]]},{"de":[["Objective overlap (OO) measures the overlap between a multimodal news article's image and text components. The purpose is to establish material and conceptual links between one or multiple images and text in a news article. It measures the intersection of information from two presentation modalities (image and text) and can be an actual number or a quantitative value signifying the extent of overlap (as in CMI).",[]],["The purpose is to establish material and conceptual links between one or multiple images and text in a news article.",[]],["The purpose is to establish material and conceptual links between one or multiple images and text in a news article. It measures the intersection of information from two presentation modalities (image and text) and can be an actual number or a quantitative value signifying the extent of overlap (as in CMI).",[]]],"sb":[["Uncorrelated",[]],["Partial overlap",[]],["high overlap",[]],["Uncorrelated stands for cases where none of the defined material or conceptual ties co-exist in the textual and visual content (as when CMI = 0).",[]],["Partial overlap is when there is an overlap between the defined concepts in image and text, but not every aspect exists in both modalities (similar to CMI ∼ 0.5), i.e., Example (c) shows high overlap with all aspects (majesty, guy, say) in text seen in the image.",[]],["In the third case, when N O = N I = N T , there is close to a one-to-one correspondence between concepts in image and text (CMI ∼ 1).",[]]],"sp":[["It is further divided into two classes: Objective Overlap that signifies mutual information between two modalities (similar to CMI), and Objective Extension, a new aspect, that indicates the modality contributing more entities and concepts.",[]],["Objective relations",[]]]},{"de":[["Information for objective relations refers to real-world objects and named entities, such as persons, locations and landmarks, actions, events, scenery, organizations, products.",[]]],"sb":[["Objective Overlap (OO)",[]],["Objective Extension (OE)",[]],["Objective Overlap",[]],["Objective Extension",[]],["It is further divided into two classes: Objective Overlap that signifies mutual information between two modalities (similar to CMI), and Objective Extension, a new aspect, that indicates the modality contributing more entities and concepts.",[]]],"sp":[["There are then two types of high-level cross-modal relations in the framework, Objective relations and Semantic relations, which are explained in detail in following two Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2.",[]]]},{"sp":[["non-literal relations",[]]]},{"de":[["(similar to CMI ∼ 0.5)",[]]],"sp":[["Objective Overlap",[]]],"ex":[["Example (c) shows high overlap with all aspects (majesty, guy, say) in text seen in the image.",[]]]},{"de":[["Personalization is constructed when an abstract issue is made more personal via references to ordinary people, their emotions, experiences (e.g., eyewitness accounts) and stories in the news article.",[]],["Personalization is divided into yes and no categories.",[]]],"sb":[["yes and no categories",[]]],"ex":[["detailed description of person's suffering or jubilation",[]],["visual cues like a close-up shot of an individual, focus on emotional response, facial expression, and singling out a person in a group of people (protester and police).",[]],["The sample in Figure 12C includes a Personalization news value because the image focuses on an ordinary person as a demonstrator.",[]],["Text in sample (a) describes a personal account and situation of a person affected by high rent prices, realizing personalization.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Promote",[]],["If not, persuasive is divided into two opposing sub-categories: Promote and Demote, defined with respect to the core theme or idea of the article.",[]]],"sp":[["Author Intent",[]],["Informative, Entertaining and Persuasive are the top-level categories.",[]]]},{"de":[["Opinion pieces and articles fall under this category.",[]]],"sb":[["Promote",[]],["Demote",[]]]},{"de":[["defined with respect to the core theme or idea of the article",[]]],"sp":[["Persuasive articles",[]],["persuasive",[]]]},{"rt":[["Geographical proximity",[]],["Cultural proximity",[]],["Domain proximity",[]]],"sb":[["Geographical proximity",[]],["Cultural proximity",[]],["Domain proximity",[]],["Geographical proximity is the distance between the event and the expected (target) audience.",[]],["Cultural proximity is the reference to a particular religion, tradition, celebration, festival or ritual.",[]],["Domain proximity refers to concepts or topics discussed in the news article discernible through image and text.",[]]],"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{"sp":[["Modification",[]]],"ex":[["the bottom images in Figures 8B, C are opposite in meaning to \"fans storm\" and \"snowstorms\" showing an empty stadium and lush green Texas farms respectively.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["complementarity",[]],["interdependence",[]],["anchorage",[]]]},{"rt":[["News values",[]],["news writing objectives",[]]]},{"de":[["ranging between -1 and 1",[]],["In addition to Otto et al.'s (2019b) SC metric, we replace Positive correlation with two sub-classes Low-positive correlation and High-positive correlation to capture more finegrained relations.",[]],["It can refer to concrete entities and contextual, interpretative correlations, that is, how much meaning is shared between modalities according to the SC metric from Otto et al. (2019b).",[]]],"sb":[["Zero correlation",[]],["Negative correlation",[]],["Zero correlation: If the two modalities do not have any material, conceptual, abstract or contextual semantic links, then the image-text pairs are considered as unrelated.",[]],["Negative correlation: This is the case when information in two modalities has different, opposing or contradictory contexts that disturb the overall meaning of the image-text pair.",[]],["Low-positive correlation: In this case, image and text are partially linked by sharing one or a few aspects but not the entire message.",[]],["High-positive correlation: This is the case when image and text belong together through sharing information and the entire contextual message.",[]]],"sp":[["Semantic relations",[]],["Semantic relations include three different aspects of capturing relationships on the meaning level: Semantic Correlation captures whether image and text belong together, STATUS signifies modality importance in terms of context and information, and Modification indicates whether one modality changes or strengthens certain aspects provided in the other modality.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The relations under this category refer to how interpretations and meaning can be constructed from a image-text pair by combining information from both modalities.",[]],["The relations under this category refer to how interpretations and meaning can be constructed from a image-text pair by combining information from both modalities. Typically, understanding the meaning of an imagetext pair requires knowledge and a user's ability to identify entities or concepts and how to link them. These relations can be inferred based on publicly accessible knowledge sources (e.g., encyclopedia, knowledge graphs, etc.).",[]]],"sb":[["Semantic Correlation",[]],["STATUS",[]],["Modification",[]],["Semantic relations include three different aspects of capturing relationships on the meaning level: Semantic Correlation captures whether image and text belong together, STATUS signifies modality importance in terms of context and information, and Modification indicates whether one modality changes or strengthens certain aspects provided in the other modality.",[]]],"sp":[["There are then two types of high-level cross-modal relations in the framework, Objective relations and Semantic relations, which are explained in detail in following two Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2.",[]]]},{"de":[["Although it is mentioned as negativity in journalism studies, we prefer the broader term Sentiment as both negative (e.g., disasters) and positive (e.g., winning a World Cup) events are covered as stories in the news.",[]],["In addition to polarity of the sentiment (positive, negative and neutral), it is further categorized into eight emotions (Mikels et al., 2005) as fear, sadness, disgust, anger, amusement, contentment, awe, and excitement.",[]]],"sb":[["positive, negative, and neutral",[]]],"sp":[["news values",[]]],"ex":[["usage of positive vocabulary (tone/language) (e.g., happy, saved, beautiful) or negative vocabulary (e.g., terrible, bad, worried).",[]]]},{"de":[["Relative importance is in terms of meaning and the modality central to the overall message of an imagetext pair, in contrast to extension, which operates in terms of individual concepts. The STATUS relation describes the hierarchical relation between image and text to signify whether they are equally important for the overall message or one modality is subordinate (provides additional information while the main message exists in the other modality) to the other.",[]]],"sb":[["Equal: Both parts are equally important for the overall message.",[]],["Image: Here, the image is the center of attention and provides additional information or context not present in the text.",[]],["Text: In this case, the image plays a minor role or is exchangeable with another image. The text provides the main context and other unique and important details relevant to the main message.",[]]],"sp":[["Semantic relations",[]],["Semantic relations include three different aspects of capturing relationships on the meaning level: Semantic Correlation captures whether image and text belong together, STATUS signifies modality importance in terms of context and information, and Modification indicates whether one modality changes or strengthens certain aspects provided in the other modality.",[]]]},{"sb":[["Equal: Both parts are equally important for the overall message.",[]],["Image: Here, the image is the center of attention and provides additional information or context not present in the text. The text acts as a caption or explicitly references the image, indicating that the image holds vital information regarding the message.",[]],["Text: In this case, the image plays a minor role or is exchangeable with another image. The text provides the main context and other unique and important details relevant to the main message.",[]]]},{"de":[["Recipients perceives information in the news differently depending on their background, knowledge and experience.",[]],["With multiple presentation modalities such as image and text, different kinds of objective and semantic relations can be established between modalities from the available content and information, as explained in detail above.",[]],["But, in addition, the differing sets of traits, such as age, gender, education, reader's location, language, domains of interest, religion, click history, etc., attributable to each recipient (reader) induce further changes in relations when contrasted with the content-based perspective.",[]],["it allows for the possibility to do comparative studies given analytical aspects above and user characteristics.",[]]]},{"de":[["The intensified aspects can be both in the positive (e.g., millions of dollars in profit) and negative (e.g., sharpest drop in the stock) direction, such that it is independent of the context.",[]],["In the text, maximized aspects of the event can be identified via quantifiers (large numbers), intensifiers that emphasize amount, scale or size, and superlatives, all of which can be identified using the grammatical structure of text documents.",[]],["It can also be established with metaphors and similes (like a raging river) that reflect the intensity or impact of the event.",[]]],"sb":[["yes (presence of multiple identifiers) and no (absence of identifiers)",[]]],"sp":[["news values",[]]],"ex":[["depiction of extreme emotions (anger, shock, fear) and placement of contrasting elements (e.g., a big new airplane standing next to a smaller one).",[]],["maximized aspects of the event can be identified via quantifiers (large numbers), intensifiers that emphasize amount, scale or size, and superlatives, all of which can be identified using the grammatical structure of text documents.",[]],["It can also be established with metaphors and similes (like a raging river) that reflect the intensity or impact of the event.",[]]]},{"sp":[["STATUS",[]]]},{"de":[["We divide timeliness into four categories based on the date of publication and reference to exact time, date, or season in the news article: old (two years or before), recent (last two years), ongoing and future.",[]],["As explained in Caple and Bednarek (2016), explicit verbal cues other than a date can be words like today, yesterday and verb tenses like have been trying in addition to the context around these phrases.",[]]],"sb":[["old (two years or before)",[]],["recent (last two years)",[]],["ongoing",[]],["future",[]]],"sp":[["news values",[]]]},{"de":[["According to the introduced notation, this is when N O = ∅.",[]]],"sp":[["Objective Overlap",[]]],"ex":[["Example (a) in Figure 6 shows an uncorrelated pair, where pills in the image have no shared word or phrase in the text.",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["information overload",[]]]},{"rt":[["individual-focused democratic education",[]]]},{"de":[["scholars have set out different definitions of controversial issues, often highlighting behavioural, epistemic and policy dimensions of the construct.",[]],["The behavioural basis for determining a controversial issue points to the disagreements, contestations, and emotive responses such issues often evoke in people and across communities.",[]],["The epistemic criterion positions controversial issues as rooted in conflicting knowledge foundations pertaining to specific local, national or global issues.",[]],["Controversial issues can differ from society to society, with some being global in character and addressed at social, political or science topics.",[]],["reframing of controversial issues as a power-laden category",[]],["such issues often reflect disagreements over matters of public interest that require policy response to address",["2004"]]],"rt":[["national and international policy responses",[]],["public debates and disagreements",[]],["behavioural, epistemic and policy dimensions",[]]],"ex":[["climate change",[]],["different manifestations of international conflict",[]],["legalisation of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)",[]],["legalisation of abortion",[]],["aspects of race, LGBTQ+, gender",[]]]},{"sp":[["democratic education",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["education within democracy",[]],["education through democracy",[]],["the broader pedagogical context of democratic education, detailing if these often align with dimensions of the DSE framework in terms of Individual versus Community, Theoretical versus Practice and Basic versus Critical",[]]],"sb":[["Individual versus Community",[]],["Theoretical versus Practice",[]],["Basic versus Critical",[]],["critical democratic education",["de Groot and Lo (2021)"]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",["Wardle and Derakhshan (2017)"]],["mal-information",[]],["fake news",["Wardle and Derakhshan (2017)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["community-oriented education",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["belief polarisation",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["dis-information",[]],["fake news",[]]]},{"rt":[["dis-information",["Wardle and Derakhshan (2017)"]],["mal-information",[]],["fake news",["Wardle and Derakhshan (2017)"]]]},{},{"rt":[["product-based justification",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["process-based justification",[]]]},{},{"de":[["It does not show any type of visual to the user so, it acts differently from other media forms",[]]]},{"de":[["This type of sites is a high-risk area for information since it comes directly from a user's bias rather than finding credibility in facts on a specific topic",[]],["Its content is usually given from a personal perspective. This type of sites is a high-risk area for information since it comes directly from a user's bias rather than finding credibility in facts on a specific topic",["6"]]],"sp":[["standalone website",[]]]},{"de":[["today's fake news maybe includes tampered photographs and videos, which increase the suspicion of individuals.",[]],["Fake news that we are attentive in is one of many types of fraud in social websites, but it is a more important one as it is created with unfair intention to delude people",["17"]]]},{"de":[["Usually, a hyperlink is connected to a host website from ads, and in fake news is often the source of how 'clickbait' transactions work",[]]]},{"sp":[["standalone website",[]]]},{"sp":[["standalone website",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["popular news sites",[]],["blog sites",[]],["media sites",[]],["popular news sites: their presence on the internet is vast, and they usually have a social media position with a large number of followers",["6"]],["blog sites: these sites are smaller than popular news sites and contain user-generated content. Its content is usually given from a personal perspective.",["6"]],["media sites: these sites are not the same as social media. Media sites focus more on providing different media content from photography, news, videos, and tutorials.",[]]]},{"de":[["It does have punctuation and grammar to promote voice and tone",["6"]]]},{},{"de":[["A key issue lies in the presence of implicit biases in LLM outputs (Xu et al., 2024), which are are not asked directly from the model but can be inferred by seeing how it assigns ethical or unethical actions to different demographic groups.",[]]]},{"de":[["In addition, we include neutral scenarios, everyday tasks that are ethically uncharged and free from overt bias-serving as a baseline for comparison.",[]],["actions that are entirely neutral-without any bias toward specific demographic groups",[]]]},{},{"de":[["While Framing Theory addresses the 'how' of media messaging, Agenda-Setting Theory addresses the 'what'.",[]],["This process directs attention towards specific political labels and may marginalise more precise, academically grounded terms such as 'far-right'.",[]],["Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs and Shaw 1972) explores how media prioritise certain issues, thereby shaping what the public perceives as important.",[]],["While Framing Theory addresses the 'how' of media messaging, Agenda-Setting Theory addresses the 'what'. This process directs attention towards specific political labels and may marginalise more precise, academically grounded terms such as 'far-right'.",[]]],"rt":[["Framing Theory",[]]]},{},{"de":[["functions as an umbrella label that conflates distinct far-right currents",[]],["intended to serve as a less provocative alternative to 'far-right', potentially narrowing the perceived ideological gap between mainstream conservatives and groups with more overt nationalist, xenophobic, or authoritarian tendencies.",[]],["remains conceptually unclear",[]],["softening devices rather than precise descriptors",[]],["four characteristics to support the party's hard-right classification: (a) a sustained fusion of free market and cultural conservatism, (b) strategic use of public opinion platforms, (c) reliance on institutional ad hominem tactics, and (d) an insistence that genuine conservatism is obstructed.",["Ellis 2024"]],["buzzwords",[]],["flawed term",[]],["operates as a powerful umbrella that compresses a spectrum of political currents into a single narrative threat",[]],["stand alone as a synonym for extremism",[]],["flattens internal complexities: Far-right populists, nativist nationalists, and reactionary conservatives are folded into one undifferentiated bloc",[]],["First, by subsuming a spectrum of parties and movements under a single label, it obscures their distinct ideological commitments, flattening nuanced policy debates into an undifferentiated warning of extremism.",[]],["the 'hard-right' label is not simply a descriptor but part of a broader phenomenon of label inflation, strategic political rebranding, and the euphemistic normalisation of extremist ideologies.",[]]],"sy":[["far-right",[]],["hardright",[]]],"rt":[["hard-right politics",[]],["far-right",[]],["populism",[]],["populist discourse",[]],["nonscientific language",[]]],"ex":[["media outlets thus construct 'hard-right' as a catch-all villain, while through agenda-setting they channel attention to a nebulous threat rather than to specific platforms or personalities.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["catch-all terms such as 'populism' work to mainstream these views by sanitising their core ideology.",[]],["self-contained ideology",[]],["Populism is a well-established (thin-centred) ideology (Mudde 2017)",[]]],"rt":[["far-right",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["framing a word will help to clarify specific perspectives that are activated by a word",["Fillmore & Baker, 2010"]]]},{"rt":[["frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Semantically organized linguistic items have one key element around which other elements are grouped.",[]],["A specific context reveals a specific vision of a phenomenon. Frames encode that specific information.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["With this method there is the opportunity to manipulate people, when there is a potential threat or important information.",[]]],"rt":[["contextual analysis",[]],["semantic prototyping",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["tolerance",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["contextual meaning",[]],["coded meaning",[]]]},{"de":[["Text is \"the product of the process\" and is manifested in either talking and writing or any other forms.",[]]]},{"de":[["the role of power is of great concern to Brown for its indirect participation in those positioning and constructing functions that are distributed through the tolerance discourse.",["2006"]],["tolerance can correlate with different objects, based on the national context",["Brown, 2006"]]],"sy":[["patience",[]],["forbearance",[]],["admittance",[]],["tolerant",[]],["tolerable",[]]],"rt":[["intolerance",[]],["intolerant",["2006"]],["toleration",[]]],"sb":[["tolerance that results from respect from all human beings",[]]]},{"de":[["Tolerance frame activates the scenes regarding the internal and external conflicts or crises.",[]],["It functions as a solution or replacement, offered as an appropriate choice over negative tendencies, breeding the acts of intolerance.",[]]]},{"de":[["Toleration was mentioned in religious texts, thus it referred to the religious right.",[]],["it is significant to specify the context of toleration such as interpersonal, institutional or governmental which determines special modes of toleration.",["2013"]],["On a conceptual level, the concept of toleration has several components: \"objection\", \"acceptance\" and \"rejection\".",["Forst, 2013","2013"]]],"rt":[["tolerance",[]],["objection",[]],["acceptance",[]],["rejection",[]],["permission",["2013"]],["coexistence",["2013"]],["respect",["2013"]],["esteem conceptions",["2013"]]],"sb":[["interpersonal",["2013"]],["institutional",["2013"]],["governmental",["2013"]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["accuracy motivations",[]]],"rt":[["goal-oriented motivations",[]]]},{"de":[["we operationalize the sharing of fake news as the sharing of all links to news sources with a history of publishing falsehoods.",[]],["From a partisan motivated perspective, fake news is not categorically different from other sources of political information.",[]]],"rt":[["traditional partisan news",[]]],"sb":[["almost exclusively fabricated stories",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["the main finding was that fake news sharing -as well as sharing of real news -reflects partisan goals.",[]]],"sy":[["directional motivations",["Kunda 1990"]]],"rt":[["accuracyoriented motivations",[]]]},{"de":[["partisans seem to share information from ideologically similar sources (Barberá et al. 2015) and to treat articles shared by political opponents with greater suspicion (Lee, Kim and Coe 2018), suggesting that considerations about the political usefulness of information matters.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["animus towards political opponents rather than positive feelings towards the in-party",["Abramowitz and Webster 2018"]],["people share fake news out of animus towards political opponents rather than positive feelings towards their own party",["Abramowitz and Webster 2018"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["stories shared from Democratic news sources should portray Republican elites negatively while stories from Republican news sources should cast Democratic elites in a negative light",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["illusory superiority",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["HME",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the hostile media effect is strongest when the issue is divisive, the partisan viewer or reader is highly involved, the communication is a product of mass media and its audience is perceived to be vast and vulnerable.",[]]],"sy":[["HME",[]]],"rt":[["selective recall",[]],["selective categorization",[]],["different standards",[]],["bias blind spot",[]],["third-person effect",[]],["confirmation bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["micro-level bias",[]]]},{"rt":[["macro-level bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["HME",[]]]},{"sp":[["information processing mechanisms",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Sentiment analysis is not limited to commercial applications; it also plays a crucial role in social and political discourse, helping to gauge public opinion on various issues and inform policy making.",[]]],"sy":[["sentiment mining",[]],["sentiment evaluation",[]],["sentiment detection",[]]],"rt":[["Twitter opinion mining",[]],["social networking information",[]],["social networking sites",[]],["consumer feedback",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["deceptive linguistic style in general presents negative polarity, weak employment of singular and third-person pronouns, and high employment of movement verbs.",["DePaulo et al. (2003)"]]]},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]],["deceptive news",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["opinion spam",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The satellite presents necessarily uncomplicated linguistic structures that express information analogous to sudden emotions, sensations, and states of mind information.",[]],["there are not any constraints on the nucleus, and the writer leads the reader to adopt a type of behavior using an unrefined linguistic structure analogous to sudden emotion, sensations, and states of mind.",[]],["two new proposed rhetorical relations: INTERJECTION and IMPERATIVE",[]]],"rt":[["IMPERATIVE",[]]],"sb":[["mononuclear relation named INTERJECTION",[]]],"sp":[["rhetorical relation",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["satellite",[]]]},{"sy":[["Fake reviews",[]]]},{"sy":[["RST",[]]]},{"de":[["provide the background necessary to construct a sound claim",[]]],"ex":[["ongoing events/conflicts",[]],["pop culture",[]]]},{"de":[["Decontextualization evaluation determines whether the extracted claim is interpretable as a stand-alone factual statement, without requiring additional context.",[]],["producing claims that are more stand-alone and interpretable without the original post",[]]],"sb":[["fully_decontextualized : Understandable in isolation . The claim is completely self -contained , unambiguous , and requires no edits to be understood on its own .",[]],["partially_decontextualized : The claim is mostly clear and contains some context , but has gaps , vague references or unresolved pronouns . The claim could benefit from some edits .",[]],["not_decontextualized : Not understandable in isolation . The claim cannot be interpreted on its own ; key entities , referents , or context are missing .",[]]]},{"de":[["judging entailment involves a deeper inferential reasoning of the post compared to the other metrics",[]]],"sb":[["entailed : The claim is fully aligned with the post content without any contradictions , hallucinations or unsupported additions .",[]],["partially_entailed : The claim is partially aligned with the post content but contains minor variations or additional context not stated or implied in the post .",[]],["not_entailed : The claim contains significant misaligned inferences , exaggerations beyond what 's stated , major contradictions , hallucinations , or completely misaligns with the post content .",[]]]},{},{"de":[["helps distinguish factual claims from rhetorical or performative speech",[]]],"ex":[["joking",[]],["criticizing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["signals whether a claim should be interpreted literally or as exaggeration",[]]],"ex":[["sarcastic",[]],["ironic",[]],["outraged",[]]]},{},{"de":[["subject to the forces of nature",[]],["Europe's various \"others\" were cast as affectable-subject to the forces of nature.",[]]],"rt":[["racial logics",[]]]},{"rt":[["right-wing YouTube ecosystem",[]]]},{"de":[["respondents described their political journeys as highly idiosyncratic processes of personal research, rational deliberation, and intellectual combat.",[]],["captures how similar logics of individual responsibility, self-reliance, competition, and suspicion of government interference pervaded respondents' narratives of their own political formation.",[]],["This process involves sifting through competing ideas, evaluating them against one another, and exposing one's own views to opposition.",[]],["the belief that one has accessed the truth because one has studied harder, researched more, and thought more deeply about a subject than others",[]],["Under bootstraps epistemology, his better-developed, more theoretically coherent views entitle him to more power within society",[]],["Under this epistemology, harmful reactionary narratives can quickly calcify, as individuals interpret progressive arguments as ill-informed dogma while insisting that their own views stem not from outside influence but from their own reasoning.",[]],["respondents described their political journeys as highly idiosyncratic processes of personal research, rational deliberation, and intellectual combat. I call this narrative of political formation bootstraps epistemology.",[]],["being alone in his beliefs served as evidence of independent thought in the face of widespread groupthink, rather than as a cause for concern or reflection",[]],["bootstraps epistemology as a concept that captures how similar logics of individual responsibility, self-reliance, competition, and suspicion of government interference pervaded respondents' narratives of their own political formation.",[]],["Under bootstraps epistemology, his better-developed, more theoretically coherent views entitle him to more power within society.",[]]],"rt":[["conspiracy thinking",[]],["epistemic individualism",[]],["imagined epistemology",[]],["individual responsibility",[]],["self-reliance",[]],["competition",[]],["suspicion of government interference",[]]],"ex":[["consulting multiple sources in order to piece together the truth",[]]]},{"de":[["audience-centric strain of communications research",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["rugged individualism",[]]]},{"de":[["Independents are perceived as 'free thinkers' who are 'more open to the truth' and able to set aside the 'dogma' of partisanship",["p. 8"]],["can guarantee objectivity, rigour, and factuality",[]]]},{"de":[["folk theory of news discovery",["Gil de Zúñiga et al., 2017"]]]},{"de":[["This media literacy practice was echoed by several respondents when asked what their main sources of news and information were",[]]],"rt":[["media literacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the attributes that the media ascribes to the issues it reports on, influencing the public's perception of those issues",[]]],"rt":[["cumulative effect",[]],["second level of Agenda-Setting",[]]],"sb":[["second level of Agenda-Setting",[]],["intermedia agenda setting",["McCombs and Gahnem, 2001"]]]},{"de":[["the findings showed that the media may not succeed in influencing what the public thinks, but they are very successful in influencing what the public thinks about",[]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["attributes and framing -are synonymous concepts that complement each other.",[]]],"sy":[["second level of agenda setting",[]]]},{"de":[["limited to cognitive (beliefs and the acquisition of attitudes) and affective (emotional reactions) effects",["1972","McCombs and Show (1972)"]],["cumulative effects are limited to cognitive (beliefs and the acquisition of attitudes) and affective (emotional reactions) effects.",["McCombs and Show (1972)"]]],"rt":[["Agenda-Setting",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Framing does not focus on the issues or topics that are chosen for coverage by the media, but on the specific ways in which they are presented",["Scheufele and Tewskbury, 2007"]]],"rt":[["Attribute agenda setting",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the agenda of different types of media are often homogeneous, highly interdependent and self-referential. As a result, a common national agenda still appears to exist, especially for high salience issues",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["Attribute agenda setting",[]]],"sp":[["Agenda-Setting",[]]]},{"de":[["minimising the effects of disinformation",[]],["often not synthesised from political parties and donors, but from user generated content",[]],["Commentators generally view disinformation as intentionally false information that aims to deceive.",["24"]],["the notion of \"Disinformation\" does not include misleading advertising, reporting errors, satire and parody, or clearly identified partisan news and commentary.",["28"]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]],"ex":[["the notion of \"Disinformation\" does not include misleading advertising, reporting errors, satire and parody, or clearly identified partisan news and commentary.",["28"]]]},{"de":[["Gelfert notes that the term fake news is used \"both as a distinct class of misleading reports and as a rhetorical device for shutting down critical reporting \".",["14"]],["He argues that \"the economy and simplicity of the two-word combination make it a real buzz-word and a great sound-bite. It instantly conjures up a variety of meanings and can thus be used very flexibly.\"",["14"]],["The term fake news is also used to systematically undermine the credibility of the free press.",["17"]],["loaded term",["25"]],["the economy and simplicity of the two-word combination make it a real buzz-word and a great sound-bite. It instantly conjures up a variety of meanings and can thus be used very flexibly.",["17"]],["a \"potentially vast range of qualitatively different types of expression\", ranging from \"anything from playful hoaxes to belligerent propaganda or incitement to violence\".",["17"]],["the use of the term in \"sometimes conflicting\" and disparate ways renders \"conceptual analysis\" more challenging.",["14"]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["At the individual level, causes include biological and medical factors, genetics, demographics, lifestyle behaviors, and personal traumatic events.",[]],["Social network-level causes encompass issues within interpersonal relationships, environmental stress from work, study, and living conditions, as well as other traumatic events.",[]],["At the societal level, causes involve broader conditions such as general societal structures and socio-economic factors.",[]]],"sb":[["individual",[]],["social network",[]],["societal",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["responsibility frame",[]]]},{"de":[["the media can shape public perception by assigning responsibility for both the emergence and resolution of these problems",[]]]},{"de":[["Responsibility frame is a powerful concept that can both shape the public's perception of health problems (Heley et al., 2020), and the attributions of responsibility made by individuals (Starr & Oxlad, 2021;Temmann et al., 2020).",["Heley et al., 2020","Starr & Oxlad, 2021","Temmann et al., 2020"]],["Furthermore, responsibility frames have the potential to impact individuals' intentions towards engaging in health behaviors, interpersonal behavior, and societal participation (Y. Sun et al., 2016).",["Y. Sun et al., 2016"]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["Substantial evidence links social networks and social support to health outcomes through psychological (Uchino et al., 2012), physiological (Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2010), and behavioral mechanisms (Gallant, 2013).",["Uchino et al., 2012","Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2010","Gallant, 2013"]],["Social networks can also promote health behaviors that prevent disease, slow its progression, or influence recovery speed (Miller & DiMatteo, 2013).",["Miller & DiMatteo, 2013"]],["Conversely, insufficient social support, as well as conflicts or stress within one's social network, can negatively impact health outcomes (Goodman et al., 2019;Hendryx et al., 2019).",["Goodman et al., 2019","Hendryx et al., 2019"]]],"rt":[["social support",[]]]},{},{"de":[["This concept supports the idea that the media not only constructs social beliefs but also transmits values while marginalizing others, ultimately influencing public thought",["Russell & Eissler, 2021"]]]},{},{"de":[["The media framing of exclusive breastfeeding plays a crucial role in shaping public perception and behavior.",[]],["which is part of the media agenda",[]]],"rt":[["media agenda",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["a wealth of information creates a poverty of attention",["Simon, 1971, p.40"]]]},{},{"de":[["Chomsky expands on the concept, observing that concision was a feature of nightly news programs in the US, where the news segments had to fit \"between two commercials or in six hundred words\"",["Manufacturing Consent, 1992"]]],"rt":[["you can't give evidence if you're stuck with concision",["Manufacturing Consent, 1992"]]]},{"de":[["focusing on four main qualities, which are that it is high-volume and multichannel, rapid, continuous, and repetitive, lacks commitment to objective reality, and lacks commitment to consistency",[]],["high-volume and multichannel",[]],["rapid, continuous, and repetitive",[]],["lacks commitment to objective reality",[]],["lacks commitment to consistency",[]],["repeated exposure to a statement has been shown to increase its acceptance as true",["2016, p.4"]],["It describes a propaganda model primarily used to overwhelm information networks, making it challenging for users to discern what information is real and what is false, often by mixing real and fake news.",[]]],"rt":[["Gish Gallop",[]]],"sp":[["propaganda model",[]]]},{"de":[["The respondent then is not able to refute all claims in the given time, suggesting that the unrefuted claims are valid.",[]]],"rt":[["firehose of falsehood",[]]]},{},{},{"sb":[["firehose of falsehood",[]]]},{},{"de":[["posited that there is a unique quality of human life that no other life has.",[]],["generally rejected scientific inquiry and modernism in favor of arguments about humanity that eschewed evidence.",[]],["the vitalism movement, which posited that there is a unique quality of human life that no other life has",[]],["the vitalism movement, which generally rejected scientific inquiry and modernism in favor of arguments about humanity that eschewed evidence.",[]],["Eventually, this push manifested itself in the vitalism movement, which posited that there is a unique quality of human life that no other life has.",[]]],"rt":[["anti-rationalism",[]]]},{"sp":[["public diplomacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["To frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/ or treatment recommendation for the item described",["1993"]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Media diplomacy concerns how the media link policymakers to foreign governments and the public",["Cohen, 1986, p. 8","Cohen, 1986"]],["The goal of media diplomacy is to influence other governments and to reach an international agreement beneficial to the country (Gilboa, 1998(Gilboa, , 2001)); to achieve conflict resolution and garner international support (Gilboa, 1998(Gilboa, , 2001(Gilboa, , 2008b)), usually in times of conflict or crisis (Semetko, 2009).",["Gilboa, 1998(Gilboa, , 2001)","Gilboa, 1998(Gilboa, , 2001(Gilboa, , 2008b)","Semetko, 2009","(Gilboa, 1998(Gilboa, , 2001))","(Gilboa, 1998(Gilboa, , 2001(Gilboa, , 2008b))","(Semetko, 2009)","Gilboa, 1998","Gilboa, 2008b"]],["media diplomacy is done by state actors",[]],["the messengers are the state actors who convey messages through the media (Gilboa, 1998)",["Gilboa, 1998"]],["media diplomacy messages are communicated only through the media",[]],["The designers and advocates of foreign policy drew attention through the media.",[]],["Regardless of their geographical locations, their statements went global without the need to broadcast through traditional diplomatic channels.",[]],["The media disseminate them to the international audience in real time.",[]],["In fact, foreign policies were formulated through media diplomacy and not just based on the government's statements, as was the case a while ago.",[]],["The media have provided a channel for political actors of different countries to give political statements on specific matters without having to meet or have one party visit the other.",[]],["They aim for a broad impact.",[]],["In times of conflict, media diplomacy appears as an alternative channel of communication",["Semetko, 2009"]],["It enables communication even between countries that do not have diplomatic relations, and these messages and attitudes are conveyed through the media.",[]],["media diplomacy has weakened the importance of the government headquarters because the state actors can speak in the media, regardless of whether he makes the statement from the headquarters or a foreign country far from his government headquarters.",[]],["the media diplomacy includes all aspects of public diplomacy where the media are involved as well as others not associated with public diplomacy including the sending of signals by governments through the media, and the use of the media as a source of information",["Cohen, 1986"]],["Also, media diplomacy has weakened the importance of the government headquarters because the state actors can speak in the media, regardless of whether he makes the statement from the headquarters or a foreign country far from his government headquarters.",[]]],"sy":[["public diplomacy",["Gilboa, 1998(Gilboa, , 2008b)"]]],"rt":[["public diplomacy",["Gilboa, 2001"]],["media-broker diplomacy",["Gilboa, 2001"]],["traditional diplomatic channels",[]]],"ex":[["as was the case with Kosovo",[]],["The designers and advocates of foreign policy drew attention through the media. Regardless of their geographical locations, their statements went global without the need to broadcast through traditional diplomatic channels. The media disseminate them to the international audience in real time.",[]]]},{"rt":[["media diplomacy",[]]]},{"de":[["producing an echo of such an event in American culture is often more important than the event itself.",["Boorstin (1992)"]],["the pseudo-events fill the information gaps in the absence of developments or information.",[]],["creating an image that either attracts attention or incites certain emotions",["Kunczik, 1997"]],["Through this type of management, the pseudo-events fill the information gaps in the absence of developments or information.",[]]],"sy":[["simulation",["Boorstin (1992)"]],["publicity",["Boorstin (1992)"]]],"rt":[["media events",[]]],"ex":[["organize a party to celebrate the 30 th anniversary of the hotel. The list of invitees was drawn, including bankers, lawyers, and preachers of influence. The party was organized, the photographers showed up…",["Boorstin, 1992, p. 9-10"]]]},{"de":[["Public diplomacy is mediatized (Golan et al., 2019).",["Golan et al., 2019"]],["public diplomacy can be done by either state or non-state actors",[]],["the messengers are organizations, NGOs, diasporas, and individuals who convey a message directly through activities, such as educational and cultural exchange programs, scholarships, cinematography, language programs, sports, and arts (Golan, 2015;Snow, 2020)",["Golan, 2015","Snow, 2020"]],["Public diplomacy is done through direct communication with foreign peoples to influence their thinking and, ultimately, their governments' decisions (Malone, 1985), especially in the formation and execution of foreign policies (Cull, 2006).",["Malone, 1985","Cull, 2006"]],["studies focused on public diplomacy because global tensions had fallen, and the states focused on building images and reputations for economic purposes.",[]],["Kosovo has not tried to increase its international image in order to derive commercial benefits, investments, tourist benefits, etc., as public diplomacy aims",[]]],"sy":[["media diplomacy",["Gilboa, 1998(Gilboa, , 2008b)"]]],"rt":[["media diplomacy",[]],["media-brokerdiplomacy",[]]],"sb":[["information management",[]],["strategic communication",[]],["cultural diplomacy",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["media diplomacy",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a framework rooted on the ideals of development journalism.",[]]],"rt":[["development journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["values of harmony and supportiveness are strongest in Southeast Asian reportage",[]],["central to the development journalism paradigm and peddled by Southeast Asian regimes as a guide for nation-building.",[]]],"rt":[["development journalism paradigm",[]],["harmony and supportiveness",[]],["development journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["The government of Singapore, for example, was able to use its media system in furthering its economic agenda through what George (2003) called 'calibrated coercion'.",["George (2003)"]]]},{"de":[["the dominant model in these countries as well as in the low to middle income closed systems, like Vietnam and Cambodia",["Wong, 2004, p. 26"]],["the media acts a partner of the state in disseminating the government agenda for economic progress",[]],["it is 'interventionist, developmental, and educational'",["Kalyango et al., 2016, p.3"]]],"sy":[["compliant journalism",["p. 14"]]],"rt":[["development journalism paradigm",[]],["Asian values",[]]]},{"de":[["found the Western liberal media too much driven by sensationalism and commercialism at the expense of socially important news about community projects, rural developments, efforts to address poverty, etc.",["Wong, 2004, p. 26"]],["this practice highlights news that would allow people to understand and participate in development initiatives down to the grassroots level",["Anand, 2014","Aggarwala, 1979","Richstad, 2000","Shah, 1988"]],["it is 'interventionist, developmental, and educational' (p.3)-reporters are socialised as agents of change or contributors to societal progress.",["Kalyango et al., 2016, p.3"]]],"sy":[["compliant journalism",[]]],"rt":[["government say-so journalism",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Game-framed coverage contains the elements of conflict and novelty that could sustain reader interest",["Benoit, Stein, & Hansen, 2005","Cenite et al., 2008","Hahn & Iyengar, 2002"]]],"rt":[["issue frames",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the activities, quotes, and background of and other related information on the ASEAN leaders",[]]]},{"de":[["The primary agent is the head of state (or his or her minister) and the emphasis is on what he or she said or did.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["stories are framed according to the gestures of prominent individuals",[]]],"rt":[["news value",[]]]},{"de":[["the self-restraint in journalism is not just borne out of professional ideology but is also a consequence of acts of violence against them: 'history of defamation suits by politicians, unexplained sackings for challenging the status quo, and closure of news organisations under media laws'",["p. 50"]],["their publications were 'being used to promote their owners' interests'",["Tapsell, 2013, p. 241"]]],"sy":[["overly cautious journalism",["Loo, 2013, p.13","Wong, 2004"]]]},{"sp":[["Websites that produce fake news",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Websites that produce fake news",[]]]},{"sp":[["Websites that produce fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["e.g., a coreference resolution system that successfully identifies male coreferents at a higher rate over female ones.",[]]],"ex":[["a coreference resolution system that successfully identifies male coreferents at a higher rate over female ones.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["An example would be the unintentional linkage of genders with particular occupations, as captured by contextualized word representations.",[]]],"ex":[["the unintentional linkage of genders with particular occupations, as captured by contextualized word representations.",[]],["An example would be the unintentional linkage of genders with particular occupations, as captured by contextualized word representations.",[]]]},{"de":[["In SEAT, the concept words from WEAT are inserted into semantically bleached sentence templates such as \"This is a[n] <word>,\" effectively allowing for the comparison of sentence representations.",[]],["For both WEAT and SEAT, the null hypothesis postulates that no difference exists in the relative similarity between the sets of target words X, Y and the sets of attribute words A, B. The effect size, s(X, Y, A, B), quantifies the difference in mean cosine similarity between representations of the target concept pair (X, Y ), and representations of the attribute concept pair (A, B)",[]]],"rt":[["Word Embedding Association Test (WEAT)",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Wilson's belief in American exceptionalism and humanitarian interventionism.",[]]]},{"rt":[["cultural mythology surrounding the warrior",["330"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["for long an integral part of apartheid theology",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["contestation",[]],["peace journalism",[]]]},{"de":[["the search for peace through justice can be described as a manifestation of peace journalism.",[]],["more than a superficial absence of conflict, but something deeper. It presupposes an active search for justice -even if it results in non-violent conflict, thus a contestation of ideas in search of truth.",[]]],"rt":[["peace",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Affiliation networks examine actors and events as a coherent system and show how social relationships among actors can be created through their participation in social events.",[]]]},{"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"de":[["This frame includes discussions of joint activities such as conferences, meetings, and workshops.",[]],["This frame also shows China working with the UN or helping African or neighboring nations in their struggle against AIDS.",[]]]},{"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"de":[["People are still ignorant about the basic knowledge of HIV/AIDS because of the government's passive reaction and insufficient efforts.",[]]],"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["public diplomacy tactics",[]]],"ex":[["educational programs",[]]]},{"sp":[["public diplomacy tactics",[]]],"ex":[["campaigns that involve the general publics or people with HIV and aim at changing their attitudes or behaviors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The value of involving NGOs in public diplomacy efforts arises from NGOs' unique credibility, expertise, and access to local community and international resources.",[]]],"sy":[["nongovernmental and nonprofit organizations",[]],["non-state actors",[]]]},{"de":[["Public diplomacy is an important part of international and intercultural communication (DeMars, 2005;Nye, 2008).",["DeMars, 2005","Nye, 2008"]],["Governments across the world use public diplomacy communication and activities to build a positive image with publics of other nations.",[]],["Public diplomacy efforts seek to influence foreign publics, so that they may influence their own government's actions toward another nation.",[]],["Public diplomacy has evolved from a focus on mass media to communication efforts to build transnational communication networks of relationships with respected international non-governmental organizations.",[]]],"rt":[["international communication",[]],["intercultural communication",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The soft power network approach helps to explain why a powerful semi-authoritarian government engaged with international civil actors, and it helps to investigate and reveal the structure and dimensions of this government-NGO communication network.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["With a specific target group that is generally \"educated, informed and relatively literate on issues related to the economy\"",["Doyle 2006, 436"]]]},{"de":[["modifying narrative angles in news coverage",[]]],"rt":[["negativity bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["information subsidies",["Bennett 1990","Berkowitz and Adams 1990"]]]},{"de":[["The journalist-initiated negativity is usually portrayed as negatively framed news stories or negative quotes from institutional actors",["Galpin and Trenz 2019"]]]},{"de":[["With regard to news content, the negativity bias indicates that the news media are inclined to highlight negative aspects compared to positive aspects of economic issues and events",["Hester and Gibson 2003"]]],"rt":[["framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Building on the widely applied generic conflict frame, we also identify the trade conflict frame, which captures audience interest by highlighting disagreements or disputes between bilateral trade relations",["Semetko and Valkenburg 2000"]]],"rt":[["generic conflict frame",[]]],"sp":[["generic conflict frame",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["documentary photography",[]]]},{"rt":[["documentary chronicle",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["One of the issues with hate speech detectors is their overreliance on identity terms such as Asian or Black to classify a text as hateful (i.e., identity term bias)",["ElSherief et al., 2021","Sen et al., 2022"]]],"rt":[["spurious correlations",[]]],"ex":[["when the term Asian is presented more frequently in samples labeled as hate in contrast to those labeled as non-hate in a dataset, a model might classify a statement as hate solely based on the presence of the term Asian, resulting in high in-dataset performance.",[]]]},{"de":[["a machine-generated statement should be in implicit forms (i.e., without explicit hateful words such as slurs).",[]]],"rt":[["explicit hateful words such as slurs",[]]]},{"de":[["Implicit hate speech detection is a challenging task in text classification since no explicit cues (e.g., swear words) exist in the text.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["We include the special case where the reference is not an authority/expert, although it is referred to as testimonial in the literature (Jowett and O'Donnell, 2012, p. 237).",["Jowett and O'Donnell, 2012, p. 237"]],["We include the special case where the reference is not an authority/expert, although it is referred to as testimonial in the literature",["Jowett and O'Donnell, 2012, p. 237"]]],"ex":[["Monsignor Jean-Franc ¸ois Lantheaume, who served as first Counsellor of the Nunciature in Washington, confirmed that \"Viganò said the truth. That's all\"",[]]]},{"ex":[["\"stop those refugees; they are terrorists.\"",[]],["stop those refugees; they are terrorists.",[]],["A dark, impenetrable and \"irreversible\" winter of persecution of the faithful by their own shepherds will fall.",[]]]},{"ex":[["\"Would you vote for Clinton as president? 57% say yes.\"",[]],["Would you vote for Clinton as president? 57% say yes.",[]],["He tweeted, \"EU no longer considers #Hamas a terrorist group. Time for US to do same.\"",[]]]},{"sy":[["dictatorship",[]]],"ex":[["You must be a Republican or Democrat; you are not a Democrat. Therefore, you must be a Republican",[]],["There is no alternative to war.",[]],["\"You must be a Republican or Democrat; you are not a Democrat. Therefore, you must be a Republican\"; \"There is no alternative to war.\"",[]],["Francis said these words: \"Everyone is guilty for the good he could have done and did not do . . . If we do not oppose evil, we tacitly feed it.",[]]]},{"ex":[["If France had not declared war on Germany, World War II would have never happened.",[]],["\"If France had not declared war on Germany, World War II would have never happened.\"",[]],["he said The people who talk about the \"Jewish question\" are generally anti-Semites. Somehow I don't think",[]],["will not be reversed, which leaves no alternative as to why God judges and is judging America today",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["A candidate says about his opponent: \"Is he ready to be the Mayor?\"",[]],["Can the same be said for the Obama Administration?",[]]]},{"de":[["e.g., saying that an insult was just a joke.",[]]],"ex":[["\"Democrats bolted as soon as Trump's speech ended in an apparent effort to signal they can't even stomach being in the same room as the president\"; \"I was not fighting with her; we were just playing.\"",[]],["Democrats bolted as soon as Trump's speech ended in an apparent effort to signal they can't even stomach being in the same room as the president",[]],["I was not fighting with her; we were just playing.",[]],["heal the situation of extremely grave immoral behavior",[]]]},{"ex":[["\"entering this war will make us have a better future in our country.\"",[]],["entering this war will make us have a better future in our country.",[]],["conflicted, and his 17 Angry Democrats that are doing his dirty work are a disgrace to USA! -Donald J. Trump",[]],["attempt (Mueller) to stop the will of We the People!!! It's time to jail Mueller",[]]]},{"de":[["Note that these two tasks are of different granularities, g 1 and g 2 , i.e., tokens for FLC and sentences for SLC.",[]]]},{"ex":[["[. . . ] a lone lawmaker's childish shouting.",[]],["until forced to act by a worldwide storm of outrage.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Republican congressweasels",[]],["Bush the Lesser.",[]],["\"Republican congressweasels\", \"Bush the Lesser.\"",[]],["dismissing the protesters as \"lefties\" and hugging Barros publicly",[]]]},{"sy":[["intentional vagueness",[]],["confusion",[]]]},{"de":[["For instance, when an unclear phrase with multiple possible meanings is used within the argument, and, therefore, it does not really support the conclusion.",[]]],"ex":[["\"It is a good idea to listen to victims of theft. Therefore, if the victims say to have the thief shot, then you should do it.\"",[]],["The cardinal's office maintains that rather than saying \"yes,\" there is a possibility of liturgical \"blessing\" of gay unions, he answered the question in a more subtle way without giving an explicit \"yes.\"",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Those subjected to a red herring argument are led away from the issue that had been the focus of the discussion and urged to follow an observation or claim that may be associated with the original claim, but is not highly relevant to the issue in dispute",["Teninbaum, 2009"]]],"ex":[["\"You may claim that the death penalty is an ineffective deterrent against crime -but what about the victims of crime? How do you think surviving family members feel when they see the man who murdered their son kept in prison at their expense? Is it right that they should pay for their son's murderer to be fed and housed?\"",[]],["You may claim that the death penalty is an ineffective deterrent against crime -but what about the victims of crime? How do you think surviving family members feel when they see the man who murdered their son kept in prison at their expense? Is it right that they should pay for their son's murderer to be fed and housed?",[]],["It describes the tsunami of vindictive personal abuse that has been heaped upon Julian from well-known journalists, many claiming liberal credentials. The Guardian, which used to consider itself the most enlightened newspaper in the country, has probably been the worst.",[]]]},{"de":[["It can refer to any person or concept with a negative connotation",["Teninbaum, 2009"]]],"ex":[["\"Only one kind of person can think this way: a communist.\"",[]],["Only one kind of person can think this way: a communist.",[]]]},{"ex":[["Farrakhan repeatedly refers to Jews as \"Satan.\" He states to his audience [. . . ] call them by their real name, 'Satan.'",[]]]},{"de":[["Note that these two tasks are of different granularities, g 1 and g 2 , i.e., tokens for FLC and sentences for SLC.",[]]]},{"de":[["Slogans tend to act as emotional appeals (Dan, 2015).",["Dan, 2015"]],["Slogans tend to act as emotional appeals",["Dan, 2015"]]],"ex":[["\"Make America great again!\"",[]],["BUILD THE WALL!",[]],["BUILD THE WALL!\" Trump tweeted.",[]]]},{"de":[["caricaturing an opposing view so that it is easy to refute.",["Weston (2018, p. 78)","Weston, 2018, p. 78"]],["Weston (2018, p. 78) specifies the characteristics of the substituted proposition: \"caricaturing an opposing view so that it is easy to refute.\"",["Weston (2018, p. 78)","Weston, 2018, p. 78"]],["caricaturing an opposing view so that it is easy to refute",[]]],"ex":[["\"Take it seriously, but with a large grain of salt.\" Which is just Allen's more nuanced way of saying: \"Don't believe it.\"",[]],["Don't believe it.",[]]]},{"de":[["They are typically short, generic sentences that offer seemingly simple answers to complex questions or that distract attention away from other lines of thought",["Hunter, 2015, p. 78"]]],"ex":[["\"it is what it is\"; \"you cannot judge it without experiencing it\"; \"it's common sense\", \"nothing is permanent except change\", \"better late than never\"; \"mind your own business\"; \"nobody's perfect\"; \"it doesn't matter\"; \"you can't change human nature.\"",[]],["it is what it is",[]],["you cannot judge it without experiencing it",[]],["it's common sense",[]],["nothing is permanent except change",[]],["better late than never",[]],["mind your own business",[]],["nobody's perfect",[]],["it doesn't matter",[]],["you can't change human nature.",[]],["I do not really see any problems there. Marx is the President",[]]]},{"de":[["For example, mentioning an event that discredits the opponent: \"What about . . . ?\" (Richter, 2017).",["Richter, 2017"]],["For example, mentioning an event that discredits the opponent: \"What about . . . ?\"",["Richter, 2017"]]],"ex":[["Russia Today had a proclivity for whataboutism in its coverage of the 2015 Baltimore and Ferguson protests in the US, which re-vealed a consistent refrain: \"the oppression of blacks in the US has become so unbearable that the eruption of violence was inevitable\", and that the US therefore lacks \"the moral high ground to discuss human rights issues in countries like Russia and China.\"",[]],["mentioning an event that discredits the opponent: \"What about . . . ?\"",["Richter, 2017"]],["President Trump -who himself avoided national military service in the 1960's-keeps beating the war drums over North Korea",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["contexts",[]]]},{"de":[["highlighted the ways of editing, interpreting, organizing, and presenting information for particular news content to be framed",[]],["A frame is considered context-sensitive. It is shaped in four locations: i) communicator, ii) texts, iii) receiver, and iv) culture",["Entman, 1993"]],["presenting some selected aspects of an issue and making them more salient, which aims to promote certain values, interpretations, or solutions",[]],["As per this definition, a frame is largely determined by its outcome effects, such as four functions: a) defining problems, b) diagnosing causes, c) making judgments, and d) suggesting remedies.",[]],["Scholars in this approach defined a frame in terms of word recurrence in a document.",[]],["They also highlighted the ways of editing, interpreting, organizing, and presenting information for particular news content to be framed.",[]],["they highlighted presenting some selected aspects of an issue and making them more salient, which aims to promote certain values, interpretations, or solutions.",[]],["They compared a frame with a theme.",[]]],"rt":[["theme",[]]],"sb":[["news framing",["D'angelo, 2018"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The microframes are analyzed along with the agent-object-action patterns identified by the semantic role labeling (SRL) model in the corpus",[]]],"rt":[["bias of each microframe",[]],["intensity of each microframe",[]]]},{"sp":[["Frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Each list of words is considered to be a topic, and each topic has a different probability distribution.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["accuracy goals",[]]]},{},{"de":[["If there was an explicit reference/ or more explicit references to another news story/ to other news stories, this accounted for the presence of an intermedia agenda-setting effect.",[]]],"rt":[["direction of news transfer",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]]]},{"de":[["individuals easily lose interest in serious topics, but at the same time they need to have real-time access to important information in order to comment or share the news on their own networks.",[]]]},{"de":[["providing a more apocalyptic than euphoric view on AI",[]]],"sy":[["Pandora's Box",["Chuan et al., 2019","Dahinden, 2002","Durant et al., 1998","Nisbet, 2009"]],["runaway train",["Chuan et al., 2019","Durant et al., 1998","Gamson and Modigliani, 1989","Nisbet, 2009","Nisbet and Scheufele, 2009"]],["Frankenstein's Monster",["Cools et al., 2024","Nisbet, 2009"]]],"sp":[["deductively derived frame",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Economic consequences is a common generic frame that can be applied to several debates (Semetko and Valkenburg, 2000), and similar frames were used in several technology and science communication studies (Dahinden, 2002;Nisbet, 2009).",["Semetko and Valkenburg, 2000","Dahinden, 2002","Nisbet, 2009"]],["For the AI debate, we see two aspects of a pro position. First, economic optimism (Sun et al., 2020), which is the portrayal of AI as a positive economic development (Cools et al., 2024), bringing wealth and possibly leading to a new industrial revolution. Second, we also see a business application of pragmatic aspects. We summarize it as operation optimization, which includes increasing productivity, saving money, and optimizing business processes. The contra position consists of economic pessimism (Sun et al., 2020), pointing out possible job loss (Chuan et al., 2019), and dependence on other countries, if a country does not keep up with the global AI competition.",["Sun et al., 2020","Cools et al., 2024","Chuan et al., 2019"]]],"sb":[["economic optimism (Sun et al., 2020), which is the portrayal of AI as a positive economic development (Cools et al., 2024), bringing wealth and possibly leading to a new industrial revolution.",["Sun et al., 2020","Cools et al., 2024"]],["operation optimization, which includes increasing productivity, saving money, and optimizing business processes.",[]],["economic pessimism (Sun et al., 2020), pointing out possible job loss (Chuan et al., 2019), and dependence on other countries, if a country does not keep up with the global AI competition.",["Sun et al., 2020","Chuan et al., 2019"]]],"sp":[["deductively derived frame",[]],["generic frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["As with other technologies, this frame is also primarily about weighing up right and wrong in the context of AI (Chuan et al., 2019;Cools et al., 2024). This can include pointing out ethical risks like creating bias, but can also be positive, such as reducing bias using AI (Chuan et al., 2019). With ethical AI as fig leaf, Köstler and Ossewaarde (2022) provide a slightly more nuanced frame. This is a media interpretation of the government's AI strategy, which includes the accusation that ethics is only used as a pretext to avert possible skepticism by the public, but that ethical AI cannot be implemented with the strategy. As this is a frame that is very issue-specific we summarize it in the ethical and morality frame. This is also an ambivalent frame with no clear positions.",[]]],"sp":[["generic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["media discourse consists of a set of competing interpretative frame packages",[]],["multiple frames can coexist within a single article",[]]]},{"sb":[["generic frames",[]],["issue-specific frames",[]]]},{"rt":[["issue-specific frames",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]]],"ex":[["economic consequences, morality, or responsibility",[]]]},{"sp":[["scientific and technical uncertainty frame",[]]]},{"rt":[["generic frames",[]]],"sp":[["frames",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Pragmatic perspectives (Sun et al., 2020) highlight the technology's usefulness in everyday life. This includes interpretations of AI as a helping hand (Cools et al., 2024) or a solution to ongoing problems (Brennen et al., 2018). This also includes portraying AI as improving human life and well-being (Chuan et al., 2019). However, the contra position points out concrete threats of damage and danger, such as the misuse of AI or privacy concerns (Chuan et al., 2019).",["Sun et al., 2020","Cools et al., 2024","Brennen et al., 2018","Chuan et al., 2019"]]],"sp":[["deductively derived frame",[]],["generic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["In the AI debate, this involves political or regulatory criticism (Sun et al., 2020) that calls for regulation due to possible uncertainties and threats coming with AI. It also involves other public responsibilities such as teaching digital skills and media literacy.",["Sun et al., 2020"]]],"rt":[["public accountability/ attribution of responsibility",["Dahinden, 2002"]],["public accountability and governance",["Nisbet, 2009"]],["public accountability",["Cools et al., 2024"]]],"sp":[["deductively derived frame",[]],["generic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Sun et al. (2020) found a relativizing position on AI, pointing out its limits, to be one of the most present in media coverage.",["Sun et al., 2020"]]],"sb":[["explicit (scientific) uncertainty",["2024"]],["implicit uncertainty",[]]],"sp":[["deductively derived frame",[]]]},{"sy":[["limitation",["2018"]],["relativizing",["2020"]]]},{},{"de":[["By this, an agent argues for themselves, instead that they are discussed by others.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["human agency",[]],["Machine agency",[]]]},{"de":[["AI disclosure is commonly implemented in the form of visible warning labels and is intended to encourage audiences to more carefully scrutinise the content",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["AIGC",[]]]},{"de":[["algorithm aversion is not a uniform rejection of AI, but rather a task-dependent and asymmetric response, with its effect varying in strength and direction.",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["human agency",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sb":[["peripheral route",[]],["central route",[]]]},{"rt":[["interpretative credibility",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["authority heuristic",[]]]},{"rt":[["factual credibility",[]]]},{"rt":[["machine heuristic",[]]]},{"rt":[["machine agency",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["NATAI",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Stance detection differs from sentiment analysis in its opaqueness.",[]],["A favorable stance toward a target opinion or an entity E can be expressed using a negative sentiment without any explicit mention of E.",[]]],"rt":[["discourse parsing",[]],["fake news",[]],["rumors",[]],["science denial",[]],["sentiment analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["Scholars have asserted that oftentimes the media agenda controls the public agenda, which means what is in people's minds is a reflection of what is in the media",["McCombs & Shaw, 1991","Dearing & Rogers, 1996","Lippmann, 2004"]]],"rt":[["media agenda",[]],["public agenda",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Frames enable the construction and sharing of social realities persistently over time, which invariably shape and structure the social world in a certain determined manner.",[]],["This connotes beaming searchlight on an issue and pointing out its causes as well as delineating other people's reality by highlighting one interpretation while de-emphasizing a less favored one (Papacharissi & de Fatima Oliveira, 2008;Falkheimer & Olsson, 2014).",["Papacharissi & de Fatima Oliveira, 2008","Falkheimer & Olsson, 2014"]]]},{},{"de":[["It also attempts to frame and reshape public conversations to generate adequate backing necessary to advance such social issues.",[]],["Within this context, the success of media advocacy is dependent on the support of the public and other forms of social partnership with the media on such issues",["Robinson & Tuchman, 1981"]],["The advocacy role of the media can be tactical, especially in showcasing social concerns and working towards the actualization of desired social change",["McBrien, 2005"]]],"rt":[["advocacy role of the media",[]]]},{"de":[["The Nigerian press deployed the strategy of media framing, which enabled it to maintain an influence on the trajectory of the readers' consciousness and understanding concerning the abduction",["Cissel, 2012;Muobike, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["Terrorism is a brutal and violent practice, but it is also a media phenomenon. Terror is vital news: a dramatic, important story that the public needs to know about and understand. But terrorism also relies on such publicity to disrupt society, provoke fear, and demonstrate power.",[]],["As a social construct, the concept of terrorism defies a universal consensual definition.",[]],["In extant terrorism literature, the concept has been defined in several ways resulting in multiple meanings.",[]],["The lack of consensus on how terrorism should be defined prompted Greene (2017) to advocate the adoption of a multi-definitional approach.",["2017","Greene (2017)"]],["three common elements tend to exist in the legal definitions of terrorism of most countries, namely the deployment of violence, political objectives, and the propagation of fear in the target population",["Matusitz, 2013","Nwozor, 2016"]]],"rt":[["deployment of violence",["Matusitz, 2013;Nwozor, 2016"]],["political objectives",["Matusitz, 2013;Nwozor, 2016"]],["propagation of fear in the target population",["Matusitz, 2013;Nwozor, 2016"]]],"sb":[["international terrorism",["Egbo, n.d."]],["domestic terrorism",["Egbo, n.d."]],["transnational terrorism",["Egbo, n.d."]]]},{},{"de":[["transformation of media contents as an act of communication",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Russia's official relations with history are based on the discussed narrative of the USSR that Russia was not and is not an aggressor.",[]],["identifying oneself with lie may not be the basis for long-term politics.",[]]]},{"de":[["in theory framing of subjects also means creative decision of journalists and editors depending on audience, in the propaganda system as well.",[]],["framing of topics implies a specific scale of positions",[]]],"sb":[["framing devices that suggest how to think about the issue (a)",[]],["reasoning devices (b) that justify what should be",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Publicity -Glasnost is based on historical tradition of Russia.",[]],["Publicity -Glasnost is based on historical tradition of Russia. The need of publicity was declared by the CPSU leadership at the XXVII Congress of the party on 25 February-6 March 1986: \"The principal issue for us is the development of publicity\", M. Gorbachev.",[]]],"rt":[["Perestroika",["16"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["Glasnost",["16"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["in order to acquire and keep the social status defined by authorities",["48"]],["Author defines society of conformists as",[]]]},{},{"de":[["cognitive evaluation of a situation",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["human-interest frame",[]]]},{"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"sb":[["news frames",[]],["equivalence framing",[]],["emphasis framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{"de":[["we compared a neutral text (control condition) with three variants of the human-interest frame, which contained an emphasis on the different features constituting the human-interest frame, that is, either dramatizing or emotionalizing vocabulary, or an individualized storyline.",[]],["emphasizing either the emotionalizing, dramatizing, or individualizing aspect of the frame",[]],["human-interest frame used in our study potentially lead to a rather narrow processing of information and therefore to a rather one-sided, simplified perception of the topic at hand instead of a balanced and complex representation.",[]]],"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{"sb":[["human-interest frame",[]],["Responsibility frames",[]],["morality frame",[]],["economic consequences frame",[]]],"sp":[["framing",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["attribution of responsibility frame",[]]],"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["framing draws attention to relevant aspects of information while detracting it away from other equally relevant aspects.",[]]],"rt":[["seductive details effect",[]]]},{"de":[["long-term memory and the integration of new information mainly rely on the situation model",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["A special role in cases of countering the ideology of terrorism and preventing extremism is played by forensic linguistic expertise that can be assigned to determine the target purpose of information materials.",[]],["Expertly performed, objective and well-founded forensic linguistic studies of extremist information materials contribute to the protection of national security, state, society and its citizens.",[]]]},{"rt":[["worldview security",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["material evidence",[]]]},{},{},{},{"rt":[["information security",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Computationally, these models are characterized by the use of scaled weights between agents to capture mutual socioeconomic influence. The resultant system state often depends on the granularity of agent opinions. For instance, continuous models update through a process of social averaging and typically end with a final system state of consensus (DeGroot 1974). On the other hand, nominal interpretations (such as the voter model) have the potential for more sophisticated outcomes.",["DeGroot 1974"]]],"sp":[["agent-based modeling (ABM) of opinion dynamics",[]]]},{"de":[["The concept was introduced by Hegselmann & Krause (2002), and involves a numerical threshold γ for a given agent. During the update step, all potential neighbors with an opinion difference greater than γ are ignored.",["Hegselmann & Krause 2002"]]],"sp":[["homophily",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["probabilistic homophily",[]],["bounded confidence",["Carley 1991","Hegselmann & Krause 2002","Banisch et al. 2010","Mäs & Bischofberger 2015","Baumann et al. 2020","Keijzer & Mäs 2022"]]]},{"sy":[["congruent links percentage",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the virtual setting of social media platforms fundamentally strips human interaction of socioeconomic behavioral cues (i.e., body language, wealth, authority, etc.) leading to a state where individuals can effectively ignore the limitations of their usual offline identity and interpersonal relationships (Suler 2004).",["Suler 2004"]],["An important theme throughout Suler's analysis is the understanding that the virtual setting of social media platforms fundamentally strips human interaction of socioeconomic behavioral cues (i.e., body language, wealth, authority, etc.) leading to a state where individuals can effectively ignore the limitations of their usual offline identity and interpersonal relationships (Suler 2004).",["Suler 2004"]]]},{},{"de":[["the model features two distinct types of bi-polarization which we refer to as structural and un-structural polarization.",[]],["They differ with respect to how diverging opinions are distributed over the spatial random graph",[]]],"rt":[["global consensus",[]]],"sb":[["structural and un-structural polarization",[]]]},{"de":[["In these models individuals express their opinion and react to approval and disapproval by their peers",["Banisch & Olbrich 2019"]],["Interactions between agents on the same side of the opinion spectrum lead to increased private confidence, while interactions between agents that express opposing opinions decrease it.",[]]]},{"rt":[["probabilistic homophily",[]],["bounded confidence",[]]],"sp":[["agent-based modeling (ABM) of opinion dynamics",[]]]},{},{"de":[["final dispersion is high, and final congruent links percentage is high (but not 100%)",[]],["final system state in structural polarization with disconnected groups",[]]],"rt":[["un-structural polarization",[]]]},{"sy":[["incongruent links percentage",[]]]},{"de":[["the final system state does not seem to have large clusters",[]],["supported quantitatively by a high final dispersion around 3.8 and a low final congruent links percentage around 52%",[]]],"sy":[["fragmentation",[]]],"rt":[["structural polarization",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["información errónea",[]]]},{},{"de":[["parte relevante del sistema comunicativo actual",["Tandoc, 2018"]],["mecanismos de la propaganda electoral",[]],["las fake news deben catalogarse como un tipo de noticia en sí mismo",["Gelfert (2018)","Gelfert, 2018"]],["tienen como objetivo engañar al público al que se dirigen",["Gelfert, 2018"]],["no debe de confundirse una fake news con otro tipo de información errónea o engañosa, a saber, errores de periodistas o políticos, rumores o conspiraciones sin asociación a artículos de noticias específicos y formatos orientados al entretenimiento como la sátira",["Quandt et al, 2019, p.1"]],["no debe de confundirse una fake news con otro tipo de información errónea o engañosa, a saber, errores de periodistas o políticos, rumores o conspiraciones sin asociación a artículos de noticias específicos y formatos orientados al entretenimiento como la sátira (Quandt et al, 2019, p.1).",[]]],"sy":[["noticias falsas",[]]],"rt":[["desinformación",[]],["información errónea",[]],["rumores",[]],["conspiraciones",[]],["sátira",["Quandt et al, 2019, p.1"]]]},{"rt":[["desinformación",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["implicit opinions",[]]]},{"sb":[["consensus",[]],["polarization",[]],["division",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["often with a more technological focus",[]]]},{"de":[["Disinformation is widely understood as deceptive content shared on purpose, produced to generate profits, pursue political goals, or cause harm or disruption -for example, hoaxes",["Nielsen & Graves, 2017"]],["false information is intentionally shared to cause harm",["Wardle & Derakshan, 2017: 20","Pamment, 2022: 15"]],["often considered part of broader influence operations combining multiple techniques",[]]],"sp":[["Information disorder",[]]],"ex":[["hoaxes",["Nielsen & Graves, 2017"]]]},{"de":[["to describe the rapid spread of misleading health-related information",[]],["Health studies incorporated \"misinformation\" but also employed other terms such as \"infodemic\" to describe the rapid spread of misleading health-related information.",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Information disorder",[]]]},{"de":[["Some research explored source criticism as a tool for combating disinformation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["they systematically prefer messages that are congruent with their existing beliefs while avoiding content that induces dissonance",["Festinger, 1957"]]]},{},{"de":[["more cross-cutting exposure than expected",[]],["promoting cross-cutting consumption of political information",["Masip; Suau; Ruiz-Caballero, 2018"]],["Such exposure plays a crucial role in enhancing political tolerance (Mutz, 2002) and promoting consensus-building in complex societies (Mutz;Young, 2011).",["Mutz, 2002","Mutz;Young, 2011"]]]},{},{"de":[["Political beliefs are not shaped in isolation from media exposure, and media consumption cannot be considered entirely impervious to the ideological orientations of individuals.",[]]],"rt":[["latent variable",[]],["reverse causality",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the limited openness of voters to engage with media that are not aligned, and even a growing inclination to reject media that are contrary to their political position (ideological or territorial)",["Ramírez-Dueñas; Vinuesa-Tejero, 2020, p. 23"]],["The absence of specific questions on explicit media rejection in the data sources used contributes to this limitation.",[]],["media individuals intentionally avoid",[]]],"rt":[["selective exposure",[]]]},{"de":[["selection of media content can be influenced not only by political biases, but also by factors such as sociodemographic and racial attributes",["Knobloch-Westerwick, 2015a, 2015b"]],["The theory of selective exposure initially made its way to Spain in the 1980s and 1990s through informative works that discussed the theories of political and sociocultural effects of the media",[]],["selective exposure, driven by identity-related factors, shapes media consumption patterns",[]],["selective exposure in the Spanish media system is predominantly driven by ideological and partisan factors or whether it is primarily guided by interest in politics",[]],["selective exposure tends to increase when there is a surge in information consumption during significant news events",["Cardenal et al., 2019a"]],["enabling individuals to engage in politically-oriented and selective media consumption",[]],["selectivity encompasses not only exposure to the media but also information processing, thus contributing to ideological reinforcement mechanisms",["Camaj, 2019"]],["The Selective Exposure Theory refers to the presence of any systematic bias in the composition of the audience (Sears;Freedman, 1967, p. 165), which explains the discrepancy between availability and effective consumption.",["Sears;Freedman, 1967, p. 165"]]],"rt":[["confirmation bias",[]],["politically-oriented media consumption",[]],["selective avoidance",[]],["online selective exposure",[]],["cross-cutting exposure",[]]],"sb":[["online selective exposure",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["news content-based approaches",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["social context-based methods",[]]]},{"sp":[["social context-based methods",[]]]},{"sp":[["news content-based approaches",[]]]},{},{"de":[["For each verified user j ∈ M i , we let y i,j ∈ {0, 1} denote the user's opinion on the news, i.e., y i,j is 1 if the user thinks the news is real; and 0 otherwise.",[]]],"ex":[["y i,j can be defined as the sentiment of Tweet i,j (Gilbert 2014), or if the opinion of Tweet i,j is nonconflicting to that of News i (Dave, Lawrence, and Pennock 2003;Trabelsi and Zaiane 2014).",[]],["If the user k replied to the tweet, then its opinion can be extracted by employing off-the-shelf sentiment analysis (Gilbert 2014) or conflicting opinion mining techniques (Dave, Lawrence, and Pennock 2003;Trabelsi and Zaiane 2014).",[]]]},{"rt":[["semicompetitive elections",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["or structured arguments",["McComas & Shanahan, 1999"]]],"sp":[["quantitative frame analysis",[]]]},{"de":[["According to Semetko and Valkenburg (2000), this frame is the most prevalent among serious publications.",[]]]},{"de":[["According to Neuman, Just, and Crigler (1992), the US news media often employs conflict.",[]],["According to Semetko and Valkenburg (2000), this frame is the second most often employed in the news.",[]]]},{"de":[["Neuman, Just, and Crigler (1992) define it as a broad framework in the news.",[]],["The enormous effect of an event is a significant news value, and economic ramifications are often regarded as significant (Graber & Dunaway, 2018).",["Graber & Dunaway, 2018"]]]},{"de":[["This frame explores the psychological effect on individuals in a crisis scenario, prompting the reader or audience to demonstrate a variety of wrong actions",["Padin, 2005"]],["Cho and Gower (2006) demonstrate that this framing affects the reader's emotional reaction, affecting the reader's determination of guilt and responsibility in a crisis scenario.",[]]]},{"de":[["Neuman, Just and Crigler (1992) demonstrate that moral frameworks are typically employed indirectly by journalists via quotes or inferences rather than directly due to the varied objectivities associated with journalistic activities.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Looking at the hierarchy of influence theory described by Shoemaker & Reese (2014), various variables can influence how an event is framed in the news (Adiprasetio, 2015).",[]],["described by Shoemaker & Reese (2014)",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["device-oriented techniques",[]],["holistic",[]],["device-oriented",[]]]},{"sy":[["pro-independence",["Cass, 2023","Robie, 2014","O'Sullivan, 2021"]]]},{"de":[["The frame of topic clusters is determined based on the words",["Entman, 1991"]],["and the structure of the arguments",["McComas & Shanahan, 1999"]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It uses a three-point scale to measure the extent to which the reports mention or emphasize the responsibility of either party.",[]]]},{"de":[["so it should be dealt with in an important way to clarify the responsibility of sexual crimes",["25"]]]},{"de":[["episodic framing can provide a more intimate and immediate understanding of individual cases",[]]],"rt":[["Thematic framing",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In order to measure media attention, the analysis divides news topics and personal information publicity into categories such as \"media attention to topics\", \"media attention to revealing people's information\" and \"emphasis on people-related content\".",[]]]},{"de":[["including topic emphasis, personal information disclosure, and related content.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Thematic framing can help contextualise these crimes within larger social and systemic issues",[]]],"rt":[["episodic frame",[]]],"sp":[["news frames",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Thematic framing can help contextualise these crimes within larger social and systemic issues",[]]],"rt":[["episodic framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The frequency and volume of coverage tend to indicate the value and urgency of an issue for the public.",[]]]},{"ex":[["The caller uses two lists, one for callers and one long list for the Labor party.",[]],["The previous excerpts presented chains of lists used by the same speaker to emphasize his point.",[]]]},{"rt":[["Long List",[]]],"sb":[["the list",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["a familiar routine which is known to the audience and sensitive to the context.",["Hyland 2017"]],["these are key aspects of metadiscourse.",[]],["a familiar routine which is known to the audience and sensitive to the context",[]],["processes which are not about a specific content but about their form and their speaker's goals",[]],["Since all lists are part of the metadiscursive realm, they deliver their speaker's subjectivity",[]]],"rt":[["Metalanguage",["Jakobson 1987"]]]},{"de":[["unlike the narrative, which creates coherent meaning in its structure.",[]],["narratives have evaluative elements in them",[]],["the involvement of the self seems to pervade the narrative process underlying experience more deeply than the logical process underlying categorization.",["1994,383"]],["narratives are taken as subjective, and lists are viewed as objective (Schiffrin 1994).",["Schiffrin 1994"]]],"sy":[["stories",[]]],"rt":[["argument",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["In other words, by prioritizing particular issues, the media guide audiences' attention and influences the public agenda.",[]],["This effect is especially strong among individuals who have limited direct experience with the topic and thus rely on media portrayals to form opinions",["Weaver et al., 2010","Zucker, 1978"]]]},{},{"de":[["Framing also influences how individuals allocate attention, shaping not only what people think about but also how they think about it.",[]],["Ultimately, framing has the possibility to subtly guide perception, often without audiences being consciously aware of its influence.",[]],["By emphasizing some actors and perspectives while downplaying others, media frames make researchers and health professionals appear more authoritative, whereas teachers are rarely positioned as credible sources.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["news media plays an active role in shaping public perception",["Atton, 2009","McCombs and Shaw, 2023"]]]},{},{"de":[["Roughly, CDA involves re-balancing a corpus by swapping bias attribute words (e.g., he/she) in a dataset.",[]],["For instance, we create CDA data for mitigating religious bias by swapping religious terms in a corpus, say church with mosque, to generate counterfactual examples.",[]]],"ex":[["to help mitigate gender bias, the sentence \"the doctor went to the room and he grabbed the syringe\" could be augmented to \"the doctor went to the room and she grabbed the syringe\".",[]],["the sentence \"the doctor went to the room and he grabbed the syringe\" could be augmented to \"the doctor went to the room and she grabbed the syringe\".",[]]]},{"de":[["Then, representations can be debiased by projecting them into the nullspace of the learnt classifier's weight matrix, effectively removing all of the information the classifier used to predict the protected attribute from the representation.",[]],["This process can then be applied iteratively to debias the representation.",[]],["Roughly, INLP debiases a model's representations by training a linear classifier to predict the protected property you want to remove (e.g., gender) from the representations.",[]],["Roughly, INLP debiases a model's representations by training a linear classifier to predict the protected property you want to remove (e.g., gender) from the representations. Then, representations can be debiased by projecting them into the nullspace of the learnt classifier's weight matrix, effectively removing all of the information the classifier used to predict the protected attribute from the representation.",[]]],"rt":[["SentenceDebias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["it does not alter a model's internal representations or its parameters.",[]],["Informally, Schick et al. (2021) propose using hand-crafted prompts to first encourage a model to generate toxic text.",["Schick et al., 2021"]],["Then, a second continuation that is non-discriminative can be generated from the model where the probabilities of tokens deemed likely under the first toxic generation are scaled down.",[]],["Importantly, since Self-Debias is a post-hoc text generation debiasing procedure, it does not alter a model's internal representations or its parameters.",[]],["Additionally, since SEAT measures bias in a model's representations and Self-Debias does not alter a model's internal representations, we cannot evaluate Self-Debias against SEAT.",[]],["Informally, Schick et al. (2021) propose using hand-crafted prompts to first encourage a model to generate toxic text. For example, generation from an autoregressive model could be prompted with \"The following text discriminates against people because of their gender.\" Then, a second continuation that is non-discriminative can be generated from the model where the probabilities of tokens deemed likely under the first toxic generation are scaled down.",["Schick et al., 2021"]]],"ex":[["generation from an autoregressive model could be prompted with \"The following text discriminates against people because of their gender.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["Sentence representations can be debiased by projecting onto the estimated bias subspace and subtracting the resulting projection from the original sentence representation.",[]],["First, they define a list of bias attribute words (e.g., he/she).",[]],["Second, they contextualize the bias attribute words into sentences.",[]],["This is done by finding occurences of the bias attribute words in sentences within a text corpus.",[]],["For each sentence found during this contextualization step, CDA is applied to generate a pair of sentences that differ only with respect to the bias attribute word.",[]],["Finally, they estimate the bias subspace.",[]],["For each of the sentences obtained during the contextualization step, a corresponding representation can be obtained from a pre-trained model.",[]],["Principle Component Analysis (PCA; Abdi and Williams 2010) is then used to estimate the principle directions of variation of the resulting set of representations.",["Abdi and Williams 2010"]],["The first K principle components can be taken to define the bias subspace.",[]]],"rt":[["Hard-Debias",[]]]},{},{"de":[["A random model (which chooses the stereotypical candidate and the antistereotypical candidate for each example with equal probability) obtains a stereotype score of 50% in expectation.",[]]]},{"sp":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["portraying the humanitarian catastrophe in the occupied territories as the result of planned actions aimed at the deliberate extermination of Soviet citizens",[]],["proven by court rulings and is supported by archival documents",["68"]],["serves also as a mechanism for the cultural integration of the annexed regions of Ukraine.",[]],["the idea that a comparable genocide was carried out against all the peoples of the Soviet Union.",[]],["discourse of the genocide of the Soviet people -to justify its aggressive actions in Ukraine",[]],["Proponents of the genocide of the Soviet people concept generally support it not through rigorous scholarly research but via historical-journalistic narratives",[]],["broader discourse of the genocide of the Soviet people",[]]],"rt":[["Nazi war of annihilation",[]],["soft Holocaust denial",[]],["historical victimhood",[]],["power-knowledge construct",[]],["genocide of the peoples of the USSR",[]]],"sp":[["Russophobia",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the tendency of many publicists to use the term to describe various mass crimes or policies of extermination",[]],["the tendency of many publicists to use the term to describe various mass crimes or policies of extermination (e.g., Holocaust of people with disabilities, animal Holocaust, etc.)",[]]],"ex":[["Holocaust of people with disabilities",[]],["animal Holocaust",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["soft denial",[]]]},{"de":[["the latter recognizes its importance and distinct character, but continues with the statements that other Soviet citizens suffered a similar genocide",[]]],"rt":[["symbolic colonialism",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["false information",["Wardle; Derakshan, 2017; Ireton; Posseti, 2018; Giachanou; Rosso, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["understood as offensive communication that conveys an ideology of hatred through the use of stereotypes",["Chetty;Alathur, 2018"]],["In total, 92.8% were somewhat concerned about the presence of hate speech toward female sports journalists, understood as any kind of instigation to discrimination, hostility, or violence, thereby acknowledging the problem, compared with 7.2% who do not believe it exists, the majority of whom are men.",[]],["Insults, contempt, discrimination, and even some cases of physical violence stand out as the most frequent cases.",[]],["Both agreed that hate speeches are loaded with sexual discrimination and utter misogyny.",[]],["The types of hate speech received first-hand include insults, contempt, malicious intent, and hostility.",[]],["hate speech, understood as offensive communication that conveys an ideology of hatred through the use of stereotypes (Chetty;Alathur, 2018)",["Chetty;Alathur, 2018"]]],"rt":[["harassment",[]],["discrimination",[]]],"ex":[["Fat, asshole, fucker, sellout",[]],["Bitch; go to the kitchen; you're an old woman",[]],["You have no idea, go scrub...",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["digital native projects that practice forms of alternative journalism in the sense that they seek out different perspectives and voices from those of traditional media while advocating its independence from ownership and capturing revenues.",[]]]},{"de":[["represents a commitment by the journalistic publication to the journalistic community and its readers.",[]],["a form of social responsibility.",[]]]},{"de":[["seen as being able to save journalism from the crisis of traditional financing models that decrease advertising revenues and increase cutbacks to the number of newsroom professionals.",["Vos & Singer, 2016"]],["seen as providing hope for journalism insofar as it can publish issues that receive less coverage and that the public need to know.",["Vos & Singer, 2016"]],["emphasizes innovation, new models and business strategies, and searches for new audiences, which are sometimes niche",["Vos & Singer, 2016, p. 152"]],["an alternative space for these specific audiences and thus fills in the gaps left by media outlets.",[]],["innovative and distinct practice",[]],["projects that try to distance themselves from the interests of company owners by capturing alternative revenue forms than those of traditional business models",[]],["the broad concept of entrepreneurial journalism which currently involves hope for a new type of journalism and hope that this new journalism can solve the various crises in the sector, from funding and business models to agendas and content.",[]],["the fact that they are digital natives, they identify themselves as proposing innovation and nonconformity in journalism, and they strive to offer a product that differs from traditional media.",[]],["proposing innovation and nonconformity in journalism, and they strive to offer a product that differs from traditional media",[]],["opportunity to rejuvenate journalism from the point of view of sustainability",["Broersma & Singer, 2020","Vos & Singer, 2016"]],["publish themes that are rarely covered by traditional media",[]],["Susan Forde (2009) emphasizes the role of entrepreneurial journalism as it pertains to publishing content that traditional media rarely covers.",[]],["Entrepreneurial journalism is seen as an attempt to maintain this ethos, namely by safeguarding its editorial independence by obtaining independent funding from large corporations and companies.",[]],["entrepreneurial journalism is seen as being able to save journalism from the crisis of traditional financing models that decrease advertising revenues and increase cutbacks to the number of newsroom professionals.",["Vos & Singer, 2016"]],["the concept emphasizes innovation, new models and business strategies, and searches for new audiences, which are sometimes niche",["Vos & Singer, 2016"]],["Entrepreneurial journalism proposals are, in this sense, the result of the combination of these difficulties and the re-evaluation of traditional practices and models of journalism, with the opportunity that new technologies provide for greater training and autonomy on the part of individuals.",[]],["the result of the combination of these difficulties and the re-evaluation of traditional practices and models of journalism, with the opportunity that new technologies provide for greater training and autonomy on the part of individuals.",[]],["digital native projects that practice forms of alternative journalism in the sense that they seek out different perspectives and voices from those of traditional media while advocating its independence from ownership and capturing revenues.",[]]],"sy":[["technological innovation",[]],["market innovation",[]],["professional practices",[]],["routines",[]]],"rt":[["new journalistic ventures seeking to supplement and supplant them",["Bruno & Nielsen, 2012, p. 4"]],["alternative journalism",[]],["independent journalism",[]],["traditional media",[]],["journalistic start-ups",[]]],"ex":[["The Huffington Post",["Bruno & Nielsen, 2012"]],["Gawker",["Bruno & Nielsen, 2012"]],["Politico",["Bruno & Nielsen, 2012"]],["Fumaça",[]],["Divergente",[]],["Setenta e Quatro",[]],["journalistic projects that disseminate news of public interest and use journalism models and practices for obtaining information; 2) organizations made up of professional journalists; 3) projects which are created and managed online; and 4) not associated with economic groups or traditional media companies.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Slow journalism, in the way I conceive it, must problematize and give a voice to those who need it. Rarely are things true or false, black or white, good or bad. And I think slow journalism falls in the middle here.",["Monteiro, 2021, August 2"]]]},{"de":[["revenues are captured almost exclusively from advertising",["Broersma & Singer, 2020"]]]},{"de":[["Claim extraction is a primary argument mining task as the claim is a key argument component.",[]]],"rt":[["primary argument mining task",[]]]},{"sy":[["CESC",[]]]},{"sy":[["CEPE",[]]]},{"sy":[["claim",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["subaltern erasures",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["health surveillance",[]]]},{"de":[["exacerbated infection rates within these community of workers",["Dutta, 2020a"]]],"rt":[["neoliberal governmentality",[]]]},{"de":[["the arrangement of text that both center sources of information, pose issues as problems, articulate stereotypical positions, and reinforce keywords tell us how frames are produced.",[]]],"ex":[["different key frames in the framing of the pandemic by anglophone media (Chinese outbreak frame) vs. francophone media (economic crisis frame).",[]]]},{"rt":[["othering",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["devices of othering operate in shaping outsiders and therefore, grateful subjects to the host country.",[]],["the tools and techniques of othering about migrants were pivoted in mainstream discourse",[]],["othering practices embedded in the ideological construction of these dormitories in peripheral and marginal ways",[]],["contributed to the othering of workers",[]],["discursive constructions of the migrant other occupied problematic assumptions in society",[]],["the othering practices embedded in the ideological construction of these dormitories in peripheral and marginal ways",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["where agencies of the vulnerable are not just discussed, but activated",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["represent a common type of AI-generated content that can be used to spread false information, damage reputations, or manipulate public opinion.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this study, the \"big five\" personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) were used as a measure of inherent user characteristics.",[]]]},{"de":[["information that often gravitates toward sensational or emotionally charged content, which they perceive as engaging with or valuable to their networks.",[]]],"sy":[["bogus news",[]]],"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In social media contexts, it suggests that users evaluate the perceived benefits of sharing information, such as social approval or reinforcing personal beliefs",["Ostendorf et al., 2022"]]]},{"de":[["It encompasses technological skills, social interactions, privacy awareness, and critical knowledge of media content.",[]],["social media literacy enables people to critically evaluate the material they encounter, hence encouraging the development of responsible sharing habits.",[]],["social media literacy significantly strengthens the relationship between trust in social networks and fake news sharing behavior",[]],["Social media literacy dramatically affects the link between self-expression and fake news dissemination.",[]]],"sb":[["technological skills",[]],["social interactions",[]],["privacy awareness",[]],["critical evaluation skills",[]]],"sp":[["media literacy",[]]]},{},{"de":[["advocacy journalism with strict ethical guidelines produced from within an organisation with a known agenda",[]],["Being truthful, accurate and credible, acknowledging your perspective, don't ignore your opponents, report embarrassing facts that support the opposition, avoid slogans and ranting, be fair and thorough, and make use of neutral sources to establish facts.",["Careless, 2000"]]],"rt":[["mainstream journalism",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Fact verification methods",[]],["Fact verification",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["inaccurate or fabricated information",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["conspiracy theories",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["visual discourse",[]]]},{"sy":[["chaining shift",[]]],"rt":[["radiation",[]]]},{},{"de":[["identify misinformation from a massive of social media information and detect misinformation as early as possible.",[]]],"rt":[["early detection",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["fake information",[]]]},{"de":[["Fake news is one of the primary sources of danger to democracy, journalism, and global commerce, with significant collateral harm",[]],["Fake news spreads faster and more widely than factual news, causing significant societal and individual harm",[]]],"rt":[["rumors",[]]],"sb":[["Disinformation",[]],["misinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["anti-stereotype",[]]]},{"de":[["S1 always presents a stereotype or an anti-stereotype (contradicting the stereotype) for the corresponding bias tuple.",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Intersectional bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Intersectional bias",[]]]},{"sp":[["Intersectional bias",[]]]},{"de":[["It acknowledges that individuals are not subject to biases based solely on a single identity dimension but rather experience a complex interplay of biases that originate from the intersections of their various social categories.",[]]],"sb":[["gender-religion",[]],["gender-caste",[]],["gender-age",[]],["Gender-religion intersection bias",[]],["Gender-caste intersection bias",[]],["Gender-age intersection bias",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Axes of disparities like Caste, Religion, and Region exhibit a rich array of social biases specific to the Indian context.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["which can impose limitations on decisions and actions necessary to modify the exigence",["Bitzer 1968, 8"]]]},{"de":[["The basic distinguishing feature of the digital medium is its interactive character, which allows the recipient to react back to the sender of the message.",[]]],"rt":[["traditional medium",[]]]},{"de":[["The term \"digital rhetoric\" contains two concepts -\"rhetoric\" and \"digital\"which are not coincidentally connected with each other. They form the framework of the concept of modern communication on the human-computer-human axis, based on the classical questions about the goal, the context and the recipient.",[]],["rhetoric, or, more precisely, its latest variation: digital rhetoric",[]]],"sp":[["rhetoric",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["participativity",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["spatiality",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["encyclopedism",[]]]},{"de":[["While in the traditional model (e.g. while watching TV)",[]]],"sy":[["audience",[]]]},{"rt":[["participativity",[]]]},{},{"de":[["In common perception, rhetoric is associated with persuasion tantamount to inducement, which is often perceived in eristic terms, where the goal is ergon (a product, a creation) in the form of a favorable solution to the dispute regardless of the truth.",[]],["The task of rhetoric is, therefore, to fi nd reliable methods of argumentation, thus the goal here is not ergon, which is a product -a ready-made solution, but energeia, which is a process -an action in progress leading to the solution.",[]],["Rhetoric is able to capture the essence of digital communication, which is based on the constant changeability of the rhetorical situation, resulting from the immediacy of the transmission and reception of the signal.",[]],["being \"addressed\" to some person or to some advantage",["Burke (1969, xvii)"]]],"sb":[["digital rhetoric",[]]]},{"de":[["For a rhetorical situation to arise, three elements are crucial: a problem that needs a solution (an exigence), an audience that can change the situation under the infl uence of discourse, and constraints, or \"persons, events, objects and relations,\" which can impose limitations on decisions and actions necessary to modify the exigence",["Bitzer 1968, 8"]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["digital medium",[]]]},{},{"ex":[["oppositions such as \"good\" and \"evil\" occupy similar positions in any adequately-trained corpus because they are used in similar ways and mutually oriented toward a shared meaning",["Boutyline, 2017","A. Goldberg, 2011"]]]},{"sb":[["hypernymy",[]],["hyponymy",[]],["meronymy",[]],["holonymy",[]]]},{"ex":[["by using a pseudo-document consisting of \"politics\" and \"liberal\" to measure \"liberal politics.\"",[]]]},{"de":[["understood as measuring a persistent symbolic structure rather than a legal distinction",["Beaman, 2016","Jaworsky, 2013"]]],"rt":[["race",[]],["social class",[]],["morality",[]]],"ex":[["For example, for social class, this would be affluence vs poverty, rich vs poor, and so on.",[]]]},{"rt":[["citizenship",[]],["race",[]],["social class",[]],["morality",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["which allows us to explore relations of polysemy, synonymy, antonymy, as well as metaphor and metonymy",["Erk, 2012"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"sy":[["fake news",[]],["noticias falsas",[]]],"rt":[["fake news",[]]]},{"de":[["a través de profesionales que se dedican en exclusiva a ello",[]]],"sy":[["verificación de los hechos",[]]]},{"sy":[["desinformación",[]]],"rt":[["desinformación",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["fact-checker",[]]]},{"rt":[["fact checking",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["thus contributing to driving the public debate in a more enraged direction",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the economic model emphasizes the importance of being well-informed about the electorate's needs and preferences.",[]]]},{"de":[["Such frames can highlight certain aspects of a given topic, making connections that can promote certain interpretations and evaluations favorable for the candidate",["Entman, 1993"]],["Such frames can highlight certain aspects of a given topic, making connections that can promote certain interpretations and evaluations favorable for the candidate (Entman, 1993).",["Entman, 1993"]]]},{},{"de":[["Compared to traditional mass media driven by profit-based companies",[]],["Overall, new media is mostly an information channel.",[]],["new media is mostly an information channel.",[]]],"ex":[["Facebook",[]],["Twitter",[]],["Instagram",[]],["YouTube",[]],["TikTok",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["They contain somewhat of a created information which is consciously used to deceive.",[]],["Somehow, these news find a reader and take advantage of human naivety and gullibility.",[]],["Fake news travel faster than real news; during an event, fake news get even more attention than real news",[]]],"sy":[["false information",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation/mistake",[]],["disinformation",[]],["malinformation/stories",[]]],"ex":[["Somehow, these news find a reader and take advantage of human naivety and gullibility.",[]]]},{"de":[["This point of interaction constitutes the gate through which information passes to the public.",[]],["debates within news organizations over the public's right/need to know and negotiations with political elites over the shape and content of what is news",[]]],"rt":[["gatekeeping role",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["agenda setter",[]],["issue framer",[]]]},{"rt":[["media elites",[]],["policy experts",[]]]},{"sy":[["libertarian theory of the press",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["traditional news outlets",[]],["prestige newspapers",[]]]},{"de":[["this new media environment and the hyperreality it produces have created new, multiple, and shifting axes of political power.",[]],["The new media environment is distinctive in several ways: the increased volume of information that is available; the increased speed with which information can be gathered, retrieved, and transmitted; the increased control given to consumers of the media; the fragmentation of media audiences and the resulting greater ability to target media messages to particular audiences; the greater decentralization of certain aspects of the media; and the greater interactive capacity between consumers and producers of media messages",["Abramson, Arterton, & Orren, 1988","J. Katz, 1997"]]]},{"rt":[["entertainment media",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["information gatekeepers who represented the public's interest in the construction of political and social reality",[]]],"rt":[["media elites",[]]]},{"de":[["Responding to a variety of social, political, and economic changes in the postwar era, Peterson sought to reconcile the growing centralization of ownership and decreasing competition in the printed press, the rise of an inherently centralized and expensive electronic media, and social science research and real-world events that raised concerns regarding the stability of democratic systems and the civic capacity of democratic citizens",["Berelson, 1952","Schumpeter, 1942"]],["the public was distinguished from media elites and policy experts, with the former viewed as generally passive, easily manipulated consumers of information and the latter as information gatekeepers who represented the public's interest in the construction of political and social reality.",[]],["First, the news media was separated from entertainment media, with the former viewed as most directly responsible for fulfilling the media's civic functions. Second, within the news media, fact would be distinguished from opinion and news reporting would strive to be accurate, objective, and balanced. Third and most significant for this article, reflecting arguments made much earlier by Lippmann (1922), the public was distinguished from media elites and policy experts, with the former viewed as generally passive, easily manipulated consumers of information and the latter as information gatekeepers who represented the public's interest in the construction of political and social reality.",[]]],"rt":[["news media",[]],["entertainment media",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["with the final goal of providing machine-processable structured data for computational models of arguments and reasoning engines",["Peldszus and Stede, 2013;Lippi and Torroni, 2016"]]],"sb":[["arguments extraction",[]],["relations prediction",[]],["facts recognition",[]],["source identification",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Argument mining",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Argument mining",[]]]},{"rt":[["medicalization of problems",[]]]},{"sb":[["disease mongering",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["censorship",[]]]},{"de":[["This kind of unchallenged repetition encourages the woozle effect",[]],["unchallenged repetition encourages the woozle effect",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["ACTION",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["stance",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["media frames",[]]]},{"de":[["They often use replicated and modified templates and are circulated among users to convey new, context-specific meanings.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Media framing refers to selecting specific aspects of a perceived reality in communication to portray how an issue is defined, how its causes are interpreted, how its moral implications are evaluated, and what potential solutions are considered",[]],["Social and communication science research has relied on framing concepts for analyzing how information is selected and presented in the media.",[]]],"rt":[["strategic media framing",[]]]},{"de":[["A way of describing cultural information being shared.",[]]],"sb":[["political cartoon",[]]]},{"sb":[["classification",[]],["interpretation",[]],["explanation",[]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["stance",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["personification",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["editorial cartoon",[]]],"sp":[["meme",[]]]},{"sp":[["ACTION",[]]]},{"sp":[["ACTION",[]]]},{},{"sp":[["Responsibility",[]]]},{"sp":[["Responsibility",[]]]},{"sp":[["Responsibility",[]]]},{"sp":[["stance",[]]]},{"de":[["stance reflects the creator's opinion toward a target",[]]]},{"rt":[["media framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Hallucination severely undermines the reliability and applicability of LLMs in tasks requiring high accuracy and consistency.",[]]]},{"de":[["These errors go beyond prediction inaccuracies, affecting both factual and logical validity.",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Overlooking sentiment can lead to a misclassification.",[]]]},{"rt":[["opinion mining",[]],["sentiment analysis",[]],["social media monitoring",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Bias recognition is key to fair analysis.",[]]]},{"de":[["Biased language commonly occurs around topics which are of controversial nature, thus, stirring disagreement between the different involved parties of a discussion.",[]],["Due to the diversity in stances and points of view for different topics, such a consensus cannot always be achieved. This is often the case when written discourse (or any language utterance) is considered to be biased.",[]],["We classify statements that contain biased language which is introduced through words or phrases that are partial or are not neutrally phrased.",[]]],"sb":[["epistemological",[]],["framing bias",[]]]},{"de":[["We focused on the case of biased phrasing, that is, statements in which words or phrases are inflammatory or partial.",[]]]},{"sp":[["biased language",[]]]},{"de":[["epistemological bias, dealing with believability of a proposition, i.e. phrasing choices that either cast doubt on a fact or try to sell an opinion as a fact.",[]]],"sy":[["Epistemological",[]]]},{"sb":[["framing bias",[]]]},{"de":[["framing bias, including subjective language such as praising and perspective-specific words",[]]],"sy":[["framing",[]]],"sp":[["biased language",[]]]},{"de":[["In general, LIWC categories express a range of psychological and sociological functions of words, and thus, are highly important for subjective tasks like detecting statements with biased language.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["non-universalistic view of solidarity",[]]]},{"de":[["different types of far-right groups are increasingly converging across domains and adopt shared repertoires of action",["Pirro 2023"]]]},{"de":[["derogatorily described as",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This framing strategy ultimately sought to depoliticize nativist antiimmigration stances through intuitive arguments presented as non-ideological.",[]]],"sp":[["prognostic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["Instead, they argue that implementing immigration restrictions is the most effective means to protect migrants and their rights.",[]],["Solidarity, in fact, should not be principled or ideological, but attuned with material considerations, such as newcomers' fit with Italy's labour market and cultural values, as well as the capacity of welfare infrastructures to cope with increased demand.",[]],["Put differently, solidarity with migrants is desirable but can only be achieved by preserving social order and well-being in destination countries.",[]]],"sp":[["prognostic frames",[]]],"ex":[["rebrand their restrictive policy proposals as pro-migrant measures, including push-backs, 27 naval blockades to prevent departures 28 and the banning of rescue ships from Italian harbours. 29",["27","28","29"]]]},{"rt":[["claims-making",[]],["framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["prognostic frames",[]]]},{"de":[["anti-immigration activists used welfare chauvinism to portray natives and migrants in competition for the same limited resources.",[]],["far-right ideas on social policies are polyvalent, combining welfare chauvinism, workfare-ism and populism based on hierarchical criteria of (un)deservingness",[]]],"rt":[["workfare-ism",[]],["populism",[]]]},{"rt":[["fluxo de informação e desinformação",[]]]},{"de":[["Inicialmente, a disseminação ocorre em aplicativos de mensagens como o WhatsApp, através de áudios, textos e vídeos. Em seguida, a desinformação se expande para plataformas como o Twitter/X, onde ganha tração com a adição de links para sites falsos, conferindo-lhe uma aparência de credibilidade. Posteriormente, alcança redes sociais digitais mais visuais, como YouTube, Instagram e Facebook, onde imagens e fotos reforçam a mensagem enganosa, ampliando ainda mais seu alcance e impacto.",[]],["Inicialmente, a disseminação ocorre em aplicativos de mensagens como WhatsApp, através de áudios, textos e vídeos. Em seguida, a desinformação se expande para plataformas como Twitter/X, onde ganha tração com a adição de links para sites falsos, conferindo-lhe uma aparência de credibilidade. Posteriormente, alcança redes sociais digitais mais visuais, como YouTube, Instagram e Facebook, onde imagens e fotos reforçam a mensagem enganosa,",[]]]},{"de":[["A desinformação de gênero manifesta-se por meio de diversos formatos, incluindo imagens manipuladas, textos distorcidos e vídeos editados ou recortados.",[]],["Essa natureza insidiosa visa minar a imagem e a credibilidade das mulheres na esfera pública.",[]],["Os efeitos da desinformação de gênero incluem a propagação de estereótipos prejudiciais, impactando negativamente a percepção pública das mulheres e suas realizações.",[]],["a desinformação de gênero usa estereótipos para prejudicar as mulheres, também afetando outros grupos como LGBTQIA+.",[]],["Essas informações apelam a juízos de valor, que estão associados às questões de gênero",["Silva;Vilella, 2025"]],["Essas informações apelam a juízos de valor, que estão associados às questões de gênero (Silva;Vilella, 2025).",["Silva;Vilella, 2025"]]],"rt":[["discurso de ódio",[]],["rumores",[]],["estereótipos",[]],["narrativas falsas",[]],["linguagem abusiva",[]]]},{"de":[["-este último associado ao âmbito da cultura e, portanto, reconhecido socialmente como um comportamento masculino.",[]]],"sy":[["natureza feminina",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Machado ressalta a influência das redes sociais digitais, os meios de comunicação desempenham um papel vital na organização de rumores e percepções públicas desordenadas, construindo uma interpretação do problema",[]]],"sb":[["inventário do problema",[]],["fase de significação",[]],["fase de ação",[]],["etapa inicial, conhecida como \"inventário do problema\"",[]],["segunda fase, ocorre a interpretação do problema, quando \"[...] a atenção muda do domínio factual para o domínio interpretativo ou do problema em si para suas implicações e consequências\" (Machado, 2004, p. 61)",["Machado, 2004"]],["terceira fase envolve a mobilização para ação e resolução do problema, encorajando o público a adotar uma postura vigilante para evitar a disseminação do problema e manter as coisas como são (Machado, 2004).",["Machado, 2004"]]]},{},{"de":[["Ao usar o termo \"Vagabunda\", o falante está, de maneira geral, expressando julgamentos sobre a conduta sexual das mulheres.",[]]],"rt":[["Amante",[]],["Traidora",[]]]},{"sp":[["forces",[]],["FORCE schemas",[]]]},{"sp":[["multimodal framing devices",[]]]},{"rt":[["News framing",[]]]},{"sp":[["forces",[]]]},{"de":[["For the purpose of quantification, we have distinguished three different degrees of distance, namely short, medium and long.",[]],["the kind of strategies used by each newspaper and its combination with the subject choice which may result relevant",[]]],"rt":[["point of view",[]],["framing device",[]]],"sb":[["short distance",[]],["Medium distance",[]],["Long distance",[]],["short distance is attributed to those close shots in which it is possible to clearly distinguish a face (or more than one) and the person's emotions in it.",[]],["Medium distance is the correspondent medium shot, where a person, or frequently a small group of persons, is depicted in a knees-up or full-length shot, but not close enough to neatly distinguish their faces and feelings.",[]],["Long distance, then, is the category reserved for those distant shots where crowds are portrayed, often from a bird's eye point of view, but we can't singularize them as individuals or see their faces at all.",[]]],"sp":[["multimodal framing devices",[]],["framing devices",[]],["framing device",[]]]},{"sp":[["forces",[]],["FORCE schemas",[]]]},{"sy":[["News framing",[]]]},{},{"de":[["long distance is represented in headlines by big numbers of refugees treated as a massive crowd -hundreds, thousands, millions, or completely dehumanized when denoted as arrivals, crossings, resettlements, devoluciones 'returns'.",[]]],"sp":[["Distance",[]]]},{"de":[["Medium distance is ascribed when small numbers or groups of refugees are mentioned, familias 'families', 18 asilados '18 asylees', and when Europeans are referred by their authorities and governments and also metonymically by their capital cities -French police, Turkish officials, las autoridades griegas 'Greek authorities', el tribunal de la UE 'EU court', el gobierno 'the government', Athens, Ankara, Viena, Bruselas -as the capital city of EU, or the names of agencies and organizations -Frontex, Migration Watch, Acnur, Open Arms, la Comisión Europea 'European Commission'.",[]]],"sp":[["Distance",[]]]},{"de":[["a kind of criticism can be perceived",[]]]},{"sb":[["subject choice",[]],["composition",[]],["distance",[]],["point of view",[]]]},{"rt":[["distance",[]]],"sp":[["multimodal framing devices",[]]]},{"sp":[["forces",[]],["FORCE schemas",[]]]},{"de":[["we have labelled headlines as short distance when people can be \"distinguished\", that is, when refugees are referred to as personas 'persons', young men, women, children, and Europeans as individuals",[]]],"sp":[["Distance",[]]]},{"de":[["identification and quantification of subject choice in headlines and photos",[]]],"rt":[["framing device",[]]],"sp":[["multimodal framing devices",[]],["framing devices",[]],["framing device",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["demagogue",[]]]},{"de":[["Walter Lippmann set up a distinction between 'actors' (officials and citizens who try to influence politics directly) and 'spectators'",["52"]]],"rt":[["spectators",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["The actor persuades himself, first, and through himself, the audience.",[]]]},{"de":[["the process by which made things make things",[]],["By this definition, the products of Artefaction are not just made things but making things.",[]]],"sp":[["Modality of Making",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a term that confirms the role played by made things in a person's performative make-up.",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["tragicomedy",[]]]},{"de":[["Blackface is akin to stealing another person's social persona. It steals the show in a fundamental sense because the face is the stage front of an individual's social performance, and the face, as we have seen, has great depth despite its seeming superficiality.",[]],["The theatrical or costumed performance of blackface is usually crudely obvious.",[]]],"rt":[["cultural appropriation",[]]]},{"de":[["the social swells and tides of cancel culture",[]],["the digital equivalent of the medieval mob roaming the streets looking for someone to burn",["39"]],["passing judgment on others can pass from person to person like a plague.",[]],["the online Urban Dictionary's definition of cancel culture attributes the cultural phenomenon to 'a critical mass of people who are quick to judge and slow to question'",[]],["the online Urban Dictionary's definition of cancel culture attributes the cultural phenomenon to 'a critical mass of people who are quick to judge and slow to question'.",[]]],"rt":[["swift and severe retribution",[]]],"sp":[["modes of collective judgment and punishment",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The phenomenon is partly attributable to the fact that the news flow on social media has increased commercial competition in an already highly competitive online market for reader attention.",["12"]]]},{},{"de":[["co-Productive activity of the receiver completes what would otherwise be incomplete",[]],["marketing vernacular tends to apply the label 'co-production' to situations in which the consumer is a passive recipient of the provider's values",[]],["The author's words and expressions Produce an inchoate meaning that only approaches solidity through the confirming co-Productive activity of a critical reader.",[]],["making something together.",[]]],"sy":[["co-Productive",[]],["participatory co-Production",[]]],"rt":[["Production",[]],["making is connecting",[]],["co-creation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["This finding flows from cognitive or conceptual metaphor theory as pioneered by such scholars as George Lakoff and Mark Johnson.",[]]]},{"rt":[["invitational rhetoric",[]],["practical truth",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["argumentum in utramque partem",[]],["testing and refining the strength of their client's side of the argument",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["psychologists have shown that the severity of our moral judgment is amplified when choices are made in the presence of disgusting smells and in disgusting environments",["40"]],["One of our standard words for strongly negative judgment",[]]]},{"rt":[["misinformation",[]]]},{},{"sy":[["pathos",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an active process of making",[]],["entails a sort of legal rebirth",[]]]},{"sb":[["Invention",[]],["Creation",[]],["Production",[]]]},{},{"de":[["everything we call a fact was produced by some artificial process, and that ultimately some person or human system produced it.",[]]],"rt":[["fiction",[]]],"ex":[["Facts in politics, especially statistical facts, are always fictions made to serve a particular political purpose.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["identify 'fake news' as a serious threat to consensus building on political issues",["17"]],["manufactured nature of",[]],["the term 'fake news' is 'bandied around with no clear idea of what it means' and that it 'has taken on a variety of meanings, including a description of any",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]]]},{"de":[["It derives from the same Proto-Indo-European root word (*dheigh-) that gives us the making words 'configure', 'dough', 'effigy', and 'figment', the Latin verb fingere, 'to form', and the Greek word teikhos meaning 'wall'.",[]]],"rt":[["fact",[]]],"ex":[["Facts in politics, especially statistical facts, are always fictions made to serve a particular political purpose.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["an individual's public persona",[]]]},{"de":[["the most intimate aspect of one's identity",["37 EHRR 973"]],["gender is also the discursive/ cultural means by which 'sexed nature' or 'a natural sex' is produced",["30"]],["gender is also the discursive/ cultural means by which 'sexed nature' or 'a natural sex' is produced.",["30"]]],"rt":[["sex",[]]]},{"de":[["gender attributes . . . effectively constitute the identity they are said to express or reveal",["86"]]],"sb":[["drag performances",["84"]]]},{},{"de":[["The word 'hypocrisy' means 'under critical' or 'under separation' and indicates that the person making the judgment is under critical of themselves and has failed to acknowledge the gap that separates their personal character from their performed social persona.",["31"]],["The word hypokrisis was originally a description of masked actors in Attic Greek theatre and also a description of rhetorical performers.",[]]],"rt":[["hypokrisis",[]]]},{"de":[["in the tragic drama",[]]]},{"rt":[["iconoclasm",[]]]},{"de":[["modes of impersonation that closely resemble theatrical acting",[]]],"sp":[["prosopopoeia",[]]],"ex":[["Cicero's device in his oration Pro Caelio of speaking as Appius Claudius Caecus, the great statesman of Republican Rome who was patron of the road and aqueduct (named Via Appia and Aqua Appia in his honour) that were the archetypes of Roman engineering excellence.",["50"]]]},{},{"de":[["A compromise between the old and new meanings is to appreciate 'invention' as the bringing in of existing ingredients to make a new thing.",[]],["to describe an original founding ex cosmosthat is, out of a world of possibilities",[]]],"rt":[["Creation",[]],["Production",[]]],"sp":[["Etymologies of Making",[]]],"ex":[["the verb invention had by then decayed entirely from the original sense of bringing in existing truths to a new sense of making falsehoods.",[]],["as in 'it's a boy'",[]],["as in 'his name is John'",[]]]},{"de":[["Foss and Griffin proposed the idea of 'invitational rhetoric' as a feminist alternative to what they perceived to be patriarchal force inherent in persuasive rhetoric.",[]]],"rt":[["persuasive rhetoric",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a process that 'does not \"reflect\" or reveal authority or \"Truth\", but rather helps manufacture it'",["21"]]],"rt":[["Truth",[]]]},{},{"rt":[["microexpressions",["30"]]]},{"de":[["The law has traditionally claimed to be in the business of revealing hidden truth through its evidentiary processes",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["manipulation",[]],["manufacture",[]]]},{"de":[["interpretative co-Production through 'meaning-making' is just as much an essential part of making 'things' as the activity of poetic Production.",[]]],"rt":[["active involvement in the creative process",[]]],"ex":[["Meaning-making in relation to poetry may be carried out by the same person who first uttered the poetic words, or it may be made collaboratively by and with other people as critical readers.",[]]]},{"rt":[["mass media",[]]]},{"de":[["An effective metaphor holds our imagination because through it the initiator presents a puzzle that must be scrutinized and judged by the receiver if it is to reveal its sense.",[]]],"rt":[["enargeia",[]]],"ex":[["hope is a rose bud",["36"]]]},{"rt":[["leakage",["30"]]]},{"de":[["watching others perform tasks triggers in our brains the same sense that we experience when we perform similar tasks ourselves.",[]],["The phenomenon has been demonstrated using functional magnetic resonance imaging, which shows that in response to the external stimuli of performance actions, a mirror response occurs in various parts of the observer's brain, 12 and that hand gestures, for example, trigger different mirroring pathways to facial gestures. 13",["12","13"]],["Experiments conducted in the early 1990s in the lab of Giacomo Rizzolatti, a neuroscientist at the University of Parma, showed that mirror neurons in the monkey brain fired when the animal carried out an action or saw (or heard) another animal performing the same action. 14",["14"]]],"rt":[["mirror response",[]]]},{"de":[["a synonym for a species of fake news",[]]],"sy":[["fake news",[]]],"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"sy":[["mobile vulgus",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["the tendency to see faces is stronger than any other and is presumed to be seated in an evolutionarily primitive part of the brain.",[]],["The well-known phenomenon of seeing the stereotypical face of Jesus or the Virgin Mary in markings on a piece of toast or in the random vapours of a cloud is not a spiritual revelation but a resolutely psychological one.",[]],["within this phenomenon the tendency to see faces is stronger than any other and is presumed to be seated in an evolutionarily primitive part of the brain.",["14"]]],"ex":[["face that it appeared on the surface of a piece of toast, or in the form of a cloud, or (to cite one celebrated photograph) in the foam of waves crashing against the shore.",["15"]]]},{"sp":[["Modality of Making",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The phenomenon isn't restricted to scholars, but the university setting is a uniquely intense cauldron of identity politics in which, in the USA especially, some employment opportunities are strongly correlated to race.",[]]],"sy":[["blackfishing",["94"]]]},{"de":[["Taking the theatrical analogy, it may be compared to the dramatic urge or force that proceeds from the activity of directors and actors.",[]],["No matter how gentle and subtle interpersonal persuasion may be, it has a forceful aspect to the extent that it influences another's will.",[]]],"sp":[["Modalities of Making",[]],["Modality of Making",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the Latin word 'persona', from which our idea of social personality derives",[]],["a more plausible or immediate account links the word persona to the language of the people who occupied the Latin lands before the Romans. The Etruscan word for mask, or a masked role, was phersu.",[]],["what began as the Latin word for an actor's mask",[]]],"rt":[["front",[]],["social personality",[]],["social persona",[]]]},{"sp":[["prosopopoeia",[]]],"ex":[["Quintilian's assertion that oratory can 'give voices to cities and states'.",["54"]],["Shakespeare's description of the nation state of England as a pale-faced maid or woman.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the rejection of facts in preference for feelings and the prioritization of my right to judge ahead of the judgments of experts",[]],["social media have established their place at the core of the post-truth phenomenon",[]]]},{},{"de":[["its etymological meaning carries a morally neutral sense of putting something forward.",[]]],"rt":[["lying",["91"]]]},{},{"sy":[["empowered audience",["54"]]]},{"de":[["a word still echoed in the language by which we talk of a judge 'pronouncing' a sentence against the convict in a criminal trial",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Rhetorical and poetic prosopopoeia is frequently as much concerned with making a sound or producing a voice as with purely visible aspects of making a face.",[]]],"rt":[["prósopon",[]],["poiéin",[]]],"sb":[["impersonation",[]],["personification",[]]]},{"sb":[["impersonation",[]],["personification",[]]]},{"de":[["the act being to perform the role of a friendly, chatty and fun personality",[]],["a persona that will please the public",[]]],"sy":[["brand",[]]],"ex":[["public 'Lorraine Kelly'",[]]]},{},{"de":[["However, the term is often used to describe a combination of conscious or unconscious prejudice and power to implement action which leads, however unintentionally, to disproportionate disadvantage for BAME [Black, Asian, and minority ethnic] people.",["26"]],["People who use the term 'racist' to describe the actions of others may or may not mean that the other person is personally prejudiced.",["26"]]]},{},{"ex":[["The Trump Show",[]]]},{},{"de":[["in the classical and renaissance periods was generally acknowledged to be an art of making things beautiful",[]],["law is a rhetorical craft of performance that works through action",[]],["The ideal end of rhetoric is to engender in the mind of the audience an experience of making-as-thinking and thinking-as-making",[]],["From there it developed into an art of poetic, literary, and dramatic practice.",[]],["Rhetoric, as practised through dramatic performance on the theatrical stage, on the political stage, and in the court room, can be considered a precursor (and now a partner) to social psychology practised through experiment.",[]],["rhetoric has always been about something more than persuasion. It is about social construction.",[]],["Good rhetoric for the lawyer, politician, and dramatist succeeds when it engages in disputes constructively, and when it aims to constitute communities through consensus.",[]],["Thomas Wilson (the author of the popular early modern rhetorical manual The Arte of Rhetorique) described rhetoric as the ethical art of 'moving pittie, and stirring men to shewe mercie'.",["11"]],["an art of manual fabrication",[]],["the phrases 'utterance of words', 'matter at large', 'artificial declaration', and 'handling of any cause' confirm rhetoric as an art of manual fabrication.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["resembles theatrical performance ('hypokrisis') in the tragic drama",[]]]},{},{},{"sy":[["a community's common sense",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Unless one is talking about Divine or absolute truth, all truths are human made.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The psychological sciences are more concerned to establish why, as a matter of human cognition and behaviour, certain techniques work the way they do.",[]]]},{"de":[["Today such repeated pressing home of a single point or short slogan is a staple of modern news reporting that goes by the name of the 'sound bite'.",[]]]},{"de":[["His 'spect-actors' are those 'who observe (spectare, in Latinto see) in order then to act'.",["53"]]]},{"de":[["Walter Lippmann set up a distinction between 'actors' (officials and citizens who try to influence politics directly) and 'spectators' (interested observers who constitute an audience for political performance)",["52"]]],"rt":[["actors",[]]]},{},{"de":[["not acting/theatre and it's not performance/art",["17"]]]},{"de":[["the sensory stimulation of seeing and hearing others at work produces a sympathetic response in us, whereby we imaginatively experience the sensation of our own hands engaging with stuff.",[]]]},{"sy":[["black comedy",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["they are all too often employed in discourse around transgender issues as if they were incontestable and unchanging axioms",[]]],"rt":[["scientific truths",[]]],"sb":[["social truths",[]],["social facts",[]]]},{"de":[["Thus, verum is factum is not a doctrine about the nature of truth but about the true.",["46"]]]},{},{"sp":[["crisis communication",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Accordingly, framing signals a constructivist approach regarding how a news item will evoke a particular public common sense.",["34"]]],"sy":[["a tool for making sense of news",["30"]]],"sb":[["news frames",["31"]]]},{"de":[["Accordingly, framing analysis seeks to reveal how a news item is constructed, through which discursive and symbolic tools it is conveyed, and what kind of effect it generates on social perception.",[]],["Thus, framing analysis serves as an important analytical tool for assessing the effectiveness of communication strategies.",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"sp":[["crisis communication",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["Framing",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["crisis communication",[]]]},{},{"de":[["prioritising incidents perceived as newsworthy",[]]]},{"de":[["emphasising drama and emotion",[]]]},{"de":[["In principle, its meaning is adequate for the military dimension, since, despite some cases of direct armed combat between American and Soviet soldiers, an armed clash between the USA and the USSR never happened. However, the war on other planeseconomic, ideological, and also propaganda, as a result of the latter -was decidedly not a cold war.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the persuasive function was decidedly at the foreground; and this function aimed to manipulate the behavior of the recipients of the propaganda message, that is, to influence their behavior, attitude, outlook on the world, and, ultimately, leading to the control of public opinion as exerted by the state authorities.",[]],["in Polish reality after the war the persuasive function was decidedly at the foreground; and this function aimed to manipulate the behavior of the recipients of the propaganda message, that is, to influence their behavior, attitude, outlook on the world, and, ultimately, leading to the control of public opinion as exerted by the state authorities.",["13"]],["and in Polish reality after the war the persuasive function was decidedly at the foreground; and this function aimed to manipulate the behavior of the recipients of the propaganda message, that is, to influence their behavior, attitude, outlook on the world, and, ultimately, leading to the control of public opinion as exerted by the state authorities.",[]]],"sb":[["the internal one, directed at the side's own citizens, imposing the desired interpretation of the causes, course and consequences of political-social phenomena, creating a way of perceiving reality or modeling behaviors and social attitudes in a way that is preferred by the author of the message.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Deepfake videos have gained notoriety primarily because they lead to the deception and manipulation of the audience.",[]],["The sphere of influence that deep fake videos possess is divergent and multifaceted, and poses significant risks to the media landscape. Such threats range from the distribution of false information to tarnishing a person's reputation or instigating violence.",[]]],"ex":[["The generation of indecent videos using the faces of politicians and celebrities is what has sparked the carrying out of fake news.",[]]]},{"de":[["In this case, the above methods involve combining, mixing, displaying or exchanging facial attributes to produce artificially authentic albeit synthetic photographs and videos",["1"]]]},{"de":[["This swapping is done on GAN's",["7"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["The report typically contains a target piece of mistaken information that is later corrected.",[]]]},{"de":[["This notion encompasses two core dimensions: expertise, namely the extent to which the communicator is perceived to be capable of making correct assertions, and trustworthiness, that is the willingness of the communicator to provide the assertions he or she considers most valid (Hovland et al. 1953).",["Hovland et al. 1953"]]],"sb":[["expertise",[]],["trustworthiness",[]]]},{"rt":[["trustworthiness",[]]],"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{},{},{"rt":[["expertise",[]]],"sp":[["credibility",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The idea has also faced pushback when it is stretched to cover activities that, while adversarial, are considered lawful-like lobbying or political influence campaigns",["Fridman, 2024"]]],"rt":[["hybrid warfare",[]],["information warfare",[]],["grey-zone tactics",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["They 1) classify content nodes as malicious or not, 2) incorporate information from interacting users in the graph when doing so, and 3) leverage emergent network properties like homophily to boost detection performance",["Ma et al., 2021","Hussain et al., 2021"]]]},{"de":[["In social network users, where interaction usually denotes some form of kinship, this follows naturally from people's social relationships.",[]],["In malicious content detection, this is likely a relevant feature as well.",[]],["Our perception of real and fake news is influenced by our social network neighbourhood, and propagation usually occurs in homophilic settings (Sun et al., 2022).",["Sun et al., 2022"]]],"rt":[["homophily metric",[]],["heterophilic settings",[]],["randomness",[]],["heterophily",[]]]},{},{"de":[["focus on two specific forms: misinformation and hate speech",[]]],"sb":[["misinformation",[]],["hate speech",[]]],"ex":[["misinformation",[]],["hate speech",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["which can be used to further differentiate the diffusion patterns",["Huang et al. 2020","Xia, Xuan, and Yu 2020"]]],"rt":[["diffusion patterns",["Huang et al. 2020","Xia, Xuan, and Yu 2020"]],["spatial structure",[]]]},{"de":[["Crony capitalism also affected the media landscape of the country where newspaper companies, radio stations, and television networks were \"put under strict government supervision and owned by either his (President Marcos) relatives or friends\"",["Coronel 2001: 114"]]]},{"de":[["Framing uncovers the ideology behind narrations of news, thus, recognising media hegemony (Hackett 1984).",["Hackett 1984"]]]},{"de":[["It arranges daily reality by offering meanings to unfolding strips of events (Gamson and Modigliani 1989)",["Gamson and Modigliani 1989"]],["promoting definitions and interpretations of political issues",["Chong and Druckman 2007: 106"]],["media outlets can frame news stories in such a way as to make certain aspects more salient than others, while putting a specific news angle or \"spin\" on these elements (Dimitrova et al. 2005) by selecting, emphasising, excluding, and elaborating news coverage (Tankard and Israel 1997).",["Dimitrova et al. 2005","Tankard and Israel 1997"]],["Framing uncovers the ideology behind narrations of news, thus, recognising media hegemony (Hackett 1984).",["Hackett 1984"]],["one of the most essential functions of framing in news is strengthening the power of the status quo. This can be done through the exertion of political power that seeks to legitimise the mandate of political elites and gather continuing support for their regime (Finer 1997;von Soest and Grauvogel 2015).",["Finer 1997","von Soest and Grauvogel 2015"]]]},{"de":[["the government often labels their opponents' activities as",[]]]},{},{"de":[["a variety of goals or values that society upholds (e.g., national unity, security, sovereignty, and public order) can be summoned to rationalise repression",["Edel and Josua 2018"]],["can be summoned to rationalise repression",["Edel and Josua 2018"]]]},{"de":[["Framing uncovers the ideology behind narrations of news, thus, recognising media hegemony (Hackett 1984).",["Hackett 1984"]],["But in the context of an authoritarian regime, one of the most essential functions of framing in news is strengthening the power of the status quo.",[]],["It arranges daily reality by offering meanings to unfolding strips of events (Gamson and Modigliani 1989) and \"promoting definitions and interpretations of political issues\" (Chong and Druckman 2007: 106). Thus, media outlets can frame news stories in such a way as to make certain aspects more salient than others, while putting a specific news angle or \"spin\" on these elements (Dimitrova et al. 2005) by selecting, emphasising, excluding, and elaborating news coverage (Tankard and Israel 1997).",["Gamson and Modigliani 1989","Chong and Druckman 2007: 106","Dimitrova et al. 2005","Tankard and Israel 1997"]]],"rt":[["news angle",[]],["spin",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["often observed in supply driven emergent technology developments.",[]],["with the three phases of 'sounding the alarm', 'calming down', and 'sorting the problem'",[]]],"sy":[["hype-cycle",[]]],"rt":[["issue-attention cycle",[]]],"sb":[["sounding the alarm",[]],["calming down",[]],["sorting the problem",[]]]},{"de":[["resembles that of a hype cycle",[]]],"rt":[["hype cycle",[]]]},{"sy":[["The American Dream",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["As Easton (1975) explains, diff use support concerns \"what an object is or represents [,] not what it does\" (p. 444).",["Easton (1975)"]]],"sp":[["political support",[]]]},{},{"de":[["According to this thesis, people who are heavily exposed to TV news coverage become more cynical, have less trust in political institutions and are ultimately less positive about politics.",[]]],"rt":[["video malaise",[]]]},{"de":[["the receipt of information via TV led to cynicism about the polity and a subsequent malaise eff ect",[]]]},{"sy":[["video malaise",[]]],"rt":[["media mobilisation",[]]]},{"de":[["asserts that media exposure is associated with trust rather than mistrust in political institutions",[]]],"rt":[["video malaise",[]],["media malaise",[]]]},{"de":[["the more an individual relies on the media as a source of political information, the more politically savvy they will become. Consequestly, they will adjust their attachment to a given political entity based on the information they receive about it.",[]]]},{"rt":[["identity",[]],["feeling of belonging together",[]]]},{},{"de":[["All content in this domain passes through the filtering process of human perception, therefore the objective of mass communication is to influence and persuade the collective cognitive domain.",[]]],"sp":[["information warfare",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["In combination with viral technologies and mechanisms of distribution in the media and social networks, fake news in modern political campaigns is becoming a dangerous tool for influencing mass consciousness of societies.",[]],["The main task of fake news in modern political campaigns and processes is interception of the political agenda, with its subsequent closure to the news feed generated by the fake news itself, as well as creation of general excitement around the given news story.",[]],["Fake news outlets, in turn, lack the news media's editorial norms and processes for ensuring the accuracy and credibility of information.",[]],["This includes: 1) unintentional reporting mistakes; 2) rumours that do not originate from a particular article; 3) conspiracy theories; 4) satire; 5) false statements by politicians; and 6) reports that are slanted or misleading, but are not completely false",["Mould (2018)"]],["Fake news is the spread of intended information with knowingly provocative and resonating nature.",[]],["Fake news has become an object of fear and wonder, owing to the inherent contradictions found in its presumed or assumed ability to penetrate and radically alter the information domain.",[]],["It is also considered an economic competitor to an already financially stressed mass media industry as well as a means of de-legitimising the journalism profession",["Schapals, 2018","Tandoc et al., 2019"]],["already exhibits some of the narratives of older forms of persuasive communication, such as propaganda.",[]],["It has become a 'dirty word' owing to the deceptive and manipulative reputation and practice.",[]],["narrative that it is not something that 'we' do, but rather an opponent does.",[]],["Difference between 'old' fake news and the current form is the immediacy and reach that has been enabled by digital communication technologies",[]],["dichotomy of use and application of fake news, as a genre of deceptive communication and as a label intended for character assassination and reputational attack",[]],["acts as a floating signifier of individual and group identity, distinguishing the 'In' and 'Out' groups from each other in a simplified binary fashion",[]],["enabled in moments of crisis, especially where the decline of one political or geopolitical hegemony encourages challengers, which creates a crisis of information and communication for hearts, minds and the perception of legitimacy",[]],["Seeks to gain as much attention and exposure to the widest audience as possible, often relying on symbolic and emotional means to quickly prime and mobilise the audience",[]],["Fake news as a cognitive construct is contextual and is in the eye of the beholder.",[]],["Intentional and deliberate communication, it is a form of organised persuasive communication, which can overlap within the field of information warfare;",[]],["Fake news must serve a specific organisational or individual goal -social, economic, political, etc.;",[]],["Competition for influence, power or control in its various forms can drive the use of fake news;",[]],["Consciously seeks to deceive a target audience, rather than the entertain or distract function of satire;",[]],["Seeks to influence the cognitive domain through emotional and symbolic representations of the physical domain through the information domain;",[]],["Fake news as a term (buzzword) is new, but it is not new as a practice;",[]],["Difference between 'old' fake news and the current form is the immediacy and reach that has been enabled by digital communication technologies;",[]],["There is a dichotomy of use and application of fake news, as a genre of deceptive communication and as a label intended for character assassination and reputational attack;",[]],["Fake news acts as a floating signifier of individual and group identity, distinguishing the 'In' and 'Out' groups from each other in a simplified binary fashion;",[]],["Fake news is enabled in moments of crisis, especially where the decline of one political or geopolitical hegemony encourages challengers, which creates a crisis of information and communication for hearts, minds and the perception of legitimacy;",[]],["Seeks to gain as much attention and exposure to the widest audience as possible, often relying on symbolic and emotional means to quickly prime and mobilise the audience;",[]],["Fake news actors are not restricted to 'right-wing fringe groups' and other such non-mainstream actors, but can be anyone with an intention to deliberately deceive, including professional journalists;",[]],["Fake news acts as a floating signifier of individual and group identity, distinguishing the 'In' and 'Out' groups from each other in a simplified binary fashion",[]]],"sy":[["misinformation",[]],["slogan",["Meeks, 2020"]]],"rt":[["misinformation",["Lazer et al., 2018"]],["disinformation",["Lazer et al., 2018"]],["information warfare",[]],["information disorders",[]],["floating signifier",[]],["propaganda",[]],["misinformation (false or misleading information)",["Lazer et al., 2018"]],["disinformation (false information that is purposely spread to deceive people)",["Lazer et al., 2018"]]],"sb":[["fake news as a genre (deceptive information)",["Egelhofer and Lechler (2019), Egelhofer et al. (2020)"]],["fake news as a label (to inflict reputational harm)",["Egelhofer and Lechler (2019), Egelhofer et al. (2020)"]],["'old' fake news",[]],["current form",[]]],"ex":[["Trump's invocation of CNN as being fake news",["Holan, 2017;Simons, 2017;Waisbord, 2018"]],["trash information",["Waisbord, 2018"]],["imaginary news that tapped the naivetfl of US voters",[]]]},{},{"de":[["The objective is to gain information superiority within the information domain over the adversary.",[]],["This domain concerns the communication of information among and between the various vested actors. The information domain is subject to competition and interference from other actors present, which implies offensive and defensive dimensions to communication activities.",[]]],"sp":[["information warfare",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["OPC 'is essential to the exercise of power at national and global levels'.",["Bakir et al. (2019)","Bakir et al., 2019"]]]},{},{"de":[["satire is intended to entertain a target audience",[]]]},{"rt":[["news discernment",[]]]},{"de":[["most models retain their intrinsic biases and fail to fully emulate the imposed personality",[]]]},{"de":[["news discernment is generally regarded as the more robust indicator because it accounts for judgments across both veridical and deceptive material",["16"]]],"rt":[["belief in misinformation",[]],["perceived accuracy of real news (AR)",[]],["perceived accuracy of false news (AF)",[]],["perceived accuracy of false headlines",[]],["misinformation research",[]]]},{},{"de":[["typically assessed through the perceived accuracy of false headlines or the more informative news discernment metric, which includes both true and false headlines",[]]]},{"de":[["Over-interpreting their outputs could lead to flawed policy or product decisions",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sp":[["stardom and celebrity",[]]]},{"de":[["enabled the media to position itself as an 'innocent bystander' who was merely 'disseminating the facts' (Whitehead and Kurz, 2008: 348) rather than (as in the early 1974 article which positioned her body and diet under direct media surveillance) actively contributing to the social reality it reported.",["Whitehead and Kurz, 2008: 348"]]]},{"de":[["Whilst the former represents purity and the mind in control of the body, the latter represents 'sin, self-indulgence' and the 'body in control of the mind'",["Whitehead and Kurz, 2008: 346"]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{},{"rt":[["disinformation",[]]]},{"ex":[["commentary on pending cases may be seen as interference",["37"]],["articles assuming guilt or predicting trial outcomes were ruled contemptuous",[]],["a newspaper article implying the accused was certainly guilty and urging public acceptance of this was deemed a direct insult to the judiciary",["38"]]]},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["It concluded that public discourse on criminal matters-when left unchecked-can infringe upon both the freedom of expression and the right to a fair trial.",[]]]},{"de":[["Torture directly undermines the presumption of innocence by transforming the accused from a rights-bearing individual into a source of forced evidence, thereby reversing the burden of proof and destroying judicial impartiality.",[]],["Directive (EU) 2016/343 on the presumption of innocence and the right to be present at trial sets minimum rules to prevent public officials or authorities from presenting suspects as guilty before conviction.",["42"]]]},{"ex":[["criminal reconciliation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Personalized News Recommendation",[]]]},{"rt":[["factual consistency",[]]]},{"rt":[["coverage",[]]]},{"sp":[["specialized text summarization",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["the representation could personalize text generators and establish distinct headlines, even with the same news body, for different readers.",[]],["Different from personalized news recommendations, our personalized news headline generation could be regarded as an NLP task than a user modeling and matching problem.",[]]],"rt":[["personalized news recommendation",[]]]},{"de":[["Among them, contentbased recommendations (Okura et al., 2017;Liu et al., 2010;Li et al., 2011;Lian et al., 2018;Wang et al., 2018;Wu et al., 2019a,b) perform user and news matching on a learned hidden space, and user representation is learned based on historical clicked news contents.",["Okura et al., 2017","Liu et al., 2010","Li et al., 2011","Lian et al., 2018","Wang et al., 2018","Wu et al., 2019a,b"]],["the ultimate goal is to learn users' reading interests and deliver the right news to them",[]]],"rt":[["contentbased recommendations",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["deeply interwoven with democracy and are a basic requirement for democratic decision-making",["Peters, 2003, p. 444"]],["go hand in hand with the democratic and public deficit of the EU",["Gerhards, 2000, p. 292","Rohrer, 2010, p. 69"]]],"sb":[["pan-European public sphere",[]],["segmented transnational themed public spheres",[]],["Europeanisation of national public spheres",[]]]},{"de":[["and thus may contribute to alignments in reporting and horizontal Europeanisation",[]]]},{"sy":[["independent political actors",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Gerhards and Neidhardt (1990, p. 12, 17) regard them as intermediary systems and highlight their openness to everyone and their orientation towards the general public.",["Gerhards and Neidhardt (1990, p. 12, 17)"]]]},{},{"sy":[["ABUSIVE",[]]]},{"sy":[["Abuse",[]]]},{"de":[["Offensive language may upset or embarrass people because it is rude or insulting.",[]]]},{"sy":[["Abusive",[]],["Abuse",[]]]},{},{},{},{"sy":[["HATE",[]]]},{"sy":[["Hate",[]]],"rt":[["abusive language",[]]]},{"sy":[["NEUTRAL",[]]]},{"sy":[["Neutral",[]]]},{},{},{},{},{},{"de":[["Notably, anti-rape culture messages increase news consumers' likelihood of believing victims' stories",["Franiuk, Seefelt, and Vandello 2008"]],["Scholars have recently noted the use of anti-rape culture dis-courses in news coverage of sexual abuse and violence, particularly in the wake of the MeToo movement",["Aroustamian 2020"]],["personalize victims rather than stereotyping them",[]],["counteracting harmful gendered stereotypes about rape",[]]],"rt":[["rape culture",[]]],"ex":[["11 of the editors (all women) stated they try consistently to change how sexual abuse and violence are discussed in newsrooms and covered in news media.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["They assign reporters tasks, give guidance on sourcing and framing, and decide which events are worth reporting on, and to what degree of intensity. They also socialize reporters into the values, norms, and routines of journalism (Schudson 1989) such that eventually reporters frame stories and pursue a news agenda that is likely to appeal to their editor.",["Schudson 1989"]],["Furthermore, editors act as a \"mediator of competing interests,\" negotiating audience metrics, journalistic principles, the profit objectives of the news organization's management, and the interests of society (Duffy 2021: 636).",["Duffy 2021: 636"]]]},{"sb":[["social system level",["Shoemaker and Reese 2014"]]]},{"sb":[["social institutional forces",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["These attitudes include victim blaming, victim shaming, and normalizing gender-based violence.",[]],["Rape culture maintains power structures and casts doubts on the validity of the victims (Weiss 2009) by using common rape myths, including that the victim was asking for it, the accused didn't mean to, the victim secretly wanted it, it's not a big deal, and the victim is lying",["Weiss 2009","Payne, Lonsway, and Fitzgerald 1999: 59","McMahon and Farmer 2011"]],["Rape culture narratives have other damaging consequences when they seep into news content such as increasing the likelihood of the audience's endorsement of rape myths",["Li, Kim, and O'Boyle 2017","Franiuk, Seefelt, and Vandello 2008"]],["Research on news coverage of sexual abuse and violence suggests the news media tacitly, and sometimes overtly, per-petuate the abuse of women by advancing damaging stereotypes and rape myths",["Cuklanz 2022"]],["Rape culture disproportionately personalizes the perpetrator while either ignoring or disproportionately negatively personalizing the victim.",[]],["disproportionately personalizes the perpetrator while either ignoring or disproportionately negatively personalizing the victim",[]],["narratives perpetuated the stereotype of Otieno as a gold-digger who lived a lavish lifestyle financed by Obado and thereby endorsed victim blaming and the notion that she deserved her fate.",[]]],"rt":[["anti-rape culture",[]],["victim blaming",[]]],"ex":[["newspaper coverage featuring rape myths that placed blame on the victim, de-emphasized the role of the perpetrator and employed racist narratives about typical and atypical perpetrators",[]],["Zimbabwean newspaper coverage of rape cases involving the clergy revealed a pattern of dismissing the veracity of women rape victims as well as blaming victims' poor judgment for \"consulting dubious self-styled prophets\"",["810"]],["newspaper representation of women killed by intimate partners denigrated victims by describing them as \"promiscuous gold diggers on whom men were generally dependent for sexual favours\"",["King'ori and Nyanoti 2021: 232"]]]},{},{},{"sp":[["gatekeeping",["Shoemaker and Reese 2014"]]]},{},{"rt":[["morality",[]]],"sb":[["care-harm",[]],["fairness-cheating",[]],["loyalty-betrayal",[]],["authority-subversion",[]],["purity-degradation",[]]]},{"sp":[["Moral Foundations Theory (MFT)",[]]]},{"de":[["helps to determine the communicative intent of the viewpoint",[]],["expression, statement, query, and other speech acts",[]]]},{},{"de":[["the problem of stance detection using the associated toxic, moral, and speech act traits present in tweets",[]]],"rt":[["toxicity detection (TD)",[]],["morality classification (MC)",[]],["speech act classification (AC)",[]]]},{"de":[["Models such as MEMOCliC, SP-AMT, and MT-LRM-BERT, which take advantage of toxicity, emotion, sentiment, or opinion formation tasks, perform better than other baselines",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["incorporating audience partisan diversity can increase the trustworthiness of recommended domains",[]]],"rt":[["entropy",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["the variance of the partisanship distribution",[]],["partisan diversity of the audience of a news source",[]]],"rt":[["audience partisan diversity",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["It is calculated using NewsGuard scores in two ways: either using the numerical scores or the set of binary indicators for whether a site meets or exceeds the threshold score of 60 defined by NewsGuard as indicating that a site is generally trustworthy [37]",["37"]],["It is calculated using NewsGuard scores in two ways: either using the numerical scores or the set of binary indicators for whether a site meets or exceeds the threshold score of 60 defined by NewsGuard as indicating that a site is generally trustworthy",["37"]],["the trustworthiness of a list of recommendations does not use information on the actual ratings v u,d",[]],["Domains that score below 60 points (i.e., untrustworthy) on the rubric used by NewsGuard [37] are shown in white. Those that score 60 or above are shown in green.",["37"]]],"rt":[["news reliability",[]],["precision",[]],["RMSE",[]]],"ex":[["the trustworthiness of domains in a list is defined as the fraction of domains that meet or exceed the threshold score.",[]]]},{"sp":[["Collaborative filtering",[]]]},{"de":[["Lacking explicit data about how a user would \"rate\" a given web domain, we use a quantity derived from the number of user pageviews to a domain (based on TF-IDF; see also Methods C) as the rating.",[]]]},{"de":[["AAL has distinct grammatical and phonological features that differ from WME.",[]]]},{"de":[["there is a risk of cultural appropriation",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["language technology developers should take a Value Sensitive Design approach (Friedman, 1996)",[]]]},{"de":[["The term highlights the racialized power dynamics whereby the linguistic practices of white Americans are often naturalized as \"standard\" or neutral",[]]],"sy":[["Standard American English (SAE)",[]],["Dominant American English (DAE)",[]],["Mainstream U.S. English (MUSE)",[]]]},{"de":[["The way religion is portrayed and generally made available to the public via the internet is related to the monetization of religion. Religion is no longer just ideas and rituals but has evolved into a symbolic good that is relevant to modern society's consumption and way of life (Kholis et al., 2020).",["Kholis et al., 2020"]]],"rt":[["monetization of religion",[]]]},{},{},{},{"de":[["Polygamy is thought to have social, economic, biological, and spiritual benefits",[]],["Polygamous women are thought to benefit from men's love and affection, as well as mutual respect and cooperation among family members, to create social harmony (DPI, 2018).",["DPI, 2018"]]],"ex":[["Polygamy imagery is sometimes manipulative, unreasonable, and simply an illusion.",[]]]},{},{"de":[["Propaganda is interconnected and systematically organized aiming to form opinions based on what individuals or groups convey with specific goals.",[]]]},{},{},{"de":[["Our definition is based on the identity that these professionals have about themselves and their profession, which includes objective and subjective factors.",[]]]},{},{"sb":[["hyper-partisan or radical right-wing alternative media",[]]]},{"sp":[["visual disinformation",[]]]}] |